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diff --git a/38709.txt b/38709.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9a6904e --- /dev/null +++ b/38709.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18829 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 7, Slice 8, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 7, Slice 8 + "Cube" to "Daguerre, Louis" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: January 29, 2012 [EBook #38709] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 7 SLICE 8 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE CUCKOO: "The best-known species (C. ani) is found + throughout the Antilles and on the opposite continent." 'found' + amended from 'foud'. + + ARTICLE CUCURBITACEAE: "Fig. 1.--Bryonia dioica, Bryony. 1, part of + corolla of male flower with attached stamens; 2, female flower + after removal of calyx and corolla; 3, berries; 1, 2, 3 about nat. + size." 'corolla' amended from 'carolla'. + + ARTICLE CURIA: "It is more probable that the curiae were not purely + artificial creations, but represent natural associations of + families, artificially regulated and distributed to serve a + political purpose." 'families' amended from 'familief'. + + ARTICLE CURTEA DE ARGESH: "Above this comes a row of circular + shields, adorned with intricate arabesques, while bands and wreaths + of lilies are everywhere sculptured on the windows, balconies, + tambours and cornices, adding lightness to the fabric." + 'sculptured' amended from 'scupltured'. + + ARTICLE CURVE: "For an acnodal cubic the six imaginary inflections + disappear, and there remain three real inflections lying in a + line." 'imaginary' amended from 'imaginery'. + + ARTICLE CURVE: "... and a curve of any order deficiency = or > 3 + can be rationally transformed into a curve of the order D + 3, + deficiency D." 'deficiency' amended from 'deficience'. + + ARTICLE CURVE: "The extension to curves of any given deficiency D + was made in the memoir of Cayley, 'On the correspondence of two + points on a curve,'--Proc. Lond. Math. Soc...." 'Proc' amended from + 'Porc'. + + ARTICLE CUXHAVEN: "The harbour is good and secure, and is much + frequented by vessels delayed in the Elbe by unfavourable weather." + 'unfavourable' amended from 'unfavourbale'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME VII, SLICE VIII + + Cube to Daguerre, Louis + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + CUBE CURWEN, JOHN + CUBEBS CURZOLA + CUBICLE CURZON OF KEDLESTON, GEORGE NATHANIEL + CUBITT, THOMAS CUSANUS, NICOLAUS + CUBITT, SIR WILLIAM CUSH + CUCHULINN CUSHING, CALEB + CUCKOO CUSHING, WILLIAM BARKER + CUCKOO-SPIT CUSHION + CUCUMBER CUSHMAN, CHARLOTTE SAUNDERS + CUCURBITACEAE CUSP + CUDDALORE CUSTARD APPLE + CUDDAPAH CUSTER, GEORGE ARMSTRONG + CUDWORTH, RALPH CUSTINE, ADAM PHILIPPE + CUENCA (city of Ecuador) CUSTOM + CUENCA (province of Spain) CUSTOMARY FREEHOLD + CUENCA (city of Spain) CUSTOM-HOUSE + CUESTA CUSTOM DUTIES + CUEVAS DE VERA CUSTOS ROTULORUM + CUFF CUSTOZZA + CUIRASS CUSTRIN + CUIRASSIERS CUTCH + CUJAS, JACQUES CUTCH, GULF OF + CULDEES CUTCH, RUNN OF + CULEBRA CUTHBERT, SAINT + CULLEN, PAUL CUTLASS + CULLEN, WILLIAM CUTLER, MANASSEH + CULLEN CUTLERY + CULLERA CUTTACK + CULLINAN CUTTLE-FISH + CULLODEN CUTTS OF GOWRAN, JOHN CUTTS + CULM CUVIER, GEORGES LEOPOLD DAGOBERT + CULMINATION CUVILLES, FRANCOIS DE + CULPRIT CUXHAVEN + CULROSS CUYABA + CULTIVATOR CUYAPO + CUMAE CUYP + CUMANA CUZA, ALEXANDER JOHN + CUMBERLAND, DUKES AND EARLS OF CUZCO + CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (English philosopher) CYANAMIDE + CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (English dramatist) CYANIC ACID AND CYANATES + CUMBERLAND, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS CYANIDE + CUMBERLAND (county of England) CYANITE + CUMBERLAND (Maryland, U.S.A.) CYANOGEN + CUMBERLAND (Rhode Island, U.S.A.) CYAXARES + CUMBERLAND MOUNTAINS CYBELE + CUMBERLAND RIVER CYCLADES + CUMBRAES, THE CYCLAMEN + CUMIN CYCLE + CUMMERBUND CYCLING + CUMMING, JOSEPH GEORGE CYCLOID + CUMNOCK AND HOLMHEAD CYCLOMETER + CUNARD, SIR SAMUEL CYCLONE + CUNAS CYCLOPEAN MASONRY + CUNDINAMARCA CYCLOPES + CUNEIFORM CYCLOSTOMATA + CUNEO CYCLOSTYLE + CUNEUS CYGNUS + CUNITZ, MARIA CYLINDER + CUNNINGHAM, ALEXANDER CYLLENE + CUNNINGHAM, ALLAN CYMA + CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM (Scottish theologian) CYMBALS + CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM (English economist) CYNEGILS + CUP CYNEWULF (king of Wessex) + CUPAR CYNEWULF (Old-English poet) + CUPBOARD CYNICS + CUPID CYNOSURE + CUPOLA CYPERACEAE + CUPPING CY-PRES + CUPRA CYPRESS + CUPRITE CYPRIAN, SAINT + CUPULIFERAE CYPRINODONTS + CURACAO CYPRUS + CURACOA CYPRUS, CHURCH OF + CURASSOW CYPSELUS + CURATE CYRANO DE BERGERAC, SAVINIEN + CURATOR CYRENAICA + CURCI, CARLO MARIA CYRENAICS + CUREL, FRANCOIS CYRENE + CURELY, JEAN NICOLAS CYRIL (bishop of Jerusalem) + CURES CYRIL (bishop of Alexandria) + CURETES CYRIL (apostle of the Slavs) + CURETON, WILLIAM CYRILLIC + CURETUS CYRILLUS + CURFEW CYRTO-STYLE + CURIA CYRUS + CURIA REGIS CYSTOFLAGELLATA + CURIA ROMANA CYSTOLITH + CURICO CYTHERA + CURIE, PIERRE CYTISINE + CURIO, GAIUS SCRIBONIUS CYTOLOGY + CURITYBA CYZICENUS + CURLEW CYZICUS + CURLING, THOMAS BLIZARD CZARNIECKI, STEPHEN + CURLING CZARTORYSKI, ADAM GEORGE + CURLL, EDMUND CZARTORYSKI, FRYDERYK MICHAL + CURRAGH CZECH + CURRAN, JOHN PHILPOT CZENSTOCHOWA + CURRANT CZERNOWITZ + CURRICLE CZERNY, KARL + CURRIE, SIR DONALD D + CURRIE, JAMES DACCA + CURRY DACE + CURSOR, LUCIUS PAPIRIUS DACH, SIMON + CURSOR MUNDI DACIA + CURTAIN DACIER, ANDRE + CURTANA DACITE + CURTEA DE ARGESH DACOIT + CURTESY DA COSTA, ISAAK + CURTILAGE DACTYL + CURTIN ANDREW GREGG DAEDALUS + CURTIS, GEORGE TICKNOR DAFFODIL + CURTIS, GEORGE WILLIAM DAFYDD AB GWILYM + CURTIUS, ERNST DAGGER + CURTIUS, MARCUS DAGHESTAN + CURTIUS RUFUS, QUINTUS DAGO + CURULE DAGOBERT I. + CURVE DAGON + CURVILINEAR DAGUERRE, LOUIS JACQUES MANDE + CURWEN, HUGH + + + + +CUBE (Gr. [Greek: kubos], a cube), in geometry, a solid bounded by six +equal squares, so placed that the angle between any pair of adjacent +faces is a right angle. This solid played an all-important part in the +geometry and cosmology of the Greeks. Plato (_Timaeus_) described the +figure in the following terms:--"The isosceles triangle which has its +vertical angle a right angle ... combined in sets of four, with the +right angles meeting at the centre, form a single square. Six of these +squares joined together formed eight solid angles, each produced by +three plane right angles: and the shape of the body thus formed was +cubical, having six square planes for its surfaces." In his cosmology +Plato assigned this solid to "earth," for "'earth' is the least mobile +of the four (elements--'fire,' 'water,' 'air' and 'earth') and most +plastic of bodies: and that substance must possess this nature in the +highest degree which has its bases most stable." The mensuration of the +cube, and its relations to other geometrical solids are treated in the +article POLYHEDRON; in the same article are treated the Archimedean +solids, the truncated and snub-cube; reference should be made to the +article CRYSTALLOGRAPHY for its significance as a crystal form. + +A famous problem concerning the cube, namely, to construct a cube of +twice the volume of a given cube, was attacked with great vigour by the +Pythagoreans, Sophists and Platonists. It became known as the "Delian +problem" or the "problem of the duplication of the cube," and ranks in +historical importance with the problems of "trisecting an angle" and +"squaring the circle." The origin of the problem is open to conjecture. +The Pythagorean discovery of "squaring a square," i.e. constructing a +square of twice the area of a given square (which follows as a corollary +to the Pythagorean property of a right-angled triangle, viz. the square +of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares on the sides), may have +suggested the strictly analogous problem of doubling a cube. +Eratosthenes (c. 200 B.C.), however, gives a picturesque origin to the +problem. In a letter to Ptolemy Euergetes he narrates the history of the +problem. The Delians, suffering a dire pestilence, consulted their +oracles, and were ordered to double the volume of the altar to their +tutelary god, Apollo. An altar was built having an edge double the +length of the original; but the plague was unabated, the oracles not +having been obeyed. The error was discovered, and the Delians applied to +Plato for his advice, and Plato referred them to Eudoxus. This story is +mere fable, for the problem is far older than Plato. + +Hippocrates of Chios (c. 430 B.C.), the discoverer of the square of a +lune, showed that the problem reduced to the determination of two mean +proportionals between two given lines, one of them being twice the +length of the other. Algebraically expressed, if x and y be the required +mean proportionals and a, 2a, the lines, we have a : x :: x : y :: y : +2a, from which it follows that x^3 = 2a^3. Although Hippocrates could not +determine the proportionals, his statement of the problem in this form +was a great advance, for it was perceived that the problem of trisecting +an angle was reducible to a similar form which, in the language of +algebraic geometry, is to solve geometrically a cubic equation. +According to Proclus, a man named Hippias, probably Hippias of Elis (c. +460 B.C.), trisected an angle with a mechanical curve, named the +quadratrix (q.v.). Archytas of Tarentum (c. 430 B.C.) solved the +problems by means of sections of a half cylinder; according to Eutocius, +Menaechmus solved them by means of the intersections of conic sections; +and Eudoxus also gave a solution. + +All these solutions were condemned by Plato on the ground that they were +mechanical and not geometrical, i.e. they were not effected by means of +circles and lines. However, no proper geometrical solution, in Plato's +sense, was obtained; in fact it is now generally agreed that, with such +a restriction, the problem is insoluble. The pursuit of mechanical +methods furnished a stimulus to the study of mechanical loci, for +example, the locus of a point carried on a rod which is caused to move +according to a definite rule. Thus Nicomedes invented the conchoid +(q.v.); Diocles the cissoid (q.v.); Dinostratus studied the quadratrix +invented by Hippias; all these curves furnished solutions, as is also +the case with the trisectrix, a special form of Pascal's limacon (q.v.). +These problems were also attacked by the Arabian mathematicians; Tobit +ben Korra (836-901) is credited with a solution, while Abul Gud solved +it by means of a parabola and an equilateral hyperbola. + +In algebra, the "cube" of a quantity is the quantity multiplied by +itself twice, i.e. if a be the quantity a X a X a (= a^3) is its cube. +Similarly the "cube root" of a quantity is another quantity which when +multiplied by itself twice gives the original quantity; thus a^(1/3) is +the cube root of a (see ARITHMETIC and ALGEBRA). A "cubic equation" is +one in which the highest power of the unknown is the cube (see +EQUATION); similarly, a "cubic curve" has an equation containing no term +of a power higher than the third, the powers of a compound term being +added together. + +In mensuration, "cubature" is sometimes used to denote the volume of a +solid; the word is parallel with "quadrature," to determine the area of +a surface (see MENSURATION; INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS). + + + + +CUBEBS (Arab. _kababah_), the fruit of several species of pepper +(_Piper_), belonging to the natural order Piperaceae. The cubebs of +pharmacy are produced by _Piper Cubeba_, a climbing woody shrub +indigenous to south Borneo, Sumatra, Prince of Wales Island and Java. It +has round, ash-coloured, smooth branches; lanceolate, or ovate-oblong, +somewhat leathery, shining leaves, 4 to 6(1/2) in. long and 1(1/2) to 2 +in. broad. Male and female flowers are borne on distinct plants. The +fruits are small, globose, about 1/5 in. in diameter, and not so large +as white pepper; their contracted stalk-like bases are between 1/3 and +1/2 in. in length; and from forty to fifty of them are borne upon a +common stem. The cubeb is cultivated in Java and Sumatra, the fruits are +gathered before they are ripe, and carefully dried. Commercial cubebs +consist of the dried berries, usually with their stalks attached; the +pericarp is greyish-brown, or blackish and wrinkled; and the seed, when +present, is hard, white and oily. The odour of cubebs is agreeable and +aromatic; the taste, pungent, acrid, slightly bitter and persistent. +About 15% of a volatile oil is obtained by distilling cubebs with water; +after rectification with water, or on keeping, this deposits rhombic +crystals of camphor of cubebs, C15H26O; cubebene, the liquid portion, +has the formula C15H24. Cubebin, CH2[O]2C6H3.CH:CH.CH2OH, is a +crystalline substance existing in cubebs, discovered by Eugene Soubeiran +and Capitaine in 1839; it may be prepared from cubebene, or from the +pulp left after the distillation of the oil. The drug, along with gum, +fatty oils, and malates of magnesium and calcium, contains also about 1% +of cubebic acid, and about 6% of a resin. + +The dose of the fruit is 30 to 60 grains, and the British Pharmacopoeia +contains a tincture with a dose of 1/2 to 1 drachm. The volatile +oil--oleum cubebae--is also official, and is the form in which this drug +is most commonly used, the dose being 5 to 20 minims, which may be +suspended in mucilage or given after meals in a cachet. The drug has the +typical actions of a volatile oil, but exerts some of them in an +exceptional degree. Thus it is liable to cause a cutaneous erythema in +the course of its excretion by the skin; it has a marked diuretic +action; and it is a fairly efficient disinfectant of the urinary +passages. Its administration causes the appearance in the urine of a +salt of cubebic acid which is precipitated by heat or nitric acid, and +is therefore liable to be mistaken for albumin, when these two most +common tests for the occurrence of albuminuria are applied. Cubebs is +frequently used in the form of cigarettes for asthma, chronic +pharyngitis and hay-fever. A small percentage of cubebs is also commonly +included in lozenges designed for use in bronchitis, in which the +antiseptic and expectoral properties of the drug are useful. But the +most important therapeutic application of this drug is in gonorrhoea, +where its antiseptic action is of much value. As compared with copaiba +in this connexion cubebs has the advantages of being less disagreeable +to take and somewhat less likely to disturb the digestive apparatus in +prolonged administration. The introduction of the drug into medicine is +supposed to have been due to the Arabian physicians in the middle ages. +Cubebs were formerly candied and eaten whole, or used ground as a +seasoning for meat. Their modern employment in England as a drug dates +from 1815. "Cubebae" were purchased in 1284 and 1285 by Lord Clare at +2s. 3d. and 2s. 9d. per lb. respectively; and in 1307 1 lb. for the +king's wardrobe cost 9s., a sum representing about L3, 12s. in present +value (Rogers, _Hist. of Agriculture and Prices_, i. 627-628, ii. 544). + +A closely allied species, _Piper Clusii_, produces the African cubebs or +West African black-pepper, the berry of which is smoother than that of +common cubebs and usually has a curved pedicel. In the 14th century it +was imported into Europe from the Grain Coast, under the name of pepper, +by merchants of Rouen and Lippe. + + + + +CUBICLE (Lat. _cubiculum_), a small chamber containing a couch or a bed. +The small rooms opening into the atrium of a Pompeian house are known as +cubicula. In modern English schools "cubicle" is the term given to the +separate small bedrooms into which the dormitories are divided, as +opposed to the system of large open dormitories. + + + + +CUBITT, THOMAS (1788-1855), English builder, was born at Buxton, near +Norwich, on the 25th of February 1788. Few men have exhibited greater +self-reliance in early life in the pursuit of a successful career. In +his nineteenth year, when he was working as a journeyman carpenter, his +father died, and he tried to better his position by going on a voyage to +India, as captain's joiner. He returned to London, two years after, in +the possession of a small capital, and began business as a carpenter. +The growth of his establishment was steady and rapid. He was one of the +first to combine several trades in a "builder's" business; and this very +much increased his success. One of the earlier works which gave him +reputation was the London Institution in Finsbury Circus; but it is from +1824 that the vast building operations date which identify his name with +many splendid ranges of London houses, such as Tavistock, Gordon, +Belgrave and Lowndes Squares, and the district of South Belgravia. While +these and similar extensive operations were in progress, a financial +panic, which proved ruinous to many, was surmounted in his case by a +determined spirit and his integrity of character. He took great interest +in sanitary measures, and published, for private circulation, a pamphlet +on the general drainage of London, the substance of which was afterwards +embodied in a letter to _The Times_; the plan he advocated was +subsequently adopted by the conveyance of the sewage matter some +distance below London. He advocated the provision of open spaces in the +environs of London as places of public recreation, and was one of the +originators of Battersea Park, the first of the people's parks. At a +late period he received professionally the recognition of royalty, the +palace at Osborne being erected after his designs, and under his +superintendence; and in the _Life of the Prince Consort_ he is described +by Queen Victoria as one "than whom a better and kinder man did not +exist." In 1851, although he was not identified with the management of +the Great Exhibition, he showed the warmest sympathy with its objects, +and aided its projectors in many ways, especially in the profitable +investment of their surplus funds. Cubitt, when he rose to be a +capitalist, never forgot the interests and well-being of his workpeople. +He was elected president of the Builders' Society some time before his +death, which took place at his seat Denbies, near Dorking, on the 20th +of December 1855. + +His son, George Cubitt (1828- ), who had a long and useful +parliamentary career, as Conservative member for West Surrey (1860-1865) +and Mid-Surrey (1885-1892), was in 1892 raised to the peerage as Baron +Ashcombe. + + + + +CUBITT, SIR WILLIAM (1785-1861), English engineer, was born in 1785 at +Dilham in Norfolk, where his father was a miller. After serving an +apprenticeship of four years (1800-1804) as a joiner and cabinetmaker at +Stalham, he became associated with an agricultural-machine maker, named +Cook, who resided at Swanton. In 1807 he patented self-regulating sails +for windmills, and in 1812 he entered the works of Messrs Ransome of +Ipswich, where he soon became chief engineer, and ultimately a partner. +Meanwhile, the subject of the employment of criminals had been much in +his thoughts; and the result was his introduction of the treadmill about +1818. In 1826 he removed to London, where he gained a very large +practice as a civil engineer. Among his works were the Oxford canal, the +Birmingham & Liverpool Junction Canal, the improvement of the river +Severn, the Bute docks at Cardiff, the Black Sluice drainage and its +outfall sluice at Boston harbour, the Middlesborough docks and coal +drops in the Tees, and the South-Eastern railway, of which he was chief +engineer. The Hanoverian government consulted him about the harbour and +docks at Harburg; the water-works of the city of Berlin were constructed +under his immediate superintendence; he was asked to report on the +construction of the Paris & Lyons railway; and he was consulting +engineer for the line from Boulogne to Amiens. Among his later works +were two floating landing stages at Liverpool, and the bridge for +carrying the London turnpike across the Medway at Rochester. In 1851, +when he was president of the Institution of Civil Engineers, he was +knighted for his services in connexion with the buildings erected in +Hyde Park for the exhibition of that year. He retired from active work +in 1858, and died on the 13th of October 1861 at his house on Clapham +Common, London. His son, Joseph Cubitt (1811-1872), was trained under +him, and was engineer of various railways, including the Great Northern, +London, Chatham & Dover, and part of the London & South-Western. + + + + +CUCHULINN (_Cuchulinn_; pronounced "Coohoollin"), the chief warrior in +the Conchobar-Cuchulinn or older heroic (Ulster) cycle of Ireland. The +story of his origin is very obscure. The god Lug is represented as +having been swallowed in a draught of wine by his mother Dechtire, +sister of Conchobar, who was king of Ulster. But it is not unlikely that +this story was invented to supersede the account of the incestuous union +of Conchobar with his sister, which seems to be hinted at on various +occasions. Usually, however, he is styled son of Sualdam, an Ulster +warrior who plays a very inferior part in the cycle. His earliest name +was Setanta, and he was brought up at Dun Imbrith (Louth). When he was +six years of age he announced his intention of going to Conchobar's +court at Emain Macha (Navan Rath near Armagh) to play with the boys +there. He defeats all the boys in marvellous fashion and is received as +one of their number. Shortly after he kills Culann, the smith's hound, a +huge watch-dog. The smith laments that all his property is of no value +now that his watchman is slain, whereupon the young hero offers to guard +his domains until a whelp of the hound's has grown. From this the boy +received the name of Cu Chulinn or Culann's Hound. The next year +Cuchulinn receives arms, makes his first foray, and slays the three sons +of Necht, redoubtable hereditary foes of the Ulstermen, in the plain of +Meath. The men of Ulster decide that Cuchulinn must marry, as all the +women of Ireland are in love with him. Chosen envoys fail to find a +bride worthy of him after a year's search, but the hero goes straight to +Emer, the daughter of Forgall the Wily, at Lusk (county Dublin). The +lady is promised to him if he will go to learn chivalry of Domnall the +Soldierly and the amazon Scathach in Alba. After enduring great +hardships he goes through the course and leaves a son Connlaech behind +in Scotland by another amazon, Aife. On his return he carries off and +weds Emer. He is represented as living at Dun Delgan (Dundalk). The +greatest of all the hero's achievements was the defence of the frontier +of Ulster against the forces of Medb, queen of Connaught, who had come +to carry off the famous Brown Bull of Cualnge (Cooley). The men of +Ulster were all suffering from a strange debility, and Cuchulinn had to +undertake the defence single-handed from November to February. This was +when he was seventeen years of age. The cycle contains a large number of +episodes, such as the gaining of the champion's portion and the tragical +death by the warrior's hand of his own son Connlaech. When he was +twenty-seven he met with his end at the hands of Lugaid, son of Curoi +MacDaire, the famous Munster warrior, and the children of Calatin Dana, +in revenge for their father's death (see CELT: _Irish Literature_). + +Medieval Christian synchronists make Cuchulinn's death take place about +the beginning of the Christian era. It is not necessary to regard +Cuchulinn as a form of the solar hero, as some writers have done. Most, +if not all, of his wonderful attributes may be ascribed to the Irish +predilection for the grotesque. It is true that Cuchulinn seems to stand +in a special relation to the Tuatha De Danann leader, the god Lug, but +in primitive societies there is always a tendency to ascribe a divine +parentage to men who stand out pre-eminently in prowess beyond their +fellows. + + See A. Nutt, _Cuchulainn, the Irish Achilles_ (London, 1900); E. Hull, + _The Cuchullin Saga_ (London, 1898). (E. C. Q.) + + + + +CUCKOO, or CUCKOW, as the word was formerly spelt, the common name of a +well-known and often-heard bird, the _Cuculus canorus_ of Linnaeus. In +some parts of the United Kingdom it is more frequently called gowk, and +it is the Gr. _[Greek: kokkux]_, the Ital. _cuculo_ or _cucco_, the Fr. +_coucou_, the Ger. _Kuckuk_, the Dutch _koekkoek_, the Dan. _kukker_ or +_gjog_, and the Swed. _gok._ The oldest English spelling of the name +seems to have been _cuccu_. + +No single bird has perhaps so much occupied the attention both of +naturalists and of those who are not naturalists, or has had so much +written about it, as the common cuckoo, and of no bird perhaps have more +idle tales been told. Its strange and, according to the experience of +most people, its singular habit of entrusting its offspring to +foster-parents is enough to account for much of the interest which has +been so long felt in its history; but this habit is shared probably by +many of its Old World relatives, as well as in the New World by birds +which are not in any degree related to it. The cuckoo is a summer +visitant to the whole of Europe, reaching even far within the Arctic +circle, and crossing the Mediterranean from its winter quarters in +Africa at the end of March or beginning of April. Its arrival is at once +proclaimed by the peculiar and in nearly all languages onomatopoeic cry +of the cock--a true song in the technical sense of the word, since it is +confined to the male sex and to the season of love. In a few days the +cock is followed by the hen, and amorous contests between keen and +loud-voiced suitors are to be commonly noticed, until the respective +pretensions of the rivals are decided. Even by night they are not +silent; but as the season advances the song is less frequently heard, +and the cuckoo seems rather to avoid observation as much as possible, +the more so since whenever it shows itself it is a signal for all the +small birds of the neighbourhood to be up in its pursuit, just as though +it were a hawk, to which indeed its mode of flight and general +appearance give it an undoubted resemblance--a resemblance that misleads +some into confounding it with the birds of prey, instead of recognizing +it as a harmless if not a beneficial destroyer of hairy caterpillars. +Thus pass away some weeks. Towards the middle or end of June its +"plain-song" cry alters; it becomes rather hoarser in tone, and its +first syllable or note is doubled. Soon after it is no longer heard at +all, and by the middle of July an old cuckoo is seldom to be found in +the British Islands, though a stray example, or even, but very rarely, +two or three in company, may occasionally be seen for a month longer. Of +its breeding comparatively few have any personal experience. Yet a +diligent search for and peering into the nests of several of the +commonest little birds--more especially the pied wagtail (_Motacilla +lugubris_), the titlark (_Anthus pratensis_), the reed-wren +(_Acrocephalus streperus_), and the hedge-sparrow (_Accentor +modularis_)--will be rewarded by the discovery of the egg of the +mysterious stranger which has been surreptitiously introduced, and those +who wait till this egg is hatched may be witnesses (as was Edward Jenner +in the 18th century) of the murderous eviction of the rightful tenants +of the nest by the intruder, who, hoisting them one after another on his +broad back, heaves them over to die neglected by their own parents, of +whose solicitous care he thus becomes the only object. In this manner he +thrives, and, so long as he remains in the country of his birth his +wants are anxiously supplied by the victims of his mother's dupery. The +actions of his foster-parents become, when he is full grown, almost +ludicrous, for they often have to perch between his shoulders to place +in his gaping mouth the delicate morsels he is too indolent or too +stupid to take from their bills. Early in September he begins to shift +for himself, and then follows the seniors of his kin to more southern +climes. + +So much caution is used by the hen cuckoo in choosing a nest in which to +deposit her egg that the act of insertion has been but seldom witnessed. +The nest selected is moreover often so situated, or so built, that it +would be an absolute impossibility for a bird of her size to lay her egg +therein by sitting upon the fabric as birds commonly do; and there have +been a few fortunate observers who have actually seen the deposition of +the egg upon the ground by the cuckoo, who, then taking it in her bill, +introduces it into the nest. Of these, the earliest in Great Britain +seem to have been two Scottish lads, sons of Mr Tripeny, a farmer in +Coxmuir, who, as recorded by Macgillivray (_Brit. Birds_, iii. 130, 131) +from information communicated to him by Mr Durham Weir, saw most part of +the operation performed, June 24, 1838. But perhaps the most +satisfactory evidence on the point is that of Adolf Muller, a forester +at Gladenbach in Darmstadt, who says (_Zoolog. Garten_, 1866, pp. 374, +375) that through a telescope he watched a cuckoo as she laid her egg on +a bank, and then conveyed the egg in her bill to a wagtail's nest. +Cuckoos, too, have been not unfrequently shot as they were carrying a +cuckoo's egg, presumably their own, in their bill, and this has probably +given rise to the vulgar, but seemingly groundless, belief that they +suck the eggs of other kinds of birds. More than this, Mr G. D. Rowley, +who had much experience of cuckoos, declares (_Ibis_, 1865, p. 186) his +opinion to be that traces of violence and of a scuffle between the +intruder and the owners of the nest at the time of introducing the egg +often appear, whence we are led to suppose that the cuckoo ordinarily, +when inserting her egg, excites the fury (already stimulated by her +hawk-like appearance) of the owners of the nest by turning out one or +more of the eggs that may be already laid therein, and thus induces the +dupe to brood all the more readily and more strongly what is left to +her. Of the assertion that the cuckoo herself takes any interest in the +future welfare of the egg she has foisted on her victim, or of its +product, there is no good evidence. + +But a much more curious assertion has also been made, and one that at +first sight appears so incomprehensible as to cause little surprise at +the neglect it long encountered. To this currency was first given by +Salerne (_L'Hist. nat._ &c., Paris, 1767, p. 42), who was, however, +hardly a believer in it, and it is to the effect, as he was told by an +inhabitant of Sologne, that the egg of a cuckoo resembles in colour that +of the eggs normally laid by the kind of bird in whose nest it is +placed. In 1853 the same notion was prominently and independently +brought forward by Dr A. C. E. Baldamus (_Naumannia_, 1853, pp. +307-325), and in time became known to English ornithologists, most of +whom were naturally sceptical as to its truth, since no likeness +whatever is ordinarily apparent in the very familiar case of the +blue-green egg of the hedge-sparrow and that of the cuckoo, which is so +often found beside it.[1] Dr Baldamus based his notion on a series of +eggs in his cabinet,[2] a selection from which he figured in +illustration of his paper, and, however the thing may be accounted for, +it seems impossible to resist, save on one supposition, the force of the +testimony these specimens afford. This one supposition is that the eggs +have been wrongly ascribed to the cuckoo, and that they are only +exceptionally large examples of the eggs of the birds in the nests of +which they were found, for it cannot be gainsaid that some such abnormal +examples are occasionally to be met with. But it is well known that +abnormally large eggs are not only often deficient in depth of colour, +but still more often in stoutness of shell. Applying these rough +criteria to Dr Baldamus's series, most of the specimens stood the test +very well. + +There are some other considerations to be urged. For instance, Herr +Braune, a forester at Greiz in the principality of Reuss (_Naumannia, +tom. cit._ pp. 307, 313), shot a hen cuckoo as she was leaving the nest +of an icterine warbler (_Hypolais icterina_). In the oviduct of this +cuckoo he found an egg coloured very like that of the warbler, and on +looking into the nest he found there an exactly similar egg, which there +can be no reasonable doubt had just been laid by that very cuckoo. +Moreover, Herr Grunack (_Journ. fur Orn._, 1873, p. 454) afterwards +found one of the most abnormally coloured specimens, quite unlike the +ordinary egg of the cuckoo, to contain an embryo so fully formed as to +show the characteristic zygodactyl feet of the bird, thus proving +unquestionably its parentage. + +On the other hand, we must bear in mind the numerous instances in which +not the least similarity can be traced--as in the not uncommon case of +the hedge-sparrow already mentioned, and if we attempt any explanatory +hypothesis it must be one that will fit all round. Such an explanation +seems to be this. We know that certain kinds of birds resent +interference with their nests much less than others, and among them it +may be asserted that the hedge-sparrow will patiently submit to various +experiments. She will brood with complacency the egg of a redbreast +(_Erithacus rubecula_), so unlike her own, and for aught we know to the +contrary may even be colour-blind. In the case of such a species there +would be no need of anything further to ensure success--the terror of +the nest-owner at seeing her home invaded by a hawk-like giant, and some +of her treasures tossed out, would be enough to stir her motherly +feelings so deeply that she would without misgiving, if not with joy +that something had been spared to her, resume the duty of incubation so +soon as the danger was past. But with other species it may be, and +doubtless is, different. Here assimilation of the introduced egg to +those of the rightful owner may be necessary, for there can hardly be a +doubt as to the truth of Dr Baldamus's theory as to the object of the +assimilation being to render the cuckoo's egg "less easily recognized by +the foster-parents as a substituted one." It is especially desirable to +point out that there is not the slightest ground for imagining that the +cuckoo, or any other bird, can voluntarily influence the colour of the +egg she is about to lay. Over that she can have no control, but its +destination she can determine. It would seem also impossible that a +cuckoo, having laid an egg, should look at it, and then decide from its +appearance in what bird's nest she should put it. That the colour of an +egg-shell can be in some mysterious way affected by the action of +external objects on the perceptive faculties of the mother is a notion +too wild to be seriously entertained. Consequently, only one explanation +of the facts can here be suggested. Every one who has sufficiently +studied the habits of animals will admit the influence of heredity. That +there is a reasonable probability of each cuckoo most commonly putting +her eggs in the nest of the same species of bird, and of this habit +being transmitted to her posterity, does not seem to be a very violent +supposition. Without attributing any wonderful sagacity to her, it does +not seem unlikely that the cuckoo which had once successfully foisted +her egg on a reed-wren or a titlark should again seek for another +reed-wren's or another titlark's nest (as the case may be), when she had +another egg to dispose of, and that she should continue her practice +from one season to another. It stands on record (_Zoologist_, 1873, p. +3648) that a pair of wagtails built their nest for eight or nine years +running in almost exactly the same spot, and that in each of those years +they fostered a young cuckoo, while many other cases of like kind, +though not perhaps established on so good authority, are believed to +have happened. Such a habit could hardly fail to become hereditary, so +that the daughter of a cuckoo which always put her egg into a +reed-wren's, titlark's or wagtail's nest would do as did her mother. +Furthermore it is unquestionable that, whatever variation there may be +among the eggs laid by different individuals of the same species, there +is a strong family likeness between the eggs laid by the same +individual, even at the interval of many years, and it can hardly be +questioned that the eggs of the daughter would more or less resemble +those of her mother. Hence the supposition may be fairly credited that +the habit of laying a particular style of egg is also likely to become +hereditary. Combining this supposition with that as to the cuckoo's +habit of using the nest of the same species becoming hereditary, it will +be seen that it requires only an application of the principle of natural +selection to show the probability of this principle operating in the +course of time to produce the facts asserted by the anonymous Solognot +of the 18th century, and by Dr Baldamus and others since. The particular +_gens_ of cuckoo which inherited and transmitted the habit of depositing +in the nest of any particular species of bird eggs having more or less +resemblance to the eggs of that species would prosper most in those +members of the _gens_ where the likeness was strongest, and the other +members would (_ceteris paribus_) in time be eliminated. As already +shown, it is not to be supposed that all species, or even all +individuals of a species, are duped with equal ease. The operation of +this kind of natural selection would be most needed in those cases where +the species are not easily duped--that is, in those cases which occur +the least frequently. Here it is we find it, for observation shows that +eggs of the cuckoo deposited in nests of the red-backed shrike (_Lanius +collurio_), of the bunting (_Emberiza miliaria_), and of the icterine +warbler approximate in their colouring to eggs of those species--species +in whose nests the cuckoo rarely (in comparison with others) deposits +eggs. Of species which are more easily duped, such as the hedge-sparrow, +mention has already been made. + +More or less nearly allied to the British cuckoo are many other forms of +the genus from various parts of Africa, Asia and their islands, while +one even reaches Australia. In some cases the chief difference is said +to lie in the diversity of voice--a character only to be appreciated by +those acquainted with the living birds, and though of course some regard +should be paid to this distinction, the possibility of birds using +different "dialects" according to the locality they inhabit must make it +a slender specific diagnostic. All these forms are believed to have +essentially the same habits as the British cuckoo, and, as regards +parasitism the same is to be said of the large cuckoo of southern Europe +and North Africa (_Coccystes glandarius_), which victimizes pies (_Pica +mauritanica_ and _Cyanopica cooki_) and crows (_Corvus cornix_). True it +is that an instance of this species, commonly known as the great spotted +cuckoo, having built a nest and hatched its young, is on record, but the +later observations of others tend to cast doubt on the credibility of +the ancient report. It is worthy of remark that the eggs of this bird so +closely resemble those of one of the pies in whose nest they have been +found, that even expert zoologists have been deceived by them, only to +discover the truth when the cuckoo's embryo had been extracted from the +supposed pie's egg. This species of cuckoo, easily distinguishable by +its large size and long crest, has more than once made its appearance as +a straggler in the British Isles. Equally parasitic are many other +cuckoos, belonging chiefly to genera which have been more or less +clearly defined as _Cacomantis_, _Chrysococcyx_, _Eudynamis_, +_Oxylophus_, _Polyphasia_ and _Surniculus_, and inhabiting parts of the +Ethiopian, Indian and Australian regions;[3] but there are certain +aberrant forms of Old World cuckoos which unquestionably do not shirk +parental responsibilities. Among these especially are the birds placed +in or allied to the genera _Centropus_ and _Coua_--the former having a +wide distribution from Egypt to New South Wales, living much on the +ground and commonly called lark-heeled cuckoos; the latter bearing no +English name, and limited to the island of Madagascar. These build a +nest, not perhaps in a highly finished style of architecture, but one +that serves its end. + +Respecting the cuckoos of America, the evidence, though it has been +impugned, is certainly enough to clear them from the charge which +attaches to so many of their brethren of the Old World. There are two +species very well known in parts of the United States and some of the +West Indian Islands (_Coccyzus Americanus_ and _C. erythrophthalmus_), +and each of them has occasionally visited Europe. They both build +nests--remarkably small structures when compared with those of other +birds of their size--and faithfully incubate their delicate sea-green +eggs. In the south-western states of the Union and thence into Central +America is found another curious form of cuckoo (_Geococcyx_)--the +chaparral-cock of northern and paisano of southern settlers. The first +of these names it takes from the low brushwood (_chaparral_) in which it +chiefly dwells, and the second is said to be due to its pheasant-like +(_faisan_ corrupted into _paisano_, properly a countryman) appearance as +it runs on the ground. Indeed, one of the two species of the genus was +formerly described as a _Phasianus_. They both have short wings, and +seem never to fly, but run with great rapidity. Returning to arboreal +forms, the genera _Neomorphus_, _Diplopterus_, _Saurothera_ and _Piaya_ +(the last two commonly called rain-birds, from the belief that their cry +portends rain) may be noticed--all of them belonging to the Neotropical +region; but perhaps the most curious form of American cuckoos is the ani +(_Crotophaga_), of which three species inhabit the same region. The +best-known species (_C. ani_) is found throughout the Antilles and on +the opposite continent. In most of the British colonies it is known as +the black witch, and is accused of various malpractices--it being, in +truth, a perfectly harmless if not a beneficial bird. As regards its +propagation this aberrant form of cuckoo departs in one direction from +the normal habit of birds, for several females, unite to lay their eggs +in one nest. It is evident that incubation is carried on socially, since +an intruder on approaching the rude nest will disturb perhaps half a +dozen of its sable proprietors, who, loudly complaining, seek safety +either in the leafy branches of the tree that holds it, or in the +nearest available covert, with all the speed that their feeble powers of +flight permit. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] An instance to the contrary has been recorded by Mr A. C. Smith + (_Zoologist_, 1873, p. 3516) on Mr Brine's authority. + + [2] This series was seen in 1861 by the writer. + + [3] Evidence tends to show that the same is to be said of the curious + channel-bill (_Scythrops novae-hollandiae_), though absolute proof + seems to be wanting. + + + + +CUCKOO-SPIT, a frothy secretion found upon plants, and produced by the +immature nymphal stage of various plant-lice of the familiar +_Cercopidae_ and _Jassidae_, belonging to the homopterous division of +the Hemiptera, which in the adult condition are sometimes called +frog-hoppers. + + + + +CUCUMBER (_Cucumis sativus_, Fr. _concombre_, O. Fr. _coucombre_, whence +the older English spelling and pronunciation "cowcumber," the standard +in England up to the beginning of the 18th century), a creeping plant of +the natural order Cucurbitaceae. It is widely cultivated, and originated +probably in northern India, where Alphonse de Candolle affirms (_Origin +of Cultivated Plants_) that it has been cultivated for at least three +thousand years. It spread westward to Europe and was cultivated by the +ancient Greeks under the name [Greek: sikuos]; it did not reach China +until two hundred years before the Christian era. It is an annual with a +rough succulent trailing stem and stalked hairy leaves with three to +five pointed lobes; the stem bears branched tendrils by means of which +the plant can be trained to supports. The short-stalked, bell-shaped +flowers are unisexual, but staminate and pistillate are borne on the +same plant; the latter are recognized by the swollen warty green ovary +below the rest of the flower. The ovary develops into the "cucumber" +without fertilization, and unless seeds are wanted, it is advisable to +pinch off the male flowers. + +There are a great many varieties of cucumber in cultivation, which may +be grouped under the two headings (1) forcing, (2) field varieties. + +1. The former are large-leaved strong-growing plants, not suited to +outdoor culture, with long smooth-rinded fruit; there are many excellent +varieties such as Telegraph, Sion House, duke of Edinburgh, &c. The +plants are grown in a hot-bed which is prepared towards the end of +February from rich stable manure, leaves, &c. A rich turfy loam with a +little well-decomposed stable manure forms a good soil. The seeds are +sown singly in rich, sandy soil in small pots early in February and +plunged in a bottom heat. After they have made one or two foliage-leaves +the seedlings are transferred to larger pots, and ultimately about the +middle of March to the hot-bed. Each plant is placed in the centre of a +mound of soil about a foot deep and well watered with tepid water. The +plants should be well watered during their growing period, and the +foliage sprinkled or syringed two or three times a day. In bright +sunshine the plants are lightly shaded. When grown in frames the tops of +the main stems are pinched off when the stems are about 2 ft. long; this +causes the development of side shoots on which fruits are borne. When +these have produced one or two fruits, they are also stopped at the +joint beyond the fruit. When grown in greenhouses the vines may be +allowed to reach the full length of the house before they are stopped. +To keep the fruits straight they may be grown in cylindrical glass tubes +about a foot long, or along narrow wooden troughs. If seeds are required +one or more female flowers should be selected and pollen from male +flower placed on their stigmas. + +2. The outdoor varieties are known as hill or ridge cucumbers. They may +be grown in any good soil. A warm, sheltered spot with a south aspect +and a mound of rich, sandy loam with a little leaf-mould placed over a +hot-bed of dung and leaves is recommended. The mounds or ridges should +be 4 to 5 ft. apart, and one plant is placed in the centre of each. The +seeds are sown in March in light, rich soil in small pots with gentle +heat. The seedlings are repotted and well hardened for planting out in +June. The plants must be well watered in and, until established, shaded +by a hand-light from bright sunshine. When the leading shoots are from +1(1/2) to 2 ft. long the tips are pinched off to induce the formation of +fruit-bearing side-shoots. If seed is required a pistillate flower is +selected and pollinated. There are numerous varieties distinguished by +size and the smooth or prickly rind. King of the Ridge has smooth fruits +a foot or more long; gherkin, a short, prickly form, is much used for +pickling. + +Cucumber is subject to the attacks of green fly, red spider and thrips; +for the two latter, infected leaves should be sponged with soapy water; +for green fly careful fumigating is necessary. + +The Sikkim cucumber, _C. sativus var. sikkimensis_, is a large fruited +form, reaching 15 in. long by 6 in. thick, grown in the Himalayas of +Sikkim and Nepal. It was discovered by Sir Joseph Hooker in the eastern +Himalayas in 1848. He says "so abundant were the fruits, that for days +together I saw gnawed fruits lying by the natives' paths by thousands, +and every man, woman and child seemed engaged throughout the day in +devouring them." The fruit is reddish-brown, marked with yellow, and is +eaten both raw and cooked. + +The West India gherkin is _Cucumis Anguria_, a plant with small, slender +vines, and very abundant small ellipsoid green fruit covered with warts +and spines. It is used for pickling. + +Cucumbers were much esteemed by the ancients. According to Pliny, the +emperor Tiberius was supplied with them daily, both in summer and +winter. The kishuim or cucumbers of the scriptures (Num. xi. 5; Isa. i. +8) were probably a wild form of _C. Melo_, the melon, a plant common in +Egypt, where a drink is prepared from the ripe fruit. Peter Forskal, one +of the early botanical writers on the country, describes its +preparation. The pulp is broken and stirred by means of a stick thrust +through a hole cut at the umbilicus of the fruit; the hole is then +closed with wax, and the fruit, without removing it from its stem, is +buried in a little pit; after some days the pulp is found to be +converted into an agreeable liquor (see _Flora aegyptiaco-arabica_, p. +168, 1775). The squirting cucumber, _Ecballium Elaterium_, the [Greek: +Sikuos agrios] of Theophrastus, furnishes the drug elaterium (q.v.). + + See Naudin in _Annal. des sci. nat._ ser. 4 (Botany), t. xi. (1859); + G. Nicholson, _Dictionary of Gardening_ (1885); L. H. Bailey, + _Cyclopaedia of American Horticulture_ (1900). + + + + +CUCURBITACEAE, a botanical order of dicotyledons, containing 87 genera +and about 650 species, found in the temperate and warmer parts of the +earth but especially developed in the tropics. The plants are generally +annual herbs, climbing by means of tendrils and having a rapid growth. +The long-stalked leaves are arranged alternately, and are generally +palmately lobed and veined. The flowers or inflorescences are borne in +the leaf-axils, in which a vegetative bud is also found, and at the side +of the leaf-stalk is a simple or branched tendril. There has been much +difference of opinion as to what member or members the tendril +represents; the one which seems most in accordance with facts regards +the tendril as a shoot, the lower portion representing the stem, the +upper twining portion a leaf. The flowers are unisexual, and strikingly +epigynous, the perianth and stamens being attached to a bell-shaped +prolongation of the receptacle above the ovary. The five narrow pointed +sepals are followed by five petals which are generally united to form a +more or less bell-shaped corolla. There are five stamens in the male +flowers; the anthers open towards the outside, are one-celled, with the +pollen-sacs generally curved and variously united. The carpels, normally +three in number, form an ovary with three thick, fleshy, bifid placentas +bearing a large number of ovules on each side, and generally filling the +interior of the ovary with a juicy mass. The short thick style has +generally three branches each bearing a fleshy, usually forked stigma. +The fruit is a fleshy many-seeded berry with a tough rind (known as a +_pepo_), and often attains considerable size. The embryo completely +fills the seed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Bryonia dioica_, Bryony. 1, part of corolla of +male flower with attached stamens; 2, female flower after removal of +calyx and corolla; 3, berries; 1, 2, 3 about nat. size.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2. + + 1, Male flower of cucumber (_Cucumis_). + 2, Same, in vertical section, slightly enlarged. + 3, Stamens, after removal of calyx and corolla. + 4, Female flower. + 5, Horizontal plan of male flower. + 6, Transverse section of fruit. + + 1 and 4 nat. size.] + +The order is represented in Britain by bryony (_Bryonia dioica_), (fig. +1) a hedge-climber, perennial by means of large fleshy tubers which send +up each year a number of slender angular stems. The leaves are +heart-shaped with wavy margined lobes. The flowers are greenish, 1/2 to +3/4 in. in diameter; the fruit, a red several-seeded berry, is about 1/4 +in. in diameter. + +Many genera are of economic importance; _Cucumis_ (fig. 2) affords +cucumber (q.v.) and melon (q.v.) _Cucurbita_, pumpkin and marrow; +_Citrullus vulgaris_ is water-melon, and _C. Colocynthis_, colocynth; +_Ecballium Elaterium_ (squirting cucumber) is medicinal; _Sechium edule_ +(chocho), a tropical American species, is largely cultivated for its +edible fruit; it contains one large seed which germinates in situ. +_Lagenaria_ is the gourd (q.v.). The fruits of _Luffa aegyptiaca_ have a +number of closely netted vascular bundles in the pericarp, forming a +kind of loose felt which supplies the well-known loofah or bath-sponge. + + + + +CUDDALORE, a town of British India, in the South Arcot district of +Madras, on the coast 125 m. S. of Madras by rail. Pop. (1901) 52,216, +showing an increase of 10% in the decade. It lies low, but is regarded +as exceptionally healthy, and serves as a kind of sanatorium for the +surrounding district. The principal exports are sugar, oil-seeds and +indigo. There are two colleges and two high schools. In the +neighbourhood are the ruins of Fort St David situated on the river +Gadilam, which has as stirring a history as any spot in the Presidency. +As a small fort built by a Hindu merchant it fell into the hands of the +Mahrattas after the capture of Gingi by Sivaji in 1677. From them it was +purchased by the English in 1690, the purchase including not only the +fort but the adjacent towns and villages "within ye randome shott of a +piece of ordnance." A great gun was fired to different points of the +compass and all the country within its range, including the town of +Cuddalore, passed into the possession of the English. The villages thus +obtained are still spoken of as "cannon ball villages." From 1725 +onwards the fortifications were greatly strengthened. In 1746 Fort St +David became the British headquarters for the south of India, and +Dupleix' attack was successfully repulsed. Clive was appointed its +governor in 1756; in 1758 the French captured it, but abandoned it two +years later to Sir Eyre Coote. In 1782 they again took it and restored +it sufficiently to withstand a British attack in 1783. In 1785 it +finally passed into British possession. + + + + +CUDDAPAH, a town and district of British India, in the Madras +Presidency. The town is 6 m. from the right bank of the river Pennar, +and 161 m. by rail from Madras. Pop. (1901) 16,432. It is now a poor +place, but has some trade in cotton and indigo, and manufactures of +cotton cloth. Hills surround it on three sides, and it has a bad +reputation for unhealthiness. + +The DISTRICT OF CUDDAPAH has an area of 8723 sq. m. It is in shape an +irregular parallelogram, divided into two nearly equal parts by the +range of the Eastern Ghats, which intersects it throughout its entire +length. The two tracts thus formed possess totally different features. +The first, which constitutes the north, east and south-east of the +district, is a low-lying plain; while the other, which comprises the +southern and south-western portion, forms a high table-land from 1500 to +2500 ft. above sea-level. The chief river is the Pennar, which enters +the district from Bellary on the west, and flows eastwards into Nellore. +Though a large and broad river, and in the rains containing a great +volume of water, in the hot weather months it dwindles down to an +inconsiderable stream. Its principal tributaries are the Kundaur, +Saglair, Cheyair, and Papagni rivers. One of the most interesting +antiquities in the district is the ancient fort of Gurramkonda. The fort +is supposed to have been built by the Golconda sultans; it stands on a +hill 500 ft. high, three sides of which consist of almost perpendicular +precipices. According to a local legend the name Gurramkonda, meaning +"horse hill," was derived from the fact that a horse was supposed to be +guardian of the fort and that the place was impregnable so long as the +horse remained there. The story goes that a Mahratta chief at length +succeeded in scaling the precipice and in carrying off the horse, and +although the thief was captured before reaching the base of the hill, +the spell was broken and the fort, when next attacked, fell. The +population of the district in 1901 was 1,291,267. The principal crops +are millet, rice, other food grains, pulse, oil-seeds, cotton and +indigo. The two last are largely exported. There are several steam +factories for pressing cotton, and indigo vats. The district is served +by lines of the Madras and the South Indian railways. + + + + +CUDWORTH, RALPH (1617-1688), English philosopher, was born at Aller, +Somersetshire, the son of Dr Ralph Cudworth (d. 1624), rector of Aller, +formerly fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. His father died in 1624, +and his mother then married the Rev. Dr Stoughton, who gave the boy a +good home education. Cudworth was sent to his father's college, was +elected fellow in 1639, and became a successful tutor. In 1642 he +published _A Discourse concerning the true Notion of the Lord's Supper_, +and a tract entitled _The Union of Christ and the Church_. In 1645 he +was appointed master of Clare Hall and the same year was elected Regius +professor of Hebrew. He was now recognized as a leader among the +remarkable group known as the Cambridge Platonists (q.v.). The whole +party were more or less in sympathy with the Commonwealth, and Cudworth +was consulted by John Thurloe, Cromwell's secretary of state, in regard +to university and government appointments. His sermons, such as that +preached before the House of Commons, on the 31st of March 1647, +advocate principles of religious toleration and charity. In 1650 he was +presented to the college living of North Cadbury, Somerset. From the +diary of his friend John Worthington we learn that Cudworth was nearly +compelled, through poverty, to leave the university, but in 1654 he was +elected master of Christ's College, whereupon he married. On the +Restoration he contributed some Hebrew verses to the _Academiae +Cantabrigiensis_ [Greek: Sostra], a congratulatory volume addressed to +the king. In 1662 he was presented to the rectory of Ashwell, Herts. In +1665 he almost quarrelled with his fellow-Platonist, Henry More, because +the latter had written an ethical work which Cudworth feared would +interfere with his own long-contemplated treatise on the same subject. +To avoid clashing, More brought out his book, the _Enchiridion ethicum_, +in Latin; Cudworth's never appeared. In 1678 he published _The True +Intellectual System of the Universe: the first part, wherein all the +reason and philosophy of atheism is confuted and its impossibility +demonstrated_ (imprimatur dated 1671). No more was published, perhaps +because of the theological clamour raised against this first part. +Cudworth was installed prebendary of Gloucester in 1678. He died on the +26th of June 1688, and was buried in the chapel of Christ's. His only +surviving child, Damaris, a devout and talented woman, became the second +wife of Sir Francis Masham, and was distinguished as the friend of John +Locke. Much of Cudworth's work still remains in manuscript; _A Treatise +concerning eternal and immutable Morality_ was published in 1731; and _A +Treatise of Freewill_, edited by John Allen, in 1838; both are connected +with the design of his _magnum opus_, the _Intellectual System_. + +The _Intellectual System_ arose, so its author tells us, out of a +discourse refuting "fatal necessity," or determinism. Enlarging his +plan, he proposed to prove three matters: (a) the existence of God; (b) +the naturalness of moral distinctions; and (c) the reality of human +freedom. These three together make up the intellectual (as opposed to +the physical) system of the universe; and they are opposed respectively +by three false principles, atheism, religious fatalism which refers all +moral distinctions to the will of God, and thirdly the fatalism of the +ancient Stoics, who recognized God and yet identified Him with nature. +The immense fragment dealing with atheism is all that was published by +its author. Cudworth criticizes two main forms of materialistic atheism, +the atomic, adopted by Democritus, Epicurus and Hobbes; and the +hylozoic, attributed to Strato, which explains everything by the +supposition of an inward self-organizing life in matter. Atomic atheism +is by far the more important, if only because Hobbes, the great +antagonist whom Cudworth always has in view, is supposed to have held +it. It arises out of the combination of two principles, neither of which +is atheistic taken separately, i.e. atomism and corporealism, or the +doctrine that nothing exists but body. The example of Stoicism, as +Cudworth points out, shows that corporealism may be theistic. Into the +history of atomism Cudworth plunges with vast erudition. It is, in its +purely physical application, a theory that he fully accepts; he holds +that it was taught by Pythagoras, Empedocles, and in fact, nearly all +the ancient philosophers, and was only perverted to atheism by +Democritus. It was first invented, he believes, before the Trojan war, +by a Sidonian thinker named Moschus or Mochus, who is identical with the +Moses of the Old Testament. In dealing with atheism Cudworth's method is +to marshal the atheistic arguments elaborately, so elaborately that +Dryden remarked "he has raised such objections against the being of a +God and Providence that many think he has not answered them"; then in +his last chapter, which by itself is as long as an ordinary treatise, he +confutes them with all the reasons that his reading could supply. A +subordinate matter in the book that attracted much attention at the time +is the conception of the "Plastic Medium," which is a mere revival of +Plato's "World-Soul," and is meant to explain the existence and laws of +nature without referring all to the direct operation of God. It +occasioned a long-drawn controversy between Pierre Bayle and Le Clerc, +the former maintaining, the latter denying, that the Plastic Medium is +really favourable to atheism. + +No modern reader can endure to toil through the _Intellectual System_; +its only interest is the light it throws upon the state of religious +thought after the Restoration, when, as Birch puts it, "irreligion began +to lift up its head." It is immensely diffuse and pretentious, loaded +with digressions, its argument buried under masses of fantastic, +uncritical learning, the work of a vigorous but quite unoriginal mind. +As Bolingbroke said, Cudworth "read too much to think enough, and +admired too much to think freely." It is no calamity that natural +procrastination, or the clamour caused by his candid treatment of +atheism and by certain heretical tendencies detected by orthodox +criticism in his view of the Trinity, made Cudworth leave the work +unfinished. + +A much more favourable judgment must be given upon the short _Treatise +on eternal and immutable Morality_, which deserves to be read by those +who are interested in the historical development of British moral +philosophy. It is an answer to Hobbes's famous doctrine that moral +distinctions are created by the state, an answer from the standpoint of +Platonism. Just as knowledge contains a permanent intelligible element +over and above the flux of sense-impressions, so there exist eternal and +immutable ideas of morality. Cudworth's ideas, like Plato's, have "a +constant and never-failing entity of their own," such as we see in +geometrical figures; but, unlike Plato's, they exist in the mind of God, +whence they are communicated to finite understandings. Hence "it is +evident that wisdom, knowledge and understanding are eternal and +self-subsistent things, superior to matter and all sensible beings, and +independent upon them"; and so also are moral good and evil. At this +point Cudworth stops; he does not attempt to give any list of Moral +Ideas. It is, indeed, the cardinal weakness of this form of intuitionism +that no satisfactory list can be given and that no moral principles have +the "constant and never-failing entity," or the definiteness, of the +concepts of geometry. Henry More, in his _Enchiridion ethicum_, attempts +to enumerate the "_noemata moralia_"; but, so far from being +self-evident, most of his moral axioms are open to serious controversy. + + The _Intellectual System_ was translated into Latin by J. L. Mosheim + and furnished with notes and dissertations which were translated into + English in J. Harrison's edition (1845). Our chief biographical + authority is T. Birch's "Account," which appears in editions of the + _Works_. There is a good chapter on Cudworth in J. Tulloch's _Rational + Theology_, vol. ii. Consult also P. Janet's _Essai sur le mediateur + plastique_ (1860), W. R. Scott's _Introduction to Cudworth's + "Treatise,"_ and J. Martineau's _Types of Ethical Theory_, vol. ii. + (H. St.) + + + + +CUENCA, a city and the capital of the province of Azuay, Ecuador, about +190 m. S. of Quito and 70 m. S.E. of Guayaquil. Pop. (1908 estimate) +30,000 (largely Indians), including the suburb of Ejido. Cuenca stands +at the northern end of a broad valley, or basin, of the Andes, lying +between the transverse ridges of Azuay and Loja, and is about 8640 ft. +above sea-level. Near by is the hill of Tarqui which the French +astronomers chose for their meridian in 1742. Communication with the +coast is difficult. Cuenca is the third most important city of Ecuador, +being the seat of a bishopric, and having a college, a university +faculty, a cathedral, and several churches, and a considerable +industrial and commercial development. It manufactures sugar, woollen +goods and pottery, and exports Peruvian bark (cinchona), hats, cereals, +cheese, hides, &c. It was founded in 1557 on the site of a native town +called Tumibamba, and was made an episcopal see in 1786. + + + + +CUENCA, a province of central Spain bounded on the N. by Guadalajara, +N.E. by Teruel, E. by Valencia, S. by Albacete, S.W. by Ciudad Real, W. +by Toledo and N.W. by Madrid. Pop. (1900) 249,696; area, 6636 sq. m. +Cuenca occupies the eastern part of the ancient kingdom of New Castile, +and slopes from the Serrania de Cuenca (highest point the Cerro de San +Felipe, on the north-eastern border of the province, 5905 ft.), down +into the great southern Castilian plain watered by the upper streams of +the Guadiana. The lowlands bordering on Ciudad Real belong to the wide +plain of La Mancha (q.v.). The rocky and bare highland of Cuenca on the +north and east includes the upper valley of the Jucar and its tributary +streams, but in the north-west the province is watered by tributaries of +the Tagus. The forests are proverbial for their pine timber, and rival +those of Soria; considerable quantities of timber are floated down the +Tagus to Aranjuez and thence taken to Madrid for building purposes. +Excessive droughts prevail; the climate of the hills and of the high +plateaus is harsh and cold, but the valleys are excessively hot in +summer. The soil, where well watered, is fertile, but little attention +is paid to agriculture, and three-fourths of the area is left under +pasture. The rearing of cattle, asses, mules and sheep is the principal +employment of the people; olive oil, nuts, wine, wheat, silk, wax and +honey are the chief products. Iron, copper, alum, saltpetre, jasper and +agates are found, but in 1903 all the workings had been abandoned except +three salt mines; and there are few manufactures except the weaving of +coarse cloth. The roads are in such a backward condition that they +cripple not only the mining interests but also the exports of timber, +and at the beginning of the 20th century there was no railway except a +branch line which passed westwards from Aranjuez through Tarancon to +Cuenca, the capital (pop. 1900, 10,756). No other town has as many as +6000 inhabitants, and no other Spanish province is so thinly populated +as Cuenca. In 1900 there were only 37.6 inhabitants per sq. m. Education +is backward, and extreme poverty almost universal among the peasantry. +See also CASTILE. + + + + +CUENCA, the capital of the Spanish province of Cuenca; 125 m. by rail E. +by S. of Madrid. Pop. (1900) 10,756. Cuenca occupies a height of the +well-wooded Serrania de Cuenca, at an elevation of 2960 ft., overlooking +the confluence of the rivers Jucar and Huecar. A fine bridge, built in +1523, crosses the Jucar to the convent of San Pablo. Among several +interesting churches in the city, the most noteworthy is the +13th-century Gothic cathedral, celebrated for the beautiful carved +woodwork of its 16th-century doorway, and containing some admirable +examples of Spanish sculpture. The city has a considerable trade in +timber, and was long the headquarters of the provincial wool industry; +the loss of which, in modern times, has partly been compensated by the +development of soap, paper, chocolate, match and leather manufactures. +Cuenca was captured from the Moors by Alphonso VIII. of Castile in 1177, +and shortly afterwards became an episcopal see. In 1874 it offered a +prolonged and gallant resistance to the Carlist rebels. + + + + +CUESTA, a name of Spanish origin used in New Mexico for low ridges of +steep descent on one side and gentle slope on the other. It has been +proposed as a term for the land form which consists of the two elements +of a steep scarp or "strike" face, and an inclined plain or gentle "dip" +slope. + + + + +CUEVAS DE VERA, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of +Almeria; on the right bank of the river Almanzora, 8 m. W. of the +Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 20,562. Cuevas de Vera is built at the +eastern extremity of the Sierra de los Filabres (6823 ft.), which +isolate it from the railway system of Almeria. It is, however, the chief +market for the rich agricultural districts towards the south and for the +argentiferous lead and other mines among the mountains. In appearance it +is modern, with wide streets, two fine squares, and a parish church in +Doric style, dating from 1758. But in reality the town is of +considerable antiquity. One of the towers in the Moorish palace owned by +the marquesses of Villafranca is probably of Roman origin. + + + + +CUFF. (1) (Of uncertain origin), the lower edge of a sleeve turned back +to show an ornamental border, or with an addition of lace or trimming; +now used chiefly of the stiff bands of linen worn under the coat-sleeve +either loose or attached to the shirt. (2) Also uncertain in origin, but +with no connexion, probably, with (1), a blow with the hand either open +or closed, as opposed to the use of weapons. + + + + +CUIRASS (Fr. _cuirasse_, Lat. _coriaceus_, made of leather, from +_corium_, the original breastplate being of leather), the plate armour, +whether formed of a single piece of metal or other rigid material or +composed of two or more pieces, which covers the front of the wearer's +person. In a suit of armour, however, since this important piece was +generally worn in connexion with a corresponding defence for the back, +the term cuirass commonly is understood to imply the complete +body-armour, including both the breast and the back plates. Thus this +complete body-armour appears in the middle ages frequently to have been +described as a "pair of plates." The _corslet_ (Fr. _corselet_, +diminutive of the O. Fr. _cors_, body), a comparatively light cuirass, +is more strictly a breast-plate only. As parts of the military equipment +of classic antiquity, cuirasses and corslets of bronze, and at later +periods also of iron or some other rigid substance, were habitually in +use; but while some special kind of secondary protection for the breast +had been worn in earlier times by the men-at-arms in addition to their +mail hauberks and their "cotes" armed with splints and studs, it was not +till the 14th century that a regular body-defence of plate can be said +to have become an established component of medieval armour. As this +century continued to advance, the cuirass is found gradually to have +come into general use, in connexion with plate defences for the limbs, +until, at the close of the century, the long familiar interlinked +chain-mail is no longer visible in knightly figures, except in the +camail of the bassinet and at the edge of the hauberk. The prevailing, +and indeed almost the universal, usage throughout this century was that +the cuirass was worn covered. Thus, the globose form of the +breast-armour of the Black Prince, in his effigy in Canterbury +cathedral, 1376, intimates that a cuirass as well as a hauberk is to be +considered to have been covered by the royalty-emblazoned jupon of the +prince. The cuirass, thus worn in the 14th century, was always made of +sufficient length to rest on the hips; otherwise, if not thus supported, +it must have been suspended from the shoulders, in which case it would +have effectually interfered with the free and vigorous action of the +wearer. Early in the 15th century, the entire panoply of plate, +including the cuirass, began to be worn without any surcoat; but in the +concluding quarter of the century the short surcoat, with full short +sleeves, known as the tabard, was in general use over the armour. At the +same time that the disuse of the surcoat became general, small plates of +various forms and sizes (and not always made in pairs, the plate for the +right or sword-arm often being smaller and lighter than its companion), +were attached to the armour in front of the shoulders, to defend the +otherwise vulnerable points where the plate defences of the upper-arms +and the cuirass left a gap on each side. About the middle of the +century, instead of being formed of a single plate, the breast-plate of +the cuirass was made in two parts, the lower adjusted to overlap the +upper, and contrived by means of a strap or sliding rivet to give +flexibility to this defence. In the second half of the 15th century the +cuirass occasionally was superseded by the "brigandine jacket," a +defence formed of some textile fabric, generally of rich material, lined +throughout with overlapping scales (resembling the earlier "imbricated" +form) of metal, which were attached to the jacket by rivets, having +their heads, like studs, visible on the outside. In the 16th century, +when occasionally, and by personages of exalted rank, splendid surcoats +were worn over the armour, the cuirass--its breast-piece during the +first half of the century, globular in form--was constantly reinforced +by strong additional plates attached to it by rivets or screws. About +1550 the breast-piece of the cuirass was characterized by a vertical +central ridge, called the "tapul" having near its centre a projecting +point; this projection, somewhat later, was brought lower down, and +eventually the profile of the plate, the projection having been carried +to its base, assumed the singular form which led to this fashion of the +cuirass being distinguished as the "peascod cuirass." + +Corslets provided with both breast and back pieces were worn by +foot-soldiers in the 17th century, while their mounted comrades were +equipped in heavier and stronger cuirasses; and these defences continued +in use after the other pieces of armour, one by one, had gradually been +laid aside. Their use, however, never altogether ceased, and in modern +armies mounted cuirassiers, armed as in earlier days with breast and +back plates, have in some degree emulated the martial splendour of the +body-armour of the era of medieval chivalry. Some years after Waterloo +certain historical cuirasses were taken from their repose in the Tower +of London, and adapted for service by the Life Guards and the Horse +Guards. For parade purposes, the Prussian _Gardes du Corps_ and other +corps wear cuirasses of richly decorated leather. + + + + +CUIRASSIERS, a kind of heavy cavalry, originally developed out of the +men-at-arms or gendarmerie forming the heavy cavalry of feudal armies. +Their special characteristic was the wearing of full armour, which they +retained long after other troops had abandoned it. Hence they became +distinguished as cuirassiers. The first Austrian corps of _kyrissers_ +was formed in 1484 by the emperor Maximilian and was 100 strong. In 1705 +Austria possessed twenty regiments of cuirassiers. After the war of +1866, however, the existing regiments were converted into dragoons. +Russia has likewise in modern times abolished all but a few guard +regiments of cuirassiers. The Prussian cuirassiers were first so called +under Frederick William I., and in the wars of his successor Frederick +the Great they bore a conspicuous part. After the Seven Years' War they +ceased to wear the cuirass on service, but after 1814 these were +reintroduced, the spoils taken from the French cuirassiers being used to +equip the troops. The cuirass is now worn only on ceremonial parades. In +France the cuirassiers date from 1666, when a regiment, subsequently +numbered 8th of the line, was formed. During the first Empire many +regiments were created, until in 1812 there were fourteen. The number +was reduced after the fall of Napoleon, but in modern times it has been +again increased. The French regiments alone in Europe wear the cuirass +on all parades and at manoeuvres. + + + + +CUJAS (or CUJACIUS), JACQUES (or as he called himself, JACQUES DE CUJAS) +(1520-1590), French jurisconsult, was born at Toulouse, where his +father, whose name was Cujaus, was a fuller. Having taught himself Latin +and Greek, he studied law under Arnoul Ferrier, then professor at +Toulouse, and rapidly gained a great reputation as a lecturer on +Justinian. In 1554 he was appointed professor of law at Cahors, and +about a year after L'Hopital called him to Bourges. Duaren, however, who +also held a professorship at Bourges, stirred up the students against +the new professor, and such was the disorder produced in consequence +that Cujas was glad to yield to the storm, and accept an invitation he +had received to the university of Valence. Recalled to Bourges at the +death of Duaren in 1559, he remained there till 1567, when he returned +to Valence. There he gained a European reputation, and collected +students from all parts of the continent, among whom were Joseph +Scaliger and de Thou. In 1573 Charles IX. appointed Cujas counsellor to +the parlement of Grenoble, and in the following year a pension was +bestowed on him by Henry III. Margaret of Savoy induced him to remove to +Turin; but after a few months (1575) he once more took his old place at +Bourges. But the religious wars drove him thence. He was called by the +king to Paris, and permission was granted him by the parlement to +lecture on civil law in the university of the capital. A year after, +however, he finally took up his residence at Bourges, where he remained +till his death in 1590, in spite of a handsome offer made him by Gregory +XIII. in 1584 to attract him to Bologna. + +The life of Cujas was altogether that of a scholar and teacher. In the +religious wars which filled all the thoughts of his contemporaries he +steadily refused to take any part. _Nihil hoc ad edictum praetoris_, +"this has nothing to do with the edict of the praetor," was his usual +answer to those who spoke to him on the subject. His surpassing merit as +a jurisconsult consisted in the fact that he turned from the ignorant +commentators on Roman law to the Roman law itself. He consulted a very +large number of manuscripts, of which he had collected more than 500 in +his own library; but, unfortunately, he left orders in his will that his +library should be divided among a number of purchasers, and his +collection was thus scattered, and in great part lost. His emendations, +of which a large number were published under the title of +_Animadversiones et observationes_, were not confined to lawbooks, but +extended to many of the Latin and Greek classical authors. In +jurisprudence his study was far from being devoted solely to Justinian; +he recovered and gave to the world a part of the Theodosian Code, with +explanations; and he procured the manuscript of the _Basilica_, a Greek +abridgment of Justinian, afterwards published by Fabrot (see BASILICA). +He also composed a commentary on the _Consueludines Feudorum_, and on +some books of the Decretals. In the _Paratitla_, or summaries which he +made of the Digest, and particularly of the Code of Justinian, he +condensed into short axioms the elementary principles of law, and gave +definitions remarkable for their admirable clearness and precision. His +lessons, which he never dictated, were continuous discourses, for which +he made no other preparation than that of profound meditation on the +subjects to be discussed. He was impatient of interruption, and upon the +least noise he would instantly quit the chair and retire. He was +strongly attached to his pupils, and Scaliger affirms that he lost more +than 4000 livres by lending money to such of them as were in want. + + In his lifetime Cujas published an edition of his works (Neville, + 1577). It is beautiful and exact, but incomplete; it is now very + scarce. The edition of Colombet (1634) is also incomplete. Fabrot, + however, collected the whole in the edition which he published at + Paris (1658), in 10 vols. folio, and which was reprinted at Naples + (1722, 1727), in 11 vols. folio, and at Naples and at Venice (1758), + in 10 vols. folio, with an index forming an eleventh volume. In the + editions of Naples and Venice there are some additions not to be found + in that of Fabrot, particularly a general table, which will be found + very useful, and interpretations of all the Greek words used by Cujas. + + See Papire-Masson, _Vie de Cujas_ (Paris, 1590); Terrasson, _Histoire + de la jurisprudence romaine_, and _Melanges d'histoire, de + litterature, et de jurisprudence_; Bernardi, _Eloge de Cujas_ (Lyons, + 1775); Hugo, _Civilistisches Magazin_; Berriat Saint Prix, _Memoires + de Cujas_, appended to his _Histoire du droit romain; Biographie + universelle_; Gravina, _De ortu et progressu juris civilis_; + Spangenberg, _Cujacius und seine Zeitgenossen_ (Leipzig, 1882). + + + + +CULDEES, an ancient monastic order with settlements in Ireland and +Scotland. It was long fondly imagined by Protestant and especially by +Presbyterian writers that they had preserved primitive Christianity free +from Roman corruptions in one remote corner of western Europe, a view +enshrined in Thomas Campbell's _Reullura_: + + "Peace to their shades. The pure Culdees + Were Albyn's earliest priests of God, + Ere yet an island of her seas + By foot of Saxon monk was trod." + +Another view, promulgated like the above by Hector Boece in his Latin +history of Scotland (1516), makes them the direct successors in the 9th +to the 12th century of the organized Irish and Iona monasticism of the +6th to the 8th century. Both these views were disproved by William +Reeves (1815-1892), bishop of Down, Connor and Dromore. + +As found in the Irish MSS. the name is _Cele De_, i.e. God's comrade or +sworn ally. It was latinized as _Coli dei_, whence Boece's _culdei_. The +term seems, like the Latin _vir dei_, to have been applied generally to +monks and hermits. There are very few trustworthy ancient sources of +information, but it seems probable that the Rule of Chrodegang,[1] +archbishop of Metz (d. 766), was brought by Irish monks to their native +land from the monasteries of north-eastern Gaul, and that Irish +anchorites originally unfettered by the rules of the cloister bound +themselves by it. In the course of the 9th century we find mention of +nine places in Ireland (including Armagh, Clonmacnoise, Clones, Devenish +and Sligo) where communities of these Culdees were established as a kind +of annexe to the regular monastic institutions. They seem especially to +have had the care of the poor and the sick, and were interested in the +musical part of worship. Meanwhile in Scotland the Iona monks had been +expelled by the Pictish king Nechtan in 717, and the vacancies thus +caused were by no means filled by the Roman monks who thronged into the +north from Northumbria. Into the gap, towards the end of the 8th +century, came the Culdees from Ireland. The features of their life in +Scotland, which is the most important epoch in the history of the order, +seem to resemble closely those of the secular canons of England and the +continent. From the outset they were more or less isolated, and, having +no fixed forms or common head, tended to decay. In the 12th century the +Celtic Church was completely metamorphosed on the Roman pattern, and in +the process the Culdees also lost any distinctiveness they may formerly +have had, being brought, like the secular clergy, under canonical rule. +The pictures that we have of Culdee life in the 12th century vary +considerably. The chief houses in Scotland were at St Andrews, Dunkeld, +Lochleven, Monymusk in Aberdeenshire, Abernethy and Brechin. Each was an +independent establishment controlled entirely by its own abbot and +apparently divided into two sections, one priestly and the other lay and +even married. At St Andrews about the year 1100 there were thirteen +Culdees holding office by hereditary tenure and paying more regard to +their own prosperity and aggrandizement than to the services of the +church or the needs of the populace. A much-needed measure of reform, +inaugurated by Queen Margaret, was carried through by her sons Alexander +I. and David I.; gradually the whole position passed into the hands of +Turgot and his successors in the bishopric. Canons Regular were +instituted and some of the Culdees joined the new order. Those who +declined were allowed a life-rent of their revenues and lingered on as a +separate but ever-dwindling body till the beginning of the 14th century, +when, excluded from voting at the election of the bishop, they disappear +from history. At Dunkeld, Crinan, the grandfather of Malcolm Canmore, +was a lay abbot, and tradition says that even the clerical members were +married, though like the priests of the Eastern Church, they lived apart +from their wives during their term of sacerdotal service. The Culdees of +Lochleven lived on St Serf's Inch, which had been given them by a +Pictish prince, Brude, about 850. In 1093 they surrendered their island +to the bishop of St Andrews in return for perpetual food and clothing, +but Robert, who was bishop in 1144, handed over all their vestments, +books,[2] and other property, with the island, to the newly founded +Canons Regular, in which probably the Culdees were incorporated. There +is no trace of such partial independence as was experienced at St +Andrews itself, possibly because the bishop's grant was backed up by a +royal charter. In the same fashion the Culdees of Monymusk, originally +perhaps a colony from St Andrews, became Canons Regular of the +Augustinian order early in the 13th century, and those of Abernethy in +1273. At Brechin, famous like Abernethy for its round tower, the Culdee +prior and his monks helped to form the chapter of the diocese founded by +David I. in 1145, though the name persisted for a generation or two. +Similar absorptions no doubt account for the disappearance of the +Culdees of York, a name borne by the canons of St Peter's about 925, and +of Snowdon and Bardsey Island in north Wales mentioned by Giraldus +Cambrensis (c. 1190) in his _Speculum Ecclesiae_ and _Itinerarium_ +respectively. The former community was, he says, sorely oppressed by the +covetous Cistercians. These seem to be the only cases where the Culdees +are found in England and Wales. In Ireland the Culdees of Armagh endured +until the dissolution in 1541, and enjoyed a fleeting resurrection in +1627, soon after which their ancient property passed to the vicars +choral of the cathedral. + + See W. Reeves, _The Culdees of the British Islands_ (Dublin, 1864); W. + F. Skene, _Celtic Scotland_ (1876-1880), especially vol. ii.; W. + Beveridge, _Makers of the Scottish Church_ (1908). The older view will + be found in J. Jamieson's _Historical Account of the Ancient Culdees_ + (1811). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Devised originally for the clergy of Chrodegang's cathedral, it + was largely an adaptation of St Benedict's rule to secular clergy + living in common. In 816 it was confirmed, with certain + modifications, by the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle, and became the law + for collegiate and cathedral churches in the Frankish empire. See + CANON. + + [2] The list of these in the deed of transfer is the oldest Scottish + library catalogue. + + + + +CULEBRA, the smaller of two islands lying in the Virgin Passage +immediately E. of Porto Rico and known as the Islas de Passaje. It is +about 18 m. distant from Cape San Juan and rises from the same submerged +plateau with the larger islands of the Antilles. Its extreme dimensions +are 3 by 6 m., and its surface is low and comparatively uniform, which +gives the prevailing winds an unbroken sweep across it. For this reason +the rainfall is limited to a short season, and the population is +compelled to store rainwater in cisterns for drinking purposes. Its soil +is fertile, and cattle, poultry, vegetables and small fruits are +produced. The island has been a dependency of Porto Rico since 1879, +when its colonization was formally undertaken, and it is now described +as a ward of the Vieques district of the department of Humacao. In 1902 +the American naval authorities selected the Playa Sardinas harbour on +the S. side of Culebra as a rendezvous of the fleet and marine +encampments were located on shore. The strategic position of the island, +its healthiness and its continued use as a naval station have given it +considerable importance. Its population was 704 in 1899, which had +increased to nearly 1200 in 1903. + + + + +CULLEN, PAUL (1803-1878), cardinal and archbishop of Dublin, was born +near Ballytore, Co. Kildare, and educated first at the Quaker school at +Carlow and afterwards at Rome, where he joined the Urban College of the +Propaganda and, after passing a brilliant course, was ordained in 1829. +He then became vice-rector, and afterwards rector, of the Irish National +College in Rome; and during the Mazzini revolution of 1848 he was rector +of the Urban College, saving the property under the protection of the +American flag. In 1849, on the strong recommendation of Archbishop John +MacHale of Tuam, Cullen was nominated as successor to the primatial see +of Armagh; and, on his return to Ireland, presided as papal delegate at +the national council of Thurles in the August of 1850. Taking a strong +line on the educational question which was then agitating Ireland, he +took a leading part in the national movement of 1850-1852, and at first +supported the Tenant Rights League. In May 1852 he was translated to +Dublin, and soon a divergence of opinion broke out between him and the +more ardent Nationalists under Archbishop MacHale. When the Irish +university was started, with Newman, appointed by Cullen, at its head, +the scheme was wrecked by the personal opposition to the archbishop of +Dublin. As time went on, his distrust of the national movement grew +deeper; and in 1853 he sternly forbade his clergy to take part publicly +in politics, and for this he was denounced by the _Tablet_ newspaper. +His own political opinion had best be told in his own words. "For thirty +years I have studied the revolution on the continent, and for nearly +thirty years I have watched the Nationalist movement in Ireland. It is +tainted at its sources with the revolutionary spirit. If any attempt is +made to abridge the rights and liberties of the Catholic Church in +Ireland, it will not be by the English government nor by a 'No Popery' +cry in England, but by the revolutionary and irreligious Nationalists of +Ireland" (Purcell's _Life of Manning_, ii. 610). Cullen, therefore, +while an ardent patriot, was consistently an opponent of Fenianism. He +was made cardinal in 1866, being the first Irish cardinal. Energetic as +an administrator, churches and schools rose throughout his diocese; and +the excellent Mater Misericordiae Hospital and the seminary at Clonlife +are lasting memorials of his zeal. He took part in the Vatican Council +as an ardent infallibilist. In 1873 he was defendant in a libel action +brought against him by the Rev. R. O'Keeffe, parish priest of Callan, on +account of two sentences of ecclesiastical censure pronounced by the +cardinal as papal delegate. The damages were laid at L10,000. Three of +the four judges allowed the defence of the cardinal to be valid; but it +was held that the papal rescript upon which he relied for his +extraordinary powers as delegate was illegal under statute; and the lord +chief justice decided that the plaintiff could not renounce his natural +and civil liberty. After several days' trial, during which Cullen was +submitted to a very close examination, the verdict was given for the +plaintiff with 1/4d. damages. The cardinal died in Dublin on the 24th of +October 1878. (E. Tn.) + + + + +CULLEN, WILLIAM (1710-1790), Scottish physician and medical teacher, was +born at Hamilton, Lanarkshire, on the 15th of April 1710. He received +his early education at the grammar-school of Hamilton, and he appears to +have subsequently attended some classes at the university of Glasgow. He +began his medical career as apprentice to John Paisley, a Glasgow +surgeon, and after completing his apprenticeship he became surgeon to a +merchant vessel trading between London and the West Indies. On his +return to Scotland in 1732 he settled as a practitioner in the parish of +Shotts, Lanarkshire, and in 1734-1736 studied medicine at Edinburgh, +where he was one of the founders of the Royal Medical Society. In 1736 +he began to practise in Hamilton, where he rapidly acquired a high +reputation. From 1737 to 1740 William Hunter was his resident pupil, and +at one time they proposed to enter into partnership. In 1740 Cullen took +the degree of M.D. at Glasgow, whither he removed in 1744. During his +residence at Hamilton, besides the arduous duties of medical practice, +he found time to devote to the study of the natural sciences, and +especially of chemistry. On coming to Glasgow he appears to have begun +to lecture in connexion with the university, the medical school of which +was as yet imperfectly organized. Besides the subjects of theory and +practice of medicine, he lectured systematically on botany, materia +medica and chemistry. His great abilities, enthusiasm and power of +conveying instruction made him a successful and highly popular teacher, +and his classes increased largely in numbers. At the same time he +diligently pursued the practice of his profession. Chemistry was the +subject which at this time seems to have engaged the greatest share of +his attention. He was himself a diligent investigator and experimenter, +and he did much to encourage original research among his pupils, one of +whom was Dr Joseph Black. In 1751 he was appointed professor of +medicine, but continued to lecture on chemistry, and in 1756 he was +elected joint professor of chemistry at Edinburgh along with Andrew +Plummer, on whose death in the following year the sole appointment was +conferred on Cullen. This chair he held for ten years--his classes +always increasing in numbers. He also practised his profession as a +physician with eminent success. From 1757 he delivered lectures on +clinical medicine in the Royal Infirmary. This was a work for which his +experience, habits of observation, and scientific training peculiarly +fitted him, and in which his popularity as a teacher, no less than his +power as a practical physician, became more than ever conspicuous. On +the death of Charles Alston in 1760, Cullen at the request of the +students undertook to finish his course of lectures on materia medica; +he delivered an entirely new course, which were published in an +unauthorized edition in 1771, but which he re-wrote and issued as _A +Treatise on Materia Medica_ in 1789. + +On the death of Robert Whytt (1714-1766), the professor of the +institutes of medicine, Cullen accepted the chair, at the same time +resigning that of chemistry. In the same year he had been an +unsuccessful candidate for the professorship of the practice of physic, +but subsequently an arrangement was made between him and John Gregory, +who had gained the appointment, by which they agreed to deliver +alternate courses on the theory and practice of physic. This arrangement +proved eminently satisfactory, but it was brought to a close by the +sudden death of Gregory in 1773. Cullen was then appointed sole +professor of the practice of physic, and he continued in this office +till a few months before his death, which took place on the 5th of +February 1790. + +As a lecturer Cullen appears to have stood unrivalled in his day. His +clearness of statement and power of imparting interest to the most +abstruse topics were the conspicuous features of his teaching, and in +his various capacities as a scientific lecturer, a physiologist, and a +practical physician, he was ever surrounded with large and increasing +classes of intelligent pupils, to whom his eminently suggestive mode of +instruction was specially attractive. Living at the time he did, when +the doctrines of the humoral pathologists were carried to an extreme +extent, and witnessing the ravages which disease made on the solid +structures of the body, it was not surprising that he should oppose a +doctrine which appeared to him to lead to a false practice and to fatal +results, and adopt one which attributed more to the agency of the solids +and very little to that of the fluids of the body. His chief works were +_First Lines of the Practice of Physic_ (1774); _Institutions of +Medicine_ (1770); and _Synopsis Nosologicae Medicae_ (1785), which +contained his classification of diseases into four great classes--(1) +Pyrexiae, or febrile diseases, as typhus fever; (2) Neuroses, or nervous +diseases, as epilepsy; (3) Cachexiae, or diseases resulting from bad +habit of body, as scurvy; and (4) Locales, or local diseases, as cancer. + +Cullen's eldest son Robert became a Scottish judge in 1796 under the +title of Lord Cullen, and was known for his powers of mimicry. + + The first volume of an account of _Cullen's Life, Lectures and + Writings_ was published by Dr John Thomson in 1832, and was reissued + with the second volume (completing the work) by Drs W. Thomson and D. + Craigie in 1859. + + + + +CULLEN, a royal, municipal and police burgh of Banffshire, Scotland. +Pop. (1901) 1936. It is situated on Cullen Bay, 11(1/2) m. W. by N. of +Banff and 66(1/2) m. N.W. of Aberdeen by the Great North of Scotland +railway. Deskford Burn, after a course of 7(1/2) m., enters the sea at +Cullen, which it divides into two parts, Seatown, the older, and +Newtown, dating only from 1822. St Mary's, the parish church, a +cruciform structure, was founded by Robert Bruce, whose second wife died +at Cullen. The industries include rope and sail making, boat-building, +brewing and fishing. The harbour, constructed between 1817 and 1834, +though artificial, is one of the best on this coast. About 1 m. to the +S. is Cullen House, a seat of the earl of Seafield, which contains some +fine works of art. A mile and a half to the W. is the picturesque +fishing village of Port Knockie with a deep-sea harbour, built in 1891. +On the cliffs, 2 m. to the E., stand the ruins of Findlater Castle, +fortified in 1455. From 1638 to 1811, when the title expired, it gave +the title of earl to the Ogilvies, whose name was adopted in addition to +his own by Sir Lewis Alexander Grant, when he succeeded, as 5th earl of +Seafield, to the surviving dignities. Five miles to the E. of Cullen is +the thriving fishing town of Portsoy, with a small, safe harbour and a +station on the Great North of Scotland railway. Besides the fisheries +there is fish-curing and a distillery; and the quarrying of a +pink-coloured variety of granite and of Portsoy marble is carried on. +Good limestone is also found in the district. Pop. (1901) 2061. + + + + +CULLERA, a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of Valencia; on the +Mediterranean Sea, at the mouth of the river Jucar, and at the southern +terminus of the Valencia-Silla-Cullera railway. Pop. (1900) 11,947. +Cullera is a walled town, containing a ruined Moorish citadel, large +barracks, several churches and convents and a hospital. It occupies the +Jucar valley, south of the Sierra de Zorras, a low range of hills which +terminates eastward in Cape Cullera, a conspicuous headland surmounted +by a lighthouse. To the south and west extends a rich agricultural +district, noted for its rice. Besides farming and fishing, the +inhabitants carry on a coasting trade with various Mediterranean ports. +In 1903 the harbour was entered by 66 vessels of about 25,000 tons, +engaged in the exportation of grain, rice and fruit, and the importation +of guano. The town of Sueca (q.v.) is 4 m. W.N.W. by rail. + + + + +CULLINAN, a town of the Transvaal, 36 m. by rail E. by N. of Pretoria. +It grew up round the Premier diamond mine and dates from 1903, being +named after T. Cullinan, the purchaser of the ground on which the mine +is situated. Here was discovered in January 1905 a diamond--the largest +on record--weighing 3025(3/4) carats. This diamond was in 1907 presented +by the Transvaal government to Edward VII. and was subsequently cut into +two stones, one of 516(1/2) carats, the other of 309 carats, intended to +ornament the sceptre and crown of England. The "chippings" yielded +several smaller diamonds (see DIAMOND). + + + + +CULLODEN, a desolate tract of moorland, Inverness-shire, Scotland. It +forms part of the north-east of Drummossie Muir, and is situated about 6 +m. by road E. of Inverness, and 1/2 m. from Culloden Muir station on the +Highland railway from Aviemore to Inverness via Daviot. It is celebrated +as the scene of the battle of the 16th of April 1746 (see CUMBERLAND, +WILLIAM AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF, and MURRAY, LORD GEORGE), by which the fate +of the house of Stuart was decided. By Highlanders the battle is more +generally described as the battle of Drummossie. Memorial stones bearing +the names of the clans engaged in the conflict were erected in 1881 at +the head of each trench where the clansmen--about 1000 in number--were +buried. A monumental cairn, 20 ft. high, marks the chief scene of the +fight, and the Cumberland Stone, a huge boulder, indicates the spot +where the English commander took up his position. A mile to the north is +Culloden House, which belonged to Duncan Forbes, the president of the +Court of Session. The _Culloden Papers_, a number of historical +documents ranging from 1625 to 1748, were discovered in this mansion in +1812 and published in 1815 by Duncan George Forbes. On the death of the +10th laird, the collection of Jacobite relics and works of art was sold +by auction in 1897. About 1 m. to the south of the field, on the right +bank of the Nairn, is the plain of Clava, containing several stone +circles, monoliths, cairns and other prehistoric remains. The circles, +some apparently never completed, vary in circumference from 12 yds. to +140 yds. + + + + +CULM, in geology, the name applied to a peculiar local phase of the +Carboniferous system. In 1837 A. Sedgwick and R. I. Murchison classified +into two divisions the dark shales, grits and impure limestones which +occupy a large area in Devonshire and extend into the neighbouring +counties of Somerset and Cornwall. These two divisions were the Upper +and Lower Culm Measures, so named from certain impure coals, locally +called "culm,"[1] contained within the shales near Bideford. +Subsequently, these two geologists, when prosecuting their researches in +Germany and Austria, applied the same name to similar rocks which +contained, amongst others, _Posidonomya Becheri_, common to the phase of +sedimentation in both areas. + +The Culm measures of the Devonshire district are folded into a broad +syncline with its axis running east and west; but within this major fold +the rocks have been subjected to much compression accompanied by minor +folding. This circumstance, together with the apparent barrenness of the +strata, has always made a correct interpretation of their position and +relationships a matter of difficulty; and for long they were regarded as +an abnormal expression of the Lower Carboniferous, with the uppermost +beds as doubtful equivalents of the Millstone Grit of other parts of +Britain. The labours of W. A. E. Ussher and of G. J. Hinde and H. Fox +have resulted in the differentiation of the following subdivisions in +the Devonshire Culm:--(1) _Upper Culm Measures_ or Eggesford grits; (2) +_Middle Culm Measures_, comprising the Morchard, Tiverton and Ugbrooke +lithological types overlying the Exeter type; (3) _Lower Culm_, the +_Posidonomya_ limestone and shale overlying the Coddon Hill beds with +radiolaria. Ussher's subdivisions were introduced to satisfy the +exigencies of geological mapping, but, as he pointed out, while they are +necessary in some parts of the district and convenient in others, the +lithological characters upon which they are founded are variable and +inconstant. More recently E. A. N. Arber (1904-1907) clearly +demonstrated that no palaeontological subdivision of the Upper Culm +(Middle and Upper) is possible, and that these strata, on the evidence +of the fossil plants, represent the Middle Coal Measures of other parts +of the country. Wheelton Hind has called attention to the probability +that the _Posidonomya_ limestone and shale may represent the Pendleside +group of Lancashire, Derbyshire, &c. The Coddon Hill beds may belong to +this or to a lower horizon. Thus the English Culm measures comprise an +Upper Carboniferous and a Lower Carboniferous group, while in Germany, +Austria and elsewhere, as it is important to bear in mind, the Culm, or +"Kulm," stage is shown by its contained fossils to belong to the lower +division alone. + +The typical Carboniferous limestone of the Franco-Belgian area changes +as it is traced towards the east and south into the sandy, shaly Culm +phase, with the characteristic "Posidonia" (_Posidonomya_) schists. This +aspect of the Culm is found in Saxony, where there are workable coals, +in Bohemia, Thuringia, the Fichtelgebirge, the Harz, where the beds are +traversed by mineral veins, and in Moravia and Silesia. In the +last-mentioned region the thickness of the Culm formation has been +estimated by D. Stur at over 45,000 ft. In the east and south of the +Schiefergebirge (a general term for the slaty mountains of the Hundsruck +and Taunus range, the Westerwald and part of the Eifel district), the +Culm shales pass upwards into a coarser deposit, the "Culm-grauwacke," +which attains a considerable thickness and superficial extent. Culm +fossils appear in the Carnic Alps, in the Balkans and parts of Spain, +also in Spitzbergen and part of New Guinea. + +The most characteristic fossil is of course _Posidonomya Becheri_; +others are _Glyphioceras sphaericum_, _Rhodea patentissima_, +_Asterocalamites scrobiculatus_ (Schloth), _Lepidodendron +veltheimianum_, _Gastrioceras carbonarium_. + + See E. A. N. Arber, "On the Upper Carboniferous Rocks of West Devon + and North Cornwall," _Q.J.G.S._ lxiii. (1907), which contains a + bibliography of the English Culm; E. Holzapfel, _Palaont. Abhandl._ + Bd. v. Heft i. (1889); H. Potonie, _Abhandl. preuss. geol. + Landesanst._, Neue Folge, 36 (1901); D. Stur, "Die Culm Flora," + _Abhandl. k.k. geol. Reichsanst._ viii. (Vienna, 1875). + (J. A. H.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This word is possibly connected with _col_, coal; distinguish + "culm," the stem of a plant, Lat. _culmus_. + + + + +CULMINATION (from Lat. _culmen_, summit), the attainment of the highest +point. In astronomy the term is given to the passage of a heavenly body +over the meridian of a place. Two culminations take place in the course +of the day, one above and the other below the pole. The first is called +the upper, the second the lower. Either or both may occur below the +horizon and therefore be invisible. + + + + +CULPRIT, properly the prisoner at the bar, one accused of a crime; so +used, generally, of one guilty of an offence. In origin the word is a +combination of two Anglo-French legal words, _culpable_, guilty, and +_prit_ or _prist_, i.e. prest, Old French for pret, ready. On the +prisoner at the bar pleading "not guilty," the clerk of the crown +answered "culpable," and stated that he was ready (_prest_) to join +issue. The words _cul. prist_ (or _prit_) were then entered on the roll +as showing that issue had been joined. When French law terms were +discontinued the words were taken as forming one word addressed to the +prisoner. The formula "Culprit, how will you be tried?" in answer to a +plea of "not guilty," is first found in the trial for murder of the 7th +earl of Pembroke in 1678. + + + + +CULROSS (locally pronounced _Coo-rus_), a royal and police burgh, +Fifeshire, Scotland, 6(1/2) m. W. by S. of Dunfermline and 2(1/2) m. +from East Grange station on the North British railway company's line +from Dunfermline to Stirling. Pop. 348. Until 1890 it belonged to the +detached portion of Perthshire. Attractively situated on a hillside +sloping gently to the Forth, its placid old-world aspect is in keeping +with its great antiquity. Here St Serf carried on his missionary +labours, and founded a church and cemetery, and here he died and was +buried. For centuries the townsfolk used to celebrate his day (July 1st) +by walking in procession bearing green boughs. Kentigern, the apostle to +Cumbria and first bishop of Glasgow, was born at Culross, his mother +having been driven ashore during a tempest, and was adopted by St Serf +as his son. These religious associations, coupled with the fertility of +the soil, led to the founding of a Cistercian abbey in 1217. Of this +structure the only remains are the western tower and the choir, which, +greatly altered as well as repaired early in the 19th century, now forms +the parish church. It is supposed that a chapel of which some traces +exist in the east end of the town was dedicated to Kentigern. James VI. +made Culross a royal burgh in 1588. In 1808 there was discovered in the +abbey church, embalmed in a silver casket, still preserved there, +bearing his name and arms, the heart of Edward, Lord Bruce of Kinloss, +who was killed in August 1613 near Bergen-op-Zoom in a duel with Sir +Edward Sackville, afterwards earl of Dorset. Robert Pont (1524-1606), +the Reformer, was born at Shirresmiln, or Shiresmill, a hamlet in +Culross parish. Nearly all its old industries--the coal mines, salt +works, linen manufacture, and even the making of iron girdles for the +baking of scones--have dwindled, but its pleasant climate and +picturesqueness make it a holiday resort. Dunimarle Castle, a handsome +structure on the sea-shore, adjoins the site of the castle where, +according to tradition, Macbeth slew the wife and children of Macduff. +Culross belongs to the Stirling district group of parliamentary burghs. + + + + +CULTIVATOR,[1] also called SCUFFLER, SCARIFIER or GRUBBER, an +agricultural implement employed in breaking up land or in stirring it +after ploughing. The first all-iron cultivator, known as Finlayson's +grubber, was a large harrow with curved teeth carried on wheels, and was +brought out about 1820. It was designed to meet the need for some +implement of intermediate character between the plough and harrow, which +should stir the soil deeply and expeditiously without reversing it, and +bring the weeds unbroken to the surface. The chief modern improvement +has been the imparting of vibratory movement and hence greater stirring +capacity to the tines, either by making them of spring steel or by +fitting springs to the point of attachment of the tine to the framework +of the machine. In its modern form the implement consists of a framework +fitted with rows of curved stems or tines, which may be raised clear of +the ground or lowered into work by means of a lever, and differs from +the harrow in that it is provided with two wheels, which prevent the +tines from embedding themselves too deeply in the soil. The stems may be +fitted either with chisel-points or with broad shares, according as it +is required to merely stir the soil or to bring up weeds and clean the +surface. In the disk cultivator revolving disks take the place of tines. +The implement is usually provided with a seat for the driver and is +drawn by horses, but steam power is also commonly applied to it, the +speed of the operation in that case increasing its effectiveness. The +method is the same as that of steam-ploughing (see PLOUGH). + +[Illustration: Ransome's Spring Tine Cultivator.] + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] From Late Lat. _cultivare_, through _cultivus_, from _colere_, to + till, cultivate; whence _cultus_, worship, form of religion, cult. + + + + +CUMAE (Gr. [Greek: Kyme]), an ancient city of Campania, Italy, about 12 +m. W. of Neapolis, on the W. coast of Campania, on a volcanic eminence, +overlooking the plain traversed by the Volturno. + +There are many legends as to its foundation, but even the actual period +of its colonization by the Greeks is so early (ancient authorities give +it as 1050 B.C.) that there is some doubt as to who established it, +whether Chalcidians from Euboea or Aeolians from [Greek: Kyme] (Cyme), +and it should probably be regarded as a joint settlement. It was +certainly, as Strabo says, the oldest of the Greek colonies on the +mainland of Italy or in Sicily. Livy tells us (viii. 22) that the +settlers first landed on Pithecusae (Ischia) and thence transferred +their position to the mainland, which seems a probable story. We find it +in 721 B.C. founding Zancle (Messina) in Sicily jointly with Chalcis, +and it extended its power gradually over the coast of the Gulf of +Puteoli and the harbours of the promontory of Misenum. Puteoli itself +under the name Dicaearchia was probably founded by Cumae. In the 7th +century, according to the legends, Parthenope, whither the demos of +Cumae had taken refuge after an unsuccessful rising against the +aristocracy, was attacked by the latter and destroyed, but soon rebuilt +under the name of Neapolis (New City, the present Naples).[1] The most +fertile portion of the Campanian plain was also under its dominion; the +name "fossa Graeca" still lingered on in 205 B.C. to testify to its +ancient limits. Cumae was now at the height of its power, and many fine +coins testify to its prosperity. In 524 B.C. it was the object of a +joint attack by the Etruscans of Capua, the Daunians of the district of +Nola, and the Aurunci of the Mons Massicus. A brilliant victory was, +however, won in the hilly district outside the town, largely owing to +the bravery of Aristodemus, who then led a force to the relief of +Aricia, which was being attacked by the Etruscans, and, returning at the +head of his victorious army, overturned the aristocracy and made himself +tyrant, but was ultimately murdered by the aristocrats. These were +unable to repel a renewed Etruscan attack without the help of Hiero of +Syracuse, who in the battle of Cumae of 474 B.C. drove the Etruscan +fleet from the sea, and broke their power in Campania. + +The Samnites finally destroyed the Etruscan supremacy by the capture of +Capua in the latter half of the 5th century (see CAPUA; CAMPANIA), and +the Greeks of Cumae were overwhelmed by the same invasion, either in 420 +B.C. (Livy iv. 44) or in 421 (Diodor. Sic. xii. 76), if his statement is +drawn from Greek sources, 428 if it is to be dated by the Roman consuls +to whose year he ascribes it. This catastrophe brought to an end the +beautiful series of Greek coins from the town (B. V. Head, _Historia +Numorum_, p. 31), and Oscan became its language, though in many respects +the Greek character of the town survived (Strabo v. 4. 3, and the other +references given by R. S. Conway, Italic _Dialects_, p. 84). One or two +inscriptions in Oscan survive (id. ib. 88-92), one of which is a Iovila +or heraldic dedication. The date of the general disuse of Oscan in the +town appears to be fixed about 180 B.C. by the request (Livy xl. 44) +which the Cumaeans addressed to Rome that they might be allowed to use +Latin for public purposes. Cumae now ceased to have any independent +history. It came under the supremacy of Rome in 343 (or 340) as Capua +did, obtained the _civitas sine suffragio_ and was governed after 318 by +the _praefecti Capuam Cumas_. (R. S. C.) + +In the Hannibalic wars it remained faithful to Rome. It probably +acquired civic rights in the Social War and remained a _municipium_ +until Augustus established a colony here. Under the empire it is spoken +of as a quiet country town, in contrast to the gay and fashionable +Baiae, which, however, with the _lacus Avernus_ and _lacus Lucrinus_, +formed a part of its territory. Cicero's villa on the east bank of the +latter, for example, which he called the Academia, was also known as +Cumanum. In the Gothic wars the acropolis of Cumae was, except Naples, +the only fortified town in Campania, and it retained its military +importance until it was destroyed by the Neapolitans in 1205, since, +which time it has been deserted. + +The acropolis hill (269 ft. above sea-level), a mass of trachyte which +has broken through the surrounding tufa, lies hardly 100 yds. from the +low sandy shore. It is traversed by caves, which are at three different +levels with many branches. Some of them may belong to a remote date, +while others may be quarries, but they have not been thoroughly +investigated. They are famous in legend as the seat of the oracle of the +Cumaean Sibyl. + +The acropolis has only one approach, on the south-east; on all other +sides it falls away steeply. Remains of fortifications of all ages run +round the edge of the hill; some of the original Greek work, in finely +hewn rectangular tufa blocks, exists on the east. The medieval line +follows the ancient, except on the N.E., where it takes in a larger +area. + +Within the acropolis stood the temple of Apollo, erected, according to +tradition, by Daedalus himself, the remains of which, restored in Roman +times, were discovered in 1817, on the eastern and lower summit. On the +higher western summit stood another temple, excavated in 1792, but now +covered up again. This may be that of the Olympian Zeus (Liv. xxvii. +23). + +There are also various remains of buildings of the imperial period, and +these are far more frequent on the site of the lower town (now occupied +by vineyards) which lies below the acropolis to the south. The line of +the city walls can be traced both on the E. and on the W., though the +remains on the E. are insignificant, and on the W. (the seaward side) +only the scarping of the hill remains. To the S. of the town, just +outside the wall, is the amphitheatre. To the N. of it is the point +where the roads from Liternum (the Via Domitiana running along the sandy +coast), Capua (a branch of the Via Campana), Misenum and Puteoli meet. +The last passes through the Arco Felice, an arch of brick-faced concrete +63 ft. high which spans a cutting through the Monte Grillo, made by +Domitian to shorten the course of the road, which had hitherto run +farther north. The Grotto della Pace leads to the shores of Avernus. On +the E. side of Cumae are considerable remains of the Roman period, among +them those of the temple of Demeter, as restored by the family of the +Lucceii. + +The cemeteries of Cumae extended on all sides of the ancient city, +except towards the sea, but the most important lay on the north, between +this temple and the Lago di Licola. Excavations during the 19th century +in Greek, Samnite and Roman graves have produced many important objects, +now in the various museums of Europe, but especially at Naples. Recent +discoveries in this necropolis (including that of a circular archaic +tomb with a conical roof) have led to considerable discussion as to the +true date of the foundation of Cumae, and have made it clear that, in +any case, a pre-Hellenic indigenous settlement existed here--a result of +great importance. + + See J. Beloch, _Campanien_ (Breslau, 1890), 145 seq.; G. Pellegrini, + _Monumenti dei Lincei_, xiii. (1903); G. Patroni, _Atti del Congresso + di Scienze Storiche_ (1904), vol. v. p. 215 seq. (T. As.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Mommsen, however (Corpus Inscrip. Latin. x., Berlin, 1883, p. + 170), rightly throws considerable doubt on the existence of + Parthenope and even of Palaeopolis, of which there is some mention in + Roman annals; under both he is inclined to trace Cumae itself. + + + + +CUMANA, a city and port of Venezuela, capital of the state of Bermudez, +situated on the Manzanares river about 1 m. above its mouth, 52 ft. +above sea-level and 180 m. E. of Caracas. It is the oldest existing +European settlement on the South American continent, having been founded +by Diego Castellon in 1523 under the name of Nueva Toledo. The city was +almost totally destroyed by an earthquake in 1766, and again in 1797. +Slight shocks are very frequent, some of them severe enough to cause +considerable damage to the buildings. The mean annual temperature is 83 +deg. F. and the climate is enervating. In colonial times the city was +rich and prosperous and enjoyed a lucrative trade with the mother +country, its population at that time being estimated at 30,000, but much +of its prosperity has disappeared and its population is now estimated at +10,000. Excellent fruits are produced in its vicinity, and its exports +include cacao, coffee, sugar, hides, tobacco and sundry products in +small quantities. A tramway connects the city with its port at the mouth +of the Manzanares. + + + + +CUMBERLAND, DUKES AND EARLS OF. The earldom of Cumberland was held by +the family of Clifford (q.v.) from 1525 to 1643, when it became extinct +by the death of Henry, the 5th earl. The 1st earl of Cumberland was +Henry, 11th Lord Clifford (1493-1542), a son of Henry, 10th Lord +Clifford (c. 1454-1523). Created an earl by Henry VIII. in 1525, Henry +remained loyal during the great rising in the north of England in 1536, +and died on the 22nd of April 1542. His son and successor, Henry, the +2nd earl (c. 1517-1570), married Eleanor (d. 1547), a daughter of +Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, and Mary, daughter of King Henry VII.; +he had the tastes of a scholar rather than a soldier, and died early in +1570. By his first wife, Eleanor, he left an only daughter Margaret +(1540-1596), who married Henry Stanley, 4th earl of Derby, and who in +1557 was regarded by many as the rightful heiress to the English throne. +By his second wife he left two sons and a daughter; his elder son George +succeeding to the earldom in 1570, and his younger son Francis +succeeding his brother in 1605. George, 3rd earl of Cumberland +(1558-1605), was born on the 8th of August 1558, and married Margaret +(c. 1560-1616), daughter of his guardian, Francis, 2nd earl of Bedford. +Although interested in mathematics and geography he passed his early +years in dissipation and extravagance; then he took to the sea, +commanded the "Bonaventure" against the Spanish Armada, and from this +time until his death on the 30th of October 1605 was mainly engaged in +fitting out and leading plundering expeditions, some of which, +especially the one undertaken in 1589, gained a large amount of booty. +The earl left no sons, and his barony was claimed by his only daughter +Anne (1590-1676), the wife successively of Richard Sackville, 3rd earl +of Dorset, and of Philip Herbert, 4th earl of Pembroke and Montgomery; +while his earldom was inherited by his brother Francis (1559-1641). A +long law-suit between the new earl and the countess Anne over the +possession of the family estates was settled in 1617. The 5th earl was +Francis's only son Henry (1591-1643), who was born on the 28th of +February 1591, and was educated at Christ Church, Oxford. He was a +supporter of Charles I. during his two short wars with the Scots, and +also during the Civil War until his death on the 11th of December 1643. +He left no sons; his earldom became extinct; his new barony of Clifford, +created in 1628, passed to his daughter Elizabeth (1618-1691), wife of +Richard Boyle, earl of Cork and Burlington; and the Cumberland estates +to his cousin Anne, countess of Dorset and Pembroke. + +In 1644 the English title of duke of Cumberland was created in favour of +Rupert, son of Frederick V., elector palatine of the Rhine, and nephew +of Charles I. Having lapsed on Rupert's death without legitimate issue +in 1682, it was created again in 1689 to give an English title to +George, prince of Denmark, who had married the lady who afterwards +became Queen Anne. It again became extinct when George died in 1708, but +was revived in 1726 in favour of William Augustus, third son of George +II. As this duke was never married the title lapsed on his death in +1765, but was revived in the following year in favour of Henry Frederick +(1745-1790), son of Frederick, prince of Wales, and brother of George +III. Having again become extinct on Henry Frederick's death, the title +of duke of Cumberland was created for the fifth time in favour of Ernest +Augustus, who was made duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale in 1799. In +1837 Ernest (q.v.) became king of Hanover, and on his death in 1851 the +title descended with the kingdom of Hanover to his son King George V. +(q.v.), and on George's death in 1878 to his grandson Ernest Augustus +(b. 1845). In 1866 Hanover was annexed by Prussia, but King George died +without renouncing his rights. His son Ernest, while maintaining his +claim to the kingdom of Hanover, is generally known by his title of duke +of Cumberland. + + + + +CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1632-1718), English philosopher and bishop of +Peterborough, the son of a citizen of London, was born in the parish of +St Ann, near Aldersgate. He was educated in St Paul's school, and at +Magdalene College, Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship. He took +the degree of B.A. in 1653; and, having proceeded M.A. in 1656, was next +year incorporated to the same degree in the university of Oxford. For +some time he studied medicine; and although he did not adhere to this +profession, he retained his knowledge of anatomy and medicine. He took +the degree of B.D. in 1663 and that of D.D. in 1680. Among his +contemporaries and intimate friends were Dr Hezekiah Burton, Sir Samuel +Morland, who was distinguished as a mathematician, Sir Orlando +Bridgeman, who became keeper of the great seal, and Samuel Pepys. To +this academical connexion he appears to have been in a great measure +indebted for his advancement in the Church. When Bridgeman was appointed +lord keeper, he nominated Cumberland and Burton as his chaplains, nor +did he afterwards neglect the interest of either. Cumberland's first +preferment, bestowed upon him in 1658 by Sir John Norwich, was the +rectory of Brampton in Northamptonshire. In 1661 he was appointed one of +the twelve preachers of the university. The lord keeper, who obtained +his office in 1667, invited him to London, and soon afterwards bestowed +upon him the rectory of Allhallows at Stamford, where he acquired new +credit by the fidelity with which he discharged his duties. In addition +to his ordinary work he undertook the weekly lecture. This labour he +constantly performed, and in the meantime found leisure to prosecute his +scientific and philological studies. + +At the age of forty he published his earliest work, entitled _De legibus +naturae disquisitio philosophica, in qua earum forma, summa capita, +ordo, promulgatio, el obligatio e rerum natura investigantur; quin etiam +elementa philosophiae Hobbianae, cum moralis tum civilis, considerantur +et refutantur_ (London, 1672). It is dedicated to Sir Orlando Bridgeman, +and is prefaced by an "Alloquium ad Lectorem," contributed by Dr Burton. +It appeared during the same year as Pufendorf's _De jure naturae et +gentium_, and was highly commended in a subsequent publication by +Pufendorf, whose approbation must have had the effect of making it known +on the continent. Having thus established a solid reputation, Cumberland +next prepared a work on a very different subject--_An Essay towards the +Recovery of the Jewish Measures and Weights, comprehending their Monies; +by help of ancient standards, compared with ours of England: useful also +to state many of those of the Greeks and Romans, and the Eastern +Nations_ (London, 1686). This work, dedicated to Pepys, obtained a +copious notice from Leclerc, and was translated into French. + +About this period he was depressed by apprehensions respecting the +growth of Popery; but his fears were dispelled by the Revolution, which +brought along with it another material change in his circumstances. One +day in 1691 he went, according to his custom on a post-day, to read the +newspaper at a coffee-house in Stamford, and there, to his surprise, he +read that the king had nominated him to the bishopric of Peterborough. +The bishop elect was scarcely known at court, and he had resorted to +none of the usual methods of advancing his temporal interest. + + "Being then sixty years old," says his great-grandson, "he was with + difficulty persuaded to accept the offer, when it came to him from + authority. The persuasion of his friends, particularly Sir Orlando + Bridgeman, at length overcame his repugnance; and to that see, though + very moderately endowed, he for ever after devoted himself, and + resisted every offer of translation, though repeatedly made and + earnestly recommended. To such of his friends as pressed an exchange + upon him he was accustomed to reply, that Peterborough was his first + espoused, and should be his only one." + +He discharged his new duties with energy and kept up his episcopal +visitations till his eightieth year. His charges to the clergy are +described as plain and unambitious, the earnest breathings of a pious +mind. When Dr Wilkins (David Wilke) published the New Testament in +Coptic he presented a copy to the bishop, who began to study the +language at the age of eighty-three. "At this age," says his chaplain, +"he mastered the language, and went through great part of this version, +and would often give me excellent hints and remarks, as he proceeded in +reading of it." He died in 1718, in the eighty-seventh year of his age; +he was found sitting in his library, in the attitude of one asleep, and +with a book in his hand.[1] His great-grandson was Richard Cumberland, +the dramatist. + +Bishop Cumberland was distinguished by his gentleness and humility. He +could not be roused to anger, and spent his days in unbroken serenity. +The basis of his ethical theory is Benevolence, and is the natural +outcome of his temperament. He was a man of a sound understanding, +improved by extensive learning, and left behind him several monuments of +his talents and industry. His favourite motto was that a man had better +"wear out than rust out." + +The philosophy of Cumberland is expounded in the treatise _De legibus +naturae_. The merits of the work are almost confined to its speculative +theories; its style is destitute of strength and grace, and its +reasoning is diffuse and unmethodical. Its main design is to combat the +principles which Hobbes had promulgated as to the constitution of man, +the nature of morality, and the origin of society, and to prove that +self-advantage is not the chief end of man, that force is not the source +of personal obligation to moral conduct nor the foundation of social +rights, and that the state of nature is not a state of war. The views of +Hobbes seem to Cumberland utterly subversive of religion, morality and +civil society, and he endeavours, as a rule, to establish directly +antagonistic propositions. He refrains, however, from denunciation, and +is a fair opponent up to the measure of his insight. + +Laws of nature are defined by him as "immutably true propositions +regulative of voluntary actions as to the choice of good and the +avoidance of evil, and which carry with them an obligation to outward +acts of obedience, even apart from civil laws and from any +considerations of compacts constituting government." This definition, he +says, will be admitted by all parties. Some deny that such laws exist, +but they will grant that this is what ought to be understood by them. +There is thus common ground for the two opposing schools of moralists to +join issue. The question between them is, Do such laws exist or do they +not? In reasoning thus Cumberland obviously forgot what the position +maintained by his principal antagonist really was. Hobbes must have +refused to accept the definition proposed. He did not deny that there +were laws of nature, laws antecedent to government, laws even in a sense +eternal and immutable. The virtues as means to happiness seemed to him +to be such laws. They precede civil constitution, which merely perfects +the obligation to practise them. He expressly denied, however, that +"they carry with them an obligation to outward acts of obedience, even +apart from civil laws and from any consideration of compacts +constituting governments." And many besides Hobbes must have felt +dissatisfied with the definition. It is ambiguous and obscure. In what +sense is a law of nature a "proposition"? Is it as the expression of a +constant relation among facts, or is it as the expression of a divine +commandment? A proposition is never in itself an ultimate fact although +it may be the statement of such a fact. And in what sense is a law of +nature an "immutably true" proposition? Is it so because men always and +everywhere accept and act on it, or merely because they always and +everywhere ought to accept and act on it? The definition, in fact, +explains nothing. + +The existence of such laws may, according to Cumberland, be established +in two ways. The inquirer may start either from effects or from causes. +The former method had been taken by Grotius, Robert Sharrock (1630-1684) +and John Selden. They had sought to prove that there were universal +truths, entitled to be called laws of nature, from the concurrence of +the testimonies of many men, peoples and ages, and through generalizing +the operations of certain active principles. Cumberland admits this +method to be valid, but he prefers the other, that from causes to +effects, as showing more convincingly that the laws of nature carry with +them a divine obligation. It shows not only that these laws are +universal, but that they were intended as such; that man has been +constituted as he is in order that they might be. In the prosecution of +this method he expressly declines to have recourse to what he calls "the +short and easy expedient of the Platonists," the assumption of innate +ideas of the laws of nature. He thinks it ill-advised to build the +doctrines of natural religion and morality on a hypothesis which many +philosophers, both Gentile and Christian, had rejected, and which could +not be proved against Epicureans, the principal impugners of the +existence of laws of nature. He cannot assume, he says, that such ideas +existed from eternity in the divine mind, but must start from the data +of sense and experience, and thence by search into the nature of things +discover their laws. It is only through nature that we can rise to +nature's God. His attributes are not to be known by direct intuition. +He, therefore, held that the ground taken up by the Cambridge Platonists +could not be maintained against Hobbes. His sympathies, however, were +all on their side, and he would do nothing to diminish their chances of +success. He would not even oppose the doctrine of innate ideas, because +it looked with a friendly eye upon piety and morality. He granted that +it might, perhaps, be the case that ideas were _both_ born with us and +afterwards impressed upon us from without. + +Cumberland's ethical theory (see ETHICS) is summed up in his principle +of universal Benevolence, the one source of moral good. "No action can +be morally good which does not in its own nature contribute somewhat to +the happiness of men." The theory is important in comparison (1) with +that of Hobbes, and (2) with modern utilitarianism. + +1. Cumberland's Benevolence is, deliberately, the precise antithesis to +the Egoism of Hobbes. To this fact it owes its existence and also its +extravagance. Feeling that the most forcible method of attacking Hobbes +was to assert the opposite in the same form, he maintained that the +whole-hearted pursuit of the good of all contributes to the good of each +and brings personal happiness; that the opposite process involves misery +to individuals including the self. If, then, Hobbes went to the one +extreme of postulating selfishness as the sole motive of human action, +Cumberland was equally extravagant as regards Benevolence. The testimony +of history shows, _prima facie_ at least, that both motives have +operated throughout, and just as self-interest has been increasingly +modified by conscious benevolence, so benevolence alone does not explain +all personal virtue nor love to God. But it is essential to notice that +Cumberland never appealed to the evidence of history, although he +believed that the law of universal benevolence had been accepted by all +nations and generations; and he carefully abstains from arguments +founded on revelation, feeling that it was indispensable to establish +the principles of moral right on nature as a basis. His method was the +deduction of the propriety of certain actions from the consideration of +the character and position of rational agents in the universe. He argues +that all that we see in nature is framed so as to avoid and reject what +is dangerous to the integrity of its constitution; that the human race +would be an anomaly in the world had it not for end its conservation in +its best estate; that benevolence of all to all is what in a rational +view of the creation is alone accordant with its general plan; that +various peculiarities of man's body indicate that he has been made to +co-operate with his fellow men and to maintain society; and that certain +faculties of his mind show the common good to be more essentially +connected with his perfection than any pursuit of private advantage. The +whole course of his reasoning proceeds on, and is pervaded by, the +principle of final causes. + +2. To the question, What is the foundation of rectitude?, he replies, +the greatest good of the universe of rational beings. He may be regarded +as the founder of English utilitarianism, but his utilitarianism is +distinct from what is known as the selfish system; it goes to the +contrary extreme, by almost absorbing individual in universal good. Nor +does it look merely to the lower pleasures, the pleasures of sense, for +the constituents of good, but rises above them to include especially +what tends to perfect, strengthen and expand our true nature. Existence +and the extension of our powers of body and mind are held to be good for +their own sakes without respect to enjoyment. Cumberland's views on this +point were long abandoned by utilitarians as destroying the homogeneity +and self-consistency of their theory; but J. S. Mill and some recent +writers have reproduced them as necessary to its defence against charges +not less serious than even inconsistency. + +The answer which Cumberland gives to the question, Whence comes our +obligation to observe the laws of nature?, is that happiness flows from +obedience, and misery from disobedience to them, not as the mere results +of a blind necessity, but as the expressions of the divine will. Reward +and punishment, supplemented by future retribution, are, in his view, +the sanctions of the laws of nature, the sources of our obligation to +obey them. To the other great ethical question, How are moral +distinctions apprehended?, he replies that it is by means of right +reason. But by right reason he means merely the power of rising to +general laws of nature from particular facts of experience. It is no +peculiar faculty or distinctive function of mind; it involves no +original element of cognition; it begins with sense and experience; it +is gradually generated and wholly derivative. This doctrine lies only in +germ in Cumberland, but will be found in full flower in Hartley, +Mackintosh and later associationists. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Editions of the _De legibus naturae_ (Lubeck, 1683 and + 1694); English versions by John Maxwell, prebendary of Connor, _A + Treatise of the Laws of Nature_ (London, 1727), and John Towers + (Dublin, 1750); French translation by Jean Barbeyrac (Amsterdam, + 1744); James Tyrrell (1642-1718), grandson of Archbishop Ussher, + published an abridgment of Cumberland's views in _A Brief Disquisition + of the Laws of Nature according to the Principles laid down in the + Rev. Dr Cumberland's Latin Treatise_ (London, 1692; ed. 1701). For + biographical details see Squier Payne, _Account of the Life and + Writings of R. Cumberland_ (London, 1720); Cumberland's _Memoirs_ + (1807), i. 3-6; Pepys's _Diary_. For his philosophy, see E. Albee, + _Philosophical Review_, iv. 3 (1895), pp. 264 and 371; F. E. + Spaulding, _R. Cumberland als Begrunder der englischen Ethik_ + (Leipzig, 1894); and text-books on ethics. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The care of his posthumous publications devolved upon his + domestic chaplain and son-in-law, Squier Payne, who soon after the + bishop's death edited "_Sanchoniato's Phoenician History_, translated + from the first book of Eusebius, _De praeparatione evangelica_: with + a continuation of Sanchoniato's history of Eratosthenes Cyrenaeus's + Canon, which Dicaearchus connects with the first Olympiad. These + authors are illustrated with many historical and chronological + remarks, proving them to contain a series of Phoenician and Egyptian + chronology, from the first man to the first Olympiad, agreeable to + the Scripture accounts" (London, 1720). The preface contains an + account of the life, character and writings of the author, which was + likewise published in a separate form, and exhibits a pleasing + picture of his happy old age. A German translation appeared under the + title of _Cumberlands phonizische Historie des Sanchoniathons, + ubersetzt von Joh. Phil. Cassel_ (Magdeburg, 1755). The sequel to the + work was likewise published by Payne--_Origines gentium + antiquissimae; or Attempts for discovering the Times of the First + Planting of Nations: in several Tracts_ (London, 1724). + + + + +CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1732-1811), English dramatist, was born in the +master's lodge of Trinity College, Cambridge, on the 19th of February +1732. He was the great-grandson of the bishop of Peterborough; and his +father, Dr Denison Cumberland, became successively bishop of Clonfert +and of Kilmore. His mother was Joanna, the youngest daughter of the +great scholar Richard Bentley, and the heroine of John Byrom's once +popular little eclogue, _Colin and Phoebe_. Of the great master of +Trinity his grandson has left a kindly account; he afterwards collected +all the pamphlets bearing on the _Letters of Phalaris_ controversy, and +piously defended the reputation of his ancestor in his _Letter_ to +Bishop Lowth, who had called Bentley "aut caprimulgus aut fossor." +Cumberland was in his seventh year sent to the grammar-school at Bury St +Edmunds, and he relates how, on the head-master Arthur Kinsman +undertaking, in conversation with Bentley, to make the grandson as good +a scholar as the grandfather himself, the latter retorted: "Pshaw, +Arthur, how can that be, when I have forgot more than thou ever +knewest?" Bentley died during his grandson's Bury schooldays; and in +1744 the boy, who, while rising to the head of his school, had already +begun to "try his strength in several slight attempts towards the +drama," was removed to Westminster, then at the height of its reputation +under Dr Nicholls. Among his schoolfellows here were Warren Hastings, +George Colman (the elder), Lloyd, and (though he does not mention them +as such) Churchill and Cowper. From Westminster Cumberland passed, in +his fourteenth year, to Trinity College, Cambridge, where in 1750 he +took his degree as tenth wrangler. His account of his degree +examination, as well as that for a fellowship at his college, part of +which he underwent in the "judges' chamber," where he was born, is +curious; he was by virtue of an alteration in the statutes elected to +his fellowship in the second year of his degree. + +Meanwhile his projects of work as a classical scholar had been +interspersed with attempts at imitating Spenser--whom, by his mother's +advice, he "laid upon the shelf"--and a dramatic effort (unprinted) on +the model of Mason's _Elfrida_, called _Caractacus_. He had just begun +to read for his fellowship, when he was offered the post of private +secretary by the earl of Halifax, first lord of trade and plantations in +the duke of Newcastle's ministry. His family persuaded him to accept the +office, to which he returned after his election as fellow. It left him +abundant leisure for literary pursuits, which included the design of a +poem in blank verse on India. He resigned his Trinity fellowship on his +marriage--in 1759--to his cousin Elizabeth Ridge, to whom he had paid +his addresses on receiving through Lord Halifax "a small establishment +as crown-agent for Nova Scotia." In 1761 he accompanied his patron (who +had been appointed lord-lieutenant) to Ireland as Ulster secretary; and +in acknowledgment of his services was afterwards offered a baronetcy. By +declining this he thinks he gave offence; at all events, when in 1762 +Halifax became secretary of state, Cumberland in vain applied for the +post of under-secretary, and could only obtain the clerkship of reports +at the Board of Trade under Lord Hillsborough. While he takes some +credit to himself for his incorruptibility when in Ireland, he showed +zeal for his friend and secured a bishopric for his father. On the +accession to office of Lord George Germaine (Sackville) in 1775, +Cumberland was appointed secretary to the Board of Trade and +Plantations, which post he held till the abolition of that board in 1782 +by Burke's economical reform. Before this event he had, in 1780, been +sent on a confidential mission to Spain, to negotiate a separate treaty +of peace with that power; but though he was well received by King +Charles III. and his minister Floridablanca, the question of Gibraltar +proved a stumbling-block, and the Gordon riots at home a most untoward +occurrence. He was recalled in 1781, and was refused repayment of the +expenses he had incurred, towards which only L1000 had been advanced to +him. He thus found himself L4500 out of pocket: in vain, he says, "I +wearied the door of Lord North till his very servants drove me from it"; +his memorial remained unread or unnoticed either by the prime minister +or by secretary Robinson, through whom the original promise had been +made. Soon after this experience he lost his office, and had to retire +on a compensation allowance of less than half-pay. He now took up his +residence at Tunbridge Wells; but during his last years he mostly lived +in London, where he died on the 7th of May 1811. He was buried in +Westminster Abbey, a short oration being pronounced on this occasion by +his friend Dean Vincent. + +Cumberland's numerous literary productions are spread over the whole of +his long life; but it is only by his contributions to the drama, and +perhaps by his _Memoirs_, that he is likely to be remembered. The +collection of essays and other pieces entitled _The Observer_ (1785), +afterwards republished together with a translation of _The Clouds_, +found a place among _The British Essayists_. For the accounts given in +_The Observer_ of the Greek writers, especially the comic poets, +Cumberland availed himself of Bentley's MSS. and annotated books in his +possession; his translations from the Greek fragments, which are not +inelegant but lack closeness, are republished in James Bailey's +_Comicorum Graecorum_ (part i., 1840) and _Hermesianactis, Archilochi, +et Pratinae fragmenta_. Cumberland further produced _Anecdotes of +Eminent Painters in Spain_ (1782 and 1787); a _Catalogue of the King of +Spain's Paintings_ (1787); two novels--_Arundel_ (1789), a story in +letters, and _Henry_ (1795), a "diluted comedy" on the construction and +polishing of which he seems to have expended great care; a religious +epic, _Calvary, or the Death of Christ_ (1792); his last publication was +a poem entitled _Retrospection_. He is also supposed to have joined Sir +James Bland Burges in an epic, the _Exodiad_ (1807), and in _John de +Lancaster_, a novel. Besides these he wrote the _Letter to the Bishop of +O[xfor]d_ in vindication of Bentley (1767); another _to the Bishop of +Llandaff_ (Richard Watson) on his proposal for equalizing the revenues +of the Established Church (1783); a _Character of the late Lord +Sackville_ (1785), whom in his _Memoirs_ he vindicates from the stigma +of cowardice; and an anonymous pamphlet, _Curtius rescued from the +Gulf_, against the redoubtable Dr Parr. He was also the author of a +version of fifty of the Psalms of David; of a tract on the evidences of +Christianity; and of other religious exercises in prose and verse, the +former including "as many sermons as would make a large volume, some of +which have been delivered from the pulpits." Lastly, he edited, in 1809, +a short-lived critical journal called _The London Review_, intended to +be a rival to the _Quarterly_, with signed articles. + +Cumberland's _Memoirs_, which he began at the close of 1804, and +concluded in September 1805, were published in 1806, and a supplement +was added in 1807. This narrative, which includes a long account of his +Spanish mission, contains some interesting reminiscences of several +persons of note--more especially Bubb Dodington, Single-Speech Hamilton, +and Lord George Sackville among politicians, and of Garrick, Foote and +Goldsmith; but the accuracy of some of the anecdotes concerning the +last-named is not beyond suspicion. The book exhibits its author as an +amiable egotist, careful of his own reputation, given to prolixity and +undistinguished by wit, but a good observer of men and manners. The +uneasy self-absorption which Sheridan immortalized in the character of +Sir Fretful Plagiary in _The Critic_ is apparent enough in this +autobiography, but presents itself there in no offensive form. The +incidental criticisms of actors have been justly praised. + +Cumberland was hardly warranted in the conjecture that no English author +had yet equalled his list of dramas in point of number; but his plays, +published and unpublished, have been computed to amount to fifty-four. +About 35 of these are regular plays, to which have been added 4 operas +and a farce; and about half of the whole list are comedies. The best +known of them belong to what he was pleased to term "legitimate comedy," +and to that species of it known as "sentimental." The essential +characteristic of these plays is the combination of plots of domestic +interest with the rhetorical enforcement of moral precepts, and with +such small comic humour as the author possesses. These comedies are +primarily, to borrow Cumberland's own phraseology, designed as "attempts +upon the heart." He takes great credit to himself for weaving his plays +out of "homely stuff, right British drugget," and for eschewing "the +vile refuse of the Gallic stage"; on the other hand, he borrowed from +the sentimental fiction of his own country, including Richardson, +Fielding and Sterne. The favourite theme of his plays is virtue in +distress or danger, but safe of its reward in the fifth act; their most +constant characters are men of feeling and young ladies who are either +prudes or coquettes. Cumberland's comic power--such as it was--lay in +the invention of comic characters taken from the "outskirts of the +empire," and professedly intended to vindicate from English prejudice +the good elements in the Scotch, the Irish and the colonial character. +For the rest, patriotic sentiment liberally asserts itself by the side +of general morality. If Cumberland's dialogue lacks brilliance and his +characters reality, the construction of the plots is as a rule, skilful, +and the situations are contrived with what Cumberland indisputably +possessed--a thorough insight into the secrets of theatrical effect. It +should be added that, though Cumberland's sentimentality is often +wearisome, his morality is generally sound; that if he was without the +genius requisite for elevating the national drama, he did his best to +keep it pure and sweet; and that if he borrowed much, as he undoubtedly +did, it was not the vicious attractions of other dramatists of which he +was the plagiary. + +His debut as a dramatic author was made with a tragedy, _The Banishment +of Cicero_, published in 1761 after its rejection by Garrick; this was +followed in 1765 by a musical drama, _The Summer's Tale_, subsequently +compressed into an afterpiece _Amelia_ (1768). Cumberland first essayed +sentimental comedy in _The Brothers_ (1769). The theme of this comedy is +inspired by Fielding's _Tom Jones_; its comic characters are the jolly +old tar Captain Ironsides, and the henpecked husband Sir Benjamin Dove, +whose progress to self-assertion is genuinely comic, though not +altogether original. Horace Walpole said that it acted well, but read +ill, though he could distinguish in it "strokes of Mr Bentley." The +epilogue paid a compliment to Garrick, who helped the production of +Cumberland's second comedy _The West-Indian_ (1771). The hero of this +comedy, which probably owes much to the suggestion of Garrick, is a +young scapegrace fresh from the tropics, "with rum and sugar enough +belonging to him to make all the water in the Thames into punch,"--a +libertine with generous instincts, which in the end prevail. This early +example of the modern _drame_ was received with the utmost favour; it +was afterwards translated into German by Boden, and Goethe acted in it +at the Weimar court. _The Fashionable Lover_ (1772) is a sentimental +comedy of the most pronounced type. _The Choleric Man_ (1774), founded +on the _Adelphi_ of Terence, is of a similar type, the comic element +rather predominating, but philanthropy being duly represented by a +virtuous lawyer called Manlove. Among his later comedies may be +mentioned _The Natural Son_ (1785), in which Major O'Flaherty who had +already figured in _The West-Indian_, makes his reappearance; _The +Impostors_ (1789), a comedy of intrigue; _The Box Lobby Challenge_ +(1794), a protracted farce; _The Jew_ (1794), a serious play, highly +effective when the character of Sheva was played by the great German +actor Theodor Doring; _The Wheel of Fortune_ (1795), in which John +Kemble found a celebrated part in the misanthropist Penruddock, who +cannot forget but learns to forgive (a character declared by Kotzebue to +have been stolen from his _Menschenhass und Reue_), while the lawyer +Timothy Weasel was made comic by Richard Suett; _First Love_ (1795); +_The Last of the Family_ (1795); _False Impressions_ (1797); _The +Sailor's Daughter_ (1804); and a _Hint to Husbands_ (1806), which, +unlike the rest, is in blank verse. The other works printed during his +lifetime include _The Note of Hand_ (1774), a farce; the songs of his +musical comedy, _The Widow of Delphi_ (1780); his tragedies of _The +Battle of Hastings_ (1778); and _The Carmelite_ (1784), a romantic +domestic drama in blank verse, in the style of Home's _Douglas_, +furnishing some effective scenes for Mrs Siddons and John Kemble as +mother and son; and the domestic drama (in prose) of _The Mysterious +Husband_ (1783). His posthumously printed plays (published in 2 vols. in +1813) include the comedies of _The Walloons_ (acted in 1782); _The +Passive Husband_ (acted as _A Word for Nature_, 1798); _The Eccentric +Lover_ (acted 1798); and _Lovers' Resolutions_ (once acted in 1802); the +serious quasi-historic drama _Confession_; the drama _Don Pedro_ (acted +1796); and the tragedies of _Alcanor_ (acted as _The Arab_, 1785); +_Torrendal_; _The Sibyl, or The Elder Brutus_ (afterwards amalgamated +with other plays on the subject into a very successful tragedy for +Edmund Kean by Payne); _Tiberius in Capreae_; and _The False Demetrius_ +(on a theme which attracted Schiller). Cumberland translated the +_Clouds_ of Aristophanes (1797), and altered for the stage Shakespeare's +_Timon of Athens_ (1771), Massinger's _The Bondman_ and _The Duke of +Milan_ (both 1779). + + In 1806-1807 appeared _Memoirs of R. Cumberland, written by himself_. + Cumberland's novel, _Henry_, was printed in Ballantyne's Novelists' + Library (1821), with a prefatory notice of the author by Sir Walter + Scott. A so-called _Critical Examination_ of Cumberland's works and a + memoir of the author based oh his autobiography, with the addition of + some more or less feeble criticisms, by William Madford, appeared in + 1812. An excellent account of Cumberland is included in "George + Paston's" _Little Memoirs of the Eighteenth Century_ (1901). Hettner + well characterizes Cumberland's position in the history of the English + drama in _Litteraturgesch. d. 18. Jahrhunderts_ (2nd ed., 1865), i. + 520. Cumberland's portrait by Romney (whose talent he was one of the + first to encourage) is in the National Portrait Gallery. (A. W. W.) + + + + +CUMBERLAND, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1721-1765), son of King George +II. and Queen Caroline, was born on the 15th of April 1721, and when +five years of age was created duke of Cumberland. His education was well +attended to, and his courage and capacity in outdoor exercises were +notable from his early years. He was intended by the king and queen for +the office of lord high admiral, and in 1740 he sailed as a volunteer in +the fleet under the command of Sir John Norris; but he quickly became +dissatisfied with the navy, and early in 1742 he began a military +career. In December 1742 he was made a major-general, and in the +following year he first saw active service in Germany. George II. and +the "martial boy" shared in the glory of Dettingen (June 27), and +Cumberland, who was wounded in the action, displayed an energy and +valour, the report of which in England founded his military popularity. +After the battle he was made lieutenant-general. In 1745, having been +made captain-general of the British land forces at home and in the +field, the duke was again in Flanders as commander-in-chief of the +allied British, Hanoverian, Austrian and Dutch troops. Advancing to the +relief of Tournay, which was besieged by Marshal Saxe, he engaged that +great general in the battle of Fontenoy (q v.) on the 11th of May. It +cannot now be doubted that, had the duke been supported by the allies in +his marvellously courageous attack on the superior positions of the +French army, Fontenoy would not have been recorded as a defeat to the +British arms. He himself was in the midst of the heroic column which +penetrated the French centre, and his conduct of the inevitable retreat +was unusually cool and skilful. + +Notwithstanding the severity of his discipline, the young duke had the +power to inspire his men with a strong attachment to his person and a +very lively _esprit de corps_. As a general his courage and resolution +were not sufficiently tempered with sagacity and tact; but he displayed +an energy and power in military affairs which pointed him out to the +British people as the one commander upon whom they could rely to put a +decisive stop to the successful career of Prince Charles Edward in the +rebellion of 1745-1746. John (Earl) Ligonier wrote of him at this time: +"Ou je suis fort trompe ou il se forme la un grand capitaine." + +He was recalled from Flanders, and immediately proceeded with his +preparations for quelling the insurrection. He joined the midland army +under Sir John Ligonier, and was at once in pursuit of his swift-footed +foe. But the retreat of Charles Edward from Derby disconcerted his +plans; and it was not till they had reached Penrith, and the advanced +portion of his army had been repulsed on Clifton Moor, that he became +aware how hopeless an attempt to overtake the retreating Highlanders +would then be. Carlisle having been retaken, he retired to London, till +the news of the defeat of Hawley at Falkirk roused again the fears of +the English people, and centred the hopes of Britain on the royal duke. +He was appointed commander of the forces in Scotland. + +Having arrived in Edinburgh on the 30th of January 1746, he at once +proceeded in search of the young Pretender. He diverged, however, to +Aberdeen, where he employed his time in training the well-equipped +forces now under his command for the peculiar nature of the warfare in +which they were about to engage. What the old and experienced generals +of his time had failed to accomplish or even to understand, the young +duke of Cumberland, as yet only twenty-four years of age, effected with +simplicity and ease. He prepared to dispose his army so as to withstand +with firmness that onslaught on which all Highland successes depended; +and he reorganized the forces and restored their discipline and +self-confidence in a few weeks. + +On the 8th of April 1746 he set out from Aberdeen towards Inverness, and +on the 15th he fought the decisive battle of Culloden, in which, and in +the pursuit which followed, the forces of the Pretender were completely +destroyed. He had become convinced that the sternest measures were +needed to break down the Jacobitism of the Highlanders. He told his +troops to take notice that the enemy's orders were to give no quarter to +the "troops of the elector," and they took the hint. No trace of such +orders remains (see MURRAY, LORD GEORGE), and it is probable that +Cumberland had merely received word of wild talk in the enemy's camp, +which he credited the more easily as he thought that those who were +capable of rebellion were capable of any crime. On account of the +merciless severity with which the fugitives were treated, Cumberland +received the nickname of the "Butcher." That the implied taunt was +unjust need not be laboured. It was used for political purposes in +England, and his own brother, the prince of Wales, encouraged, it +appears, the virulent attacks which were made upon the duke. In any case +there is a marked similarity between Cumberland's conduct in Scotland +and that of Cromwell in Ireland. Both dared to do acts which they knew +would be cast against them for the rest of their lives, and terrorized +an obstinate and unyielding enemy into submission. How real was the +danger of a protracted guerrilla warfare in the Highlands may be judged +from the explicit declarations of Jacobite leaders that they intended to +continue the struggle. As it was, the war came to an end almost at once. +Here, as always, Cumberland preserved the strictest discipline in his +camp. He was inflexible in the execution of what he deemed to be his +duty, without favour to any man. At the same time he exercised his +influence in favour of clemency in special cases that were brought to +his notice. Some years later James Wolfe spoke of the duke as "for ever +doing noble and generous actions." + +The relief occasioned to Britain by the duke's victorious efforts was +acknowledged by his being voted an income of L40,000 per annum in +addition to his revenue as a prince of the royal house. The duke took no +part in the Flanders campaign of 1746, but in 1747 he again opposed the +still victorious Marshal Saxe; and received a heavy defeat at the battle +of Lauffeld, or Val, near Maestricht (2nd of July 1747). During the ten +years of peace Cumberland occupied himself chiefly with his duties as +captain-general, and the result of his work was clearly shown in the +conduct of the army in the Seven Years' War. His unpopularity, which had +steadily increased since Culloden, interfered greatly with his success +in politics, and when the death of the prince of Wales brought a minor +next in succession to the throne the duke was not able to secure for +himself the contingent regency, which was vested in the princess-dowager +of Wales. In 1757, the Seven Years' War having broken out, Cumberland +was placed at the head of a motley army of allies to defend Hanover. At +Hastenbeck, near Hameln, on the 26th of July 1757, he was defeated by +the superior forces of D'Estrees (see SEVEN YEARS' WAR). In September of +the same year his defeat had almost become disgrace. Driven from point +to point, and at last hemmed in by the French under Richelieu, he +capitulated at Klosterzeven on the 8th of the month, agreeing to disband +his army and to evacuate Hanover. His disgrace was completed on his +return to England by the king's refusal to be bound by the terms of the +duke's agreement. In chagrin and disappointment he retired into private +life, after having formally resigned the public offices he held. In his +retirement he made no attempt to justify his conduct, applying in his +own case the discipline he had enforced in others. For a few years he +lived quietly at Windsor, and subsequently in London, taking but little +part in politics. He did much, however, to displace the Bute ministry +and that of Grenville, and endeavoured to restore Pitt to office. Public +opinion had now set in his favour, and he became almost as popular as he +had been in his youth. Shortly before his death the duke was requested +to open negotiations with Pitt for a return to power. This was, however, +unsuccessful. On the 31st of October 1765 the duke died. + + A Life of the duke of Cumberland by Andrew Henderson was published in + 1766, and anonymous (Richard Rolt) _Historical Memoirs_ appeared in + 1767. See especially A. N. Campbell Maclachlan, _William Augustus, + Duke of Cumberland_ (1876). + + + + +CUMBERLAND, the north-westernmost county of England, bounded N. by the +Scottish counties of Dumfries and Roxburgh, E. by Northumberland, S. by +Westmorland and Lancashire, and W. by the Irish Sea. Its area is 1520.4 +sq m. In the south the county includes about one-half of the celebrated +LAKE DISTRICT (q.v.), with the highest mountain in England, Scafell Pike +(3210 ft.), and the majority of the principal lakes, among which are +Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite, Buttermere and Crummock Water, +Ennerdale, Wastwater, and, on the boundary with Westmorland, Ullswater. +From this district valleys radiate north, west and south to a flat +coastal belt, the widest part of which (about 8 m.) is found in the +north in the Solway Plain, bordering Solway Firth, which here intervenes +between England and Scotland. The valley of the Eden, opening upon this +plain from the south-east, separates the mountainous Lake District from +the straight westward face of a portion of the Pennine Chain (q.v.), +which, though little of it lies within this county, reaches its highest +point within it in Cross Fell (2930 ft.). A well-marked pass, called the +Tyne Gap, at the water-parting between the rivers Irthing and South +Tyne, traversed by the Newcastle & Carlisle railway, intervenes between +these hills and their northward continuation in the hills of the +Scottish border. Besides the waters of the Eden, Solway Firth receives +those of the Esk, which enter Cumberland from Scotland. Liddel Water, +joining this river from the north east from Liddisdale, forms a large +part of the boundary with Scotland. The Eden receives the Irthing from +the east, and from the Lake District the Caldew, rising beneath Skiddaw +and joining the main river at Carlisle, and the Eamont, draining +Ullswater and forming part of the boundary with Westmorland. The +principal streams flowing east and south from the Lake District are the +Derwent, from Borrowdale and Derwentwater, the Eden from Ennerdale, the +Esk from Eskdale, and the Duddon, forming the greater part of the +boundary with Lancashire. There are valuable salmon fisheries in the +Eden, and trout are taken in many of the streams and lakes. + + _Geology._--The mountainous portion of Cumberland is built up of two + different types of rock. The older, a sedimentary slaty series of + Ordovician age, the Skiddaw slates, surrounds Bassenthwaite, + Saddleback, Crummock Water, Keswick and Cockermouth and the western + end of Ennerdale Water. The same formation is found in the northern + flanks of Ullswater also north and east of Whitbeck. The other type of + rock is volcanic; it gives a more rugged aspect to the scenery, as may + be seen in comparing the rough outlines of Scafell and Honister Crags + or Helvellyn with the smoother form of Saddleback or Skiddaw. These + volcanic rocks, owing to much alteration, are often slaty; they have + been called the "green slates and porphyries" or the Borrowdale + Series. The Skiddaw slates are usually separated from the newer green + slates above them by a plane of differential movement, for both have + been thrust by earth-pressures from south to north, but the former + rocks have travelled farther than the latter which have lagged behind; + hence Messrs Marr and Harker describe the plane of separation as a + "lag-fault." Much general faulting and folding have resulted from the + movement; the thrusting took place in Devonian times. About the same + period great masses of granitic rock were intruded into the slates in + the form of laccolites, which often lie along the lag planes. Such + rocks are the granophyre hills of Buttermere and Ennerdale, the + microgranite patches on either side of the Vale of St John, and the + great mass of Eskdale granite which reaches from Wastwater to the + flanks of Black Combe. At Carrock Fell, N.E. of Skiddaw, is an + extremely interesting complex of volcanic rocks, and in many other + places are diabase and other forms, e.g. the well-known rock at Castle + Head, Keswick. + + From Pooley Bridge, Ullswater, on the east, by Udale round to Egremont + on the west, the mountainous region just described, is surrounded by + the Carboniferous Limestone series, with a conglomerate at the base. + Upon these rocks the coalfield of Whitehaven rests and extends as far + as Maryport. The coal seams are worked for some distance beneath the + sea. The vale of Eden between Penrith, Hornsby and Wreay is occupied + by Permian sandstone, usually bright red in colour. Red Triassic rocks + form a strip about 4 m. broad east of the Permian outcrop; a similar + strip forms a coastal fringe from St Bees Head to Duddon Sands. The + same formations are spread out round Carlisle, Brampton, Longtown, + Wigton and Aspatria. East of Carlisle they are covered by an outlier + of Lias. A great dislocation, the Pennine Fault, runs along the + eastern side of the vale of Eden; it throws up the Lower Carboniferous + limestones with their associated shales and sandstones to form the + elevated ground in the north and north-east of the county. Several + basic intrusions penetrate the limestone series, the best known being + the Whin Sill, which may be traced for a number of miles northward + from Crossfell. Evidences of glacial action are abundant; till with + sands and gravel lie on the lower ground; striated rocks and _roches + moutonnees_ are common; perched blocks are found on the plateau by + Sprinkling Tarn and elsewhere. Moraine mounds are quite numerous in + the valleys, and have frequently been the cause of small lakes. + +_Climate and Agriculture._--The climate is generally temperate, but in +the higher parts bleak, snow sometimes lying fully six months of the +year on Cross Fell and the mountains of the Lake District. As regards +rainfall, the physical configuration makes for contrast. At Carlisle, on +the Solway plain, the mean annual fall is 30.6 in. At Penrith, on the +north-eastern flank of the Lake District, it is 31.67; on the western +flank 42.3 in. are recorded at Ravenglass, close to the coast, and 51.78 +at Cockermouth, some miles inland. In the heart of the district, +however, the fall is as a rule much heavier, in fact, the heaviest +recorded in the British Isles (see LAKE DISTRICT). Somewhat less than +three-fifths of the total area of the county is under cultivation, the +proportion being higher than that of the neighbouring counties of +Northumberland and Westmorland, but still much below the average of the +English counties. Black peaty earth is the most prevalent soil in the +mountainous districts; but dry loams occur in the lowlands, and are well +adapted to green crops, grain and pasture. Wheat and barley are +practically neglected, but large crops of oats are grown. Turnips and +swedes form the bulk of the green crops. Hill pasture amounts to nearly +270,000 acres, and a good number of cattle are reared, but the principal +resource of the farmer is sheep-breeding. The sheep on the lowland farms +are generally of the Leicester class or cross-bred between the Leicester +and Herdwick, with a few Southdowns. Throughout the mountainous +districts the Herdwicks have taken the place of the smaller black-faced +heath variety of sheep once so commonly met with on the sheep farms. +They are peculiar to this part of England; the ewes and wethers and many +of the rams are polled, the faces and legs are speckled, and the wool is +finer and heavier in fleece than that of the heath breed. They +originally came from the neighbourhood of Muncaster in the Duddon and +Esk district, and tradition ascribes their origin variously to +introduction by Scandinavian settlers, or to parents that escaped from a +wrecked ship of the Spanish Armada. In general they belong to the +proprietors of the sheep-walks, and have been farmed out with them from +time immemorial, from which circumstance it is said they obtained the +name of "Herdwicks." Long after the Norman Conquest Cumberland remained +one of the most densely forested regions of England, and much of the +low-lying land is still well wooded, the Lake District in particular +displaying beautiful contrasts between bare mountain and tree-clad +valley. The oak, ash and birch are the principal natural trees, while +sycamores have been planted for shelter round many farmsteads. +Plantations of larch are also numerous, and the holly, yew, thorn and +juniper flourish locally. + +Landed property was formerly much divided in this county, and the +smaller holdings were generally occupied by their owners, who were known +as "statesmen," i.e. "estatesmen," a class of men long noted for their +sturdy independence and attachment to routine husbandry. Most of these +estates were held of the lords of manors under customary tenure, which +subjected them to the payments of fines and heriots on alienation as +well as on the death of the lord or tenant. According to the +_Agricultural Survey_ printed in 1794, about two-thirds of the county +was held by this tenure, in parcels worth from L15 to L30 rental. On +large estates, also, the farms were in general rather small, few then +reaching L200 a year, held on verbal contracts, or very short leases, +and burdened like the small estates with payments or services over and +above a money rent. In modern times these conditions have changed, the +"statesmen" gradually becoming extinct as a class, and many of the small +holdings falling into the hands of the larger landed proprietors. + +_Other Industries._--Carlisle is the seat of a variety of manufactures; +there are also in the county cotton and woollen industries, pencil mills +at Keswick, and iron shipbuilding yards at Whitehaven. But the mining +industry is the most important, coal being raised principally in the +district about Whitehaven, Workington and Maryport. Side by side with +this industry much iron ore is raised, and there is a large output of +pig-iron, and ore is also found in the south, in the neighbourhood of +Millom. Gypsum, zinc and some lead are mined. Copper was formerly worked +near Keswick, and there was a rich deposit of black lead at the head of +Borrowdale. Granite and limestone are extensively quarried. Stone is +very largely used even for housebuilding, a fine green slate being often +employed. Shap and other granites are worked for building and +roadstones. + +_Communications._--The chief ports of Cumberland are Whitehaven, +Workington, Maryport, Harrington and Silloth. The London & North-Western +railway enters the county near Penrith, and terminates at Carlisle, +which is also served by the Midland. The Caledonian, North British and +Glasgow & South-Western lines further serve this city, which is thus an +important junction in through communications between England and +Scotland. The North-Eastern railway connects Carlisle with Newcastle. +The Maryport & Carlisle, the Cockermouth, Keswick & Penrith, and the +Cleator & Workington Junction lines serve the districts indicated by +their names, while the Furness railway passes along the west coast from +the district of Furness in Lancashire as far north as Whitehaven, also +serving Cleator and Egremont. The Ravenglass & Eskdale light railway +gives access from this system to Boot in Eskdale. Coaches and motor cars +maintain passenger communications in the Lake District where the +railways do not penetrate. + +_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient and the +administrative county is 973,086 acres, with a population in 1891 of +266,549 and in 1901 of 266,933. The county contains five wards, +divisions which in this and neighbouring counties correspond to +hundreds, and also appear in Lanarkshire and Renfrewshire in Scotland. +The municipal boroughs are Carlisle (pop. 45,480), a city and the county +town, Whitehaven (19,324), and Workington (26,143). The other urban +districts are Arlecdon and Frizington (5341), Aspatria (2885), Cleator +Moor (8120), Cockermouth (5355), Egremont (5761), Harrington (3679), +Holme Cultram (4275), Keswick (4451), Maryport (11,897), Millom +(10,426), Penrith (9182), Wigton (3692). Of these all except Keswick, +Millom and Penrith are in the industrial district of the west and +north-west. The urban district of Holme Cultram includes the port of +Silloth. Among lesser towns may be mentioned St Bees (1236), on the +coast south of Whitehaven, until 1897 the seat of a Church of England +theological college. The grammar school here, founded in 1533, is +liberally endowed, with scholarships and exhibitions. Cumberland is in +the northern circuit, and assizes are held at Carlisle. It has one court +of quarter sessions and 12 petty sessional divisions. The city of +Carlisle has a separate commission of the peace and court of quarter +sessions. There are 213 civil parishes. Cumberland is in the diocese of +Carlisle, with a small portion in that of Newcastle. There are 167 +ecclesiastical parishes or districts within the county. There are four +parliamentary divisions, the Northern or Eskdale, Mid or Penrith, +Cockermouth and Western or Egremont, each returning one member; while +the parliamentary boroughs of Carlisle and Whitehaven each return one +member. + +_History._--After the withdrawal of the Romans (of whose occupation +there are various important relics in the county) little is known of the +region which is now Cumberland, until the great battle of Ardderyd in +573 resulted in its consolidation with the kingdom of Strathclyde. About +670-680 the western district between the Solway and the Mersey was +conquered by the Angles of Northumbria and remained an integral portion +of that kingdom until the Danish invasion of the 9th century. In 878 the +kingdom of the Cumbri is referred to, but without any indication of its +extent, and the first mention of Cumberland to denote a geographical +area occurs in 945 when it was ceded by Edmund to Malcolm of Scotland. +At this date it included the territory north and south of the Solway +from the Firth of Forth to the river Duddon. The Scottish supremacy was +not uninterrupted, for the district at the time of its invasion by +Ethelred in 1000 was once more a stronghold of the Danes, whose +influence is clearly traceable in the nomenclature of the Lake District. +At the time of the Norman invasion Cumberland was a dependency of the +earldom of Northumbria, but its history at this period is very obscure, +and no notice of it occurs in the Domesday Survey of 1086; Kirksanton, +Bootle and Whicham, however, are entered under the possessions of the +earl of Northumbria in the West Riding of Yorkshire. The real Norman +conquest of Cumberland took place in 1092, when William Rufus captured +Carlisle, repaired the city, built the castle, and after sending a +number of English husbandmen to till the land, placed the district under +the lordship of Ranulf Meschines. The fief of Ranulf was called the +Power or Honour of Carlisle, and a sheriff of Carlisle is mentioned in +1106. The district was again captured by the Scots in the reign of +Stephen, and on its recovery in 1157 the boundaries were readjusted to +include the great barony of Coupland. At this date the district was +described as the county of Carlisle, and the designation county of +Cumberland is not adopted in the sheriff's accounts until 1177. The five +present wards existed as administrative areas in 1278, when they were +termed bailiwicks, the designation ward not appearing until the 16th +century, though the bailiwicks of the Forest of Cumberland are termed +wards in the 14th century. In the 17th and 18th centuries each of the +five wards was under the administration of a chief constable. + +Owing to its position on the Border Cumberland was the scene of constant +warfare from the time of its foundation until the union of England and +Scotland, and families like the Tilliols, the Lucies, the Greystokes, +and the Dacres were famous for their exploits in checking or avenging +the depredations of the Scots. During the War of Independence in the +reign of Edward I. Carlisle was the headquarters of the English army. In +the Wars of the Roses the prevailing sympathy was with the Lancastrian +cause, which was actively supported by the representatives of the +families of Egremont, Dacre and Greystoke. In 1542 the Scottish army +under James V. suffered a disastrous defeat at Solway Moss. After the +union of the crowns of England and Scotland in 1603, the countries +hitherto known as "the Borders" were called "the Middle Shires," and a +period of comparative peace ensued. On the outbreak of the Civil War of +the 17th century the northern counties associated in raising forces for +the king, and the families of Howard, Dalston, Dacre and Musgrave +rendered valuable service to the royalist cause. In 1645 Carlisle was +captured by the parliamentary forces, but in April 1648 it was retaken +by Sir Philip Musgrave and Sir Thomas Glenham, and did not finally +surrender until the autumn of 1648. Cumberland continued, however, to +support the Stuarts; it was one of the first counties to welcome back +Charles II.; in 1715 it was associated with the rising on behalf of the +Pretender, and Carlisle was the chief seat of operations in the 1745 +rebellion. + +In 685 Carlisle and the surrounding district was annexed by Ecgfrith +king of Northumbria to the diocese of Lindisfarne, to which it continued +subject, at least until the Danish invasion of the 9th century. In 1133 +Henry I. created Carlisle (q.v.) a bishopric. The diocese included the +whole of modern Cumberland (except the barony of Coupland and the +parishes of Alston, Over-Denton and Kirkandrews), and also the barony of +Appleby in Westmorland. The archdeaconry of Carlisle, co-extensive with +the diocese, comprised four deaneries. Coupland was a deanery in the +archdeaconry of Richmond and diocese of York until 1541, when it was +annexed to the newly created diocese of Chester. In 1856 the area of the +diocese of Carlisle was extended, so as to include the whole of +Cumberland except the parish of Alston, the whole of Westmorland, and +the Furness district of Lancashire. In 1858 the deaneries were made to +number eighteen, and in 1870 were increased to twenty. + +The principal industries of Cumberland have been from earliest times +connected with its valuable fisheries and abundant mineral wealth. The +mines of Alston and the iron mines about Egremont were worked in the +12th century. The Keswick copper mines were worked in the reign of Henry +III., but the black-lead mine was not worked to any purpose until the +18th century. Coal-mining is referred to in the 15th century, and after +the revival of the mining industries in the 16th century, rose to great +importance. The saltpans about the estuaries of the Esk and the Eden +were a source of revenue in the 12th century. + +Cumberland returned three members for the county to the parliament of +1290, and in 1295 returned in addition two members for the city of +Carlisle and two members each for the boroughs of Cockermouth and +Egremont. The boroughs did not again return members until in 1640 +Cockermouth regained representation. Under the Reform Act of 1832, +Cumberland returned four members for two divisions, and Whitehaven +returned one member. The county now returns six members to parliament; +one each for the four divisions of the county, Egremont, Cockermouth, +Eskdale and Penrith, one for the city of Carlisle and one for the +borough of Whitehaven. + +_Antiquities._--Very early crosses, having Celtic or Scandinavian +characteristics, are seen at Gosforth, Bewcastle and elsewhere. In +ecclesiastical architecture Cumberland is not rich as a whole, but it +possesses Carlisle cathedral, with its beautiful choir, and certain +monastic remains of importance. Among these are the fine remnants of +Lanercost priory (see BRAMPTON). Calder Abbey, near Egremont, a +Cistercian abbey founded in 1134, has ruins of the church and cloisters, +of Norman and Early English character, and is very beautifully situated +on the Calder. The parish Church of St Bees, with good Norman and Early +English work, belonged to a Benedictine priory of 1120; but according to +tradition the first religious house here was a nunnery founded c. 650 by +St Bega, who became its abbess. Among the parish churches there are a +few instances of towers strongly fortified for purposes of defence; that +at Burgh-on-the-Sands, near Carlisle, being a good illustration. +Castles, in some cases ruined, in others modernized, are fairly +numerous, both near the Scottish border and elsewhere. Naworth Castle +near Brampton is the finest example; others are at Bewcastle, Carlisle, +Kirkoswald, Egremont, Cockermouth and Millom. Among many notable country +seats, Rose Castle, the palace of the bishops of Carlisle; Greystoke +Castle and Armathwaite Hall may be mentioned. + + See J. Nicolson and R. Burn, _History and Antiquities of the Counties + of Westmorland and Cumberland_ (London, 1777); W. Hutchinson, _History + of Cumberland_ (Carlisle, 1794); S. Jefferson, _History and + Antiquities of Cumberland_ (Carlisle, 1840-1842); S. Gilpin, _Songs + and Ballads of Cumberland_ (London, 1866); W. Dickinson, _Glossary of + Words and Phrases of Cumberland_ (London, English Dialect Society, + 1878, with a supplement, 1881); Sir G. F. Duckett, _Early Sheriffs of + Cumberland_ (Kendal, 1879); J. Denton, "Account of Estates and + Families in the County of Cumberland, 1066-1603," in _Antiquarian + Society's Transactions_ (1887); R. S. Ferguson, _History of + Cumberland_ (London, 1890); "Archaeological Survey of Cumberland," in + Archaeologia, vol. liii. (London, 1893); W. Jackson, _Papers and + Pedigrees relating to Cumberland_ (2 vols., London, 1892); T. Ellwood, + _The Landnama Book of Iceland as it illustrates the Dialect and + Antiquities of Cumberland_ (Kendal, 1894); _Victoria County History, + Cumberland_; and _Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland + Antiquarian and Archaeological Society_. + + + + +CUMBERLAND, a city and the county-seat of Allegany county, Maryland, +U.S.A., on the Potomac river, about 178 m. W. by N. of Baltimore and +about 153 m. S. by E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 12,729; (1900) 17,128, +of whom 1113 were foreign-born and 1100 were of negro descent; (1910) +21,839. Cumberland is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Western +Maryland, the Pennsylvania, the Cumberland & Pennsylvania (from +Cumberland to Piedmont, Virginia), and the George's Creek & Cumberland +railways, the last a short line extending to Lonaconing (19 m.); by an +electric line extending to Western Port, Maryland; and by the Chesapeake +& Ohio Canal, of which it is a terminus. The city is about 635 ft. above +sea-level, and from a distance appears to be completely shut in by lofty +ranges of hills, which are cut through to the westward by a deep gorge +called "The Narrows," making a natural gateway of great beauty. +Cumberland has a large trade in coal, which is mined in the vicinity. As +a manufacturing centre it ranked in 1905 second in the state, the chief +products being iron, steel, bricks, flour, cement, silk and leather; +there is also a large dyeing and cleaning establishment. The value of +the city's factory products increased from $2,900,267 in 1900 to +$4,595,023 in 1905, or 58.4%. Cumberland is an important jobbing centre +also. The municipality owns and operates its water-works and electric +lighting plant. The first settlement of the place was made in 1750; in +1754 Fort Cumberland was erected within what are now the city limits, +and in the year following this fort was occupied by General Edward +Braddock. Cumberland was laid out in 1763, but there was little growth +until 1787, and it was not incorporated as a town until 1815; it was +chartered as a city in 1850. + + + + +CUMBERLAND, a township of Providence county, Rhode Island, U.S.A., in +the N.E. part of the state, about 6 m. N. of Providence and having the +Blackstone river for most of its W. boundary. Pop. (1890) 8090; (1900) +8925, of whom 3473 were foreign-born; (1910) 10,107; area, 27.5 sq. m. +It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway. Within its +borders are the villages of Cumberland Hill, Diamond Hill, Arnold Mills, +Abbott Run, Berkeley, Robin Hollow, Happy Hollow, East Cumberland, and +parts of Manville, Ashton, Lonsdale and Valley Falls. The surface of the +township is generally hilly and rocky. In the N. part is a valuable +granite quarry; and limestone, and some coal, iron and gold are also +found. Cumberland has been called the "mineral pocket of New England." +The Blackstone and its tributaries provide considerable water power; and +there are various manufactures, including cotton goods, silk goods, and +horse-shoes and other iron ware. The value of the township's factory +product in 1905 was $3,171,318, an increase of 80.6% since 1900, this +ratio of increase being greater than that shown by any other +"municipality" in the state having a population in 1900 of 8000 or more. +At Lonsdale, William Blackstone (c. 1595-1675), the first permanent +white settler within the present limits of Rhode Island, built his +residence, "Study Hall," about 1635. Cumberland was originally a part of +Rehoboth, and then of Attleborough, Massachusetts, and for many years +was called, like other sparse settlements, the Gore, or Attleborough +Gore. In 1747, by the royal decree establishing the boundary between +Massachusetts and Rhode Island, Attleborough Gore, with other territory +formerly under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, was annexed to Rhode +Island, and the township of Cumberland was incorporated, the name being +adopted in honour of William Augustus, duke of Cumberland. In 1867 a +part of Cumberland was set off to form the township of Woonsocket. + + + + +CUMBERLAND MOUNTAINS (or more correctly the Cumberland Plateau or +Highlands), the westernmost of the three great divisions of the +Appalachian uplift in the United States, composed of many small ranges +of mountains (of which Cumberland Mountain in eastern Kentucky is one). +It extends from Pennsylvania to Alabama, attaining its greatest height +(about 4000 ft.) in Virginia. The plateau is rich in a variety of +mineral products, of which special mention may be made of coal, which +occurs in many places, and of the beautiful marbles quarried in that +portion of the plateau which lies between Virginia and Kentucky and +crosses Tennessee. The plateau has an abrupt descent, almost an +escarpment, into the great Appalachian Valley on its E., while the W. +slope is deeply and roughly broken. The whole mass is eroded in Virginia +into a maze of ridges. Cumberland Mountain parts the waters of the +Cumberland and Tennessee rivers. This range and the other ranges about +it are perhaps the loveliest portion of the whole plateau. The peaks +here and in the Blue Ridge to the E. are the highest of the Appalachian +system. Forest-filled valleys, rounded hills and rugged gorges afford in +every part scenery of surpassing beauty. The Cumberland Valley between +the Cumberland range and the Pine range is one of special fame. In the +former range there are immense caverns and subterranean streams. +Cumberland Gap, crossing the ridge at about 167 ft. above the sea, where +Kentucky, Virginia and Tennessee meet, is a gorge about 500 ft. deep, +with steep sides that barely give room in places for a roadway. The +mountains, river and gap were all discovered by a party of Virginians in +1748, and named in honour of the victor of Culloden, William, duke of +Cumberland. Afterwards the gap gained a place in American history as one +of the main pathways by which emigrants crossed the mountains to +Kentucky and Tennessee. During the Civil War it was a position of great +strategic importance, as it afforded an entrance to eastern and central +Tennessee from Kentucky, which was held by the Union arms; and it was +repeatedly occupied in alternation by the opposing forces. + +The mountaineers of Kentucky and Tennessee are a strange stock, who +retain in their customs and habits the primitive conditions of a life +that has elsewhere long since disappeared. They have been pictured in +the novels of Miss Murfree and John Fox, Junr. They are a tall, +straight, angular folk, of fine physical development; the volunteers for +the Union army from Kentucky and Tennessee during the Civil War--most of +whom came from the non-slave-holding mountain region--exceeded in +physical development the volunteers from all other states. For the +education of these mountaineers Major-General Oliver Otis Howard founded +in 1895 at Cumberland Gap, Tennessee, the Lincoln Memorial University +(co-educational; non-sectarian; opened in 1897), which has collegiate, +normal training and industrial courses, and an affiliated school of +medicine, Tennessee Medical College, at Knoxville. The university had in +1907-1908 14 instructors and 570 students. Berea College in Kentucky was +a pioneer institution for the education of mountaineers. + + + + +CUMBERLAND RIVER, a large southern branch of the Ohio river, U.S.A., +rising in the highest part of the Cumberland plateau in south-east +Kentucky, and emptying into the Ohio in Kentucky (near Smithland) after +a devious course of 688 m. through that state and Tennessee. It drains a +basin of somewhat more than 18,000 sq. m., and is navigable for +light-draught steamers through about 500 m. under favourable +conditions--Burnside, Pulaski county, 518 m. from the mouth, is the head +of navigation--and through 193 m.--to Nashville--all the year round; for +boats drawing not more than 3 ft. the river is navigable to Nashville +for 6 to 8 months. At the Great Falls, in Whitley county, Kentucky, it +drops precipitously 63 ft. Above the falls it is a mountain stream, of +little volume in the dry months. It descends rapidly at its head to the +highland bench below the mountains and traverses this to the falls, then +flows in rapids (the Great Shoals) for some 10 m. through a fine gorge +with cliffs 300-400 ft. high, and descends between bluffs of decreasing +height and beauty into its lower level. Save in the mountains its +gradient is slight, and below the falls, except for a number of small +rapids, the flow of the stream is equable. Timbered ravines lend charm +to much of its shores, and in the mountains the scenery is most +beautiful. Below Nashville the stream is some 400 to 500 ft. wide, and +its high banks are for the most part of alluvium, with rocky bluffs at +intervals. At the mouth of the river lies Cumberland Island, in the +Ohio. During low water of the latter stream the Cumberland discharges +around both ends of the island, but in high water of the Ohio the +gradient of the Cumberland is so slight that its waters are held back, +forming a deep quiet pool that extends some 20 m. up the river. A system +of locks and dams below Nashville was planned in 1846 by a private +company, which accomplished practically nothing. Congress appropriated +$155,000 in 1832-1838; in the years immediately after 1888 $305,000 was +expended, notably for deepening the shoals at the junction of the +Cumberland and the Ohio; in 1892 a project was undertaken for 7 locks +and dams 52 ft. wide and 280 ft. long below Nashville. Above Nashville +$346,000 was expended on the open channel project (of 1871-1872) from +Nashville to Cumberland Ford (at Pineville); in 1886 a canalization +project was undertaken and 22 locks and dams below Burnside and 6 above +Burnside were planned, but by the act of 1907 the project was +modified--$2,319,000 had been appropriated up to 1908 for the work of +canalization. During the Civil War Fort Donelson on the Cumberland, and +Fort Henry near by on the Tennessee were erected by the Confederates, +and their capture by Flag-officer A. H. Foote and General Grant (Feb. +1862) was one of the decisive events of the war, opening the rivers as +it did for the advance of the Union forces far into Confederate +Territory. + + + + +CUMBRAES, THE, two islands forming part of the county of Bute, Scotland, +lying in the Firth of Clyde, between the southern shores of Bute and the +coast of Ayrshire. GREAT CUMBRAE ISLAND, about 1(1/2) m. W.S.W. of +Largs, is 3(3/4) m. long and 2 m. broad, and has a circumference of 10 +m. and an area of 3200 acres or 5 sq. m. Its highest point is 417 ft. +above the sea. There is some fishing and a little farming, but the +mainstay of the inhabitants is the custom of the visitors who crowd +every summer to Millport, which is reached by railway steamer from +Largs. This town (pop. 1901, 1663) is well situated at the head of a +fine bay and has a climate that is both warm and bracing. Its chief +public buildings include the cathedral, erected in Gothic style on +rising ground behind the town, the college connected with it, the +garrison, a picturesque seat belonging to the marquess of Bute, who owns +the island, the town hall, a public hall, library and reading room, the +Lady Margaret fever hospital, and a marine biological station. The +cathedral, originally the collegiate church, was founded in 1849 by the +earl of Glasgow and opened in 1851. In 1876 it was constituted the +cathedral of Argyll and the Isles. Millport enjoys exceptional +facilities for boating and bathing, and there is also a good +golf-course. Pop. (1901) 1754, of whom 1028 were females, and 59 spoke +both English and Gaelic. LITTLE CUMBRAE ISLAND lies to the south, +separated by the Tan, a strait half a mile wide. It is 1(3/4) m. long, +barely 1 m. broad, and has an area of almost a square mile. Its highest +point is 409 ft. above sea-level. On the bold cliffs of the west coast +stands a lighthouse. Robert II. is said to have built a castle on the +island which was demolished by Cromwell's soldiers in 1653. + + The strata met with in the Great and Little Cumbrae belong to the + Upper Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous systems. The former, + consisting of false-bedded sandstones and conglomerates, are confined + to the larger island. The Carboniferous rocks of the Cumbrae belong to + the lower part of the Calciferous Sandstone series with the + accompanying volcanic zone. In the larger island these sediments, + comprising sandstones, red, purple and mottled clays with occasional + bands of nodular limestone or cornstone, occupy a considerable area on + the north side of Millport Bay. In the Little Cumbrae they appear on + the east side, where they underlie and are interbedded with the lavas. + The interesting geological feature of these islands is the development + of Lower Carboniferous volcanic rocks. They cover nearly the whole of + the Little Cumbrae, where they give rise to marked terraced features + and are arranged in a gentle synclinal fold. The flows are often + scoriaceous at the top and sometimes display columnar structure, as in + the crags at the lighthouse. Those rocks examined microscopically + consist of basalts which are often porphyritic. In Great Cumbrae the + intrusive rocks mark four periods of eruption, three of which may be + of Carboniferous age. The oldest, consisting of trachytes, occur as + sheets and dikes trending generally E.N.E., and are confined chiefly + to the Upper Old Red Sandstone. They seem to be of older date than the + Carboniferous lavas of Little Cumbrae and south Bute. Next come dikes + of olivine basalt of the type of the Lion's Haunch on Arthur's Seat, + which, though possessing the same general trend as the trachytes, are + seen to cut them. The members of the third group comprise dikes of + dolerite or basalt with or without olivine, which have a general east + and west trend, and as they intersect the two previous groups they + must be of later date. They probably belong to the east and west + quartz dolerite dikes which are now referred to late Carboniferous + time. Lastly there are representatives of the basalt dikes of Tertiary + age with a north-west trend. + + + + +CUMIN, or CUMMIN (_Cuminum Cyminum_), an annual herbaceous plant, a +member of the natural order Umbelliferae and probably a native of some +part of western Asia, but scarcely known at the present time in a wild +state. It was early cultivated in Arabia, India and China, and in the +countries bordering the Mediterranean. Its stem is slender and +branching, and about a foot in height; the leaves are deeply cut, with +filiform segments; the flowers are small and white. The fruits, the +so-called seeds, which constitute the cumin of pharmacy, are fusiform or +ovoid in shape and compressed laterally; they are two lines long, are +hotter to the taste, lighter in colour, and larger than caraway seeds, +and have on each half nine fine ridges, overlying as many oil-channels +or vittae. Their strong aromatic smell and warm bitterish taste are due +to the presence of about 3% of an essential oil. The tissue of the seeds +contains a fatty oil, with resin, mucilage and gum, malates and +albuminous matter; and in the pericarp there is much tannin. The +volatile oil of cumin, which may be separated by distillation of the +seed with water, is mainly a mixture of cymol or cymene, C10H14, and +cumic aldehyde, C6H4(C3H7)COH. Cumin is mentioned in Isaiah xxviii. 25, +27, and Matthew xxiii. 23, and in the works of Hippocrates and +Dioscorides. From Pliny we learn that the ancients took the ground seed +medicinally with bread, water or wine, and that it was accounted the +best of condiments as a remedy for squeamishness. It was found to +occasion pallor of the face, whence the expression of Horace, _exsangue +cuminum_ (_Epist._ i. 19), and that of Persius, _pallentis grana cumini_ +(_Sat._ v. 55). Pliny relates the story that it was employed by the +followers of Porcius Latro, the celebrated rhetorician, in order to +produce a complexion such as bespeaks application to study (xx. 57). In +the middle ages cumin was one of the commonest spices of European +growth. Its average price per pound in England in the 13th and 14th +centuries was 2d. or, at present value, about 1s. 4d. (Rogers, _Hist. of +Agric. and Prices_, i. 631). It is stimulant and carminative, and is +employed in the manufacture of curry powder. The medicinal use of the +drug is now confined to veterinary practice. Cumin is exported from +India, Mogador, Malta and Sicily. + + + + +CUMMERBUND, a girdle or waistbelt (Hindostani _kamar-band_, a +loin-band). In the East the principle of health is to keep the head cool +and the stomach warm; the turban protects the one from the sun, and the +cummerbund ensures the other against changes of temperature. In India +the cummerbund consists of many folds of muslin or bright-coloured +cloth. + + + + +CUMMING, JOSEPH GEORGE (1812-1868), English geologist and archaeologist, +was born at Matlock in Derbyshire on the 15th of February 1812. He was +educated at Oakham grammar school, and Emmanuel College, Cambridge, +taking the degree of M.A., and entering holy orders in 1835. In 1841 he +was appointed vice-principal of King William's College, Castletown, in +the Isle of Man, and this position he held until 1856. During this +period his leisure time was devoted to a study of the geology and +archaeology of the island. The results were published in a classic +volume _The Isle of Man; its History, Physical, Ecclesiastical, Civil +and Legendary_ (1848). In 1856 he became master of King Edward's grammar +school at Lichfield, in 1858 warden and professor of classical +literature and geology in Queen's College, Birmingham, in 1862 rector of +Mellis, in Suffolk, and in 1867 vicar of St John's, Bethnal Green, +London. He died in London on the 21st of September 1868. + + + + +CUMNOCK AND HOLMHEAD, a police burgh of Ayrshire, Scotland, on the +Lugar, 33(3/4) m. S. of Glasgow by road, with two stations (Cumnock and +Old Cumnock) on the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3088. +It lies in the parish of Old Cumnock (pop. 5144), and is a thriving +town, with a town hall, cottage hospital, public library and an +athenaeum. Coal and ironstone are extensively mined in the +neighbourhood, and the manufactures include woollens, tweeds, +agricultural implements and pottery. When Alexander Peden (1626-1686), +the persecuted Covenanter, died, he was buried in the Boswell aisle of +Auchinleck church; but his corpse was borne thence with every indignity +by a company of dragoons to the foot of the gallows at Cumnock, where +they intended to hang it in chains. This proving to be impracticable +they buried it at the gallows-foot. After the Revolution the inhabitants +out of respect for the "Prophet's" memory abandoned their then +burying-ground and turned the old place of execution into the present +cemetery. Five miles S.E. lies the parish of New Cumnock (pop. 5367) at +the confluence of Afton Water and the Nith. It is rich in minerals, +iron, coal, limestone and freestone, and has a station on the Glasgow & +South-Western railway. Two miles N.W. of Cumnock is Auchinleck +(pronounced Affleck), with a station on the Glasgow & South-Western +railway. Coal and iron mining and farming are important industries. It +is the seat of the Boswell family, three generations of which +abbreviated greatness--Lord Auchinleck, the judge (who dubbed Dr Johnson +"Ursa Major"), his son James, the biographer, and his grandson Sir +Alexander, the author of "Gude nicht and joy be wi' you a'," "Jenny's +Bawbee," "Jenny dang the weaver," and other songs and poems, who +perished miserably in a duel. Pop. of Auchinleck parish (1901) 6605. + + + + +CUNARD, SIR SAMUEL, Bart. (1787-1865), British civil engineer, founder +of the Cunard line of steam-ships, was born at Halifax, Nova Scotia, on +the 21st of November 1787. He was the son of a merchant, and was himself +trained for the pursuits of commerce, in which, by his abilities and +enterprising spirit, he attained a conspicuous position. When, in the +early years of steam navigation, the English government made known its +desire to substitute steam vessels for the sailing ships then employed +in the mail service between England and America, Cunard heartily entered +into the scheme, came to England, and accepted the government tender for +carrying it out. In conjunction with Messrs Burns of Glasgow and Messrs +MacIver of Liverpool, proprietors of rival lines of coasting steamers +between Glasgow and Liverpool, he formed a company, and the first voyage +of a Cunard steamship was successfully made by the "Britannia" from +Liverpool to Boston, U.S.A., between July 4 and 19, 1840 (see STEAMSHIP +LINES). In acknowledgment of his energetic and successful services +Cunard was, in 1859, created a baronet. He died in London on the 28th of +April 1865. + + + + +CUNAS, a tribe of Central American Indians. Their home is the Isthmus of +Panama, from the Chagres to the Atrato. They are sometimes called Darien +or San Blas Indians. They are a small active people, with remarkably +light complexions. + + + + +CUNDINAMARCA, till 1909 a department of the eastern plateau of Colombia, +South America, having the departments of Quesada and Tundama on the N., +Tolima on the W. and S., and the Meta territory on the S.E. and E. The +territorial redistribution of 1905 deprived Cundinamarca of its +territories on the eastern plains, and a part of its territory in the +Eastern Cordillera out of which Quesada and the Federal district were +created--its area being reduced from 79,691 to 5060 sq. m., and its +estimated population from 500,000 to 225,000. A considerable part of its +area consists of plateaus enjoying a temperate climate and producing the +fruits and cereals of the temperate zone, and another important part +lies in the valley of the Magdalena and is tropical in character. The +district of Fusagasuga in the southern part of this region is celebrated +for the excellence of its coffee. The capital of the department was +Facatativa (est. population, 7500), situated on the western margin of +the _sabana_ of Bogota, 25 m. N.W. from that capital by rail. Other +important towns are Caqueza, Sibate, La Meza and Tocaima. + + + + +CUNEIFORM (from Lat. _cuneus_, a wedge), a form of writing, extensively +used in the ancient world, especially by the Babylonians and Assyrians. +The word "cuneiform" was first applied in 1700 by Thomas Hyde, professor +of Hebrew in the university of Oxford, in the expression "dactuli +pyramidales seu cuneiformes," and it has found general acceptance, +though efforts have been made to introduce the expression "arrow-headed" +writing. The name "cuneiform" is fitting, for each character or sign is +composed of a wedge ([symbol] or [symbol]), or a combination of wedges +([symbol]), written from left to right. The wedge is always pointed +towards the right ([symbol]) or downwards ([symbol]) or aslant +([symbol]), or two may be so combined as to form an angle ([symbol]) +called by German Assyriologists a _Winkelhaken_, a word now sometimes +adopted by English writers on the subject. The word cuneiform has passed +into most modern languages, but the Germans use _Keilschrift_ (i.e. +wedge-script) and the Arabs _mismari_ ([Arabic: mismari]) or +nail-writing. + +[Illustration] + + + Discovery and decipherment. + +In Persia, 40 m. N.E. of Shiraz, is a range of hills, Mount Rachmet, in +front of which, in a semicircular form, rises a vast terrace-like +platform. It is partly natural, but was walled up in front, levelled off +and used as the base of great temples and palaces. The earliest +European, at present known to us, who visited the site was a wandering +friar Odoricus (about A.D. 1320), who does not seem to have noticed the +inscriptions cut in the stone. These were first observed by Josaphat +Barbaro, a Venetian traveller, about 1472. In 1621 the ruins were +visited by Pietro della Valle, who was the first to copy a few of the +signs, which he sent in a letter to a friend in Naples. His copy was not +well made, but it served the useful purpose of directing attention to an +unknown script which was certain to attract scholars to the problem of +its decipherment. To this end it was necessary that complete +inscriptions and not merely separate signs should be made accessible to +European scholars. The first man to attempt to satisfy this need was Sir +John Chardin, in whose volumes of travels published at Amsterdam in 1711 +one of the small inscriptions found at the ruins of Persepolis was +carefully and accurately reproduced. It was now plainly to be seen, as +indeed others had surmised, that these inscriptions at Persepolis had +been written in three languages, distinguished each from other by an +increasing complexity in the signs with which they were written. The +three languages have since been determined as Persian, Susian and +Babylonian. But before the decipherment could begin it was necessary +that all the available material should be copied and published. The +honour of performing this great task fell to Carsten Niebuhr, who +visited Persepolis in March 1765, and in three weeks and a half copied +all the texts, so well that little improvement has been made in them +since. When Niebuhr returned to Denmark he studied carefully the little +inscriptions and convinced himself that the guesses of some of his +predecessors were correct, and that the inscriptions were to be read +from left to right. He observed that three systems of writing were +discernible, and that these were always kept distinct in the +inscriptions. He did not, however, draw the natural conclusion that they +represented three languages, but supposed that the proud builders of +Persepolis had written their inscriptions in threefold form. He divided +the little inscriptions into three classes, according to the manner of +their writing, calling them classes I., II. and III. He then arranged +all those he had copied that belonged to class I., and by careful +comparison decided that in them there were employed altogether but +forty-two signs. These he copied out and set in order in one of his +plates. This list of signs was so nearly complete and accurate that +later study has made but slight changes in it. When Niebuhr had made +his list of signs he naturally enough decided that this language, +whatever it might be, was written in alphabetic characters, a conclusion +which later investigation has not overthrown. Beyond this Niebuhr was +not able to go, and not even one sign revealed its secret to his +inquiry. When, however, he had published his copies (in 1777) there were +other scholars ready to take up the difficult task. Two scholars +independently, Olav Tychsen of Rostock and Friedrich Munter of +Copenhagen, began work upon the problem. Tychsen first observed that +there occurred at irregular intervals in the inscriptions of the first +class a wedge that pointed neither directly to the right nor downward, +but inclined diagonally. This he suggested was the dividing sign used to +separate words. This very simple discovery later became of great +importance in the hands of Munter. Tychsen also correctly identified the +alphabetic signs for "_a_," "_d_," "_u_" and "_s_," but he failed to +decipher an entire inscription, chiefly perhaps because, through an +error in history, he supposed that they were written during the Parthian +dynasty (246 B.C.-A.D. 227). Munter was more fortunate than Tychsen in +his historical researches, and this made him also more successful in +linguistic attempts. He rightly identified the builders of Persepolis +with the Achaemenian dynasty, and so located in time the authors of the +inscriptions (538-465 B.C.). Independently of Tychsen he identified the +oblique wedge as a divider between words, and found the meaning of the +sign for "b." These may appear to be small matters, but it must be +remembered that they were made without the assistance of any bilingual +text, and were indeed taken bodily out of the gloom which had settled +upon these languages centuries before. They did not, however, bring us +much nearer to the desired goal of a reading of any portion of the +inscriptions. The whole case indeed seemed now perilously near a +stalemate. New methods must be found, and a new worker, with patience, +persistence, power of combination, insight, the historical sense and the +feeling for archaeological indications. + +In 1802 Georg Friedrich Grotefend (q.v.) was persuaded by the librarian +of Gottingen University to essay the task. He began with the assumption +that there were three languages, and that of these the first was ancient +Persian, the language of the Achaemenians, who had erected these palaces +and caused these inscriptions to be written. For his first attempts at +decipherment he chose two of these old Persian inscriptions and laid +them side by side. They were of moderate length, and the frequent +recurrence of the same signs in them seemed to indicate that their +contents were similar. The method which he now pursued was so simple, +yet so sure, as he advanced step by step, that there seemed scarcely a +chance of error. Munter had observed in all the Persian texts a word +which occurred in two forms, a short and a longer form. This word +appeared in Grotefend's two texts in both long and short forms. Munter +had suggested that it meant "king" in the short form and "kings" in the +longer, and that when the two words occurred together the expression +meant "king of kings." But further, this word occurred in both +inscriptions in the first line, and in both cases was followed by the +same word. This second word Grotefend supposed to mean "_great_," the +combined expression being "king great," that is, "great king." All this +found support in the phraseology of the lately deciphered Sassanian +inscriptions, and it was plausible in itself. It must, however, be +supported by definite facts, and furthermore each word must be separated +into its alphabetic parts, every one of them identified, and the words +themselves be shown to be philologically possible by the production of +similar words in related languages. In other words, the archaeological +method must find support in a philological method. To this Grotefend now +devoted himself with equal energy. His method was as simple as before. +He had made out to his own satisfaction the titles "great king, king of +kings." Now, in the Sassanian inscriptions, the first word was always +the king's name, followed immediately by "great king, king of kings," +and Grotefend reasoned that this was probably true in his texts. But if +true, then these two texts were set up by two different kings, for the +names were not the same at the beginning. Furthermore the name with +which his text No. I. began appears in the third line of text No. II., +but in a somewhat longer form, which Grotefend thought was a genitive +and meant "of N." It followed the word previously supposed to be "king" +and another which might mean son (N king son), so that the whole +expression would be "son of N king." From these facts Grotefend surmised +that in these two inscriptions he had the names of three rulers, +grandfather, father and son. It was now easy to search the list of the +Achaemenian dynasty and to find three names which would suit the +conditions, and the three which he ventured to select were Hystaspes, +Darius, Xerxes. According to his hypothesis the name at the beginning of +inscription I. was Darius, and he was ready to translate his texts in +part as follows:-- + + I. Darius, great king, king of kings ... son of Hystaspes.... + II. Xerxes, great king, king of kings ... son of Darius king. + +The form which he provisionally adopted for Darius was Darheush; later +investigation has shown that it ought really to be read as Daryavush, +but the error was not serious, and he had safely secured at least the +letters D, A, R, SH. It was a most wonderful achievement, the importance +of which he did not realize, for in it was the key to the decipherment +of three ancient languages. To very few men has it been given to make +discoveries so important both for history and for philology. + +To Grotefend it was, however, not given to translate a whole text, or +even to work out all the words whose meaning he had surmised. Rasmus +Christian Rask (1787-1832), who followed him, found the plural ending in +Persian, which had baffled him; and Eugene Burnouf (1801-1852), by the +study of a list of Persian geographical names found at Naksh-i-Rustam, +discovered at a single stroke almost all the characters of the Persian +alphabet, and incidentally confirmed the values already determined by +his predecessors. + +At the same time as Burnouf, the eminent Sanskrit scholar Professor +Christian Lassen (1800-1876), of Bonn, was studying the same list of +names; and his results were published at the same time. The controversy +which resulted as to priority of discovery may be here passed over while +we sum up the results in general conclusions. Lassen may certainly claim +in the final court of history that he discovered independently of +Burnouf the values of at least six and possibly of eight signs. But in +another respect he made very definite progress over Burnouf. He +discovered that, if the system of Grotefend were rigidly followed, and +to every sign were given the value Grotefend had assigned, some words +would be left wholly or almost wholly without vowels; and therefore +unpronounceable. As instances of such words he mentioned CPRD, THTGUS, +KTPTUK, FRAISJM. This situation led Lassen to a very important +discovery, towards which his knowledge of the Sanskrit alphabet did much +to bring him. He came, in short, to the conclusion that the ancient +Persian signs were not entirely alphabetic, but were at least partially +syllabic, that is, that certain signs were used to represent not merely +an alphabetic character like "b," but also a syllable such as "ba," "bi" +or "bu." He claimed that he had successfully demonstrated that the sign +for "a" was only used at the beginning of a word, or before a consonant, +or before another vowel, and that in every other case it was included in +the consonant sign. Thus in the inscription No I. in the second line the +signs should be read VA-ZA-RA-KA. This was a most important discovery, +and may be said to have revolutionized the study of these long puzzling +texts. + +During the entire time of this slow process of decipherment, from the +first essays of Grotefend in 1802 until the publication of Lassen's book +in 1836, there were more sceptics than believers in the results of the +deciphering process. Indeed the history of all forms of decipherment of +unknown languages shows that scepticism concerning them is far more +prevalent than credulity or even a too ready acceptance. There was need +for a man of another people, of different training and a fresh and +unbiased mind, to put the capstone upon the decipherment, and he was +already at work when Lassen's important researches appeared. + +Major (afterward Sir) Henry Rawlinson had gone out to India, in the +service of the East India Company, while still a boy. There he had +learned Persian and several of the Indian vernaculars. That was not the +sort of training that had prepared Grotefend, Burnouf or Lassen, but it +was the kind that the early travellers and copyists had enjoyed. In 1833 +young Rawlinson went to Persia, to work with other British officers in +the reorganization of the Persian army. While engaged in this service +his attention was drawn to the ancient Persian cuneiform inscriptions. +In 1835 he copied with great care the texts at Hamadan, and began their +decipherment. Of all the eager work which had been going on in Europe he +knew little. It is no longer possible to ascertain when he gained his +first information of Grotefend's work, for Norris, the secretary of the +Royal Asiatic Society, has left us no record of when he began to send +notices of the German's work. Whenever it was, there seems to be no +doubt that Rawlinson worked independently for a time. His method was +strikingly like Grotefend's. He had copied two trilingual inscriptions, +and recognized at once that he had three languages before him. In 1839 +(_Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, x. pp. 5, 6) he thus wrote of +his method: "When I proceeded ... to compare and interline the two +inscriptions (or rather the Persian columns of the two inscriptions, +for, as the compartments exhibiting the inscription in the Persian +language occupied the principal place in the tablets, and were engraved +in the least complicated of the three classes of cuneiform writing, they +were naturally first submitted to examination) I found that the +characters coincided throughout, except in certain particular groups, +and it was only reasonable to suppose that the grounds which were thus +brought out and individualized must represent proper names. I further +remarked that there were but three of these distinct groups in the two +inscriptions; for the group which occupied the second place in one +inscription, and which, from its position, suggested the idea of its +representing the name of the father of the king who was there +commemorated, corresponded with the group which occupied the first place +in the other inscription, and thus not only served determinately to +connect the two inscriptions together, but, assuming the groups to +represent proper names, appeared also to indicate a genealogical +succession. The natural inference was that in these three groups of +characters I had obtained the proper names belonging to three +consecutive generations of the Persian monarchy; and it so happened that +the first three names of Hystaspes, Darius and Xerxes, which I applied +at hazard to the three groups, according to the succession, proved to +answer in all respects satisfactorily and were, in fact, the true +identification." + +Rawlinson's next work was the copying of the great inscription of Darius +on the rocks at Behistun (q.v.). He had first seen it in 1835, and as it +was high up on the rocky face, and apparently inaccessible, he had +studied it by means of a field-glass. He was not able to copy the whole +of the Persian text, but in 1837, when he was more skilled in the +script, he secured more of it. In the next year he forwarded to the +Royal Asiatic Society of London his translation of the first two +paragraphs of the Persian text, containing the name, titles and +genealogy of Darius. This was little less than a _tour de force_, for it +must be remembered that this had been accomplished without the knowledge +of other ancient languages which his European competitors had enjoyed. +The translation, received in London on the 14th of March, made a +sensation, and a transcript sent in April to the Asiatic Society of +Paris secured him an honorary membership in that distinguished body. He +was now known, and many made haste to send him copies of everything +important which had been published in Europe. The works of Burnouf, +Niebuhr, le Brun and Porter came to his hands, and with such assistance +he made rapid progress, and in the winter of 1838-1839 his alphabet of +ancient Persian was almost complete. In 1839 he was in Bagdad, his work +written out and almost ready for publication. But he delayed, hoping for +more light, and revising sign by sign with exhaustless patience. He +expected to publish his preliminary memoir in the spring of 1840, when +he was suddenly sent to Afghanistan as political agent at Kandahar. Here +he was too busily engaged in war administration to attend to his +favourite studies, which were not renewed until 1843 when he returned to +Bagdad. There he received fresh copies and corrections of the Persepolis +inscriptions which had been made by Westergaard, and later made a +journey to Behistun to perfect his own copies of the texts which had +formed the basis of his own first study. At last, after many delays and +discouragements, he published, in 1846, in the _Journal of the Royal +Asiatic Society_, his memoir, or series of memoirs, on the ancient +Persian inscriptions, in which for the first time he gave a nearly +complete translation of the Persian text of Behistun. In this one +publication Rawlinson attained imperishable fame in Oriental research. +His work had been carried on under greater difficulties than those in +the path of his European colleagues, but he had surpassed them all in +the making of an intelligible and connected translation of a long +inscription. He had indeed not done it without assistance from the work +of Burnouf, Grotefend and Lassen, but when all allowance is made for +these influences his fame is not diminished nor the extent of his +services curtailed. His method was adopted before he knew of Lassen's +work. That two men of such different training and of such opposite types +of mind should have lighted upon the same method, and by it have +attained the same results, confirmed in the eyes of many the truth of +the decipherment. + +The work of the decipherment of the old Persian texts was now complete +for all practical purposes. But in 1846 there appeared a paper read +before the Royal Irish Academy by the Rev. Edward Hincks of Killyleagh, +County Down, Ireland, whose keen criticisms of Lassen's work, and +original contributions to the definite settlement of syllabic values, +may be regarded as closing the period of decipherment of Persian +cuneiform writing. + +The next problem in the study of cuneiform was the decipherment of the +second language in each of the trilingual groups. The first essay in +this difficult task was made in 1844 by Niels Louis Westergaard. His +method was very similar to that used by Grotefend in the decipherment of +Persian. He selected the names of Darius, Hystaspes, Persians and +others, and compared them with their equivalents in the Persian texts. +By this means he learned a number of signs, and sought by their use in +other words to spell out syllables or words whose meanings were then +ascertained by conjecture or by comparison. He estimated the number of +characters at eighty-two or eighty-seven, and judged the writing to be +partly alphabetic and partly syllabic. The language he called Median, +and classified it in "the Scythian, rather than in the Japhetic family." +The results of Westergaard were subjected to incisive criticism by +Hincks, who made a distinct gain in the problem. It next passed to the +hands of de Saulcy, who was able to see further than either. But the +matter moved with difficulty because the copied texts were not accurate. +By the generosity of Sir Henry Rawlinson his superb copies of the +Behistun text, second column, were placed in the hands of Mr Edwin +Norris, who was able in 1852 to present a paper to the Royal Asiatic +Society deciphering nearly all of it. Mordtmann followed him, naming the +language Susian, which was met with general acceptance and was not +displaced by the name Amardian, suggested by A. H. Sayce in two papers +which otherwise made important contributions to the subject. With his +contributions the problem of decipherment of Susian may be considered as +closed. The latter workers could only be builders on foundations already +laid. + +The decipherment of the third of the three languages found at Persepolis +and Behistun followed quickly on the success with Susian. The first +worker was Isadore Lowenstern, who made out the words for "king" and +"great" and the sign for the plural, but little more. The first really +great advance was made by Hincks in 1846 and 1847. In these he +determined successfully the values of several signs, settled the +numerals, and was apparently on the high-road toward the translation of +an entire Assyrian text. He was, however, too cautious to proceed so +far, and the credit of first translating a short Assyrian text belongs +to Longperier, who in 1847 published the following as the translation of +an entire text: "Glorious is Sargon, the great king, the (...) king, +king of kings, king of the land of Assyria." It was nearly all correct, +but it advanced our knowledge but slightly because it did not give the +forms of the words--because (to put it in another way) he was not able +to transliterate the Assyrian words. This was the great problem. In the +Persian texts there were but forty-four signs, but in the third column +of the Persepolis texts Grotefend had counted one hundred and thirty +different characters, and estimated that in all the Babylonian texts +known to him there were about three hundred different signs, while Botta +discovered six hundred and forty-two in the texts found by him at +Khorsabad. That was enough to make the stoutest heart quail, for a +meaning must be found for every one of these signs. There could not be +so many syllables, and it was, therefore, quite plain that the +Babylonian language must have been written in part at least in +ideograms. But in 1851 Rawlinson published one hundred and twelve lines +of the Babylonian column from Behistun, accompanied by an interlinear +transcription into Roman characters, and a translation into Latin. That +paper, added to Hinck's still more acute detail studies, brought to an +end the preliminary decipherment of Babylonian. There were still +enormous difficulties to be surmounted in the full appreciation of the +complicated script, but these would be solved by the combined labours of +many workers. + + + Origin. + +The cuneiform script had its origin in Babylonia and its inventors were +a people whom we call the Sumerians. Before the Semitic Babylonians +conquered the land it was inhabited by a people of unknown origin +variously classified, by different scholars, with the Ural-altaic or +even with the Indo-European family, or as having blood relationship with +both. This people is known to us from thousands of cuneiform +inscriptions written entirely in their language, though our chief +knowledge of them was for a long time derived from Sumerian inscriptions +with interlinear translations in Assyrian. Their language is called +Sumerian (li-sa-an Su-me-ri) by the Assyrians (Br. Mus. 81-7-27, 130), +and its characteristics are being slowly developed by the elaborate +study of the immense literature which has come down to us. In 1884 +Halevy denied the existence of the Sumerian language, and claimed that +it was merely a cabalistic script invented by the priests of the +Semites. His early success has not been sustained, and the vast majority +of scholars have ceased to doubt the existence of the language. + +The Sumerians developed their script from a rude picture-writing, some +early forms of which have come down to us. In course of time they used +the pictures to represent sounds, apart from ideas. They wrote first on +stone, and when clay was adopted soon found that straight lines in soft +clay when made by a single pressure of the stylus tend to become wedges, +and the pictures therefore lost their character and came to be mere +conventional groups of wedges. Some of these wedge-shaped signs are of +such character that we are still able to recognize or re-construct the +original picture from which they came. The Assyrian sign [symbol], which +means heaven, appears in early texts in the form [symbol] in which its +star-like form is quite evident (star = heaven) and from which the +linear form [symbol] may be not improbably pre-supposed. A number of +other cases were enumerated by the Assyrians themselves (see _Cuneiform +Texts from Bab. Tab. in Brit. Museum_, vol. v., 1898), and there can be +no reasonable doubt that this is the origin of the script. + + + Development and characteristics. + +The number of the original picture-signs cannot have been great, but the +development of new signs never ceased till the cuneiform script passed +wholly from use. The simplest form of development was doubling, to +express plurality or intensity. After this came the working of two signs +into one; thus [symbol] "water," when placed in [symbol] "mouth" gave +the new sign [symbol] "to drink," and many others. Other signs were +formed by the addition of four lines, either vertically or horizontally, +to intensify the original meaning. Thus, for instance, the old linear +sign [symbol] means dwelling, but with four additional signs, thus +[symbol], it means "great house." This sign gradually changed in form +until it came to be [symbol]. This method of development was called by +the Sumerians _gunu_, and signs thus formed are now commonly called by +us, _gunu_ signs. They number hundreds and must be reckoned with in our +study of the script development, though perhaps recent scholars have +somewhat exaggerated their importance. The process of development is +obscure and must always remain so. + +The script as finally developed and used by the Assyrians is cumbrous +and complicated, and very ill adapted to the sounds of the Semitic +alphabet. It has (1) simple syllables, consisting of one vowel and a +consonant, or a vowel by itself, thus [symbol] "a," [symbol] ab, +[symbol] ib, [symbol] ub, [symbol] ba, [symbol] bi, [symbol] bu. In +addition to these the Assyrian had also (2) compound syllables, such as +[symbol] bit, [symbol] bal, and (3) ideograms, or signs which express an +entire word, such as [symbol] _beltu_, lady, [symbol] _abu_, father. The +difficulty of reading this script is enormously increased by the fact +that many signs are polyphonous, i.e. they may have more than one +syllabic value and also be used as an ideogram. Thus the sign [symbol] +has the ideographic values of _matu_, land, _shadu_, mountain, +_kashadu_, to conquer, _napachu_, to arise (of the sun), and also the +syllabic values _kur_, _mad_, _mat_, _shad_, _shat_, _lat_, _nad_, +_nat_, _kin_ and _gin_. This method of writing must lead to ambiguity, +and this difficulty is helped somewhat by (4) determinatives, which are +signs intended to indicate the class to which the word belongs. Thus, +the [symbol] is placed before names of persons, and [symbol] (the +ideogram for _matu_, country, and _shadu_, mountain) is placed before +names of countries and mountains, and [symbol] (_ilu_, god) before the +names of gods. + + + History. + +The cuneiform writing, begun by the Sumerians in a period so remote that +it is idle to speculate concerning it, had a long and very extensive +history. It was first adopted by the Semitic Babylonians, and as we have +seen was modified, developed, nay almost made over. Their inscriptions +are written in it from _circa_ 4500 B.C. to the 1st century B.C. From +their hands it passed to the Assyrians, who simplified some characters +and conventionalized many more, and used the script during the entire +period of their national existence from 1500 B.C. to 607 B.C. From the +Babylonian by a slow process of evolution the much simplified Persian +script was developed, and with the Babylonian is also to be connected +the Susian, less complicated than the Babylonian, but less simple than +the Persian. The Chaldians (not Chaldaeans), who lived about Lake Van, +also adopted the cuneiform script with values of their own, and +expressed a considerable literature in it. The discovery in 1887 of the +Tell-el-Amarna tablets in upper Egypt showed that the same script was in +use in the 15th century B.C., from Elam to the Mediterranean and from +Armenia to the Persian Gulf for purposes of correspondence. There is +good reason to expect the discovery of its use by yet other peoples. It +was one of the most widely used of all the forms of ancient writing. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The history of the decipherment may be further studied + in R. W. Rogers, _History of Babylonia and Assyria_, vol. i. (N.Y. and + London, 1900); and in A. J. Booth, _The Discovery and Decipherment of + the Trilingual Cuneiform Inscriptions_ (London, 1902), which is very + exhaustive and accurate. The Sumerian question may best be studied in + F. H. Weissbach, _Die Sumerische Frage_ (Leipzig, 1898), and Charles + Fossey, _Manuel d'Assyriologie_, tome i. (Paris, 1904). For + development and characteristics, see Friedrich Delitzsch, _Die + Entstehung des altesten Schriftsystems_ (Leipzig, 1897); Paul + Toscanne, _Les Signes sumeriens derives_ (Paris, 1905). (R. W. R.) + + + + +CUNEO (Fr. _Coni_), a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, the +capital of the province of Cuneo, 55 m. by rail S. of Turin, 1722 ft. +above sea-level. Cuneo lies on the railway from Turin to Ventimiglia, +which farther on passes under the Col di Tenda (tunnel 5 m. long). It is +also a junction for Mondovi and Saluzzo, and has steam tramways to Borgo +S. Dalmazzo, Boves, Saluzzo and Dronero. Pop. (1901) 15,412 (town), +26,879 (commune). Its name ("wedge") is due to its position on a hill +between two streams, the Stura and the Gesso, with fine views of the +mountains. The Franciscan church, now converted into a military +storehouse, belongs to the 12th century, but there are no other +buildings of special interest. The fortifications have been converted +into promenades. Cuneo was founded about 1120 by refugees from local +baronial tyranny, who, after the destruction of Milan by Barbarossa, +were joined by Lombards. In 1382 it swore fealty to Amedeus VI., duke of +Savoy. It was an important fortress, and was ceded by the treaty of +Cherasco (1796), with Ceva and Tortona, to the French. In 1799 it was +taken after ten days' bombardment by the Austrian and Russian armies, +and, in 1800, after the victory of Marengo, the French demolished the +fortifications. + + + + +CUNEUS (Latin for "wedge"; plural, _cunei_), the architectural term +applied to the wedge-shaped divisions of the Roman theatre separated by +the _scalae_ or stairways; see Vitruvius v. 4. + + + + +CUNITZ, MARIA (c. 1610-1664), Silesian astronomer, was the eldest +daughter of Dr Heinrich Cunitz of Schweinitz, and the wife (1630) of Dr +Elias von Loven, of Pitschen in Silesia--both of them men of learning +and distinction. From her universal accomplishments she was called the +"Silesian Pallas," and the publication of her work, _Urania propitia_ +(Oels, 1650), a simplification of the Rudolphine Tables, gained her a +European reputation. It was composed at the village of Lugnitz, close by +the convent of Olobok (Posen), where, with her husband, she had taken +refuge at the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War, and was dedicated to +the emperor Frederick III. The author became a widow in 1661, and died +at Pitschen on the 24th of August 1664. + + See A. G. Kastner, _Geschichte der Mathematik_, iv. 430 (1800); N. + Henelii, _Silesiographia renovata_, cap. vi. p. 684; J. C. Eberti's + _Schlesiens wohlgelehrtes Frauenzimmer_, p. 25 (Breslau, 1727); + _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (Schimmelpfenning); &c. + + + + +CUNNINGHAM, ALEXANDER (c. 1655-1730), Scottish classical scholar and +critic, was born in Ayrshire. Very little is known of his uneventful +life. It is probable that he completed his education at Leiden or +Utrecht. He was tutor to the son of the first duke of Queensberry, +through whose influence he was appointed professor of civil law in the +university of Edinburgh. In 1710, the Edinburgh magistrates, regarding +the university patronage as their privilege, appointed another +professor, ignoring the appointment of Cunningham, who had been +installed in the office for at least ten years. Cunningham thereupon +left England for the Hague, where he resided until his death. He is +chiefly known for his edition of Horace (1721) with notes, mostly +critical, which included a volume of _Animadversiones_ upon Richard +Bentley's notes and emendations. They marked him as one of the most able +critics of Bentley's (in many cases) rash and tasteless conjectural +alterations of the text. Cunningham also edited the works of Virgil and +Phaedrus (together with the _Sententiae_ of Publilius Syrus and others). +He had also been engaged for some years in the preparation of an edition +of the Pandects and of a work on Christian evidences. + + Life by D. Irving in _Lives of Scottish Writers_ (1839). + +The above must not be confused with Alexander Cunningham, British +minister to Venice (1715-1720), a learned historian and author of _The +History of Great Britain_ (from 1688 to the accession of George I.), +originally written in Latin and published in an English translation +after his death. + + + + +CUNNINGHAM, ALLAN (1784-1842), Scottish poet and man of letters, was +born at Keir, Dumfriesshire, on the 7th of December 1784, and began life +as a stone mason's apprentice. His father was a neighbour of Burns at +Ellisland, and Allan with his brother James visited James Hogg, the +Ettrick shepherd, who became a friend to both. Cunningham contributed +some songs to Roche's _Literary Recreations_ in 1807, and in 1809 he +collected old ballads for Robert Hartley Cromek's _Remains of Nithsdale +and Galloway Song_; he sent in, however, poems of his own, which the +editor inserted, even though he may have suspected their real +authorship. In 1810 Cunningham went to London, where he supported +himself chiefly by newspaper reporting till 1814, when he became clerk +of the works in the studio of Francis Chantrey, retaining this +employment till the sculptor's death in 1841. He meanwhile continued to +be busily engaged in literary work. Cunningham's prose is often spoiled +by its misplaced and too ambitious rhetoric; his verse also is often +over-ornate, and both are full of mannerisms. Some of his songs, +however, hold a high place among British lyrics. "A Wet Sheet and a +Flowing Sea" is one of the best of our sea-songs, although written by a +landsman; and many other of Cunningham's songs will bear comparison with +it. He died on the 30th of October 1842. + +He was married to Jean Walker, who had been servant in a house where he +lived, and had five sons and one daughter. JOSEPH DAVEY CUNNINGHAM +(1812-1851) entered the Bengal Engineers, and is known by his _History +of the Sikhs_ (1849). SIR ALEXANDER CUNNINGHAM (1814-1893) also entered +the Bengal Engineers, attaining the rank of major-general; he was +director general of the Indian Archaeological Survey (1870-1885), and +wrote an _Ancient Geography of India_ (1871) and _Coins of Medieval +India_ (1894). PETER CUNNINGHAM (1816-1869) published several +topographical and biographical studies, of which the most important are +his _Handbook of London_ (1849) and _The Life of Drummond of +Hawthornden_ (1833). FRANCIS CUNNINGHAM (1820-1875) joined the Indian +army, and published editions of Ben Jonson (1871), Marlowe (1870) and +Massinger (1871). + + The works of Allan Cunningham include _Lives of the Most Eminent + British Painters, Sculptors and Architects_ (1829-1833); _Sir + Marmaduke Maxwell_ (1820), a dramatic poem; _Traditionary Tales of the + Peasantry_ (1822), several novels (_Paul Jones, Sir Michael Scott, + Lord Roldan_); the _Maid of Elwar_, a sort of epic romance; the _Songs + of Scotland_ (1825); _Biographical and Critical History of the + Literature of the Last Fifty Years_ (1833); an edition of _The Works + of Robert Burns_, with notes and a life containing a good deal of new + material (1834); _Biographical and Critical Dissertations_ affixed to + Major's _Cabinet Gallery of Pictures_; and _Life, Journals and + Correspondence of Sir David Wilkie_, published in 1843. An edition of + his _Poems and Songs_ was issued by his son, Peter Cunningham, in + 1847. + + + + +CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM (1805-1861), Scottish theologian and ecclesiastic, +was born at Hamilton, in Lanarkshire, on the 2nd of October 1805, and +educated at the university of Edinburgh. He was licensed to preach in +1828, and in 1830 was ordained to a collegiate charge in Greenock, where +he remained for three years. In 1834 he was transferred to the charge of +Trinity College parish, Edinburgh. His removal coincided with the +commencement of the period known in Scottish ecclesiastical history as +the Ten Years' Conflict, in which he was destined to take a leading +share. In the stormy discussions and controversies which preceded the +Disruption the weight and force of his intellect, the keenness of his +logic, and his firm grasp of principle made him one of the most powerful +advocates of the cause of spiritual independence; and he has been +generally recognized as one of three to whom mainly the existence of the +Free Church is due, the others being Chalmers and Candlish. On the +formation of the Free Church in 1843, Cunningham was appointed professor +of church history and divinity in the New College, Edinburgh, of which +he became principal in 1847 in succession to Thomas Chalmers. His career +was very successful, his controversial sympathies combined with his +evident desire to be rigidly impartial qualifying him to be an +interesting delineator of the more stirring periods of church history, +and a skilful disentangler of the knotty points in theological polemics. +In 1859 he was appointed moderator of the General Assembly. He had +received the degree of D.D. from the university of Princeton in 1842. He +died on the 14th of December 1861. He was one of the founders of the +Evangelical Alliance. A theological lectureship at the New College, +Edinburgh, was endowed in 1862, to be known as the Cunningham +lectureship. + + A _Life of Cunningham_, by Rainy and Mackenzie, appeared in 1871. + + + + +CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM (1849- ), English economist, was born at Edinburgh +on the 29th of December 1849. Educated at Edinburgh Academy and +University and Trinity College, Cambridge, he graduated 1st class in the +Moral Science tripos in 1873, and in the same year took holy orders. He +was university lecturer in history from 1884 to 1891, in which year he +was appointed professor of economics at King's College, London, a post +which he held until 1897. He was lecturer in economic history at Harvard +University (1899), and Hulsean lecturer at Cambridge (1885). He became +vicar of Great St Mary's, Cambridge, in 1887, and was made a fellow of +the British Academy. In 1906 he was appointed archdeacon of Ely. Dr +Cunningham's _Growth of English Industry and Commerce during the Early +and Middle Ages_ (1890; 4th ed., 1905) and _Growth of English Industry +and Commerce in Modern Times_ (1882; 3rd ed., 1903) are the standard +works of reference on the industrial history of England. He also wrote +_The Use and Abuse of Money_ (1891); _Alien Immigration_ (1897); +_Western Civilization in its Economic Aspect in Ancient Times_ (1898), +and _in Modern Times_ (1900), and _The Rise and Decline of Free Trade_ +(1905). Dr Cunningham's eminence as an economic historian gave special +importance to his attitude as one of the leading supporters of Mr +Chamberlain from 1903 onwards in criticizing the English free-trade +policy and advocating tariff reform. + + + + +CUP (in O. E. _cuppe_; generally taken to be from Late Lat. _cuppa_, a +variant of Lat. _cupa_, a cask, cf. Gr. [Greek: kypellon]), a drinking +vessel, usually in the form of a half a sphere, with or without a foot +or handles. The footless type with a single handle is preserved in the +ordinary tea-cup. The cup on a stem with a base is the usual form taken +by the cup as used in the celebration of the eucharist, to which the +name "chalice" (Lat. _calix_, Gr. [Greek: kylix], a goblet) is generally +given. (See DRINKING VESSELS and PLATE.) + + + + +CUPAR, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and capital of the county of +Fifeshire, Scotland, 11 m. W. by S. of St Andrews by the North British +railway. Pop. (1901) 4511. It is situated on the left bank of the Eden, +in the east of the Howe (Hollow) of Fife, and is sometimes written +Cupar-Fife to distinguish it from Coupar-Angus in Perthshire. Among the +chief buildings are the town hall, county buildings, corn exchange, +Duncan Institute, cottage hospital, Union Street Hall and the +Bell-Baxter school. The school, formerly called the Madras Academy, was +originally endowed (1832) by Dr Bell, founder of the Madras system of +education, but, having been enriched at a later date by a bequest of Sir +David Baxter (1873), it was afterwards called the Bell-Baxter school. +The Mercat Cross stands at "the Cross" in the main street, where it was +set up in 1897, having been removed from Hilltarvit, an eminence in the +neighbourhood of Cupar, on the western slope of which, at Garliebank, +the truce was signed between Mary of Guise and the lords of the +Congregation. In the parish, but at a distance from the town, are the +Fife and Kinross asylum and the Adamson institute, a holiday home for +poor children from Leith. The town received its charter in 1356 from +David II., and, being situated between Falkland and St Andrews, was +constantly visited by Scottish sovereigns, James VI. holding his court +there for some time in 1583. The site of the 12th-century castle, one of +the strongholds of the Macduffs, thanes or earls of Fife, is occupied by +a public school. On the esplanade in front of Macduff Castle, still +called the Playfield, took place in 1552 one of the first recorded +performances of Sir David Lindsay's _Ane Satyre of the Three Estaits_ +(1540); his _Tragedy of the Cardinal_ (1547), referring to the murder of +Beaton, being also performed there. Sir David sat in the Scottish +parliament as commissioner for Cupar, his place, the Mount, being within +3 m. north-west of the town. Lord Chancellor Campbell (1799-1861) was a +native of Cupar. + +Cupar is an agricultural and legal centre. Its chief industry is the +manufacture of linen, and tanning is carried on. At Cupar Muir, 1(1/2) +m. to the west, there are a sandstone quarry and brick works. The town +has also some repute for the quality of its printing, both in black and +colour. This was largely due to the Tullis press, which produced about +the beginning of the 19th century editions of Virgil, Horace and other +classical writers, under the recension of Professor John Hunter of St +Andrews, which were highly esteemed for the accuracy of their +typography. Cupar belongs to the St Andrews district group of burghs for +returning one member to parliament, the other constituents being Crail, +the two Anstruthers, Kilrenny, Pittenweem and St Andrews. + +There are several interesting places within a few miles. To the +north-east is the parish of Dairsie, where one of the few parliaments +that ever met in Fife assembled in 1335. The castle in which the senate +sat was also the residence for a period of Archbishop Spottiswood, who +founded the parish church in 1621. Two miles and a half north of Dairsie +is situated Kilmany, which was the first charge of Thomas Chalmers. He +was ordained to it in May 1803 and held it for twelve years. David +Hackston, the Covenanter, who was a passive assister at the +assassination of Archbishop Sharp, belonged to this parish, his place +being named Rathillet. After his execution at Edinburgh (1680) one of +his hands was buried at Cupar, where a monument inscription records the +circumstances of his death. To the west of Kilmany lies Creich, where +Alexander Henderson (1583-1646), the Covenanting divine and diplomatist, +and John Sage (1652-1711), the non-juring archbishop of Glasgow, were +born. Henderson took a keen interest in education and gave the school at +Creich a small endowment. Some 3 m. to the south-west of Cupar is Cults, +where Sir David Wilkie, the painter, was born. His father was minister +of the parish, and Pitlessie, the fair of which provided the artist with +the subject of the first picture in which he showed distinct promise, +lies within a mile of the manse. In the sandstone of Dura Den, a ravine +on Ceres Burn, 2(1/2) m. E. of Cupar, have been found great quantities +of fossils of ganoid fishes. The rocks belong to the Upper Old Red +Sandstone. + + + + +CUPBOARD, a fixed or movable closet usually with shelves. As the name +suggests, it is a descendant of the credence or buffet, the +characteristic of which was a series of open shelves for the reception +of drinking vessels and table requisites. After the word lost its +original meaning--and down to the end of the 16th century we still find +the expression "on the cupboard"--this piece of furniture was, as it to +some extent remains, movable, but it is now most frequently a fixture +designed to fill a corner or recess. Throughout the 18th century the +cupboard was a distinguished domestic institution, and the housewife +found her chief joy in accumulating cupboards full of china, glass and +preserves. With the exception of a very few examples of fine +ecclesiastical cupboards which partook chiefly of the nature of the +armoire in that they were intended for the storage of vestments, the +so-called court-cupboard is perhaps the oldest form of the contrivance. +The derivation of the expression is somewhat obscure, but it is +generally taken to refer to the French word _court_, short. This +particular type was much used from the Elizabethan to the end of the +Carolinian period. It was really a sideboard with small square doors +below, and a recessed superstructure supported upon balusters. Of these +many examples remain. Less frequent is the livery cupboard, the meaning +of which may be best explained by the following quotation from Spenser's +_Account of the State of Ireland_:--"What livery is we by common use in +England know well enough, namely, that it is an allowance of horse-meat, +as they commonly use the word stabling, as to keep horses at livery; the +which word I guess is derived of livering or delivering forth their +nightly food; so in great houses the livery is said to be served up for +all night--that is, their evening allowance for drink." The livery +cupboard appears usually to have been placed in bedrooms, so that a +supply of food and drink was readily available when a very long interval +separated the last meal of the evening from the first in the morning. +The livery cupboard was often small enough to stand upon a sideboard or +cabinet, and had an open front with a series of turned balusters. It was +often used in churches to contain the loaves of bread doled out to poor +persons under the terms of ancient charities. They were then called dole +cupboards; there are two large and excellent examples in St Alban's +Abbey. The butter, or bread and cheese cupboard, was a more ordinary +form, with the back and sides bored with holes, sometimes in a +geometrical pattern, for the admission of air to the food within. The +corner cupboard, which is in many ways the most pleasing and artistic +form of this piece of furniture, originated in the 18th century, which +as we have seen was the golden age of the cupboard. It was often of oak, +but more frequently of mahogany, and had either a solid or a glass +front. The older solid-fronted pieces are fixed to the wall half-way up, +but those of the somewhat more modern type, in which there is much +glass, usually have a wooden base with glazed superstructure. Most +corner cupboards are attractive in form and treatment, and many of +them, inlaid with satinwood, ebony, holly or box, are extremely elegant. + + + + +CUPID (_Cupido_, "desire"), the Latin name for the god of love, Eros +(q.v.). Cupid is generally identical with Amor. The idea of the god of +love in Roman poetry is due to the influence of Alexandrian poets and +artists, in whose hands he degenerated into a mischievous boy with +essentially human characteristics. His usual attribute is the bow. For +the story of Cupid and Psyche, see under PSYCHE. + + + + +CUPOLA (Ital., from Lat. _cupula_, small cask or vault, _cupa_, tub), a +term, in architecture, for a spherical or spheroidal covering to a +building, or to any part of it. In fortification the word is used of a +form of armoured structure, in which guns or howitzers are mounted. It +is a low flat turret resembling an overturned saucer and showing little +above the ground except the muzzles of the guns. See for details and +illustrations FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT; also ORDNANCE. + + + + +CUPPING. The operation of cupping is one of the methods that have been +adopted by surgeons to draw blood from an inflamed part in order to +relieve the inflammation. The skin is washed and dried; a glass cup with +a rounded edge is then firmly applied, after the air in it has been +heated; the cooling of the air causes the formation of a partial vacuum, +and the blood is thus drawn from the neighbouring parts to the skin +under the cup. Either the blood is drawn from the patient's body through +a number of small wounds which are made in the skin, with a special +instrument, before the cup is applied; or the cup is simply applied to +the unbroken skin and the blood drawn into the subcutaneous tissue +within the circumference of the cup. The result of both methods is the +same,--namely, a withdrawal of blood locally from the inflamed part. The +former is called moist cupping, the latter dry cupping. This operation +has naturally declined in vogue with the obsolescence of blood-letting +as a remedy. + + + + +CUPRA, the name of two ancient Italian _municipia_ in Picenum. + +1. Cupra Maritima (Civita di Marano near the modern Cupra Marittima), on +the Adriatic coast, 48 m. S.S.E. of Ancona, erected in the neighbourhood +of an ancient temple of the Sabine goddess Cupra, which was restored by +Hadrian in A.D. 127, and probably (though there is some controversy on +the point) occupied the site of the church of S. Martino, some way to +the south, in which the inscription of Hadrian exists. At Civita the +remains of what was believed to be the temple were more probably those +of the forum of the town, as is indicated by the discovery of fragments +of a calendar and of a statue of Hadrian. Some statuettes of Juno were +also among the finds. An inscription of a water reservoir erected in 7 +B.C. is also recorded. But the more ancient Picene town appears to have +been situated near the hill of S. Andrea, a little way to the south, +where pre-Roman tombs have been discovered. + + See C. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_ (Stuttgart, 1901), + iv. 1760; G. Speranza, _Il Piceno_ (Ascoli Piceno, 1900), i. 119 seq. + +2. Cupra Montana, 10 m. S.W. of Aesis (mod. Jesi) by road. The village, +formerly called Massaccio, has resumed the ancient name. Its site is +fixed by inscriptions--cf. Th. Mommsen in _Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ ix. +(Berlin, 1883), p. 543; and various ruins, perhaps of baths, and remains +of subterranean aqueducts have been discovered near the church of S. +Eleuterio. + + See F. Menicucci in G. Colucci, _Antichita Picene_, xx. (1793). + + + + +CUPRITE, a mineral consisting of cuprous oxide, Cu2O, crystallizing in +the cubic system, and forming an important ore of copper, of which +element cuprite contains 88.8%. The name cuprite (from Lat. _cuprum_, +copper) was given by W. Haidinger in 1845; earlier names are red copper +ore and ruby copper, which at once distinguish this mineral from the +other native copper oxide--cupric oxide--known as black copper ore or +melaconite. Well-developed crystals are of common occurrence; they +usually have the form of the regular octahedron, sometimes in +combination with the cube and the rhombic dodecahedron. A few Cornish +crystals have been observed with faces of a form {_hkl_} known as the +pentagonal icositetrahedron, since it is bounded by twenty-four +irregular pentagons. In this class of cubic crystals there are no planes +or centre of symmetry, but the full number (thirteen) of axes of +symmetry; it is known as the trapezohedral hemihedral class, and cuprite +affords the best example of this type of symmetry. The etching figures +do not, however, conform to this lower degree of symmetry, nor do +crystals of cuprite rotate the plane of polarization of plane-polarized +light. The colour of the mineral is cochineal-red, and the lustre +brilliant and adamantine to sub-metallic in character; crystals are +often translucent, and show a crimson-red colour by transmitted light. +On prolonged exposure to light the crystals become dull and opaque. The +streak is brownish-red. Hardness 3(1/2); specific gravity 6.0; +refractive index 2.85. + +[Illustration] + +Compact to granular masses also occur, and there are two curious +varieties--chalcotrichite and tile-ore--which require special mention. +Chalcotrichite (from Gr. [Greek: chalkos], copper, and [Greek: thrix], +[Greek: trichos], hair) or "plush copper ore" is a capillary form with a +rich carmine colour and silky lustre; the delicate hairs are loosely +matted together, and each one is an individual crystal enormously +elongated in the direction of the diagonal or the edge of the cube. +Tile-ore (Ger. _Ziegelerz_) is a soft earthy variety of a brick-red to +brownish-red colour; it contains admixed limonite, and has been formed +by the alteration of chalcopyrite (copper and iron sulphide). + +Cuprite occurs in the upper part of copper-bearing lodes, and is of +secondary origin, having been produced by the alteration of copper +sulphides. Beautifully crystallized specimens were formerly found in +Wheal Gorland and Wheal Unity at Gwennap, and in Wheal Phoenix near +Liskeard in Cornwall; they also occur in the copper mines of the Urals, +and in Arizona. Isolated crystals bounded by faces on all sides, and an +inch or more in diameter, are found embedded in a soft white clay at +Chessy near Lyons; they are usually altered on the surface, or +throughout, to malachite. Chalcotrichite comes from Wheal Phoenix and +Fowey Consols mine in Cornwall, and from Morenci in Arizona; tile-ore +from Bogoslovsk in the Urals, Atacama in South America, and other +localities. Small crystals of cuprite, together with malachite, azurite +and cerussite, are sometimes found encrusting ancient objects of copper +and bronze, such as celts and Roman coins, which have for long periods +remained buried in the soil. Artificially formed crystals have been +observed in furnace products. (R. W. R.) + + + + +CUPULIFERAE, a botanical order, or, in recent arrangements, group of +orders, containing several familiar trees. The plants are trees or +shrubs with simple leaves alternately arranged and small unisexual +flowers generally arranged in catkins and pollinated by wind-agency. The +generally one-seeded nut-like fruit is associated with the persistent +often hardened or greatly enlarged bracts forming the so-called cupule +which gives the name to the group. The group is subdivided as follows, +and these subdivisions are now generally regarded either as distinct +natural orders or the first two as sub-orders of one natural order. + +_Betuleae_ or _Betulaceae_. Female flowers arranged, two to three +together on scale-like structures formed by the union of bracts, in +catkins; ovary two-celled; fruit small, flattened, protected between the +ripened scales of the catkin. Includes _Betula_ (birch) and _Alnus_ +(alder). + +_Coryleae_ or _Corylaceae_. Female flowers in pairs, the bracts +enlarging in the fruit to form a membranous cup (hazel), or a flat +three-lobed structure (hornbeam). Ovary two-celled. Includes _Corylus_ +(hazel) and _Carpinus_ (hornbeam). + +_Fagaceae_ (Cupuliferae in a restricted sense). Bracts forming a fleshy +or hard cupule which envelops the one to several fruits. Ovary +three-celled. Includes _Quercus_ (oak), _Fagus_ (beech), _Castanea_ +(sweet-chestnut). + + Detailed accounts of the trees will be found under separate headings. + + + + +CURACAO, or CURACOA, an island in the Dutch West Indies. It lies 40 m. +from the north coast of Venezuela, in 12 deg. N. and 69 deg. W., being +40 m. long from N.W. to S.E., with an average width of 10 m. and an area +of 212 sq. m. The surface is generally flat, but in the south-west there +are hills attaining an elevation of 1200 ft. The shores are in places +deeply indented, forming several natural harbours, the chief of which is +that of St Anna on the south-west coast. Curacao consists of eruptive +rocks, chiefly diorite and diabase, and is surrounded by coral reefs. +Streams are few and the rainfall is scanty, averaging only 16 in. per +annum. Although the plains are for the most part arid wastes, sugar, +aloes, tobacco and divi-divi are produced with much toil in the more +fertile glens. Salt, phosphates and cattle are exported. The commerce is +mainly with the United States, and there is a large carrying trade with +Venezuela. The famous Curacoa liqueur (see below) was originally made on +the island from a peculiar variety of orange, the _Citrus Aurantium +curassuviensis_. Willemstad (pop. about 8000), on the harbour of St. +Anna, is the principal town. It bears a strong resemblance to a Dutch +town, for the houses are built in the style of those of Amsterdam, and +the narrow channel separating it from its western suburb of Overzijde +and the waters of the Waigat, which intersect it, recall the canals. The +narrow entrance leading to the Schottegat or Inner Harbour is protected +by forts. The negroes of the island speak a curious dialect called +_Papaimento_, composed of Spanish, Dutch, English and native words. +Curacao gives name to the government of the Dutch West Indies, which +consists of Aruba, an island lying W. of Curacao, with an area of 69 sq. +m. and a population of 9591; Buen Ayre, lying 20 m. N.E., with an area +of 95 sq. m. and a population of 4926; together with St Eustatius, Saba +and part of St Martin. The governor is assisted by a council of four +members and a colonial council of eight members nominated by the crown. +The island of Curacao has a population of 30,119; and altogether the +Dutch West Indies have a population of 51,693. + +Curacao was discovered by Hojeda about 1499 and occupied by the +Spaniards in 1527. In 1634 it fell into the hands of the Dutch, who have +held it ever since, except during the year 1798 and from 1806 to 1814 +when it passed into the possession of Great Britain. + + See Wynmalen, "Les Colonies neerlandaises dans les Antilles," _Revue + colon. internat._ (1887), ii. p. 391; K. Martin, _West-Indische + Skizzen_ (Leiden, 1887); De Veer, _La Colonie de Curacoa_ (Les Pays + Bas, 1898). Also several articles on all the islands in _Tijdschrift + v. h. Ned. Aardr. Genootschap_ (1883-1886). + + + + +CURACOA, a liqueur, chiefly manufactured in Holland. It is relatively +simple in composition, the predominating flavour being obtained from the +dried peel of the Curacoa orange. The method of preparation is in +principle as follows. The peel is first softened by maceration; then a +part of the softened peel is distilled with spirit and water, and the +remainder is macerated in a portion of the distillate so obtained. After +two or three days the infusion is strained and added to the remainder of +the original distillate. This simple method is subject to variations in +manufacture, and the addition of a small quantity of Jamaica rum, in +particular, is said to much improve the flavour. Dry Curacoa contains +about 39%, the sweet variety about 36% of alcohol. A lighter variety of +Curacoa, made with fine brandy, is known as "Grand Marnier." + + + + +CURASSOW (_Cracinae_), a group of gallinaceous birds forming one of the +subfamilies of _Cracidae_, the species of which are among the largest +and most splendid of the game birds of South America, where they may be +said to represent the pheasants of the Old World. They are large, heavy +birds, many of them rivalling the turkey in size, with short wings, long +and broad tail, and strong bill. In common with the family to which they +belong, they have the hind toe of the foot placed on a level with the +others, thus resembling the pigeons, and unlike the majority of +gallinaceous birds. With the exception of a single species found north +of Panama, the curassows are confined to the tropical forests of South +America, east of the Andes, and not extending south of Paraguay. They +live in small flocks, and are arboreal in their habits, only +occasionally descending to the ground, while always roosting and +building their nests on the branches of trees. Their nests are neat +structures, made of slender branches interlaced with stems of grass, and +lined internally with leaves. They feed on fruits, seeds and insects. +They are often tamed in several parts of South America, but have never +been thoroughly domesticated anywhere. Large numbers of these birds +were, according to K. J. Temminck, brought to Holland from Dutch Guiana +towards the end of the 18th century, and got so completely acclimatized +and domesticated as to breed in confinement like ordinary poultry; but +the establishments in which these were kept were broken up during the +troubles that followed on the French Revolution. Their flesh is said to +be exceedingly white and delicate, and this, together with their size +and the beauty of their plumage, would make the curassows an important +gain to the poultry yards of Europe, if they were not such bad breeders. +The subfamily of curassows contains four genera and twelve species, all +confined to South America, with the exception of _Crax globicera_--a +Central American species, which extends northward into Mexico. This bird +is about 3 ft. in length, of a glossy black colour over the whole body, +excepting the abdomen and tail coverts, which are white. In common with +the other species of this genus its head bears a crest of feathers +curled forward at the tips, which can be raised or depressed at will. +The female is of a reddish-brown colour, although varying greatly in +this respect, and was formerly described as a separate species--the red +curassow. In another species, _Crax incommoda_, the greater part of the +black plumage is beautifully varied with narrow transverse bars of +white. The galeated curassow (_Pauxi galeata_) is peculiar in having a +large blue tubercle, hard and stony externally, but cellular within, and +resembling a hen's egg in size and shape, situated at the base of the +hill. It only appears after the first moulting, and is much larger in +the male than in the female. + + + + +CURATE (from the Lat. _curare_, to take care of), properly a presbyter +who has the cure of souls within a parish. The term is used in this +general sense in certain rubrics of the English Book of Common Prayer, +in which it is applied equally to rectors and vicars as to perpetual +curates. So, on the continent of Europe, it is applied in this sense to +parish priests, as the Fr. _cure_, Ital. _curato_, Span. _cura_, &c. In +a more limited sense it is applied in the Church of England to the +incumbent of a parish who has no endowment of tithes, as distinguished +from a perpetual vicar, who has an endowment of small tithes, which are +for that reason sometimes styled vicarial tithes. The origin of such +unendowed curacies is traceable to the fact that benefices were +sometimes granted to religious houses _pleno jure_, and with liberty for +them to provide for the cure; and when such appropriations were +transferred to lay persons, being unable to serve themselves, the +impropriators were required to nominate a clerk in full orders to the +ordinary for his licence to serve the cure. Such curates, being not +removable at the pleasure of the impropriators, but only on due +revocation of the licence of the ordinary, came to be entitled perpetual +curates. The term "curate" in the present day is almost exclusively used +to signify a clergyman who is assistant to a rector or vicar, by whom he +is employed and paid; and a clerk in deacon's orders is competent to be +licensed by a bishop to the office of such assistant curate. The +consequence of this misuse of the term "curate" was that the title of +"perpetual curate" fell into desuetude in the Anglican Church, and an +act of parliament (1868) was passed to authorize perpetual curates to +style themselves vicars (see VICAR). The term is in use in the Roman +Catholic Church in Ireland to designate an assistant clergyman, and also +to a certain extent in the American Episcopal Church, though "assistant +minister" is usually preferred. + + + + +CURATOR (Lat. for "one who takes care," _curare_, to take care of), in +Roman law the "caretaker" or guardian of a spendthrift (_prodigus_) or +of a person of unsound mind (_furiosus_), and, more particularly, one +who takes charge of the estate of an _adolescens_, i.e. of a person _sui +juris_, above the age of a _pupillus_, fourteen or twelve years, +according to sex, and below the full age of twenty-five. Such persons +were known as "minors," i.e. _minores viginti quinque annis_. While the +tutor, the guardian of the _pupillus_, was said to be appointed for the +care of the person, the curator took charge of the property. The term +survives in Scots law for the guardian of one in the second stage of +minority, i.e. below twenty-one, and above fourteen, if a male, and +twelve, if a female. Under the Roman empire the title of curator was +given to several officials who were in charge of departments of public +administration, such as the _curatores annonae_, of the public supplies +of corn and oil, or the _curatores regionum_, who were responsible for +order in the fourteen _regiones_ or districts into which the city of +Rome was divided, and who protected the citizen from exaction in the +collection of taxes; the _curatores aquarum_ had the charge of the +aqueducts. Many of these curatorships were instituted by Augustus. In +modern usage "curator" is applied chiefly to the keeper of a museum, art +collection, public gallery, &c., but in many universities to an official +or member of a board having a general control over the university, or +with the power of electing to professorships. In the university of +Oxford "curators" are nominated to administer certain departments, such +as the University Chest. + + + + +CURCI, CARLO MARIA (1810-1891), Italian theologian, was born at Naples. +He joined the Jesuits in 1826, and for some time was devoted to +educational work and the care of the poor and prisoners. He became one +of the first editors of the Jesuit organ, the _Civilta Cattolica_; but +then came under the influence of Gioberti, Rosmini and other advocates +for reform. He wrote a preface to Gioberti's _Primato_ (1843), but +dissented from his _Prolegomena_. After the events of 1870, Curci, at +Florence, delivered a course on Christian philosophy; and in 1874 began +to publish several Scriptural works. In his edition of the New Testament +(1879-1880) he makes some severe remarks on the neglect of the study of +Scripture amongst the Italian clergy. In the meantime he began to attack +the political action of the Vatican, and in his _Il Moderno Dissidio tra +la Chiesa e l'Italia_ (1878) he advocated an understanding between the +church and state. This was followed by _La Nuova Italia ed i Vecchi +Zelanti_ (1881), another attack on the Vatican policy; and by his +_Vaticano Regio_ (1883), in which he accuses the Vatican of trafficking +in holy things and declares that the taint of worldliness came from the +false principles accepted by the Curia. His former work at Naples drew +him also in the direction of Christian Socialism. He was condemned at +Rome, and in a letter to _The Times_ (10th of September 1884) declares +that it was on account of his disobedience to the decrees of the Roman +Congregation: "I am a dutiful son of the Church who hesitates to obey an +order of his mother because he does not see clear enough the maternal +authority in it." He was cast out of the Society of Jesus and suspended, +and during this time Cardinal Manning put his purse at Curci's disposal. +Finally he accepted the decrees against him and retracted "all that he +said contrary to the faith, morals and discipline of the Church." He +passed the remainder of his life in retirement at Florence, and, a few +months before his death, was readmitted to the Jesuit Society. He died +on the 8th of June 1891. (E. Tn.) + + + + +CUREL, FRANCOIS, VICOMTE DE (1854- ), French dramatist, was born at +Metz on the 10th of June 1854. He was educated at the Ecole Centrale as +a civil engineer, the family wealth being derived from smelting works. +He began his literary career with two novels, _L'Ete des fruits secs_ +(1885) and _Le Sauvetage du grand duc_ (1889). In 1891 three pieces were +accepted by the Theatre Libre. The list of his plays includes _L'Envers +d'une sainte_ (1892); _Les Fossiles_ (1892), a picture of the prejudices +of the provincial nobility; _L'Invitee_ (1893), the story of a mother +who returns to her children after twenty years' separation; _L'Amour +brode_ (1893), which was withdrawn by the author from the Theatre +Francais after the second representation; _La Figurante_ (1896); _Le +Repas du lion_ (1898), dealing with the relations between capital and +labour; _La Fille sauvage_ (1902), the history of the development of the +religious idea; _La Nouvelle Idole_ (1899), dealing with the worship of +science; and _Le Coup d'aile_ (1906). + + See also _Contemporary Review_ for August 1903. + + + + + +CURELY, JEAN NICOLAS (1774-1827), French cavalry leader, was the son of +a poor peasant of Lorraine. Joining, in 1793, a regiment of hussars, he +served with great distinction as private and as _sous-officier_ in the +Rhine campaigns from 1794 to 1800. He was, however, still a +non-commissioned officer of twelve years' service, when at Afflenz (12th +of November 1805) he attacked and defeated, with twenty-five men, a +whole regiment of Austrian cavalry. This brilliant feat of arms won him +the grade of _sous-lieutenant_, and the reputation of being one of the +men of the future. The next two campaigns of the _Grande Armee_ gained +him two more promotions, and as a captain of hussars he performed, in +the campaign of Wagram, a feat of even greater daring than the affair of +Afflenz. Entrusted with despatches for the viceroy of Italy, Curely, +with forty troopers, made his way through the Austrian lines, +reconnoitred everywhere, even in the very headquarters-camp of the +archduke John, and finally accomplished his mission in safety. This +exploit, only to be compared to the famous raids of the American Civil +War, and almost unparalleled in European war, gained him the grade of +_chef d'escadrons_, in which for some years he served in the Peninsular +War. Under Gouvion St Cyr he took part in the Russian War of 1812, and +in 1813 was promoted colonel. In the campaign of France (1814) Curely, +now general of brigade, commanded a brigade of "improvised" cavalry, and +succeeded in infusing into this unpromising material some of his own +daring spirit. His regiments distinguished themselves in several +combats, especially at the battle of Arcis-sur-Aube. The Restoration +government looked with suspicion on the most dashing cavalry leader of +the younger generation, and in 1815 Curely, who during the Hundred Days +had rallied to his old leader, was placed on the retired list. +Withdrawing to the little estate of Jaulny (near Thiaucourt), which was +his sole property, he lived in mournful retirement, which was saddened +still further when in 1824 he was suddenly deprived of his rank. This +last blow hastened his death. Curely, had he arrived at high command +earlier, would have been ranked with Lasalle and Montbrun, but his +career, later than theirs in beginning, was ended by the fall of +Napoleon. His devoted friend, De Brack, in his celebrated work _Light +Cavalry Outposts_, considers Curely incomparable as a leader of light +cavalry, and the portrait of Curely to be found in its pages is justly +ranked as one of the masterpieces of military literature. The general +himself left but a modest manuscript, which was left for a subsequent +generation to publish. + + See also Thoumas, _Le General Curely: itineraires d'un Cavalier leger, + 1793-1815_ (Paris, 1887). + + + + +CURES, a Sabine town between the left bank of the Tiber and the Via +Salaria, about 26 m. from Rome. According to the legend, it was from +Cures that Titus Tatius led to the Quirinal the Sabine settlers, from +whom, after their union with the settlers on the Palatine, the whole +Roman people took the name Quirites. It was also renowned as the +birthplace of Numa, and its importance among the Sabines at an early +period is indicated by the fact that its territory is often called +simply _ager Sabinus_. At the beginning of the imperial period it is +spoken of as an unimportant place, but seems to have risen to greater +prosperity in the 2nd century. It appears as the seat of a bishop in the +5th century, but seems to have been destroyed by the Lombards in A.D. +589. The site consists of a hill with two summits, round the base of +which runs the Fosso Corese: the western summit was occupied by the +necropolis, the eastern by the citadel, and the lower ground between the +two by the city itself. A temple, the forum, the baths, &c., were +excavated in 1874-1877. + + See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, iii. 34. + (T. As.) + + + + +CURETES (Gr. [Greek: Kouretes] and [Greek: Kouretes]). (1) A legendary +people mentioned by Homer (_Il._ ix. 529 ff.) as taking part in the +quarrel over the Calydonian boar. They were identified in antiquity as +either Aetolians or Acarnanians (Strabo 462, 26), and were also +represented by a stock in Chalcis in Euboea. (2) In mythology +(unconnected with the above), the attendants of Rhea. The story went +that they saved the infant Zeus from his father Cronus in Crete by +surrounding his cradle and with clashing of sword and shield preventing +his cries from being heard, and thus became the body-guard of the god +and the first priests of Zeus and Rhea. In historic times the cult of +the Curetes was widely known in Greece in connexion with that of Rhea +(q.v.). Its ceremonies consisted principally in the performance of the +Pyrrhic dance to the accompaniment of hymns and flute music, by the +priests, who represented and thus commemorated the original act of the +Curetes themselves. The dance was originally distinguished from that of +the Corybantes by its comparative moderation, and took on the full +character of the latter only after the cult of the Great Mother, Cybele, +to which it belonged, spread to Greek soil. The origin of the dance may +have lain in the supposed efficacy of noise in averting evil. + +The Curetes are represented in art with shield and sword performing the +sacred dance about the infant Zeus, sometimes in the presence of a +female figure which may be Rhea. Their number in art is usually two or +three, but in literature is sometimes as high as ten. Of their names the +following have survived: Kures, Kres, Biennos, Eleuther, Itanos, +Labrandos, Panamoros, Palaxos; but no complete list of names is possible +because of their confusion with the names of the Corybantes and other +like deities. Their origin is variously related: they were earth-born, +sprung of the rain, sons of Zeus and Hera, sons of Apollo and Danais, +sons of Rhea, of the Dactyli, contemporary with the Titans (Diod. Sic. +v. 66). Rationalism made them the mortal sons of a mortal Zeus, or +originators of the Pyrrhic dance, inventors of weapons, fosterers of +agriculture, regulators of social life, &c. A plausible theory is that +of Georg Kaibel (_Gottinger Nachrichten_, 1901, pp. 512-514), who sees +in them, together with the Corybantes, Cabeiri, Dactyli, Telchines, +Titans, &c., only the same beings under different names at different +times and in different places. Kaibel holds that they all had a phallic +significance, having once been great primitive deities of procreation, +and that having fallen to an indistinct, subordinate position in the +course of the development and formalization of Greek religion, they +survive in historic times only as half divine, half demonic beings, +worshipped in connexion with the various forms of the great nature +goddess. The resemblances, especially between Rhea and her Curetes and +the Great Mother and her Corybantes (q.v.), were so striking that their +origins were inextricably confused even in the minds of the ancients: +e.g. Demetrius of Scepsis (Strabo 469, 12) derives the Curetes and Rhea +from the cult of the Great Mother in Asia, while Virgil (_Aen._ iii. +111) looks upon the latter and the Corybantes as derivations from the +former. The worship of both was akin in nature to that of the Dactyli, +the Cabeiri, and even of Dionysus, the special visible bond being the +orgiastic character of their rites. + + Consult Immisch in Roscher's _Lexicon_, s.v. "Kureten." (G. Sn.) + + + + +CURETON, WILLIAM (1808-1864), English Orientalist, was born at Westbury, +in Shropshire. After being educated at the free grammar school of +Newport, and at Christ Church, Oxford, he took orders in 1832, became +chaplain of Christ Church, sub-librarian of the Bodleian, and, in 1837, +assistant keeper of MSS. in the British Museum. He was afterwards +appointed select preacher to the university of Oxford, chaplain in +ordinary to the queen, rector of St Margaret's, Westminster, and canon +of Westminster. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society and a +trustee of the British Museum, and was also honoured by several +continental societies. He died on the 17th of June 1864. + + Cureton's most remarkable work was the edition with notes and an + English translation of the Epistles of Ignatius to Polycarp, the + Ephesians and the Romans, from a Syriac MS. that had been found in the + monastery of St Mary Deipara, in the desert of Nitria, near Cairo. He + held that the MS. he used gave the truest text, that all other texts + were inaccurate, and that the epistles contained in the MS. were the + only genuine epistles of Ignatius that we possess--a view which + received the support of F. C. Baur, Bunsen, and many others, but which + was opposed by Charles Wordsworth and by several German scholars, and + is now generally abandoned (see IGNATIUS). Cureton supported his view + by his _Vindiciae Ignatianae_ and his _Corpus Ignatianum,--a Complete + Collection of the Ignatian Epistles, genuine, interpolated and + spurious_. He also edited a partial Syriac text of the _Festal Letters + of St Athanasius_, which was translated into English by Henry Burgess + (1854), and published in the _Library of Fathers of the Holy Catholic + Church_; _Remains of a very Ancient Recension of the Four Gospels in + Syriac, hitherto unknown in Europe_; _Spicilegium Syriacum, containing + Remains of Bardesan, Meliton, Ambrose, Mara Bar Serapion_; _The third + Part of the Ecclesiastical History of John, Bishop of Ephesus_, which + was translated by Payne Smith; _Fragments of the Iliad of Homer from a + Syriac Palimpsest_; an Arabic work known as the _Thirty-first Chapter + of the Book entitled The Lamp that guides to Salvation_, written by a + Christian of Tekrit; _The Book of Religious and Philosophical Sects_, + by Muhammed al Sharastani; a _Commentary on the Book of Lamentations_, + by Rabbi Tanchum; and the _Pillar of the Creed of the Sunnites_. + Cureton also published several sermons, among which was one entitled + _The Doctrine of the Trinity not Speculative but Practical_. After his + death Dr W. Wright edited with a preface the _Ancient Syriac Documents + relative to the earliest Establishment of Christianity in Edessa and + the neighbouring Countries, from the Year of our Lord's Ascension to + the beginning of the Fourth Century; discovered, edited and annotated + by the late W. Cureton_. + + + + +CURETUS, a tribe of South American Indians, inhabiting the country +between the rivers of Japura and Uaupes, north-western Brazil. They are +short but sturdy, wear their hair long, and paint their bodies. Their +houses are circular, with walls of thatch and a high conical roof. They +are a peaceable people, living in small villages, each of which is +governed by a chief. + + + + +CURFEW, CURFEU or COUVRE-FEU, a signal, as by tolling a bell, to warn +the inhabitants of a town to extinguish their fires or cover them up +(hence the name) and retire to rest. This was a common practice +throughout Europe during the middle ages, especially in cities taken in +war. In the law Latin of those times it was termed _ignitegium_ or +_pyritegium_. In medieval Venice it was a regulation from which only the +Barbers' Quarter was exempt, doubtless because they were also surgeons +and their services might be needed during the night. The curfew +originated in the fear of fire when most cities were built of timber. +That it was a most useful and practical measure is obvious when it is +remembered that the household fire was usually made in a hole in the +middle of the floor, under an opening in the roof through which the +smoke escaped. The custom is commonly said to have been introduced into +England by William the Conqueror, who ordained, under severe penalties, +that at the ringing of the curfew-bell at eight o'clock in the evening +all lights and fires should be extinguished. But as there is good reason +to believe that the curfew-bell was rung each night at Carfax, Oxford +(see Peshall, _Hist. of Oxford_), in the reign of Alfred the Great, it +would seem that all William did was to enforce more strictly an existing +regulation. The absolute prohibition of lights after the ringing of the +curfew-bell was abolished by Henry I. in 1100. The practice of tolling a +bell at a fixed hour in the evening, still extant in many places, is a +survival of the ancient curfew. The common hour was at first seven, and +it was gradually advanced to eight, and in some places to nine o'clock. +In Scotland ten was not an unusual hour. In early Roman times curfew may +possibly have served a political purpose by obliging people to keep +within doors, thus preventing treasonable nocturnal assemblies, and +generally assisting in the preservation of law and order. The ringing of +the "prayer-bell," as it is called, which is still practised in some +Protestant countries, originated in that of the curfew-bell. In 1848 the +curfew was still rung at Hastings, Sussex, from Michaelmas to Lady-Day, +and this was the custom too at Wrexham, N. Wales. + + + + +CURIA, in ancient Rome, a section of the Roman people, according to an +ancient division traditionally ascribed to Romulus. He is said to have +divided the people into three tribes, and to have subdivided each of +these into ten _curiae_, each of which contained a number of families +(_gentes_). It is more probable that the _curiae_ were not purely +artificial creations, but represent natural associations of families, +artificially regulated and distributed to serve a political purpose. The +local names of _curiae_ which have come down to us suggest a local +origin for the groups; but as membership was hereditary, the local tie +doubtless grew weak with successive generations. Each _curia_ was +organized as a political and religious unit. As a political corporation +it had no recognized activities beyond the command of a vote in the +_Comitia Curiata_ (see COMITIA), a vote whose nature was determined by a +majority in the votes of the individual members (_curiales_). But as a +religious unit the _curia_ had more individual activity. There were, it +is true, ceremonies (_sacra_) performed by all the _curiae_ to _Juno +Curis_ in which each _curia_ offered its part in a collective rite of +the whole people; but each _curia_ had also its peculiar _sacra_ and its +own special place of worship. The religious affairs of each were +conducted by a priest called _curio_ assisted by a _flamen curialis_. +The thirty _curiae_ must always have comprised the whole Roman people; +for citizenship depended on membership of a _gens_ (_gentilitas_) and +every member of a _gens_ was _ipso facto_ attached to a _curia_. They +therefore included plebeians as well as patricians (q.v.) from the date +at which plebeians were recognized as free members of the body politic. +But, just as enjoyment of the full rights of _gentilitas_ was only very +gradually granted to plebeians, so it is probable that a plebeian did +not, when admitted through a _gens_ into a _curia_, immediately exercise +all the rights of a _curialis_. It is unlikely, for instance, that +plebeians voted in the Comitia Curiata at the early date implied by the +authorities; but it is probable that they acquired the right early in +the republican period, and certain that they enjoyed it in Cicero's +time. A plebeian was for the first time elected _curio maximus_ in 209 +B.C. The _curia_ ceased to have any importance as a political +organization some time before the close of the republican period. But +its religious importance survived during the principate; for the two +festivals of the Fornacalia and the Fordicidia were celebrated by the +_Curiales_ (Ovid, _Fasti_, ii. 527, iv. 635). + +The term _curia_ seems often to have been applied to the common shrine +of the _curiales_, and thus to other places of assembly. Hence the +ancient senate house at Rome was known as the Curia Hostilia. The +_curia_ was also adopted as a state division in a large number of +municipal towns; and the term was often applied to the senate in +municipal towns (see DECURIO), probably from the name of the old senate +house at Rome. + + AUTHORITIES.--Mommsen, _Romisches Staatsrecht_, iii. p. 89 ff. + (Leipzig, 1887); _Romische Forschungen_ i. p. 140 ff. (Berlin, 1864, + &c.); Clason, "Die Zusammensetzung der Curien und ihrer Comitien" + (_Kritische Erorterungen_ i., Rostock, 1871); Karlowa, _Romische + Rechtsgeschichte_, i. p. 382 ff. (Leipzig, 1885); E. Hofmann, + _Patricische und plebeische Curien_ (Wien, 1879); for the + _Fornacalia_, &c., Marquardt, _Staatsverwaltung_, iii. p. 197 + (Leipzig, 1885); for local names of curiae, Pauly-Wissowa, + _Realencyclopadie_, iv. p. 1822 (new edition, 1893, &c.); O. Gilbert, + _Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt Rom_ (Leipzig, 1883); for + municipal _curiae_, Mommsen, in _Ephemeris epigraphica_, ii. p. 125; + Schmidt, in _Rheinisches Museum_, xlv. (1890) p. 599 ff. On the Roman + comitia in general see also G. W. Botsford, _Roman Assemblies_ (1909). + (A. M. Cl.) + +In medieval Latin the word _curia_ was used in the general sense of +"court." It was thus used of "the court," meaning the royal household +(_aula_); of "courts" in the sense of solemn assemblies of the great +nobles summoned by the king (_curiae solennes_, &c.); of courts of law +generally, whether developed out of the imperial or royal _curia_ (see +CURIA REGIS) or not (e.g. _curia baronis_, Court Baron, _curia +christianitatis_, Court Christian). Sometimes _curia_ means +jurisdiction, or the territory over which jurisdiction is exercised; +whence possibly its use, instead of _cortis_, for an enclosed space, the +court-yard of a house, or for the house itself (cf. the English "court," +e.g. Hampton Court, and the Ger. _Hof_). The word Curia is now only used +of the court of Rome, as a convenient term to express the sum of the +organs that make up the papal government (see CURIA ROMANA). + + See Du Cange, _Gloss. med. et inf. Lat._ (1883), s.v. "Curia." + + + + +CURIA REGIS, or AULA REGIS, a term used in England from the time of the +Norman Conquest to about the end of the 13th century to describe a +council and a court of justice, the composition and functions of which +varied considerably from time to time. Meaning in general the "king's +court," it is difficult to define the _curia regis_ with precision, but +it is important and interesting because it is the germ from which the +higher courts of law, the privy council and the cabinet, have sprung. It +was, at first the general council of the king, or the _commune +concilium_, i.e. the feudal assembly of the tenants-in-chief; but it +assumed a more definite character during the reign of Henry I., when its +members, fewer in number, were the officials of the royal household and +other friends and attendants of the king. It was thus practically a +committee of the larger council, and assisted the king in his judicial +work, its authority being as undefined as his own. About the same time +the _curia_ undertook financial duties, and in this way was the parent +of the court of exchequer (_curia regis ad scaccarium_). The members +were called "justices," and in the king's absence the chief justiciar +presided over the court. A further step was taken by Henry II. In 1178 +he appointed five members of the _curia_ to form a special court of +justice, and these justices, unlike the other members of the _curia_, +were not to follow the king's court from place to place, but were to +remain in one place. Thus the court of king's bench (_curia regis de +banco_) was founded, and the foundation of the court of common pleas was +provided for in one of the articles of Magna Carta. The court of +chancery is also an offshoot of the _curia regis_. About the time of +Edward I. the executive and advising duties of the _curia regis_ were +discharged by the king's secret council, the later privy council, which +is thus connected with the _curia regis_, and from the privy council has +sprung the cabinet. + + In his work _Tractatus de legibus Angliae_, Ranulf de Glanvill treats + of the procedure of the _curia regis_ as a court of law. See W. + Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. i. (Oxford, 1883); R. Gneist, + _Englische Verfassungsgeschichte_, English translation by P. A. + Ashworth (London, 1891); A. V. Dicey, _The Privy Council_ (London, + 1887); and the article PRIVY COUNCIL. (A. W. H.*) + + + + +CURIA ROMANA, the name given to the whole body of administrative and +judicial institutions, by means of which the pope carries on the general +government of the Church; the name is also applied by an extension of +meaning to the persons who form part of it, and sometimes to the Holy +See itself. Rome is almost the only place where the word _curia_ has +preserved its ancient form; elsewhere it has been almost always replaced +by the word court (_cour_, _corte_), which is etymologically the same. +Even at Rome, however, the expression "papal court" (_corte romana_) has +acquired by usage a sense different from that of the word _curia_; as in +the case of royal courts it denotes the whole body of dignitaries and +officials who surround and attend on the pope; the pope, however, has +two establishments: the civil establishment, in which he is surrounded +by what is termed his "family" (_familia_); and the religious +establishment, the members of which form his "chapel" (_capella_). The +word curia is more particularly reserved to the tribunals and +departments which actually deal with the general business of the Church. + + + General remarks. + +I. In order to understand the organization of the various constituent +parts of the Roman Curia, we must remember that the modern principle of +the separation of powers is unknown to the Church; the functions of each +department are limited solely by the extent of the powers delegated to +it and the nature of the business entrusted to it; but each of them may +have a share at the same time in the legislative, judicial and +administrative power. Similarly, the necessity for referring matters to +the pope in person, for his approval or ratification of the decisions +arrived at, varies greatly according to the department and the nature of +the business. But on the whole, all sections of the Curia hold their +powers direct from the pope, and exercise them in his name. Each of +them, then, has supreme authority within its own sphere, while the +official responsibility belongs to the pope, just as in all governments +it is the government that is responsible for the acts of its +departments. Of these official acts, however, it is possible to +distinguish two categories: those emanating directly from the heads of +departments are generally called Acts of the Holy See (and in this sense +the Holy See is equivalent to the Curia); those which emanate direct +from the pope are called Pontifical Acts. The latter are actually the +Apostolic Letters, i.e. those documents in which the pope speaks in his +own name (bulls, briefs, encyclicals, &c.) even when he does not sign +them, as we shall see. The Apostolic Letters alone may be _ex cathedra_ +documents, and may have the privilege of infallibility, if the matter +admit of it. There are also certain differences between the two sorts of +documents with regard to their penal consequences. But in all cases the +disciplinary authority is evidently the same; we need only note that +acts concerning individuals do not claim the force of general law; the +legal decisions serve at most to settle matters of jurisprudence, like +the judgments of all sovereign courts. + + + Division. + +The constituent parts of the Roman Curia fall essentially into two +classes: (1) the tribunals and offices, which for centuries served for +the transaction of business and which continue their activity; (2) the +permanent commissions of cardinals, known by the name of the Roman +Congregations. These, though more recent, have taken precedence of the +former, the work of which they have, moreover, greatly relieved; they +are indeed composed of the highest dignitaries of the church, the +cardinals (q.v.), and are, as it were, subdivisions of the consistory +(q.v.), a council in which the whole of the Sacred College takes part. + + + Roman Congregations. + +II. _The Roman Congregations._--The constitution of all of these is the +same; a council varying in numbers, the members of which are cardinals, +who alone take part in the deliberations. One of the cardinals acts as +president, or prefect, as he is called; the congregation is assisted by +a secretary and a certain number of inferior officials, for secretarial +and office work. They have also consultors, whose duty it is to study +the subjects for consideration. Their deliberations are secret and are +based on prepared documents bearing on the case, written, or more often +printed, which are distributed to all the cardinals about ten days in +advance. The deliberations follow a simplified procedure, which is +founded more on equity than on the more strictly legal forms, and +decisions are given in the shortest possible form, in answer to +carefully formulated questions or _dubia_. The cardinal prefect, aided +by the secretariate, deals with the ordinary business, only important +matters being submitted for the consideration of the general meeting. To +have the force of law the acts of the congregations must be signed by +the cardinal prefect and secretary, and sealed with his seal. +Practically the only exception is in the cases of the Holy Office, and +of the Consistorial Congregation of which the pope himself is prefect; +the acts of the first are signed by the "notary," and the acts of the +second by the assessor. + +We may pass over those temporary congregations of cardinals known also +as "special," the authority and existence of which extend only to the +consideration of one particular question; and also those which had as +their object various aspects of the temporal administration of the papal +states, which have ceased to exist since 1870. We deal here only with +the permanent ecclesiastical congregations, the real machinery of the +papal administration. Some of them go quite far back into the 16th +century; but it was Sixtus V. who was their great organizer; by his bull +_Immensa_ of the 22nd of January 1587, he apportioned all the business +of the Church (including that of the papal states) among fifteen +Congregations of cardinals, some of which were already in existence, but +most of which were established by him; and these commissions, or those +of them at least which are concerned with spiritual matters, are still +working. A few others have been added by his successors. Pius X., by the +constitution _Sapienti Consilio_ of the 29th of June 1908, proceeded to +a general reorganization of the Roman Curia: Congregations, tribunals +and offices. In this constitution he declared that the competency of +these various organs was not always clear, and that their functions were +badly arranged; that certain of them had only a small amount of business +to deal with, while others were overworked; that strictly judicial +affairs, with which the Congregations had not to deal originally, had +developed to an excessive extent, while the tribunals, the Rota and the +Signatura, had nothing to do. He consequently withdrew all judicial +affairs from the Congregations, and handed them over to the two +tribunals, now revived, of the Rota and the papal Signatura; all affairs +concerning the discipline of the sacraments were entrusted to a new +Congregation of that name; the competency of the remaining Congregations +was modified, according to the nature of the affairs with which they +deal, and certain of them were amalgamated with others; general rules +were laid down for the expedition of business and regarding _personnel_; +in short, the work of Sixtus V. was repeated and adapted to later +conditions. We will now give the nomenclature of the Roman +Congregations, as they were until 1908, and mentioning the modifications +made by Pius X. + + + The Holy Office. + +(1) The Holy Inquisition, Roman and universal, or Holy Office (_Sacra +Congregatio Romanae et universalis Inquisitionis seu Sancti Officii_), +the first of the Congregations, hence called the supreme. It is composed +of twelve cardinals, assisted by a certain number of officials: the +assessor, who practically fulfils the functions of the secretary, the +commissary general, some consultors and the qualificators, whose duty it +is to determine the degree of theological condemnation deserved by +erroneous doctrinal propositions (_haeretica_, _erronea_, _temeraria_, +&c.). The presidency is reserved to the pope, and the cardinal of +longest standing takes the title of secretary. This Congregation, +established in 1542 by Paul III., constitutes the tribunal of the +Inquisition (q.v.), of which the origins are much older, since it was +instituted in the 13th century against the Albigenses. It deals with all +questions of doctrine and with the repression of heresy, together with +those crimes which are more or less of the character of heresy. Its +procedure is subject to the strictest secrecy. Pius X. attached to it +all matters concerning indulgences; on the other hand, he transferred to +the Congregation of the Council matters concerning the precepts of the +Church such as fasting, abstinence and festivals. The choosing of +bishops, which had in recent times been entrusted to the Holy Office, +was given to the Consistorial Congregation, and dispensations from +religious vows to the Congregation of the Religious Orders. The Holy +Office continues, however, to deal with mixed marriages and marriages +with infidels. + + + Consistorial. + +(2) The Consistorial Congregation (_Sacra Congregatio Consistorialis_), +established by Sixtus V., has as its object the preparation of business +to be dealt with and decided in secret consistory (q.v.); notably +promotions to cathedral churches and consistorial benefices, the +erection of dioceses, &c. To this congregation is also subject the +administration of the common property of the college of cardinals. Pius +X. restored this Congregation to a position of great importance; in the +first place he gave it the effective control of all matters concerning +the erection of dioceses and chapters and the appointment of bishops, +except in the case of countries subject to the Propaganda, and save that +for countries outside Italy it has to act upon information furnished by +the papal secretary of state. He further entrusted to this Congregation +everything relating to the supervision of bishops and of the condition +of the dioceses, and business connected with the seminaries. It has also +the duty of deciding disputes as to the competency of the other +Congregations. The pope continues to be its prefect, and the cardinal +secretary of the Holy Office and the secretary of state are _ex officio_ +members of it; the cardinal who occupies the highest rank in it, with +the title of secretary, is chosen by the pope; he is assisted by a +prelate with the title of assessor, who is _ex officio_ secretary of the +Sacred College. The assessor of the Holy Office and the secretary for +extraordinary ecclesiastical affairs are _ex officio_ consultors. + +(3) The Pontifical Commission for the reunion of the dissident Churches, +established by Leo XIII. in 1895 after his constitution _Orientalium_. +The pope reserved the presidency for himself; its activity is merely +nominal. It was attached by Pius X. to the Congregation of the +Propaganda. + + + The Visitation. + +(4) The Congregation of the Apostolic Visitation (_Sacra Congregatio +Visitationis apostolicae_). The Visitation is the personal inspection of +institutions, churches, religious establishments and their _personnel_, +to correct abuses and enforce the observation of rules. Through this +Congregation the pope, as bishop of Rome, made the inspection of his +diocese; it is for this reason that he was president of this commission, +the most important member of which was the cardinal vicar. He takes the +place of the pope in the administration of the diocese of Rome; he has +his own offices and diocesan assistants as in other bishoprics. The +Congregation of the Visitation was suppressed by Pius X. as a separate +Congregation, and was reduced to a mere commission which is attached, +as before, to the Vicariate. + +(5) The Congregation on the discipline of the sacraments (_Sacra +Congregatio de Disciplina Sacramentorum_), established by Pius X., thus +comes to occupy the third rank. With the reservation of those questions, +especially of a dogmatic character, which belong to the Holy Office, and +of purely ritual questions, which come under the Congregation of Rites, +this Congregation brings under one authority all disciplinary questions +concerning the sacraments, which were formerly distributed among several +Congregations and offices. It deals with dispensations for marriages, +ordinations, &c., concessions with regard to the mass, the communion, +&c. + + + Bishops and Regulars. + +(6) The Congregation of the Bishops and Regulars, of which the full +official title was, Congregation for the Affairs and Consultations of +the Bishops and Regulars (_Sacra Congregatio super negotiis Episcoporum +et Regularium_; now _Sacra Congregatio negotiis religiosorum sodalium +praeposita_). It is the result of the fusion of two previous +commissions; that for the affairs of bishops, established by Gregory +XIII., and that for the affairs of the regular clergy, founded by Sixtus +V.; the fusion dates from Clement VIII. (1601). This congregation was +very much occupied, being empowered to deal with all disciplinary +matters concerning both the secular and regular clergy, whether in the +form of consultations or of contentious suits; it had further the +exclusive right to regulate the discipline of the religious orders and +congregations bound by the simple vows, the statutes of which it +examined, corrected and approved; finally it judged disputes and +controversies between the secular and regular clergy. On the 26th of May +1906, Pius X. incorporated in this Congregation two others having a +similar object: that on the discipline of the regular clergy +(_Congregatio super Disciplina Regularium_), founded by Innocent XII. in +1695, and that on the condition of the regular clergy (_Congregatio +super Statu Regularium_), established by Pius IX. in 1846. In 1908 Pius +X. withdrew from this Congregation all disciplinary matters affecting +the secular clergy, and limited its competency to matters concerning the +religious orders, both as regards their internal affairs and their +relations with the bishops. + + + Council. + +(7) The Congregation of the Council (_Sacra Congregatio Cardinalium +Concilii Tridentini interpretum_), i.e. a number of cardinals whose duty +it is to interpret the disciplinary decrees of the council of Trent, was +instituted by Pius IV. in 1563, and reorganized by Sixtus V.; its +mission is to promote the observation of these disciplinary decrees, to +give authoritative interpretations of them, and to reconcile disputes +arising out of them. Pius X. in 1908 entrusted to this Congregation the +supervision of the general discipline of the secular clergy and the +faithful laity, empowering it to deal with matters concerning the +precepts of the Church, festivals, foundations, church property, +benefices, provincial councils and episcopal assemblies. Proceedings for +annulling marriages, which used to be reserved to it, were transferred +to the tribunal of the Rota; reports on the condition of the dioceses +were henceforth to be addressed to the Consistorial Congregation, which +involved the suppression of the commission which had hitherto dealt with +them. The other commission, formerly charged with the revision of the +decrees of provincial councils, was merged in the Congregation itself. +The Congregation of Immunity (_Sacra Congregatio Jurisdictionis et +Immunitatis ecclesiasticae_) was created by Urban VIII. (1626) to watch +over the immunities of the clergy in respect of person or property, +whether local or general. This, having no longer any object, was also +attached to the Congregation of the Council, and is now amalgamated with +it. + + + Propaganda. + +(8) The Congregation of the Propaganda (_Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda +Fide_) was established by Gregory XV. in 1622, and added to by Urban +VIII., who founded the celebrated College of the Propaganda for the +education of missionaries, and his polyglot press for printing the +liturgical books of the East. It had charge of the administration of the +Catholic churches in all non-Catholic countries, for which it discharged +the functions of all the Congregations, except in doctrinal and +strictly legislative matters. Its sphere was very wide; it administered +all non-European countries, except Latin America and the old colonies of +the Catholic countries of Europe; in Europe it had also charge of the +United Kingdom and the Balkan States. But the constitution "_Sapienti_" +of 1908 withdrew from the Propaganda and put under the common law of the +Church most of those parts in which the episcopal hierarchy had been +re-established, i.e. in Europe, the United Kingdom, Holland and +Luxemburg; in America, Canada, Newfoundland and the United States. +Further, even for those countries which it continues to administer, the +Propaganda has to submit to the various Congregations all questions +affecting the Faith, marriage and rites. The missions begin by +establishing apostolic prefectures under the charge of priests; the +prefecture is later transformed into an apostolic vicariate, having at +its head a bishop; finally, the hierarchy, i.e. the diocesan episcopate, +is established in the country, with residential sees. Thus the hierarchy +was re-established in England in 1850 by Pius IX., in 1878 by Leo XIII. +in Scotland, in 1886 in India, in 1891 in Japan. It is also the work of +the Propaganda to appoint the bishops for the countries it administers. +Under the same cardinal prefect is found that section of the Propaganda +which deals with matters concerning oriental rites (_Congregatio +specialis pro negotiis ritus Orientalis_), the object of which is +indicated by its name. To the former were attached two commissions, one +for the approbation of those religious congregations which devote +themselves to missions, which is now transferred to the Congregation of +the Religious Orders; the other for the examination of the reports sent +in by the bishops and vicars apostolic on their dioceses or missions. +With the latter is connected the commission for the examination of the +liturgical books of the East (_Commissio pro corrigendis libris +ecclesiae Orientalis_). Finally, the popes have devoted to the missions +the income arising from the Chamber of Spoils (_Camera Spoliorum_), i.e. +that portion of the revenue from church property which cannot be +bequeathed by the holders of benefices as their own property; this +source of income, however, has decreased greatly. + + + Index. + +(9) The Congregation of the Index (_Congregatio indicis librorum +prohibitorum_), founded by St Pius V. in 1571 and reorganized by Sixtus +V., has as its object the examination and the condemnation or +interdiction of bad or dangerous books which are submitted to it, or, +since the constitution "_Sapienti_," of those which it thinks fit to +examine on its own initiative (see INDEX). + + + Rites. + +(10) The Congregation of Rites (_Congregatio sacrorum Rituum_), founded +by Sixtus V., has exclusive charge of the liturgy and liturgical books; +it also deals with the proceedings in the beatification and canonization +of saints. Of late years there have been added to it a Liturgical +Commission, a Historico-liturgical Commission, and a Commission for +church song, the functions of which are sufficiently indicated by their +names. + + + Ceremonial. + +(11) The Ceremonial Congregation (_Sacra Congregatio caeremonialis_), +the prefect of which is the cardinal dean, was instituted by Sixtus V.; +its mission is to settle questions of precedence and etiquette, +especially at the papal court; it is nowadays but little occupied. + + + Indulgences. + +(12) The Congregation of Indulgences and Relics (_Sacra Congregatio +Indulgentiarum et Sacrarum Reliquiarum_), founded in 1669 by Clement +IX., devoted itself to eradicating any abuses which might creep into the +practice of indulgences and the cult of relics. It had also the duty of +considering applications for the concession of indulgences and of +interpreting the rules with regard to them. In 1904 Pius X. attached +this Congregation to that of Rites, making the _personnel_ of both the +same, without suppressing it. In 1908, however, it was suppressed, as +stated above, and its functions as to indulgences were transferred to +the Holy Office, and those as to relics to the Congregation of Rites. + + + Fabric of St Peter's. + +(13) The Congregation of the Fabric of St Peter's (_Sacra Congregatio +reverendae Fabricae S. Petri_) is charged with the upkeep, repairs and +temporal administration of the great basilica; in this capacity it +controls the famous manufacture of the Vatican mosaics. It also formerly +enjoyed certain spiritual powers for the reduction of the obligations +imposed by pious legacies and foundations, the objects of which, for +want of funds or any other reason, could not be fully carried out, and +for the condonation of past omission of such obligations, e.g. of +priests to celebrate the foundation masses of their benefices. In 1908 +these powers were taken away from it by Pius X., and transferred to the +Congregation of the Council, which already exercised some of them. + +(14) The Congregation of Loretto (_Congregatio Lauretana_) discharged +the same functions for the sanctuary of that name; its temporal +administration was latterly very much reduced, and in 1908 it was united +by Pius X. with the Congregation of the Council. + + + Extraordinary affairs. + +(15) The Congregation for extraordinary ecclesiastical affairs (_Sacra +Congregatio super negotiis ecclesiasticis extraordinariis_), established +by Pius VI. at the end of the 18th century to study the difficult +questions relative to France, was afterwards definitively continued by +Pius VII.; and there has been no lack of fresh extraordinary matters. It +also dealt with the administration of the churches of Latin America, not +to mention certain European countries, such as Russia, under the same +conditions as the Propaganda in countries under missions. Since the +constitution _Sapienti_, its competency has been confined to the +examination, at the request of the secretary of state, of questions +which are submitted to it, and especially those arising from civil laws +and concordats. + + + Studies. + +(16) The Congregation of Studies (_Congregatio pro Universitate studii +Romani, Congregazione degli Studi_), founded by Sixtus V. to act as a +higher council for the Roman university of La Sapienza, had ceased to +have any functions when in 1824 it was re-established by Leo XII. to +supervise education in Rome and the Papal States; since 1870 it has been +exclusively concerned with the Catholic universities, so far as the +sacred sciences are concerned. With this should be connected the +commission for historical studies, instituted in 1883 by Leo XIII., at +the same time as he threw the Vatican archives freely open to scholars. + + + Tribunals and offices. + +III. _The Tribunals and Offices._--Though it has been relieved of the +functions allotted to the Congregations of cardinals, the old machinery +of the ecclesiastical administration has not been abolished; and the +process of centralization which has been accentuated in the course of +the last few centuries, together with the facility of communication, +ensured for them a fresh activity, new offices having even been added. +The chief thing to be observed is that the prelates who were formerly at +the head of these departments have almost all been replaced by +cardinals. The following is the list of the tribunals and offices, +including the changes introduced by the reorganization of the Curia by +Pius X. in 1908. The tribunals are three in number: one for the _forum +internum_, the Penitentiary; the other two for judicial matters _in foro +externo_, the Rota and the papal Signatura. + + + Penitentiary. + +(1) The Penitentiary (_Sacra poenitentiaria Apostolica_) is the tribunal +having exclusive jurisdiction in matters of conscience (_in foro +interno_), e.g. dispensations from secret impediments and private vows, +the absolution of reserved cases. These concessions are applied for +anonymously. It also had, previously to the constitution _Sapienti_, a +certain jurisdiction _in foro externo_, such as over matrimonial +dispensations for poor people. Its concessions are absolutely +gratuitous. Since the 12th century, the papal court had already had +officials known as penitentiaries (_poenitentiarii_) for matters of +conscience; the organization of the Penitentiary, after several +modifications, was renewed by Benedict XIV. in 1748. At the head of it +is the cardinal grand penitentiary (_major poenitentiarius_), assisted +by the _regens_ (It. _regente_) and various other functionaries and +officials. + + + Rota. + +(2) The court of the Rota (_Sacra Rota Romana_) used to be the supreme +ecclesiastical tribunal for civil affairs, and its decisions had great +authority. This tribunal goes back at least as far as the 14th century, +but its activity had been reduced as a result of the more expeditious +and summary, and less costly, procedure of the Congregations. The +constitution _Sapienti_ restored the Rota to existence and activity: it +is now once more the ecclesiastical court of appeal for both civil and +criminal cases. Pius X. also made special regulations for it, by which +its ancient usages are adapted to modern circumstances. The tribunal of +the Rota consists of ten judges called auditors (_uditori_), of whom the +most senior is president with the title of dean. Each judge has an +auxiliary; to the tribunal are attached a _promotor fiscalis_, charged +with the duty of securing the due application of the law, and an +official charged with the defence of marriage and ordination; there is +also a clerical staff (notaries, scribes) attached to the court. Cases +are judged by three auditors, who succeed each other periodically (_per +turnum_) according to the order in which the cases are entered, and in +exceptional cases by all the auditors (_videntibus omnibus_). Under the +jurisdiction of the Rota, in addition to cases of first instance +submitted to it by the pope, are such judgments of episcopal courts as +are strictly speaking subject to appeal; for petitions against +non-judicial decisions are referred to the Congregations. Appeal is +sometimes allowed from one "turn" to another; if the second sentence of +the Rota confirms the first, it is definitive; if not, a third may be +obtained. + + + Signatura. + +(3) The supreme tribunal of the papal Signatura (_Signatura +Apostolica_). There were formerly two sections: the Signatura Justitiae +and the Signatura Gratiae; by the constitution _Sapientis_ they were +suppressed and amalgamated into one body, the Signatura Apostolica, +which is the exact equivalent of other modern courts of cassation. This +tribunal is composed of six cardinals, one of whom is the prefect, +assisted by a prelate secretary, consultors and the necessary inferior +officials. It judges cases in which auditors of the Rota are concerned, +such as personal objections, but especially objections (_querelae_) +lodged against sentences of the Rota, with a view to their being +annulled or revised (_restitutio in integrum_). + +Next come the offices, now reduced to six in number. + + + Chancery. + + Bull. + +(1) The Chancery (_Cancellaria Apostolica_), the department from which +are sent out the papal letters, has for a long time drawn up only those +letters written in solemn form known as bulls. The bull, so called from +the leaden seal (_bulla_), is written on thick parchment; the special +writing known as Lombard, which used to be used for bulls, was abolished +by Leo XIII., and the leaden seal reserved for the more important +letters; on the others it has been replaced by a red ink stamp bearing +both the emblems represented on the leaden seal: the two heads, face to +face, of St Peter and St Paul, and the name of the reigning pope. Bulls +are written in the name of the pope, who styles himself "(_Pius_) +_Episcopus servus servorum Dei_; (Pius), bishop, servant of the servants +of God." They were formerly dated by kalends and from the era of the +Incarnation, which begins on the 25th of March, but in 1908 Pius X. +ordered them to be dated according to the common era. It is practically +only bulls of canonization which are signed by the pope and all the +cardinals present in Rome; the signature of the pope is then "(_Pius_) +_Episcopus Ecclesiae catholicae_," while his ordinary signature bears +only his name and number, "Pius PP. X." Ordinary bulls are signed by +several officials of the chancery, and a certain number only by the +cardinal at its head, who until 1908 was styled vice-chancellor, because +the chancellor used formerly to be a prelate, not a cardinal; but since +the constitution _Sapienti_ has been entitled chancellor. He is assisted +by several officials, beginning with the regens of the chancery. To the +chancery were attached the _abbreviatores de parco majori vel minori_ +(see ABBREVIATORS), formerly charged with the drawing up or "extension" +of bulls; they were suppressed by Pius X., and their functions +transferred to the _Protonotarii apostolici participantes_ (i.e. +active). Further, Pope Pius confined the functions of the chancery to +the sending out of bulls under the leaden seal (_sub plumbo_), for the +erection of dioceses, the provision of bishoprics and consistorial +benefices, and other affairs of importance, these bulls being sent out +by order of the Consistorial Congregation. + + + Dataria Apostolica. + +(2) The Apostolic Dataria is the department dealing with matters of +grace, e.g. the concession of privileges, nominations to benefices and +dispensations _in foro externo_, especially matrimonial ones; but its +functions have been greatly reduced by the reforms of Pius X.; the +matrimonial section has been suppressed, dispensations for marriages now +belonging to the Congregation for the discipline of the sacraments; the +section dealing with benefices, which is the only one preserved, deals +with non-consistorial benefices reserved to the Holy See; it examines +the claims of the candidates, draws up and sends out the letters of +collation, gives dispensations, when necessary, in matters concerning +the benefices, and manages the charges (i.e. pensions to incumbents who +have resigned, &c.) imposed on the benefices by the pope. It has at its +head a cardinal formerly called the _pro-datarius_, the _datarius_ +having formerly been a prelate; and now _datarius_, since the reform by +Pius X. The cardinal is assisted by a prelate called the _sub-datarius_, +and other officials. + + + Apostolic chamber. + +(3) The Apostolic Chamber (_Reverenda Camera Apostolica_) was before the +abolition of the temporal power of the papacy the ministry of finance, +at once treasury and exchequer, of the popes as heads of the Catholic +Church as well as sovereigns of the papal states. Although it is +necessarily diminished in importance, it has retained the administration +of the property of the Holy See, especially during a vacancy. At its +head is the cardinal camerlengo (_Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae Cardinalis +Camerarius_), who, as we know, exercises the external authority during +the vacancy of the Holy See. + + + Secretaryship of State. + + Briefs. + +(4) Next come the palatine secretariates, the first and principal of +which is the secretariate of state (_Secretaria status_). The cardinal +secretary of state is as it were the pope's prime minister, gathering +into one centre the internal administration and foreign affairs, by +means of the nunciatures and delegations depending on his department. +The secretary of state is the successor of what was called in the 17th +century the cardinal nephew; his functions and importance have increased +more and more. The secretariate of state is the department dealing with +the political affairs of the Church. To it belongs the internal +administration of the apostolic palaces, with the library, archives, +museums, &c. In 1908 Pius X. divided the departments of the secretariate +of state into three sections, under the authority of the cardinal +secretary. The first is the department of extraordinary ecclesiastical +affairs, having at its head the secretary of the Congregation of the +same name; the second, that of ordinary affairs, directed by a +substitute, is the department dealing, among other things, with the +concession of honorary distinctions, both for ecclesiastics and laymen; +the third is that of the briefs, which hitherto formed a separate +secretariate. It is this department which sends out, at the command of +the secretary of state or the various Congregations, those papal letters +which are written in less solemn form, _brevi manu_, hence the word +"brief." They are written in the pope's name, but he only takes the less +solemn style of: "Pius PP. X." The brief is written on thin parchment, +and dated by the ordinary era and the day of the month; they were +formerly signed only by the cardinal secretary of briefs or his +substitute, but now by the cardinal secretary of state or the head of +the office, called the chancellor of Briefs (_cancellarius Brevium_). +The seal is that of the fisherman's ring, hence the formula of +conclusion, "_Datum Romae, sub annulo Piscatoris_." The "Fisherman's +ring" is a red ink stamp representing St Peter on a boat casting out his +nets, with the name of the reigning pope. + + + Other offices. + +The reform of Pius X. maintained untouched the two offices called the +secretariate of briefs to princes, and the secretariate of Latin +Letters, the names of which are sufficient indication of their +functions. The secretariate of memorials (_Secretaria Memorialium_), +through which pass requests addressed to the pope for the purpose of +obtaining certain favours, was formerly of great importance; it is now +suppressed and the requests are addressed to the proper departments. +Finally, the pope has his special secretary, his _auditor_, with his +offices, as well as the papal almonry, the officials of which administer +the papal charities. + + + The pontifical "family." + +IV. The pontifical "family" (_familia_) forms the pope's civil court. +First come the palatine cardinals, i.e. those who, on account of their +office, have the right of living in the papal palaces. These were +formerly four in number: the _pro-datarius_ (now _datarius_), the +secretary of state, the secretary of briefs, and the secretary of the +memorials; the two last of these were suppressed in 1908. Next come the +four palatine prelates, the majordomo, the superintendent of the +household and its staff, and successor of the ancient _vicedominus_; the +master of the chamber, who presides over the arrangement of audiences; +the _auditor_, or private secretary; and finally the master of the +sacred palace (_magister sacri palatii_), a kind of theological adviser, +always a Dominican, whose special duty is nowadays the revision of books +published at Rome. Other prelates rank with the above, but in a lower +degree, notably the almoner and the various secretaries. All +ecclesiastics admitted, by virtue of their office or by a gracious +concession of the pope, to form part of the "family," are called +domestic prelates, prelates of the household; this is an honorary title +conferred on many priests not resident in Rome. The external service of +the palace is performed by the Swiss Guard and the _gendarmerie_; the +service of the ante-chamber by the lay and ecclesiastical chamberlains; +this service has also given rise to certain honorary titles both for +ecclesiastics, e.g. honorary chamberlain, and for laymen, e.g. secret +chamberlain (_cameriere segreto_). (See CHAMBERLAIN.) + + + Pontifical chapel. + +V. The pontifical "chapel" (_capella_) is the papal court for purposes +of religious worship. In it the pope is surrounded by the cardinals +according to their order; by the patriarchs, archbishops and bishops +attending at the throne, and others; by the prelates of the Curia, and +by all the clergy both secular and regular. Among the prelates we should +mention the protonotaries, the successors of the old notaries or +officials of the papal chancery in the earliest centuries; the seven +_protonotarii participantes_ were restored by Pope Pius X. to the +chancery, as noted above, but they have kept important honorary +privileges; this is yet another source of distinctions conferred upon a +great number of priests outside of Rome, the protonotaries of different +classes. In a lower degree there are also the chaplains of honour. Since +1870 the great pontifical ceremonies have lost much of their splendour. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_La Gerarchia cattolica_, an annual directory published + at Rome; Lunadoro, _Relazione della corte di Roma_ (Rome, 1765); + Moroni, _Dizionario di erudizione_, under the various headings; Card. + De Luca, _Relatio curiae romanae_ (Cologne, 1683); Bouix, _De curia + romana_ (Paris, 1859); Ferraris, _Prompta bibliotheca_ (addit. + _Cassinenses_), s.v. _Congregatio_; Grimaldi, _Les Congregations + romaines_ (Sienna, 1891); _Dictionnaire de theologie catholique_, s.v. + _Cour romaine_ (Paris, 1907); Publications of the acts of the Roman + Congregations: Bishops and regulars--Bizzarri, _Collectanea in usum + Secretariae_ (Rome, 1866, 1885). Council: the _Thesaurus resolutionum_ + has published all business since 1700; a volume is issued every year, + and the contents have been published in alphabetical order by Zamboni + (4 vols., Rome, 1812; Arras, 1860) and by Pallottini (18 vols., Rome, + 1868, &c.). Immunity: Ricci, _Synopsis, decreta et resolutiones_ + (Palestrina, 1708). Propaganda: De Martinis, _Juris pontificii de + Propaganda Fide_, &c. (Rome, 1888, &c.); _Collectanea S. C. de Prop. + Fide_ (2nd ed., Rome, 1907). Index: _Index librorum prohibitorum_ + (Rome, 1900). Rites: _Decreta authentica_ (Rome, 1898). Indulgences: + _Decreta authentica_ (Regensburg, 1882); _Rescripta authentica_ (ib., + 1885). (A. Bo.*) + + + + +CURICO, a province of central Chile, lying between the provinces of +Colchagua and Talca and extending from the Pacific to the Argentine +frontier; area, 2978 sq. m.; pop. (1895) 103,242. The eastern and +western sections are mountainous, and are separated by the fertile +valley of central Chile. The mineral resources are undeveloped, but are +said to include copper, gold and silver. Cattle, wheat and wine are the +principal products, but Indian corn and fruit also are produced. On the +coast are important salt-producing industries. The climate is mild and +the rainfall more abundant than at the northern part of the valley, and +the effects of this are to be seen in the better pasturage. Irrigation +is used to a large extent. The province was created in 1865 by a +division of Colchagua. The capital is Curico, on the Mataquito river, in +lat. 34 deg. 58' S. long. 71 deg. 19' W., 114 m. S. of Santiago by the +Chilean Central railway, which crosses the province. The city stands on +the great central plain, 748 ft. above sea-level, and in the midst of a +comparatively well-cultivated district. It was founded in 1742 by Jose +de Manso, and is one of the more cultured and progressive provincial +towns of Chile. Pop. (1895) 12,669. Vichiquen, on a tide-water lake on +the coast, is a prosperous town, the centre of the salt trade. + + + + +CURIE, PIERRE (1859-1906), French physicist, was born in Paris on the +15th of May 1859, and was educated at the Sorbonne, where he +subsequently became professor of physics. Although he had previously +published meritorious researches on piezoelectricity, the magnetic +properties of bodies at different temperatures, and other topics, he was +chiefly known for his work on radium carried out jointly with his wife, +Marie Sklodowska, who was born at Warsaw on the 7th of November 1867. +After the discovery of the radioactive properties of uranium by Henri +Becquerel in 1896, it was noticed that some minerals of uranium, such as +pitchblende, were more active than the element itself, and this +circumstance suggested that such minerals contained small quantities of +some unknown substance or substances possessing radioactive properties +in a very high degree. Acting on this surmise M. and Mme Curie subjected +a large amount of pitchblende to a laborious process of fractionation, +with the result that in 1898 they announced the existence in it of two +highly radioactive substances, polonium and radium. In subsequent years +they did much to elucidate the remarkable properties of these two +substances, one of which, polonium, came to be regarded as one of the +transformation-products of the other (see RADIOACTIVITY). In 1903 they +were awarded the Davy medal of the Royal Society in recognition of this +work, and in the same year the Nobel prize for physics was divided +between them and Henri Becquerel. Professor Curie, who was elected to +the Academy of Sciences in 1905, was run over by a dray and killed +instantly in Paris on the 19th of April 1906. + +His elder brother, PAUL JACQUES CURIE, born at Paris on the 29th of +October 1856, published an elaborate memoir on the specific inductive +capacities of crystalline bodies (_Ann. Chim. Phys._ 1889, 17 and 18). + + + + +CURIO, GAIUS SCRIBONIUS, Roman statesman and orator, son of a +distinguished orator of the same name, flourished during the 1st century +B.C. He was tribune of the people in 90 B.C., and afterwards served in +Sulla's army in Greece against Archelaus, general of Mithradates, and as +his legate in Asia, where he was commissioned to restore order in the +kingdoms abandoned by Mithradates. In 76 he was consul, and as governor +of Macedonia carried on war successfully against the Thracians and +Dardanians, and was the first Roman general who penetrated as far as the +Danube. On his return he was granted the honour of a triumph. During the +discussion as to the punishment of the Catilinarian conspirators he +supported Cicero, but he spoke in favour of P. Clodius (q.v.) when the +latter was being tried for the Bona Dea affair. This led to a violent +attack on the part of Cicero, but it does not appear to have interfered +with their friendship. Curio was a vehement opponent of Caesar, against +whom he wrote a political pamphlet in the form of a dialogue. He was +pontifex maximus in 57, and died in 53. His reputation as an orator was +considerable, but according to Cicero he was very illiterate, and his +only qualifications were brilliancy of style and the purity of his +Latin. He was nicknamed Burbuleius (after an actor) from the way in +which he moved his body while speaking. + + Orelli, _Onomasticon_ to Cicero; Florus iii. 4; Eutropius vi. 2; Val. + Max. ix. 14, 5; Quintilian, _Instit._, vi. 3, 76; Dio Cassius xxxviii. + 16. + +His son, GAIUS SCRIBONIUS CURIO, was first a supporter of Pompey, but +after his tribuneship (50 B.C.) went over to Caesar, by whom he was said +to have been bribed. But, while breaking off relations with Pompey, +Curio desired to keep up the appearance of impartiality. When it was +demanded that Caesar should lay down his imperium before entering Rome, +Curio proposed that Pompey should do the same, adding that, if the +rivals refused to do so, they ought both to be declared public enemies. +His proposal was carried by a large majority, but a report having spread +that Caesar was on the way to attack Rome, the consuls called upon +Pompey to undertake the command of all the troops stationed in Italy. +Curio's appeal to the people to prevent the levying of an army by Pompey +was disregarded; whereupon, feeling himself in danger, he fled to +Ravenna to Caesar. He was commissioned by Caesar, who was still +unwilling to proceed to extremities, to take a message to the senate. +But Curio's reception was so hostile that he hurriedly returned during +the night to Caesar. It was now obvious that civil war would break out. +Curio collected troops in Umbria and Etruria for Caesar, who sent him to +Sicily as propraetor in 49. After having fought with considerable +success there against the Pompeians, Curio crossed over to Africa, where +he was defeated and slain by Juba, king of Numidia. Curio, although a +man of profligate character, possessed conspicuous ability, and was a +distinguished orator. In spite of his faults, Cicero, as an old friend +of his father, took a great interest in him and did his utmost to reform +him. Seven of Cicero's letters (_Ad. Fam._ ii. 1-7) are addressed to +him. There can be no doubt that Curio's behaviour in regard to the +laying down of the imperium by Caesar and Pompey in great measure +contributed to the outbreak of civil war. The first amphitheatre in Rome +was erected by him (50), for the celebration of the funeral games in +honour of his father. + + Orelli, _Onomasticon_ to Cicero; Livy, _Epit._ 109, 110; Caesar, + _Bell. Civ._, ii. 23, for Curio's African campaign; Appian, _Bell. + Civ._, ii. 26-44; Vell. Pat. ii. 48. + + + + +CURITYBA (also CORITYBA and CURITIBA), capital of the state of Parana, +Brazil, situated on an elevated plateau (2916 ft. above sea-level) 68 m. +W. of its seaport Paranagua, with which it is connected by a railway +remarkable for the engineering difficulties overcome and for the +beautiful scenery through which it passes. Pop. (1890) 22,694; of the +municipality, 24,553. There is a large foreign element in the +population, the Germans preponderating. The city has a temperate, +healthy climate, and is surrounded by a charming _campo_ country, which, +however, is less fertile than the forested river valleys. Mate is the +principal export. + + + + +CURLEW (Fr. _Courlis_ or _Corlieu_), a name given to two birds, of whose +cry it is an imitation, both belonging to the group _Limicolae_, but +possessing very different habits and features. + +1. The long-billed curlew, or simply curlew of most British writers, the +_Numenius arquata_ of ornithologists, is one of the largest of the +family _Scolopacidae_, or snipes and allied forms. It is common on the +shores of the United Kingdom and most parts of Europe, seeking the +heaths and moors of the interior and more northern countries in the +breeding-season, where it lays its four brownish-green eggs, suffused +with cinnamon markings, in an artless nest on the ground. In England it +has been ascertained to breed in Cornwall and in the counties of Devon, +Dorset, Salop, and Derby--though sparingly. In Yorkshire it is more +numerous, and thence to the extreme north of Scotland, as well as +throughout Ireland, it is, under the name of whaup, familiar to those +who have occasion to traverse the wild and desolate tracts that best +suit its habits. So soon as the young are able to shift for themselves, +both they and their parents resort to the sea-shore or mouths of rivers, +from the muddy flats of which they at low tide obtain their living, and, +though almost beyond any other birds wary of approach, form an object of +pursuit to numerous gunners. While leading this littoral life the food +of the curlew seems to consist of almost anything edible that presents +itself. It industriously probes the mud or sand in quest of the worms +that lurk therein, and is also active in seeking for such crustaceans +and molluscs as can be picked up on the surface, while vegetable matter +as well has been found in its stomach. During its summer-sojourn on the +moorlands insects and berries, when they are ripe, enter largely into +its diet. In bulk the curlew is not less than a crow, but it looks +larger still from its long legs, wings and neck. Its bill, from 5 to 7 +in. in length, and terminating in the delicate nervous apparatus common +to all birds of its family, is especially its most remarkable feature. +Its plumage above is of a drab colour, streaked and mottled with very +dark brown; beneath it is white, while the flight-quills are of a +brownish black. + +Nearly allied to the curlew, but smaller and with a more northern range, +is the whimbrel (_N. phaeopus_), called in some parts jack-curlew, from +its small size; May-fowl, from the month in which it usually arrives; +and titterel, from one of its cries.[1] This so much resembles the +former in habit and appearance that no further details need be given of +it. In the countries bordering on the Mediterranean occurs a third +species (_N. tenuirostris_). Some fifteen other species, or more, have +been described, but it is probable that this number is too great. The +genus _Numenius_ is almost cosmopolitan. In North America three very +easily recognized species are found--the first (_N. longirostris_) +closely agreeing with the European curlew, but larger and with a longer +bill; the second (_N. hudsonicus_) representing the British whimbrel; +and the third (_N. borealis_), which has several times found its way to +Britain, very much less in size--indeed the smallest of the genus. All +these essentially agree with the species of the Old World in habit; but +it is remarkable that the American birds can be easily distinguished by +the rufous colouring of their axillary feathers--a feature which is also +presented by the American godwits (_Limosa_). + +2. The curlew of inlanders, or stone-curlew--called also, by some +writers, from its stronghold in England, the Norfolk plover, and +sometimes the thick-knee--is usually classed among the _Charadriidae_, +but it offers several remarkable differences from the more normal +plovers. It is the _Charadrius oedicnemus_ of Linnaeus, the _C. +scolopax_ of Sam. Gottl. Gmelin, and the _Oedicnemus crepitans_ of K. J. +Temminck. With much the same cry as that of the _Numenii_, only uttered +in a far sweeter tone, it is as fully entitled to the name of curlew as +the bird most commonly so called. In England it is almost solely a +summer visitor, though an example will occasionally linger throughout a +mild winter; and is one of the few birds whose distribution is affected +by geological formation, since it is nearly limited to the +chalk-country--the open spaces of which it haunts, and its numbers have +of late years been sensibly diminished by their inclosure. The most +barren spots in these districts, even where but a superficial coating of +light sand and a thin growth of turf scarcely hide the chalk below, +supply its needs; though at night (and it chiefly feeds by night) it +resorts to moister and more fertile places. Its food consists of snails, +coleopterous insects, and earth-worms, but larger prey, as a mouse or a +frog, is not rejected. Without making the slightest attempt at a nest, +it lays its two eggs on a level spot, a bare fallow being often chosen. +These are not very large, and in colour so closely resemble the sandy, +flint-strewn surface that their detection except by a practised eye is +difficult. The bird, too, trusts much to its own drab colouring to elude +observation, and, on being disturbed, will frequently run for a +considerable distance and then squat with outstretched neck so as to +become almost invisible. In such a case it may be closely approached, +and its large golden eye, if it do not pass for a tuft of yellow lichen, +is perhaps the first thing that strikes the searcher. As autumn advances +the stone-curlew gathers in large flocks, and then is as wary as its +namesake. Towards October these take their departure, and their +survivors return, often with wonderful constancy, to their beloved +haunts. In size this species exceeds any other European plover, and +looks even still larger than it is. The bill is short, blunt, and stout; +the head large, broad, and flat at the top; the wings and legs long--the +latter presenting the peculiarity of a singular enlargement of the upper +part of the tarsus, whence the names _Oedicnemus_ and Thick-knee have +been conferred. The toes are short and fleshy, and the hind-toe is +wanting. This bird seems to have been an especial favourite with Gilbert +White, in whose classical writings mention of it is often made. Its +range extends to North Africa and India. Five other species of +_Oedicnemus_ from Africa have also been described as distinct. +Australia possesses a very distinct species (_O. grallarius_), and the +genus has two members in the Neotropical Region (_O. bistriatus_ and _O. +superciliaris_). An exaggerated form of _Oedicnemus_ is found in +_Aesacus_, of which two species have been described, one (_A. +recurvirostris_) from the Indian, and the other (_A. magnirostris_) from +the northern parts of the Australian region. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The name spowe (cf. Icelandic _Spoi_) also seems to have been + anciently given to this bird (see Stevenson's _Birds of Norfolk_, ii. + 201). + + + + +CURLING, THOMAS BLIZARD (1811-1888), British surgeon, was born in London +in 1811. Through his uncle, Sir William Blizard, he became +assistant-surgeon to the London hospital in 1833, becoming full surgeon +in 1849. After filling other important posts in the College of Surgeons, +he was appointed president in 1873. In 1843 he won the Jacksonian prize +for his investigations on tetanus; and he became famous for his skill in +treating diseases of the testes and rectum, his published works on which +went through many editions. He died on the 4th of March 1888. + + + + +CURLING, a game in which the players throw large rounded stones upon a +rink or channel of ice, towards a mark called the tee. Where the game +originated is not precisely known; but it has been popular in Scotland +for three centuries at least. Some writers, looking to the name and +technical terms of the game, trace its invention to the Netherlands; +thus "curl" may have been derived from the Ger. _kurzweil_, a game; +"tee" from the Teutonic _tighen_, to point out; "bonspiel," a district +curling competition, from the Belgic _bonne_, a district, and _spel_, +play; the further supposition that "rink" is merely a modification of +the Saxon _hrink_, a strong man, seems scarcely tenable. Curling is +called "kuting" in some parts of Lanarkshire and Ayrshire, and very much +resembles quoiting on the ice, so that the name may have some connexion +with the Dutch _coete_, a quoit; while Cornelis Kiliaan (1528-1607) in +his _Teutonic Dictionary_ gives the term _khuyten_ as meaning a pastime +in which large globes of stone like the quoit or discus are thrown upon +ice. Possibly some of the Flemish merchants who settled in Scotland +towards the close of the 16th century may have brought the game to the +country. Unfortunately, however, for the theory that assigns to it a +far-away origin, we find no early mention of it in the literature of the +continent; while Camden, when describing the Orkney Islands in 1607, +tells us that one of them supplies "plenty of excellent stones for the +game called curling"; and incidental references to it as a game played +in Scotland are made by several authors during the first half of the +same century. + +If the game be not indigenous to Scotland it certainly owes its +development to that country, and in the course of time it has come to be +the national sport. It was played at first with very rude +engines--random whin boulders fashioned by nature alone, or misshapen +granite blocks, bored through to let in the thumb of the player, having +been the primitive channel stones. In course of years the rough block +was superseded by a symmetrical object usually made of whinstone or +granite, beautifully rounded, brilliantly polished, and supplied with a +convenient handle. + +Although curling boasts a literature of its own and songs innumerable, +yet it has received but the scantiest notice from such important +Scottish writers as Scott and Burns, or from contemporary literature in +general. In 1834 an "Amateur Curling Club of Scotland" was formed, but +this "mutual admiration amateur society came to nothing, as might be +expected." Far more businesslike were the methods of the men who set +afoot the "Grand Caledonian Curling Club," which began its existence on +the 15th of November 1838, and which, under its present title of "The +Royal Caledonian Curling Club," is regarded in all parts of the world as +the mother-club and legislative body, even in Canada, where, however, +curling conditions differ widely from those of Scotland; devotion to the +mother-club does not by any means imply submission. Starting with 28 +allied clubs the Royal Club grew so rapidly that there were 500 such in +1880 and 720 in 1903. It was under the auspices of the Royal Caledonian +that a body of Scottish curlers visited Canada and the United States in +the winter of 1902-1903, and, while a slight margin of victory remained +with the home players under their own climatic conditions, the visit +did much to bring together the lovers of the game on both sides of the +Atlantic. The assumption of the title "Royal" in place of "Grand" was +due to the visit of Queen Victoria and the prince consort to Scotland in +1842, on which occasion they were initiated into the mysteries of the +game on the polished floor of the drawing-room in the Palace of Scone; +and the prince consort, who was presented with a pair of curling-stones, +consented to become patron of the club. On his death he was succeeded by +the prince of Wales, who, as Edward VII., still continued his patronage. +The Club's main duties are to further the interests of the game, to +revise the laws and to arrange the important matches, especially the +grand match, played annually between the Scottish clubs north of the +Forth & Clyde Canal and those south of it. In the first of these matches +(1847) only twelve "rinks" were played; in 1903 there were no fewer than +286. During this time the southern clubs were usually victorious. +Curlers claim to be a united brotherhood within which peer and peasant +are equal "on the ice." To the same end the laws of the club are framed +with a due regard to economy, not forgetting conviviality in the matter +of "beef and greens," the curler's traditional dish, washed down with +whisky. A formal freemasonry exists among curlers, who must be initiated +into the mysteries and instructed in the grip, password and ceremony, +being liable at any moment to be examined in these essentials and fined +for lapses of memory. Betting, excepting for the smallest stakes, is +discountenanced. + + _Glossary._--As curling has a language which contains many curious + terms, puzzling to the uninitiated, the English equivalents of some of + them are here given. _Baugh ice_, rough or soft ice. _Bias_, a slope + on the ice. _Boardhead_ (also house or parish), the large circle round + the tee. _Bonspiel_, a match between two clubs. _Break an egg on a + stone_, touch it very slightly. _Broughs_, the small circles round the + tee. _Chipping_, striking a stone of which a small part can be seen. + _Core_, old name for rink. _Cowe_ or _kowe_, a besom made of + broom-twigs. _Draw_, to play gently. _Drive_, to play hard. _Drug + ice_, soft bad ice. _Fill the port_, to block the interval between two + stones. _Gogsee_, tee. _Guard_, a stone that covers and protects + another. _Hack_, a hollow cut in the ice for the player's foot, used + in place of a crampit. _Hands up!_ stop sweeping. _Hog_, a stone that + stops short of the _hog-score_, a line drawn one-sixth of the length + of the rink from the tee. _Head_, an innings, both sides delivering + all their stones once. _Howe_, the middle of the rink, gradually + hollowed by stones. _In-ringing_, gaining a good position by + rebounding off another stone. _In-wick_, the same. _Lie shot_, the + stone resting nearest the tee. _Mar_, to interfere with a stone while + running. _Out-Turn_, to make the stone twist to the left. _In-Turn_, + to make one turn to the right. _Out-wick_, to strike a stone on the + edge so as to drive it towards the tee. _Pat-lid_, a stone that lies + on the tee. _Pittycock_, the oldest form of curling-stone. _Raise_, to + drive a "friendly" stone nearer the tee. _Rebut_, to deliver the stone + with great force, so as to scatter the stones on the boardhead. _Red + the ice_, clear away the opponents' stones. _Rink_, the space in which + the game is played; also the members of a side. _Sole_, the under part + of the stone; also to deliver the stone. _Soop_, to sweep. _Souter_, + to win without allowing the opponents to score at all; a term derived + from a famous team of cobblers (souters) of Lochmaben, whose opponents + seldom or never scored a point. _Spiel_, a match between members of + the same club. _Spend the stone_, to waste a shot by playing wide + intentionally. _Stug_, a fluke. _Tee_, the mark in the centre of the + boardhead, against which it is the curler's object to lay the stone. + The tee may be any kind of a mark; a small iron plate with a spike in + it is often used. _Tozee_, tee. _Tramp_, _crampit_, _trigger_ or + _tricker_, an iron plate fitted with spikes which the player stands + upon to deliver the stone. _Wittyr_, tee. + +_The Rink and Implements._--The rink is marked out in the ice, which +should be very hard and smooth, in curling language "keen and clear." To +keep it swept every curler carries a broom, sometimes a mere bundle of +broom-twigs, more often an ordinary housemaid's broom. Good "sooping," +or sweeping, is part of the curler's art, and is performed subject to +strict rules and under the direction of the skip, or captain; its +importance lying in the fact that the progress of a stone is retarded by +the ice-dust caused by the play, the sweeping of which in front of a +running stone consequently prolongs its course. Apart from the broom and +the crampit, the "roarin' game," as curlers love to call it, requires no +further implement than the stone, a flattened, polished disk, fitted +with a handle. In weight it must not exceed 44 lb., 35 to 40 lb. being +usual. It must not exceed 36 in. in circumference or be less in height +than one-eighth of the circumference. The two flat sides, or soles, are +so shaped that one is serviceable for keen ice and the other for ice +that is soft, rough or "baugh." The handle can be fitted to either side, +as the case demands. The cost of a pair of stones is not less than L2, +generally more. In the intense cold of Canada and the United States iron +is found more serviceable than stone, and the irons weigh from 60 to 70 +lb. Even these are light compared with the earlier rough boulder-stones, +some of which weighed over 115 lb., although the very early ones were +much lighter. The modern stone took shape at the beginning of the 19th +century. The ancient stones had no handles, but notches were hewn in +them for finger and thumb, and, as their weight varied from 5 to 25 lb., +it is probable that they were thrown after the manner of quoits. +Channel-stones, stones rounded by the action of water in a river-bed, +were the favourites, while the shape was a matter of individual taste, +oblong and triangular stones having been common. The soles were +artificially flattened. During the next period we find the heavy +boulder-stones, unhewn blocks fitted with handles and probably used at +shorter distances, 70 or 80 lb. being no uncommon weight. The rounded +stone, made on scientific principles, did not appear until about 1800. +Even then it was of all shapes and sizes, with and without handles, and +not uncommonly made of wood. The stones of to-day are named after the +places in which they are quarried, Ailsa Craigs, Burnocks, Carsphairn +Reds and Crawfordjohns being some of the best-known varieties. The +stones are quarried and never blasted, as the shock of the explosion is +apt to strain or split the rock. + +_The Game._--Curling is practically bowls played on the ice, the place +of the "jack" being taken by a fixed mark, as at quoits, called the tee, +to which the curler aims his stone; every stone that finally lies nearer +than any of the opposing stones counting a point or "shot." As each side +has four players, each playing two stones, it is possible for one side +to score eight points at a "head" or innings; but in practice it is +found wiser, when a good shot has been made, to play some or all +following stones to such positions as will prevent opposing stones from +disturbing the stone lying near the tee. Stones thus placed are called +"guards." Strategic matters like this are decided by the skip, or +captain, of the rink, who plays last, and who is an autocrat whose will +is law. The "lead," or first player, is expected to play quietly up the +rink, leaving his stone as close to the tee as possible, but on no +account beyond it. He is followed by the "lead" of the other side, who, +instructed by his skip, will either try to drive away the first stone, +if well placed, or put his own stone in a better position. When the +skip's turn comes he is "skipped," or directed, by another player, +appointed by himself, usually the third player. When all sixteen stones +have been delivered the players cross over, the scores are counted, and +the game proceeds from the other end of the rink. If a stone fails to +cross the "hog-score" it is a "hog" and is removed from the rink, unless +it has struck another stone in position. Stones that pass the back-score +or touch the swept snow on either side are also removed. By a cleverly +imparted twist a stone may be made to curve round a guard and either +drive away an opposing winner or find a favourable lie for itself. This, +the equivalent of "bias" in the game of bowls, is the height of +scientific play. If the situation seems desperate a very hard throw, a +"thunderin' cast," may succeed in clearing away the opponents' stones +from the neighbourhood of the tee. Different methods are adopted in +delivering the stone, but in all of them a firm stand should be taken on +the crampit, and the stone swung, either quietly, or, if the skip calls +for a "thunderin' cast," vigorously; but care must be taken to avoid +striking the ice with the stone so as to crack or "star" the ice. All +matches are for a certain number of "heads" or of points, or for all +that can be made within a certain time limit, as may be agreed. + + _Abridged Rules._--Tees shall be 38 yds. apart, and with the tee as + centre a circle having a radius of 7 ft. shall be drawn. In alignment + with the tees, lines, to be called Central Lines, are drawn from the + tees to points 4 yds. behind each tee, and at these points Foot Scores + 18 in. long shall be drawn at right angles, on which, at 6 in. from + Central Line, the heel of the Crampit shall be placed. All matches + shall be of a certain number of heads, or shots, or by time, as + agreed. Every rink of players shall be composed of four a side. No + shoes likely to break the ice may be worn. + + The skips opposing each other shall settle by lot, or in any other way + they may agree upon, which party shall lead at the first head, after + which the winning party shall do so. + + All curling stones shall be of a circular shape. No stone shall be of + a greater weight than 44 lb. imperial, or of greater circumference + than 36 in., or of less height than one-eighth part of its greatest + circumference. + + No stone, or side of a stone, shall be changed after a match has been + begun, or during its continuance, unless by consent. + + Should a stone happen to be broken, the largest fragment shall be + considered in the game for that end--the player being entitled + afterwards to use another stone or another pair. + + If a played stone rolls over, or stops, on its side or top, it shall + be put off the ice. Should the handle quit the stone in delivery, the + player must keep hold of it, otherwise he shall not be entitled to + replay the shot. + + Players, during the course of each end, to be arranged along the sides + of the rink, anywhere skips may direct; and no party, except when + sweeping according to rule, shall go upon the middle of the rink, or + cross it, under any pretence whatever. Skips alone to stand at or + about the tee--that of the playing party having the choice of place, + and not to be obstructed by the other. + + If a player should play out of turn, the stone so played may be + stopped in its progress, and returned to the player. Should the + mistake not be discovered till the stone be at rest, or has struck + another stone, the opposite skip shall have the option of adding one + to his score, allowing the game to proceed, or declaring the end null + and void. But if a stone be played before the mistake has been + discovered, the head must be finished as if it had been properly + played from the beginning. + + The sweeping shall be under the direction and control of the skips. + The player's party may sweep the ice anywhere from the centre line to + the tee, and behind it,--the adverse party having liberty to sweep + behind the tee, and in front of any of their own stones when moved by + another, and till at rest. Skips to have full liberty to clean and + sweep the ice behind the tee at any time, except when a player is + being directed by his skip. + + If in sweeping or otherwise, a _running_ stone be marred by any of the + party to which it belongs, it may, at the option of the opposite skip, + be put off the ice; if by any of the adverse party, it may be placed + where the skip of the party to which it belongs shall direct. If + otherwise marred, it shall be replayed. + + Every player to be ready to play when his turn comes, and not to take + more than a reasonable time to play. Should he play a wrong stone, any + of the players may stop it while running; but if not stopped till at + rest, the one which ought to have been played shall be placed instead, + to the satisfaction of the opposing skip. + + No measuring of shots allowable previous to the termination of the + end. Disputed shots to be determined by the skips, or, if they + disagree, by the umpire, or, when there is no umpire, by some neutral + person chosen by the skips. All measurements to be taken from the + centre of the tee, to that part of the stone which is nearest it. No + stone shall be considered without a circle, or over a line, unless it + clear it;--and in every case, this is to be determined by placing a + square on the ice, at the circle or line. + + Skips shall have the exclusive regulation and direction of the game + for their respective parties, and may play last stone, or in what part + of it they please; and, when their turn to play comes, they may name + one of their party to take charge for them. + + If any player shall speak to, taunt or interrupt another, not being of + his own party, while in the act of delivering his stone, one shot + shall be added to the score of the party so interrupted. + + If from any change of weather after a match has been begun, or from + any other reasonable cause, one party shall desire to shorten the + rink, or to change to another one, and, if the two skips cannot agree, + the umpire shall, after seeing one end played, determine whether the + rink shall be shortened, and how much or whether it shall be changed, + and his decision shall be final. + + See _Annual_ of the Royal Caledonian Curling Club, Edinburgh. + + + + +CURLL, EDMUND (1675-1747), English bookseller, was born in 1675 in the +west of England. His parents were in humble circumstances. After being +apprenticed to an Exeter bookseller he came to London and started +business on his own account, advertising himself by a system of +newspaper quarrels. His connexion with the anonymously-published _Court +Poems_ in 1716 led to the long quarrel with Pope, who took his revenge +by immortalizing Curll in the _Dunciad_. Curll became notorious for his +indecent publications, so much so that "Curlicism" was regarded as a +synonym for literary indecency. In 1716 and again in 1721 he had to +appear at the bar of the House of Lords for publishing matter concerning +its members. In 1725 he was convicted of publishing obscene books, and +fined in 1728 for publishing _The Nun in her Smock_ and _De Usu +Flagrorum_, while his _Memories of John Ker of Kersland_ cost him an +hour in the pillory. When Curll in 1735 announced the forthcoming +publication of "_Mr Pope's Literary Correspondence_," his stock, at +Pope's instigation, was seized. It has since been proved that the +publication was really instigated by Pope, who wanted an excuse to print +his letters, as he actually did (1737-1741). In his forty years of +business Curll published a great variety of books, of which a very large +number, fortunately, were quite free from "Curlicisms." A list of his +publications contains, indeed, 167 standard works. He died on the 11th +of December 1747. + + For Curll's relations with Pope, see the _Life of Pope_, by Sir Leslie + Stephen in the English Men of Letters series. + + + + +CURRAGH, a level stretch of open ground in Co. Kildare, Ireland, famous +for its race-course and its military camp. It has an area of upwards of +4800 acres; and its soft natural sward, which has never been broken by +the plough, affords excellent pasture for sheep. From the peculiarity of +its herbage, the district is known in the neighbourhood as "the short +grass"; and the young men of Kildare are jocularly distinguished as the +"boys of the short grass." The land is the property of the crown, which +appoints a special officer as the ranger of the Curragh; but the right +of pasturage is possessed by the landowners of the vicinity. The oldest +mention of the Curragh occurs in the _Liber Hymnorum_ (the manuscript of +which probably dates from the 10th century) in connexion with St +Bridget, who is said to have received a grant of the district from the +king of Leinster, and is popularly credited with the honour of having +turned it into a common. It is evident, however, that long before the +days of the saint the downs of Kildare had afforded a regular place of +assembly for the people of the south of Ireland. The word _cuirrech_, +cognate with the Lat. _cursus_, signifies a race-course, and +chariot-races are spoken of as taking place on the Curragh as early as +the 1st century A.D. The _Aenach Colmain_ (Curragh fair), also called +_Aenach Life_ (the fair on the plain of the Liffey), is frequently +mentioned in the Irish annals, and both racing and other sports were +carried on at this, the principal meeting of its kind in southern +Ireland, and the plain appears from time to time as the scene of hostile +encounters between the kings of Meath, Leinster and Offaly. In 1234 the +earl of Pembroke was defeated here by the viceroy of Ireland, Lord +Geoffrey de Monte Marisco; and in 1406 the Irish under the prior of +Connell were routed by the English. In 1789 the Curragh was the great +rendezvous for the volunteers, and in 1804 it saw the gathering of +30,000 United Irishmen. The camp was established at the time of the +Crimean War, and is capable of accommodating 12,000 men. The races are +held in April, June, September and October. + + See W. M. Hennessy, in _Proceedings of Royal Irish Acad._, 1866. + + + + +CURRAN, JOHN PHILPOT (1750-1817), Irish politician and judge, was born +on the 24th of July 1750, at Newmarket, Cork, where his father, a +descendant of one of Cromwell's soldiers, was seneschal to the +manor-court. He was educated at Middleton, through the kind help of a +friend, the Rev. Nathaniel Boyse, and at Trinity College, Dublin; and in +1773, having taken his M.A. degree, he entered the Middle Temple. In +1774 he married a lady who brought him a small dowry; but the marriage +proved unhappy, and Mrs Curran finally eloped from her husband. + +In 1775 Curran was called to the Irish bar, where he very soon obtained +a practice. On his first rising in court excessive nervousness prevented +him from even reading distinctly the few words of a legal form, and when +requested by the judge to read more clearly he became so agitated as to +be totally unable to proceed. But, his feelings once roused, all +nervousness disappeared. His effective and witty attack upon a judge who +had sneered at his poverty, the success with which he prosecuted a +nobleman for a disgraceful assault upon a priest, the duel which he +fought with one of the witnesses for this nobleman, and other similar +exploits, gained him such a reputation that he was soon the most popular +advocate in Ireland. + +In 1783 Curran was appointed king's counsel; and in the same year he was +presented to a seat in the Irish House of Commons. His conduct in +connexion with this affair displays his conduct in a most honourable +light; finding that he differed radically in politics from the gentleman +from whom he had received his seat, he expended L1500 in buying another +to replace that which he occupied. In his parliamentary career Curran +was throughout sincere and consistent. He spoke vigorously on behalf of +Catholic emancipation, and strenuously attacked the ministerial bribery +which prevailed. His declamations against the government party led him +into two duels--the first with John Fitzgibbon, then attorney-general, +afterwards Lord Clare; the second with the secretary of state, Major +Hobart, afterwards earl of Buckinghamshire. The Union caused him the +bitterest disappointment; he even talked of leaving Ireland, either for +America or for England. + +Curran's fame rests most of all upon his speeches on behalf of the +accused in the state trials that were so numerous between 1794 and 1803; +and among them may be mentioned those in defence of Hamilton Rowan, the +Rev. William Jackson, the brothers John and Henry Sheares, Peter +Finnerty, Lord Edward Fitzgerald, Wolfe Tone and Owen Kirwan. Another of +his most famous and characteristic speeches is that against the marquis +of Headfort, who had eloped with the wife of a clergyman named Massey. +On the arrest of Robert Emmet, who had formed an attachment to his +daughter, Curran was himself under suspicion; but, on examination before +the privy council, nothing was brought forward to implicate him in the +intended rebellion. + +In 1806, on the death of Pitt and the formation of the Fox ministry, +Curran received the post of master of the rolls, with a seat in the +privy council, much to his disappointment, for he had desired a position +of greater political influence. For eight years, however, he held this +office. He then retired on a pension of L3000; and the three remaining +years of his life were spent in London, where he became one of the most +brilliant members of the society which included Sheridan, Erskine, +Thomas Moore, and William Godwin. He died at his house in Brompton on +the 14th of October 1817. + +Curran's legal erudition was never profound; and though he was capable +of the most ingenious pleading, his appeal was always to the emotions of +his audience. His best speeches are one fiery torrent of invective, +pathos, national feeling and wit. His diction was lofty and sonorous. He +was, too, a most brilliant wit and of wonderful quickness in repartee. +To his personal presence he owed nothing; for he was short, slim and +boyish-looking, and his voice was thin and shrill. + + See _Curran and his Contemporaries_, a most entertaining work, by + Charles Phillips, a personal friend of Curran's (1818), and the _Life + of Curran_, by his son, W. H. Curran (1819), and with additions by Dr + Shelton Mackenzie, New York, (1855), both of which contain numerous + samples of Curran's eloquence. See also _Curran's Speeches_ (1805, + 1808, 1845); _Memoirs of Curran_, by Wm. O'Regan (1817); Letters to + Rev. H. Weston (1819); T. Moore's _Memoirs_ (1853). + + + + +CURRANT. (1) The dried seedless fruit of a variety of the grape-vine, +_Vitis vinifera_, cultivated principally in Zante, Cephalonia and +Ithaca, and near Patras, in the Morea (see GREECE). Currants were +brought originally from Corinth, whence their name; in the 13th and 14th +centuries they were known as _raisins de Corauntz_. In the Ionian +Islands the currant-vine is grown on the sides of the lower hills, or in +the valleys, the grape-vine occupying the higher and less open and rich +ground. Gypseous marls, or calcareous marls containing a little gypsum, +are preferred to limestone soils, as they allow of deep penetration of +the roots of the vines. The most favourable situations are those where a +good supply of water can be obtained for the irrigation of the +plantations. This is carried on from the end of October to the close of +the year, after which all that is necessary is to keep the ground moist. +The vines are planted in rows 3 or 4 ft. apart. Propagation is effected +by grafting on stocks of the grape-vine, or by planting out in spring +the young, vigorous shoots obtained at the end of the previous year from +old currant-vines that have been cut away below the ground. The grafts +bear fruit in three years, the slips in about double that time. The vine +stock for grafting is cut down to the depth of a foot below the surface +of the soil; two or three perpendicular incisions are made near the bark +with a chisel; and into these are inserted shoots of the last year's +growth. The engrafted part then receives an application of moist marls, +is wrapped in leaves and bound with rushes, and is covered with earth, +two or three eyes of the shoots being left projecting above ground. In +December the currant plantations are cleared of dead and weak wood. In +February the branches are cut back, and pruned of median shoots, which +are said to prevent the lateral ones proceeding from the same bud from +bearing fruit. In order effectually to water the trees, the earth round +about them is in February and March hoed up so as to leave them in a +kind of basin, or is piled up against their stems. In March, when the +leaves begin to show, the ground is thoroughly turned, and if requisite +manured, and is then re-levelled. By the middle of April the leaves are +fully out, and in June it is necessary to break back the newly-formed +shoots. The fruit begins to ripen in July, and in the next month the +vintage takes place. At this season rain is greatly dreaded, as it +always damages and may even destroy the ripe fruit. The plantations, +which are commonly much exposed, are watched by dogs and armed men. In +Cephalonia the currant-grape is said to ripen at least a week earlier +than in Zante. To destroy the oidium, a fungal pest that severely +injures the plantations, the vines are dusted, at the time the fruit is +maturing, with finely-ground brimstone. The currants when sufficiently +ripe are gathered and placed on a drying ground, where they are exposed +to the sun in layers half an inch thick; from time to time they are +turned and swept into heaps, until they become entirely detached from +stalk. They are then packed in large butts for exportation. The wine +made from the currant-grape is inferior in quality, but is said to be +capable of much improvement. The fresh fruit is luscious and highly +flavoured, but soon cloys the palate. + +(2) The currants of British kitchen-gardens--so called from a +resemblance to the foregoing--are the produce of _Ribes nigrum_ and _R. +rubrum_, deciduous shrubs of the natural order _Ribesiaceae_, indigenous +to Britain, northern and central Europe, Siberia and Canada. The former +species bears the black, the latter the red currant. White currants are +the fruit of a cultivated variety of _R. rubrum_. Both red and black +currants are used for making tarts and pies, jams, jellies and wine; the +latter are also employed in lozenges, popularly supposed to be of value +in relieving a sore throat, are occasionally preserved in spirits, and +in Russia are fermented with honey to produce a strong liquor. + +Currants will flourish in any fairly good soil, but to obtain large +crops and fine fruit a good rich loam is desirable; with an annual +dressing of farmyard manure or cowdung, after the winter pruning, for +established trees. The plants are best propagated by cuttings, which +should consist of strong well-ripened young shoots taken off close to +the old wood. These should be planted as soon as possible after the wood +is matured in autumn about 6 in. apart. The plants are grown with the +best results as bushes, but may also be trained against a wall or +trellis. In the matter of pruning it must be borne in mind that red and +white currants form their fruit buds on wood two to three years old, and +the main shoots and side branches may therefore be cut back. Black +currants on the other hand form fruit buds on the new wood of the +previous year, hence the old wood should be cut away and the young left. + +The black currant is subject to the attacks of a mite, _Phytoptus +ribis_, which destroys the unopened buds. The buds, when attacked, +recognized by their swollen appearance, should be picked off and burned. +The attacks of the caterpillars of the gooseberry and other moths may be +met by dusting the bushes with lime and soot when the plants are moist +with dew or after syringing. + +The following forms are recommended for cultivation:--_Black_: Lee's +Prolific, Baldwin's or Carter's Champion and Black Naples; _Red_: +Cherry, Raby Castle, Red Dutch and Comet; _White_: White Dutch. A kind +of black currant (_Ribes magellanicum_), bearing poor and acid fruit, is +indigenous to Tierra del Fuego. + + + + +CURRICLE (Lat. _curriculum_, a small car), a light two-wheeled vehicle, +generally for driving with two horses. + + + + +CURRIE, SIR DONALD (1825-1909), British shipowner, was born at Greenock +on the 17th of September 1825. At a very early age he was employed in +the office of a shipowner in that port, but at the age of eighteen left +Scotland for Liverpool, where shipping business offered more scope. By a +fortunate chance he attracted the notice of the chief partner in the +newly started Cunard steamship line, who found him a post in that +company. In 1849 the Cunard Company started a service between Havre and +Liverpool to connect with their transatlantic service. Currie was +appointed Cunard agent at Havre and Paris, and secured for his firm a +large share of the freight traffic between France and the United States. +About 1856 he returned to Liverpool, where till 1862 he held an +important position at the Cunard Company's headquarters. In 1862 he +determined to strike out for himself, and leaving the Cunard established +the "Castle" line of sailing-ships between Liverpool and Calcutta. +Business prospered, but in 1864 Currie found it profitable to substitute +London for Liverpool as the home port of his vessels, and himself +settled in London. In 1872 he came to the conclusion, after a careful +study of all the circumstances, that the development of Cape Colony +justified the starting of a new line of steamers between England and +South Africa. The result of this decision was the founding of the +successful Castle line of steamers (see under Steamship Lines), which +after 1876 divided the South African mail contract with the older Union +line, and was finally amalgamated with the latter under the title Union +Castle line in 1900. Currie's intimate knowledge of South African +conditions and persons was on several occasions of material service to +the British government. His acquaintance with Sir John Brand, the +president of what was then the Orange Free State, caused him to be +entrusted by the home government with the negotiations in the dispute +concerning the ownership of the Kimberley diamond-fields, which were +brought to a successful conclusion. He introduced the two Transvaal +deputations which came to England in 1877 and 1878 to protest against +annexation, and though his suggestions for a settlement were disregarded +by the government of the day, the terms on which the Transvaal was +subsequently restored to the Boers agreed, in essentials, with those he +had advised. The first news of the disaster of Isandhlwana in the Zulu +War was given to the home government through his agency. At that time +there was no cable between England and South Africa, and the news was +sent by a Castle liner to St Vincent, and telegraphed thence to Currie. +At the same time by diverting his outward mail-boat then at sea from its +ordinary course to St Vincent, he enabled the government to telegraph +immediate instructions to that island for conveyance thence by the mail, +thus saving serious delay, and preventing the annihilation of the +British garrison at Eshowe. The present arrangement under which the +British admiralty is enabled to utilize certain fast steamers of the +mercantile marine as armed cruisers in war-time was suggested and +strongly urged by Currie in 1880. In the same year he was returned to +parliament as Liberal member for Perthshire, but, though a strong +personal friend of W. E. Gladstone, he was unable to follow that +statesman on the Home Rule question, and from 1885 to 1900 he +represented West Perthshire as a Unionist. In 1881 his services in +connexion with the Zulu War were rewarded with knighthood, and in 1897 +he was created G.C.M.G. He died at Sidmouth on the 13th of April 1909. + + + + +CURRIE, JAMES (1756-1805), Scottish physician and editor of Burns, son +of the minister of Kirkpatrick-Fleming, in Dumfriesshire, was born there +on the 31st of May 1756. Attracted by the stories of prosperity in +America he went in 1771 to Virginia, where he spent five hard years, +much of the time ill and always in unprofitable commercial business. The +outbreak of war between the Colonies and England ended any further +chance of success, and sailing for home in the spring of 1776 after many +delays he reached England a year later. He then proceeded to study +medicine at Edinburgh, and after taking his degree at Glasgow he settled +at Liverpool in 1780, where three years later he became physician to the +infirmary. He died at Sidmouth on the 31st of August 1805. Among other +pamphlets Currie was the author of _Medical Reports on the Effects of +Water, Cold and Warm, as a Remedy in Fevers and Febrile Diseases_ +(1797), which had some influence in promoting the use of cold water +affusion, and contains the first systematic record in English of +clinical observations with the thermometer. But he is best known for his +edition (1800), long regarded as the standard, of Robert Burns, which he +undertook in behalf of the family of the poet. It contained an +introductory criticism and an essay on the character and condition of +the Scottish peasantry. + + See the _Memoir_ by W. W. Currie, his son (1831). + + + + +CURRY. (1) (Through the O. Fr. _correier_, from Late Lat. _conredare_, +to make ready, prepare; a later form of the French is _courroyer_, and +modern French is _corroyer_), to dress a horse by rubbing down and +grooming with a comb; to dress and prepare leather already tanned. The +currier pares off roughnesses and inequalities, makes the leather soft +and pliable, and gives it the necessary surface and colour (see +LEATHER). The word "currier," though early confused in origin with "to +curry," is derived from the Late Lat. _coriarius_, a leather dresser, +from _corium_, hide. The phrase "to curry favour," to flatter or cajole, +is a 16th century corruption of "to curry favel," i.e. a chestnut horse. +This older phrase is an adaptation of an Old French proverbial +expression _estriller fauvel_, and is paralleled in German by the +similar _den fahlen Hengst streichen_. A chestnut or fallow horse seems +to have been taken as typical of deceit and trickery, at least since the +appearance of a French satirical beast romance the _Roman de fauvel_ +(1310), the hero of which is a counterpart of Reynard the Fox (q.v.). + +(2) A name applied to a great variety of seasoned dishes, especially +those of Indian origin. The word is derived from the Tamil _kari_, a +sauce or relish for rice. In the East, where the staple food of the +people consists of a dish of rice, wheaten cakes, or some other cereal, +some kind of relish is required to lend attraction to this insipid food; +and that is the special office of curry. In India the following are +employed as ingredients in curries: anise, coriander, cumin, mustard and +poppy seeds; allspice, almonds, assafoetida, butter or ghee, cardamoms, +chillies, cinnamon, cloves, cocoa-nut and cocoanut milk and oil, cream +and curds, fenugreek, the tender unripe fruit of _Buchanania +lancifolia_, cheroonjie nuts (the produce of another species, _B. +latifolia_), garlic and onions, ginger, lime-juice, vinegar, the leaves +of _Bergera Koenigii_ (the curry-leaf tree), mace, mangoes, nutmeg, +pepper, saffron, salt, tamarinds and turmeric. + +The cumin and coriander seeds are generally used roasted. The various +materials are cleaned, dried, ground, sifted, thoroughly mixed and +bottled. In the East the spices are ground freshly every day, which +gives the Indian curry its superiority in flavour over dishes prepared +with the curry-powders of the European market. + + + + +CURSOR, LUCIUS PAPIRIUS, Roman general, five times consul and twice +dictator. In 325 he was appointed dictator to carry on the second +Samnite War. His quarrel with Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus, his _magister +equitum_, is well known. The latter had engaged the enemy against the +orders of Cursor, by whom he was condemned to death, and only the +intercession of his father, the senate and the people, saved his life. +Cursor treated his soldiers with such harshness that they allowed +themselves to be defeated; but after he had regained their good-will by +more lenient treatment and lavish promises of booty, they fought with +enthusiasm and gained a complete victory. After the disaster of the +Caudine Forks, Cursor to some extent wiped out the disgrace by +compelling Luceria (which had revolted) to surrender. He delivered the +Roman hostages who were held in captivity in the town, recovered the +standards lost at Caudium, and made 7000 of the enemy pass under the +yoke. In 309, when the Samnites again rose, Cursor was appointed +dictator for the second time, and gained a decisive victory at Longula, +in honour of which he celebrated a magnificent triumph. Cursor's +strictness was proverbial; he was a man of immense bodily strength, +while his bravery was beyond dispute. He was surnamed Cursor from his +swiftness of foot. + + Livy viii., ix.; Aurelius Victor, _De viris illustribus_, 31; + Eutropius ii. 8. 9. + +His son of the same name, also a distinguished general, completed the +subjection of Samnium (272). He set up a sun-dial, the first of its kind +in Rome, in the temple of Quirinus. + + Livy x. 39-47; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._, vii. 60. + + + + +CURSOR MUNDI, an English poem in the Northern dialect dating from the +13th century. It is a religious epic of 24,000 lines "over-running" the +history of the world as related in the Old and New Testaments. "Cursur o +werld man aght it call, For almast it over-rennes all." The author +explains in his prologue his reasons for undertaking the work. Men +desire to read old romances of Alexander, Julius Caesar, Greece, Troy, +Brut, Arthur, of Tristram, Sweet Ysoude and others. But better than +tales of love is the story of the Virgin who is man's best lover, +therefore in her honour he will write this book, founded on the +steadfast ground of the Holy Trinity. He writes in English for the love +of English people of merry England, so that those who know no French may +understand. The history is treated under seven ages. The first four +include the period from the creation of the world to the successors of +Solomon, the fifth deals with Mary and the birth and childhood of Jesus, +the sixth with the lives of Christ and the chief apostles, and with the +finding of the holy cross, and the seventh with Doomsday. Four short +poems follow, more in some MSS. The bulk of the poem is written in +rhyming couplets of short lines of four accents, and maintains a fair +level throughout. The narrative is enlivened by many legends and much +entertaining matter drawn from various sources; and the numerous +transcripts of it prove that it was able to hold its own against profane +romance. + +The chief sources of the compilation have been identified by Dr +Haenisch. For the Old Testament history the author draws largely from +the _Historia scholastica_ of Peter Comestor; for the history of the +Virgin he often translates literally from Wace's _Etablissement de la +fete de la conception Notre Dame_; the parables of the king and four +daughters, and of the castle of Love and Grace, are taken from "Sent +Robert bok" (1.9516), that is, from the _Chasteau d'Amour_ of Robert +Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln; other sources are the apocryphal gospels +of Matthew and Nicodemus, a southern English poem on the Assumption of +Our Lady, attributed by the writer of _Cursor mundi_ to Edmund Rich of +Pontigny, the Vulgate, the _Legenda aurea_ of Jacobus de Voragine, and +the _De vita et morte sanctorum_ of Isidore of Seville. The original of +the section on the invention of the holy cross is still to seek. In its +general plan the work is similar to the _Livre de sapience_ of Herman de +Valenciennes. + +Of the author nothing is known. In the Cotton MS. Vespasian (A III.) the +name of the owner William Cosyn is given (for particulars of this +family, which is mentioned in Lincolnshire records as early as 1276, see +Dr H. Hupe in the E.E.T.S. ed. of _Cursor mundi_, vol. i. p. 124 *). The +date of the book was placed by Dr J. A. H. Murray (_The Dialect of the +Southern Counties of Scotland_, 1873, p. 30) in the last quarter of the +13th century, and the place of writing near Durham. Dr Hupe (_loc. cit._ +p. 186 *) gives good reasons for believing that the author was a +Lincolnshire man, who wrote between 1260 and 1290, although the Cotton +MS. probably belongs to the late 14th century. In the Gottingen MS. +there are lines (17099-17110) desiring the reader to pray for John of +Lindbergh, "that this bock gart dight," and cursing anybody who shall +steal it. Lindberg is probably Limber Magna, near Ulceby, in north +Lincolnshire. Dr Hupe hazards an identification of the author with this +John of Lindberg, who may have been a member of the Cistercian Abbey of +Lindberg; but this is improbable. + + _Cursor mundi_ was edited for the Early English Text Society in + 1874-1893 by Dr Richard Morris in parallel columns from four + MSS.:--Cotton Vespasian A III., British Museum; Fairfax MS. 14, in the + Bodleian library, Oxford; MS. theol. 107 at Gottingen; and MS. R. 3.8 + in Trinity College, Cambridge. The edition includes a "Preface" by the + editor, "An Inquiry into the Sources of the _Cursor mundi_" (1885), + by Dr Haenisch, an essay "On the Filiation and the Text of the MSS. of + _Cursor mundi_" (1885), by Dr H. Hupe, "Cursor Studies and Criticisms + on the Dialects of its MSS." (1888), by Dr Hupe and a glossary by Dr + Max Kaluza. + + + + +CURTAIN, a screen of any textile material, running by means of rings +fixed to a rod or pole. Curtains are now used chiefly to cover windows +and doors, but for many centuries every bed of importance was surrounded +by them, and sometimes, as in France, the space thus screened off was +much larger than the actual bed and was called the _ruelle_. The curtain +is very ancient--indeed the absence of glass and ill-fitting windows +long made it a necessity. Originally single curtains were used; it would +appear that it was not until the 17th century that they were employed in +pairs. Curtains are made in an infinite variety of materials and styles; +when placed over a door they are usually called _portieres_. In +fortification the "curtain" is that part of the enceinte which lies +between two bastions, towers, gates, &c. + +The word comes into English through the O. Fr. _cortine_ or _courtine_ +from the Late Lat. _cortina_. According to Du Cange (_Glossarium_, s.v. +"Cortis") this is a diminutive of _cortis_, an enclosed space, a court. +It is used in the various senses of the English "curtain." Classical +Latin had also a word _cortina_, meaning a caldron or round kettle. It +was very rarely applied to round objects generally. In the Vulgate +_cortina_ is used of the curtains of the tabernacle (Exodus xxvi). There +is some difficulty in connecting the classical and the Late Latin words. +The earliest use in English is, according to the _New English +Dictionary_, for the hangings of a bed. + + + + +CURTANA (a latinized form of the A.-Fr. _curtein_, from Lat. _curtus_, +shortened), the pointless sword of mercy, known also as Edward the +Confessor's sword, borne at the coronation of the kings of England +between the two pointed swords of temporal and spiritual justice (see +REGALIA). + + + + +CURTEA DE ARGESH (Rumanian, _Curtea de Arges_; also written _Curtea +d'Argesh_, _Curtea d'Ardges_, _Argish_ and _Ardjish_), the capital of +the department of Argesh, Rumania; situated on the right bank of the +river Argesh, where it flows through a valley of the lower Carpathians; +and on the railway from Pitesci to the Rothenthurm Pass. Pop. (1900) +4210. The city is one of the oldest in Rumania. According to tradition +it was founded early in the 14th century by Prince Radu Negru, +succeeding Campulung as capital of Walachia. Hence its name _Curtea_, +"the court." It contains a few antique churches, and was created a +bishopric at the close of the 18th century. + +The cathedral of Curtea de Argesh, by far the most famous building in +Rumania, stands in the grounds of a monastery, 1(1/2) m. N. of the city. +It resembles a very large and elaborate mausoleum, built in Byzantine +style, with Moorish arabesques. In shape it is oblong, with a many-sided +annexe at the back. In the centre rises a dome, fronted by two smaller +cupolas; while a secondary dome, broader and loftier than the central +one, springs from the annexe. Each summit is crowned by an inverted +pear-shaped stone, bearing a triple cross, emblematic of the Trinity. +The windows are mere slits; those of the tambours, or cylinders, on +which the cupolas rest, are curved, and slant at an angle of 70 deg., as +though the tambours were leaning to one side. Between the pediment and +the cornice a thick corded moulding is carried round the main building. +Above this comes a row of circular shields, adorned with intricate +arabesques, while bands and wreaths of lilies are everywhere sculptured +on the windows, balconies, tambours and cornices, adding lightness to +the fabric. The whole is raised on a platform 7 ft. high, and encircled +by a stone balustrade. Facing the main entrance is a small open shrine, +consisting of a cornice and dome upheld by four pillars. The cathedral +is faced with pale grey limestone, easily chiselled, but hardening on +exposure. The interior is of brick, plastered and decorated with +frescoes. Close by stands a large royal palace, Moorish in style. The +archives of the cathedral were plundered by Magyars and Moslems, but +several inscriptions, Greek, Slav and Ruman, are left. One tablet +records that the founder was Prince Neagoe Bassarab (1512-1521); another +that Prince John Radu completed the work in 1526. A third describes the +repairs executed in 1681 by Prince Sherban Cantacuzino; a fourth, the +restoration, in 1804, by Joseph, the first bishop. Between 1875 and 1885 +the cathedral was reconstructed; and in 1886 it was reconsecrated. Its +legends have inspired many Rumanian poets, among them the celebrated V. +Alexandri (1821-1890). One tradition describes how Neagoe Bassarab, +while a hostage in Constantinople, designed a splendid mosque for the +sultan, returning to build the cathedral out of the surplus materials. +Another version makes him employ one Manole or Manoli as architect. +Manole, being unable to finish the walls, the prince threatened him and +his assistant with death. At last Manole suggested that they should +follow the ancient custom of building a living woman into the +foundations; and that she who first appeared on the following morning +should be the victim. The other masons warned their families, and Manole +was forced to sacrifice his own wife. Thus the cathedral was built +except the roof. So arrogant, however, did the masons become, that the +prince bade remove the scaffolding, and all, save Manole, perished of +hunger. He fell to the ground, and a spring of clear water, which issued +from the spot, is still called after him. + + + + +CURTESY (a variant of "courtesy," q.v.), in law, the life interest which +a husband has in certain events in the lands of which his wife was in +her lifetime actually seised for an estate of inheritance. As to the +historical origin of the custom and the meaning of the word there is +considerable doubt. It has been said to be an interest peculiar to +England and to Scotland, hence called the "curtesy of England" and the +"curtesy of Scotland"; but this is erroneous, for it is found also in +Germany and France. The _Mirroir des Justices_ ascribes it to Henry I. +K. E. Digby (_Hist. Real Prop._ chap. iii.) says that it is connected +with curia, and has reference either to the attendance of the husband as +tenant of the lands at the lord's court, or to mean simply that the +husband is acknowledged tenant by the courts of England (_tenens per +legem Angliae_). The requisites necessary to make tenancy by the curtesy +are: (1) a legal marriage; (2) an estate in possession of which the wife +must have been actually seised; (3) issue born alive and during the +mother's existence, though it is immaterial whether the issue live or +die, or whether it is born before or after the wife's seisin; in the +case of gavelkind lands the husband has a right to curtesy, whether +there is issue born or not; but the curtesy extends only to a moiety of +the wife's lands and ceases if the husband marries again. The issue must +have been capable of inheriting as heir to the wife, e.g. if a wife were +seised of lands in tail male the birth of a daughter would not entitle +the husband to a tenancy by curtesy; (4) the title to the tenancy vests +only on the death of the wife. The Married Women's Property Act 1882 has +not affected the right of curtesy so far as relates to the wife's +undisposed-of realty (_Hope_ v. _Hope_, 1892, 2 Ch. 336), and the +Settled Land Act 1884, s. 8, provides that for the purposes of the +Settled Land Act 1882 the estate of a tenant by curtesy is to be deemed +an estate arising under a settlement made by the wife. + + See Pollock and Maitland, _Hist. Eng. Law_; K. E. Digby, _Hist. Real + Prop._; Goodeve, _Real Property_. + + + + +CURTILAGE (Med. Lat. _curtilagium_, from _curtile_ or _cortile_, a court +or yard, cf. "court"), the area of land which immediately surrounds a +dwelling-house and its yard and outbuildings. In feudal times every +castle with its dependent buildings was protected by a surrounding wall, +and all the land within the wall was termed the curtilage; but the +modern legal interpretation of the word, i.e. what area is enclosed by +the curtilage, depends upon the circumstances of each individual case, +such as the terms of the grant or deed which passes the property, or +upon what is held to be a convenient amount of land for the occupation +of the house, &c. The importance of the word in modern law depends on +the fact that the curtilage marks the limit of the premises in which +housebreaking can be committed. + + + + +CURTIN ANDREW GREGG (1817-1894), American political leader, was born at +Bellefonte, Centre county, Pennsylvania, on the 22nd of April 1817, the +son of a native of Ireland who was a pioneer iron manufacturer in +Pennsylvania. He graduated from the law department of Dickinson College +in 1837, was admitted to the bar in 1839, and successfully practised his +profession. Entering politics as a Whig, he was chairman of the Whig +state central committee in 1854, and from 1855 to 1858 was secretary of +the commonwealth. In this capacity he was also _ex officio_ the +superintendent of common schools, and rendered valuable services to his +state in perfecting and expanding the free public school system, and in +establishing state normal schools. Upon the organization of the +Republican party he became one of its leaders in Pennsylvania, and in +October 1860 was chosen governor of the state on its ticket, defeating +Henry D. Foster, the candidate upon whom the Douglas and Breckinridge +Democrats and the Constitutional Unionists had united, by 32,000 votes, +after a spirited campaign which was watched with intense interest by the +entire country as an index of the result of the ensuing presidential +election. During the Civil War he was one of the closest and most +constant advisers of President Lincoln, and one of the most efficient, +most energetic and most patriotic of the "war governors" of the North. +Pennsylvania troops were the first to reach Washington after the +president's call, and from first to last the state, under Governor +Curtin's guidance, furnished 387,284 officers and men to the Northern +armies. One of his wisest and most praiseworthy acts Was the +organization of the famous "Pennsylvania Reserves," by means of which +the state was always able to fill at once its required quota after each +successive call. In raising funds and equipping and supplying troops the +governor showed great energy and resourcefulness, and his plans and +organizations for caring for the needy widows and children of +Pennsylvania soldiers killed in battle, and for aiding and removing to +their homes the sick and wounded were widely copied throughout the +North. He was re-elected governor in 1863 and served until January 1867. +He was United States minister to Russia from 1869 until 1872, when he +returned to America and took part in the Liberal Republican revolt +against President U. S. Grant. In 1872-1873 he was a member of the state +constitutional convention. Subsequently he joined the Democratic party +and was a representative in Congress from 1881 to 1887. He died at his +birthplace, Bellefonte, Pennsylvania, on the 7th of October 1894. + + See William H. Egle's _Life and Times of Andrew Gregg Curtin_ + (Philadelphia, 1896), which contains chapters written by A. K. + McClure, Jno. Russell Young, Wayne McVeagh, Fitz John Porter and + others. + + + + +CURTIS, GEORGE TICKNOR (1812-1894), American lawyer, legal writer and +constitutional historian, was born in Watertown, Massachusetts, on the +28th of November 1812. He graduated at Harvard in 1832, was admitted to +the bar in 1836, and practised in Worcester, Boston, New York and +Washington, appearing before the United States Supreme Court in many +important cases, including the Dred Scott case, in which he argued the +constitutional question for Scott, and the "legal tender" cases. In +Boston he was for many years the United States commissioner, and in this +capacity, despite the vigorous protests of the abolitionists and his own +opposition to slavery, ordered the return to his owner of the famous +fugitive slave, Themas Sims, in 1852. He was the nephew and close friend +of George Ticknor, the historian of Spanish literature, and his +association with his uncle was influential in developing his scholarly +tastes; while his other personal friendships with eminent Bostonians +during the period of conservative Whig ascendancy in Massachusetts +politics were of direct influence upon his political opinions and +published estimates. He is best known as the author of _A History of the +Origin, Formation and Adoption of the Constitution of the United States, +with Notices of its principal Framers_ (1854), republished, with many +additions, as _The Constitutional History of the United States from +their Declaration of Independence to the Close of their Civil War_ (2 +vols., 1889-1896). This history, which had been watched in its earlier +progress by Daniel Webster, may be said to present the old Federalist or +"Webster-Whig" view of the formation and powers of the Constitution; and +it was natural that Curtis should follow it with a voluminous _Life of +Daniel Webster_ (2 vols., 1870), the most valuable biography of that +statesman. Both these works are characterized by solidity and +comprehensiveness rather than by rhetorical attractiveness or literary +perspective. In his later years Mr Curtis, like so many of the followers +of Webster, turned towards the Democratic party; and he wrote, among +other works of minor importance, an exculpatory life of President James +Buchanan (2 vols., 1883) and two vindications of General George B. +McClellan's career (1886 and 1887). He died in New York on the 28th of +March 1894. + + In addition to the works above mentioned he published: _Digest of the + English and American Admiralty Decisions_ (1839); _Rights and Duties + of Merchant Seamen_ (1841), which elicited the hearty praise of + Justice Joseph Story; _Law of Patents_ (1849); _Equity Precedents_ + (1850); _Commentaries on the Jurisprudence, Practice and Peculiar + Jurisdiction of the Courts of the United States_ (1854-1858); + _Creation or Evolution: A Philosophical Inquiry_ (1887); and a novel, + _John Chambers: A Tale of the Civil War in America_ (1889). + +His brother, BENJAMIN ROBBINS CURTIS (1809-1874), also an eminent +jurist, was born on the 4th of November 1809, in Watertown, +Massachusetts, graduated at Harvard in 1829, studied law at Cambridge +and at Northfield, Mass., where, after his admission to the bar in 1832, +he practised law for two years, and then in Boston in 1834-1851. In +1851, being then a member of the lower house of the Massachusetts +legislature, he was on the 22nd of September appointed to the Supreme +Court of the United States, where he gained his greatest fame in 1857 by +his dissenting opinion in the Dred Scott case, in which he argued that +the Missouri Compromise was constitutional, and that negroes could +become citizens. His argument was immediately published as an +anti-slavery document. On the 1st of September 1857 he resigned from the +Supreme Court and resumed his private practice. In 1868 he was one of +the counsel for President Andrew Johnson in his impeachment trial, and +opened for the defence in a remarkable two-days' speech. He died at +Newport, Rhode Island, on the 15th of September 1874. He prepared +_Decisions of the Supreme Court_ (22 vols.) and a _Digest_ of its +decisions down to 1854. + + _A Memoir of Benjamin Robbins Curtis, with Some of his Professional + and Miscellaneous Papers_, edited by his son Benjamin R. Curtis, was + published at Boston in 1879, the _Memoir_ being by George Ticknor + Curtis. + + + + +CURTIS, GEORGE WILLIAM (1824-1892), American man of letters, was born in +Providence, Rhode Island, on the 24th of February 1824, of old New +England stock. His mother died when he was two years old. At six he was +sent with his elder brother to school in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, +where he remained for five years. Then, his father having again married +happily, the boys were brought home to Providence, where they stayed +till, in 1839, their father removed to New York. Three years later, +Curtis, being allowed to determine for himself his course of life, and +being in sympathy with the spirit of the so-called Transcendental +movement, became a boarder at the community of Brook Farm. He was +accompanied by his brother, James Burrill Curtis, whose influence upon +him was strong and helpful. He remained there for two years, brought +into stimulating and serviceable relations with many interesting men and +women. Then came two years, passed partly in New York, partly in Concord +in order mainly to be in the friendly neighbourhood of Emerson, and then +followed four years spent in Europe, Egypt and Syria. + +Curtis returned from Europe in 1850, handsome, attractive, accomplished, +ambitious of literary distinction. He instantly plunged into the whirl +of life in New York, obtained a place on the staff of the _Tribune_, +entered the field as a popular lecturer, set himself to work on a volume +published in the spring of 1851, under the title of _Nile Notes of a +Howadji_, and became a favourite in society. He wrote much for _Putnam's +Magazine_, of which he was associate editor; and a number of volumes, +composed of essays written for that publication and for _Harper's +Monthly_, came in rapid succession from his pen. The chief of these were +the _Potiphar Papers_ (1853), a satire on the fashionable society of the +day; and _Prue and I_ (1856), a pleasantly sentimental, fancifully +tender and humorous study of life. In 1855 he married Miss Anna Shaw. +Not long after his marriage he became, through no fault of his own, +deeply involved in debt owing to the failure of _Putnam's Magazine_; and +his high sense of honour compelled him to devote the greater part of his +earnings for many years to the discharge of obligations for which he had +become only by accident responsible, and from which he might have freed +himself by legal process. In the period just preceding the Civil War +other interests became subordinate to those of national concern. Curtis +made his first important speech on the questions of the day at Wesleyan +University in 1856; he engaged actively in the presidential campaign of +that year, and was soon recognized not only as an effective public +speaker, but also as one of the ablest, most high-minded, and most +trustworthy leaders of public opinion. In 1863 he became the political +editor of _Harper's Weekly_, and no other journal exercised during the +war and after it a more important part in shaping public opinion. His +writing was always clear, direct, forcible; his fairness of mind and +sweetness of temper were invincible. He never became a mere partisan, +and never failed to apply the test of moral principle to political +measures. From month to month he contributed to _Harper's Monthly_, +under the title of "The Easy Chair," brief essays on topics of social +and literary interest, charming in style, touched with delicate humour +and instinct with generous spirit. His service to the Republican party +was such, that more than once he was offered nominations to office of +high distinction, and might have been sent as minister to England; but +he refused all offers of the kind, feeling that he could render more +essential service to the country as editor and public speaker. + +In 1871 he was appointed by President Grant chairman of the commission +to report on the reform of the civil service. The report which he wrote +was the foundation of every effort since made for the purification and +regulation of the service and for the destruction of political +patronage. From that time till his death Curtis was the leader in this +reform, and to his sound judgment, his vigorous presentation of the +evils of the corrupt prevailing system, and his untiring efforts, the +progress of the reform is mainly due. He was president of the National +Civil Service Reform League and of the New York Civil Service Reform +Association. In 1884 he refused to support the nomination of James G. +Blaine as candidate for the presidency, and thus broke with the +Republican party, of which he had been one of the founders and leaders. +From that time he stood as the typical independent in politics. In April +1892 he delivered at Baltimore his eleventh annual address as president +of the National Civil Service Reform League, and in May he appeared for +the last time in public, to repeat in New York an admirable address on +James Russell Lowell, which he had first delivered in Brooklyn on the +22nd of the preceding February, the anniversary of Lowell's birth. On +the 31st of the following August he died. He was a man of consistent +virtue, whose face and figure corresponded with the traits and stature +of his soul. The grace and charm of his manner were the expression of +his nature. Of the Americans of his time few were more widely beloved, +and the respect in which he was held was universal. + + See _George William Curtis_, by Edward Cary, in the "American Men of + Letters" series (Boston, 1894), an excellent biography; "An Epistle to + George William Curtis," by James Russell Lowell (1874-1887), in + Lowell's _Poems; George William Curtis_, a Commemorative Address + delivered before The Century Association, 17th December 1892, by Parke + Godwin (New York, 1893); _Orations and Addresses by George William + Curtis_, edited by Charles Eliot Norton (3 vols. New York, 1894). + (C. E. N.) + + + + +CURTIUS, ERNST (1814-1896), German archaeologist and historian, was born +at Lubeck on the 2nd of September 1814. On completing his university +studies he was chosen by C. A. Brandis to accompany him on a journey to +Greece for the prosecution of archaeological researches. Curtius then +became Otfried Muller's companion in his exploration of the Peloponnese, +and on Muller's death in 1840 returned to Germany. In 1844 he became an +extraordinary professor at the university of Berlin, and in the same +year was appointed tutor to Prince Frederick William (afterwards the +Emperor Frederick III.)--a post which he held till 1850. After holding a +professorship at Gottingen and undertaking a further journey to Greece +in 1862, Curtius was appointed (in 1863) ordinary professor at Berlin. +In 1874 he was sent to Athens by the German government, and concluded an +agreement by which the excavations at Olympia (q.v.) were entrusted +exclusively to Germany. Curtius died at Berlin on the 11th of July 1896. +His best-known work is his _History of Greece_ (1857-1867, 6th ed. +1887-1888; Eng. trans. by A. W. Ward, 1868-1873). It presented in an +attractive style what were then the latest results of scholarly +research, but was criticized as wanting in erudition. It is now +superseded (see GREECE: _History, Ancient_, S Bibliography). His other +writings are chiefly archaeological. The most important are: _Die +Akropolis von Athen_ (1844); _Naxos_ (1846); _Peloponnesos, eine +historisch-geographische Beschreibung der Halbinsel_ (1851); _Olympia_ +(1852); _Die Ionier vor der ionischen Wanderung_ (1855); _Attische +Studien_ (1862-1865); _Ephesos_ (1874); _Die Ausgrabungen zu Olympia_ +(1877, &c.); _Olympia und Umgegend_ (edited by Curtius and F. Adler, +1882); _Olympia; Die Ergebnisse der von dem deutschen Reich +veranstalteten Ausgrabung_ (with F. Adler, 1890-1898); _Die +Stadtgeschichte von Athen_ (1891); _Gesammelte Abhandlungen_ (1894). His +collected speeches and lectures were published under the title of +_Altertum und Gegenwart_ (5th ed., 1903 foll.), to which a third volume +was added under the title of _Unter drei Kaisern_ (2nd ed., 1895). + + A full list of his writings will be found in L. Gurlitt, _Erinnerungen + an Ernst Curtius_ (Berlin, 1902); see also article by O. Kern in + _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, xlvii. (1903), to which may be added + _Ernst Curtius. Ein Lebensbild in Briefen_, by F. Curtius (1903); T. + Hodgkin, _Ernest Curtius_ (1905). + +His brother, GEORG CURTIUS (1820-1885), philologist, was born at Lubeck +on the 16th of April 1820. After an education at Bonn and Berlin he was +for three years a schoolmaster in Dresden, until (in 1845) he returned +to Berlin University as _privat-docent_. In 1849 he was placed in charge +of the Philological Seminary at Prague, and two years later was +appointed professor of classical philology in Prague University. In 1854 +he removed from Prague to a similar appointment at Kiel, and again in +1862 from Kiel to Leipzig. He died at Hermsdorf on the 12th of August +1885. His philological theories exercised a widespread influence. The +more important of his publications are: _Die Sprachvergleichung in ihrem +Verhaltniss zur classischen Philologie_ (1845; Eng. trans. by F. H. +Trithen, 1851); _Sprachvergleichende Beitrage zur griechischen und +lateinischen Grammatik_ (1846); _Grundzuge der griechischen Etymologie_ +(1858-1862, 5th ed. 1879); _Das Verbum der griechischen Sprache_ (1873). +The last two works have been translated into English by A. S. Wilkins +and E. B. England. From 1878 till his death Curtius was general editor +of the _Leipziger Studien zur classischen Philologie_. His _Griechische +Schulgrammatik_, first published in 1852, has passed through more than +twenty editions, and has been edited in English. In his last work, _Zur +Kritik der neuesten Sprachforschung_ (1885), he attacks the views of the +"new" school of philology. + + _Opuscula_ of Georg Curtius were edited after his death by E. Windisch + (_Kleine Schriften von E. C._, 1886-1887). For further information + consult articles by R. Meister in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, + xlvii. (1903), and by E. Windisch in C. Bursian's _Biographisches + Jahrbuch fur Alterthumskunde_ (1886). + + + + +CURTIUS, MARCUS, a legendary hero of ancient Rome. It is said that in +362 B.C. a deep gulf opened in the forum, which the seers declared would +never close until Rome's most valuable possession was thrown into it. +Then Curtius, a youth of noble family, recognizing that nothing was more +precious than a brave citizen, leaped, fully armed and on horseback, +into the chasm, which immediately closed again. The spot was afterwards +covered by a marsh called the Lacus Curtius. Two other explanations of +the name Lacus Curtius are given: (1) a Sabine general, Mettius (or +Mettus) Curtius, hard pressed by the Romans under Romulus, leaped into a +swamp which covered the valley afterwards occupied by the forum, and +barely escaped with his life; (2) in 445 B.C. the spot was struck by +lightning, and enclosed as sacred by the consul, Gaius Curtius. It was +marked by an altar which was removed to make room for the games in +celebration of Caesar's funeral (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xv. 77), but +restored by Augustus (cf. Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 403), in whose time there +was apparently nothing but a dry well. The altar seems to have been +restored early in the 4th century A.D. In April 1904, on the N. side of +the Via Sacra and 20 ft. N.W. of the Equus Domitiani, remains of the +buildings were discovered. + + See Livy i. 12, vii. 6; Dion Halic. ii. 42; Varro, _De lingua Latina_, + v. 148; Ch. Hulsen, _The Roman Forum_ (Eng. trans. of 2nd ed., J. B. + Carter, 1906); O. Gilbert, _Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt Rom + im Altertum_, i. (1883), 334-338. + + + + +CURTIUS RUFUS, QUINTUS, biographer of Alexander the Great. Of his +personal history nothing is known, nor can his date be fixed with +certainty. Modern authorities regard him as a rhetorician who flourished +during the reign of Claudius (A.D. 41-54). His work (_De Rebus gestis +Alexandri Magni_) originally consisted of ten books, of which the first +two are entirely lost, and the remaining eight are incomplete. Although +the work is uncritical, and shows the author's ignorance of geography, +chronology and military matters, it is written in a picturesque style. + + There are numerous editions: (text) T. Vogel (1889), P. H. Damste + (1897), E. Hedicke (1908); (with notes), T. Vogel (1885 and later), M. + Croiset (1885), H. W. Reich (1895), C. Lebaigue (1900), T. Stangl + (1902). There is an English translation by P. Pratt (1821). See S. + Dosson, _Etude sur Quinte-Curce, sa vie, et ses oeuvres_ (1887) a + valuable work; F. von Schwarz, _Alexander des Grossen Feldzuge in + Turkestan_ (1893), a commentary on Arrian and Curtius based upon the + author's personal knowledge of the topography; C. Wachsmuth, + _Einleitung in das Studium der alten Geschichte_ (1895), p. 574, cf. + p. 567, note 2; Schwarz, "Curtius Rufus" No. 31 in Pauly-Wissowa + (1901). + + + + +CURULE (Lat. _currus_, "chariot"), in Roman antiquities, the epithet +applied to the chair of office, _sella curulis_, used by the "curule" or +highest magistrates and also by the emperors. This chair seems to have +been originally placed in the magistrate's chariot (hence the name). It +was inlaid with ivory or in some cases made of it, had curved legs but +no back, and could be folded up like a camp-stool. In English the word +is used in the general sense of "official." (See CONSUL, PRAETOR and +AEDILE.) + + + + +CURVE (Lat. _curvus_, bent), a word commonly meaning a shape represented +by a line bending continuously out of the straight without making an +angle, but only properly to be defined in its geometrical sense in the +terms set out below. This subject is treated here from an historical +point of view, for the purpose of showing how the different leading +ideas were successively arrived at and developed. + +1. A curve is a line, or continuous singly infinite system of points. We +consider in the first instance, and chiefly, a plane curve described +according to a law. Such a curve may be regarded geometrically as +actually described, or kinematically as in the course of description by +the motion of a point; in the former point of view, it is the locus of +all the points which satisfy a given condition; in the latter, it is the +locus of a point moving subject to a given condition. Thus the most +simple and earliest known curve, the circle, is the locus of all the +points at a given distance from a fixed centre, or else the locus of a +point moving so as to be always at a given distance from a fixed centre. +(The straight line and the point are not for the moment regarded as +curves.) + +Next to the circle we have the conic sections, the invention of them +attributed to Plato (who lived 430-347 B.C.); the original definition of +them as the sections of a cone was by the Greek geometers who studied +them soon replaced by a proper definition _in plano_ like that for the +circle, viz. a conic section (or as we now say a "conic") is the locus +of a point such that its distance from a given point, the focus, is in a +given ratio to its (perpendicular) distance from a given line, the +directrix; or it is the locus of a point which moves so as always to +satisfy the foregoing condition. Similarly any other property might be +used as a definition; an ellipse is the locus of a point such that the +sum of its distances from two fixed points (the foci) is constant, &c., +&c. + +The Greek geometers invented other curves; in particular, the conchoid +(q.v.), which is the locus of a point such that its distance from a +given line, measured along the line drawn through it to a fixed point, +is constant; and the cissoid (q.v.), which is the locus of a point such +that its distance from a fixed point is always equal to the intercept +(on the line through the fixed point) between a circle passing through +the fixed point and the tangent to the circle at the point opposite to +the fixed point. Obviously the number of such geometrical or kinematical +definitions is infinite. In a machine of any kind, each point describes +a curve; a simple but important instance is the "three-bar curve," or +locus of a point in or rigidly connected with a bar pivoted on to two +other bars which rotate about fixed centres respectively. Every curve +thus arbitrarily defined has its own properties; and there was not any +principle of classification. + +2. _Cartesian Co-ordinates._--The principle of classification first +presented itself in the _Geometrie_ of Descartes (1637). The idea was to +represent any curve whatever by means of a relation between the +co-ordinates (x, y) of a point of the curve, or say to represent the +curve by means of its equation. (See GEOMETRY: _Analytical_.) + +Any relation whatever between (x, y) determines a curve, and conversely +every curve whatever is determined by a relation between (x, y). + +Observe that the distinctive feature is in the _exclusive_ use of such +determination of a curve by means of its equation. The Greek geometers +were perfectly familiar with the property of an ellipse which in the +Cartesian notation is x^2/a^2 + y^2/b^2 = 1, the equation of the curve; +but it was as one of a number of properties, and in no wise selected out +of the others for the characteristic property of the curve. + +3. _Order of a Curve._--We obtain from the equation the notion of an +algebraical as opposed to a transcendental curve, viz. an algebraical +curve is a curve having an equation F(x, y) = 0 where F(x, y) is a +rational and integral function of the co-ordinates (x, y); and in what +follows we attend throughout (unless the contrary is stated) only to +such curves. The equation is sometimes given, and may conveniently be +used, in an irrational form, but we always imagine it reduced to the +foregoing rational and integral form, and regard this as the equation of +the curve. And we have hence the notion of a curve of a _given order_, +viz. the order of the curve is equal to that of the term or terms of +highest order in the co-ordinates (x, y) conjointly in the equation of +the curve; for instance, xy - 1 = 0 is a curve of the second order. + +It is to be noticed here that the axes of co-ordinates may be any two +lines at right angles to each other whatever; and that the equation of a +curve will be different according to the selection of the axes of +co-ordinates; but the order is independent of the axes, and has a +determinate value for any given curve. + +We hence divide curves according to their order, viz. a curve is of the +first order, second order, third order, &c., according as it is +represented by an equation of the first order, ax + by + c = 0, or say +(*() x, y, 1) = 0; or by an equation of the second order, ax^2 + 2hxy + +by^2 + 2fy + 2gx + c = 0, say (*() x, y, 1)^2 = 0; or by an equation of +the third order, &c.; or what is the same thing, according as the +equation is linear, quadric, cubic, &c. + +A curve of the first order is a right line; and conversely every right +line is a curve of the first order. A curve of the second order is a +conic, and is also called a quadric curve; and conversely every conic is +a curve of the second order or quadric curve. A curve of the third order +is called a cubic; one of the fourth order a quartic; and so on. + +A curve of the order m has for its equation (*() x, y, 1)^m = 0; and +when the coefficients of the function are arbitrary, the curve is said +to be the general curve of the order m. The number of coefficients is +1/2(m + 1)(m + 2); but there is no loss of generality if the equation be +divided by one coefficient so as to reduce the coefficient of the +corresponding term to unity, hence the number of coefficients may be +reckoned as 1/2(m + 1)(m + 2) - 1, that is, 1/2m(m + 3); and a curve of +the order m may be made to satisfy this number of conditions; for +example, to pass through 1/2m(m + 3) points. + +It is to be remarked that an equation may _break up_; thus a quadric +equation may be (ax + by + c)(a'x + b'y + c') = 0, breaking up into the +two equations ax + by + c = 0, a'x + b'y + c' = 0, viz. the original +equation is satisfied if either of these is satisfied. Each of these +last equations represents a curve of the first order, or right line; and +the original equation represents this pair of lines, viz. the pair of +lines is considered as a quadric curve. But it is an _improper_ quadric +curve; and in speaking of curves of the second or any other given order, +we frequently imply that the curve is a proper curve represented by an +equation which does not break up. + +4. _Intersections of Curves._--The intersections of two curves are +obtained by combining their equations; viz. the elimination from the two +equations of y (or x) gives for x (or y) an equation of a certain order, +say the resultant equation; and then to each value of x (or y) +satisfying this equation there corresponds in general a single value of +y (or x), and consequently a single point of intersection; the number of +intersections is thus equal to the order of the resultant equation in x +(or y). + +Supposing that the two curves are of the orders m, n, respectively, then +the order of the resultant equation is in general and at most = mn; in +particular, if the curve of the order n is an arbitrary line (n = 1), +then the order of the resultant equation is = m; and the curve of the +order m meets therefore the line in m points. But the resultant equation +may have all or any of its roots imaginary, and it is thus not always +that there are m real intersections. + +The notion of imaginary intersections, thus presenting itself, through +algebra, in geometry, must be accepted in geometry--and it in fact plays +an all-important part in modern geometry. As in algebra we say that an +equation of the _m_th order has m roots, viz. we state this generally +without in the first instance, or it may be without ever, distinguishing +whether these are real or imaginary; so in geometry we say that a curve +of the _m_th order is met by an arbitrary line in m points, or rather we +thus, through algebra, obtain the proper geometrical definition of a +curve of the _m_th order, as a curve which is met by an arbitrary line +in m points (that is, of course, in m, and not more than m, points). + +The theorem of the m intersections has been stated in regard to an +_arbitrary_ line; in fact, for particular lines the resultant equation +may be or appear to be of an order less than m; for instance, taking m = +2, if the hyperbola xy - 1 = 0 be cut by the line y = [beta], the +resultant equation in x is [beta]x - 1 = 0, and there is apparently only +the intersection (x = 1/[beta], y = [beta]); but the theorem is, in +fact, true for every line whatever: a curve of the order m meets every +line whatever in precisely m points. We have, in the case just referred +to, to take account of a point at infinity on the line y = [beta]; the +two intersections are the point (x = 1/[beta], y = [beta]), and the +point at infinity on the line y = [beta]. + +It is, moreover, to be noticed that the points at infinity may be all or +any of them imaginary, and that the points of intersection, whether +finite or at infinity, real or imaginary, may coincide two or more of +them together, and have to be counted accordingly; to support the +theorem in its universality, it is necessary to take account of these +various circumstances. + +5. _Line at Infinity._--The foregoing notion of a point at infinity is a +very important one in modern geometry; and we have also to consider the +paradoxical statement that in plane geometry, or say as regards the +plane, infinity is a right line. This admits of an easy illustration in +solid geometry. If with a given centre of projection, by drawing from it +lines to every point of a given line, we project the given line on a +given plane, the projection is a line, i.e. this projection is the +intersection of the given plane with the plane through the centre and +the given line. Say the projection is _always_ a line, then if the +figure is such that the two planes are parallel, the projection is the +intersection of the given plane by a parallel plane, or it is the system +of points at infinity on the given plane, that is, these points at +infinity are regarded as situate on a given line, the line infinity of +the given plane.[1] + +Reverting to the purely plane theory, infinity is a line, related like +any other right line to the curve, and thus intersecting it in m points, +real or imaginary, distinct or coincident. + +Descartes in the _Geometrie_ defined and considered the remarkable +curves called after him the ovals of Descartes, or simply Cartesians, +which will be again referred to. The next important work, founded on the +_Geometrie_, was Sir Isaac Newton's _Enumeratio linearum tertii ordinis_ +(1706), establishing a classification of cubic curves founded chiefly on +the nature of their infinite branches, which was in some details +completed by James Stirling (1692-1770), Patrick Murdoch (d. 1774) and +Gabriel Cramer; the work also contains the remarkable theorem (to be +again referred to), that there are five kinds of cubic curves giving by +their projections every cubic curve whatever. Various properties of +curves in general, and of cubic curves, are established in Colin +Maclaurin's memoir, "De linearum geometricarum proprietatibus +generalibus Tractatus" (posthumous, say 1746, published in the 6th +edition of his _Algebra_). We have in it a particular kind of +_correspondence_ of two points on a cubic curve, viz. two points +correspond to each other when the tangents at the two points again meet +the cubic in the same point. + +6. _Reciprocal Polars. Intersections of Circles. Duality. Trilinear and +Tangential Co-ordinates.--The Geometrie descriptive_, by Gaspard Monge, +was written in the year 1794 or 1795 (7th edition, Paris, 1847), and in +it we have stated, _in plano_ with regard to the circle, and in three +dimensions with regard to a surface of the second order, the fundamental +theorem of reciprocal polars, viz. "Given a surface of the second order +and a circumscribed conic surface which touches it ... then if the conic +surface moves so that its summit is always in the same plane, the plane +of the curve of contact passes always through the same point." The +theorem is here referred to partly on account of its bearing on the +theory of imaginaries in geometry. It is in Charles Julian Brianchon's +memoir "Sur les surfaces du second degre" (_Jour. Polyt._ t. vi. 1806) +shown how for any given position of the summit the plane of contact is +determined, or reciprocally; say the plane XY is determined when the +point P is given, or reciprocally; and it is noticed that when P is +situate in the interior of the surface the plane XY does not cut the +surface; that is, we have a real plane XY intersecting the surface in +the imaginary curve of contact of the imaginary circumscribed cone +having for its summit a given real point P inside the surface. + +Stating the theorem in regard to a conic, we have a real point P (called +the pole) and a real line XY (called the polar), the line joining the +two (real or imaginary) points of contact of the (real or imaginary) +tangents drawn from the point to the conic; and the theorem is that when +the point describes a line the line passes through a point, this line +and point being polar and pole to each other. The term "pole" was first +used by Francois Joseph Servois, and "polar" by Joseph Diez Gergonne +(_Gerg._ t. i. and iii., 1810-1813); and from the theorem we have the +method of reciprocal polars for the transformation of geometrical +theorems, used already by Brianchon (in the memoir above referred to) +for the demonstration of the theorem called by his name, and in a +similar manner by various writers in the earlier volumes of Gergonne. We +are here concerned with the method less in itself than as leading to the +general notion of duality. + +Bearing in a somewhat similar manner also on the theory of imaginaries +in geometry (but the notion presents itself in a more explicit form), +there is the memoir by L. Gaultier, on the graphical construction of +circles and spheres (_Jour. Polyt._ t. ix., 1813). The well-known +theorem as to radical axes may be stated as follows. Consider two +circles partially drawn so that it does not appear whether the circles, +if completed, would or would not intersect in real points, say two arcs +of circles; then we can, by means of a third circle drawn so as to +intersect in two real points each of the two arcs, determine a right +line, which, if the complete circles intersect in two real points, +passes through the points, and which is on this account regarded as a +line passing through two (real or imaginary) points of intersection of +the two circles. The construction in fact is, join the two points in +which the third circle meets the first arc, and join also the two points +in which the third circle meets the second arc, and from the point of +intersection of the two joining lines, let fall a perpendicular on the +line joining the centre of the two circles; this perpendicular +(considered as an indefinite line) is what Gaultier terms the "radical +axis of the two circles"; it is a line determined by a real construction +and itself always real; and by what precedes it is the line joining two +(real or imaginary, as the case may be) intersections of the given +circles. + +The intersections which lie on the radical axis are two out of the four +intersections of the two circles. The question as to the remaining two +intersections did not present itself to Gaultier, but it is answered in +Jean Victor Poncelet's _Traite des proprietes projectives_ (1822), where +we find (p. 49) the statement, "deux circles places arbitrairement sur +un plan ... ont idealement deux points imaginaires communs a l'infini"; +that is, a circle _qua_ curve of the second order is met by the line +infinity in two points; but, more than this, they are the same two +points for any circle whatever. The points in question have since been +called (it is believed first by Dr George Salmon) the circular points at +infinity, or they may be called the circular points; these are also +frequently spoken of as the points I, J; and we have thus the circle +characterized as a conic which passes through the two circular points at +infinity; the number of conditions thus imposed upon the conic is = 2, +and there remain three arbitrary constants, which is the right number +for the circle. Poncelet throughout his work makes continual use of the +foregoing theories of imaginaries and infinity, and also of the +before-mentioned theory of reciprocal polars. + +Poncelet's two memoirs _Sur les centres des moyennes harmoniques_ and +_Sur la theorie generale des polaires reciproques_, although presented +to the Paris Academy in 1824, were only published (_Crelle_, t. iii. and +iv., 1828, 1829) subsequent to the memoir by Gergonne, _Considerations +philosophiques sur les elemens de la science de l'etendue_ (_Gerg._ t. +xvi., 1825-1826). In this memoir by Gergonne, the theory of duality is +very clearly and explicitly stated; for instance, we find "dans la +geometrie plane, a chaque theoreme il en repond necessairement un autre +qui s'en deduit en echangeant simplement entre eux les deux mots +_points_ et _droites_; tandis que dans la geometrie de l'espace ce sont +les mots _points_ et _plans_ qu'il faut echanger entre eux pour passer +d'un theoreme a son correlatif"; and the plan is introduced of printing +correlative theorems, opposite to each other, in two columns. There was +a reclamation as to priority by Poncelet in the _Bulletin universel_ +reprinted with remarks by Gergonne (_Gerg._ t. xix., 1827), and followed +by a short paper by Gergonne, _Rectifications de quelques theoremes, +&c._, which is important as first introducing the word _class_. We find +in it explicitly the two correlative definitions: "a plane curve is said +to be of the _m_th degree (order) when it has with a line m real or +ideal intersections," and "a plane curve is said to be of the _m_th +class when from any point of its plane there can be drawn to it m real +or ideal tangents." + +It may be remarked that in Poncelet's memoir on reciprocal polars, above +referred to, we have the theorem that the number of tangents from a +point to a curve of the order m, or say the class of the curve, is in +general and at most = m(m - 1), and that he mentions that this number is +subject to reduction when the curve has double points or cusps. + +The theorem of duality as regards plane figures may be thus stated: two +figures may correspond to each other in such manner that to each point +and line in either figure there correspond in the other figure a line +and point respectively. It is to be understood that the theorem extends +to all points or lines, drawn or not drawn; thus if in the first figure +there are any number of points on a line drawn or not drawn, the +corresponding lines in the second figure, produced if necessary, must +meet in a point. And we thus see how the theorem extends to curves, +their points and tangents; if there is in the first figure a curve of +the order m, any line meets it in m points; and hence from the +corresponding point in the second figure there must be to the +corresponding curve m tangents; that is, the corresponding curve must be +of the class m. + +Trilinear co-ordinates (see GEOMETRY: _Analytical_) were first used by +E. E. Bobillier in the memoir _Essai sur un nouveau mode de recherche +des proprietes de l'etendue_ (_Gerg._ t. xviii., 1827-1828). It is +convenient to use these rather than Cartesian co-ordinates. We represent +a curve of the order m by an equation (*() x, y, z)^m = 0, the function +on the left hand being a homogeneous rational and integral function of +the order m of the three co-ordinates (x, y, z); clearly the number of +constants is the same as for the equation (*() x, y, 1)^m = 0 in +Cartesian co-ordinates. + +The theorem of duality is considered and developed, but chiefly in +regard to its metrical applications, by Michel Chasles in the _Memoire +de geometrie sur deux principes generaux de la science, la dualite et +l'homographie_, which forms a sequel to the _Apercu historique sur +l'origine et le developpement des methodes en geometrie_ (_Mem. de +Brux._ t. xi., 1837). + +We now come to Julius Plucker; his "six equations" were given in a short +memoir in _Crelle_ (1842) preceding his great work, the _Theorie der +algebraischen Curven_ (1844). Plucker first gave a scientific dual +definition of a curve, viz.; "A curve is a locus generated by a point, +and enveloped by a line--the point moving continuously along the line, +while the line rotates continuously about the point"; the point is a +point (ineunt.) of the curve, the line is a tangent of the curve. And, +assuming the above theory of geometrical imaginaries, a curve such that +m of its points are situate in an arbitrary line is said to be of the +order m; a curve such that n of its tangents pass through an arbitrary +point is said to be of the class n; as already appearing, this notion of +the order and class of a curve is, however, due to Gergonne. Thus the +line is a curve of the order 1 and class 0; and corresponding dually +thereto, we have the point as a curve of the order 0 and class 1. + +Plucker, moreover, imagined a system of line-co-ordinates (tangential +co-ordinates). (See GEOMETRY: _Analytical_.) The Cartesian co-ordinates +(x, y) and trilinear co-ordinates (x, y, z) are point-co-ordinates for +determining the position of a point; the new co-ordinates, say ([xi], +[eta], [zeta]) are line-co-ordinates for determining the position of a +line. It is possible, and (not so much for any application thereof as in +order to more fully establish the analogy between the two kinds of +co-ordinates) important, to give independent quantitative definitions of +the two kinds of co-ordinates; but we may also derive the notion of +line-co-ordinates from that of point-co-ordinates; viz. taking [xi]x + +[eta]y + [zeta]z = 0 to be the equation of a line, we say that ([xi], +[eta], [zeta]) are the line-co-ordinates of this line. A linear relation +a[xi] + b[eta] + c[zeta] = 0 between these co-ordinate determines a +point, viz. the point whose point-co-ordinates are (a, b, c); in fact, +the equation in question a[xi] + b[eta] + c[zeta] = 0 expresses that the +equation [xi]x + [eta]y + [zeta]z = 0, where (x, y, z) are current +point-co-ordinates, is satisfied on writing therein x, y, z = a, b, c; +or that the line in question passes through the point (a, b, c). Thus +([xi], [eta], [zeta]) are the line-co-ordinates of any line whatever; +but when these, instead of being absolutely arbitrary, are subject to +the restriction a[xi] + b[eta] + c[zeta] = 0, this obliges the line to +pass through a point (a, b, c); and the last-mentioned equation a[xi] + +b[eta] + c[zeta] = 0 is considered as the line-equation of this point. + +A line has only a point-equation, and a point has only a line-equation; +but any other curve has a point-equation and also a line-equation; the +point-equation (*() x, y, z)^m = 0 is the relation which is satisfied by +the point-co-ordinates (x, y, z) of each point of the curve; and +similarly the line-equation (*() [xi], [eta], [zeta])^n = 0 is the +relation which is satisfied by the line-co-ordinates ([xi], [eta], +[zeta]) of each line (tangent) of the curve. + +There is in analytical geometry little occasion for any explicit use of +line-co-ordinates; but the theory is very important; it serves to show +that in demonstrating by point-co-ordinates any purely descriptive +theorem whatever, we demonstrate the correlative theorem; that is, we do +not demonstrate the one theorem, and then (as by the method of +reciprocal polars) deduce from it the other, but we do at one and the +same time demonstrate the two theorems; our (x, y, z.) instead of +meaning point-co-ordinates may mean line-co-ordinates, and the +demonstration is then in every step of it a demonstration of the +correlative theorem. + +7. _Singularities of a Curve. Plucker's Equations._--The above dual +generation explains the nature of the singularities of a plane curve. +The ordinary singularities, arranged according to a cross division, are + + _Proper._ _Improper._ + + Point-singularities-- / 1. The stationary point, 2. The double point + \ cusp or spinode; or node; + + Line-singularities-- / 3. The stationary tangent 4. The double + \ or inflection; tangent; + +arising as follows:-- + + 1. The cusp: the point as it travels along the line may come to rest, + and then reverse the direction of its motion. + + 3. The stationary tangent: the line may in the course of its rotation + come to rest, and then reverse the direction of its rotation. + + 2. The node: the point may in the course of its motion come to + coincide with a former position of the point, the two positions of the + line not in general coinciding. + + 4. The double tangent: the line may in the course of its motion come + to coincide with a former position of the line, the two positions of + the point not in general coinciding. + +It may be remarked that we cannot with a real point and line obtain the +node with two imaginary tangents (conjugate or isolated point or +acnode), nor again the real double tangent with two imaginary points of +contact; but this is of little consequence, since in the general theory +the distinction between real and imaginary is not attended to. + +The singularities (1) and (3) have been termed proper singularities, and +(2) and (4) improper; in each of the first-mentioned cases there is a +real singularity, or peculiarity in the motion; in the other two cases +there is not; in (2) there is not when the point is first at the node, +or when it is secondly at the node, any peculiarity in the motion; the +singularity consists in the point coming twice into the same position; +and so in (4) the singularity is in the line coming twice into the same +position. Moreover (1) and (2) are, the former a proper singularity, and +the latter an improper singularity, _as regards the motion of the +point_; and similarly (3) and (4) are, the former a proper singularity, +and the latter an improper singularity, _as regards the motion of the +line_. + +But as regards the representation of a curve by an equation, the case is +very different. + +First, if the equation be in point-co-ordinates, (3) and (4) are in a +sense not singularities at all. The curve (*() x, y, z)^m = 0, or +general curve of the order m, has double tangents and inflections; (2) +presents itself as a singularity, for the equations d_x(*() x, y, z)^m = +0, d_y(*() x, y, z)^m = 0, d_z(*() x, y, z)^m = 0, implying (*() x, y, +z)^m = 0, are not in general satisfied by any values (a, b, c) whatever +of (x, y, z), but if such values exist, then the point (a, b, c) is a +node or double point; and (1) presents itself as a further singularity +or sub-case of (2), a cusp being a double point for which the two +tangents becomes coincident. + +In line-co-ordinates all is reversed:--(1) and (2) are not +singularities; (3) presents itself as a sub-case of (4). + +The theory of compound singularities will be referred to farther on. + +In regard to the ordinary singularities, we have + + m, the order, + n " class, + [delta] " number of double points, + [kappa] " " cusps, + [tau] " " double tangents, + [iota] " " inflections; + +and this being so, Plucker's "six equations" are + + (1) n = m(m - 1) - 2[delta] - 3[kappa], + (2) [iota] = 3m(m - 2) - 6[delta] - 8[kappa], + (3) [tau] = 1/2m(m - 2)(m^2 - 9) - (m^2 - m - 6)(2[delta] + 3[kappa]) + + 2[delta]([delta] - 1) + + 6[delta][kappa] + (9/2)[kappa]([kappa] - 1), + (4) m = n(n - 1) - 2[tau] - 3[iota], + (5) [kappa] = 3n(n - 2) - 6[tau] - 8[iota], + (6) [delta] = 1/2n(n - 2)(n^2 - 9) - (n^2 - n - 6)(2[tau] + 3[iota]) + + 2[tau]([tau] - 1) + 6[tau][iota] + + (9/2)[iota]([iota] - i). + +It is easy to derive the further forms-- + + (7) [iota] - [kappa] = 3(n - m), + (8) 2([tau] - [delta]) = (n - m)(n + m - 9), + (9) 1/2m(m + 3) - [delta]-2[kappa] = 1/2n(n + 3) - [tau] - 2[iota], + (10) 1/2(m - 1)(m - 2) - [delta] - [kappa] + = 1/2(n - 1)(n - 2) - [tau] - [iota], + (11, 12) m^2 - 2[delta] - 3[kappa] = n^2 - 2[tau] - 3^[iota], + = m + n,-- + +the whole system being equivalent to three equations only; and it may be +added that using a to denote the equal quantities 3m + [iota] and 3n + +[kappa] everything may be expressed in terms of m, n, a. We have + + [kappa] = a - 3n, + [iota] = a - 3m, + 2[delta] = m^2 - m + 8n - 3a. + 2[tau] = n^2 - n + 8m - 3a. + + It is implied in Plucker's theorem that, m, n, [delta], [kappa], + [tau], [iota] signifying as above in regard to any curve, then in + regard to the reciprocal curve, n, m, [tau], [iota], [delta], [kappa] + will have the same significations, viz. for the reciprocal curve these + letters denote respectively the order, class, number of nodes, cusps, + double tangent and inflections. + + The expression 1/2m(m + 3) - [delta] - 2[kappa] is that of the number + of the disposable constants in a curve of the order m with [delta] + nodes and [kappa] cusps (in fact that there shall be a node is 1 + condition, a cusp 2 conditions) and the equation (9) thus expresses + that the curve and its reciprocal contain each of them the same number + of disposable constants. + + For a curve of the order m, the expression 1/2m(m - 1) - [delta] - + [kappa] is termed the "deficiency" (as to this more hereafter); the + equation (10) expresses therefore that the curve and its reciprocal + have each of them the same deficiency. + + The relations m^2 - 2[delta] - 3[kappa] = n^2 - 2[tau] - 3[iota] = m + + n, present themselves in the theory of envelopes, as will appear + farther on. + +With regard to the demonstration of Plucker's equations it is to be +remarked that we are not able to write down the equation in +point-co-ordinates of a curve of the order m, having the given numbers +[delta] and [kappa] of nodes and cusps. We can only use the general +equation (*() x, y, z)^m = 0, say for shortness u = 0, of a curve of the +_m_th order, which equation, so long as the coefficients remain +arbitrary, represents a curve without nodes or cusps. Seeking then, for +this curve, the values, n, [iota], [tau] of the class, number of +inflections, and number of double tangents,--first, as regards the +class, this is equal to the number of tangents which can be drawn to the +curve from an arbitrary point, or what is the same thing, it is equal to +the number of the points of contact of these tangents. The points of +contact are found as the intersections of the curve u = 0 by a curve +depending on the position of the arbitrary point, and called the "first +polar" of this point; the order of the first polar is = m - 1, and the +number of intersections is thus = m(m - 1). But it can be shown, +analytically or geometrically, that if the given curve has a node, the +first polar passes through this node, which therefore counts as two +intersections, and that if the curve has a cusp, the first polar passes +through the cusp, touching the curve there, and hence the cusp counts as +three intersections. But, as is evident, the node or cusp is not a point +of contact of a proper tangent from the arbitrary point; we have, +therefore, for a node a diminution 2, and for a cusp a diminution 3, in +the number of the intersections; and thus, for a curve with [delta] +nodes and [kappa] cusps, there is a diminution 2[delta] + 3[kappa], and +the value of n is n = m(m - 1) - 2[delta] -3[kappa]. + +Secondly, as to the inflections, the process is a similar one; it can be +shown that the inflections are the intersections of the curve by a +derivative curve called (after Ludwig Otto Hesse who first considered +it) the Hessian, defined geometrically as the locus of a point such that +its conic polar (S8 below) in regard to the curve breaks up into a pair +of lines, and which has an equation H = 0, where H is the determinant +formed with the second differential coefficients of u in regard to the +variables (x, y, z); H = 0 is thus a curve of the order 3(m - 2), and +the number of inflections is = 3m(m - 2). But if the given curve has a +node, then not only the Hessian passes through the node, but it has +there a node the two branches at which touch respectively the two +branches of the curve; and the node thus counts as six intersections; so +if the curve has a cusp, then the Hessian not only passes through the +cusp, but it has there a cusp through which it again passes, that is, +there is a cuspidal branch touching the cuspidal branch of the curve, +and besides a simple branch passing through the cusp, and hence the cusp +counts as eight intersections. The node or cusp is not an inflection, +and we have thus for a node a diminution 6, and for a cusp a diminution +8, in the number of the intersections; hence for a curve with [delta] +nodes and [kappa] cusps, the diminution is = 6[delta] + 8[kappa], and +the number of inflections is [iota] = 3m(m - 2) - 6[delta] - 8[kappa]. + +Thirdly, for the double tangents; the points of contact of these are +obtained as the intersections of the curve by a curve [Pi] = 0, which +has not as yet been geometrically defined, but which is found +analytically to be of the order (m - 2)(m^2 - 9); the number of +intersections is thus = m(m - 2)(m^2 - 9); but if the given curve has a +node then there is a diminution = 4(m^2 - m - 6), and if it has a cusp +then there is a diminution = 6(m^2 - m - 6), where, however, it is to be +noticed that the factor (m^2 - m - 6) is in the case of a curve having +only a node or only a cusp the number of the tangents which can be drawn +from the node or cusp to the curve, and is used as denoting the number +of these tangents, and ceases to be the correct expression if the number +of nodes and cusps is greater than unity. Hence, in the case of a curve +which has [delta] nodes and [kappa] cusps, the apparent diminution 2(m^2 +- m - 6)(2[delta] + 3[kappa]) is too great, and it has in fact to be +diminished by 2{2[delta]([delta] - 1) + 6[delta][kappa] + +(9/2)[kappa]([kappa] - 1)}, or the half thereof is 4 for each pair of +nodes, 6 for each combination of a node and cusp, and 9 for each pair of +cusps. We have thus finally an expression for 2[tau], = m(m - 2)(m^2 - 9) +- &c.; or dividing the whole by 2, we have the expression for [tau] +given by the third of Plucker's equations. + +It is obvious that we cannot by consideration of the equation u = 0 in +point-co-ordinates obtain the remaining three of Plucker's equations; +they might be obtained in a precisely analogous manner by means of the +equation v = 0 in line-co-ordinates, but they follow at once from the +principle of duality, viz. they are obtained by the mere interchange of +m, [delta], [kappa], with n, [tau], [iota] respectively. + +[Illustration] + +To complete Plucker's theory it is necessary to take account of compound +singularities; it might be possible, but it is at any rate difficult, to +effect this by considering the curve as in course of description by the +point moving along the rotating line; and it seems easier to consider +the compound singularity as arising from the variation of an actually +described curve with ordinary singularities. The most simple case is +when three double points come into coincidence, thereby giving rise to a +triple point; and a somewhat more complicated one is when we have a cusp +of the second kind, or node-cusp arising from the coincidence of a node, +a cusp, an inflection, and a double tangent, as shown in the annexed +figure, which represents the singularities as on the point of +coalescing. The general conclusion (see Cayley, _Quart. Math. Jour._ t. +vii., 1866, "On the higher singularities of plane curves"; _Collected +Works_, v. 520) is that every singularity whatever may be considered as +compounded of ordinary singularities, say we have a singularity = +[delta]' nodes, [kappa]' cusps, [tau]' double tangents and [iota]' +inflections. So that, in fact, Plucker's equations properly understood +apply to a curve with any singularities whatever. + +By means of Plucker's equations we may form a table-- + + +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | m | n |[delta]|[kappa]| [tau] | [iota]| + +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | 0 | 1 | - | - | 0 | 0 | + | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | - | - | + | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + | 3 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 9 | + | " | 4 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | + | " | 3 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | + | 4 | 12 | 0 | 0 | 28 | 24 | + | " | 10 | 1 | 0 | 16 | 18 | + | " | 9 | 0 | 1 | 10 | 16 | + | " | 8 | 2 | 0 | 8 | 12 | + | " | 7 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 10 | + | " | 6 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 8 | + | " | 6 | 3 | 0 | 4 | 6 | + | " | 5 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 4 | + | " | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | + | " | 3 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 0 | + +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + +The table is arranged according to the value of m; and we have m = 0, n += 1, the point; m = 1, n = 0, the line; m = 2, n = 2, the conic; of m = +3, the cubic, there are three cases, the class being 6, 4 or 3, +according as the curve is without singularities, or as it has 1 node or +1 cusp; and so of m = 4, the quartic, there are ten cases, where observe +that in two of them the class is = 6,--the reduction of class arising +from two cusps or else from three nodes. The ten cases may be also +grouped together into four, according as the number of nodes and cusps +([delta] + [kappa]) is = 0, 1, 2 or 3. + +The cases may be divided into sub-cases, by the consideration of +compound singularities; thus when m = 4, n = 6, [delta] = 3, the three +nodes may be all distinct, which is the general case, or two of them may +unite together into the singularity called a tacnode, or all three may +unite together into a triple point or else into an oscnode. + +We may further consider the inflections and double tangents, as well in +general as in regard to cubic and quartic curves. + +The expression for the number of inflections 3m(m - 2) for a curve of +the order m was obtained analytically by Plucker, but the theory was +first given in a complete form by Hesse in the two papers "Uber die +Elimination, u.s.w.," and "Uber die Wendepuncte der Curven dritter +Ordnung" (_Crelle_, t. xxviii., 1844); in the latter of these the points +of inflection are obtained as the intersections of the curve u = 0 with +the Hessian, or curve [Delta] = 0, where [Delta] is the determinant +formed with the second derived functions of u. We have in the Hessian +the first instance of a covariant of a ternary form. The whole theory of +the inflections of a cubic curve is discussed in a very interesting +manner by means of the canonical form of the equation x^3 + y^3 + z^3 + +6lxyz = 0; and in particular a proof is given of Plucker's theorem that +the nine points of inflection of a cubic curve lie by threes in twelve +lines. + +It may be noticed that the nine inflections of a cubic curve represented +by an equation with real coefficients are three real, six imaginary; the +three real inflections lie in a line, as was known to Newton and +Maclaurin. For an acnodal cubic the six imaginary inflections disappear, +and there remain three real inflections lying in a line. For a crunodal +cubic the six inflections which disappear are two of them real, the +other four imaginary, and there remain two imaginary inflections and one +real inflection. For a cuspidal cubic the six imaginary inflections and +two of the real inflections disappear, and there remains one real +inflection. + +A quartic curve has 24 inflections; it was conjectured by George Salmon, +and has been verified by H. G. Zeuthen that at most eight of these are +real. + +The expression 1/2m(m - 2)(m^2 - 9) for the number of double tangents of +a curve of the order m was obtained by Plucker only as a consequence of +his first, second, fourth and fifth equations. An investigation by means +of the curve [Pi] = 0, which by its intersections with the given curve +determines the points of contact of the double tangents, is indicated by +Cayley, "Recherches sur l'elimination et la theorie des courbes" +(_Crelle_, t. xxxiv., 1847; _Collected Works_, vol. i. p. 337), and in +part carried out by Hesse in the memoir "Uber Curven dritter Ordnung" +(_Crelle_, t. xxxvi., 1848). A better process was indicated by Salmon in +the "Note on the Double Tangents to Plane Curves," _Phil. Mag._, 1858; +considering the m - 2 points in which any tangent to the curve again +meets the curve, he showed how to form the equation of a curve of the +order (m - 2), giving by its intersection with the tangent the points in +question; making the tangent touch this curve of the order (m - 2), it +will be a double tangent of the original curve. See Cayley, "On the +Double Tangents of a Plane Curve" (_Phil. Trans._ t. cxlviii., 1859; +_Collected Works_, iv. 186), and O. Dersch (_Math. Ann._ t. vii., 1874). +The solution is still in so far incomplete that we have no properties of +the curve [Pi] = 0, to distinguish one such curve from the several other +curves which pass through the points of contact of the double tangents. + +A quartic curve has 28 double tangents, their points of contact +determined as the intersections of the curve by a curve [Pi] = 0 of the +order 14, the equation of which in a very elegant form was first +obtained by Hesse (1849). Investigations in regard to them are given by +Plucker in the _Theorie der algebraischen Curven_, and in two memoirs by +Hesse and Jacob Steiner (_Crelle_, t. xlv., 1855), in respect to the +triads of double tangents which have their points of contact on a conic +and other like relations. It was assumed by Plucker that the number of +real double tangents might be 28, 16, 8, 4 or 0, but Zeuthen has found +that the last case does not exist. + +8. _Invariants and Covariants. Polar Curves._--The Hessian [Delta] has +just been spoken of as a covariant of the form u; the notion of +invariants and covariants belongs rather to the form u than to the curve +u = 0 represented by means of this form; and the theory may be very +briefly referred to. A curve u = 0 may have some invariantive property, +viz. a property independent of the particular axes of co-ordinates used +in the representation of the curve by its equation; for instance, the +curve may have a node, and in order to this, a relation, say A = 0, must +exist between the coefficients of the equation; supposing the axes of +co-ordinates altered, so that the equation becomes u' = 0, and writing +A' = 0 for the relation between the new coefficients, then the relations +A = 0, A' = 0, as two different expressions of the same geometrical +property, must each of them imply the other; this can only be the case +when A, A' are functions differing only by a constant factor, or say, +when A is an invariant of u. If, however, the geometrical property +requires two or more relations between the coefficients, say A = 0, B = +0, &c., then we must have between the new coefficients the like +relations, A' = 0, B' = 0, &c., and the two systems of equations must +each of them imply the other; when this is so, the system of equations, +A = 0, B = 0, &c., is said to be invariantive, but it does not follow +that A, B, &c., are of necessity invariants of u. Similarly, if we have +a curve U = 0 derived from the curve u = 0 in a manner independent of +the particular axes of co-ordinates, then from the transformed equation +u' = 0 deriving in like manner the curve U' = 0, the two equations U = +0, U' = 0 must each of them imply the other; and when this is so, U will +be a covariant of u. The case is less frequent, but it may arise, that +there are covariant systems U = 0, V = 0, &c., and U' = 0, V' = 0, &c., +each implying the other, but where the functions U, V, &c., are not of +necessity covariants of u. + +If we take a fixed point (x', y', z') and a curve u = 0 of order m, and +suppose the axes of reference altered, so that x', y', z' are linearly +transformed in the same way as the current x, y, z, the curves +[x'([dP]/[dP]x) + y'([dP]/[dP]y) + z'([dP]/[dP]z)]^(r)u = 0, (r = 1, 2, +... m - 1) have the covariant property. They are the polar curves of the +point with regard to u = 0. + +The theory of the invariants and covariants of a ternary cubic function +u has been studied in detail, and brought into connexion with the cubic +curve u = 0; but the theory of the invariants and covariants for the +next succeeding case, the ternary quartic function, is still very +incomplete. + +9. _Envelope of a Curve._--In further illustration of the Pluckerian +dual generation of a curve, we may consider the question of the +_envelope_ of a variable curve. The notion is very probably older, but +it is at any rate to be found in Lagrange's _Theorie des fonctions +analytiques_ (1798); it is there remarked that the equation obtained by +the elimination of the parameter a from an equation f(x, y, a) = 0 and +the derived equation in respect to a is a curve, the envelope of the +series of curves represented by the equation f(x, y, a) = 0 in question. +To develop the theory, consider the curve corresponding to any +particular value of the parameter; this has with the consecutive curve +(or curve belonging to the consecutive value of the parameter) a certain +number of intersections and of common tangents, which may be considered +as the tangents at the intersections; and the so-called envelope is the +curve which is at the same time generated by the points of intersection +and enveloped by the common tangents; we have thus a dual generation. +But the question needs to be further examined. Suppose that in general +the variable curve is of the order m with [delta] nodes and [kappa] +cusps, and therefore of the class n with [tau] double tangents and +[iota] inflections, m, n, [delta], [kappa], [tau], [iota] being +connected by the Pluckerian equations,--the number of nodes or cusps may +be greater for particular values of the parameter, but this is a +speciality which may be here disregarded. Considering the variable curve +corresponding to a given value of the parameter, or say simply the +variable curve, the consecutive curve has then also [delta] and [kappa] +nodes and cusps, consecutive to those of the variable curve; and it is +easy to see that among the intersections of the two curves we have the +nodes each counting twice, and the cusps each counting three times; the +number of the remaining intersections is = m^2 - 2[delta] - 3[kappa]. +Similarly among the common tangents of the two curves we have the double +tangents each counting twice, and the stationary tangents each counting +three times, and the number of the remaining common tangents is = n^2 +-2[tau] - 3[iota] (= m^2 - 2[delta] - 3[kappa], inasmuch as each of +these numbers is as was seen = m + n). At any one of the m^2 - 2[delta] +-3[kappa] points the variable curve and the consecutive curve have +tangents distinct from yet infinitesimally near to each other, and each +of these two tangents is also infinitesimally near to one of the n^2 +-2[tau] - 3[iota] common tangents of the two curves; whence, attending +only to the variable curve, and considering the consecutive curve as +coming into actual coincidence with it, the n^2 - 2[tau] - 3[iota] +common tangents are the tangents to the variable curve at the m^2 - +2[delta] -3[kappa] points respectively, and the envelope is at the same +time generated by the m^2 - 2[delta] - 3[kappa] points, and enveloped by +the n^2 - 2[tau] - 3[iota] tangents; we have thus a dual generation of +the envelope, which only differs from Plucker's dual generation, in that +in place of a single point and tangent we have the group of m^2 - +2[delta] -3[kappa] points and n^2 - 2[tau] - 3[iota] tangents. + +The parameter which determines the variable curve may be given as a +point upon a given curve, or say as a parametric point; that is, to the +different positions of the parametric point on the given curve +correspond the different variable curves, and the nature of the envelope +will thus depend on that of the given curve; we have thus the envelope +as a derivative curve of the given curve. Many well-known derivative +curves present themselves in this manner; thus the variable curve may be +the normal (or line at right angles to the tangent) at any point of the +given curve; the intersection of the consecutive normals is the centre +of curvature; and we have the evolute as at once the locus of the centre +of curvature and the envelope of the normal. It may be added that the +given curve is one of a series of curves, each cutting the several +normals at right angles. Any one of these is a "parallel" of the given +curve; and it can be obtained as the envelope of a circle of constant +radius having its centre on the given curve. We have in like manner, as +derivatives of a given curve, the caustic, catacaustic or diacaustic as +the case may be, and the secondary caustic, or curve cutting at right +angles the reflected or refracted rays. + +10. _Forms of Real Curves._--We have in much that precedes disregarded, +or at least been indifferent to, reality; it is only thus that the +conception of a curve of the _m_-th order, as one which is met by every +right line in m points, is arrived at; and the curve itself, and the +line which cuts it, although both are tacitly assumed to be real, may +perfectly well be imaginary. For real figures we have the general +theorem that imaginary intersections, &c., present themselves in +conjugate pairs; hence, in particular, that a curve of an even order is +met by a line in an even number (which may be = 0) of points; a curve of +an odd order in an odd number of points, hence in one point at least; it +will be seen further on that the theorem may be generalized in a +remarkable manner. Again, when there is in question only one pair of +points or lines, these, if coincident, must be real; thus, a line meets +a cubic curve in three points, one of them real, and other two real or +imaginary; but if two of the intersections coincide they must be real, +and we have a line cutting a cubic in one real point and touching it in +another real point. It may be remarked that this is a limit separating +the two cases where the intersections are all real, and where they are +one real, two imaginary. + +Considering always real curves, we obtain the notion of a branch; any +portion capable of description by the continuous motion of a point is a +branch; and a curve consists of one or more branches. Thus the curve of +the first order or right line consists of one branch; but in curves of +the second order, or conics, the ellipse and the parabola consist each +of one branch, the hyperbola of two branches. A branch is either +re-entrant, or it extends both ways to infinity, and in this case, we +may regard it as consisting of two legs (_crura_, Newton), each +extending one way to infinity, but without any definite separation. The +branch, whether re-entrant or infinite, may have a cusp or cusps, or it +may cut itself or another branch, thus having or giving rise to crunodes +or double points with distinct real tangents; an acnode, or double point +with imaginary tangents, is a branch by itself,--it may be considered as +an indefinitely small re-entrant branch. a branch may have inflections +and double tangents, or there may be double tangents which touch two +distinct branches; there are also double tangents with imaginary points +of contact, which are thus lines having no visible connexion with the +curve. A re-entrant branch not cutting itself may be everywhere convex, +and it is then properly said to be an oval; but the term oval may be +used more generally for any re-entrant branch not cutting itself; and we +may thus speak of a once indented, twice indented oval, &c., or even of +a cuspidate oval. Other descriptive names for ovals and re-entrant +branches cutting themselves may be used when required; thus, in the +last-mentioned case a simple form is that of a figure of eight; such a +form may break up into two ovals or into a doubly indented oval or +hour-glass. A form which presents itself is when two ovals, one inside +the other, unite, so as to give rise to a crunode--in default of a +better name this may be called, after the curve of that name, a limacon +(q.v.). Names may also be used for the different forms of infinite +branches, but we have first to consider the distinction of hyperbolic +and parabolic. The leg of an infinite branch may have at the extremity a +tangent; this is an asymptote of the curve, and the leg is then +hyperbolic; or the leg may tend to a fixed direction, but so that the +tangent goes further and further off to infinity, and the leg is then +parabolic; a branch may thus be hyperbolic or parabolic as to its two +legs; or it may be hyperbolic as to one leg and parabolic as to the +other. The epithets hyperbolic and parabolic are of course derived from +the conic hyperbola and parabola respectively. The nature of the two +kinds of branches is best understood by considering them as projections, +in the same way as we in effect consider the hyperbola and the parabola +as projections of the ellipse. If a line [Omega] cut an arc aa' at b, so +that the two segments ab, ba' lie on opposite sides of the line, then +projecting the figure so that the line [Omega] goes off to infinity, the +tangent at b is projected into the asymptote, and the arc ab is +projected into a hyperbolic leg touching the asymptote at one extremity; +the arc ba' will at the same time be projected into a hyperbolic leg +touching the same asymptote at the other extremity (and on the opposite +side), but so that the two hyperbolic legs may or may not belong to one +and the same branch. And we thus see that the two hyperbolic legs belong +to a simple intersection of the curve by the line infinity. Next, if the +line [Omega] touch at b the arc aa' so that the two portions ab, ba' lie +on the same side of the line [Omega], then projecting the figure as +before, the tangent at b, that is, the line [Omega] itself, is projected +to infinity; the arc ab is projected into a parabolic leg, and at the +same time the arc ba' is projected into a parabolic leg, having at +infinity the same direction as the other leg, but so that the two legs +may or may not belong to the same branch. And we thus see that the two +parabolic legs represent a contact of the line infinity with the +curve,--the point of contact being of course the point at infinity +determined by the common direction of the two legs. It will readily be +understood how the like considerations apply to other cases,--for +instance, if the line [Omega] is a tangent at an inflection, passes +through a crunode, or touches one of the branches of a crunode, &c.; +thus, if the line [Omega] passes through a crunode we have pairs of +hyperbolic legs belonging to two parallel asymptotes. The foregoing +considerations also show (what is very important) how different branches +are connected together at infinity, and lead to the notion of a complete +branch or circuit. + +The two legs of a hyperbolic branch may belong to different asymptotes, +and in this case we have the forms which Newton calls inscribed, +circumscribed, ambigene, &c.; or they may belong to the same asymptote, +and in this case we have the serpentine form, where the branch cuts the +asymptote, so as to touch it at its two extremities on opposite sides, +or the conchoidal form, where it touches the asymptote on the same side. +The two legs of a parabolic branch may converge to ultimate parallelism, +as in the conic parabola, or diverge to ultimate parallelism, as in the +semi-cubical parabola y^2 = x^3, and the branch is said to be +convergent, or divergent, accordingly; or they may tend to parallelism +in opposite senses, as in the cubical parabola y = x^3. As mentioned +with regard to a branch generally, an infinite branch of any kind may +have cusps, or, by cutting itself or another branch, may have or give +rise to a crunode, &c. + +11. _Classification of Cubic Curves._--We may now consider the various +forms of cubic curves as appearing by Newton's _Enumeratio_, and by the +figures belonging thereto. The species are reckoned as 72, which are +numbered accordingly 1 to 72; but to these should be added 10^a, 13^a, +22^a and 22^b. It is not intended here to consider the division into +species, nor even completely that into genera, but only to explain the +principle of classification. It may be remarked generally that there are +at most three infinite branches, and that there may besides be a +re-entrant branch or oval. + +The genera may be arranged as follows:-- + + 1,2,3,4 redundant hyperbolas + 5,6 defective hyperbolas + 7,8 parabolic hyperbolas + 9 hyperbolisms of hyperbola + 10 " " ellipse + 11 " " parabola + 12 trident curve + 13 divergent parabolas + 14 cubic parabola; + +and thus arranged they correspond to the different relations of the line +infinity to the curve. First, if the three intersections by the line +infinity are all distinct, we have the hyperbolas; if the points are +real, the redundant hyperbolas, with three hyperbolic branches; but if +only one of them is real, the defective hyperbolas, with one hyperbolic +branch. Secondly, if two of the intersections coincide, say if the line +infinity meets the curve in a onefold point and a twofold point, both of +them real, then there is always one asymptote: the line infinity may at +the twofold point touch the curve, and we have the parabolic hyperbolas; +or the twofold point may be a singular point,--viz., a crunode giving +the hyperbolisms of the hyperbola; an acnode, giving the hyperbolisms of +the ellipse; or a cusp, giving the hyperbolisms of the parabola. As +regards the so-called hyperbolisms, observe that (besides the single +asymptote) we have in the case of those of the hyperbola two parallel +asymptotes; in the case of those of the ellipse the two parallel +asymptotes become imaginary, that is, they disappear; and in the case of +those of the parabola they become coincident, that is, there is here an +ordinary asymptote, and a special asymptote answering to a cusp at +infinity. Thirdly, the three intersections by the line infinity may be +coincident and real; or say we have a threefold point: this may be an +inflection, a crunode or a cusp, that is, the line infinity may be a +tangent at an inflection, and we have the divergent parabolas; a tangent +at a crunode to one branch, and we have the trident curve; or lastly, a +tangent at a cusp, and we have the cubical parabola. + +It is to be remarked that the classification mixes together non-singular +and singular curves, in fact, the five kinds presently referred to: thus +the hyperbolas and the divergent parabolas include curves of every kind, +the separation being made in the species; the hyperbolisms of the +hyperbola and ellipse, and the trident curve, are nodal; the +hyperbolisms of the parabola, and the cubical parabola, are cuspidal. +The divergent parabolas are of five species which respectively belong to +and determine the five kinds of cubic curves; Newton gives (in two short +paragraphs without any development) the remarkable theorem that the five +divergent parabolas by their shadows generate and exhibit all the cubic +curves. + +The five divergent parabolas are curves each of them symmetrical with +regard to an axis. There are two non-singular kinds, the one with, the +other without, an oval, but each of them has an infinite (as Newton +describes it) _campaniform_ branch; this cuts the axis at right angles, +being at first concave, but ultimately convex, towards the axis, the two +legs continually tending to become at right angles to the axis. The oval +may unite itself with the infinite branch, or it may dwindle into a +point, and we have the crunodal and the acnodal forms respectively; or +if simultaneously the oval dwindles into a point and unites itself to +the infinite branch, we have the cuspidal form. (See PARABOLA.) Drawing +a line to cut any one of these curves and projecting the line to +infinity, it would not be difficult to show how the line should be drawn +in order to obtain a curve of any given species. We have herein a better +principle of classification; considering cubic curves, in the first +instance, according to singularities, the curves are non-singular, nodal +(viz. crunodal or acnodal), or cuspidal; and we see further that there +are two kinds of non-singular curves, the complex and the simplex. There +is thus a complete division into the five kinds, the complex, simplex, +crunodal, acnodal and cuspidal. Each singular kind presents itself as a +limit separating two kinds of inferior singularity; the cuspidal +separates the crunodal and the acnodal, and these last separate from +each other the complex and the simplex. + +The whole question is discussed very fully and ably by A. F. Mobius in +the memoir "Ueber die Grundformen der Linien dritter Ordnung" (_Abh. der +K. Sachs. Ges. zu Leipzig_, t. i., 1852). The author considers not only +plane curves, but also cones, or, what is almost the same thing, the +spherical curves which are their sections by a concentric sphere. Stated +in regard to the cone, we have there the fundamental theorem that there +are two different kinds of sheets; viz., the single sheet, not separated +into two parts by the vertex (an instance is afforded by the plane +considered as a cone of the first order generated by the motion of a +line about a point), and the double or twin-pair sheet, separated into +two parts by the vertex (as in the cone of the second order). And it +then appears that there are two kinds of non-singular cubic cones, viz. +the simplex, consisting of a single sheet, and the complex, consisting +of a single sheet and a twin-pair sheet; and we thence obtain (as for +cubic curves) the crunodal, the acnodal and the cuspidal kinds of cubic +cones. It may be mentioned that the single sheet is a sort of wavy form, +having upon it three lines of inflection, and which is met by any plane +through the vertex in one or in three lines; the twin-pair sheet has no +lines of inflection, and resembles in its form a cone on an oval base. + +In general a cone consists of one or more single or twin-pair sheets, +and if we consider the section of the cone by a plane, the curve +consists of one or more complete branches, or say circuits, each of them +the section of one sheet of the cone; thus, a cone of the second order +is one twin-pair sheet, and any section of it is one circuit composed, +it may be, of two branches. But although we thus arrive by projection at +the notion of a circuit, it is not necessary to go out of the plane, and +we may (with Zeuthen, using the shorter term _circuit_ for his _complete +branch_) define a circuit as any portion (of a curve) capable of +description by the continuous motion of a point, it being understood +that a passage through infinity is permitted. And we then say that a +curve consists of one or more circuits; thus the right line, or curve of +the first order, consists of one circuit; a curve of the second order +consists of one circuit; a cubic curve consists of one circuit or else +of two circuits. + +A circuit is met by any right line always in an even number, or always +in an odd number, of points, and it is said to be an even circuit or an +odd circuit accordingly; the right line is an odd circuit, the conic an +even circuit. And we have then the theorem, two odd circuits intersect +in an odd number of points; an odd and an even circuit, or two even +circuits, in an even number of points. An even circuit not cutting +itself divides the plane into two parts, the one called the internal +part, incapable of containing any odd circuit, the other called the +external part, capable of containing an odd circuit. + +We may now state in a more convenient form the fundamental distinction +of the kinds of cubic curve. A non-singular cubic is simplex, consisting +of one odd circuit, or it is complex, consisting of one odd circuit and +one even circuit. It may be added that there are on the odd circuit +three inflections, but on the even circuit no inflection; it hence also +appears that from any point of the odd circuit there can be drawn to the +odd circuit two tangents, and to the even circuit (if any) two tangents, +but that from a point of the even circuit there cannot be drawn (either +to the odd or the even circuit) any real tangent; consequently, in a +simplex curve the number of tangents from any point is two; but in a +complex curve the number is four, or none,--four if the point is on the +odd circuit, none if it is on the even circuit. It at once appears from +inspection of the figure of a non-singular cubic curve, which is the odd +and which the even circuit. The singular kinds arise as before; in the +crunodal and the cuspidal kinds the whole curve is an odd circuit, but +in an acnodal kind the acnode must be regarded as an even circuit. + +12. _Quartic Curves._--The analogous question of the classification of +quartics (in particular non-singular quartics and nodal quartics) is +considered in Zeuthen's memoir "Sur les differentes formes des courbes +planes du quatrieme ordre" (_Math. Ann._ t. vii., 1874). A non-singular +quartic has only even circuits; it has at most four circuits external to +each other, or two circuits one internal to the other, and in this last +case the internal circuit has no double tangents or inflections. A very +remarkable theorem is established as to the double tangents of such a +quartic: distinguishing as a double tangent of the first kind a real +double tangent which either twice touches the same circuit, or else +touches the curve in two imaginary points, the number of the double +tangents of the first kind of a non-singular quartic is = 4; it follows +that the quartic has at most 8 real inflections. The forms of the +non-singular quartics are very numerous, but it is not necessary to go +further into the question. + +We may consider in relation to a curve, not only the line infinity, but +also the circular points at infinity; assuming the curve to be real, +these present themselves always conjointly; thus a circle is a conic +passing through the two circular points, and is thereby distinguished +from other conics. Similarly a cubic through the two circular points is +termed a circular cubic; a quartic through the two points is termed a +circular quartic, and if it passes twice through each of them, that is, +has each of them for a node, it is termed a bicircular quartic. Such a +quartic is of course binodal (m = 4, [delta] = 2, [kappa] = 0); it has +not in general, but it may have, a third node or a cusp. Or again, we +may have a quartic curve having a cusp at each of the circular points: +such a curve is a "Cartesian," it being a complete definition of the +Cartesian to say that it is a bicuspidal quartic curve (m = 4, [delta] = +0, [kappa] = 2), having a cusp at each of the circular points. The +circular cubic and the bicircular quartic, together with the Cartesian +(being in one point of view a particular case thereof), are interesting +curves which have been much studied, generally, and in reference to +their _focal_ properties. + +13. _Foci._--The points called _foci_ presented themselves in the theory +of the conic, and were well known to the Greek geometers, but the +general notion of a focus was first established by Plucker (in the +memoir "Uber solche Puncte die bei Curven einer hoheren Ordnung den +Brennpuncten der Kegelschnitte entsprechen" (_Crelle_, t. x., 1833). We +may from each of the circular points draw tangents to a given curve; the +intersection of two such tangents (belonging of course to the two +circular points respectively) is a focus. There will be from each +circular point [lambda] tangents ([lambda], a number depending on the +class of the curve and its relation to the line infinity and the +circular points, = 2 for the general conic, 1 for the parabola, 2 for a +circular cubic, or bicircular quartic, &c.); the [lambda] tangents from +the one circular point and those from the other circular point intersect +in [lambda] real foci (viz. each of these is the only real point on each +of the tangents through it), and in [lambda]^2 - [lambda] imaginary +foci; each pair of real foci determines a pair of imaginary foci (the +so-called antipoints of the two real foci), and the 1/2[lambda]([lambda] +-1) pairs of real foci thus determine the [lambda]^2 - [lambda] +imaginary foci. There are in some cases points termed centres, or +singular or multiple foci (the nomenclature is unsettled), which are the +intersections of improper tangents from the two circular points +respectively; thus, in the circular cubic, the tangents to the curve at +the two circular points respectively (or two imaginary asymptotes of the +curve) meet in a centre. + +14. _Distance and Angle. Curves described mechanically._--The notions of +_distance_ and of lines _at right angles_ are connected with the +circular points; and almost every construction of a curve by means of +lines of a determinate length, or at right angles to each other, and (as +such) mechanical constructions by means of linkwork, give rise to curves +passing the same definite number of times through the two circular +points respectively, or say to circular curves, and in which the fixed +centres of the construction present themselves as ordinary, or as +singular, foci. Thus the general curve of three bar-motion (or locus of +the vertex of a triangle, the other two vertices whereof move on fixed +circles) is a tricircular sextic, having besides three nodes (m = 6, +[delta] = 3 + 3 + 3 = 9), and having the centres of the fixed circles +each for a singular focus; there is a third singular focus, and we have +thus the remarkable theorem (due to S. Roberts) of the triple generation +of the curve by means of the three several pairs of singular foci. + +Again, the normal, _qua_ line at right angles to the tangent, is +connected with the circular points, and these accordingly present +themselves in the before-mentioned theories of evolutes and parallel +curves. + +15. _Theories of Correspondence._--We have several recent theories which +depend on the notion of _correspondence_: two points whether in the same +plane or in different planes, or on the same curve or in different +curves, may determine each other in such wise that to any given position +of the first point there correspond [alpha]' positions of the second +point, and to any given position of the second point a positions of the +first point; the two points have then an ([alpha], [alpha]) +correspondence; and if [alpha], [alpha] are each = 1, then the two +points have a (1, 1) or rational correspondence. Connecting with each +theory the author's name, the theories in question are G. F. B. Riemann, +the rational transformation of a plane curve; Luigi Cremona, the +rational transformation of a plane; and Chasles, correspondence of +points on the same curve, and united points. The theory first referred +to, with the resulting notion of "Geschlecht," or _deficiency_, is more +than the other two an essential part of the theory of curves, but they +will all be considered. + +Riemann's results are contained in the memoirs on "Abelian Integrals," +&c. (_Crelle_, t. liv., 1857), and we have next R. F. A. Clebsch, "Uber +die Singularitaten algebraischer Curven" (_Crelle_, t. lxv., 1865), and +Cayley, "On the Transformation of Plane Curves" (_Proc. Lond. Math. +Soc._ t. i., 1865; _Collected Works_, vol. vi. p. 1). The fundamental +notion of the rational transformation is as follows:-- + + Taking u, X, Y, Z to be rational and integral functions (X, Y, Z all + of the same order) of the co-ordinates (x, y, z), and u', X', Y', Z' + rational and integral functions (X', Y', Z', all of the same order) of + the co-ordinates (x', y', z'), we transform a given curve u = 0, by + the equations of x' : y' : z' = X : Y : Z, thereby obtaining a + transformed curve u' = 0, and a converse set of equations x : y : z = + X' : Y' : Z'; viz. assuming that this is so, the point (x, y, z) on + the curve u = 0 and the point (x', y', z') on the curve u' = 0 will be + points having a (1, 1) correspondence. To show how this is, observe + that to a given point (x, y, z) on the curve u = 0 there corresponds a + single point (x', y', z') determined by the equations x' : y' : z' = X + : Y : Z; from these equations and the equation u = 0 eliminating x, y, + z, we obtain the equation u' = 0 of the transformed curve. To a given + point (x', y', z') not on the curve u' = 0 there corresponds, not a + single point, but the system of points (x, y, z) given by the + equations x' : y' : z' = X : Y : Z, viz., regarding x', y', z' as + constants (and to fix the ideas, assuming that the curves X = 0, Y = + 0, Z = 0, have no common intersections), these are the points of + intersection of the curves X : Y : Z, = x' : y' : z', but no one of + these points is situate on the curve u = 0. If, however, the point + (x', y', z') is situate on the curve u' = 0, then one point of the + system of points in question is situate on the curve u = 0, that is, + to a given point of the curve u' = 0 there corresponds a single point + of the curve u = 0; and hence also this point must be given by a + system of equations such as x : y : z = X' : Y' : Z'. + +It is an old and easily proved theorem that, for a curve of the order +m, the number [delta] + [kappa] of nodes and cusps is at most = 1/2(m - +1)(m - 2); for a given curve the deficiency of the actual number of +nodes and cusps below this maximum number, viz. 1/2(m - 1)(m - 2) - +[delta] - [kappa], is the "Geschlecht" or "deficiency," of the curve, +say this is = D. When D = 0, the curve is said to be unicursal, when = +1, bicursal, and so on. + +The general theorem is that two curves corresponding rationally to each +other have the same deficiency. [In particular a curve and its +reciprocal have this rational or (1, 1) correspondence, and it has been +already seen that a curve and its reciprocal have the same deficiency.] + +A curve of a given order can in general be rationally transformed into a +curve of a lower order; thus a curve of any order for which D = 0, that +is, a unicursal curve, can be transformed into a line; a curve of any +order having the deficiency 1 or 2 can be rationally transformed into a +curve of the order D + 2, deficiency D; and a curve of any order +deficiency = or > 3 can be rationally transformed into a curve of the +order D + 3, deficiency D. + + Taking x', y', z' as co-ordinates of a point of the transformed curve, + and in its equation writing x' : y' : z' = 1 : [theta] : [phi] we have + [phi] a certain irrational function of [theta], and the theorem is + that the co-ordinates x, y, z of any point of the given curve can be + expressed as proportional to rational and integral functions of + [theta], [phi], that is, of [theta] and a certain irrational function + of [theta]. + + In particular if D = 0, that is, if the given curve be unicursal, the + transformed curve is a line, [phi] is a mere linear function of + [theta], and the theorem is that the co-ordinates x, y, z of a point + of the unicursal curve can be expressed as proportional to rational + and integral functions of [theta]; it is easy to see that for a given + curve of the order m, these functions of [theta] must be of the same + order m. + + If D = 1, then the transformed curve is a cubic; it can be shown that + in a cubic, the axes of co-ordinates being properly chosen, [phi] can + be expressed as the square root of a quartic function of [theta]; and + the theorem is that the co-ordinates x, y, z of a point of the + bicursal curve can be expressed as proportional to rational and + integral functions of [theta], and of the square root of a quartic + function of [theta]. + + And so if D = 2, then the transformed curve is a nodal quartic; [phi] + can be expressed as the square root of a sextic function of [theta] + and the theorem is, that the co-ordinates x, y, z of a point of the + tricursal curve can be expressed as proportional to rational and + integral functions of [theta], and of the square root of a sextic + function of [theta]. But D = 3, we have no longer the like law, viz. + [phi] is not expressible as the square root of an octic function of + [theta]. + +Observe that the radical, square root of a quartic function, is +connected with the theory of elliptic functions, and the radical, square +root of a sextic function, with that of the first kind of Abelian +functions, but that the next kind of Abelian functions does not depend +on the radical, square root of an octic function. + +It is a form of the theorem for the case D = 1, that the co-ordinates x, +y, z of a point of the bicursal curve, or in particular the co-ordinates +of a point of the cubic, can be expressed as proportional to rational +and integral functions of the elliptic functions snu, cnu, dnu; in fact, +taking the radical to be [root] [1 - [theta]^2.1 - k^2[theta]^2], and +writing [theta] = snu, the radical becomes = cnu, dnu; and we have +expressions of the form in question. + +It will be observed that the equations x' : y' : z' = X : Y : Z before +mentioned do not of themselves lead to the other system of equations x : +y : z = X' : Y' : Z', and thus that the theory does not in anywise +establish a (1, 1) correspondence between the points (x, y, z) and (x', +y', z') of two planes or of the same plane; this is the correspondence +of Cremona's theory. + + In this theory, given in the memoirs "Sulle trasformazioni geometriche + delle figure piani," _Mem. di Bologna_, t. ii. (1863) and t. v. + (1865), we have a system of equations x' : y' : z' = X : Y : Z which + _does_ lead to a system x : y : z = X' : Y' : Z', where, as before, X, + Y, Z denote rational and integral functions, all of the same order, of + the co-ordinates x, y, z, and X', Y', Z' rational and integral + functions, all of the same order, of the co-ordinates x', y', z', and + there is thus a (1, 1) correspondence given by these equations between + the two points (x, y, z) and (x', y', z'). To explain this, observe + that starting from the equations of x' : y' : z' = X : Y : Z, to a + given point (x, y, z) there corresponds one point (x', y', z'), but + that if n be the order of the functions X, Y, Z, then to a given point + x', y', z' there would, if the curves X = 0, Y = 0, Z = 0 had no + common intersections, correspond n^2 points (x, y, z). If, however, the + functions are such that the curves X = 0, Y = 0, Z = 0 have k common + intersections, then among the n^2 points are included these k points, + which are fixed points independent of the point (x', y', z'); so that, + disregarding these fixed points, the number of points (x, y, z) + corresponding to the given point (x', y', z') is = n^2 - k; and in + particular if k = n^2 - 1, then we have one corresponding point; and + hence the original system of equations x' : y' : z' = X : Y : Z must + lead to the equivalent system x : y : z = X' : Y' : Z'; and in this + system by the like reasoning the functions must be such that the + curves X' = 0, Y' = 0, Z' = 0 have n'^2 - 1 common intersections. The + most simple example is in the two systems of equations x' : y' : z' = + yz : zx : xy and x : y : z = y'z' : z'x' : x'y'; where yz = 0, zx = 0, + xy = 0 are conics (pairs of lines) having three common intersections, + and where obviously either system of equations leads to the other + system. In the case where X, Y, Z are of an order exceeding 2 the + required number n^2 - 1 of common intersections can only occur by + reason of common multiple points on the three curves; and assuming + that the curves X = 0, Y = 0, Z = 0 have [alpha]1 + [alpha]2 + + [alpha]3 ... + [alpha]_(n-1) common intersections, where the [alpha]1 + points are ordinary points, the [alpha]2 points are double points, the + [alpha]3 points are triple points, &c., on each curve, we have the + condition + + [alpha]1 + 4[alpha]2 + 9[alpha]3 + ... (n - 1)^2[alpha]_(n-1) + = n^2 - 1; + + but to this must be joined the condition + + [alpha]1 + 3[alpha]2 + 6[alpha]3 ... + 1/2n(n - 1)[alpha]_(n-1) + = 1/2n(n + 3) - 2 + + (without which the transformation would be illusory); and the + conclusion is that [alpha]1, [alpha]2, ... [alpha]_(n-1) may be any + numbers satisfying these two equations. It may be added that the two + equations together give + + [alpha]2 + 3[alpha]3 ... + 1/2(n - 1)(n - 2)[alpha]_(n-1) + = 1/2(n - 1)(n - 2), + + which expresses that the curves X = 0, Y = 0, Z = 0 are unicursal. The + transformation may be applied to any curve u = 0, which is thus + rationally transformed into a curve u' = 0, by a rational + transformation such as is considered in Riemann's theory: hence the + two curves have the same deficiency. + +Coming next to Chasles, the principle of correspondence is established +and used by him in a series of memoirs relating to the conics which +satisfy given conditions, and to other geometrical questions, contained +in the _Comptes rendus_, t. lviii. (1864) et seq. The theorem of united +points in regard to points in a right line was given in a paper, +June-July 1864, and it was extended to unicursal curves in a paper of the +same series (March 1866), "Sur les courbes planes ou a double courbure +dont les points peuvent se determiner individuellement--application du +principe de correspondance dans la theorie de ces courbes." + + The theorem is as follows: if in a unicursal curve two points have an + ([alpha], [beta]) correspondence, then the number of united points (or + points each corresponding to itself) is = [alpha] + [beta]. In fact in + a unicursal curve the co-ordinates of a point are given as + proportional to rational and integral functions of a parameter, so + that any point of the curve is determined uniquely by means of this + parameter; that is, to each point of the curve corresponds one value + of the parameter, and to each value of the parameter one point on the + curve; and the ([alpha], [beta]) correspondence between the two points + is given by an equation of the form (*() [theta], 1)^[alpha]([Phi], + 1)^[beta] = 0 between their parameters [theta] and [phi]; at a united + point [phi] = [theta], and the value of [theta] is given by an + equation of the order [alpha] + [beta]. The extension to curves of any + given deficiency D was made in the memoir of Cayley, "On the + correspondence of two points on a curve,"--_Proc. Lond. Math. Soc._ t. + i. (1866; _Collected Works_, vol. vi. p. 9),--viz. taking P, P' as the + corresponding points in an ([alpha], [alpha]') correspondence on a + curve of deficiency D, and supposing that when P is given the + corresponding points P' are found as the intersections of the curve by + a curve [Theta] containing the co-ordinates of P as parameters, and + having with the given curve k intersections at the point P, then the + number of united points is a = [alpha] + [alpha]' + 2kD; and more + generally, if the curve [Theta] intersect the given curve in a set of + points P' each p times, a set of points Q' each g times, &c., in such + manner that the points (P, P') the points (P, Q') &c., are pairs of + points corresponding to each other according to distinct laws; then if + (P, P') are points having an ([alpha], [alpha]') correspondence with a + number = a of united points, (P, Q') points having a ([beta], [beta]') + correspondence with a number = b of united points, and so on, the + theorem is that we have + + p(a - [alpha] - [alpha]') + q(b - [beta] - [beta]') + ... = 2kD. + +The principle of correspondence, or say rather the theorem of united +points, is a most powerful instrument of investigation, which may be +used in place of analysis for the determination of the number of +solutions of almost every geometrical problem. We can by means of it +investigate the class of a curve, number of inflections, &c.--in fact, +Plucker's equations; but it is necessary to take account of special +solutions: thus, in one of the most simple instances, in finding the +class of a curve, the cusps present themselves as special solutions. + + Imagine a curve of order m, deficiency D, and let the corresponding + points P, P' be such that the line joining them passes through a given + point O; this is an (m - 1, m - 1) correspondence, and the value of k + is = 1, hence the number of united points is = 2m - 2 + 2D; the united + points are the points of contact of the tangents from O and (as + special solutions) the cusps, and we have thus the relation n + + [kappa] = 2m - 2 + 2D; or, writing D = 1/2(m - 1)(m - 2) - [delta] + -[kappa], this is n = m(m - 1) - 2[delta] - 3[kappa], which is right. + +The principle in its original form as applying to a right line was used +throughout by Chasles in the investigations on the number of the conics +which satisfy given conditions, and on the number of solutions of very +many other geometrical problems. + +There is one application of the theory of the ([alpha], [alpha]') +correspondence between two planes which it is proper to notice. + + Imagine a curve, real or imaginary, represented by an equation + (involving, it may be, imaginary coefficients) between the Cartesian + co-ordinates u, u'; then, writing u = x + iy, u' = x' + iy', the + equation determines real values of (x, y), and of (x', y'), + corresponding to any given real values of (x', y') and (x, y) + respectively; that is, it establishes a real correspondence (not of + course a rational one) between the points (x, y) and (x', y'); for + example in the imaginary circle u^2 + u'^2 = (a + bi)^2, the + correspondence is given by the two equations x^2 - y^2 + x'^2 - y'^2 = + a^2 - b^2, xy + x'y' = ab. We have thus a means of geometrical + representation for the portions, as well imaginary as real, of any + real or imaginary curve. Considerations such as these have been used + for determining the series of values of the independent variable, and + the irrational functions thereof in the theory of Abelian integrals, + but the theory seems to be worthy of further investigation. + +16. _Systems of Curves satisfying Conditions._--The researches of +Chasles (_Comptes Rendus_, t. lviii., 1864, et seq.) refer to the conics +which satisfy given conditions. There is an earlier paper by J. P. E. +Fauque de Jonquieres, "Theoremes generaux concernant les courbes +geometriques planes d'un ordre quelconque," _Liouv._ t. vi. (1861), +which establishes the notion of a system of curves (of any order) of the +index N, viz. considering the curves of the order n which satisfy 1/2n(n ++ 3) - 1 conditions, then the index N is the number of these curves +which pass through a given arbitrary point. But Chasles in the first of +his papers (February 1864), considering the conics which satisfy four +conditions, establishes the notion of the two characteristics ([mu], +[nu]) of such a system of conics, viz. [mu] is the number of the conics +which pass through a given arbitrary point, and [nu] is the number of +the conics which touch a given arbitrary line. And he gives the theorem, +a system of conics satisfying four conditions, and having the +characteristics ([mu], [nu]) contains 2[nu] - [mu] line-pairs (that is, +conics, each of them a pair of lines), and 2[mu] - [nu] point-pairs +(that is, conics, each of them a pair of points,--coniques infiniment +aplaties), which is a fundamental one in the theory. The characteristics +of the system can be determined when it is known how many there are of +these two kinds of degenerate conics in the system, and how often each +is to be counted. It was thus that Zeuthen (in the paper _Nyt Bydrag_, +"Contribution to the Theory of Systems of Conics which satisfy four +Conditions" (Copenhagen, 1865), translated with an addition in the +_Nouvelles Annales_) solved the question of finding the characteristics +of the systems of conics which satisfy four conditions of contact with a +given curve or curves; and this led to the solution of the further +problem of finding the number of the conics which satisfy five +conditions of contact with a given curve or curves (Cayley, _Comptes +Rendus_, t. lxiii., 1866; _Collected Works_, vol. v. p. 542), and "On +the Curves which satisfy given Conditions" (_Phil. Trans._ t. clviii., +1868; _Collected Works_, vol. vi. p. 191). + +It may be remarked that although, as a process of investigation, it is +very convenient to seek for the characteristics of a system of conics +satisfying 4 conditions, yet what is really determined is in every case +the number of the conics which satisfy 5 conditions; the characteristics +of the system (4p) of the conics which pass through 4p points are (5p), +(4p, 1l), the number of the conics which pass through 5 points, and +which pass through 4 points and touch 1 line: and so in other cases. +Similarly as regards cubics, or curves of any other order: a cubic +depends on 9 constants, and the elementary problems are to find the +number of the cubics (9p), (8p, 1l), &c., which pass through 9 points, +pass through 8 points and touch 1 line, &c.; but it is in the +investigation convenient to seek for the characteristics of the systems +of cubics (8p), &c., which satisfy 8 instead of 9 conditions. + +The elementary problems in regard to cubics are solved very completely +by S. Maillard in his _These_, _Recherche des caracteristiques des +systemes elementaires des courbes planes du troisieme ordre_ (Paris, +1871). Thus, considering the several cases of a cubic + + No. of consts. + 1. With a given cusp 5 + 2. " cusp on a given line 6 + 3. " cusp 7 + 4. " a given node 6 + 5. " node on given line 7 + 6. " node 8 + 7. non-singular 9 + +he determines in every case the characteristics ([mu], [nu]) of the +corresponding systems of cubics (4p), (3p, 1l), &c. The same problems, +or most of them, and also the elementary problems in regard to quartics +are solved by Zeuthen, who in the elaborate memoir "Almindelige +Egenskaber, &c.," _Danish Academy_, t. x. (1873), considers the problem +in reference to curves of any order, and applies his results to cubic +and quartic curves. + +The methods of Maillard and Zeuthen are substantially identical; in each +case the question considered is that of finding the characteristics +([mu], [nu]) of a system of curves by consideration of the special or +degenerate forms of the curves included in the system. The quantities +which have to be considered are very numerous. Zeuthen in the case of +curves of any given order establishes between the characteristics [mu], +[nu], and 18 other quantities, in all 20 quantities, a set of 24 +equations (equivalent to 23 independent equations), involving (besides +the 20 quantities) other quantities relating to the various forms of the +degenerate curves, which supplementary terms he determines, partially +for curves of any order, but completely only for quartic curves. It is +the discussion and complete enumeration of the special or degenerate +forms of the curves, and of the supplementary terms to which they give +rise, that the great difficulty of the question seems to consist; it +would appear that the 24 equations are a complete system, and that +(subject to a proper determination of the supplementary terms) they +contain the solution of the general problem. + +17. _Degeneration of Curves._--The remarks which follow have reference +to the analytical theory of the degenerate curves which present +themselves in the foregoing problem of the curves which satisfy given +conditions. + + A curve represented by an equation in point-co-ordinates may break up: + thus if P1, P2, ... be rational and integral functions of the + co-ordinates (x, y, z) of the orders m1, m2 ... respectively, we have + the curve P1^([alpha]1)P2^([alpha]2) ... = 0, of the order m, = + [alpha]1m1 + [alpha]2m2 + ..., composed of the curve P1 = 0 taken + [alpha]1 times, the curve P2 = 0 taken [alpha]2 times, &c. + + Instead of the equation P1^([alpha]1)P2^([alpha]2) ... = 0, we may + start with an equation u = 0, where u is a function of the order m + containing a parameter [theta], and for a particular value say [theta] + = 0, of the parameter reducing itself to + P1^([alpha]1)P2^([alpha]2).... Supposing [theta] indefinitely small, + we have what may be called the penultimate curve, and when [theta] = 0 + the ultimate curve. Regarding the ultimate curve as derived from a + given penultimate curve, we connect with the ultimate curve, and + consider as belonging to it, certain points called "summits" on the + component curves P1 = 0, P2 = 0 respectively; a summit [Sigma] is a + point such that, drawing from an arbitrary point O the tangents to the + penultimate curve, we have O[Sigma] as the limit of one of these + tangents. The ultimate curve together with its summits may be regarded + as a degenerate form of the curve u = 0. Observe that the positions of + the summits depend on the penultimate curve u = 0, viz. on the values + of the coefficients in the terms multiplied by [theta], [theta]^2, ...; + they are thus in some measure arbitrary points as regards the ultimate + curve P1^([alpha]1)P2^([alpha]2) ... = 0. + + It may be added that we have summits only on the component curves P1 = + 0, of a multiplicity [alpha]1 > 1; the number of summits on such a + curve is in general = ([alpha]1^2 - [alpha]1)m1^2. Thus assuming that + the penultimate curve is without nodes or cusps, the number of the + tangents to it is = m^2 - m, = ([alpha]1m1 + [alpha]2m2 + ...)^2 - + ([alpha]1m1 + [alpha]2m2 + ...). Taking P1 = 0 to have [delta]1 nodes + and [kappa]1 cusps, and therefore its class n1 to be = m1^2 - m1 - + 2[delta]1 - 3[kappa]1, &c., the expression for the number of tangents + to the penultimate curve is + + = ([alpha]1^2 - [alpha]1)m1^2 + ([alpha]2^2 - [alpha]2)m2^2 + + + ... + 2[alpha]1[alpha]2m1m2 + [alpha]1(n1 + 2[delta]1 + + + 3[kappa]1) + [alpha]2(n2 + 2[delta]2 + 3[kappa]2) + ... + + where a term 2[alpha]1[alpha]2m1m2 indicates tangents which are in the + limit the lines drawn to the intersections of the curves P1 = 0, P2 = + 0 each line 2[alpha]1[alpha]2 times; a term [alpha]1(n1 + 2[delta]1 + + 3[kappa]1) tangents which are in the limit the proper tangents to P1 + = 0 each [alpha]1 times, the lines to its nodes each 2[alpha]1 times, + and the lines to its cusps each 3[alpha]1, times; the remaining terms + ([alpha]1^2 - [alpha]1)m1^2 + ([alpha]2^2 - [alpha]2)m2^2 + ... + indicate tangents which are in the limit the lines drawn to the + several summits, that is, we have ([alpha]1^2 - [alpha]1)m1^2 summits + on the curve P1 = 0, &c. + + There is, of course, a precisely similar theory as regards + line-co-ordinates; taking [Pi]1, [Pi]2, &c., to be rational and + integral functions of the co-ordinates ([xi], [eta], [zeta]) we + connect with the ultimate curve [Pi]1^([alpha]1)[Pi]2^([alpha]2) ... = + 0, and consider as belonging to it, certain lines, which for the + moment may be called "axes" tangents to the component curves [Pi]1 = + 01, [Pi]2 = 0 respectively. Considering an equation in + point-co-ordinates, we may have among the component curves right + lines, and if in order to put these in evidence we take the equation + to be L1^([gamma]1) ... P1^([alpha]1) ... = 0, where L1 = 0 is a right + line, P1 = 0 a curve of the second or any higher order, then the curve + will contain as part of itself summits not exhibited in this equation, + but the corresponding line-equation will be 1[Lambda]^([delta]1) ... + [Pi]1^([alpha]1) = 0, where [Lambda]1 = 0,... are the equations of the + summits in question, [Pi]1 = 0, &c., are the line-equations + corresponding to the several point-equations P1 = 0, &c.; and this + curve will contain as part of itself axes not exhibited by this + equation, but which are the lines L1 = 0,... of the equation in + point-co-ordinates. + +18. _Twisted Curves._--In conclusion a little may be said as to curves +of double curvature, otherwise twisted curves or curves in space. The +analytical theory by Cartesian co-ordinates was first considered by +Alexis Claude Clairaut, _Recherches sur les courbes a double courbure_ +(Paris, 1731). Such a curve may be considered as described by a point, +moving in a line which at the same time rotates about the point in a +plane which at the same time rotates about the line; the point is a +point, the line a tangent, and the plane an osculating plane, of the +curve; moreover the line is a generating line, and the plane a tangent +plane, of a developable surface or torse, having the curve for its edge +of regression. Analogous to the order and class of a plane curve we have +the order, rank and class of the system (assumed to be a geometrical +one), viz. if an arbitrary plane contains m points, an arbitrary line +meets r lines, and an arbitrary point lies in n planes, of the system, +then m, r, n are the order, rank and class respectively. The system has +singularities, and there exist between m, r, n and the numbers of the +several singularities equations analogous to Plucker's equations for a +plane curve. + +It is a leading point in the theory that a curve in space cannot in +general be represented by means of two equations U = 0, V = 0; the two +equations represent surfaces, intersecting in a curve; but there are +curves which are not the complete intersection of any two surfaces; thus +we have the cubic in space, or skew cubic, which is the residual +intersection of two quadric surfaces which have a line in common; the +equations U = 0, V = 0 of the two quadric surfaces represent the cubic +curve, not by itself, but together with the line. + + AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the copious authorities mentioned in the + text above, see Gabriel Cramer, _Introduction a l'analyse des lignes + courbes algebriques_ (Geneva, 1750). Bibliographical articles are + given in the _Ency. der math. Wiss._ Bd. iii. 2, 3 (Leipzig, + 1902-1906); H. C. F. von Mangoldt, "Anwendung der Differential- und + Integralrechnung auf Kurven und Flachen," Bd. iii. 3 (1902); F. R. v. + Lilienthal, "Die auf einer Flache gezogenen Kurven," Bd. iii. 3 + (1902); G. W. Scheffers, "Besondere transcendente Kurven," Bd. iii. 3 + (1903); H. G. Zeuthen, "Abzahlende Methoden," Bd. iii. 2 (1906); L. + Berzolari, "Allgemeine Theorie der hoheren ebenen algebraischen + Kurven," Bd. iii. 2 (1906). Also A. Brill and M. Noether, "Die + Entwicklung der Theorie der algebraischen Funktionen in alterer und + neuerer Zeit" (_Jahresb. der deutschen math. ver._, 1894); E. Kotter, + "Die Entwickelung der synthetischen Geometrie" (_Jahresb. der + deutschen math. ver._, 1898-1901); E. Pascal, _Repertorio di + matematiche superiori_, ii. "Geometria" (Milan, 1900); H. Wieleitner, + _Bibliographie der hoheren algebraischen Kurven fur den Zeitabschnitt + von 1890-1894_ (Leipzig, 1905). + + _Text-books_:--G. Salmon, _A Treatise on the Higher Plane Curves_ + (Dublin, 1852, 3rd ed., 1879); translated into German by O. W. + Fiedler, _Analytische Geometrie der hoheren ebenen Kurven_ (Leipzig, + 2te Aufl., 1882); L. Cremona, _Introduzione ad una teoria geometrica + delle curve piane_ (Bologna, 1861); J. H. K. Durege, _Die ebenen + Kurven dritter Ordnung_ (Leipzig, 1871); R. F. A. Clebsch and C. L. F. + Lindemann, _Vorlesungen uber Geometrie_, Band i. and i2 (Leipzig, + 1875-1876); H. Schroeter, _Die Theorie der ebenen Kurven dritter + Ordnung_ (Leipzig, 1888); H. Andoyer, _Lecons sur la theorie des + formes et la geometrie analytique superieure_ (Paris, 1900); + Wieleitner, _Theorie der ebenen algebraischen Kurven hoherer Ordnung_ + (Leipzig, 1905). (A. Ca.; E. B. El.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In solid geometry infinity is a plane--its intersection with any + given plane being the right line which is the infinity of this given + plane. + + + + +CURVILINEAR, in architecture, that which is formed by curved or flowing +lines; the roofs over the domes and vaults of the Byzantine churches +were generally curvilinear. The term is also given to the flowing +tracery of the Decorated and the Flamboyant styles. + + + + +CURWEN, HUGH (d. 1568), English ecclesiastic and statesman, was a native +of Westmorland, and was educated at Cambridge, afterwards taking orders +in the church. In May 1533 he expressed approval of Henry VIII.'s +marriage with Anne Boleyn in a sermon preached before the king. In 1541 +he became dean of Hereford, and in 1555 Queen Mary nominated him to the +archbishopric of Dublin, and in the same year he was appointed lord +chancellor of Ireland. He acted as one of the lords justices during the +absence from Ireland of the lord deputy, the earl of Sussex, in 1557. On +the accession of Elizabeth, Curwen at once accommodated himself to the +new conditions by declaring himself a Protestant, and was continued in +the office of lord chancellor. He was accused by the archbishop of +Armagh of serious moral delinquency, and his recall was demanded both by +the primate and the bishop of Meath. In 1567 Curwen resigned the see of +Dublin and the office of lord chancellor, and was appointed bishop of +Oxford. He died on the 1st of November 1568. + + See John Strype, _Life and Acts of Archbishop Parker_ (3 vols., + Oxford, 1824), and _Memorials of Thomas Cranmer_ (2 vols., Oxford, + 1840); John D'Alton. _Memoirs of the Archbishops of Dublin_ (Dublin, + 1838). + + + + +CURWEN, JOHN (1816-1880), English Nonconformist minister and founder of +the Tonic Sol-Fa system of musical teaching, was born at Heckmondwike, +Yorkshire, of an old Cumberland family. His father was a Nonconformist +minister, and he himself adopted this profession, which he practised +till 1864, when he gave it up in order to devote himself to his new +method of musical nomenclature, designed to avoid the use of the stave +with its lines and spaces. He adapted it from that of Miss Sarah Ann +Glover (1785-1867) of Norwich, whose Sol-Fa system was based on the +ancient gamut; but she omitted the constant recital of the alphabetical +names of each note and the arbitrary syllable indicating key +relationship, and also the recital of two or more such syllables when +the same note was common to as many keys (e.g. "C, Fa, Ut," meaning that +C is the subdominant of G and the tonic of C). The notes were +represented by the initials of the seven syllables, still in use in +Italy and France as their names but in the "Tonic Sol-Fa" the seven +letters refer to key relationship and not to pitch. Curwen was led to +feel the importance of a simple way of teaching how to sing by note by +his experiences among Sunday-school teachers. Apart from Miss Glover, +the same idea had been elaborated in France since J. J. Rousseau's time, +by Pierre Galin (1786-1821), Aime Paris (1798-1866) and Emile Cheve +(1804-1864), whose method of teaching how to read at sight also depended +on the principle of "tonic relationship" being inculcated by the +reference of every sound to its tonic, by the use of a _numeral_ +notation. Curwen brought out his _Grammar of Vocal Music_ in 1843, and +in 1853 started the Tonic Sol-Fa Association; and in 1879, after some +difficulties with the education department, the Tonic Sol-Fa College was +opened. Curwen also took to publishing, and brought out a periodical +called the _Tonic Sol-fa Reporter_, and in his later life was occupied +in directing the spreading organization of his system. He died at +Manchester on the 26th of May 1880. His son John Spencer Curwen (b. +1847), who became principal of the Tonic Sol-Fa College, published +_Memorials of J. Curwen_ in 1882. The Sol-Fa system has been widely +adopted for use in education, as an easily teachable method in the +reading of music at sight, but its more ambitious aims, which are +strenuously pushed, for providing a superior method of musical notation +generally, have not recommended themselves to musicians at large. + + + + +CURZOLA (Serbo-Croatian _Korcula_ or _Karkar_), an island in the +Adriatic Sea, forming part of Dalmatia, Austria; and lying west of the +Sabionicello promontory, from which it is divided by a strait less than +2 m. wide. Its length is about 25 m.; its average breadth, 4 m. Curzola +(_Korcula_), the capital and principal port, is a fortified town on the +east coast, and occupies a rocky foreland almost surrounded by the sea. +Besides the interesting church (formerly a cathedral), dating from the +12th or 13th century, the _loggia_ or council chambers, and the palace +of its former Venetian governors, it possesses the noble mansion of the +Arnieri, and other specimens of the domestic architecture of the 15th +and 16th centuries, together with the massive walls and towers, erected +in 1420, and the 15th-century Franciscan monastery, with its beautiful +Venetian Gothic cloister. The main resources of the islanders are +boat-building (for which they are celebrated throughout the Adriatic), +fishing and sea-faring, the cultivation of the vine, corn and olives, +and breeding of mules. Pop. (1900) of island, 17,377; of capital (town +and commune), 6486. Prehistoric grave-mounds are common on the hills of +the interior, and in later times Curzola may have been a Phoenician +settlement. Its early history is very obscure, but it was certainly +colonized by Greeks from Cnidus. The present name is a corruption of the +Gr. [Greek: Kerkyra Melaina], or Lat. _Corcyra Nigra_, "Black Corcyra"; +and is perhaps due to the dark pines which still partly cover the +island. In 998 Curzola first came under Venetian suzerainty. During the +12th century it was ruled by Hungary and Genoa in turn, and enjoyed a +brief period of independence; but after 1255 its hereditary counts again +submitted to Venice. The Roman Catholic see of Curzola, created in 1301, +was only suppressed in 1806. Curzola surrendered to the Hungarians in +1358, was purchased by Ragusa (1413-1417), and finally declared itself +subject to Venice in 1420. In 1571 it defended itself so gallantly +against the Turks that it obtained the designation _fidelissima_. From +1776 to 1797 it succeeded Lesina as the main Venetian arsenal in this +region. During the Napoleonic wars it was ruled successively by +Russians, French and British, ultimately passing to Austria in 1815. + + + + +CURZON OF KEDLESTON, GEORGE NATHANIEL, 1ST BARON (1859- ), English +statesman, eldest son of the 4th baron Scarsdale, rector of Kedleston, +Derbyshire, was born on the 11th of January 1859, and was educated at +Eton and Balliol College, Oxford. At Oxford he was president of the +Union, and after a brilliant university career was elected a fellow of +All Souls College in 1883. He became assistant private secretary to Lord +Salisbury in 1885, and in 1886 entered parliament as member for the +Southport division of S.W. Lancashire. He was appointed under secretary +for India in 1891-1892 and for foreign affairs in 1895-1898. In the +meantime he had travelled in Central Asia, Persia, Afghanistan, the +Pamirs, Siam, Indo-China and Korea, and published several books +describing central and eastern Asia and the political problems connected +with those regions. In 1895 he married Mary Victoria Leiter (d. 1906), +daughter of a Chicago millionaire. In January 1899 he was appointed +governor-general of India, where his extensive knowledge of Asiatic +affairs showed itself in the inception of a strong foreign policy, while +he took in hand the reform of every department of Indian administration. +He was created an Irish peer on his appointment, the creation taking +this form, it was understood, in order that he might remain free during +his father's lifetime to re-enter the House of Commons. Reaching India +shortly after the suppression of the frontier risings of 1897-98, he +paid special attention to the independent tribes of the north-west +frontier, inaugurated a new province called the North West Frontier +Province, and carried out a policy of conciliation mingled with firmness +of control. The only trouble on this frontier during the period of his +administration was the Mahsud Waziri campaign of 1901. Being mistrustful +of Russian methods he exerted himself to encourage British trade in +Persia, paying a visit to the Persian Gulf in 1903; while on the +north-east frontier he anticipated a possible Russian advance by the +Tibet Mission of 1903, which rendered necessary the employment of +military force for the protection of the British envoys. The mission, +which had the ostensible support of China as suzerain of Tibet, +penetrated to Lhasa, where a treaty was signed in September 1904. In +pursuance of his reforming policy Lord Curzon appointed a number of +commissions to inquire into Indian education, irrigation, police and +other branches of administration, on whose reports legislation was +based during his second term of office as viceroy. With a view to +improving British relations with the native chiefs and raising the +character of their rule, he established the Imperial Cadet corps, +settled the question of Berar with the nizam of Hyderabad, reduced the +salt tax, and gave relief to the smaller income-tax payers. Lord Curzon +exhibited much interest in the art and antiquities of India, and during +his viceroyalty took steps for the preservation and restoration of many +important monuments and buildings of historic interest. In January 1903 +he presided at the durbar held at Delhi in honour of the coronation of +King Edward VII. It was attended by all the leading native princes and +by large numbers of visitors from Europe and America; and the +magnificence of the spectacle surpassed anything that had previously +been witnessed even in the gorgeous ceremonial of the East. On the +expiration of his first term of office, Lord Curzon was reappointed +governor-general. His second term of office was marked by the passing of +several acts founded on the recommendations of his previous commissions, +and by the partition of Bengal (1905), which roused bitter opposition +amongst the natives of that province. A difference of opinion with the +commander-in-chief, Lord Kitchener, regarding the position of the +military member of council in India, led to a controversy in which Lord +Curzon failed to obtain support from the home government. He resigned +(1904) and returned to England. In 1904 he was appointed lord warden of +the Cinque Ports; in the same year he was given the honorary degree of +D.C.L. by Oxford University, and in 1908 he was elected chancellor of +the university. In the latter year he was elected a representative peer +for Ireland, and thus relinquished any idea of returning to the House of +Commons. In 1909-1910 he took an active part in defending the House of +Lords against the Liberals. Lord Curzon's publications include _Russia +in Central Asia_ (1889); _Persia and the Persian Question_ (1892); +_Problems of the Far East_ (1894; new ed., 1896). + + See Caldwell Lipsett, _Lord Curzon in India_, 1898-1903 (1906); and C. + J. O'Donnell, _The Failure of Lord Curzon_ (1903). + + + + +CUSANUS, NICOLAUS (NICHOLAS OF CUSA) (1401-1464), cardinal, theologian +and scholar, was the son of a poor fisherman named Krypffs or Krebs, and +derived the name by which he is known from the place of his birth, Kues +or Cusa, on the Moselle, in the archbishopric of Trier (Treves). In his +youth he was employed in the service of Count Ulrich of Manderscheid, +who, seeing in him evidence of exceptional ability, sent him to study at +the school of the Brothers of the Common Life at Deventer, and +afterwards at the university of Padua, where he took his doctor's degree +in law in his twenty-third year. Failing in his first case he abandoned +the legal profession, and resolved to take holy orders. After filling +several subordinate offices he became archdeacon of Liege. He was a +member of the council of Basel, and dedicated to the assembled fathers a +work entitled _De concordantia Catholica_, in which he maintained the +superiority of councils over popes, and assailed the genuineness of the +False Decretals and the Donation of Constantine. A few years later, +however, he had reversed his position, and zealously defended the +supremacy of the pope. He was entrusted with various missions in the +interests of Catholic unity, the most important being to Constantinople, +to endeavour to bring about a union of the Eastern and Western churches. +From 1440 to 1447 he was in Germany, acting as papal legate at the diets +of 1441, 1442, 1445 and 1446. In 1448, in recognition of his services, +Nicholas V. raised him to the cardinalate; and in 1450 he was appointed +bishop of Brixen against the wish of Sigismund, archduke of Austria, who +opposed the reforms the new bishop sought to introduce into the diocese. +In 1451 he was sent to Germany and the Netherlands to check +ecclesiastical abuses and bring back the monastic life to the original +rule of poverty, chastity and obedience--a mission which he discharged +with well-tempered firmness. Soon afterwards his dispute with the +archduke Sigismund in his own diocese was brought to a point by his +claiming certain dues of the bishopric, which the temporal prince had +appropriated. Upon this the bishop was imprisoned by the archduke, who, +in his turn, was excommunicated by the pope. These extreme measures +were not persisted in; but the dispute remained unsettled at the time of +the bishop's death, which occurred at Lodi in Umbria on the 11th of +August 1464. In 1459 he had acted as governor of Rome during the absence +of his friend Pope Pius II. at the assembly of princes at Milan; and he +wrote his _Crebratio Alcorani_, a treatise against Mahommedanism, in +support of the expedition against the Turks proposed at that assembly. +Some time before his death he had founded a hospital in his native place +for thirty-three poor persons, the number being that of the years of the +earthly life of Christ. To this institution he left his valuable +library. + +Although one of the great leaders in the reform movement of the 15th +century, Nicholas of Cusa's interest for later times lies in his +philosophical much more than in his political or ecclesiastical +activity. As in religion he is entitled to be called one of the +"Reformers before the Reformation," so in philosophy he was one of those +who broke with scholasticism while it was still the orthodox system. In +his principal work, _De docta ignorantia_ (1440), supplemented by _De +conjecturis libri_ duo published in the same year, he maintains that all +human knowledge is mere conjecture, and that man's wisdom is to +recognize his ignorance. From scepticism he escapes by accepting the +doctrine of the mystics that God can be apprehended by intuition +(_intuitio, speculatio_), an exalted state of the intellect in which all +limitations disappear. God is the absolute maximum and also the absolute +minimum, who can be neither greater nor less than He is, and who +comprehends all that is or that can be ("deum esse omnia, ut non possit +esse aliud quam est"). Cusanus thus laid himself open to the charge of +pantheism, which did not fail to be brought against him in his own day. +His chief philosophical doctrine was taken up and developed more than a +hundred years later by Giordano Bruno, who calls him the divine Cusanus. +In mathematical and physical science Cusanus was much in advance of his +age. In a tract, _Reparatio Calendarii_, presented to the council of +Basel, he proposed the reform of the calendar after a method resembling +that adopted by Gregory. In his _De Quadratura Circuli_ he professed to +have solved the problem; and in his _Conjectura de novissimis diebus_ he +prophesied that the world would come to an end in 1734. Most noteworthy, +however, in this connexion is the fact that he anticipated Copernicus by +maintaining the theory of the rotation of the earth. + + The works of Cusanus were published in a complete form by Henri Petrie + (1 vol. fol., Basel, 1565). See F. A. Scharpff's _Der Kardinal und + Bischof Nikolaus von Cusa als Reformator in Kirche, Reich, und Philos. + des 15. Jahrhund_. (Tubingen, 1871); J. M. Dux, _Der deutsche Kard. + Nicolaus von Cusa und die Kirche seiner Zeit_ (Regensburg, 1848); R. + Falckenberg, _Grundzuge d. Philos. d. Nikolaus Cusanus_ (Breslau, + 1880) and _Aufgabe und Wesen d. Erkenntniss bei Nikolaus von Kues_ + (Breslau, 1880); T. Stumpf, _Die politischen Ideen des Nikolaus von + Cues_ (Cologne, 1865); M. Glossner, _Nikolaus von Cusa und Marius + Nizolius als Vorlaufer der neueren Philosophie_ (Munster, 1891); F. + Fiorentino, _Il Risorgimento filosofico nel quattro cento_ (Naples, + 1885); Axel Herrlin, _Studier i Nicolaus af Cues' Filosofi_ (Lund, + 1892); H. Hoffding, _Hist. of Mod. Phil._ (Eng. trans., 1900), bk. i. + chap. x.; F. J. Clemens, _Giordano Bruno und Nikolaus Cusanus_ (Bonn, + 1847); R. Zimmermann, _Der Card. Nikolaus Cusanus als Vorlaufer + Leibnitzens_ (Vienna, 1852); J. Ubinger, Philosophie des Nikolaus + Cusanus (Wurzburg, 1881); art. by R. Schmid in Herzog-Hauck, + _Realencyk._ s.v. "Cusanus"; see also MYSTICISM. + + + + +CUSH, the eldest son of Ham, in the Bible, from whom seems to have been +derived the name of the "Land of Cush," commonly rendered "Ethiopia" by +the Septuagint and by the Vulgate. The locality of the land of Cush has +long been a much-vexed question. Bochart maintained that it was +exclusively in Arabia; Schulthess and Gesenius held that it should be +sought for nowhere but in Africa (see ETHIOPIA). Others again, like +Michaelis and Rosenmuller, have supposed that the name Cush was applied +to tracts of country both in Arabia and in Africa, but the defective +condition of the ancient knowledge of countries and peoples, as also the +probability of early migrations of "Cushite" tribes (carrying with them +their name), will account for the main facts. The existence of an +African Cush cannot reasonably be questioned, though the term is +employed in the Old Testament with some latitude. The African Cush +covers Upper Egypt, and extends southwards from the first cataract +(Syene, Ezek. xxix. 10). That the term was also applied to parts of +Arabia is evident from Gen. x. 7, where Cush is the "father" of certain +tribal and ethnical designations, all of which point very clearly to +Arabia, with the very doubtful exception of Seba, which Josephus (_Ant._ +ii. 10. 2) identifies with Meroe.[1] Even in the 5th century A.D. the +Himyarites, in the south of Arabia, were styled by Syrian writers +Cushaeans and Ethiopians. Moreover, the Babylonian inscriptions mention +the Kashshi, an Elamite race, whose name has been equated with the +classical [Greek: Kossaioi], [Greek: Kissioi], and it has been held that +this affords a more appropriate explanation of Cush (perhaps rather +Kash), the ancestor of (the Babylonian) Nimrod in Gen. x. 8. Although +decisive evidence is lacking, it seems extremely probable that several +references to Cush in the Old Testament cannot refer to Ethiopia, +despite the likelihood that considerable confusion existed in the minds +of early writers. The Cushite invasion in 2 Chron. xiv. (see ASA) is +intelligible if the historical foundation for the story be a raid by +Arabians, but in xvi. 8 the inclusion of Libyans shows that the enemy +was subsequently supposed to be African. In several passages the +interpretation is bound up with that of Mizraim (q.v.), and depends in +general upon the question whether Ethiopia at a given time enjoyed the +prominence given to it. + + On Num. xii. I see JETHRO; and consult H. Winckler, _Keil. u. das alte + Test._, 3rd ed., p. 144 sq., and _Im Kampfe um den alten Orient_, ii. + pp. 36 seq., and the literature cited under MIZRAIM. (S. A. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For Seba, see SABAEANS, and cf. generally the commentaries on + Gen. x. 7. In Hab. iii. 7 Cushan (obviously a related form) is + parallel to Midian. + + + + +CUSHING, CALEB (1800-1879), American political leader and lawyer, was +born in Salisbury, Massachusetts, on the 17th of January 1800. He +graduated at Harvard in 1817, was tutor in mathematics there in +1820-1821, was admitted to practice in the court of common pleas in +December 1821, and began the practice of law in Newburyport, Mass., in +1824. After serving, as a Democratic-Republican, in the state house of +representatives in 1825, in the state senate in 1826, and in the house +again in 1828, he spent two years, from 1829 to 1831, in Europe, again +served in the state house of representatives in 1833 and 1834, and in +the latter year was elected by the Whigs a representative in Congress. +He served in this body from 1835 until 1843, and here the marked +inconsistency which characterized his public life became manifest; for +when John Tyler had become president, had been "read out" of the Whig +party, and had vetoed Whig measures (including a tariff bill), for which +Cushing had voted, Cushing first defended the vetoes and then voted +again for the bills. In 1843 President Tyler nominated him for secretary +of the treasury, but the senate refused to confirm him for this office. +He was, however, appointed later in the same year commissioner of the +United States to China, holding this position until 1845, and in 1844 +negotiating the first treaty between China and the United States. In +1847, while again a representative in the state legislature, he +introduced a bill appropriating money for the equipment of a regiment to +serve in the Mexican War; although the bill was defeated, he raised the +necessary funds privately, and served in Mexico first as colonel and +afterwards as brigadier-general of volunteers. In 1847 and again in 1848 +the Democrats nominated him for governor of Massachusetts, but on each +occasion he was defeated at the polls. He was again a representative in +the state legislature in 1851, became an associate justice of the +supreme court of Massachusetts in 1852, and during the administration +(1853-1857) of President Pierce, was attorney-general of the United +States. In 1858, 1859, 1862 and 1863 he again served in the state house +of representatives. In 1860 he presided over the National Democratic +Convention which met first at Charleston and later at Baltimore, until +he joined those who seceded from the regular convention; he then +presided also over the convention of the seceding delegates, who +nominated John C. Breckinridge for the presidency. During the Civil War, +however, he supported the National Administration. At the Geneva +conference for the settlement of the "Alabama" claims in 1871-1872 he +was one of the counsel for the United States. In 1873 President Grant +nominated him for chief justice of the United States, but in spite of +his great learning and eminence at the bar, his ante-war record and the +feeling of distrust experienced by many members of the senate on account +of his inconsistency, aroused such vigorous opposition that his +nomination was soon withdrawn. From 1874 to 1877 Cushing was United +States minister to Spain. He died at Newburyport, Mass., on the 2nd of +January 1879. He published _History and Present State of the Town of +Newburyport, Mass._ (1826); _Review of the late Revolution in France_ +(1833); _Reminiscences of Spain_ (1833); _Oration on the Growth and +Territorial Progress of the United States_ (1839); _Life and Public +Services of William H. Harrison_ (1840); and _The Treaty of Washington_ +(1873). + + + + +CUSHING, WILLIAM BARKER (1842-1874), American naval officer, was born in +Delafield, Wisconsin, on the 4th of November 1842. He entered the Naval +Academy from New York in 1857, but resigned in March 1861. When, +however, the Civil War began, he volunteered into the navy, was rated +acting master's mate, and became a midshipman in October 1861, and a +lieutenant in July 1862, serving in the North Atlantic blockading +squadron. The work of blockade, and of harassing the Confederates on the +coast and the rivers of the Atlantic seaboard, called for much service +in boats, and entailed a great deal of exposure. Cushing was +distinguished by his readiness to volunteer, his indefatigability, and +by his good fortune, the reward of vigilance and intelligence. The feat +by which he will be remembered was the destruction of the Confederate +ironclad "Albemarle" in the Roanoke river on the 27th of October in +1864. The vessel had done much damage to the Federal naval forces, and +her destruction was greatly desired. She was at anchor surrounded by +baulks of timber, and a cordon of boats had been stationed to row guard +against an expected Federal attack. Lieutenant Cushing undertook the +attack on her with a steam launch carrying a spar-torpedo and towing an +armed cutter. He eluded the Confederate lookout and reached the +"Albemarle" unseen. When close to he was detected, but he had time to +drive the steam launch over the baulks and to explode the torpedo +against the "Albemarle" with such success that a hole was made in her +and she sank. Cushing's own launch was destroyed. He and the few men +with him were compelled to take to the water; one was killed, another +was drowned, Cushing and one other escaped, and the rest were captured. +Cushing himself swam to the swamps on the river bank, and after wading +among them for hours reached a Federal picket boat. For destroying the +"Albemarle" he was thanked by Congress and was promoted to be +lieutenant-commander. On the 15th of January 1865 he took a conspicuous +part in the land attack on the sea-front wall of Fort Fisher. After the +war he commanded the "Lancaster" (1866-1867) and the "Maumee" +(1868-1869) in the Asiatic Squadron. In 1872 he was promoted commander +at what was an exceptionally early age, but he died on the 17th of +December 1874 of brain fever. He had suffered extreme pain for years +before his death, and in fact broke down altogether under disease +contracted in the discharge of his duty. + + + + +CUSHION (from O. Fr. _coisson_, _coussin_; according to the _New English +Dict._, from Lat. _coxa_, a hip; others say from Lat. _culcita_, a +quilt), a soft bag of some ornamental material, stuffed with wool, hair, +feathers, or even paper torn into fragments. It may be used for sitting +or kneeling upon, or to soften the hardness or angularity of a chair or +couch. It is a very ancient article of furniture, the inventories of the +contents of palaces and great houses in the early middle ages constantly +making mention of it. It was then often of great size, covered with +leather, and firm enough to serve as a seat, but the steady tendency of +all furniture has been to grow smaller. It was, indeed, used as a seat, +at all events in France and Spain, at a very much later period, and in +Saint-Simon's time we find that at the Spanish court it was still +regarded as a peculiarly honourable substitute for a chair. In France +the right to kneel upon a cushion in church behind the king was +jealously guarded and strictly regulated, as we may learn again from +Saint-Simon. This type of cushion was called a _carreau_ or square. +When seats were rude and hard the cushion may have been a necessity; it +is now one of the minor luxuries of life. + +The term "cushion" is given in architecture to the sides of the Ionic +capital. It is also applied to an early and simple form of the +Romanesque capitals of Germany and England, which consist of cubical +masses, square at the top and rounded off at the four corners, so as to +reduce the lower diameter to a circle of the same size as the shaft. + + + + +CUSHMAN, CHARLOTTE SAUNDERS (1816-1876), American actress, was born in +Boston, Massachusetts, on the 23rd of July 1816. Her father, a West +India merchant, left his family in straitened circumstances, and +Charlotte, who had a fine contralto voice, went on the operatic stage. +In 1835 she successfully appeared at the Tremont theatre as the countess +Almaviva in _The Marriage of Figaro_. But her singing voice failing her +she entered the drama, and played Lady Macbeth in the same year. She +then engaged herself as a stock actress, but was soon given leading +parts. In 1842 she managed and played in the Walnut Street theatre in +Philadelphia. She accompanied Macready on an American tour, winning a +great reputation in tragedy, and in 1845 and in 1854-1855 she fulfilled +successful engagements in London. She was a keen student, and acquired a +large range of classic roles. Her best parts were perhaps Lady Macbeth +and Queen Katherine, her most popular Meg Merrilies, in a dramatization +of Scott's _Guy Mannering_. Her figure was commanding and her face +expressive, and she was animated by a temperament full of vigour and +fire. These qualities enabled her to play with success such male parts +as Romeo and Cardinal Wolsey. During her later years Miss Cushman worked +hard as a dramatic reader, in which capacity she was much appreciated. +Her last appearance on the stage took place on the 15th of May 1875, at +the Globe theatre, Boston, in which city she died on the 18th of +February 1876. + + See Emma Stebbins's _Charlotte Cushman, her Letters and Memories of + her Life_ (Boston, 1878); H. A. Clapp's _Reminiscences of a Dramatic + Critic_ (Boston, 1902); and W. T. Price, _A Life of Charlotte Cushman_ + (New York, 1894). + + + + +CUSP (Lat. _cuspis_, a spear, point), a projecting point, or pointed +end. In architecture (Fr. _feuille_, Ital. _cuspide_, Ger. _Knopfe_), a +cusp is the point where the foliations of tracery intersect. The +earliest example of a plain cusp is probably that at Pythagoras school, +at Cambridge,--of an ornamented cusp at Ely cathedral, where a small +roll, with a rosette at the end, is formed at the termination of a cusp. +In the later styles the terminations of the cusps were more richly +decorated; they also sometimes terminate not only in leaves or foliages, +but in rosettes, heads and other fanciful ornaments. The term +"feathering" is used of the junction of the foliated cusps in window +tracery, but is usually restricted to those cases where it is ornamented +with foliage, &c. + + + + +CUSTARD[1] APPLE, a name applied to the fruit of various species of the +genus _Anona_, natural order _Anonaceae_. The members of this genus are +shrubs or small trees having alternate, exstipulate leaves, and flowers +with three small sepals, six petals arranged in a double row and +numerous stamens. The fruit of _A. reticulata_, the common custard +apple, or "bullock's heart" of the West Indies, is dark brown in colour, +and marked with depressions, which give it a quilted appearance; its +pulp is reddish-yellow, sweetish and very soft (whence the name); the +kernels of the seeds are said to be poisonous. The sour-sop is the fruit +of _A. muricata_, native of the West Indies. The plant, which is a small +tree, has become naturalized in some parts of India where it is +extensively cultivated, as elsewhere in the tropics. It is covered with +soft prickles, is of a light-greenish hue, and has a peculiar but +agreeable sour taste, and a scent resembling that of black currants. The +sweet-sop is produced by _A. squamosa_, also a native of the West Indies +and widely cultivated in the tropics. It is known as the custard apple +by Europeans in India. It is an egg-shaped fruit, with a thick rind and +luscious pulp. An acrid principle, fatal to insects, is contained in its +seeds, leaves and unripe fruits, which, powdered and mixed with the +flour of gram (_Cicer arietinum_), are used to destroy vermin. _A. +Cherimolia_ yield the Peruvian cherimoyer, which is held to be a fruit +of very superior flavour, and is much esteemed by the creoles. _A. +palustris_, alligator apple, or cork-wood, a native of South America and +the West Indies, is valued for its wood, which serves the same purposes +as cork; the fruit, commonly known as the alligator-apple, is not eaten, +being reputed to contain a dangerous narcotic principle. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The term "custard," now given to a dish made with eggs beaten up + with milk, &c., and either served in liquid form or baked to a stiff + consistency, originally denoted a kind of open pie. It represents the + older form "crustade," Fr. _croustade_, Ital. _crostata_, from + _crostare_, to encrust. + + + + +CUSTER, GEORGE ARMSTRONG (1839-1876), American cavalry soldier, was born +in New Rumley, Harrison county, Ohio, on the 5th of December 1839. He +graduated from West Point in 1861, and was at once sent to the theatre +of war in Virginia, joining his regiment on the battlefield of Bull Run. +Afterwards he served on the staff of General Kearny, and on that of +General W. F. Smith in the Peninsular Campaign. His daring and energy, +and in particular a spirited reconnaissance on the Chickahominy river, +brought him to the notice of General McClellan, who made him an +aide-de-camp on his own staff, with the rank of captain. A few hours +afterwards Custer attacked a Confederate picket post and drove back the +enemy. He continued to serve with McClellan until the general was +relieved of his command, when Custer returned to duty with his regiment +as a lieutenant. Early in 1863 General Pleasonton selected him as his +aide-de-camp, and in June 1863 Custer was promoted to the rank of +brigadier-general of volunteers. He distinguished himself at the head of +the Michigan cavalry brigade in the battle of Gettysburg, and frequently +did good service in the remaining operations of the campaign of 1863. +When the cavalry corps of the Army of the Potomac was reorganized under +Sheridan in 1864, Custer retained his command, and took part in the +various actions of the cavalry in the Wilderness and Shenandoah +campaigns. At the end of September 1864, he was appointed to command a +division, and on the 9th of October fought, along with General Merritt, +the brilliant cavalry action called the battle of Woodstock. Soon +afterwards he was made brevet-major-general, U.S.V., having already won +the brevets of major, lieutenant-colonel and colonel U.S.A., for his +services at Gettysburg, Yellow Tavern and Winchester. His part in the +decisive battle of Cedar Creek (q.v.) was most conspicuous. He served +with Sheridan in the last great cavalry raid, won the action of +Waynesboro, and in the final campaign added to his laurels by his +conduct at Dinwiddie and Five Forks, and in other operations. At the +close of the war he received the brevets of brigadier and major-general +in the regular army, and was promoted major-general of volunteers. In +1866 Custer was made lieutenant-colonel of the 7th U.S. Cavalry, and +took part under General Hancock in the expedition against the Cheyenne +Indians, upon whom he inflicted a crushing defeat at Washita river on +the 27th of November 1868. In 1873 he was sent to Dakota Territory to +serve against the Sioux. + +In 1876 an expedition, of which Custer and his regiment formed part, was +made against the Sioux and their allies. As the advanced guard of the +troops under General Terry, Custer's force arrived at the junction of +Big Horn and Little Big Horn rivers, in what is now the state of +Montana, on the night of June 24; the main body was due to join him on +the 26th. Unfortunately, the presence of what was judged to be a small +isolated force of Indians was reported to the general. On the 25th, +dividing his regiment into three parties, he moved forward to surround +this force. But instead of meeting only a small force of Indians, the +7th were promptly attacked by the full forces of the enemy. The flanking +columns maintained themselves with difficulty until Terry came up. +Custer and 264 men of the centre column rode into the midst of the enemy +and were slaughtered to a man. + +The general's wife, ELIZABETH BACON CUSTER, who accompanied him in many +of his frontier expeditions, wrote _Boots and Saddles, Life with General +Custer in Dakota_ (1885), _Tenting on the Plains_ (1887) and _Following +the Guidon_ (1891). General Custer himself wrote _My Life on the Plains_ +(1874). + + See F. Whittaker, _Life of General George A. Custer_ (1876). + +His brother THOMAS WARD CUSTER (1845-1876), in spite of his youth, +fought in the early campaigns of the Civil War. Becoming aide-de-camp to +General Custer, he accompanied him throughout the latter part of the +war, distinguishing himself by his daring on all occasions, and winning +successively the brevets of captain, major and lieutenant-colonel, +though he was barely twenty years of age when the war ended. He was +first lieutenant in the 7th cavalry when he fell with his brother at the +Little Big Horn. + + + + +CUSTINE, ADAM PHILIPPE, COMTE DE (1740-1793), French general, began his +military career in the Seven Years' War. He next served with distinction +against the English in the War of American Independence. In 1789 he was +elected to the states-general by the _bailliage_ of Metz. In October +1791 he again joined the army, with the rank of lieutenant-general and +became popular with the soldiers, amongst whom he was known as "_general +moustache_." General-in-chief of the army of the Vosges, he took Spires, +Worms, Mainz and Frankfort in September and October 1792. He carried on +the revolutionary propaganda by proclamations, and levied heavy taxes on +the nobility and clergy. During the winter a Prussian army forced him to +evacuate Frankfort, re-cross the Rhine and fall back upon Landau. He was +accused of treason, defended by Robespierre, and sent back to the army +of the north. But he dared not take the offensive, and did nothing to +save Conde, which the Austrians were besieging. Sent to Paris to justify +himself, he was found guilty by the Revolutionary Tribunal of having +intrigued with the enemies of the republic, and guillotined on the 28th +of August 1793. (See FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS.) + + See A. Rambaud, _Les Francais sur le Rhin_ (Paris, 1880); A. Chuquet, + _Les Guerres de la Revolution_ (1886-1895; vol. vi. "L'Expedition de + Custine"). + + + + +CUSTOM (from O. Fr. _custume_, _costume_ or _coustume_; Low Lat. +_costuma_, a shortened form of _consuetudo_), in general, a habit or +practice. Thus a tradesman calls those who deal with him his +"customers," and the trade resulting as their "custom." The word is also +used for a toll or tax levied upon goods; there was at one time a +distinction between the tax on goods exported or imported, termed _magna +custuma_ (the great custom), and that on goods taken to market within +the realm, termed _parva custuma_ (the little custom), but the word is +now used in this sense only in the plural, to signify the duties levied +upon imported goods. It is also used as a name for that department of +the public service which is employed in levying the duty. + +In law, such long-continued usage as has by common consent become a rule +of conduct is termed custom. Jessel, M. R. (_Hammerton_ v. _Honey_, 24 +W. R. 603), has defined it as "local common law. It is common law +because it is not statute law; it is local law because it is the law of +a particular place, as distinguished from the general common law. Local +common law is the law of the country (i.e. particular place) as it +existed before the time of legal memory." There has been much discussion +among jurists as to whether custom can properly be reckoned a source of +law (see JURISPRUDENCE). As to the distinction between prescription +(which is a personal claim) and custom, see PRESCRIPTION. The adoption +of local customs by the judiciary has undoubtedly been the origin of a +great portion of the English common law. Blackstone divides custom into +(1) general, which is the common law properly so called, and (2) +particular, which affects only the inhabitants of particular districts. +The requisites necessary to make a particular custom good are: (1) it +must have been used so long that the memory of man runneth not to the +contrary; (2) it must have been continued, and (3) enjoyed peaceably; +(4) it must be reasonable, and (5) certain; (6) it must be compulsory, +and not left to the option of every man whether he will use it or no; +(7) it must be consistent with other customs, for one custom cannot be +set up in opposition to another. Customs may be of various kinds, for +example, customs of merchants, customs of a certain district (such as +gavelkind and borough English), customs of a particular manor, &c. The +word custom is also generally employed for the _usage_ of a particular +trade or market; for a trade custom to be established to the +satisfaction of the law it must be a uniform and universal practice so +well defined and recognized that contracting parties must be assumed to +have had it in their minds when they contracted (Russell, C. J., +_Fox-Bourne_ v. _Vernon_, 10 _Times_ Rep. 649). + +In the history of France the term "custom" was given to those special +usages of different districts which had grown up into a body of local +law, as the "custom of Paris," the "custom of Normandy" (see FRANCE: +_Law and Institutions_). + + + + +CUSTOMARY FREEHOLD, in English law, a species of tenure which may be +described as a variety of copyhold. It is also termed privileged +copyhold or copyhold of frank tenure. It is a tenure by copy of court +roll, but not expressed to be at the will of the lord. It is, in fact, +only a superior kind of copyhold, and the freehold is in the lord. It is +subject to the general law of copyholds, except where the law may be +varied by the custom of the particular manor. (See COPYHOLD.) + + + + +CUSTOM-HOUSE, the house or office appointed by a government where the +taxes or duties (if any) are collected upon the importation and +exportation of commodities; where duties, bounties or drawbacks payable +or receivable upon exportation or importation are paid or received, and +where vessels are entered and cleared. In the United Kingdom there is +usually a custom-house established at every port or harbour to which any +considerable amount of shipping resorts, the officer in charge being +called "collector of customs"; in the minor ports the officer is usually +termed "superintendent of customs" or "principal coast officer." + + + + +CUSTOM DUTIES, the name given to taxes on the import and export of +commodities. They rank among the most ancient, as they continue to +prevail as one of the most common modes, in all countries, of levying +revenue for public purposes. In an insular country like the United +Kingdom customs duties came in process of time to be levied only or +chiefly in the seaports, and thus applied only to the foreign commerce, +where they may be brought under the control of fair and reasonable +principles of taxation. But this simplification of customs duties was +only reached by degrees; and during a long period special customs were +levied on goods passing between England and Scotland; and the trade of +Ireland with Great Britain and with foreign countries was subjected to +fiscal regulations which could not now stand in the light of public +reason. The taxes levied, on warrant of some ancient grant or privilege, +upon cattle or goods at a bridge or a ferry or other point of passage +from one county or province to another, of which there are some +lingering remains even in the United Kingdom, and those levied at the +gates of cities on the produce of the immediate country--a not uncommon +form of municipal taxation on the European continent--are all of the +nature of customs dues. It is from the universality of this practice +that the English term "customs" appears to have been derived. + + See TAXATION; PROTECTION; TARIFF. + + + + +CUSTOS ROTULORUM, the keeper of the English county records, and by +virtue of that office the highest civil officer in the county. The +appointment until 1545 lay with the lord chancellor, but is now +exercised by the crown under the royal sign-manual, and is usually held +by a person of rank, most frequently the lord-lieutenant of the county. +He is one of the justices of the peace. In practice the records are in +the custody of the clerk of the peace. This latter official was, until +1888, appointed by the _custos rotulorum_, but since the passing of the +Local Government Act of that year, the appointment is made by the +standing joint-committee of the county council. Lambarde described the +_custos rotulorum_ as a "man for the most part especially picked out +either for wisdom, countenance or credit." + + + + +CUSTOZZA, a village of Italy, in the province of Verona, 11 m. S.W. of +Verona, famous as the scene of two battles between the Austrians and the +Italians in the struggle for Italian unity. The first battle of Custozza +was fought on the 23rd-25th of July 1848, the Austrians commanded by +Field-Marshal Radetzky being victorious over the Piedmontese army under +King Charles Albert. The second battle was fought on the 24th of June +1866, and resulted in the complete victory of the Austrians under the +archduke Albert, over the Italian army of King Victor Emmanuel I. (See +ITALIAN WARS, 1848-1870.) + + + + +CUSTRIN, or KUSTRIN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, a +fortress of the first rank, at the confluence of the Oder and Warthe, 18 +m. N.E. from Frankfort-on-Oder and 51 m. N.E. of Berlin by rail. Pop. +(1900) 16,473 (including the garrison). It consists of the town proper +within the strong fortifications, a suburb on the left bank of the Oder, +and one on the right bank of the Warthe. There are three Evangelical +churches and one Roman Catholic, and a handsome town hall. There are +bridges over both rivers. Custrin has some manufactories of potato-meal, +machinery, pianos, furniture, cigars, &c., and there is a considerable +river trade. + +About 1250 a town was erected on the site of Custrin, where a fishing +village originally stood. From 1535 till 1571 it was the residence of +John, margrave of Brandenburg-Custrin, who died without male heirs in +1571. Custrin was the prison of Frederick the Great when crown-prince, +and the scene of the execution of his friend Hans Hermann von Katte on +the 6th of November 1730. + + + + +CUTCH, or KACH, a native state of India within the Gujarat division of +Bombay, with an area of 7616 sq. m. It is a peninsular tract of land, +enclosed towards the W. by the eastern branch of the Indus, on the S. by +the Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Cutch, and on the N. and E. towards the +interior, by the great northern Runn, a salt morass or lake. The +interior of Cutch is studded with hills of considerable elevation, and a +range of mountains runs through it from east to west, many of them of +the most fantastic shapes, with large isolated masses of rock scattered +in all directions. The general appearance of Cutch is barren and +uninteresting. The greater part is a rock destitute of soil, and +presenting the wildest aspect; the ground is cold, poor and sterile; and +the whole face of the country bears marks of volcanic action. From the +violence of tyranny, and the rapine of a disorderly banditti, by which +this district long suffered, as well as from shocks of earthquakes, the +villages have a ruinous and dilapidated appearance; and, with the +exception of a few fields in their neighbourhood, the country presents a +rocky and sandy waste, with in many places scarcely a show of +vegetation. Water is scarce and brackish, and is chiefly found at the +bottom of low ranges of hills, which abound in some parts; and the +inhabitants of the extensive sandy tracts suffer greatly from the want +of it. Owing to the uncertainty of the periodical rains in Cutch, the +country is liable to severe famines, and it has suffered greatly from +plague. + +The temperature of Cutch during the hot season is high, the thermometer +frequently rising to 100 deg. or 105 deg. F.; and in the months of April +and May clouds of dust and sand, blown about by hurricanes, envelop the +houses, the glass windows scarcely affording any protection. The +influence of the monsoon is greatly moderated before it reaches this +region, and the rains sometimes fail altogether. Bhuj, the capital of +the state, is situated inland, and is surrounded by an amphitheatre of +hills, some of which approach within 3 or 4 m. of the city. The hill of +Bhuja, on which the fort is situated, rises to the height of 500 ft. in +the middle of the plain, and is detached from other high ground. The +residency is 4 m. distant in a westerly direction. There are many +mountain streams, but no navigable rivers. They contain scarcely any +water except in the rainy season, when they are very full and rapid, and +discharge themselves into the Runn, all along the coast of which the +wells and springs are more or less impregnated with common salt and +other saline ingredients. + +Various causes have contributed to thin the population of this country. +In 1813 it was ravaged by a famine and pestilence, which destroyed a +great proportion of its inhabitants,--according to some accounts, nearly +one-half. This, joined to the tyranny and violence of the government +until the year 1819, and subsequently to a succession of unfavourable +seasons, forced many of the cultivators to remove to Sind and other +countries. The inhabitants numbered 488,022 in 1901, being a decrease of +13% during the decade, due to the famines of 1899-1900. One-third are +Mahommedans and the remainder Hindus of various castes. The Jareja +Rajputs form a particular class, being the aristocracy of the country; +and all are more or less connected with the family of the rao or prince. +There are in Cutch about 200 of these Jareja chiefs, who all claim their +descent from a prince who reigned in Sind about 1000 years ago. From him +also the reigning sovereign is lineally descended, and he is the liege +lord of whom all the chiefs or nobles hold their lands in feu, for +services which they or their ancestors had performed, or in virtue of +their relationship to the family. They are all termed the brotherhood of +the rao or Bhayad, and supposed to be his hereditary advisers, and their +possessions are divided among their male children. To prevent the +breaking down of their properties, the necessary consequence of this law +of inheritance, there is no doubt that infanticide was common among +them, and that it extended to the male as well as the female progeny, +but it has been put down by the Infanticide Rules, which provide for the +registration of Jareja children. The Jarejas have a tradition that when +they entered Cutch they were Mahommedans, but that they afterward +adopted the customs and religion of the Hindus. It is certain, indeed, +that they still retain many Mahommedan customs. They take oaths equally +on the Koran or on the Shastras; they employ Mussulman books; they eat +from their hands; the rao, when he appears in public, alternately +worships God in a Hindu pagoda and a Mahommedan mosque; and he fits out +annually at Mandvi a ship for the conveyance of pilgrims to Mecca, who +are maintained during the voyage chiefly by the liberality of the +prince. The Mahommedans in Cutch are of the same degenerate class as +those usually found in the western parts of India. The natives are in +general of a stronger and stouter make, and even handsomer, than those +of western India; and the women of the higher classes are also handsome. +The peasants are described as intelligent, and the artizans are justly +celebrated for their ingenuity and mechanical skill. The palace at +Mandvi, and a tomb of one of their princes at Bhuj, are fair specimens +of their architectural skill. The estimated gross revenue is L126,322. +There are special manufactures of silver filigree-work and embroidery. +The maritime population supplies the best sailors in India. There are +cotton presses and ginning factories. + +The country of Cutch was invaded about the 13th century by a body of +Mahommedans of the Summa tribe, who under the guidance of five brothers +emigrated from Sind, and who gradually subdued or expelled the original +inhabitants, consisting of three distinct races. Cutch continued +tranquil under their sway for many years, until some family quarrel +arose, in which the chief of an elder branch of the tribe was murdered +by a rival brother. His son Khengayi fled to Ahmedabad to seek the +assistance of the viceroy, who reinstated him in the sovereignty of +Cutch, and Morvi in Kathiawar, and in the title of rao, about the year +1540. The succession continued in the same line from the time of this +prince until 1697, when a younger brother, Pragji, murdered his elder +brother and usurped the sovereignty. This line of princes continued till +1760 without any remarkable event, when, in the reign of Rao Ghodji, the +country was invaded four times by the Sinds, who wasted it with fire and +sword. The reign of this prince, as well as that of his son Rao Rayadan, +by whom he was succeeded in 1778, was marked by cruelty and blood. The +latter prince was dethroned, and, being in a state of mental +derangement, was during his lifetime confined by Fateh Mahommed, a +native of Sind, who continued, with a short interval (in which the party +of the legal heir, Bhaiji Bawa, gained the ascendancy), to rule the +country until his death in 1813. It was in the reign of Fateh Mahommed +that a communication first took place with the British government. +During the contests for the sovereignty between the usurper and the +legal heir, the leader of the royal party, Hansraj, the governor of +Mandvi, sought the aid of the British. But no closer connexion followed +at that time than an agreement for the suppression of piracy, or of +inroads of troops to the eastward of the Runn or Gulf of Cutch. But the +gulf continued notwithstanding to swarm with pirates, who were openly +encouraged or connived at by the son of Hansraj, who had succeeded his +father, as well as by Fateh Mahommed. The latter left several sons by +different wives, who were competitors for the vacant throne. Husain +Miyan succeeded to a considerable portion of his father's property and +power. Jugjevan, a Brahman, the late minister of Fateh Mahommed, also +received a considerable share of influence; and the hatred of these two +factions was embittered by religious animosities, the one being Hindu +and the other Mahommedan. The deceased rao had declared himself a +Mahommedan, and his adherents were preparing to inter his body in a +magnificent tomb, when the Jarejas and other Hindus seized the corpse +and consigned it to the flames, according to Hindu custom. + +The administration of affairs was nominally in the hands of Husain Miyan +and his brother Ibrahim Miyan. Many sanguinary broils now ensued, in the +course of which Jugjevan was murdered, and the executive authority was +much weakened by the usurpations of the Arabs and other chiefs. In the +meantime Ibrahim Miyan was assassinated; and after various other scenes +of anarchy, the rao Bharmulji, son of Rao Rayadan, by general consent, +assumed the chief power. But his reign was one continued series of the +grossest enormities; his hostility to the British became evident, and +accordingly a force of 10,500 men crossed the Runn in November 1815, and +were within five miles of Bhuj, the capital of the country, when a +treaty was concluded, by which the rao Bharmulji was confirmed in his +title to the throne, on agreeing, among other stipulations, to cede +Anjar and its dependencies in perpetuity to the British. He was, +however, so far from fulfilling the terms of this treaty that it was +determined to depose him; and an army being sent against him, he +surrendered to the British, who made a provision for his maintenance, +and elevated his infant son Desalji II. to the throne (1819). + +In 1822 the relations subsisting between the ruler of Cutch and the +British were modified by a new treaty, under which the territorial +cessions made by the rao in 1816 were restored in consideration of an +annual payment. The sum fixed was subsequently thought too large, and in +1832 the arrears, amounting to a considerable sum, were remitted, and +all future payments on this account relinquished. From that time the rao +has paid a subsidy of L13,000 per annum to the British for the +maintenance of the military force stationed within his dominions. + +Rao Desalji II. did much to suppress infanticide, suttee and the slave +trade in his state. His successor Maharao Pragmalji in recognition of +his excellent administration was in 1871 honoured with the title of +knight grand commander of the Star of India. During his rule harbour +works were built at Mandvi, an immense reservoir for rain water in the +Chadwa hills was constructed, and many schools and colleges were +endowed. In 1876 he was succeeded by Maharaja Rao Khengarji III., who +was also a keen advocate for education and especially the education of +women. He founded museums, libraries and schools, and inaugurated +scholarships and a fund from which deserving scholars desirous of +studying in England and America could obtain their expenses. + + + + +CUTCH, GULF OF, an inlet of the sea on the coast of western India. It +lies between the peninsula of Kathiawar and that of Cutch, leading into +the Runn of Cutch. + + + + +CUTCH, RUNN OF, or RANN OF KACH, a salt morass on the western coast of +India in the native state of Cutch. From May to October it is flooded +with salt water and communicates, at its greatest extent, with the Gulf +of Cutch on the west and the Gulf of Cambay on the east, these two gulfs +being united during the monsoon. It varies in breadth from five to +eighty miles across, and during the rains is nearly impassable for +horsemen. The total area of this immense morass is estimated at about +8000 sq. m., without including any portion of the Gulf of Cutch, which +is in parts so shallow as to resemble a marshy fen rather than an arm of +the sea. The Runn is said to be formed by the overflow of the rivers +Pharan, Luni, Banas and others, during the monsoon; but in December it +is quite dry, and in most places hard, but in some moist and muddy. The +soil is impregnated with salt, and the Runn is an important source for +the supply of salt. The present condition of the Runn is probably the +result of some natural convulsion, but the exact method of its formation +is disputed. The wild ass is very common on the borders of this lake, +being seen in herds of 60 or 70 together. + + + + +CUTHBERT, SAINT (d. 687), bishop of Lindisfarne, was probably a +Northumbrian by birth. According to the extant _Lives_ he was led to +take the monastic vows by a vision at the death of bishop Aidan, and the +date of his entry at Melrose would be 651. At this time Eata was abbot +there, and Boisel, who is mentioned as his instructor, prior, in which +office Cuthbert succeeded him about 661, having previously spent some +time at the monastery of Ripon with Eata. Bede gives a glowing picture +of his missionary zeal at Melrose, but in 664 he was transferred to act +as prior at Lindisfarne. In 676 he became an anchorite on the island of +Farne, and it is said that he performed miracles there. In 684 at the +council of Twyford in Northumberland, Ecgfrith, king of Northumbria, +prevailed upon him to give up his solitary life and become a bishop. He +was consecrated at York in the following year as bishop of Hexham, but +afterwards he exchanged his see with Eata for that of Lindisfarne. In +687 he retired to Farne, and died on the island on the 20th of March +687, the same day as his friend Hereberht, the anchorite of +Derwentwater. He was buried in the island of Lindisfarne, but his +remains were afterwards deposited at Chester-le-Street, and then at +Durham. + +Another Cuthbert was bishop of Hereford from 736 to about 740, and +archbishop of Canterbury from the latter date until his death in October +758. + + There are several lives of St Cuthbert, the best of which is the prose + life by Bede, which is published in Bede's _Opera_, edited by J. + Stevenson (1841). See also C. Eyre, _The History of St Cuthbert_ + (1887); and J. Raine, _St Cuthbert_ (1828). + + + + +CUTLASS, the naval side-arm, a short cutting sword with a slightly +curved blade, and a solid basket-shaped guard (see SWORD). The word is +derived from the Fr. _coutelas_, or _coutelace_, a form of _coutel_, +modern _couteau_, a knife, from Lat. _cultellus_, diminutive of +_culter_, a ploughshare, or cutting instrument. Two variations appear in +English: "curtelace," where the _r_ represents probably the _l_ of the +original Latin word, or is a further variant of the second variation; +and "curtelaxe," often spelled as two words, "curtal axe," where the +prefix _curtal_ is confused with various English words such as "curtan," +"curtal" and "curtail," which all mean "shortened," and are derived from +the Lat. _curtus_; the word thus wrongly derived has been supposed to +refer to some non-existent form of battle-axe. In every case the weapon +to which these various forms apply is a broad cutting or slashing sword. + + + + +CUTLER, MANASSEH (1742-1823), American clergyman, was born in Killingly, +Connecticut, on the 13th of May 1742. He graduated at Yale College in +1765, and after being a school teacher and a merchant, and occasionally +appearing in the courts as a lawyer, he decided to enter the ministry, +and from 1771 until his death was pastor of the Congregational church at +what is now Hamilton, but until 1793 was a parish of Ipswich, +Massachusetts. During the War of Independence he was for several months +in 1776 chaplain to the regiment of Colonel Ebenezer Francis, raised for +the defence of Boston; and in 1778, as chaplain to the brigade of +General Jonathan Titcomb (1728-1817), he took part in General John +Sullivan's expedition to Rhode Island. Soon after his return from this +expedition he fitted himself for the practice of medicine, in order to +supplement the scanty income of a minister, and in 1782 he established a +private boarding school, which he conducted for about a quarter of a +century. In 1786 he became interested in the settlement of western +lands, and in the following year, as agent of the Ohio Company (q.v.), +which he had taken a prominent part in organizing, he made a contract +with Congress, whereby his associates, former soldiers in the War of +Independence, might purchase, with the certificates of indebtedness +issued to them by the government for their services, 1,500,000 acres of +land in the region north of the Ohio at the mouth of the Muskingum +river. He also took a leading part in drafting the famous Ordinance of +1787 for the government of the Northwest Territory, the instrument as it +was finally presented to Congress by Nathan Dane (1752-1835), a +Massachusetts delegate, probably being largely Cutler's work. From 1801 +to 1805 he was a Federalist representative in Congress. He died at +Hamilton, Massachusetts, on the 28th of July 1823. A versatile man, +Cutler was one of the early members of the American Academy of Arts and +Sciences, and besides being proficient in the theology, law and medicine +of his day, conducted painstaking astronomical and meteorological +investigations, and was one of the first Americans to make researches of +a real scientific value in botany. In 1789 the degree of doctor of laws +was conferred upon him by Yale. + + See William P. and Julia P. Cutler, _The Life, Journals, and + Correspondence of Manasseh Cutler_ (2 vols., Cincinnati, 1888); and an + article, "The Ordinance of 1787 and Dr Manasseh Cutler," by W. F. + Poole, in vol. 122 of the _North American Review_. + + + + +CUTLERY (Fr. _coutellerie_, from the Lat. _cultellus_, a little knife), +a branch of industry which originally embraced the manufacture of all +cutting instruments of whatever form or material. The progress of +manufacturing industry has, however, detached from it the fabrication of +several kinds of edge-tools, saws and similar implements, the +manufacture of which is now regarded as forming distinct branches of +trade. On the other hand modern cutlery includes a great number of +articles which are not strictly cutting instruments, but which, owing to +their more or less intimate relation to table or pocket cutlery, are +classed with such articles for convenience' sake. A steel table or +carving fork, for example, is an important article of cutlery, although +it is not a cutting tool. + +The original cutting instruments used by the human race consisted of +fragments of flint, obsidian, or similar stones, rudely flaked or +chipped to a cutting edge; and of these tools numerous remains yet +exist. Stone knives and other tools must have been employed for a long +period by the prehistoric races of mankind, as their later productions +show great perfection of form and finish. In the Bronze period, which +succeeded the Stone Age, the cutlery of our ancestors was fabricated of +that alloy. The use of iron was introduced at a later but still remote +period; and it now, in the form of steel, is the staple article from +which cutlery is manufactured. + +From the earliest period in English history the manufacture of cutlery +has been peculiarly associated with the town of Sheffield, the +prominence of which in this manufacture in his own age is attested by +Chaucer, who says of the miller of Trumpington-- + + "A Sheffeld thwitel baar he in his hose." + +That town still retains a practical monopoly of the ordinary cutlery +trade of Great Britain, and remains the chief centre of the industry for +the whole world. Its influence on methods of production has also been +widely extended; for instance, many Sheffield workmen emigrated to the +United States of America to take part in the manufacture of +pocket-knives when it was started in Connecticut towards the middle of +the 19th century. + +The thwitel or whittle of Chaucer's time was a very poor rude implement, +consisting of a blade of bar steel fastened into a wooden or horn +handle. It was used for cutting food as well as for the numerous +miscellaneous duties which now fall to the pocket-knife. To the whittle +succeeded the Jack knife,--the Jacques-de-Liege, or Jock-te-leg of the +Scottish James VI.,--which formed the prototype of the modern +clasp-knife, inasmuch as the blade closed into a groove in the handle. +About the beginning of the 17th century, the pocket-knife with spring +back was introduced, and no marked improvement thereafter took place +till the early part of the 19th century. In 1624, two centuries after +the incorporation of the Cutlers' Company of London, the cutlers of +Hallamshire--the name of the district of which Sheffield is the +centre--were formed into a body corporate for the protection of the +"industry, labour, and reputation" of the trade, which was being +disgraced by the "deceitful and unworkmanlike wares of various persons." +The act of incorporation specifies the manufacture of "knives, scissors, +shears, sickles and other cutlery," and provides that all persons +engaged in the business shall "make the edge of all steel implements +manufactured by them of steel, and steel only, and shall strike on their +wares such mark, and such only, as should be assigned to them by the +officers of the said company." Notwithstanding these regulations, and +the pains and penalties attached to their infringement, the corporation +was not very successful in maintaining the high character of Sheffield +wares. Most manufacturers made cutlery to the order of their customers, +on which the name of the retailer was stamped, and very inferior +malleable or cast iron blades went forth to the public with "London +made," "best steel," and other falsehoods stamped on them to order. The +corporate mark and name of a few firms, among which Joseph Rodgers & +Sons stand foremost, are a guarantee of the very highest excellence of +material and finish; and such firms decline to stamp any name or mark +other than their own on their manufactures. In foreign markets, however, +the reputation of such firms is much injured by impudent forgeries; and +so far was this system of fraud carried that inferior foreign work was +forwarded to London to be transhipped and sent abroad ostensibly as +English cutlery. To protect the trade against frauds of this class the +Trades Mark Act of 1862 was passed chiefly at the instigation of the +Sheffield chamber of commerce. + +The variety of materials which go to complete any single article of +cutlery is very considerable; and as the stock list of a cutler embraces +a vast number of articles different in form, properties and uses, the +cutlery manufacturer must have a practical knowledge of a wide range of +substances. The leading articles of the trade include carving and table +knives and forks, pocket or clasp knives, razors, scissors, daggers, +hunting knives and similar articles, surgical knives and lancets, +butchers' and shoemakers' knives, gardeners' pruning-knives, &c. The +blades or cutting portions of a certain number of these articles are +made of shear steel, and for others crucible cast steel is employed. +Sometimes the cutting edge alone is of steel, backed or strengthened +with iron, to which it is welded. The tang, or part of the blade by +which it is fastened to the handles, and other non-cutting portions, are +also very often of iron. Brass, German silver, silver, horn, +tortoise-shell, ivory, bone, mother-of-pearl, and numerous fancy woods +are all brought into requisition for handles and other parts of cutlery, +each demanding special treatment according to its nature. The essential +processes in making a piece of steel cutlery are (1) forging, (2) +hardening and tempering, (3) grinding, (4) polishing, and (5) putting +together the various pieces and finishing the knife, the workmen who +perform these last operations being the only ones known in the trade as +"cutlers." + +The following outline of the stages in the manufacture of a razor will +serve to indicate the sequence of operations in making an article which, +though simple in form, demands the highest care and skill. The first +essential of a good razor is that it be made of the finest quality of +cast steel. The steel for razors is obtained in bars the thickness of +the back of the instrument. Taking such a bar, the forger heats one end +of it to the proper forging temperature, and then dexterously fashions +it upon his anvil, giving it roughly the required form, edge and +concavity. It is then separated from the remainder of the bar, leaving +only sufficient metal to form the tang, if that is to be made of steel. +The tang of the "mould," as the blade in this condition is termed, is +next drawn out, and the whole "smithed" or beaten on the anvil to +compact the metal and improve the form and edge of the razor. At this +stage the razor is said to be "forged in the rough," and so neatly can +some workmen finish off this operation that a shaving edge may be given +to the blade by simple whetting. The forged blade is next "shaped" by +grinding on the dry stone; this operation considerably reduces its +weight, and removes the oxidized scale, thereby allowing the hardening +and tempering to be done with certainty and proper effect. The shaped +razor is now returned to the forge, where the tang is file-cut and +pierced with the joint-hole, and into the blade is stamped either the +name and corporate mark of the maker, or any mark and name ordered by +the tradesman for whom the goods are being manufactured. The hardening +is accomplished by heating the blade to a cherry-red heat and suddenly +quenching it in cold water, which leaves the metal excessively hard and +brittle. To bring it to the proper temper for a razor, it is again +heated till the metallic surface assumes a straw colour, and after being +plunged into water, it is ready for the process of wet grinding. The wet +grinding is done on stones which vary in diameter from 1(1/2) to 12 in. +according to the concavity of surface desired ("hollow-ground," "half +hollow-ground," &c.). "Lapping," which is the first stage in polishing, +is performed on a wheel of the same diameter as the wet-grinding stone. +The lap is built up of segments of wood having the fibres towards the +periphery, and covered with a metallic alloy of tin and lead. The lap is +fed with a mixture of emery powder and oil. "Glazing" and "polishing," +which follow, are for perfecting the polish on the surface of the razor, +leather-covered wheels with fine emery being used; and the work is +finished off with crocus. The finished blade is then riveted into the +scales or handle, which may be of ivory, bone, horn or other material; +and when thereafter the razor is set on a hone it is ready for use. + +The processes employed in making a table-knife do not differ essentially +from those required for a razor. Table-knife blades are forged from +shear and other steels, and, if they are not in one piece, a bit of +malleable iron sufficient for the bolster or shoulder and tang is welded +to each, often by machinery, especially in the case of the cheaper +qualities. The bolster is formed with the aid of a die and swage called +"prints," and the tang is drawn out. The tang is variously formed, +according to the method by which it is to be secured in the haft, and +the various processes of tempering, wet grinding and polishing are +pursued as described above. Steel forks of an inferior quality are cast +and subsequently cleaned and polished; but the best quality are forged +from bar steel, and the prongs are cut or stamped out of an extended +flattened extremity called the mould or "mood." In the United States of +America machinery has been extensively adopted for performing the +various mechanical operations in forging and fitting table cutlery, and +in Sheffield it is employed to a great extent in the manufacture of +table and pocket knife blades, scissors and razors. The cutler of the +18th century was an artisan who forged and ground the blades and fitted +them in the hafts ready for sale; to-day the division of labour is +carried to an extreme degree. In the making of a common pocket-knife +with three blades not fewer than one hundred separate operations are +involved, and these may be performed by as many workmen composed of five +distinct classes--the scale and spring makers (the scale being the metal +lining which is covered by the handle proper), the blade forgers, the +grinders, the cutters of the coverings of ivory, horn, &c., that form +the handles, and the hafters or cutlers proper. Grinders are divided +into three classes--dry, wet and mixed grinders, according as they work +at dry or wet stones. This branch of trade is, in Sheffield, conducted +in distinct establishments called "wheels," which are divided up into +separate apartments or "hulls," the dry grinding being as much as +possible separated from the wet grinding. Dry grinding, such as is +practised in the shaping of razors described above, the "humping" or +rounding of scissors, and other operations, used to be a process +especially dangerous to health, lung diseases being induced by the fine +dust of silica and steel with which the atmosphere was loaded; but a +great improvement has been effected by resorting to wet grinding as much +as possible, by arranging fans to remove the dust by suction, and by +general attention to sanitary conditions. + + + + +CUTTACK, a city and district of British India in the Orissa division of +Bengal. The city is situated at the head of the delta of the Mahanadi. +Pop. (1901) 51,364. It is the centre of the Orissa canal system, and an +important station on the East Coast railway from Madras to Calcutta. It +contains the government college, named after Mr Ravenshaw, a former +commissioner; a high school, a training school, a survey school, a +medical school and a law school. The city formed one of the five royal +strongholds of ancient Orissa and was founded by a warlike Hindu prince, +Makar Kesari, who reigned from 953 to 961. Native kings protected it +from the rivers by a masonry embankment several miles long, built of +enormous blocks of hewn stone, and in some places 25 ft. high. A +fortress defended the north-west corner of the town, and was captured by +the English from the Mahrattas in October 1803. It is now abandoned as a +place of defence. + +The DISTRICT OF CUTTACK lies in the centre of Orissa, occupying the +deltas of the Mahanadi and Brahmani, together with a hilly tract inland. +Its area is 3654 sq. m. It consists of three physical divisions: first, +a marshy woodland strip along the coast, from 3 to 30 m. in breadth; +second, an intermediate stretch of rice plains; third, a broken hilly +region, which forms the western boundary of the district. The marshy +strip along the coast is covered with swamps and malaria-breeding +jungles. Towards the sea the solid land gives place to a vast network of +streams and creeks, whose sluggish waters are constantly depositing +silt, and forming morasses or quicksands. Cultivation does not begin +till the limits of this dismal region are passed. The intermediate rice +plains stretch inland for about 40 m. and occupy the older part of the +delta between the sea-coast strip and the hilly frontier. They are +intersected by three large rivers, the Baitarani, Brahmani and Mahanadi. +These issue in magnificent streams through three gorges in the frontier +hills. The Cuttack delta is divided into two great valleys, one of them +lying between the Baitarani and the Brahmani, the other between the +Brahmani and the Mahanadi. The rivers having, by the silt of ages, +gradually raised their beds, now run along high levels. During floods +they pour over their banks upon the surrounding valleys, by a thousand +channels which interlace and establish communication between the main +streams. After numerous bifurcations they find their way into the sea by +three principal mouths. Silt-banks and surf-washed bars render the +entrance to these rivers perilous. The best harbour in Cuttack district +is at False Point, on the north of the Mahanadi estuary. It consists of +an anchorage, land-locked by islands or sand-banks, and with two fair +channels navigable towards the land. The famine commissioners in 1867 +reported it to be the best harbour on the coast of India from the Hugli +to Bombay. + +The intermediate tract is a region of rich cultivation, dotted with +great banyan trees, thickets of bamboos, exquisite palm foliage and +mango groves. The hilly frontier separates the delta of British Orissa +from the semi-independent tributary states. It consists of a series of +ranges, 10 to 15 m. in length, running nearly due east and west, with +densely-wooded slopes and lovely valleys between. The timber, however, +is small, and is of little value except as fuel. The political character +of these three tracts is as distinct as are their natural features. The +first and third are still occupied by feudal chiefs, and have never been +subjected to a regular land-settlement, by either the Mussulman or the +British government. They pay a light fixed tribute. The intermediate +rice plains, known as the Mogholbandi, from their having been regularly +settled by the Mahommedans, have yielded to the successive dynasties and +conquerors of Orissa almost the whole of the revenues derived from the +province. The deltaic portions are of course a dead level; and the +highest hills within the district in the western or frontier tract do +not exceed 2500 ft. They are steep, and covered with jungle, but can be +climbed by men. The most interesting of them are the Assa range, with +its sandal trees and Buddhist remains; Udayagiri (Sunrise-hill), with +its colossal image of Buddha, sacred reservoir, and ruins; and Assagiri, +with its mosque of 1719. The Mahavinayaka peak, visible from Cuttack, +has been consecrated for ages to Siva-worship by ascetics and pilgrims. + +The population of the district in 1901 was 2,062,758, showing an +increase of 6% in the preceding decade. The aboriginal tribes here, as +elsewhere, cling to their mountains and jungles. They chiefly consist of +the Bhumij, Tala, Kol and Savara peoples, the Savaras being by far the +most numerous, numbering 14,775. They are regarded by the orthodox +Hindus as little better than the beasts of the wildernesses which they +inhabit. Miserably poor, they subsist for the most part by selling +firewood or other products of their jungle; but a few of them have +patches of cultivated land, and many earn wages as day labourers to the +Hindus. They occupy, in fact, an intermediate stage of degradation +between the comparatively well-to-do tribes in the tributary states +(the stronghold and home of the race), and the Pans, Bauris, Kandras and +other semi-aboriginal peoples on the lowlands, who rank as the basest +castes of the Hindu community. The great bulk of the Indo-Aryan or Hindu +population consists of Uriyas, with a residue of immigrant Bengalis, +Lala Kayets from Behar and northern India, Telingas from the Madras +coast, Mahrattas from central and western India, a few Sikhs from the +Punjab and Marwaris from Rajputana. The Mahommedans are chiefly the +descendants of the Pathans who took refuge in Orissa after the +subversion of their kingdom in Bengal by the Moguls in the 16th century. + +Rice forms the staple product of the district; its three chief varieties +are _biali_ or early rice, _sarad_ or winter rice, and _dalua_ or spring +rice. The other cereal crops consist of _mandua_ (a grass-like plant +producing a coarse grain resembling rice), wheat, barley, and _china_, a +rice-like cereal. _Suan_, another rice-like cereal, not cultivated, +grows spontaneously in the paddy fields. Pulses of different sorts, +oilseeds, fibres, sugar-cane, tobacco, spices and vegetables also form +crops of the district. The cultivators consist of two classes--the +resident husbandmen (_thani_) and the non-resident or migratory +husbandmen (_pahe_). + +The Orissa canal system, which lies mainly within Cuttack district, is +used both for irrigation and transport purposes. The railway across the +district towards Calcutta, a branch of the Bengal-Nagpur system, was +opened in 1899. Considerable trade is carried on at the mouth of the +rivers along the coast. + + + + +CUTTLE-FISH. The more familiar and conspicuous types of the molluscan +class Cephalopoda (q.v.) are popularly known in English as cuttle-fish, +squid, octopus and nautilus. The first of these names (from the A.S. +_cudele_) is applied more particularly to the common _Sepia_ (fig. 1), +characterized by its internal calcareous shell, sometimes known as +cuttle-bone, and its ink-sac, the contents of which have been long in +use as a pigment (sepia). The term squid is employed among fishermen for +the ten-armed Cephalopods in which the shell is represented by an +uncalcified flexible structure somewhat resembling a pen. Hence in +Italian a squid is called _calamaio_, from _calamus_ a reed or pen, and +in English the similar term calamary is sometimes used. Like the +_Sepia_, squids also possess the ink-sac, whence they have sometimes +been called pen and ink fish, and in German both _Sepia_ and squid and +their allies are known as _Tinten-fische_. The squids have generally +softer and more watery tissues than the _Sepia_, but the former term is +not in general use, and the distinction not generally understood. The +term cuttle-fishes is sometimes extended to include all the Cephalopoda, +but as the peculiarities of the remarkable shell of the true nautilus, +and those of the shell-less Octopoda are widely known, we shall consider +the name here as applying only to those forms which have ten arms, an +ink-sac, an internal shell-rudiment, and only one pair of gills in the +mantle cavity. Technically these form the sub-order Decapoda, of the +order Dibranchia. + +The cuttle-fishes are characteristically swimming animals, in contrast +with the octopods, which creep about by means of their suckers among the +rocks, and lurk in holes. In _Sepia_ the integument is produced +laterally into two muscular fins, rather narrow and of uniform breadth +running the whole length of the body, but separated by a notch behind. +There are four pairs of short non-retractile arms surrounding the mouth, +and furnished with suckers on their oral surface, and between the third +and fourth of these arms on each side is a much longer tentacular arm, +which is usually kept entirely withdrawn into a pocket of the skin. The +mantle cavity is on the posterior side of the body, which is the lower +side in the swimming position, and the funnel is a tube open at both +ends and connected with the body within the mouth of the mantle cavity. +The mantle during life performs regular respiratory movements by which +water is drawn into the cavity, passing between mantle and funnel, and +is expelled through the funnel. In swimming the short arms are directed +forwards, the fins undulate, and the motion is slow and deliberate; but +if the animal is threatened or alarmed it swims suddenly and rapidly +backwards by expelling water forcibly from the mantle cavity through +the funnel, at the same time expelling a cloud of ink from its ink-sac. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Sepia officinalis_, L., about 1/2 natural size, +as seen when dead, the long prehensile arms being withdrawn from the +pouches at the side of the head, in which they are carried during life +when not actually in use. a, Neck; b, lateral fin of the mantle-sac; c, +the eight shorter arms of the fore-foot; d, the two long prehensile +arms; e, the eyes.] + +The _Sepia_ feeds principally on Crustacea, and in aquaria has been +observed to pursue and capture prawns. The method in which it secures +its prey has been carefully observed and described by the present +writer, who studied the living animal in the aquarium of the biological +laboratory at Plymouth. The prawns support themselves on their long +slender legs on convenient points of the rockwork, and the _Sepia_ +stalks them with great caution and determination, the rapid play of its +chromatophores giving evidence of its excitement. When it has arrived +within striking distance, the two tentacular arms are shot out with +great rapidity, and the prawn is seized between the two expanded ends, +drawn within the circle of short arms, and devoured; unless, as +sometimes happens, the prawn springs away and the _Sepia_ misses its +aim. + +Two species of _Sepia_ occur in British and European waters, including +the Mediterranean, namely, _S. elegans_ and _S. officinalis_. The usual +length of the body is about 9 or 10 in. They live mostly between ten and +forty fathoms, coming into shallower water in July and August to deposit +their eggs, which are about as large as black currants and of somewhat +similar colour, and are connected by elongated stalks into a cluster +attached to the sea-bottom. Other species occur in various parts of the +world, e.g. _S. cultrata_, which is common on the coasts of Australia. +The _Sepiidae_ form the only family of cuttle-fishes in which the shell +is calcified. They belong to the tribe Myopsida, characterized by the +complete closure of the external corneal covering of the eye outside the +iris and the lens. + +_Sepiola_ and _Rossia_ belong to another family of the Myopsida. Both +are British genera living in shallow water, and entering estuaries. The +animals of both genera are small, not more than 2 or 3 in. in length, +with the body rounded at the aboral end, and the fins short and rounded, +inserted in the middle of the body length, instead of extending from end +to end. _Sepiola_, although it swims by means of its fins and funnel +when active, spends much of its time buried in the sand for concealment. +_Rossia_ has similar habits. The shell is chitinous and shorter than the +body. In other genera of the _Sepiolidae_ the shell is entirely absent. +_Idiosepius_ is the smallest of the Cephalopoda, only 1.5 in. in length. +It inhabits the Indian Ocean. The body is elongated and the fins +rudimentary. In the _Sepiadariidae_ also the shell is absent. The body +is short and the mantle united with the head dorsally. The two genera +_Sepiadarium_ and _Sepioloidea_ occur in the Pacific Ocean. The common +squid _Loligo_ is the type of the only remaining family of the Myopsida. +In this species the shell is a well-developed chitinous pen or gladius +with a thickened axis narrowing to a point behind, but bearing +posteriorly a wide thin plate on each side. The shape closely resembles +that of a quill pen with the quill in front. The fins are large and +triangular, extending over rather more than half of the length of the +body aborally. The tentacular arms are only partly retractile. The body +is elongated and conical, and reaches about a foot in length. The squid +is gregarious, and forms a favourite food of the larger fishes, +especially of conger. All the Myopsida are more or less littoral in +habit, and the British forms are familiar in consequence of their +frequent capture in the nets of fishermen. The shell, or "bone" as it is +commonly called, of the common _Sepia_ frequently occurs in abundance on +the shore among the sea-weed and other refuse left by the tide. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--A, _Loligo vulgaris_; a, arms; t, tentacles. B, +Pen of the same reduced in size. C, Side-view of one of the suckers, +showing the horny hooks surrounding the margin. D, View of the head from +in front, showing the arms (a), the tentacles (t), the mouth (m), and +the funnel (f).] + +The Oigopsida, or cuttle-fishes in which the corneal covering of the eye +is perforated, are on the whole more oceanic than littoral, and many of +the species are abyssal. _Ommatostrephes sagittatus_ is one of the forms +that occurs off the British coasts, especially the more northern, e.g. +in the Firth of Forth. In general appearance it resembles the common +squid, but the fins are broader and shorter, not extending to the middle +of the body. The shell is similar to that of _Loligo_, but ends +aborally in a little hollow cone. The suckers bear chitinous rings which +are toothed along the outer edge. The tentacular arms are rather short +and thick. Two specimens of allied species have been taken on British +coasts, one of which, captured off Salcombe in Devonshire in 1892, had a +body 66 cm. (22 in.) long, and tentacular arms 64 cm. long, or nearly +the same length as the body. Most of the species of _Ommatostrephes_ are +naturally gregarious and oceanic, and occur in the open seas in all +latitudes, swimming near the surface and often leaping out of the water. +They are largely devoured by albatrosses and other marine birds, and by +Cetacea. They are used as bait in the Newfoundland cod fishery. + +Some of the oceanic cuttle-fishes reach a very large size, and the +stories of these ocean monsters which are narrated by the older writers, +though to some extent exaggerated, are now known to be founded on fact. +The figure given by one author of a gigantic Cephalopod rising from the +surface of the ocean and embracing with its arms a full-rigged ship does +not accurately represent an actual occurrence, but on the other hand +there are authentic instances on record of fishermen in small boats on +the banks of Newfoundland being in great peril in consequence of large +squids throwing their arms across their boats. In November 1874 a +specimen was brought ashore at St John's, Newfoundland, which had been +caught in herring nets. Its body was 7 ft. long, its fins 22 in. broad, +and its tentacular arms 24 ft. long. Several others have been recorded, +taken in the same region, which were as large or larger, the total +length of the body and tentacles together varying from 30 to 52 ft., and +the estimated weight of one of them being 1000 lb. + +In April 1875 one of these large squids occurred off Boffin's Island on +the Irish coast. The crew of a curragh rowed out to it and attacked it, +cutting off two of its arms and its head. The shorter arms measured 8 +ft. in length and 15 in. in circumference; the tentacular arms are said +to have been 30 ft. long. In the Natural History Museum in London there +is one of the shorter arms of a specimen; this arm is 9 ft. in length +and 11 in. in circumference, and the total length of the specimen, +including body and tentacles, is stated to have been 40 ft. The maximum +known length of these giant squids is stated to be 18 metres or about +58(1/2) ft. All these gigantic specimens belong, so far as at present +known, to one genus called _Architeuthis_, referred to the same family +as _Ommatostrephes_. They are the largest known invertebrates. + +These huge cuttle-fishes as well as those of various other oceanic +species form the food of the cachalot or sperm whale, and F. T. Bullen, +in his _Cruise of the Cachalot_ and other writings, has graphically +described contests which came under his own observation between the +cachalot and its prey. The prince of Monaco in his yacht the "Princess +Alice" was fortunate enough to be able to make a very complete +scientific investigation in the case of one specimen of the cachalot, +which not only confirmed the most important of Mr Bullen's statements, +but added considerably to our knowledge of oceanic cuttle-fishes. Off +the Azores in July 1895 the prince in his yacht witnessed the killing of +a cachalot 13.70 metres long (about 45 ft. 8 in.) by the crew of a +whaler. The animal in its death-agony vomited the contents of its +stomach, most of which were carefully collected and preserved, and +afterwards examined by Professor Joubin. On the lips of the whale were +found impressions several centimetres wide which corresponded exactly to +the toothed suckers of the largest cuttle-fish arms obtained from its +stomach. The contents of the stomach consisted entirely of cuttle-fish +or parts of cuttle-fish, including the giant _Architeuthis_, and among +them was the body, without the head, of a form new to science, +distinguished by a condition of the external surface which occurs in no +other species of the group. The surface of the skin was divided into +small angular flat projections like scales, arranged in a regular spiral +like the scales of a pine cone. From this character the new genus was +called _Lepidoteuthis_. The body, without the head, of the specimen +obtained was 86 cm. (nearly 3 ft.) in length. + +The family _Onychoteuthidae_ is remarkable for the formidable chitinous +hooks borne on the arms. These hooks are special modifications of the +toothed chitinous ring which covers the sucker-rim in the Decapoda +generally. The teeth of the ring are often unequal in size, and in the +_Onychoteuthidae_ one tooth is enormously developed. The maximum +development occurs in _Veranya_, found in the Mediterranean, where the +suckers have lost their function and are merely fleshy projections +bearing the hooks at their extremities. _Onychoteuthis_ reaches a large +size, the length of the body without the arms being in one specimen from +the Pacific coast of America 8 ft. Figures of this and several of the +following genera are given in the article CEPHALOPODA. + +In the family _Cheiroteuthidae_ many of the species occur at abyssal +depths of the ocean, and exhibit curious modifications of structure. In +_Cheiroteuthis_ itself the tentacular arms are very long and slender, +and are not capable of retraction into pockets. In several species of +this genus the suckers are no longer organs of adhesion, but are simple +cups containing a network of filaments resembling a fishing net. In +_Histioteuthis_ and _Histiopsis_, as in some Octopods, the six dorsal +arms are more or less completely united by a web, which also probably +serves for capturing fish. In these two genera and in _Calliteuthis_ the +skin bears luminous organs. _Cheiroteuthis_ has been taken at 2600 fms., +_Calliteuthis_ at 2200, _Histiopsis_ at nearly 2000. _Bathyteuthis_, +placed in the same family as _Ommatostrephes_, has been taken at 1700 +fms. + +The _Cranchiidae_ are remarkable for their small size, the shortness of +the ordinary arms, and the protuberance of the eyes, which in _Taonius_ +are actually on the ends of stalk-like outgrowths of the body. +_Cranchia_ is a deep-sea form taken at 1700 fms. Its body is +pear-shaped, swollen posteriorly and quite narrow at the neck. + +_Spirula_ is distinguished from all other existing Cephalopods by the +structure of its coiled shell, which in many respects resembles those of +the extinct Ammonites, and is not completely internal. In the structure +of the body the animal is a true cuttle-fish in the sense in which the +term is here used, having ten arms and a perforated cornea. Three +species are distinguished, and their empty shells occur abundantly on +the shores of the tropical regions of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian +Oceans. In German the shells are known from their shape as +_Posthornchen_. They are common on the shores of the Azores. But the +animal has very rarely been obtained; only a few specimens occur in +museum collections. One specimen was taken by the "Challenger" in a +deep-sea trawl, at a depth between 300 and 400 fathoms off Banda Neira +in the Molluccas. Dr Willemoes Suhm, in describing the capture, stated +that the specimen seemed to have been in the stomach of a fish, as its +surface was slightly digested, and he thought it must have habits of +concealment which usually prevent its capture, and that it was secured +on this occasion only by the capture of the fish which had swallowed it. +The fact that the shells are washed ashore in such large numbers is not +fully explained. Possibly when freed from the animal the air in the +chambers of the shell causes it to float, and in that case it would +naturally be sooner or later washed ashore. (J. T. C.) + + + + +CUTTS OF GOWRAN, JOHN CUTTS, BARON (1661-1707), British soldier and +author, came of an Essex family. After a short university career at +Catherine Hall, Cambridge, he came into the enjoyment of the family +estates, but evinced a decided preference for the life of court and +camp. The double ambition for military and literary fame inspired his +first work, which appeared in 1685 under the name _La Muse de cavalier, +or An Apology for such Gentlemen as make Poetry their Diversion not +their Business_. The next year saw Cutts serving as a volunteer under +Charles of Lorraine in Hungary, and it is said that he was the first to +plant the imperialist standard on the walls at the storm of Buda (July +1686). In 1687 he published a book of verse entitled _Poetical +Exercises_, and the following year we find him serving as +lieutenant-colonel in Holland. General Hugh Mackay describes Cutts about +this time as "pretty tall, lusty and well shaped, an agreeable companion +with abundance of wit, affable and familiar, but too much seized with +vanity and self-conceit." + +Lieutenant-Colonel Cutts was one of William's companions in the English +revolution of 1688, and in 1690 he went in command of a regiment of foot +to the Irish war. He served with distinction at the battle of the +Boyne, and at the siege of Limerick (where he was wounded), and King +William created him Baron Cutts of Gowran in the kingdom of Ireland. In +1691 he succeeded to the command of the brigade of the prince of Hesse +(wounded at Aughrim), and on the surrender of Limerick was appointed +commandant of the town. Next year he served again in Flanders as a +brigadier, his brigade of Mackay's division being one of those almost +destroyed at Steinkirk. At this battle Cutts himself was wounded. For +some time after this, Lord Cutts was lieutenant-governor of the Isle of +Wight, but he returned to active service in 1694, holding a command in +the disastrous Brest expedition. He was one of Carmarthen's companions +in the daring reconnaissance of Camaret Bay, and was soon afterwards +again wounded. He succeeded Talmash, the commander of the expedition +(who died of his wounds), as colonel of the Coldstream Guards. Next +year, after serving as a commissioner for settling the bank of Antwerp, +he distinguished himself once more at the famous siege of Namur, winning +for himself the name of "Salamander" by his indifference to the heaviest +fire. Henceforward court service and war service alternated. He was deep +in the confidence of William III., and acted as a diplomatic agent in +the negotiations which ended in the peace of Ryswick. On the occasion of +the great fire in Whitehall (1698) Cutts, at the head of the +Coldstreams, earned afresh the honourable nickname of "the Salamander." +A little later we find Captain Richard Steele acting as his private +secretary. In 1702, now a major-general, Cutts was serving under +Marlborough in the opening campaign of the War of the Spanish +Succession, and at the siege of Venloo, conspicuous as usual for +romantic bravery, he led the stormers at Fort Saint Michael. His +enemies, and even the survivors of the assault, were amazed at the +success of a seemingly hare-brained enterprise. Probably, however, +Cutts, who was now a veteran of great and varied experience, measured +the factors of success and failure better than his critics. It was on +this occasion that Swift lampooned the lieutenant-general in his _Ode to +a Salamander_. He made the campaign of 1703 in Flanders, and in 1704, +after a visit to England, he rejoined Marlborough on the banks of the +Danube. At Blenheim he was third in command, and it was his division +that bore the brunt of the desperate fighting at the village which gave +its name to the battle. + +Blenheim was Cutts's last battle. His remaining years were spent at +home, and, at the time of his death, he was the holder of eight distinct +political and military offices. He sat in five parliaments for the +county of Cambridge, and in Queen Anne's first Parliament he was +returned for Newport in the Isle of Wight, for which he sat until the +time of his death. He was twice married, but left no issue. + + + + +CUVIER, GEORGES LEOPOLD CHRETIEN FREDERIC DAGOBERT, BARON (1769-1832), +French naturalist, was born on the 23rd of August 1769 at Montbeliard, +and was the son of a retired officer on half-pay belonging to a +Protestant family which had emigrated from the Jura in consequence of +religious persecution. He early showed a bent towards the investigation +of natural phenomena, and was noted for his studious habits and +marvellous memory. After spending four years at the Academy of +Stuttgart, he accepted the position of tutor in the family of the Comte +d'Hericy, who was in the habit of spending the summer near Fecamp. It +thus came about that he made the acquaintance of the agriculturist, A. +H. Tessier, who was then living at Fecamp, and who wrote strongly in +favour of his protege to his friends in Paris--with the result that +Cuvier, after corresponding with the well-known naturalist E. Geoffroy +Saint-Hilaire, was appointed in 1795 assistant to the professor of +comparative anatomy at the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle. The National +Institute was founded in the same year and he was elected a member. In +1796 he began to lecture at the Ecole Centrale du Pantheon, and at the +opening of the National Institute in April, he read his first +palaeontological paper, which was subsequently published in 1800 under +the title _Memoires sur les especes d'elephants vivants et fossiles_. In +1798 was published his first separate work, the _Tableau elementaire de +l'histoire naturelle des animaux_, which was an abridgment of his course +of lectures at the Ecole du Pantheon, and may be regarded as the +foundation and first and general statement of his natural classification +of the animal kingdom. + +In 1799 he succeeded L. J. M. Daubenton as professor of natural history +in the College de France, and in the following year he published the +_Lecons d'anatomie comparee_, a classical work, in the production of +which he was assisted by A. M. C. Dumeril in the first two volumes, and +by G. L. Duvernoy in three later ones. In 1802 Cuvier became titular +professor at the Jardin des Plantes; and in the same year he was +appointed commissary of the Institute to accompany the inspectors-general +of public instruction. In this latter capacity he visited the south of +France; but he was in the early part of 1803 chosen perpetual secretary +of the National Institute in the department of the physical and natural +sciences, and he consequently abandoned the appointment just mentioned +and returned to Paris. + +He now devoted himself more especially to three lines of inquiry--one +dealing with the structure and classification of the mollusca, the +second with the comparative anatomy and systematic arrangement of the +fishes, and the third with fossil mammals and reptiles primarily, and +secondarily with the osteology of living forms belonging to the same +groups. His papers on the mollusca began as early as 1792, but most of +his memoirs on this branch were published in the _Annales du museum_ +between 1802 and 1815; they were subsequently collected as _Memoires +pour servir a l'histoire et a l'anatomie des mollusques_, published in +one volume at Paris in 1817. In the department of fishes, Cuvier's +researches, begun in 1801, finally culminated in the publication of the +_Histoire naturelle des poissons_, which contained descriptions of 5000 +species of fishes, and was the joint production of Cuvier and A. +Valenciennes, its publication (so far as the former was concerned) +extending over the years 1828-1831. The department of palaeontology +dealing with the Mammalia may be said to have been essentially created +and established by Cuvier. In this region of investigation he published +a long list of memoirs, partly relating to the bones of extinct animals, +and partly detailing the results of observations on the skeletons of +living animals specially examined with a view of throwing light upon the +structure and affinities of the fossil forms. In the second category +must be placed a number of papers relating to the osteology of the +_Rhinoceros Indicus_, the tapir, _Hyrax Capensis_, the hippopotamus, the +sloths, the manatee, &c. In the former category must be classed an even +greater number of memoirs, dealing with the extinct mammals of the +Eocene beds of Montmartre, the fossil species of hippopotamus, the +_Didelphys gypsorum_, the _Megalonyx_, the _Megatherium_, the +cave-hyaena, the extinct species of rhinoceros, the cave-bear, the +mastodon, the extinct species of elephant, fossil species of manatee and +seals, fossil forms of crocodilians, chelonians, fishes, birds, &c. The +results of Cuvier's principal palaeontological and geological +investigations were ultimately given to the world in the form of two +separate works. One of these is the celebrated _Recherches sur les +ossements fossiles de quadrupedes_, published in Paris in 1812, with +subsequent editions in 1821 and 1825; and the other is his _Discours sur +les revolutions de la surface du globe_, published in Paris in 1825. + +But none of his works attained a higher reputation than his _Regne +animal distribue d'apres son organisation_, the first edition of which +appeared in four octavo volumes in 1817, and the second in five volumes +in 1829-1830. In this classical work Cuvier embodied the results of the +whole of his previous researches on the structure of living and fossil +animals. The whole of the work was his own, with the exception of the +Insecta, in which he was assisted by his friend P. A. Latreille. + +Apart from his own original investigations in zoology and palaeontology +Cuvier carried out a vast amount of work as perpetual secretary of the +National Institute, and as an official connected with public education +generally; and much of this work appeared ultimately in a published +form. Thus, in 1808 he was placed by Napoleon upon the council of the +Imperial University, and in this capacity he presided (in the years +1809, 1811 and 1813) over commissions charged to examine the state of +the higher educational establishments in the districts beyond the Alps +and the Rhine which had been annexed to France, and to report upon the +means by which these could be affiliated with the central university. +Three separate reports on this subject were published by him. In his +capacity, again, of perpetual secretary of the Institute, he not only +prepared a number of _eloges historiques_ on deceased members of the +Academy of Sciences, but he was the author of a number of reports on the +history of the physical and natural sciences, the most important of +these being the _Rapport historique sur le progres des sciences +physiques depuis 1789_, published in 1810. Prior to the fall of Napoleon +(1814) he had been admitted to the council of state, and his position +remained unaffected by the restoration of the Bourbons. He was elected +chancellor of the university, in which capacity he acted as interim +president of the council of public instruction, whilst he also, as a +Lutheran, superintended the faculty of Protestant theology. In 1819 he +was appointed president of the committee of the interior, and retained +the office until his death. In 1826 he was made grand officer of the +Legion of Honour; and in 1831 he was raised by Louis Philippe to the +rank of peer of France, and was subsequently appointed president of the +council of state. In the beginning of 1832 he was nominated to the +ministry of the interior, but on the 13th of May he died in Paris after +a brief illness. + + See P. J. M. Flourens, _Eloge historique de G. Cuvier_, published as + an introduction to the _Eloges historiques_ of Cuvier; _Histoire des + travaux de Georges Cuvier_ (3rd ed., Paris, 1858); A. P. de Candolle, + "Mort de G. Cuvier," _Bibliotheque universelle_ (1832, 59, p. 442); C. + L. Laurillard, "Cuvier," _Biographie universelle_, supp. vol. 61 + (1836); Sarah Lee, _Memoirs of Cuvier_, translated into French by T. + Lacordaire (1833). + + + + +CUVILLES, FRANCOIS DE (1698-c. 1767), French architect and engraver. He +helped to carry the French rococo taste to Germany--he was summoned +about 1720 to Cologne by the elector James Clement; in 1738 he became +architect to the elector of Bavaria, and afterwards occupied the same +position towards the emperor Charles VII. His style, while essentially +thin, is often painfully elaborate and bizarre. He designed mirrors and +consoles, balustrades for staircases, ceilings and fireplaces, and in +furniture, beds and commodes especially. He also laid out parks and +gardens. He wrote several treatises on artistic and decorative subjects, +which were edited by his son, Francois de Cuvilles the younger, who +succeeded his father at the court of Munich. + + + + +CUXHAVEN, or KUXHAVEN, a seaport town of Germany, belonging to the state +of Hamburg, and situated at the extremity of the west side of the mouth +of the Elbe, 71 m. by rail N.W. from Hamburg. Pop. (1900) 6898. The +harbour is good and secure, and is much frequented by vessels delayed in +the Elbe by unfavourable weather. A new harbour was made in 1891-1896, +having a depth of 26(1/4) ft., with a fore port 1000 ft. long by 800 ft. +wide; and it is now the place of departure and arrival of the mail +steamers of the Hamburg-American Steamship Company, who in 1901 +transferred here a part of their permanent staff. The port is free, i.e. +outside the customs union (_Zollverein_), the imports being principally +coals, bricks and timber, and the exports fish. There is a fishing +fleet, for which a new harbour was opened in 1892. Though lying on a +bare strand, the town is much frequented as a bathing place by +Hamburgers. It is strongly fortified, and there are a lighthouse, and +lifeboat and pilot stations. The town only dates from 1873, having been +formed by uniting the villages of Ritzebuttel and Cuxhaven, which had +belonged to Hamburg since 1394. + + + + +CUYABA, or CUIABA, capital of the inland state of Matto Grosso, Brazil, +about 972 m. N.W. of Rio de Janeiro, on the Cuyaba river near its +discharge into the Sao Lourenco, the principal Brazilian tributary of +the Paraguay. Pop. (1890) 14,507; of the municipality, 17,815. The +surrounding country is thickly populated. Cuyaba has uninterrupted +steamer communication with Montevideo, about 2500 m. distant, but has no +land communication with the national capital, except by telegraph. The +climate is hot and malaria is prevalent. Cuyaba was founded in 1719 by +Paulista gold hunters, and its gold-washings, now apparently exhausted, +yielded rich results in the 18th century. It is the see of a bishopric +and headquarters of an important military district, having an arsenal +and military barracks. + + + + +CUYAPO, a town of the province of Nueva Ecija, Luzon, Philippine +Islands, 28 m. N.N.W. of San Isidro, the capital. Pop. (1903) 16,292. +Rice is grown here. In 1907 the town of Nampicuan was formed from part +of Cuyapo. + + + + +CUYP, the name of a Dutch family which produced two generations of +painters. The Cuyps were long settled at Dordrecht, in the neighbourhood +of which they had a country house, where Albert Cuyp (the most famous) +was born and bred. + +The eldest member of the family who acquired fame was JACOB GERRITSZ +CUYP, born it is said at Dordrecht in 1575, and taught by Abraham +Bloemaert of Utrecht. He is known to have been alive in 1649, and the +date of his death is obscure. J. G. Cuyp's pictures are little known. +But he produced portraits in various forms, as busts and half-lengths +thrown upon plain backgrounds, or groups in rooms, landscapes and +gardens. Solid and clever as an imitator of nature in its ordinary garb, +he is always spirited, sometimes rough, but generally plain, and quite +as unconscious of the sparkle conspicuous in Frans Hals as incapable of +the concentrated light-effects peculiar to Rembrandt. In portrait busts, +of which there are signed examples dated 1624, 1644, 1646 and 1649, in +the museums of Berlin, Rotterdam, Marseilles, Vienna and Metz, his +treatment is honest, homely and true; his touch and tone firm and +natural. In portraying children he is fond of introducing playthings and +pets--a lamb, a goat or a roedeer; and he reproduces animal life with +realistic care. In a family scene at the Amsterdam Museum we have +likenesses of men, women, boys and girls with a cottage and park. In the +background is a coach with a pair of horses. These examples alone give +us a clue to the influences under which Albert Cuyp grew up, and explain +to some extent the direction which his art took as he rose to manhood. + +ALBERT CUYP (1620-1691), the son of Jacob Gerritsz by Grietche +Dierichsdochter (Dierich's daughter), was born at Dordrecht. He married +in 1658 Cornelia Bosman, a rich widow, by whom he had an only daughter. +By right of his possessions at Dordwyck, Cuyp was a vassal of the county +of Holland, and privileged to sit in the high court of the province. As +a citizen he was sufficiently well known to be placed on the list of +those from whom William III., stadtholder of the Netherlands, chose the +regency of Dordrecht in 1672. His death, and his burial on the 7th of +November 1691 in the church of the Augustines of Dordrecht, are +historically proved. But otherwise the known facts concerning his life +are few. He seldom dates his pictures, but it appears probable that he +ceased to paint about 1675. It has been said that Albert was the pupil +of his father. The scanty evidence of Dutch annalists to this effect +seems confirmed by a certain coincidence in the style and treatment of +father and son. That he was a pupil of van Goyen has been surmised on +the strength of the style of his early works. It has been likewise +stated that Albert was skilled, not only in the production of portraits, +landscapes and herds, but in the representation of still life. His works +are supposed to be divisible into such as bear the distinctive marks C. +or A. C. in cursive characters, the letters A. C. in Roman capitals, and +the name "A. Cuyp" in full. A man of Cuyp's acknowledged talent may have +been versatile enough to paint in many different styles. But whether he +was as versatile as some critics have thought is a question not quite +easy to answer. It is to be observed that pieces assigned to Cuyp +representing game, shell-fish and fruit, and inscribed A. C. in Roman +capitals (Rotterdam, Amsterdam and Berlin museums), though cleverly +executed, are not in touch or treatment like other pictures of less +dubious authenticity, signed either with C. or A. C. or "A. Cuyp" in +cursive letters. The panels marked C. and A. C. in cursive are portraits +or landscapes, with herds, and interiors of stables or sheds, in which +there are cows, horses and poultry. The subjects and their handling are +akin to those which strike us in panels bearing the master's full +signature, though characterized, as productions of an artist in the +first phase of his progress would naturally be, by tones more uniform, +touch more flat, and colour more deep than we find in the delicate and +subtle compositions of the painter's later time. Generally speaking, the +finished examples of Cuyp's middle and final period all bear his full +signature. They are all remarkable for harmonies attained by certain +combinations of shade in gradations with colours in contraposition. + +Albert Cuyp, a true child of the Netherlands, does not seem to have +wandered much beyond Rotterdam on the one hand or Nijmwegen on the +other. His scenery is that of the Meuse or Rhine exclusively; and there +is little variety to notice in his views of water and meadows at +Dordrecht, or the bolder undulations of the Rhine banks east of it, +except such as results from diversity of effect due to change of weather +or season or hour. Cuyp is to the river and its banks what Willem +Vandevelde is to calm seas and Hobbema to woods. There is a poetry of +effect, an eternity of distance in his pictures, which no Dutchman ever +expressed in a similar way. His landscapes sparkle with silvery sheen at +early morning, they are bathed in warm or sultry haze at noon, or glow +with heat at eventide. Under all circumstances they have a peculiar +tinge of auburn which is Cuyp's and Cuyp's alone. Burger truly says van +Goyen is gray, Ruysdael is brown, Hobbema olive, but Cuyp "is blond." +The utmost delicacy may be observed in Cuyp's manner of defining +reflections of objects in water, or of sight from water on ship's sides. +He shows great cleverness in throwing pale-yellow clouds against clear +blue skies, and merging yellow mists into olive-green vegetation. He is +also very artful in varying light and shade according to distance, +either by interchange of cloud-shadow and sun-gleam or by gradation of +tints. His horses and cattle are admirably drawn, and they relieve each +other quite as well if contrasted in black and white and black and red, +or varied in subtler shades of red and brown. Rich weed-growth is +expressed by light but marrowy touch, suggestive of detail as well as of +general form. The human figure is given with homely realism in most +cases, but frequently with a charming elevation, when, as often occurs, +the persons represented are meant to be portraits. Whatever the theme +may be it remains impressed with the character and individuality of +Cuyp. Familiar subjects of the master's earlier period are stables with +cattle and horses (Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Petersburg and Brussels +museums). Occasionally he painted portraits in the bust form familiar to +his father, one of which is dated 1649, and exhibited in the National +Gallery, London. More frequently he produced likenesses of ladies and +gentlemen on horseback, in which the life and dress of the period and +the forms of horses are most vividly represented (Buckingham Palace, +Bridgewater Gallery, Louvre and Dresden Museum). Later on we find him +fondest of expansive scenery with meadows and cattle and flocks, or +rivers and barges in the foreground and distances showing the towers and +steeples of Dordrecht. Cuyp was more partial to summer than to winter, +to noon than to night, to calm than to storm. But some of his best +groups are occasionally relieved on dark and gusty cloud (Louvre and +Robarts's collection). A few capital pieces show us people sledging and +skating or netting ice-holes (Yarborough, Neeld and Bedford +collections). A lovely "Night on the Banks of a River," in the Grosvenor +collection, reminds us that Cuyp's friend and contemporary was the +painter of moonlights, Aart van der Neer, to whom he was equal in the +production of these peculiar effects and superior in the throw of +figures. Sometimes Cuyp composed fancy subjects. His "Orpheus charming +the Beasts," in the Bute collection, is judiciously arranged with the +familiar domestic animals in the foreground, and the wild ones, to which +he is a comparative stranger, thrown back into the distance. One of his +rare gospel subjects is "Philip baptizing the Eunuch" (Marchmont House, +Berwickshire), described as a fine work by Waagen. The best and most +attractive of Cuyp's pieces are his Meuse and Rhine landscapes, with +meadows, cattle, flocks and horsemen, and occasionally with boats and +barges. In these he brought together and displayed--during his middle +and final period--all the skill of one who is at once a poet and a +finished artist; grouping, tinting, touch, harmony of light and shade, +and true chords of colours are all combined. Masterpieces of +acknowledged beauty are the "Riders with the Boy and Herdsman" in the +National Gallery; the Meuse, with Dordrecht in the distance, in three or +four varieties, in the Bridgewater, Grosvenor, Holford and Brownlow +collections; the "Huntsman" (Ashburton); "Herdsmen with Cattle," +belonging to the marquess of Bute; and the "Piper with Cows," in the +Louvre. The prices paid for Cuyp's pictures in his own time were +comparatively low. In 1750, 30 florins was considered to be the highest +sum to which any one of his panels was entitled. But in more recent +times the value of the pictures has naturally risen very largely. At the +sale of the Clewer collection at Christie's in 1876 a small "Hilly +Landscape in Morning Light" was sold for L5040, and a view on the Rhine, +with cows on a bank, for L3150. (J. A. C.) + + John Smith's _Catalogue raisonne_ of the Dutch and Flemish painters, + in 9 vols. (1840), enumerated 335 of Albert Cuyp's works, of which in + 1877 Sir J. A. Crowe wrote in this encyclopaedia that "it would be + difficult now to find more than a third of them." In C. Hofstede de + Groot's _Catalogue raisonne_, vol. ii. (1909), revising Smith's, the + number is extended to nearly 850, but he accepts too readily the + attributions of sale catalogues; the work is, however, the best modern + authority on the painter. + + + + +CUZA (or COUZA), ALEXANDER JOHN [_Alexandru Joan_] (1820-1873), first +prince of Rumania, was born on the 20th of March 1820, at Galatz in +Moldavia, and belonged to an ancient _boiar_, or noble, family. He was +educated at Jassy, Pavia, Bologna and Athens; and, after a brief period +of military service, visited Paris from 1837 to 1840 for a further +course of study. In 1845 he married the daughter of another boiar, Elena +Rosetti, who in 1862 founded the Princess Elena refuge for orphans, at +Bucharest. Cuza was imprisoned by the Russian authorities for taking +part in the Rumanian revolution of 1848, but escaped to Vienna. On his +return, in 1850, he was appointed prefect of Galatz. In 1857 he rejoined +the army, and within a few months rose to the rank of colonel. He became +minister of war in 1858, and represented Galatz in the Assembly which +was elected in the same year to nominate a prince for Moldavia. Cuza was +a prominent speaker in the critical debates which ensued when the +assembly met at Jassy, and strongly advocated the union of the two +Danubian principalities, Moldavia and Walachia. In default of a foreign +prince, he was himself elected prince of Moldavia by the assembly at +Jassy (17th Jan. 1859), and prince of Walachia by the assembly at +Bucharest (5th Feb.). He thus became ruler of the united principalities, +with the title Prince Alexander John I.; but as this union was forbidden +by the congress of Paris (18th Oct. 1858), his authority was not +recognized by his suzerain, the sultan of Turkey, until the 23rd of +December 1861, when the union of the principalities under the name of +Rumania was formally proclaimed. For a full account of Cuza's reign see +Rumania. The personal vices of the prince, and the drastic and +unconstitutional reforms which he imposed on all classes, alienated his +subjects, although many of these reforms proved to be of lasting +excellence. Financial distress supervened, and the popular discontent +culminated in revolution. At four o'clock on the morning of the 22nd of +February 1866, a band of military conspirators broke into the palace, +and compelled the prince to sign his abdication. On the following day +they conducted him safely across the frontier. Prince Alexander spent +the remainder of his life chiefly in Paris, Vienna and Wiesbaden. He +died at Heidelberg on the 15th of May 1873. + + + + +CUZCO, an inland city of southern Peru, capital of an Andean department +of the same name, about 360 m. E.S.E. of Lima, in lat. 13 deg. 31' S., +long. 73 deg. 03' W. The population, largely composed of Indians and +_mestizos_, was estimated at 30,000 in 1896, but according to the +official estimate of 1906, it was then about 25% less. The city stands +at the head of a small valley, 11,380 ft. above sea-level, and is nearly +enclosed by mountains of considerable elevation. The valley itself is 9 +m. in length and extends S.E. to the valley of Vilcamayu. Overlooking +the city from the N. is the famous hill of Sacsahuaman, crowned by ruins +of the cyclopean fortress of the Incas and their predecessors, and +separated from adjacent heights by the deep ravines of two streams, +called the Huatenay and Rodadero. The principal part of the city lies +between these two streams, with its great _plaza_ in the centre. On the +W. side of the Huatenay are two more fine squares, called the Cabildo +and San Francisco. The houses of the city are built of stone, their +walls commonly showing the massive masonry of the Incas at the bottom, +crowned with a light modern superstructure roofed with red tiles. The +streets cross each other at right angles and afford fine vistas on every +side. The principal public buildings are the cathedral, which is classed +among the best in South America, the convent of San Domingo, which +partly occupies the site of the great Temple of the Sun of the Incas, +the _cabildo_ or government-house, a university founded in 1598, a +college of science and arts, a public library, hospital, mint and museum +of Incarial antiquities. Cuzco was made the see of a bishopric soon +after it was occupied by the Spaniards. The Church has always exercised +a dominating influence in this region, and the city has many churches +and religious establishments. There are a number of small manufacturing +industries in Cuzco, including the manufacture of cotton and woollen +fabrics, leather, beer, embroidery and articles of gold and silver. Its +trade is not large, however, owing to the costs of transportation. The +climate is cool and bracing, and the products of the vicinity include +many of the temperate zone. A railway from Juliaca (a station on the +line from Mollendo to Puno) to Cuzco was virtually completed early in +1908. This railway gives Cuzco an outlet to the coast, and also direct +connexion with La Paz, the Bolivian capital. A branch of the Callao & +Oroya railway is also projected southward to Cuzco, and reached Huancayo +in 1908. Cuzco was the capital of a remarkable empire ruled by the Incas +previous to the discovery of Peru, and it was one of the largest and +most civilized of the native cities of the New World. It was captured by +Pizarro in 1533, and it is said that its size and the magnificence of +its principal edifices filled the Spaniards with surprise. It was for +many years an object of contention among the Spanish factions, but +ultimately the greater attractions of Lima and its own isolation +diminished its importance. + +The department of Cuzco is the second largest in Peru, having an area of +156,317 sq. m., and a population, according to a reduced official +estimate of 1906, of only 328,980. It occupies an extremely mountainous +region on the frontier of Bolivia, E. of the departments of Junin, +Ayacucho and Apurimac, and extends from Loreto on the N. to Puno and +Arequipa on the S. Its area, however, includes a large district E. of +the Andes which is claimed by Bolivia, and the settlement of the dispute +may materially diminish its size. The elevation of a large part of the +department gives it a temperate climate and permits the cultivation of +cereals and other products of the temperate zone. Cattle and sheep are +produced in large numbers in some of the provinces, while in others +mining forms the chief industry. On the eastern forested slopes and in +the lower valleys tropical conditions prevail. The population is chiefly +composed of Indians who form a sturdy, docile labouring class, but are +in great part strongly disinclined to accept the civilization of the +dominant white race. + + + + +CYANAMIDE, NC.NH2, the amide of normal cyanic acid, obtained by the +action of ammonia on cyanogen chloride, bromide or iodide, or by the +desulphurization of thio-urea with mercuric oxide; it is generally +prepared by the latter process. It forms white crystals, which melt at +40 deg. C., and are readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether. Heated +above its melting point it polymerizes to di-cyandiamide (CN2H2)2, which +at 150 deg. C. is transformed into the polymer _n_-tri-cyantriamide or +melamine (CN2H2)3, the mass solidifying. Nascent hydrogen reduces +cyanamide to ammonia and methylamine. It gives mono-metallic salts of +the type NC.NHM when treated with aqueous or alcoholic solutions of +alkalis. Di-metallic salts are obtained by heating cyanates alone, e.g. +calcium, or cyanides in a current of nitrogen, e.g. barium. + +Calcium cyanamide has assumed importance in agriculture since the +discovery of its economic production in the electric furnace, wherein +calcium carbide takes up nitrogen from the atmosphere to form the +cyanamide with the simultaneous liberation of carbon. It may also be +produced by heating lime or chalk with charcoal to 2000 deg. in a +current of air. The commercial product (which is known in Germany as +"_Kalkstickstoff_") contains from 14 to 22% of nitrogen, which is +liberated as ammonia when the substance is treated with water; to this +decomposition it owes its agricultural value. It appears that with soils +which are not rich in humus or not deficient in lime, calcium cyanamide +is almost as good, nitrogen for nitrogen, as ammonium sulphate or sodium +nitrate; but it is of doubtful value with peaty soils or soils +containing little lime, nor is it usefully available as a top-dressing +or for storing. + + + + +CYANIC ACID AND CYANATES. Cyanic acid, CN.OH, was discovered by F. +Wohler in 1824, and may be obtained by distilling its polymeride, +cyanuric acid, in a current of carbon dioxide (F. Wohler and J. v. +Liebig, _Berzelius Jahresberichte_, 1827, 11, p. 84), the vapours which +distil over being condensed in a freezing mixture. It is a very volatile +liquid of strong acid reaction, and is only stable below 0 deg. C. It +has a smell resembling that of acetic acid. At 0 deg. C. it is rapidly +converted into a mixture of cyanuric acid, C3N3O3H3, and another +polymer, cyamelide (CNOH)x; this latter substance is a white amorphous +powder, insoluble in water. An aqueous solution of cyanic acid is +rapidly hydrolysed (above 0 deg. C.) into a mixture of carbon dioxide +and ammonia. Cyanogen chloride, CNCl, may be regarded as the chloride of +cyanic acid. It may be prepared by the action of chlorine on hydrocyanic +acid or on mercury cyanide. It is a very poisonous volatile liquid, +which boils at 15.5 deg. C. It polymerizes readily to cyanuric chloride, +C3N3Cl3. Caustic alkalis hydrolyse it readily to the alkaline chloride +and cyanate. + +The salts of cyanic acid are known as the cyanates, the two most +important being potassium cyanate (KOCN) and ammonium cyanate (NH4OCN). +Potassium cyanate may be prepared by heating potassium cyanide with an +oxidizing agent, or by heating potassium ferrocyanide with manganese +dioxide, potassium carbonate or potassium dichromate (J. v. Liebig, +_Ann._, 1841, 38, p. 108; C. Lea, _Jahresb._, 1861, p. 789; L. +Gattermann, _Ber._, 1890, 23, p. 1224), the fused mass being extracted +with boiling alcohol. It crystallizes in flat plates and is readily +soluble in cold water. It is a somewhat important reagent, and has been +used by Emil Fischer in various syntheses in the uric acid group (see +PURIN). Ammonium cyanate possesses considerable theoretical importance +since the first synthetical production of an organic from inorganic +compounds was accomplished by warming its aqueous solution for some +time, urea being formed (F. Wohler, _Berzelius Jahresberichte_, 1828, +12, p. 266). J. Walker and J. K. Wood (_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1900, 77, p. +24) prepared pure ammonium cyanate by the union of gaseous ammonia and +cyanic acid, special precautions being taken to keep the temperature +below the point at which the salt is transformed into urea. It +crystallizes in fine needles, which melt suddenly at about 80 deg. C., +then resolidify, and melt again at about 128 deg. to 130 deg. C. (this +temperature being that of the melting point of urea). Substituted +ammonias were also made to combine with cyanic acid, and it was found +that the substituted ammonium cyanates produced pass much more readily +into the corresponding ureas than ammonium cyanate itself. (On the +constitution of cyanic acid see F. D. Chattaway and J. M. Wadmore, +_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1902, 81, p. 191.) + +Esters of normal cyanic acid are not known, but those of isocyanic acid +(HN.CO) may be prepared by the action of alkyl halides on silver +cyanate, or by oxidizing the isonitriles with mercuric oxide. They are +volatile liquids which boil without decomposition, and possess a +nauseating smell. When hydrolysed with caustic alkalis, they yield +primary amines (this reaction determines their constitution). C2H5NCO + +H2O = C2H5NH2 + CO2. When heated with water they yield carbon dioxide +and symmetrical dialkyl ureas; with ammonia and amines they form alkyl +ureas; and with acid anhydrides they yield tertiary amides. + +Ethyl isocyanate, C2H5NCO, was first prepared by A. Wurtz (_Ann. chim._, +1854 (3), 42, p. 43) by distilling a mixture of potassium ethyl +sulphate and potassium cyanate. It is a colourless liquid which boils at +60 deg. C. + +_Cyanuric acid_, H3C3N3O3, was obtained by Wohler and Liebig by heating +urea, and by A. Wurtz by passing chlorine into melting urea. It forms +white efflorescent crystals. Treatment with phosphorus pentachloride +gives cyanuric chloride, C3N3Cl3, which is also formed by the +combination of anhydrous chlorine and prussic acid in the presence of +sunlight. These substances contain a ring of three carbon and three +nitrogen atoms, i.e. they are symmetrical triazines. + + + + +CYANIDE, in chemistry, a salt of prussic of hydrocyanic acid, the name +being more usually restricted to inorganic salts, i.e. the salts of the +metals, the organic salts (or esters) being termed nitriles. The +preparation, properties, &c., of cyanides are treated in the article +PRUSSIC ACID; reference should also be made to the articles on the +particular metals. The most important cyanide commercially is potassium +cyanide, which receives application in the "cyanide process" of gold +extraction (see GOLD). + + + + +CYANITE, a native aluminium silicate, Al2SiO5, crystallizing in the +anorthic system. It has the same percentage chemical composition as +andalusite and sillimanite, but differs from these in its +crystallographic and physical characters. P. Groth writes the formula as +a metasilicate (AlO)2SiO3. The name cyanite was given by A. G. Werner in +1789, from [Greek: kyanos], blue, in allusion to the characteristic +colour of the mineral; the form kyanite is also in common use, and the +name disthene, proposed by R. J. Hauy in 1801, is used by French +writers. + +[Illustration] + +Distinctly developed crystals with terminal planes are rare, the mineral +being commonly found as lamellar cleavage masses or long blade-shaped +crystals embedded in crystalline rocks. The colour is usually a pale +sky-blue, but may be white, greenish or yellowish; it varies in +intensity in different bands, so that the crystals usually present a +more or less striped appearance. There is a perfect cleavage parallel to +the broad face m (100), and a less perfect one parallel to t (010): the +basal plane p (001), oblique to the prism zone, is a gliding plane on +which secondary twinning is produced by pressure, giving rise to +characteristic horizontal striations on the cleavage face m. The +accompanying figure represents a crystal twinned on the plane m (100). A +negative biaxial optic figure is seen in convergent polarized light +through the cleavage plane m, the axial plane being inclined at about 30 +deg. to the edge between m and t. A remarkable feature of cyanite is the +great difference in hardness on different faces of the same crystal and +in different directions on the same face: on the face m in a direction +parallel to the edge between m and p the hardness is 7, whilst in a +direction parallel to the edge between m and t it is 4(1/2). The name +disthene, from [Greek: dis], two, and [Greek: sthenos], strong, has +reference to these differences in hardness. + +Analyses of cyanite often show the presence of a small amount (usually +less than 1%) of ferric oxide and sometimes traces of copper, and to +these constituents the blue or green colour of the mineral is doubtless +due. The mineral is infusible before the blowpipe, and is not decomposed +by acids. At a high temperature, about 1350 deg. C., it becomes +transformed into sillimanite, changing in specific gravity from 3.6 to +3.2. + +Cyanite is a characteristic mineral of the metamorphic crystalline +rocks--gneiss, schist, granulite and eclogite--and is often associated +with garnet and staurolite. A typical occurrence is in the white, +fine-scaled paragonite-schist of Monte Campione, near St Gotthard in +Switzerland, where long transparent crystals of a fine blue colour are +abundant. In the gneiss of the Pfitscher Tal near Sterzing in Tirol a +white variety known as rhaetizite is found. It occurs at several places +in Scotland, for instance, at Botriphnie in Banffshire, with muscovite +in a quartz-vein. Fine specimens are found in mica-schist at +Chesterfield in Massachusetts, and at several other localities in the +United States. It is found in the gold-washings of the southern Urals +and in the diamond-washings of Brazil. As minute crystal fragments it is +met with in many sands and sandstones. + +When of sufficient transparency and depth of colour (deep +cornflower-blue) the mineral has a limited application as a gem-stone; +it is usually cut _en cabochon_. (L. J. S.) + + + + +CYANOGEN (Gr. [Greek: kyanos], blue [Greek: gennan], to produce), C2N2, +in chemistry, a gas composed of carbon and nitrogen. The name was +suggested by Prussian blue, the earliest known compound of cyanogen. It +was first isolated in 1815 by J. Gay-Lussac, who obtained it by heating +mercury or silver cyanide; this discovery is of considerable historical +importance, since it recorded the isolation of a "compound radical." It +may also be prepared by heating ammonium oxalate; by passing induction +sparks between carbon points in an atmosphere of nitrogen (see H. von +Wartenburg, _Abs. J.C.S._, 1907, i. p. 299), or by the addition of a +concentrated solution of potassium cyanide to one of copper sulphate, +the mixed solutions being then heated. It also occurs in blast-furnace +gases. When cyanogen is prepared by heating mercuric cyanide, a residue +known as para-cyanogen, (CN)_x, is left; this is to be regarded as a +polymer of cyanogen. It is a brownish amorphous solid, which is +insoluble in water. Cyanogen is a colourless gas, possessing a peculiar +characteristic smell, and is very poisonous. It burns with a purple +flame, forming carbon dioxide and nitrogen; and may be condensed (by +cooling to -25 deg. C.) to a colourless liquid, and further to a solid, +which melts at -34.4 deg. C. (M. Faraday, _Ann._, 1845, 56, p. 158). It +dissolves readily in water and the aqueous solution decomposes on +standing; a dark-brown flocculent precipitate of azulmic acid, C4H5N5O, +separating whilst ammonium oxalate, urea and hydrocyanic acid are found +in the solution. In many respects it resembles chlorine in its chemical +behaviour, a circumstance noted by Gay-Lussac; it combines directly with +hydrogen (at 500 deg. to 550 deg. C.) to form hydrocyanic acid, and with +chlorine, bromine, iodine and sulphur, to form cyanogen chloride, &c.; +it also combines directly with zinc, cadmium and iron to form cyanides +of these metals. It combines with sulphuretted hydrogen, in the presence +of water, to form the compound C2N2.H2S, and in the presence of alcohol, +to form the compound C2N2.2H2S. Concentrated hydrochloric acid converts +it into oxamide. Potash solution converts it into a mixture of potassium +cyanide and cyanate. When heated with hydriodic acid (specific gravity +1.96) it forms amino-acetic acid, and with tin and hydrochloric acid it +yields ethylene diamine. + + + + +CYAXARES (Pers. _Uvakhshatra_), king of Media, reigned according to +Herodotus (i. 107) forty years, about 624-584 B.C. That he was the real +founder of the Median empire is proved by the fact that in Darius's time +a Median usurper, Fravartish, pretended to be his offspring (Behistun +inscr. 2. 43); but about his history we know very little. Herodotus +narrates (i. 103 ff.) that he renewed the war against the Assyrians, in +which his father Phraortes had perished, but was, while he besieged +Nineveh, attacked by a great Scythian army under Madyas, son of +Protothyes, which had come from the northern shores of the Black Sea in +pursuit of the Cimmerians. After their victory over Cyaxares, the +Scythians conquered and wasted the whole of western Asia, and ruled +twenty-eight years, till at last they were made drunk and slain by +Cyaxares at a banquet (cf. another story about Cyaxares and a Scythian +host in Herod, i. 73). As we possess scarcely any contemporary documents +it is impossible to find out the real facts. But we know from the +prophecies of Jeremiah and Zephaniah that Syria and Palestine were +really invaded by northern barbarians in 626 B.C., and it is probable +that this invasion was the principal cause of the downfall of the +Assyrian empire (see MEDIA and PERSIA: _Ancient History_). + +After the destruction of the Scythians Cyaxares regained the supremacy, +renewed his attack on Assyria, and in 606 B.C. destroyed Nineveh and the +other capitals of the empire (Herod. i. 106; Berossus _ap._ Euseb. +_Chron._ i. 29, 37, confirmed by a stele of Nabonidus found in Babylon: +Scheil in _Recueil de travaux_, xviii.; Messerschmidt, "Die Inschrift +der Stele Nabonaids," in _Mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen +Gesellschaft_, i., 1896). According to Berossus he was allied with +Nabopolassar of Babylon, whose son Nebuchadrezzar married Amyitis, the +daughter of the Median king (who is wrongly called Astyages). The +countries north and east of the Tigris and the northern part of +Mesopotamia with the city of Harran (Carrhae) became subject to the +Medes. Armenia and Cappadocia were likewise subdued; the attempt to +advance farther into Asia Minor led to a war with Alyattes of Lydia. The +decisive battle, in the sixth year, was interrupted by the famous solar +eclipse on the 28th of May 585 predicted by Thales. Syennesis of Cilicia +and Nebuchadrezzar (in Herodotus named Labynetus) of Babylon interceded +and effected a peace, by which the Halys was fixed as frontier between +the two empires, and Alyattes's daughter married to Cyaxares's son +Astyages (Herod. i. 74). If Herodotus's dates are correct, Cyaxares died +shortly afterwards. + +In a fragmentary letter from an Assyrian governor to King Sargon (about +715 B.C.) about rebellions of Median chieftains, a dynast Uvakshatar +(i.e. Cyaxares) is mentioned as attacking an Assyrian fortress +(Kharkhar, in the chains of the Zagros). Possibly he was an ancestor of +the Median king. (Ed. M.) + + + + +CYBELE, or CYBEBE (Gr. [Greek: Knbele], [Greek: Knbebe]), a goddess +native to Asia Minor and worshipped by most of the peoples of the +peninsula, was known to the Romans most commonly as the GREAT MOTHER OR +THE GODS (q.v.), or the Great Idaean Mother of the Gods--_Magna Deum +Mater, Mater Deum Magna Idaea_. She was known by many other names, such +as _Mater Idaea_, Dindymene, Sipylene, derived from famous seats of +worship, and Mountain Mother, &c., in token of her character, but Cybele +is the name by which she is most frequently known in literature. Her +cult became centralized in Phrygia, had found its way into Greece, where +it never flourished greatly, as early as the latter 6th century B.C., +and was introduced at Rome in 204 B.C. Under the Empire it attained to +great importance, and was one of the last pagan cults to die. Cybele was +usually worshipped in connexion with Attis (q.v.), as Aphrodite with +Adonis, the two being a duality interpreted by the philosophers as +symbolic of Mother Earth and her vegetation. (G. Sn.) + + + + +CYCLADES, a compact group of islands in the Greek Archipelago, forming a +cluster around the island of Syra (Syros), the principal town of which, +now officially known as Hermoupolis, is the capital of a department. +Population of the group (1907) 130,378. The islands, though seldom +visited by foreigners, are for the most part highly interesting and +picturesque, notwithstanding their somewhat barren appearance when +viewed from the sea; many of them bear traces of the feudal rule of +Venetian families in the middle ages, and their inhabitants in general +may be regarded as presenting the best type of the Greek race. To the +student of antiquity the most interesting are: Delos (q.v.), one of the +greatest centres of ancient religious, political and commercial life, +where an important series of researches has been carried out by French +archaeologists; Melos (q.v.), where, in addition to various buildings of +the Hellenic and Roman periods, the large prehistoric stronghold of +Phylakopi has been excavated by members of the British school at Athens; +and Thera (see SANTORIN), the ancient capital of which has been explored +by Baron Hiller von Gaertringen. Thera is also of special interest to +geologists owing to its remarkable volcanic phenomena. Naxos, the +largest and most fertile island of the group, contains the highest +mountain in the Cyclades (Zia, 3290 ft.); the island annually exports +upwards of 2000 tons of emery, a state monopoly the proceeds of which +are now hypothecated to the foreign debt. The oak woods of Ceos (Zea) +and Ios furnish considerable supplies of valonia. Kimolos, which is +absolutely treeless, produces fuller's-earth. The famous marble quarries +of Paros have been practically abandoned in modern times; the marble of +Tenos is now worked by a British syndicate. The mineral wealth of the +Cyclades has hitherto been much neglected; iron ore is exported from +Seriphos, manganese and sulphur from Melos, and volcanic cement +(pozzolana) from Santorin. Other articles of export are wine, brandy, +hides and tobacco. Cythnos, Melos and other islands possess hot springs +with therapeutic qualities. The prosperity of Syra, formerly an +important distributing centre for the whole Levant, has been declining +for several years. + + Population (1907):--Syra 31,939 (communes, Hermoupolis 18,132, Mykonos + 4589, Syra 9218); Andros 18,035 (Andros 8536, Arni 2166, Gaurio 2897, + Corthion 4436); Thera 19,597 (Thera 4226, Egiale 1513, Amorgos 2627, + Anaphe 579, Emporium 2172, Therasia 679, Ios 2090, Kalliste 3519, Oea + 2192); Ceos 11,032 (Ceos 3817, Dryopis 1628, Cythnos 1563, Seriphos + 4024); Melos, 12,774 (Melos 4864, Adamas 529, Siphnos 3777, Kimolos + 2015, Pholegandros 962, Sikinos 627); Naxos 25,185 (Naxos 2064, + Apiranthe 2421, Vivlos 4343, Coronis 3205, Marpessa 1313, Naoussa + 1670, Paros 3586, Tragea 4661, Hyrie 1922); Tenos 11,816 (Tenos 4697, + Panorme 2658, Peree 2801, Sosthenion 1660). + + + + +CYCLAMEN, in botany, a genus belonging to the natural order Primulaceae, +containing about ten species native in the mountains of central Europe +and the Mediterranean region. _C. europaeum_ (Sow-bread) is found as an +introduced plant in copses in Kent and Sussex. The plants are +low-growing herbs with large tuberous rootstocks, from the surface of +which spring a number of broad, generally heart-shaped or kidney-shaped, +long-stalked leaves, which in cultivated forms are often beautifully +marbled, ribbed or splashed. The flowers are nodding, and white, pink, +lilac or crimson in colour. The corolla has a short tube and five large +reflexed lobes. After flowering the stalk becomes spirally coiled, +drawing the fruit down to the soil. Cyclamen is a favourite winter and +spring flowering plant. _C. persicum_ is probably the best known. It is +a small-growing kind bearing medium-sized leaves and numerous flowers. +_C. giganteum_ is a large, strong-growing species; not quite so free +flowering as _C. persicum_, but in all other respects superior to it +when well grown. _C. papilio_ differs in the fringed character of the +petals. It has been obtained by selection from _C. persicum_. There is +also a very beautiful crested race, probably derived from _C. +giganteum_. + +The plants are raised from seed, and, with good cultivation, flower in +fifteen to eighteen months from date of sowing. Seed should be sown as +soon as ripe, in July or August, in pots or pans, filled up to 2(1/2) +in. of the rim with broken crocks for drainage. The soil should consist +of fibrous yellow loam, leaf-mould in flakes, and coarse silver-sand, in +equal parts. Sow the seed thinly--1/4 in. to 1/2 in. apart--and cover +with a very thin sprinkling of the soil. Protect with a square of glass +covered with a piece of brown paper for shade, and place on a shelf in a +warm greenhouse. The soil should never be allowed to get dry. + +When the seedlings appear, remove the covering, care being taken that +they do not suffer for want of shade, water or a moist atmosphere. As +soon as the third leaf appears, repot singly into thumb-pots in slightly +coarser soil, so that the crowns of the little plants are just above the +level of the soil. In December transfer into a little richer soil, +consisting of two parts fibrous loam broken into small bits by hand and +the fine particles rejected, one part flaked leaf-mould, passed through +a half-inch sieve, half a part of plant ash from the burnt refuse heap +and half a part of coarse silver-sand. Keep through the winter in a +moist atmosphere at a temperature not below 50 deg. Fahr., and as near +the glass as possible. In March they should be ready for their next +shift into 5-in. pots. The potting compost should be the same as for the +last shift, with the addition of half a part of well-sweetened manure, +such as a spent mushroom bed. Keep in a warm moist atmosphere and shade +from strong sunlight. In June remove to cold frames and stand them on +inverted pots well clear of one another. Slugs show a marked partiality +for the succulent young leaves and should be excluded by dusting round +the frames occasionally with newly slaked lime. The inverted pots serve +as traps. The frames may thus be frequently syringed without keeping the +plants unduly wet. Shade heavily from direct sunlight, but afford as +much diffused light as practicable. Ventilate on all favourable +occasions, and close the frames early after copious syringing. + +By the end of the month they will be ready for the final shift into +7-in. pots. Much care must be used in handling them, the leaves being +large, tender and numerous. The soil is as for the last potting. The +frames should be kept close and heavily shaded for a few days after +potting; then gradually reduce shade and increase ventilation. By the +end of July the elegance of the foliage alone should well repay the care +bestowed on them. From this time onwards very little shading will be +needed, the object of the cultivator being to harden the growth already +made. With the advent of cool weather in September, remove to flowering +quarters in a warm greenhouse. Flowering will begin in November and will +continue through the winter and spring. The damping off of the +flower-buds may occasionally prove troublesome during winter. This may +generally be traced to checks, such as sudden changes in temperature, +too low a temperature, careless watering, &c. During spring plants that +are flowering freely will require weak manure water about twice a week. + +Plants selected to bear seed should be set aside for that purpose, and +as soon as the capsules are found to be developing properly they should +be reduced to six or seven per plant, and all flower-buds picked off as +soon as they are large enough to handle. The production of strong seeds +is of the utmost importance. + +Plants grown for market purposes, either for decoration or for seed, are +sown later than the above, are kept cooler, and during summer receive +more ventilation and less shade. This results in the production of +plants with much smaller and more erect leaves, which travel well. They +are flowered in spring and early summer. The species grown for this +purpose is _C. persicum_. + +A few species are hardy in dry sheltered positions, such as rockeries, +under walls and old trees, provided the positions are well drained. Such +are _C. europaeum_, with reddish-purple flowers in summer; _C. +hederifolium_ in autumn; and _C. neapolitanum_, with large leaves +marbled with silver and rosy-pink flowers. + + + + +CYCLE (Gr. [Greek: kuklos], a circle), in astronomy, a period of time at +the end of which some aspect or relation of the heavenly bodies recurs. +The more important cycles are discussed in the articles CALENDAR and +ECLIPSE. In physics, the term is applied to a series of operations +which, performed upon a system, brings it back to its original state; +"Carnot's Cycle" is an example (see THERMODYNAMICS). From the use of the +word for any period at the end of which the same events recur in the +same order or for any complete series of phenomena, it is used loosely +of any long period of time. The name [Greek: ho epikos kuklos], the epic +cycle, was given to the poems which complete the Homeric account of the +Trojan War (see below). It is this use which has given rise to the +application of the term "cycle" to a series of prose or poetical +romances which have for a centre one subject, whether a person, as in +the Alexander, Arthurian or Charlemagne cycles, or an object, such as +the ring of the Nibelungenlied. In music "Song-cycle" (Ger. +_Liederkreis_) is similarly used of a series of songs written round one +subject or set to poems by the same author. Beethoven's _An die ferne +Geliebte_ (Op. 98), published in 1816, is the earliest instance. +Schubert's _Die schone Mullerin_, Schumann's _Dichterliebe_ and Brahms's +_Magelone-Lieder_ are well-known instances. + +_Epic Cycle._--This is a collection or corpus of lays written about +776-580 B.C. by poets of the Ionian School, introductory or +complementary to the Homeric poems, dealing with the legends of the +Trojan and Theban wars. At a later date they were arranged so as to form +a continuous narrative (the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ included), perhaps +after certain alterations had been made, to fill up gaps and remove +inconsistencies and repetitions. By whom, and when, they were so +arranged, cannot be decided; it is possible that it was the work of +Zenodotus of Ephesus, who had the care of the epic section of the +Alexandrian library. In order to furnish the general reader with a +comprehensive sketch of mythological history, Proclus--according to +Welcker and Valesius (Valois), not the neo-Platonist, but an unknown 2nd +or 3rd century grammarian, perhaps Eutychius Proclus of Sicca[1] in +Africa, one of the tutors of Marcus Aurelius (see PROCLUS)--compiled a +prose summary ([Greek: Grammatke chrestomatheia]) of the contents of +the poems, to serve as a sort of primer to Greek literature. Extracts +from this are preserved in the Codex Venetus of Homer and Photius (cod. +239), according to which the epic cycle began with the union of Uranus +and Ge and ended with the death of Odysseus on his return to Ithaca at +the hands of his son Telegonus. The cycle was in existence in his +(Proclus's) time, and was in request not so much for its artistic merit, +as for the "sequence of the events described in it." Further light is +thrown on the subject by pictorial representations, intended for school +use during the Roman imperial period, the most famous of which is the +_Tabula Iliaca_ in the Capitoline museum. + +The expression "epic cycle" in the sense of a poetical collection does +not occur before the Christian era; the word [Greek: kyklos] ("cycle," +"circle") is used of a special kind of short poem and also of a prose +abstract of mythological history; the adjective has the general sense of +"hackneyed," "conventional," and is applied contemptuously (by +Callimachus and Horace) to a particular Alexandrian school of poetry. + +The most important poems of the Trojan legendary cycle are the _Cypria +of Stasinus_ (q.v.); the _Aethiopis_ and _Iliou Persis_ (Sack of Troy) +of Arctinus (q.v.); the _Little Iliad_ of Lesches (q.v.); the _Nosti_ of +Hagias or Agias; the _Telegonia_ of Eugammon. To the Theban cycle +belong: the _Thebais_ or _Expedition of Amphiaraus_ and the _Epigoni_ of +Antimachus. The _Oechalias Halosis_ (capture of _Oechalia_) of +Creophylus (q.v.); the _Phocais_ (or _Minyas_) of Prodicus; and the +_Danais_ of Cercops, although belonging to the old Homeric epos, cannot +with certainty be included in the epic cycle. The names of the authors +are in several cases exceedingly doubtful. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The standard work on the subject is F. G. Welcker, _Der + epische Cyclus_ (1865-1882); see also T. W. Allen, "The Epic Cycle," + in _Classical Quarterly_, Jan. and April 1908 (summary of sources and + authorities); Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, _Homerische Untersuchungen_ + (1884), who regards the traditional names and personalities of the + poets of the cycle with great scepticism; D. B. Monro, _Journal of + Hellenic Studies_, iv. (1883), appendix to his edition of the + _Odyssey_, xiii.-xxiv. (1900), and on the Codex Venetus fragment of + Proclus; J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ (2nd ed., 1906), vol. + i. ch. 2; J. B. Bury, _Ancient Greek Historians_ (1909), pp. 2-8 on + the epics as history; articles by H. Flach in Ersch and Gruber, + _Allgemeine Encyklopadie_, and by E. Schwartz and others in + Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] An objection to this view is that according to the Augustan + historian Capitolinus (_Antoninus_, 2) Eutychius of Sicca was a Latin + not a Greek grammarian. + + + + +CYCLING, the clipped term now given comprehensively to the sport or +exercise of riding a bicycle (q.v.) or tricycle (q.v.). + + + History. + +Suggestions of vehicles having two or more wheels and propelled by the +muscular effort of the rider or riders are to be found in very early +times, even on the bas-reliefs of Egypt and Babylon and the frescoes of +Pompeii; but though sporadic examples of such contrivances are recorded +in the 17th and 18th centuries, it was apparently not till the beginning +of the 19th century that they were used to any considerable extent. A +"velocipede" invented by Blanchard and Magurier, and described in the +_Journal de Paris_ on the 27th of July 1779, differed little from the +_celerifere_ proposed by another Frenchman, de Sivrac, in 1690; it +consisted of a wooden bar rigidly connecting two wheels placed one in +front of the other, and was propelled by the rider, seated astride the +bar, pushing against the ground with his feet. The next advance was made +in the _draisine_ of Freiherr Karl Drais von Sauerbronn (1785-1851), +described in his _Abbildung und Beschreibung seiner neu erfundenen +Laufmaschine_ (Nuremberg, 1817). In this the front wheel was pivoted on +the frame so that it could be turned sideways by a handle, thus serving +to steer the machine (figs. 1 and 2). A similar machine, the +"celeripede," also with a movable front wheel, is said to have been +ridden by J. N. Niepce in Paris some years before. In England the +draisine achieved a great, though temporary, vogue under various names, +such as velocipede, patent accelerator, bivector, bicipedes, pedestrian +curricle (patented by Dennis Johnson in 1818), dandy horse, hobby horse, +&c., and for a time it was popular in America also. The propulsion of +the draisine by pushing with the feet being alleged to give rise to +diseases of the legs, arrangements were soon suggested, as by Louis +Gompertz in England in 1821, by which the front wheel could be rotated +by the hands with the aid of a system of gearing, but the idea of +providing mechanical connexions between the feet and the wheels was +apparently not thought of till later. Pedals with connecting rods +working on the rear axle are said to have been applied to a tricycle in +1834 by Kirkpatrick McMillan, a Scottish blacksmith of Keir, +Dumfriesshire, and to a draisine by him in 1840, and by a Scottish +cooper, Gavin Dalzell, of Lesmahagow, Lanarkshire, about 1845. The +draisine thus fitted had wooden wheels, with iron tires, the leading one +about 30 in. in diameter and the driving one about 40 in., and thus it +formed the prototype, though not the ancestor, of the modern rear-driven +safety bicycle. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Gentleman's Hobby Horse.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Lady's Hobby Horse.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--The Boneshaker, 1868.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--The "Phantom," 1869.] + +For the next 20 years little was done, and then began the evolution of +the high "ordinary" bicycle with a large driving wheel in front and a +small trailing one behind. About 1865 Pierre Lallement in Paris +constructed a bicycle in which the front wheel was driven by pedals and +cranks attached directly to its axle, but it is doubtful whether the +origin of this idea must be attributed to him or to Ernest Michaux, the +son of his employer, who was a carriage repairer. Lallement took his +machine to the United States, and in 1866 was granted a patent which had +an important influence on the subsequent course of the cycle industry in +that country. This machine, consisting of a wooden frame supported on +two wooden wheels (fig. 3), soon became popular in England, as well as +in France and America, and came to be called bicycle (or bysicle) by +those who took it seriously and "boneshaker" by those who did not. +Improvements quickly followed, chiefly in England, for in America the +popularity of the machine was short-lived, and in France the industry +was checked by the Franco-German war. Rubber tires, in place of iron +ones, appeared in 1868, and in two or three years were made very large, +2 in. or more in width. Suspension wheels, with wire spokes in tension, +were seen at the Crystal Palace, London, on the "Phantom" (fig. 4) of W. +F. Reynolds and J. A. Mays in 1869, and early in the same year the +manufacture of bicycles, at first for export to France, was begun in +England by the Coventry Sewing Machine Company, till then makers of +sewing machines. There was a rapid growth in the size of the front +wheel, which in the boneshaker normally measured 36 or 38 in. in +diameter, with a corresponding shrinkage in the rear wheel (fig. 5), +until by 1874, the date of the invention of the tangent wheel by J. K. +Starley 54-in. wheels were being made. The high bicycle was now fairly +established in form, and the changes made in the subsequent 10 or 15 +years during which it retained its supremacy were chiefly in the +details of construction, such as the adoption of steel tubing for the +frames, the use of hollow rims in the wheels and the application first +of cone and then of ball bearings to points of friction. The weight of a +54-in. bicycle, which in 1874-1875 exceeded 50 or even 60 lb., was thus +reduced to well under 40 lb. in machines intended for use on ordinary +roads, and to not much over 20 lb. in the case of racers. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Humber's "Spider," 1872.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Rudge Racing Ordinary, 1887.] + +The high "ordinary" bicycle (fig. 6) gave unquestionable pleasure to +many riders, and very fast times were made with it both on the road and +on the racing path. In 1882 H. L. Cortis rode 20 m. 300 yds. in one +hour, and in April 1884 Thomas Stevens started from San Francisco to +ride round the world, a feat which he accomplished in December 1886. But +it had various disadvantages. The vibration set up by the small back +wheel was very trying, and in spite of the size of the front one the +rider had to move his pedals at an uncomfortably rapid rate if he wished +to maintain a good speed. Moreover his seat was placed in such a +position that he was liable to be pitched over the handlebar if his +wheel encountered a comparatively small obstacle. Attempts were made to +remedy these inconveniences in various ways. From the early 'eighties +much attention was devoted to tricycles, and these were produced in +innumerable designs, whether for a single rider, or for two in the form +of "sociables," in which the riders sat side by side, or of "tandems," +in which one sat behind the other. But their weight, and consequently +the exertion of propelling them, was necessarily greater than in the +case of the bicycle, and by the end of the decade, the demand for them +had fallen off, though they are still made to a certain extent, chiefly +for carrying purposes. The two-track dicycle (fig. 7), invented by E. C. +F. Otto about 1879, in which the rider balanced himself between two +equal wheels placed abreast, also failed to secure lasting success. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Otto Dicycle, 1879.] + +The improvement of the high bicycle was attempted in two directions. On +the one hand it was modified by placing the rider farther back, his +position "over his work" being ensured by arranging the pedals +immediately below him and connecting them to the front wheel, which was +usually reduced in size, by levers and cranks or by chain-gearing, often +with a multiplying action. On the other, the rear wheel was enlarged and +made the driving wheel. The "'Xtraordinary" (fig. 8), "Facile" (fig. 9) +and "Kangaroo" were examples of the former kind, which were often spoken +of as "dwarf-safeties"; but though a good many of them were used about +1880 and following years, both they and the "ordinary" bicycle +ultimately disappeared before machines of the second kind, which +developed into the modern rear-driven safety. There are numerous +claimants for the invention--or rather the reinvention--of this type, +but it appears that the credit for its practical and commercial +introduction in substantially its present form is due to J. K. Starley +in England. His "Rover" (fig. 10), brought out late in 1885, had two +nearly equal wheels, the driving wheel 30 in. in diameter and the +steering 32 in., and the rider sat so far back that he could not be +thrown forward over the handles. The motion imparted by the pedals to a +sprocket wheel mounted between the wheels was transmitted by an endless +chain to the rear wheel, and by sufficiently increasing the size of this +sprocket wheel the machine could be made to travel as far or farther +than the "ordinary" for each complete revolution of the pedals. From +about 1890 the "safety" monopolized the field. At first it was fitted +with the narrow rubber tires customary at the time, but these gave way +to pneumatic tires, invented in 1888 by J. B. Dunlop, a veterinary +surgeon of Belfast, whose idea, however, had been anticipated in the +English patent taken out by R. W. Thomson in 1845. The result was a +great gain in comfort, due to reduction of vibration, and a remarkable +increase of speed or, alternatively, decrease of exertion. Subsequent +progress was mainly in the details of design and manufacture, tending to +secure lightness combined with adequate strength, and such was the +success attained, by the application of scientific principles and of +improved methods and materials to the construction of the frames and +other parts, that while the weight of the original "Rover" was about 50 +lb. that of its successors 20 years later with 28-in. wheels was reduced +by 35 or 45%, or even 60% in the case of racing machines. The beginning +of the 20th century saw the introduction of two innovations: one was the +"free-wheel," a device which allows the driving wheel to rotate +independently of the chain and pedals, so that the rider, controlling +his speed with powerful brakes, can "coast" down a hill using the +stationary pedals as foot-rests; and the other was the motor-cycle, in +which a petrol-engine relieves him, except at starting, from all +personal exertion, though at the cost of considerable vibration. A third +contrivance, which, however, was an idea of considerably older date, +also began to find favour about the same period in the shape of +two-speed and three-speed gears, enabling the rider at will to alter the +ratio between the speed of revolution of his pedals and of his driving +wheel, and thereby accommodate himself to the varying gradients of the +road he is traversing (see also BICYCLE, TRICYCLE and TIRE). + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Singers' "'Xtraordinary," 1879.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--The "Facile," 1879.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Starley's "Rover," 1885.] + +The safety bicycle, with pneumatic tires, rendered cycling universally +popular, not merely as a pastime but as a convenient means of locomotion +for everyday use. Made with a drop-frame, it also enabled women to cycle +without being confined to a heavy tricycle or compelled to assume +"rational dress." In consequence there was an enormous expansion in the +cycle industry. In England the demand for machines had become so great +by 1895 that the makers were unable to cope with it. Numbers of new +factories were started, small shops grew into large companies, and the +capital invested advanced by millions of pounds. The makers who had +devoted their mechanical skill to perfecting the methods of +cycle-construction were swallowed up by company promoters and +adventurers, bent simply upon filling their own pockets. The march of +mechanical invention and improvement was arrested, and machines, instead +of being built by mechanics proud of their work, in many cases were +merely put together in the shortest possible time and in a few standard +patterns. For these the world clamoured, and for a year they could not +be produced fast enough. Then the demand fell off, the British market +became over-stocked, and as the British makers declined to consider the +wants of foreign customers, their store-rooms remained crowded with +machines that could not be sold. Speculative finance, such as was +exemplified in 1896 by the flotation for L5,000,000 of the Dunlop tire +company, which had been started in 1889 with a capital of L25,000, had +its natural effects. There ensued widespread and continuing +disorganization of the trade, which had to be met by extensive +reconstructions of over-capitalized companies. English makers too had +lost the commanding international position they once enjoyed, when they +supplied almost the entire demand for bicycles in many parts of the +world, including the United States. In America the manufacture of +bicycles was not begun until about 1878, when it was introduced by A. A. +Pope (1843-1909), and even by 1890 the value of the products barely +exceeded 2(1/2) million dollars, while for several years later much of the +steel tubing required for bicycle manufacture continued to be imported +from Great Britain. The industry, however, thanks to automatic machinery +and perfect organization, grew rapidly, and in 1900 the value of its +products was nearly 32 million dollars. In the two years 1897 and 1898 +the exports of cycles and cycle parts alone were worth nearly 14 million +dollars, though they fell off in subsequent years, and English makers +had to contend with an American invasion in addition to their domestic +troubles. But the competition was short-lived. The American makers sent +over machines with single tube tires and wooden rims which did not +secure the approval of the British purchaser, and so they too lost their +hold. In the opening years of the 20th century the industry in Great +Britain gradually recovered itself. More attention was paid to the +production of cheap machines which were sound and trustworthy, and sales +were further stimulated by the introduction of systems of deferred +payments. In 1905 about 600,000 machines were made in Great Britain, and +47,604 were exported, the total value of the home-market for cycles and +their parts being about 3(1/2) millions sterling, and of the export trade +about one million. In the same year the number of machines imported was +only 2345. + + + Touring clubs. + +Cycle tours were taken and cycle clubs established almost as soon as the +cycle appeared, the Pickwick Bicycle Club in London, founded in 1870, +being the oldest in the world. The organization of these clubs is +chiefly of a social character, and a few possess well-appointed +club-houses. To a great extent they have been superseded by the large +touring organizations. The Cyclists' Touring Club, organized in 1878 as +the Bicycle Touring Club, has members scattered through Europe, America +and even the East. Many other countries possess national clubs, as for +instance the League of American Wheelmen, founded in 1880, and the +Touring Club de France, founded in 1895, of whose objects cycling is +only one, though the chief. The aim of these national associations, +which have formed an international touring league, is the promotion of +cycle touring. To this end they publish roadbooks, maps and journals; +they recommend hotels, with fixed tariffs, in their own and other +countries; they appoint representatives to aid their members when +touring; and they have succeeded in inducing most governments to allow +their members to travel freely across frontiers without paying duty on +their machines. In all countries they have erected warning-boards at +dangerous places; in France the best route is suggested by a sign-post, +and cyclists who meet with accidents in lonely places find repair +outfits provided for their free use. Another important part of the work +of these clubs, either directly or indirectly, is the improvement of the +roads. France has done more for the cyclist than any other country, +owing to the fact that she possesses the best roads, kept up to a +certain extent by the cycle tax, whereby the cyclist acquires a certain +official position and right; moreover cycles accompanied by their owners +are conveyed without extra charge on the railways, and aid is given to +the sport and pastime from public funds. In Belgium the cycle has worked +a veritable revolution in the national life. The surface of the greater +part of the country being loose and sandy, the roads have been paved, +and this paving is so bad as to be impossible for light traffic. The +cycle tax has consequently been devoted, first, to the construction of +paths on which cyclists have equal rights with pedestrians, and secondly +to the replacing of the paving by macadam. In this way alone cycling has +proved of inestimable benefit to Belgium and Luxembourg. In the United +States measures for securing good roads and side paths have been +introduced in various states, mainly at the instigation first of +cyclists and then of motorists, and in Great Britain the Roads +Improvement Association has worked for the same end. + + + Racing. + +Each country also possesses an organization for the government of cycle +racing; and although these unions, one object of which--usually the main +one--is the encouragement of cycle racing and cycle legislation, boast +an enormous membership, their membership is often composed of clubs and +not individuals. Among the most important are the National Cyclists' +Union of England and the Union Velocipedique of France. These bodies are +also bound together by the International Cyclists' Association, which is +devoted mainly to the promotion of racing and legislation connected with +it all over the world. The National Cyclists' Union, originally the +Bicycle Union, which was the parent body of all, formed in February +1878, was the first to put up danger-boards, and also was early +instrumental, alone and with the C.T.C., in framing or suggesting laws +for the proper government and regulation of cycle traffic, notably in +establishing its position as a vehicle in securing universal rights, in +endeavouring, again in conjunction with the C.T.C., to increase +facilities for the carriage of cycles on the railways, in securing the +opening of parks, and in promoting many other equally praiseworthy +objects. For a number of years, however, it has been more prominent as +the ruling race-governing body. But cycle racing has fallen upon evil +days. At one time cycle racing attracted a large number of spectators, +but gradually it lost the public favour, or rather was ignored by the +public because it became mainly an advertisement for cycle makers. The +presence of the man, directly or indirectly, in the employ of, or aided +by a maker, and the consequent mixing up of trade and sport, lowered +racing not only in the public estimation, but in that of all genuine +amateurs. There have always been a few amateurs who have raced for the +love of the sport, but the greater number of prominent racing men have +raced for the benefit of a firm, so much so that, at one time, an entire +section of racing men were classed as "makers' amateurs." They did not +confine themselves to the race track, but appropriated the public roads +until they became a danger and a nuisance, and road-racing finally was +abolished, though record rides, as they are called, are still indulged +in, being winked at by the police and by the cycling authorities. The +makers' amateurs at least rode to win and to make the best time +possible. But the scandal was so great that a system of licensing riders +was adopted by the N.C.U., and if this did not effectively kill the +sport, the introduction of waiting races did. There probably is +considerable skill in riding two-thirds of a race as slowly as possible, +and only hurrying the last part of the last lap, but it does not amuse +the public, who want to see a fast race as well as a close finish. The +introduction of pacing by multicycles and motors next took from cycle +racing what interest was left. A motor race, in which the machines are +run at top speed, is more exciting than the spectacle of a motor being +driven at a rate which the cyclist can follow with the protection of a +wind-shield. In America this system of proving what cyclists can do with +racing machines was carried so far that in 1899 a board track was laid +down on the Long Island railway for about 2 m. between the metals, and a +cyclist named Murphy, followed a train, and protected by enormous +wind-shields, succeeded in covering a mile in less than a minute in the +autumn of 1900. Other cyclists have devoted themselves, at the +instigation of makers, to the riding of 100 m. a day every day for a +year. It would be difficult to say what advantage there is in these +trials and contests. They are not convincing records, and only prove +that some people are willing to take great personal risks for the +benefit of their employers. E. Hale, during 1899-1900, covered 32,496 m. +in 313 days. For many years also long-distance races, mostly of six +days' duration, have been promoted on covered tracks, and though +condemned by all cycling organizations, they find a great deal of +pecuniary support. + + + Military. + +The cycle has also been taken up for military purposes. For this idea +the British army is indebted to Colonel A. R. Savile, who in 1887 +organized the first series of cycle manoevres in England. Since then +military cycling has undergone a great development, not only in the +country of its origin but in most others. + + + Literature. + + Cycling has produced a literature of its own, both of the pastime and + of the trade. Owing to the enormous profits which, for several years, + were obtained by cycle makers, a trade press appeared which simply + lived by, and out of, its advertisers; and though each country has one + or more genuine trade journals, the large proportion of these sheets + have been worth, in a business aspect, as little practically as from a + literary standpoint. On the other hand a vast mass of practical and + unpractical, scientific and medical, historical and touring treatises + and records have appeared, but mostly of a rather ephemeral character. + + + + +CYCLOID (from Gr. [Greek: kuklos], circle, and [Greek: eidos], form), in +geometry, the curve traced out by a point carried on a circle which +rolls along a straight line. The name cycloid is now restricted to the +curve described when the tracing-point is on the circumference of the +circle; if the point is either within or without the circle the curves +are generally termed _trochoids_, but they are also known as the +_prolate_ and _curtate_ cycloids respectively. The cycloid is the +simplest member of the class of curves known as roulettes. + +No mention of the cycloid has been found in writings prior to the 15th +century. Francis Schooten (_Commentary on Descartes_) assigns the +invention of the curve to Rene Descartes and the first publication on +this subject after Descartes to Marin Mersenne. Evangelista Torricelli, +in the first regular dissertation on the cycloid (_De dimensione +cycloidis_, an appendix to his _De dimensione parabolae_, 1644), states +that his friend and tutor Galileo discovered the curve about 1599. John +Wallis discussed both the history and properties of the curve in a tract +_De cycloide_ published at Oxford in 1659. He there shows that the +cycloid was investigated by Carolus Bovillus about 1500, and by Cardinal +Cusanus (Nicolaus de Cusa) as early as 1451. Honore Fabri (_Synopsis +geometrica_, 1669) treated of the curve and enumerated many theorems +concerning it. Many other mathematicians have written on the +cycloid--Blaise Pascal, W. G. Leibnitz, the Bernoullis, Roger Cotes and +others--and so assiduously was it studied that it was sometimes named +the "Helen of Geometers." The determination of the area was the subject +of many investigations and much controversy. Galileo attempted the +evaluation by weighing the curve against the generating circle; this +rough method gave only an approximate value, viz., a little less than +thrice the generating circle. Torricelli, by employing the "method of +indivisibles," deduced that the area was exactly three times that of the +generating circle; this result had been previously established in 1640 +in France by G. P. de Roberval, but his investigation was unknown in +Italy. Blaise Pascal determined the area of the section made by any line +parallel to the base and the volumes and centres of gravity of the +solids generated by revolving the curve about its axis and base. Before +publishing his results he proposed these problems for public competition +in 1658 under the assumed name of Amos Dettonville. John Wallis in +England, and A. la Louere in France, accepted the challenge, but the +former could only submit incorrect solutions, while the latter failed +completely. Having established his priority, Pascal published his +investigations, which occasioned a great sensation among his +contemporaries, and Wallis was enabled to correct his methods. Sir +Christopher Wren, the famous architect, determined the length of the arc +and its centre of gravity, and Pierre Fermat deduced the surface of the +spindle generated by its revolution. A famous period in the history of +the cycloid is marked by a bitter controversy which sprang up between +Descartes and Roberval. The evaluation of the area of the curve had made +Roberval famous in France, but Descartes considered that the value of +his investigation had been grossly exaggerated; he declared the problem +to be of an elementary nature and submitted a short and simple solution. +At the same time he challenged Roberval and Fermat to construct the +tangent; Roberval failed but Fermat succeeded. This problem was solved +independently by Vicenzo Viviani in Italy. The cartesian equation was +first given by Wilhelm Gottfried Leibnitz (_Acta eruditorum_, 1686) in +the form y = (2x - x^2)(1/2) + [int](2x - x^2)(1/2)dx. Among other early +writers on the cycloid were Phillippe de Lahire (1640-1718) and Francois +Nicole (1683-1758). + +The mechanical properties of the cycloid were investigated by Christiaan +Huygens, who proved the curve to be tautochronous. His enquiries into +evolutes enabled him to prove that the evolute of a cycloid was an equal +cycloid, and by utilizing this property he constructed the isochronal +pendulum generally known as the _cycloidal pendulum_. In 1697 John +Bernoulli proposed the famous problem of the _brachistochrone_ (see +MECHANICS), and it was proved by Leibnitz, Newton and several others +that the cycloid was the required curve. + + The method by which the cycloid is generated shows that it consists of + an infinite number of cusps placed along the fixed line and separated + by a constant distance equal to the circumference of the rolling + circle. The name cycloid is usually restricted to the portion between + two consecutive cusps (fig. 1, curve a); the fixed line LM is termed + the base, and the line PQ which divides the curve symmetrically is the + _axis_. The co-ordinates of any point R on the cycloid are expressible + in the form x = a([theta] + sin [theta]); y = a(1 - cos [theta]), + where the co-ordinate axes are the tangent at the vertex O and the + axis of the curve, a is the radius of the generating circle, and + [theta] the angle R'CO, where RR' is parallel to LM and C is the + centre of the circle in its symmetric position. Eliminating [theta] + between these two relations the equation is obtained in the form x = + (2ay - y^2)(1/2) + a vers-^1 y/a. The clumsiness of the relation + renders it practically useless, and the two separate relations in + terms of a single parameter [theta] suffice for the deduction of most + of the properties of the curve. The length of any arc may be + determined by geometrical considerations or by the methods of the + integral calculus. When measured from the vertex the results may be + expressed in the forms s = 4a sin 1/2[theta] and s = [root](8ay); the + total length of the curve is 8a. The intrinsic equation is s = 4a sin + [psi], and the equation to the evolute is s = 4a cos [psi], which + proves the evolute to be a similar cycloid placed as in fig. 2, in + which the curve QOP is the evolute and QPR the original cycloid. The + radius of curvature at any point is readily deduced from the intrinsic + equation and has the value [rho] = 4 cos 1/2[theta], and is equal to + twice the normal which is 2a cos 1/2[theta]. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + The _trochoids_ were studied by Torricelli and F. van Schooten, and + more completely by John Wallis, who showed that they possessed + properties similar to those of the common cycloid. The cartesian + equation in terms similar to those used above is x = a[theta] + b sin + [theta]; y = a - b cos [theta], where a is the radius of the + generating circle and b the distance of the carried point from the + centre of the circle. If the point is without the circle, i.e. if a < + b, then the curve exhibits a succession of nodes or loops (fig. 1, + curve b); if within the circle, i.e. if a > b, the curve has the form + shown in fig. 1, curve c. + + The _companion to the cycloid_ is a curve so named on account of its + similarity of construction, form and equation to the common cycloid. + It is generated as follows: Let ABC be a circle having AB for a + diameter. Draw any line DE perpendicular to AB and meeting the circle + in E, and take a point P on DE such that the line DP = arc BE; then + the locus of P is the companion to the cycloid. The curve is shown in + fig. 3. The cartesian equation, referred to the fixed diameter and the + tangent at B as axes may be expressed in the forms x = a[theta], y = + a(1 - cos [theta]) and y - a = a sin (x/a - 1/2[pi]); the latter form + shows that the locus is the harmonic curve. + + For epi- and hypo-cycloids and epi- and hypo-trochoids see EPICYCLOID. + + + REFERENCES.--Geometrical constructions relating to the curves above + described are to be found in T. H. Eagles, _Constructive Geometry of + Plane Curves_. For the mechanical and analytical investigation, + reference may be made to articles MECHANICS and INFINITESIMAL + CALCULUS. A historical bibliography of these curves is given in + Brocard, _Notes de bibliographie des courbes geometriques_ (1897). See + also Moritz Cantor, _Geschichte der Mathematik_ (1894-1901). + + + + +CYCLOMETER (Gr. [Greek: kyklos], circle, and [Greek: metron], measure), +an instrument used especially by cyclists to determine the distance they +have traversed. In a common form a stud attached to one spoke of the +wheel engages with a toothed pinion and moves it on one tooth at each +revolution. The pinion is connected with a train of clockwork, the +gearing of which bears such a ratio to the circumference of the wheel +that the distance corresponding to the number of times it has revolved +is shown on a dial in miles or other units. + + + + +CYCLONE (Gr. [Greek: kyklon], whirling, from [Greek: kyklos], a circle), +an atmospheric system where the pressure is lowest at the centre. The +winds in consequence tend to blow towards the centre, but being diverted +according to Ferrel's law they rotate spirally inwards at the surface of +the earth in a direction contrary to the movement of the hands of a +watch in the northern hemisphere, and the reverse in the southern +hemisphere. The whole system has a motion of translation, being usually +carried forward with the great wind-drifts like eddies upon a swift +stream. Thus their direction of movement over the British Islands is +usually from S.W. to N.E., though they may remain stationary or move in +other directions. The strength of the winds depends upon the atmospheric +gradients. (See METEOROLOGY.) + + + + +CYCLOPEAN MASONRY (from the Cyclopes, the supposed builders of the walls +of Mycenae), a term in architecture, used, in conjunction with Pelasgic, +to define the rude polygonal construction employed by the Greeks and the +Etruscans in the walls of their cities. In the earliest examples they +consist only of huge masses of rock, of irregular shape, piled one on +the other and trusting to their great size and weight for cohesion; +sometimes smaller pieces of rock filled up the interstices. The walls +and gates of Tiryns and Mycenae were thus constructed. Later, these +blocks were rudely shaped to fit one another. It is not always possible +to decide the period by the type of construction, as this depended on +the material; where stratified rocks could be obtained, horizontal +coursing might be adopted; in fact, there are instances in Greece, where +a later wall of cyclopean construction has been built over one with +horizontal courses. + + + + +CYCLOPES ([Greek: Kyklopes], the round-eyed, plural of Cyclops), a type +of beings variously described in Greek mythology. In Homer they are +gigantic cave-dwellers, cannibals having only one eye, living a pastoral +life in the far west (Sicily), ignorant of law and order, fearing +neither gods nor men. The most prominent among them was Polyphemus. In +Hesiod (_Theogony_, 264) they are the three sons of Uranus and +Gaea--Brontes, Steropes and Arges,--storm-gods belonging to the family +of the Titans, who furnished Zeus with thunder and lightning out of +gratitude for his having released them from Tartarus. They were slain by +Apollo for having forged the thunderbolt with which Zeus slew Asclepius. +Later legend transferred their abode to Mt Aetna, the Lipari islands or +Lemnos, where they assisted Hephaestus at his forge. A third class of +Cyclopes are the builders of the so-called "Cyclopean" walls of Mycenae +and Tiryns, giants with arms in their belly, who were said to have been +brought by Proetus from Lycia to Argos, his original home (Pausanias ii. +16. 5; 25. 8). Like the Curetes and Telchines they are mythical types of +prehistoric workmen and architects, and as such the objects of worship. + + The standard work on these and similar mythological characters is M. + Mayer, _Die Giganten und Titanen_ (1887); see also A. Boltz, _Die + Kyklopen_ (1885), who endeavours to show that they were an historical + people; W. Mannhardt, _Wald- und Feldkulte_ (1904); J. E. Harrison, + _Myths of the Odyssey_ (1882); and article in Roscher's _Lexikon der + Mythologie_ (bibliography). + + + + +CYCLOSTOMATA, or MARSIPOBRANCHII, a group of fishes including the +ordinary lampreys and hagfish, and so called from the wide permanently +gaping mouth which is without the hinged jaws characteristic of other +vertebrates (GNATHOSTOMATA). The class Cyclostomata consists of two +orders, the Myxinoids (or Hyperotreti) and the Petromyzontes (or +Hyperoartii), which, while showing sufficient resemblance in structure +to warrant their inclusion in the same class, are yet marked off by such +deep-seated differences as to indicate that they commenced to diverge +from one another far back in evolutionary time. The order Myxinoids +includes the hagfish (_Myxine_), common off the eastern, and occurring +also, though less commonly, off the western coasts of the north +Atlantic, and the genus _Bdellostoma_ (also known as _Homea_, +_Eptatretus_, in part--_Polistotrema_), including the "borers" of the +western American coast, New Zealand and the Cape of Good Hope. The order +Petromyzontes includes the widely distributed lampreys. The original +genus _Petromyzon_ (which it is now customary to subdivide into a number +of genera) includes the large sea lamprey (_P. marinus_) of the north +Atlantic coasts and the two fresh-water lampreys of European streams +(_P. fluviatilis_ and _P. planeri_, the latter of which is possibly only +a small-sized variety of the former species). In North America nine or +ten species of lampreys are known to occur, descriptions of which are +given by Jordan and Evermann (1). In the southern hemisphere occur the +two genera Mordacia (Chile, Tasmania) and _Geotria_ (Chile, Australia, +New Zealand) (2). + +The Cyclostomes are remarkable among vertebrates in that they are +semiparasitic in habit. The lampreys--except some of the small +fresh-water forms--attach themselves to other fishes by their suctorial +mouth and proceed to rasp off the flesh by means of the horny teeth +carried by the highly-developed tongue. The Myxinoids have gone a step +further and actually bore their way right into the body of their prey, +devouring all the soft parts and leaving the skin behind as a mere +shell, empty but for the bones. Where the hagfish or borers are +abundant, as in certain localities off the east coast of Scotland and +off the west coast of California, they may do great damage to fisheries +from their habit of attacking fishes which are in difficulties through +being caught by a hook or in a net; the fish when drawn up being +frequently completely deprived of their flesh. + +The Myxinoids retain the ancestral marine habitat, but the lampreys have +sought refuge from the struggle for existence by taking to fresh water +to a less or greater extent. Such a form as _Petromyzon marinus_ or +_Entosphenus tridentatus_ of the west coast of America is what is known +as anadromous in habit, i.e. it takes refuge in fresh water during the +breeding season, ascending rivers like the salmon for the purpose of +spawning. Certain species of lampreys, on the other hand, have +completely deserted the sea and spend their whole lives in fresh-water +streams or lakes. The lake lampreys show a reminiscence of their +ancestral migratory habits in leaving lakes and ascending streams in +order to deposit their spawn. + +_Anatomy._--In structural features, the Cyclostomes show a curious +mixture of features which must be looked on as primitive with others +which are indicative of high specialization for their peculiar mode of +life. In general appearance they are "eel-like": they are elongated in +shape and adapted for swimming in eel fashion, i.e. the body is +propelled forward by the backward passage along it of waves of lateral +flexure. There are, however, certain conspicuous differences which at +once serve to distinguish a Cyclostome from any other fishes of eel-like +shape:--(1) the circular permanently open mouth, (2) the absence of all +trace of paired limbs, (3) the absence of paired external nasal +openings, and (4) the presence on the roof or at the tip of the head of +a conspicuous median opening--the pituitary opening. + + It will be convenient, in describing the structural features of the + group, to take as a basis for the description the marine lamprey, + _Petromyzon marinus_. A marine lamprey is an eel-like creature 70 to + 75 cm. in length. At the anterior end and situated somewhat ventrally + is the circular widely gaping mouth or buccal cavity, its lining + studded with sharply pointed thorn-like "teeth" and its edge fringed + with numerous sensory papillae. On the dorsal side of the head is the + conspicuous circular pituitary opening with prominent lips, while on + the sides are seen the eyes, and behind these a row of somewhat + rounded branchial openings or gill-clefts. At about the beginning of + the posterior fourth of the body, and in the midventral line, is the + anal opening, and immediately behind it is the prominent papilla + carrying the opening of the urogenital sinus. The hinder portion of + the body, in accordance with its function in locomotion, is flattened + from side to side, while its surface is increased by the development + of a median fin fold, divided, except in early stages of development, + into three portions, known as the first and second dorsal fins and the + caudal fin. The last mentioned is of the primitive protocercal type. + The whole surface of the body--which shows a conspicuous dark + marbling, especially dorsally, on a light ground--is covered with + highly glandular epidermis. An important feature is the complete + absence of all trace of the calcified placoid plates which are so + characteristic of the Elasmobranchii. + + The Myxinoids differ from the lampreys in regard to several of the + above-mentioned characters. The edges of the mouth carry tentacle-like + barbels. The pituitary opening is close to the anterior edge of the + mouth opening instead of being right up on the dorsal side of the + head. The eyes are invisible, being greatly reduced and sunk far below + the surface, and in _Myxine_, though not in _Bdellostoma_, the row of + gill openings is represented by a single opening on each side nearly + in the midventral line and situated at about the end of the first + quarter of the body length. Ventrally the Myxinoid possesses on each + side of the body a row of remarkable epidermal glands which can + produce at will enormous quantities of glutinous slime. This + secretion, which, no doubt, is of much value as a protection from + attack, is composed of very fine threads, formed by the conversion of + the protoplasm of certain cells of the epidermal glands ("thread + cells") into an extremely fine, tightly coiled filament, which becomes + unwound when discharged to the exterior. + + [Illustration: From D. Starr Jordan, _A Guide to the Study of Fishes_, + by permission of A. Constable & Co., Ltd. + + FIG. 1.--The Marine Lamprey (_Petromyzon marinus_, L.).] + + _Pituitary Tube._--A remarkable peculiarity of the Cyclostomes lies in + the fact that the pituitary ingrowth of ectoderm does not, as in other + forms, become involved in the inpushing of ectoderm which forms the + buccal cavity. On the contrary, it lies outside the edge of the + stomodaeum, and in the case of the lampreys active growth takes place + in the tissue between the pituitary and stomodaeal ingrowths, so that + the two openings come to be widely separated, the pituitary opening + being pushed back on to the dorsal side of the head. The pituitary + opening remains patent throughout life, as is the case with + Crossopterygians alone amongst Gnathostomata. In _Myxine_ a further + remarkable peculiarity in regard to the hypophysis, probably adaptive + in nature, occurs, inasmuch as the pituitary invagination develops an + opening at its posterior end into the pharynx. + + _Nervous System._--The anterior end of the nervous tube is enlarged + and differentiated to form a brain as in other Vertebrates, but this + brain in the lampreys at least shows remarkably primitive features. + The enlargement as compared with the spinal cord is seen to be + comparatively slight: the brain is much elongated, and its various + regions lie in a straight line one behind the other: the roof of the + brain retains to a great extent the primitive epithelial condition. On + each side anteriorly there is present a comparatively large olfactory + lobe, and this is continued posteriorly into a small cerebral + hemisphere. + + The lampreys are amongst those vertebrates in which there is an + eye-like apparatus (3) connected with the roof of the + thalamencephalon. There grow out from the roof of the thalamencephalon + two processes, a posterior (the pineal process), and an anterior (the + parapineal process). The pineal process grows forwards so as to + overlie the parapineal process. Each of these projections from the + roof of the thalamencephalon dilates to form a vesicle, and each + vesicle shows certain eye-like characteristics, its deep wall forming + a "retina" and its superficial wall being clear and translucent + ("pellucida"). The retinal cells are packed in the case of the pineal + organ with opaque white pigment: similar pigment occurs in smaller + quantity in the parapineal organ. Definite sensory cells are also + present with rod-like structures projecting into the lumen of the + vesicle. Nerve fibres have been traced--from the pineal organ into the + posterior commissure and possibly into the right habenular ganglion. + As regards other parts of the brain, the chief point to note is that + the cerebellum is in a most rudimentary condition, forming merely a + slight transverse thickening of the hind-brain roof at its anterior + end. In Myxinoids the brain is much larger as compared with the spinal + cord, and it differs from that of the lampreys by being relatively + much shorter in an anteroposterior direction. A remarkable negative + feature lies in the complete absence of the pineal and parapineal + organs so conspicuous in the lampreys. The olfactory organ of + Cyclostomes is remarkable for two special characteristics, firstly, + that the two olfactory organs of other vertebrates are here + represented by a single median structure, and secondly, that the + olfactory organ becomes sunk down beneath the surface through becoming + involved in the ectodermal ingrowth which forms the pituitary tube. As + a further consequence in the case of the lampreys the olfactory organ + becomes transported to the roof of the head along with the pituitary + opening, which latter functions as an external nostril. That the + unpaired olfactory organ of existing Cyclostomes has passed through, + in their ancestors, a paired condition such as exists in other + vertebrates, is indicated by the fact that it retains a pair of + olfactory nerves. + + The eyes in adult lampreys are of moderate size, while in the + Myxinoids they are greatly reduced--sunk beneath the skin + (_Bdellostoma_) or even in amongst the muscles of the head (_Myxine_). + The lens is completely absent, also the ocular muscles. The otocyst or + auditory organ is unique amongst craniate vertebrates in regard to the + semicircular canals. In the lampreys there are only two instead of the + normal three, while the Myxinoids have only one. + + _Alimentary Canal._--The widely gaping buccal funnel is + morphologically an inpushing of the outer skin, i.e. it is stomodaeal + in nature. The thorn-like teeth which stud its lining are formed + simply by cornification of the epidermal cells (4) like the + provisional horny teeth of a tadpole, and are not homologous with the + true teeth of ordinary vertebrates. As to whether they represent the + remnant of a once present system of epidermal scales, which may have + preceded the coating of placoid elements in the evolution of the + vertebrate, there is no evidence. + + [Illustration: Modified from T. J. Parker, _Zootomy_, fig. 4, by + permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd. + + FIG. 2.--Median longitudinal section through anterior end of + _Petromyzon_. + + a.v.o, Atrio-ventricular opening. + br, Brain. + br.o, Internal opening of gill sac. + d.a, Dorsal aorta. + d.c, Ductus cuvieri. + h.v, Hepatic vein. + i.j.v, Inferior jugular vein. + N, Notochord. + oes, Oesophagus. + olf, Olfactory organ. + pc, Pericardium. + p.c.v, Left posterior cardinal vein. + pit, Pituitary tube. + V, Ventricle. + v, Velum.] + + The pharyngeal region, closely associated with the respiratory + function, possesses, on each side, a series of gill-sacs (six in + _Myxine_: seven in _Petromyzon_, besides an anterior one which is laid + down in the embryo but disappears later: up to as many as fourteen in + _Bdellostoma_) opening on the one hand to the pharynx and on the other + to the exterior. In _Bdellostoma_ and in the larva of _Petromyzon_ the + gill-sacs open directly from the pharynx to the exterior, but in the + adult lamprey and in _Myxine_ the original relations are modified. In + _Myxine_, the external openings of the gill-sacs have migrated + backwards along the side of the body and become coincident at a point + slightly posterior to the last sac. It follows from this that each sac + is connected with the common aperture by a tube, longest in the case + of the first sac, shortest in the case of the last. In the adult + lamprey a different modification is found. Here the dorsal portion of + the pharynx has become nipped off as a narrow tube which functions as + an oesophagus from the larger ventral portion, which forms an + elongated saccular structure ending blindly at its hinder end and + having in its lateral wall the internal openings of the gill-sacs. + + _Breathing._--The inspiratory current passes inwards by the mouth + opening in the larval lamprey, by the pituitary tube in _Myxine_, + while in the adult lamprey both expiration and inspiration takes place + through the external gill-openings. In the case of the lampreys the + elastic skeleton of the branchial region (see below) plays an + important part in respiration. The branchial region shows rhythmic + contraction through the agency of the transverse muscles--and + expansion, through the elasticity of the branchial skeleton--in the + adult lamprey. These rhythmic movements of the branchial region cause + successive inflow and outflow through the branchial openings. In the + larva, on the other hand, the respiratory current always passes in one + direction--backwards. This is helped by the presence of a velar fold + at the front end of the pharynx, which acts as a valve opening only + backwards, and to the presence of membranous flaps projecting back + from the anterior border of each gill-opening and acting as valves + which open only outwards. + + Behind the pharynx comes the truly digestive part of the alimentary + canal in the form of a straight tube showing little differentiation + into special regions. The lining of the intestine is increased in area + by an inwardly projecting fold, which is compared by some + morphologists with the spiral valve of certain other groups. In the + mature river lamprey the digestive tract becomes in great part + degenerate. + + _Coelomic Organs._--The chief point of interest about the + splanchnocoele or perivisceral cavity is that in the Myxinoids the + adult shows a persistent embryonic condition in that the pericardiac + portion never becomes isolated from the main body cavity. + + The renal organs are of special interest in the Myxinoids from their + very simple character. The kidney duct is seen running along the roof + of the coelom on either side. Into the duct open short segmentally + arranged tubes, each possessing at its closed rounded extremity a + Malpighian body. Each of these short tubes is morphologically a + nephric tubule, which, however, in correlation with its shortness, is + without the turns and twists so characteristic of such tubules + generally. A further consequence of the short simple character of the + tubules is that they are quite separate from one another, instead of + being massed together to form a compact gland such as the kidney is + elsewhere. In _Petromyzon_ the kidney has the ordinary compact form, + and here also the Malpighian bodies are shut off from the + splanchnocoele. + + The ovary or testis is a large unpaired structure hanging from the + dorsal wall of the splanchnocoele and shedding its products into it; + from the coelomic space the genital products pass into the urogenital + sinus--formed by the fusion of the kidney ducts at their hinder + ends--through a small opening, one at each side. This opening, which + leads directly from coelom into urogenital sinus, is known as the + genital pore. Its morphological significance is doubtful. + + _Skeleton._--The vertebral column of the lamprey is represented by a + persistent notochord surrounded by a thick sheath, which shows no + signs of invasion by cartilage cells or of segmentation. Resting on + the sheath are paired dorsal arch elements, more numerous than the + neuromuscular segments. In the tail region these are united into a + continuous band of cartilage on each side: similar cartilaginous bands + represent the ventral arch elements of the tail region. The skeleton + of the head region consists of a cartilaginous cranium, into the + formation of which enter typical parachordal and trabecular elements, + together with olfactory and auditory capsules. In addition to these, + there are a number of other cartilaginous pieces present in the head + region, the homologies of which are doubtful. + + _Branchial Basket._--One of the most characteristic features of the + skeleton of the lamprey is the remarkable cartilaginous "branchial + basket," which supports the gill region. In an adult river lamprey the + basketwork consists on each side of a series of eight vertical + half-hoops of cartilage. The hoops of each side are connected together + dorsally by a pair of longitudinal bars, lying ventral to the + notochord, and ventrally by a similar pair of rods which are fused in + the middle line. Slender cartilaginous projections arise from the + anterior and posterior sides of the hoops, and certain of these + meeting at their ends form additional longitudinal bars connecting + together successive hoops. Connected with the basketwork posteriorly + is a remarkable cup-shaped cartilage, which supports the hind wall of + the pericardium. The series of cartilaginous half-hoops naturally + suggest the half-hoops of cartilage which form the skeleton of the + visceral arches in the Gnathostomata. They are, however, more + superficial in position, and this has led many to doubt their actual + homology with the cartilaginous visceral arches. Taking into account, + however, our present knowledge of the development of the two sets of + structures, it seems on the whole probable that a true homology exists + and that the branchial basket of the lamprey represents merely a set + of visceral arches modified in accordance with the peculiar breathing + methods of the creature. In the Myxinoids the branchial basket is + reduced to a few vestigial masses of cartilage. + + _Vascular System._--The heart (5) of the lamprey consists of an atrium + and a single ventricle, the atrium on the left, the ventricle on the + right. Into the atrium, on its right side, and behind the + atrio-ventricular opening, there opens a nearly vertical chamber + usually termed the sinus venosus (see below), the opening guarded by a + pair of vertically placed valves. The ventricle passes anteriorly into + what is clearly the homologue of the conus arteriosus of other forms. + In its interior are present a pair of laterally placed longitudinal + ridges similar to the ridges which occur in other forms in the conus. + The opening from ventricle into conus is guarded by a pair of + laterally placed pocket valves situated just within the boundary of + the ventricle. + + The arterial system is of the ordinary piscine type. From the heart + there passes forwards a ventral aorta, split into two separate vessels + in its anterior half, and giving off on each side a series of efferent + vessels to the gill-sacs, one passing between each two gill-sacs and + an additional one to the front wall of the front sac and to the + posterior wall of the last. The blood is collected from the walls of + the gill-sacs by a series of efferent vessels which open into the + dorsal aorta. It is to be noted that the dorsal aorta retains the + probably primitive unpaired condition, except for a very short extent + at its anterior end, where it is split so as to form two short aortic + roots. + + _Venous System._--The main venous channels are like those in other + fishes, though their connexion with the heart becomes modified in the + adult. The two posterior cardinals--with their continuations forwards, + the anterior cardinals--approach the median plane and undergo fusion + in the region of their opening into the two ductus Cuvieri. The left + ductus Cuvieri then atrophies so that all the blood from the cardinals + reaches the heart by way of the originally right ductus Cuvieri. It + is this right ductus Cuvieri which forms the dorsal part of what is + usually termed the sinus venosus. The inferior jugular veins which + return the blood from the ventral side of the head also become + replaced in the adult by a median unpaired vein which opens + posteriorly into the sinus venosus by what probably represents the + hinder end of the original right inferior jugular. It is interesting + to note that in _Polypterus_, one of the Crossopterygian ganoids, + there is a somewhat similar asymmetrical condition of inferior + jugulars and ductus Cuvieri. + + _Oviposition of Lamprey_ (6).--The lamprey chooses as spawning ground + a part of the stream with fairly rapid current and where the bottom is + composed of sand with scattered stones. By means of the suctorial + mouth, stones are removed from more or less circular area so as to + form a shallow excavation. The male and female frequently work + together at the task of preparing the nest. When oviposition is about + to take place, the male may be seen to suddenly attach himself to the + dorsal surface of the head of the female which holds on to one of the + stones at the upper margin of the nest. The urogenital opening of the + male, with its specially prominent papilla, is approximated to that of + the female, and with a peculiar quivering movement the eggs and sperms + are emitted synchronously amidst clouds of sand stirred up by the + movements of the tail. The eggs fertilized thus at the moment of exit + are very sticky from their coating of albumen, and become weighted + down by adherent grains of sand. + + _Development._--The development of the lamprey is of much + morphological importance from the archaic nature of the creature and + from the fact that the egg is comparatively small (about 1 mm. in + diameter), so that development is not greatly modified by a large mass + of yolk. It has been worked out so far only in the river lamprey (7). + Segmentation is complete and unequal. It, as well as the process of + gastrulation, agrees in its main features with the same phenomenon in + _Amia_, Dipnoans and Urodele amphibians. The blastopore persists as + the anal opening of the adult. The mesoderm arises in a manner closely + comparable with that which occurs in _Amphioxus_, the chief difference + being that the mesoderm segments are solid instead of hollow, except + in the anterior head region, where they are true hollow enterocoelic + pouches. The rudiment of the central nervous system has the form of a + solid keel-like ingrowth of ectoderm along the mid-dorsal line, which + only secondarily becomes hollowed out--just as happens in Teleostean + fishes. The young lamprey, after completing its embryonic development, + passes three or four years, in fact its whole life up to the time of + sexual maturity, in a prolonged larval condition in which its + structure shows important differences from that of the adult. This + larval stage of the fresh-water lamprey of Europe was long supposed to + be a separate genus of Cyclostomes and was called _Ammocoetes_. The + _Ammocoetes_ lives in the mud and breathes and feeds by means of a + current of water produced by ciliary action, which carries Flagellates + and other microscopic organisms in through the mouth opening. + Correlated with this mode of feeding the buccal cavity is without the + teeth so characteristic of the adult. A number of complicated branched + sensory processes grow into and nearly occlude the cavity, forming a + kind of sieve with only narrow chinks through which the ingoing + current passes. The water passes out by the gill openings, which in + _Ammocoetes_ open direct from pharynx to exterior. Certain + arrangements of the pharyngeal wall of _Ammocoetes_ show a remarkable + resemblance to what is found in _Amphioxus_. The thyroid, which in the + adult is a complicated ductless gland, has in the young _Ammocoetes_ + the form of a longitudinal groove of the ventral wall of the pharynx. + This groove is lined by columnar cells, some carrying cilia, others + being glandular and secreting sticky slime. These gland cells are + arranged in four longitudinal bands. The thyroid is, in fact, in this + stage in a condition corresponding exactly with the endostyle of + _Amphioxus_. The agreement extends to function the secretion, forming + sticky threads which entangle food particles. Anteriorly a pair of + peripharyngeal bands pass dorsalwards, one on each side, to bend back + suprapharyngeal bands which are continued to the hinder end of the + pharynx. Here again the resemblance to what occurs in _Amphioxus_ is + very close. + + The _Ammocoetes_ possesses a functional liver with bileduct, while in + the adult river lamprey the alimentary canal is degenerate. It has no + arch elements on its notochord. Its eyes are sunk beneath the surface + and nonfunctional, and they retain to a great extent an embryonic + character (8). There is a rapid process of metamorphosis from the + larval to the adult condition, the details of which are by no means + sufficiently known. After the metamorphosis the now mature lamprey + accomplishes the act of reproduction and then apparently dies almost + immediately. The development of the Myxinoids is much less well known + than that of the lampreys. As regards the common hagfish (_Myxine + glutinosa_), we are indeed still in complete ignorance in regard to + its developmental history in spite of persistent efforts to obtain + embryological material. It seems probable that during the breeding + period the hagfishes retire into some particularly inaccessible + habitat. Within the last few years, however, abundant material + illustrating the developmental history of _Bdellostoma_ (9) has been + obtained on the Californian coast, and this when fully worked out will + give us a good idea of the general lines of Myxinoid development. The + egg differs greatly from that of the lampreys. It is--as is that of + _Myxine_--of large size, richly yolked and of a shortened-up sausage + shape. It measures about 22 mm. by 8 mm. Surrounding the egg is a + protective capsule of a yellow horny appearance. At one end a cap-like + portion of this forms a detachable operculum, in the middle of which + is a minute opening, the micropyle. Each end of the capsule is + prolonged into a group of stiff processes with anchor-like expansions + at their tips. Segmentation is, as in other richly yolked eggs, + incomplete, confined to the germinal disk at the opercular pole. The + central nervous system in _Bdellostoma_ develops by the overarching of + medullary folds, not out of a solid keel as is the case with the + lampreys. + + _History in Time._--The softness of the skeletal tissues and the + absence of scales in Cyclostomata provide little opportunity for the + preservation of fossil remains of this group, and no known fossils can + be referred with certainty to the Cyclostomata. The Devonian + _Palaeospondylus gunni_ has been regarded as a Cyclostome by some + authors, but this relationship is at the least doubtful. Other authors + have associated the Ostracoderms, the oldest known vertebrates, with + this group. + + REFERENCES.--1. D. S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann, _Fishes of North and + Middle America_ (Washington, 1896), part i. p. 8; 2. L. Plate, _SB. + Ges. Naturf._ (Berlin, Jg. 1897), p. 137; 3. F. Studnicka in Oppel's + _Lehrbuch der vergleichenden mikroskopischen Anatomie der Wirbeltiere_ + (Jena, 1905), Teil v. s. i.; 4. E. Warren, _Q. J. Micr. Sci._ xlv. + (1902) p. 631; 5. L. Vialleton, _Arch. d'anat. micr._ T. vi. (1903) p. + 283; 6. H. A. Surface in D. S. Jordan's _Fishes_ (1905), vol. i. p. + 494; 7. A. E. Shipley, _Q. J. Micr. Sci._ xxvii. (1887), W. B. Scott, + _Journ. Morphol._ i. (1887), C. Kupffer, _Arch. mikr. Anat._ xxxv. + (1890), A. Goette, _Entwick. des Flussneunauges_ (Hamburg and Leipzig, + 1890); 8. C. Kohl, in _Bibliotheca zoologica_, Heft 13 (Cassel, 1892); + 9. Bashford Dean in Kupffer's _Festschrift_ (Jena, 1899). + (J. G. K.) + + + + +CYCLOSTYLE (Gr. [Greek: kyklos], a circle, and [Greek: stylos], a +column), a term used in architecture. A structure composed of a circular +range of columns without a core is cyclostylar; with a core the range +would be peristyle. This is the species of edifice called by Vitruvius +monopteral. + + + + +CYGNUS ("The Swan"), in astronomy, a constellation of the northern +hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd +century B.C.), and fabled by the Greeks to be the swan in the form of +which Zeus seduced Leda. Ptolemy catalogued 19 stars, Tycho Brahe 18, +and Hevelius 47. In this constellation [beta] _Cygni_ is a fine coloured +double star, consisting of a yellow star, magnitude 3, and a blue star, +magnitude 5(1/2). The fine double star, [mu] _Cygni_, separated by Sir +William Herschel in 1779, has magnitudes 4 and 5; it has a companion, of +magnitude 7(1/2), which, however, does not form part of the system. A +double star, _61 Cygni_, of magnitudes 5.3 and 5.9, was the first star +whose distance was determined; its parallax is 0".39, and it is +therefore the nearest star in the northern hemisphere with the exception +of [sigma] _Centauri_. A regular variable, [chi] _Cygni_, has extreme +magnitudes of 5 to 13.5, and its period is 406 days. _Nova Cygni_ is a +"new" star discovered by Johann Schmidt in 1876. There is also an +extended nebula in the constellation. + + + + +CYLINDER (Gr. [Greek: kylindros], from [Greek: kylindein], to roll). A +cylindrical surface, or briefly a cylinder, is the surface traced out by +a line, named the generatrix, which moves parallel to itself and always +passes through the circumference of a curve, named the directrix; the +name cylinder is also given to the solid contained between such a +surface and two parallel planes which intersect a generatrix. A "right +cylinder" is the solid traced out by a rectangle which revolves about +one of its sides, or the curved surface of this solid; the surface may +also be defined as the locus of a line which passes through the +circumference of a circle, and is always perpendicular to the plane of +the circle. If the moving line be not perpendicular to the plane of the +circle, but moves parallel to itself, and always passes through the +circumference, it traces an "oblique cylinder." The "axis" of a circular +cylinder is the line joining the centres of two circular sections; it is +the line through the centre of the directrix parallel to the generators. +The characteristic property of all cylindrical surfaces is that the +tangent planes are parallel to the axis. They are "developable" +surfaces, i.e. they can be applied to a plane surface without crinkling +or tearing (see SURFACE). + +Any section of a cylinder which contains the axis is termed a "principal +section"; in the case of the solids this section is a rectangle; in the +case of the surfaces, two parallel straight lines. A section of the +right cylinder parallel to the base is obviously a circle; any other +section, excepting those limited by two generators, is an ellipse. This +last proposition may be stated in the form:--"The orthogonal projection +of a circle is an ellipse"; and it permits the ready deduction of many +properties of the ellipse from the circle. The section of an oblique +cylinder by a plane perpendicular to the principal section, and inclined +to the axis at the same angle as the base, is named the "subcontrary +section," and is always a circle; any other section is an ellipse. + +The mensuration of the cylinder was worked out by Archimedes, who showed +that the volume of any cylinder was equal to the product of the area of +the base into the height of the solid, and that the area of the curved +surface was equal to that of a rectangle having its sides equal to the +circumference of the base, and to the height of the solid. If the base +be a circle of radius r, and the height h, the volume is [pi]r^2h and the +area of the curved surface 2[pi]rh. Archimedes also deduced relations +between the sphere (q.v.) and cone (q.v.) and the circumscribing +cylinder. + +The name "cylindroid" has been given to two different surfaces. Thus it +is a cylinder having equal and parallel elliptical bases; i.e. the +surface traced out by an ellipse moving parallel to itself so that every +point passes along a straight line, or by a line moving parallel to +itself and always passing through the circumference of a fixed ellipse. +The name was also given by Arthur Cayley to the conoidal cubic surface +which has for its equation z(x^2 + y^2) = 2mxy; every point on this +surface lies on the line given by the intersection of the planes y = x +tan [theta], z = m sin 2[theta], for by eliminating [theta] we obtain +the equation to the surface. + + + + +CYLLENE (mod. _Ziria_), a mountain in Greece, in the N.E. of Arcadia +(7789 ft.). It was specially sacred to Hermes, who was born in a cave on +the mountain, and had a temple and an ancient statue on its summit. The +name Cyllene belongs also to an ancient port town in Elis, and, owing to +doubtful identification with this, to a modern port at Glarentza, and +also to some mineral baths a little to the south of it. + + + + +CYMA (Gr. [Greek: kyma], wave), in architecture, a moulding of double +curvature, concave at one end, convex at the other. When the concave +part is uppermost, it is called a _cyma recta_; but if the convex +portion is at the top, it is called a _cyma reversa_. When the crowning +moulding of an entablature is of the cyma form, it is called a +"cymatium." + + + + +CYMBALS (Fr. _cymbales_; Ger. _Becken_; Ital. _piatti_ or _cinelli_), a +modern instrument of percussion of indefinite musical pitch, whereas the +small ancient cup-shaped cymbals sounded a definite note. Cymbals +consist of two thin round plates of an alloy containing 8 parts of +copper to two of tin, each having a handle-strap set in the little knob +surmounting the centre of the plate. The sound is obtained not by +clashing them against each other, but by rubbing their edges together by +a sliding movement. Sometimes a weird effect is obtained by suspending +one of the cymbals by the strap and letting a drummer execute a roll +upon it as it swings; or by holding a cymbal in the left hand and +striking it with the soft stick of the bass drum, which produces a sound +akin to that of the tam-tam. All gradations of _piano_ and _forte_ can +be obtained on the cymbals. The composer indicates his intention of +letting the cymbals vibrate by "Let them vibrate," and the contrary +effect by "Damp the sound." To stop the vibrations the performer presses +the cymbals against his chest, as soon as he has played a note. The +duration of the vibration is indicated by the _value_ of the note placed +upon the staff; the name signifies nothing, since the pitch of the +cymbals is indefinite. The instrument is played from the same part of +the score as the bass drum, unless otherwise indicated by _senza +piatti_, or _piatti soli_ if the bass drum is to remain silent. Although +cymbals are not often required they form part of every orchestra; their +chief use is for marking the rhythm and for producing weird, fantastic +effects or adding military colour, and their shrill notes hold their own +against a full orchestra playing _fortissimo_. Cymbals are specially +suited for suggesting frenzy, fury or bacchanalian revels, as in the +Venus music in Wagner's _Tannhauser_ and Grieg's _Peer Gynt_ suite. +Damping gives a suggestion of impending evil or tragedy. The _timbre_ of +the ancient cymbals is entirely different, more like that of small +hand-bells or of the notes of the keyed harmonica. They are not struck +full against each other, but by one of their edges, and the note given +out by them is higher in proportion as they are thicker and smaller. +Berlioz in _Romeo and Juliet_ scored for two pairs of cymbals, modelled +on some ancient Pompeian instruments no larger than the hand (some are +no larger than a crown piece), and tuned to [note] and [note]. + + The origin of the cymbals must be referred to prehistoric times. The + ancient Egyptian cymbals closely resembled our own. The British Museum + possesses two pairs, 5(1/3) in. in diameter, one of which was found in + the coffin of the mummy of Ankhhape, a sacred musician; they are shown + in the same case as the mummy, and have been reproduced by Carl + Engel.[1] Those used by the Assyrians were both plate- and cup-shaped. + The Greek cymbals were cup- or bell-shaped, and are to be seen in the + hands of fauns and satyrs innumerable in sculptures and on painted + vases. The word cymbal is derived from [Greek: kymbe] (Lat. _cymba_), + a hollow vessel, and [Greek: kymbala] = small cymbals. During the + middle ages the word cymbal was applied to the _Glockenspiel_, or peal + of small bells, and later to the dulcimer, perhaps on account of the + clear bell-like tone produced by the hammers striking the wire + strings. After the introduction or invention of the keyed dulcimer or + clavichord, and of the spinet, the word clavicymbal was used in the + Romance languages to denote the varieties of spinet and harpsichord. + Ancient cymbals are among the instruments played by King David and his + musicians in the 9th-century illuminated MS. known as the Bible of + Charles the Bald in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _The Music of the Most Ancient Nations_, fig. 75, p. 227. + + + + +CYNEGILS (d. 643), king of the West Saxons, succeeded his uncle King +Ceolwulf in 611. With his son Cwichelm (d. 636), he defeated the +advancing Britons at Bampton in Oxfordshire in 614, and Cwichelm sought +to arrest the growing power of the Northumbrian king Eadwine by +procuring his assassination; the attempt, however, failed, and in 626 +the West Saxons were defeated in battle and forced to own Eadwine's +supremacy. Cynegils' next struggle was with Penda of Mercia, and here +again he was worsted, the battle being fought in 628 at Cirencester, and +was probably compelled to surrender part of his kingdom to Mercia. +Cynegils was converted to Christianity through the preaching of Birinus, +and was baptized in 635 at Dorchester in Oxfordshire, where he founded a +bishopric. He was succeeded as king by his son Cenwalh. + + + + +CYNEWULF (d. 785), king of Wessex, succeeded to the throne in 757 on the +deposition of Sigeberht. He was constantly at war with the Welsh. In 779 +Offa of Mercia defeated him and took Bensington. In 785 he was surprised +and killed, with all his thegns present, at Marten, Wilts (Merantune), +by Cyneheard, brother of the deposed Sigeberht. + + See Earle and Plummer's edition of the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, 755, + 779 (Oxford, 1892). + + + + +CYNEWULF, the only Old-English vernacular poet, known by name, of whom +any undisputed writings are extant. He is the author of four poems +preserved in two MSS., the _Exeter Book_ and the _Vercelli Book_, both +of the early 11th century. An epilogue to each poem contains the runic +characters answering to the letters _c_, _y_, _n_ (_e_), _w_, _u_, _l_, +_f_. The runes are to be read as the words that served as their names; +these words enter into the metre of the verse, and (except in one poem) +are significant in their context. The poems thus signed are the +following. (1) A meditation on _The Ascension_, which stands in the +_Exeter Book_ between two similar poems on the Incarnation and the Last +Judgment. The three are commonly known as _Cynewulf's Christ_, but the +runic signature attests only the second. (2) A version of the legend of +the martyr _St Juliana_, also in the _Exeter Book_. (3) _Elene_, in the +_Vercelli Book_, on the story of the empress Helena and the "Invention +of the Cross." (4) A short poem on _The Fates of the Apostles_, in the +same MS. The page containing the signature to this poem was first +discovered by Professor A. S. Napier in 1888, so that the piece is not +included in earlier enumerations of the poet's signed works. + +In _Juliana_ and _Elene_ the name is spelt Cynewulf; in _The Ascension_ +the form is Cynwulf. In _The Fates of the Apostles_ the page is defaced, +but the spelling Cynwulf is almost certain. The absence of the E in +_The Ascension_ can hardly be due to a scribal omission, for the name of +this letter (meaning "horse") would not suit the context; this, was +perhaps the motive for the choice of the shorter form. The orthography +(authenticated as the poet's own by the nature of his device) has +chronological significance. If the poems had been written before 740, +the spelling would almost certainly have been Cyniwulf. If it were safe +to judge from the scanty extant evidence, we should conclude that the +form Cynwulf came in about 800; and presumably the poet would not vary +his accustomed signature until the new form had become common. In +_Elene_ Cynewulf speaks of himself as an old man; and the presence of +the runic signature in the four works suggests that they are not far +apart in date. They may therefore be referred provisionally to the +beginning of the 9th century, any lower date being for linguistic and +metrical reasons improbable. + +The MSS. of the poems are in the West-Saxon dialect, with occasional +peculiarities that indicate transcription from Northumbrian or Mercian. +Professor E. Sievers's arguments for a Northumbrian original have +considerable weight; for the Mercian theory no linguistic arguments have +been adduced, but it has been advocated on grounds of historical +probability which seem to be of little value. + +Cynewulf's unquestioned poems show that he was a scholar, familiar with +Latin and with religious literature, and they display much metrical +skill and felicity in the use of traditional poetic language; but of the +higher qualities of poetry they give little evidence. There are pleasing +passages in _Elene_, but the clumsy and tasteless narration of the Latin +original is faithfully reproduced, and the added descriptions of battles +and voyages are strings of conventional phrases, with no real +imagination. In _The Ascension_ the genuine religious fervour imparts a +higher tone to the poetry; the piece has real but not extraordinary +merit. Of the other two poems no critic has much to say in praise. If +Cynewulf is to be allowed high poetic rank, it must be on the ground of +his authorship of other works than those which he has signed. At one +time or other nearly the whole body of extant Old English poetry +(including _Beowulf_) has been conjecturally assigned to him. Some of +the attributed works show many striking resemblances in style and +diction to his authentic writings. But it is impossible to determine +with certainty how far the similarities may be due to imitation or to +the following of a common tradition. + +Until recently, it was commonly thought that Cynewulf's authorship of +the Riddles (q.v.) in the _Exeter Book_ was beyond dispute. The +monodramatic lyric _Wulf and Eadwacer_, imagined to be the first of +these Riddles, was in 1857 interpreted by Heinrich Leo as a charade on +the name Cynewulf. This absurd fancy was for about thirty years +generally accepted as a fact, but is now abandoned. Some of the Riddles +have been shown by Professor E. Sievers to be older than Cynewulf's +time; that he may have written some of the rest remains a bare +possibility. + +The similarity of tone in the three poems known as the _Christ_ affords +some presumption of common authorship, which the counter arguments that +have been urged seem insufficient to set aside. Both _The Incarnation_ +and _The Last Judgment_ contain many passages of remarkable power and +beauty. It is unlikely that the author regarded the three as forming one +work. The _Christ_ is followed in the MS. by two poems on _Saint +Guthlac_, the second of which is generally, and with much probability, +assigned to Cynewulf. The first Guthlac poem is almost universally +believed to be by another hand. Cynewulf's celebration of a midland +saint is the strongest of the arguments that have been urged against his +Northumbrian origin; but this consideration is insufficient to outweigh +the probability derived from the linguistic evidence. + +Cynewulf's reputation can gain little by the attribution to him of +_Guthlac_, which is far inferior even to _Juliana_. Very different would +be the effect of the establishment of his much disputed claim to +_Andreas_, a picturesque version of the legend of the Apostle Andrew. +The poem abounds to an astonishing extent in "Cynewulfian" phrases, but +it is contended that these are due to imitation. If the author of +_Andreas_ imitated _Elene_ and _Juliana_, he bettered his model. The +question whether Cynewulf may not have been the imitator has apparently +never been discussed. The poem (so far agreeing with _The Fates of the +Apostles_) copies the style of the old heroic poetry. + +Cynewulf's authorship has been asserted by some scholars for _The Dream +of the Rood_, the noblest example of Old English religious poetry. But +an extract from this poem is carved on the Ruthwell Cross; and, +notwithstanding the arguments of Prof. A. S. Cook, the language of the +inscription seems too early for Cynewulf's date. The similarities +between the _Dream_ and _Elene_ are therefore probably due to Cynewulf's +acquaintance with the older poem. + +The only remaining attribution that deserves notice is that of the +_Phoenix_. The author of this fine poem was, like Cynewulf, a scholar, +and uses many of his turns of expression, but he was a man of greater +genius than is shown in Cynewulf's signed compositions. + +Professor M. Trautmann, following J. Grimm and F. Dietrich, would +identify the poet with Cynewulf, bishop of Lindisfarne, who died in 783. +This speculation conflicts with the chronology suggested in this +article, and is destitute of evidence. Cynewulf was indeed probably a +Northumbrian churchman, but it is unlikely that there were not many +Northumbrian churchmen bearing this common name; and as the bishop is +not recorded to have written anything, the identification is at best an +unsupported possibility. Professor A. S. Cook has suggested that our +Cynewulf may have been the "Cynulf," priest of Dunwich, whose name is +among those appended to a decree of the council of Clofesho in 803, and +of whom nothing else is known. This conjecture suits the probable date +of Cynewulf, but otherwise there is nothing in its favour. + + For the older literature relating to Cynewulf, see R. Wulker, + _Grundriss der angelsachsischen Litteratur_ (1885). References to the + most important later discussions will be found in M. Trautmann, + _Kynewulf, der Bischof und Dichter_ (1898), and the introductions and + notes to the editions of _Cynewulf's Christ_, by I. Gollancz (1892) + and A. S. Cook (1900). For the arguments for Cynewulf's authorship of + _Andreas_, see F. Ramhorst, _Andreas und Cynewulf_ (1885). (H. Br.) + + + + +CYNICS, a small but influential school of ancient philosophers. Their +name is variously derived from the building in Athens called Cynosarges, +the earliest home of the school, and from the Greek word for a dog +([Greek: kyon]), in contemptuous allusion to the uncouth and aggressive +manners adopted by the members of the school. Whichever of these +explanations is correct, it is noticeable that the Cynics agreed in +taking a dog as their common badge or symbol (see DIOGENES). From a +popular conception of the intellectual characteristics of the school +comes the modern sense of "cynic," implying a sneering disposition to +disbelieve in the goodness of human motives and a contemptuous feeling +of superiority. + +As regards the members of the school, the separate articles on +ANTISTHENES, CRATES, DIOGENES and DEMETRIUS contain all biographical +information. We are here concerned only to examine the general +principles of the school in its internal and external relations as +forming a definite philosophic unit. The importance of these principles +lies not only in their intrinsic value as an ethical system, but also in +the fact that they form the link between Socrates and the Stoics, +between the essentially Greek philosophy of the 4th century B.C. and a +system of thought which has exercised a profound and far-reaching +influence on medieval and modern ethics. From the time of Socrates in +unbroken succession up to the reign of Hadrian, the school was +represented by men of strong individuality. The leading earlier Cynics +were Antisthenes, Diogenes of Sinope, Crates of Thebes, and Zeno; in the +later Roman period, the chief names are Demetrius (the friend of +Seneca), Oenomaus and Demonax. All these men adhered steadfastly to the +principles laid down by Antisthenes. + +Antisthenes was a pupil of Socrates, from whom he imbibed the +fundamental ethical precept that virtue, not pleasure, is the end of +existence. He was, therefore, in the forefront of that intellectual +revolution in the course of which speculation ceased to move in the +realms of the physical[1] and focused itself upon human reason in its +application to the practical conduct of life. "Virtue," says Socrates, +"is knowledge": in the ultimate harmony of morality with reason is to be +found the only true existence of man. Antisthenes adopted this principle +in its most literal sense, and proceeded to explain "knowledge" in the +narrowest terms of practical action and decision, excluding from the +conception everything except the problem of individual will realizing +itself in the sphere of ordinary existence. Just as in logic the +inevitable result was the purest nominalism, so in ethics he was driven +to individualism, to the denial of social and national relations, to the +exclusion of scientific study and of almost all that the Greeks +understood by education. This individualism he and his followers carried +to its logical conclusion. The ordinary pleasures of life were for them +not merely negligible but positively harmful inasmuch as they +interrupted the operation of the will. Wealth, popularity and power tend +to dethrone the authority of reason and to pervert the soul from the +natural to the artificial. Man exists for and in himself alone; his +highest end is self-knowledge and self-realization in conformity with +the dictates of his reason, apart altogether from the state and society. +For this end, disrepute and poverty are advantageous, in so far as they +drive back the man upon himself, increasing his self-control and +purifying his intellect from the dross of the external. The good man +(i.e. the wise man) wants nothing: like the gods, he is [Greek: +autarkes] (self-sufficing); "let men gain wisdom--or buy a rope"; he is +a citizen of the world, not of a particular country (cf. Diogenes +Laertius vi. 11 [Greek: monen te orthen politeian einai ten, en kosmo]). + +It is not surprising that the pioneers of such a system were criticized +and ridiculed by their fellows, and this by no means unjustly. We learn +that Diogenes and Crates sought to force their principles upon their +fellows in an obtrusive, tactless manner. The very essence of their +philosophy was the negation of the graces of social courtesy; it was +impossible to "return to nature" in the midst of a society clothed in +the accumulated artificiality of evolved convention without shocking the +ingrained sensibilities of its members. Nor is it unjust to infer that +the sense of opposition provoked some of the Cynics to an overweening +display of superiority. At the same time, it is absurd to regard the +eccentricities of a few as the characteristics of the school, still more +as a condemnation of the views which they held. + +In logic Antisthenes was troubled by the problem of the One and the +Many. A nominalist to the core, he held that definition and predication +are either false or tautological. Ideas do not exist save for the +consciousness which thinks them. "A horse," said Antisthenes, "I can +see, but horsehood I cannot see." Definition is merely a circuitous +method of stating an identity: "a tree is a vegetable growth" is +logically no more than "a tree is a tree." + +Cynicism appears to have had a considerable vogue in Rome in the 1st and +2nd centuries A.D. Demetrius (q.v.) and Demonax are highly eulogized by +Seneca and Lucian respectively. It is probable that these later Cynics +adapted themselves somewhat to the times in which they lived and avoided +the crude extravagance of Diogenes and others. But they undoubtedly +maintained the spirit of Antisthenes unimpaired and held an honourable +place in Roman thought. This very popularity had the effect of +attracting into their ranks charlatans of the worst type. So that in +Rome also Cynicism was partly the butt of the satirist and partly the +ideal of the thinker. + +Disregarding all the accidental excrescences of the doctrine, Cynicism +must be regarded as a most valuable development and as a real asset in +the sum of ethical speculation. With all its defective psychology, its +barren logic, its immature technique, it emphasized two great and +necessary truths, firstly, the absolute responsibility of the individual +as the moral unit, and, secondly, the autocracy of the will. These two +principles are sufficient ground for our gratitude to these "athletes of +righteousness" (as Epictetus calls them). Furthermore they are +profoundly important as the precursors of Stoicism. The closeness of +the connexion is illustrated by Juvenal's epigram that a Cynic differed +from a Stoic only by his cloak. Zeno was a pupil of Crates, from whom he +learned the moral worth of self-control and indifference to sensual +indulgence (see STOICS). + +Finally it is necessary to point out two flaws in the Cynic philosophy. +In the first place, the content of the word "knowledge" is never +properly developed. "Virtue is knowledge"; knowledge of what? and how is +that knowledge related to the will? These questions were never properly +answered by them. Secondly they fell into the natural error of +emphasizing the purely animal side of the "nature," which was their +ethical criterion. Avoiding the artificial restraints of civilization, +they were prone to fall back into animalism pure and simple. Many of +them upheld the principle of community of wives (see Diogenes Laertius +vi. 11); some of them are said to have outraged the dictates of public +decency. It was left to the Stoics to separate the wheat from the chaff, +and to assign to the words "knowledge" and "nature" a saner and more +comprehensive meaning. + +For relation of Cynicism to contemporary thought, compare CYRENAICS, +MEGARIAN SCHOOL. See also ASCETICISM. + + See F. W. Mullach, _Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum_ (Paris, 1867), + ii. 261-438; H. Ritter and L. Preller, _Hist. phil. Graec. et Rom._ + ch. v.; histories of ancient philosophy, and specially Ed. Zeller, + _Socrates and the Socratic Schools_, Eng. trans., O. J. Reichel (1868, + 2nd ed. 1877); Th. Gomperz, _Greek Thinkers_, Eng. trans., vol. ii., + G. G. Berry (1905); E. Caird, _Evolution of Theology in the Greek + Philosophers_ (1904), ii. 44 seq., 55 seq., 62 seq.; arts. STOICS and + SOCRATES. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See IONIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY. + + + + +CYNOSURE (Lat. _cynosura_, Gr. [Greek: kynosoura], from [Greek: kynos], +genitive of [Greek: kyon], a dog, and [Greek: oura], tail), the name +given by the Greeks and Romans to the constellation of the Little Bear, +Ursa Minor; the word is applied in English to the pole-star which +appears in that constellation, and hence to something bright which, like +a "guiding-star," draws all attention to it, as in Milton's "cynosure of +neighbouring eyes." + + + + +CYPERACEAE, in botany, a natural order of the monocotyledonous group of +seed-bearing plants. They are grass-like herbs, sometimes annual, but +more often persist by means of an underground stem from which spring +erect solitary or clustered, generally three-sided aerial stems, with +leaves in three rows. The minute flowers are arranged in spikelets +somewhat as in grasses, and these again in larger spike-like or panicled +inflorescences. The flower has in rare cases a perianth of six +scale-like leaves arranged in two whorls, and thus conforming to the +common monocotyledonous type of flower. Generally the perianth is +represented by hairs, bristles or similar developments, often indefinite +in number; in the two largest genera, _Cyperus_, (fig. 1) and _Carex_ +(fig. 2), the flowers are naked. In a few cases two whorls of stamens +are present, with three members in each, but generally only three are +present; the pistil consists of three or two carpels, united to form an +ovary bearing a corresponding number of styles and containing one ovule. +The flowers, which are often unisexual, are wind-pollinated. The fruit +is one-seeded, with a tough, leathery or hard wall. There are nearly 70 +genera containing about 3000 species and widely distributed throughout +the earth, chiefly as marsh-plants. In the arctic zone they form 10% of +the flora; they will flourish in soils rich in humus which are too acid +to support grasses. The large genus _Cyperus_ contains about 400 +species, chiefly in the warmer parts of the earth; _C. Papyrus_ is the +Egyptian Papyrus. _Carex_, the largest genus of the order, the sedges, +is widely distributed in the temperate, alpine and arctic regions of +both hemispheres, and is represented by 60 species in Britain. _Carex +arenaria_, the sea-bent, grows on sand-dunes and helps to bind the sand +with its long cord-like underground stem which branches widely. _Scirpus +lacustris_ (fig. 3, 1) the true bulrush, occurs in lakes, ditches and +marshes; it has a spongy, green, cylindrical stem, reaching nearly an +inch in thickness and 1 to 8 ft. high, which is usually leafless with a +terminal branched inflorescence. _Eriophorum_ (fig. 3), cotton grass, is +represented in Britain by several species in boggy land; they are small +tufted herbs with cottony heads due to the numerous hair-like bristles +which take the place of the perianth and become much elongated in the +fruiting stage. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Partial inflorescence of _Cyperus longus_ +(Galingale), slightly reduced. 1, Spikelet of same; 2, flower.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Carex riparia_, the largest British sedge, from +3 to 5 ft. high. 1, Male flower of _Carex_; 2, female flower of _Carex_; +3, seed of _Carex_, cut lengthwise.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Inflorescence of Cotton-grass (_Eriophorum +polystachion_), about 2/3 nat. size. 1, Flower of true bulrush (_Scirpus +lacustris_).] + + + + +CY-PRES (A.-Fr. for "so near"), in English law, a principle adopted by +the court of chancery in dealing with trusts for charitable purposes. +When the charitable purpose intended by a testator cannot be carried +into effect, the court will apply the funds to some other purpose, as +near the original as possible (whence the name). For instance, a +testator having left a fund to be divided into four parts--one-fourth to +be used for "the redemption of British slaves in Turkey and Barbary," +and the other three-fourths for various local charities--it was found +that there were no British slaves in Turkey or Barbary, and as to that +part of the gift therefore the testator's purpose failed. Instead of +allowing the portion of the fund devoted to this impossible purpose to +lapse to the next of kin, the court devoted it to the purposes specified +for the rest of the estate. This doctrine is only applied where "a +general intention of charity is manifest" in the will, and not where one +particular object only was present to the mind of the testator. Thus, a +testator having left money to be applied in building a church in a +particular parish, and that having been found to be impossible, the fund +will not be applied _cy-pres_, but will go to the next of kin. + +In the United States, charitable trusts have become more frequent as the +wealth of the country has progressed, and are regarded with increasing +favour by the courts. The _cy-pres_ doctrine has been either expressly +or virtually applied to uphold them in several of the states, and in +some there has been legislation in the same direction. In others the +doctrine has been repudiated, e.g. in Michigan, Tennessee, Indiana and +Virginia. For many years the New York courts held that this doctrine was +not in force there, but in 1893 the legislature repealed the provisions +of the revised statutes on which these decisions rested and restored the +ancient law. Statutes passed in Pennsylvania have established the +doctrine there, and dissolved any doubt as to its being in force in that +state. + + + + +CYPRESS (_Cupressus_), in botany, a genus of fifteen species belonging +to the tribe Cupressineae, natural order Coniferae, represented by +evergreen aromatic trees and shrubs indigenous to the south of Europe, +western Asia, the Himalayas, China, Japan, north-western and +north-eastern America, California and Mexico. The leaves of the +cypresses are scale-like, overlapping and generally in four rows; the +female catkins are roundish, and fewer than the male; the cones consist +of from six to ten peltate woody scales, which end in a curved point, +and open when the seeds are ripe; the seeds are numerous and winged. All +the species exude resin, but no turpentine. + +_C. sempervirens_, the common cypress, has been well known throughout +the Mediterranean region since classic times; it may have been +introduced from western Asia where it is found wild. It is a tapering, +flame-shaped tree resembling the Lombardy poplar; its branches are +thickly covered with small, imbricated, shining-green leaves; the male +catkins are about 3 lines in length; the cones are between 1 and 1(1/2) +in. in diameter, sessile, and generally in pairs, and are made up of +large angular scales, slightly convex exteriorly, and with a sharp point +in the centre. In Britain the tree grows to a height of 40 ft., in its +native soil to 70 or 90 ft. It thrives best on a dry, deep, sandy loam, +on airy sheltered sites at no great elevation above the sea. It was +introduced into Great Britain before the middle of the 16th century. In +the climate of the south of England its rate of growth when young is +between 1 and 1(1/2) ft. a year. The seeds are sown in April, and come +up in three or four weeks; the plants require protection from frost +during their first winter. + +The timber of the cypress is hard, close-grained, of a fine reddish hue, +and very durable. Among the ancients it was in request for poles, +rafters, joists, and for the construction of wine-presses, tables and +musical instruments; and on that account was so valuable that a +plantation of cypresses was considered a sufficient dowry for a +daughter. Owing to its durability the wood was employed for mummy cases, +and images of the gods; a statue of Jupiter carved out of cypress is +stated by Pliny to have existed 600 years without showing signs of +decay. The cypress doors of the ancient St Peter's at Rome, when removed +by Eugenius IV., were about 1100 years old, but nevertheless in a state +of perfect preservation. Laws were engraved on cypress by the ancients, +and objects of value were preserved in receptacles made of it; thus +Horace speaks of poems _levi servanda cupresso_. + +The cypress, which grows no more when once cut down, was regarded as a +symbol of the dead, and perhaps for that reason was sacred to Pluto; its +branches were placed by the Greeks and Romans on the funeral pyres and +in the houses of their departed friends. Its supposed ill-boding nature +is alluded to in Shakespeare's _Henry VI._, where Suffolk desires for +his enemies "their sweetest shade, a grove of cypress trees." The +cypress was the tree into which Cyparissus, a beautiful youth beloved by +Apollo, was transformed, that he might grieve to all time (Ovid, _Met._ +x. 3). In Turkish cemeteries the cypress-- + + "Dark tree, still sad when others' grief is fled, + The only constant mourner o'er the dead"-- + +is the most striking feature, the rule being to plant one for each +interment. The tree grows straight, or nearly so, and has a gloomy and +forbidding, but wonderfully stately aspect. With advancing age its +foliage becomes of a dark, almost black hue. William Gilpin calls the +cypress an architectural tree: "No Italian scene," says he, "is perfect +without its tall spiral form, appearing as if it were but a part of the +picturesquely disposed edifices which rise from the middle ground +against the distant landscape." The cypress of Somma, in Lombardy, is +believed to have been in existence in the time of Julius Caesar; it is +about 121 ft. in height, and 23 ft. in circumference. Napoleon, in +making the road over the Simplon, deviated from the straight line in +order to leave it standing. The cypress, as the olive, is found +everywhere in the dry hollows and high eastern slopes of Corfu, of the +scenery of which it is characteristic. As an ornamental tree in Britain +the cypress is useful to break the outline formed by round-headed low +shrubs and trees. The _berosh_, or _beroth_, of the Hebrew Scriptures, +translated "fir" in the authorized version, in 1 Kings v. 8 and vi. 15, +2 Chron. ii. 8 and many other passages, is supposed to signify the +cypress. + +The common or tall variety of _C. sempervirens_ is known as _C. +fastigiata_; the other variety, _C. horizontalis_, which is little +planted in England, is distinguished by its horizontally spreading +branches, and its likeness to the cedar. The species _C. torulosa_ of +North India, so called from its twisted bark, attains an altitude of 150 +ft.; its branches are erect or ascending, and grow so as to form a +perfect cone. In the Kulu and Ladakh country the tree is sacred to the +deities of the elements. It has been introduced into England, but does +not thrive where the winter is severe. The wood, which in Indian temples +is burnt as incense, is yellowish-red, close-grained, tough, hard, +readily worked, durable, and equal in quality to that of the deodar. +Another species, _C. lusitanica_ or _glauca_, the "cedar of Goa," is a +handsome tree, 50 ft. in height when full-grown, with spreading branches +drooping at their extremities; it has been much planted in Portugal, +especially in the neighbourhood of Cintra. Its origin is doubtful. It +was well established in Portugal before the middle of the 17th century, +and has since been cultivated generally in the south of Europe, but is +nowhere believed to be indigenous. The name "cedar of Goa" is +misleading, as no cypress is found wild anywhere near Goa. It was +cultivated in England in the 17th century, and the name _C. lusitanica_ +was given by Philip Miller, the curator of the Chelsea Physick garden, +in 1768, in reference to its supposed Portuguese origin. Experience has +shown this cypress to be too tender for British climate generally, +though good specimens are to be found in the milder climate of the south +and west of England and in Ireland. + +The species _G. Lawsoniana_, the Port Orford cedar, a native of south +Oregon and north California, where it attains a height of 100 ft., was +introduced into Scotland in 1854; it is much grown for ornamental +purposes in Britain, a large number of varieties of garden origin being +distinguished by differences in habit and by colour of foliage. Other +Californian cypresses are _C. macrocarpa_, the Monterey cypress, which +is 60 ft. high when mature, with a habit suggesting that of cedar of +Lebanon, and _C. Joveniana_ and _C. Macnabiana_, smaller trees generally +from 20 to 30 ft. in height. _C. funebris_ is a native of the north of +China, where it is planted near pagodas. _C. nootkaensis_, the Nootka +Sound cypress or Alaska cedar, was introduced into Britain in 1850. It +is a hardy species, reaching a height of from 80 to 100 ft. Several +varieties are distinguished by habit and colour of foliage. _C. obtusa_, +a native of Japan, is a tall tree reaching 100 ft. in height, and widely +planted by the Japanese for its timber, which is one of the best for +interior construction. It is also cultivated by them as a decorative +plant, in many forms, including dwarf forms not exceeding a foot in +height. + +The "deciduous cypress," "swamp cypress" or "bald cypress," _Taxodium +distichum_, is another member of the order Coniferae (tribe Taxodineae), +a native of the southern United States and Mexico. It is a lofty tree +reaching a height of 170 ft. or more, with a massive trunk 10 to 15 ft. +or more in diameter, growing in or near water or on low-lying land which +is subject to periodical flooding. The lower part of the trunk bears +huge buttresses, each of which ends in a long branching far-spreading +root, from the branches of which spring the peculiar knees which rise +above the level of the water. The knees are of a soft spongy texture and +act as breathing organs, supplying the roots with air, which they would +otherwise be unable to obtain when submerged. The stout horizontally +spreading branches give a cedar-like appearance; the foliage is light +and feathery; the leaves and the slender shoots which bear them fall in +the autumn. The cones, about the size of a small walnut, bear spirally +arranged imbricated scales which subtend the three-angled winged seeds. +The wood is light, soft, straight-grained and easily worked; it is very +durable in contact with the soil, and is used for railway-ties, posts, +fencing and for construction. The deciduous cypress was one of the first +American trees introduced into England; it is described by John +Parkinson in his _Herbal_ of 1640. It thrives only near water or where +the soil is permanently moist. + + + + +CYPRIAN, SAINT [_Caecilius Cyprianus_, called THASCIUS] (c. 200-258), +bishop of Carthage, one of the most illustrious in the early history of +the church, and one of the most notable of its early martyrs, was born +about the year 200, probably at Carthage. He was of patrician family, +wealthy, highly educated, and for some time occupied as a teacher of +rhetoric at Carthage. Of an enthusiastic temperament, accomplished in +classical literature, he seems while a pagan to have courted discussion +with the converts to Christianity. Confident in his own powers, he +entered ardently into what was no doubt the great question of the time +at Carthage as elsewhere. He sought to vanquish, but was himself +vanquished by, the new religious force which was making such rapid +inroads on the decaying paganism of the Roman empire. Caecilianus (or +Caecilius), a presbyter of Carthage, is supposed to have been the +instrument of his conversion, which seems to have taken place about 246. + +Cyprian carried all his natural enthusiasm and brilliant powers into his +new profession. He devoted his wealth to the relief of the poor and +other pious uses; and so, according to his deacon Pontius, who wrote a +diffuse and vague account of his "life and passion," "realized two +benefits: the contempt of the world's ambition, and the observance of +that mercy which God has preferred to sacrifice." The result of his +charity and activity as a Christian convert was his unanimous call by +the Christian people to the head of the church in Carthage, at the end +of 248 or beginning of 249. The time was one of fierce persecution +directed against the Christians, and the bishop of Carthage became a +prominent object of attack. During the persecution of Decius (250-251) +Cyprian was exposed to imminent danger, and was compelled for a time to +seek safety in retreat. Under Gallus, the successor of Decius, the +persecution was relaxed, and Cyprian returned to Carthage. Here he held +several councils for the discussion of the affairs of the church, +especially for grave questions as to the rebaptism of heretics, and the +readmission into the church of the _lapsi_, or those who had fallen +away through fear during the heat of the persecution. Cyprian, although +inspired by lofty notions of the prerogatives of the church, and +inclined to severity of opinion towards heretics, and especially +heretical dissentients from the belief in the divine authorship of the +episcopal order and the unity of Christendom, was leniently disposed +towards those who had temporarily fallen from the faith. He set himself +in opposition to Novatian, a presbyter of Rome, who advocated their +permanent exclusion from the church; and it was his influence which +guided the tolerant measures of the Carthaginian synods on the subject. +While in this question he went hand in hand with Cornelius, bishop of +Rome, his strict attitude in the matter of baptism by heretics brought +him into serious conflict with the Roman bishop Stephen. It would almost +have come to a rupture, since both parties held firmly to their +standpoint, had not a new persecution arisen under the emperor Valerian, +which threw all internal quarrels into the background in face of the +common danger. Stephen became a martyr in August 257. Cyprian was at +first banished to Curubis in Africa Proconsularis. But soon he was +recalled, taken into custody, and finally condemned to death. He was +beheaded on the 14th of September 258, the first African bishop to +obtain the martyr's crown. + +All Cyprian's literary works were written in connexion with his +episcopal office; almost all his treatises and many of his letters have +the character of pastoral epistles, and their form occasionally betrays +the fact that they were intended as addresses. These writings bear the +mark of a clear mind and a moderate and gentle spirit. Cyprian had none +of that character which makes the reading of Tertullian, whom he himself +called his _magister_, so interesting and piquant, but he possessed +other qualities which Tertullian lacked, especially the art of +presenting his thoughts in simple, smooth and clear language, yet in a +style which is not wanting in warmth and persuasive power. Like +Tertullian, and often in imitation of him, Cyprian took certain +apologetic, dogmatic and pastoral themes as subjects of his treatises. +By far the best known of these is the treatise _De catholicae ecclesiae +unitate_, called forth in A.D. 251 by the schism at Carthage, but +particularly by the Novatian schism at Rome. In this is proclaimed the +doctrine of the one church founded upon the apostle Peter, whose +"tangible bond is her one united episcopate, an apostleship universal +yet only one--the authority of every bishop perfect in itself and +independent, yet not forming with all the others a mere agglomeration of +powers, but being a tenure upon a totality like that of a shareholder in +some joint property." + +Attention must also be called to the treatise _Ad Donatum_ (_De gratia +dei_), in which the new life after regeneration with its moral effects +is set forth in a pure and clear light, as contrasted with the night of +heathendom and its moral degradation, which were known to the author +from personal experience. The numerous _Letters_ of Cyprian are not only +an important source for the history of church life and of ecclesiastical +law, on account of their rich and manifold contents, but in large part +they are important monuments of the literary activity of their author, +since, not infrequently, they are in the form of treatises upon the +topic in question. Of the eighty-two letters in the present collection, +sixty-six were written by Cyprian. In the great majority of cases the +chronology of their composition, as far as the year is concerned, +presents no difficulties; more precise assignments are mainly +conjectural. In the editions of the works of Cyprian a number of +treatises are printed which, certainly or probably, were not written by +him, and have therefore usually been described as pseudo-Cyprianic. +Several of them, e.g. the treatise on dice (_De aleatoribus_), have +attracted the attention of scholars, who are never weary of the attempt +to determine the identity of the author, unfortunately hitherto without +much success. + + The best, though by no means faultless, edition of Cyprian's works is + that of W. von Hartel in the _Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum_ (3 + vols., Vienna, 1868-1871). There is an English translation in the + _Library of the Ante-Nicene Fathers_. The most complete monograph is + that by Archbishop E. W. Benson, _Cyprian, his Life, his Times, his + Work_ (London, 1897). See also J. A. Faulkner, _Cyprian the Churchman_ + (Cincinnati and New York, 1906). + + + + + +CYPRINODONTS. In spite of their name, the small fishes called +Cyprinodonts are in no way related to the Cyprinids, or carp family, but +are near allies of the pike, characterized by a flat head with +protractile mouth beset with cardiform, villiform, or compressed, bi- or +tri-cuspid teeth, generally large scales, and the absence of a +well-developed lateral line. About two hundred species are known, mostly +inhabitants of the fresh and brackish waters of America; only about +thirty are known from the old world (south Europe, south Asia, China and +Japan, and Africa). Several forms occur in the Oligocene and Miocene +beds of Europe. Many species are ovo-viviparous, and from their small +size and lively behaviour they are much appreciated as aquarium fishes. + +In many species the sexes are dissimilar, the female being larger and +less brilliantly coloured, with smaller fins; the anal fin of the male +may be modified into an intromittent organ by means of which internal +fertilization takes place, the ova developing in a sort of uterus. In +the remarkable genus _Anableps_, from Central and South America, the +strongly projecting eyes are divided by a horizontal band of the +conjunctiva into an upper part adapted for vision in the air, and a +lower for vision in the water, and the pupil is also divided into two +parts by a constriction. + + The latest monograph of these fishes is by S. Garman in _Mem. Mus. + Comp. Zool._ xix. (1895). + +The _Amblyopsidae_, which include the remarkable blind cave fishes of +North America (Mammoth cave and others), are nearly related to the +_Cyprinodontidae_, and like many of them ovo-viviparous. _Chologaster_, +from the lowland streams and swamps of the south Atlantic states, has +the eyes well developed and the body is coloured. _Amblyopsis_ and +_Typhlichthys_, which are evidently derived from _Chologaster_, or from +forms closely related to it, but living in complete darkness, have the +eyes rudimentary and more or less concealed under the skin, and the body +is colourless. + + See F. W. Putnam, _Amer. Nat._ (1872), p. 6, and _P. Boston Soc._ + xvii. (1875), p. 222; and C. H. Eigenmann, _Archiv. fur + Entwickelungsmechanik der Organismen_, viii. (1899), p. 545. + (G. A. B.) + + + + +CYPRUS, one of the largest islands in the Mediterranean, nominally in +the dominion of Turkey, but under British administration, situated in +the easternmost basin of that sea, at roughly equal distance from the +coasts of Asia Minor to the north and of Syria to the east. The headland +of Cape Kormakiti in Cyprus is distant 44 m. from Cape Anamur in Asia +Minor, and its north-east point, Cape St Andrea, is 69 m. from Latakieh +in Syria. It lies between 34 deg. 33' and 35 deg. 41' N., and between 32 +deg. 20' and 34 deg. 35' E., so that it is situated in almost exactly +the same latitude as Crete. Its greatest length is about 141 m., from +Cape Drepano in the west to Cape St Andrea in the north-east, and its +greatest breadth, from Cape Gata in the south to Cape Kormakiti in the +north, reaches 60 m.; while it retains an average width of from 35 to 50 +m. through the greater part of its extent, but narrows suddenly to less +than 10 m. about 34 deg. E., and from thence sends out a long narrow +tongue of land towards the E.N.E. for a distance of 46 m., terminating +in Cape St Andrea. The coast-line measures 486 m. Cyprus is the largest +island in the Mediterranean after Sicily and Sardinia. In 1885 a +trigonometrical survey and a map on the scale of 1 in. to 1 m. were made +by Captain (afterwards Lord) Kitchener, R.E., who worked out the area of +the island at 3584 sq. m., or a little more than the area of Norfolk and +Suffolk. + +_Mountains._--Great part of the island is occupied by two mountain +ranges, both of which have a general direction from west to east. Of +these the most extensive, as well as the most lofty, is that which fills +up almost the whole southern portion of the island, and is generally +designated by modern geographers as Mount Olympus, though that name +appears to have been applied by the ancients only to one particular +peak. The highest summit is known at the present day as Mount Troodos, +and attains an elevation of 6406 ft. It sends down subordinate ranges or +spurs, of considerable altitude, on all sides, one of which extends to +Cape Arnauti (the ancient Acamas), which forms the north-west extremity +of the island, while others descend on both sides quite to the northern +and southern coasts. On the south-eastern slope are governmental and +military summer quarters. The main range is continued eastward by the +lofty summits known as Mount Adelphi (5305 ft.), Papoutsa (5124) and +Machaira or Chionia (4674), until it ends in the somewhat isolated peak +called Santa Croce (Stavrovouni or Oros Stavro), the Hill of the Holy +Cross (2260 ft.). This mountain, designated by Strabo Mount Olympus, is +a conspicuous object from Larnaca, from which it is only 12 m. distant, +and is well known from being frequented as a place of pilgrimage. The +northern range of mountains begins at Cape Kormakiti (the ancient +Crommyon) and is continued from thence in an unbroken ridge to the +eastern extremity of the island, Cape St Andrea, a distance of more than +100 m. It is not known by any collective name; its western part is +called the Kyrenia mountains, while the remainder has the name of +Carpas. It is inferior in elevation to the southern range, its highest +summit (Buffavento) attaining only 3135 ft., while in the eastern +portion the elevation rarely exceeds 2000 ft. But it is remarkable for +its continuous and unbroken character--consisting throughout of a narrow +but rugged and rocky ridge, descending abruptly to the south into the +great plain of Lefkosia, and to the north to a narrow plain bordering +the coast. + +[Illustration: Map of Cyprus.] + +_The Mesaoria._--Between the two mountain ranges lies a broad plain, +extending across the island from the bay of Famagusta to that of Morphou +on the west, a distance of nearly 60 m., with a breadth varying from 10 +to 20 m. It is known by the name of the Mesaoria or Messaria, and is +watered by a number of intermittent streams from the mountains on either +hand. The chief streams are the Pedias and the Yalias, which follow +roughly parallel courses eastward. The greater part of the plain is open +and uncultivated, and presents nothing but barren downs; but corn is +grown in considerable quantities in the northern portions of it, and +there is no doubt that the whole is readily susceptible of cultivation. +It is remarkable that Cyprus was celebrated in antiquity for its +forests, which not only clothed the whole of its mountain ranges, but +covered the entire central plain with a dense mass, so that it was with +difficulty that the land could be cleared for cultivation. At the +present day the whole plain of the Mesaoria is naturally bare and +treeless, and it is only the loftiest and central summits of Mount +Olympus that still retain their covering of pine woods. The +disappearance of the forests (which has in a measure been artificially +remedied) naturally affected the rivers, which are mostly mere torrents, +dry in summer. Even the Pedias (ancient _Pediaeus_) does not reach the +sea in summer, and its stagnant waters form unhealthy marshes. In the +marshy localities malarial fever occurs but is rarely (in modern times) +of a severe type. The mean annual temperature in Cyprus is about 69 deg. +F. (mean maximum 78 deg., and minimum 57 deg.). The mean annual rainfall +is about 19 ins. October to March is the cool, wet season. Earthquakes +are not uncommon. + + _Geology._--Cyprus lies in the continuation of the folded belt of the + Anti-taurus. The northern coast range is formed by the oldest rocks in + the island, consisting chiefly of limestones and marbles with + occasional masses of igneous rock. These are supposed to be of + Cretaceous age, but no fossils have been found in them. On both sides + the range is flanked by sandstones and shales (the Kythraean series), + supposed to be of Upper Eocene age; and similar rocks occur around the + southern mountain mass. The Oligocene consists of grey and white marls + (known as the Idalian series), which are distributed all over the + island and attain their greatest development on the south side of the + Troodos. All these rocks have been folded, and take part in the + formation of the mountains. The great igneous masses of Troodos, &c., + consisting of diabase, basalt and serpentine, are of later date. + Pliocene and later beds cover the central plain and occur at intervals + along the coast. The Pliocene is of marine origin, and rests + unconformably upon all the older beds, including the Post-oligocene + igneous rocks, thus proving that the final folding and the last + volcanic outbursts were approximately of Miocene age. The caves of the + Kyrenian range contain a Pleistocene mammalian fauna. + +_Population._--The population of Cyprus in 1901 was 237,022, an increase +of 27,736 since 1891 and of 51,392 since 1881. The people are mainly +Greeks and Turks. About 22% of the population are Moslems; nearly all +the remainder are Christians of the Orthodox Greek Church. The Moslem +religious courts, presided over by cadis, are strictly confined to +jurisdiction in religious cases affecting the Mahommedan population. The +island is divided into the six districts of Famagusta, Kyrenia, Larnaca, +Limasol, Nicosia and Papho. The chief towns are Nicosia (pop. 14,752), +the capital, in the north central part of the island, Limasol (8298) and +Larnaca (7964) on the south-eastern coast. The other capitals of +districts are Famagusta on the east coast, Kyrenia on the north, and +Ktima, capital of Papho, on the south-west. Kyrenia, a small port, has a +castle built about the beginning of the 13th century, and notable, +through the troubled history of the island, as never having been +captured. + +_Agriculture, &c._--The most important species of the few trees that +remain in the island are the Aleppo pine, the _Pinus laricio_, cypress, +cedar, carob, olive and _Quercus alnifolia_. Recent additions are the +eucalyptus, casuarina, _Pinus pinea_ and ailanthus. Some protection has +been afforded to existing plantations, and some attempt made to extend +their area; but the progress in both directions is slow. Agriculture is +the chief industry in the island, in spite of various disabilities. The +soil is extremely fertile, and, with a fair rainfall, say 13 in., +between November and April, yields magnificent crops, but the +improvements in agriculture are scarcely satisfactory. The methods and +appliances used are extremely primitive, and inveterate prejudice debars +the average peasant from the use of new implements, fresh seed, or +manure; he generally cares nothing for the rotation of crops, or for the +cleanliness of his land. Modern improvements and the use of imported +machinery have, however, been adopted by some. A director of agriculture +was appointed in 1896, and leaflets are issued pointing out improvements +within the means of the villager, and how to deal with plant diseases +and insect pests. The products of the soil include grain, fruit, +including carob, olive, mulberry, cotton, vegetables and oil seeds. +Vineyards occupy a considerable area, and the native wines are pure and +strong, but not always palatable. The native practice of conveying wine +in tarred skins was deleterious to its flavour, and is now for the most +part abolished. A company has exploited and improved the industry. Large +sums have been expended on the destruction of locusts; they are now +practically harmless, but live locusts are diligently collected every +year, a reward being paid by the government for their destruction. Under +the superintendence of an officer lent by the government of Madras, two +great works of irrigation, from the lack of which agriculture had +seriously suffered, were undertaken in 1898 and 1899. The smaller +includes a reservoir at Syncrasi (Famagusta), with a catchment of 27 sq. +m. and a capacity of 70,000,000 cub. ft. It reclaims 360 acres, and was +estimated to irrigate 4320. The larger scheme includes three large +reservoirs in the Mesaoria to hold up and temporarily store the flood +waters of the Pedias and Yalias rivers. The estimate premised a cost of +L50,000, the irrigation of 42,000 acres, and the reclamation of 10,000. +These works were completed respectively in 1899 and 1901. + +The rearing of live stock is of no little importance. A committee exists +"for the improvement of the breeds of Cyprus stock"; stallions of Arab +blood have been imported, and prizes are offered for the best donkeys. +Cattle, sheep, mules and donkeys are sent in large numbers to Egypt. +Cyprus mules have found favour in war in the Crimea, India, Uganda, +Eritrea and Egypt. The sea fisheries are not important, with the +exception of the sponge fishery, which is under the protection of the +administration. The manufactures of the island are insignificant. + +_Minerals._--Next to its forests, which long supplied the Greek monarchs +of Egypt with timber for their fleets, Cyprus was celebrated among the +ancients for its mineral wealth, especially for its mines of copper, +which were worked from a very early period, and continued to enjoy such +reputation among both Greeks and Romans that the modern name for the +metal is derived from the term of Aes Cyprium or Cuprium by which it was +known to the latter. According to Strabo the most valuable mines were +worked at a place called Tamasus, in the centre of the island, on the +northern slopes of Mount Olympus, but their exact site has not been +identified. An attempt to work copper towards the close of the 19th +century was a failure, but some prospecting was subsequently carried on. +Besides copper, according to Strabo, the island produced considerable +quantities of silver; and Pliny records it as producing various kinds of +precious stones, among which he mentions diamonds and emeralds, but +these were doubtless nothing more than rock crystal and beryl. Salt, +which was in ancient times one of the productions for which the island +was noted, is still made in large quantities, and there are extensive +salt works in the neighbourhood of Larnaca and Limasol, where there are +practically inexhaustible salt lakes. Rock crystal and asbestos are +still found in the district of Paphos. Gypsum is exported unburnt from +the Carpas, and as plaster of Paris from Limasol and Larnaca. Statuary +marble has been found on the slopes of Buffavento in the northern range. +Excellent building stone exists throughout the island. + +_Commerce._--A disability against the trade of Cyprus has been the want +of natural harbours, the ports possessing only open roadsteads; though +early in the 20th century the construction of a satisfactory commercial +harbour was undertaken at Famagusta, and there is a small harbour at +Kyrenia. Trade is carried on principally from the ports already +indicated among the chief towns. The various agricultural products, +cattle and mules, cheese, wines and spirits, silk cocoons and gypsum +make up the bulk of the exports. Barley and wheat, carobs and raisins +may be specially indicated among the agricultural exports. The annual +value of exports and of imports (which are of a general character) may +be set down as about L300,000 each. Good roads are maintained connecting +the more important towns, and when the harbour at Famagusta was +undertaken the construction of a railway from that port to Nicosia was +also put in hand. The Eastern Telegraph Co. maintains a cable from +Alexandria (Egypt) to Larnaca, and the greater part of the lines on the +island. The Imperial Ottoman Telegraph Co. has also some lines. The +British sovereign is the current gold coin, the unit of the bronze and +silver coinage being the _piastre_ (1(1/3) penny). Turkish weights and +measures are used. The oke, equalling 2.8 lb. avoirdupois, and the +_donum_, about 1/4 of an acre, are the chief units. + +_Constitution and Government._--Under a convention signed at +Constantinople on the 4th of June 1878, Great Britain engaged to join +the sultan of Turkey in defending his Asiatic possessions (in certain +contingencies) against Russia, and the sultan, "in order to enable +England to make necessary provision for executing her engagement," +consented to assign the island of Cyprus to be occupied and administered +by England. The British flag was hoisted on the 12th of June, and the +conditions of the occupation were explained in an annex to the +convention, dated the 1st of July. An order in council of the 14th of +September, modified so far as related to legislation by another of the +30th of November, regulated the government of the island. The +administration was placed in the hands of a high commissioner with the +usual powers of a colonial governor. Executive and legislative councils +were established; and in each of the six districts into which, for +administrative and legal purposes, the island was divided, a +commissioner was appointed to represent the government. The executive +council consists of the high commissioner, the chief secretary, the +king's advocate, the senior officer in charge of the troops, and the +receiver-general, with, as "additional" members, two Christians and one +Mussulman. The legislative council consists of six non-elected members, +being office-holders, and twelve elected members, three being chosen by +the Moslems and nine by the non-Moslem inhabitants. British subjects and +foreigners, who have resided five years in Cyprus, can exercise the +franchise as well as Ottoman subjects. The qualification otherwise is +the payment of any of the taxes classed as Vergi Taxes (see below). The +courts in existence at the time of the occupation were superseded by the +following, constituted by an order in council dated the 30th of November +1882:--(1) a supreme court of criminal and civil appeal; (2) six assize +courts; (3) six district courts; (4) six magistrates' courts; and (5) +village courts. Actions are divided, according to the nationality of the +defendant, into "Ottoman" and "Foreign"; in the latter, the president of +the court alone exercises jurisdiction as a rule, so also in criminal +cases against foreigners. The law administered is that contained in the +Ottoman codes, modified by ordinances passed by the legislative council. + + _Finance._--The principal sources of revenue are:-- + + (1) Vergi taxes, or taxes on house and land property, and trade + profits and incomes (not including salaries); (2) military exemption + tax, payable by Moslems and Christians alike, but not by foreigners, + of 2s. 6d. a head on males between 18 and 60 years of age; (3) tithes. + All tithes have been abolished, except those on cereals, carobs, silk + cocoons, and, in the form of 10% _ad valorem_ export duties, those on + cotton, linseed, aniseed and raisins (all other export duties and a + fishing tax have been abolished); (4) sheep, goat, and pig tax; (5) an + excise on wine, spirits and tobacco; (6) import duties; (7) stamps, + court fees, royalties, licenses, &c.; (8) salt monopoly. Foreigners + are liable to all the above taxes except the military exemption tax. + The annual sum of L92,800, payable to Turkey as the average excess + (according to the years 1873-1878) of revenue over expenditure, but + really appropriated to the interest on the British guaranteed loan of + 1855, is a heavy burden. But if not lightened, taxation is at least + better apportioned than formerly. + + _Instruction._--A general system of grants in aid of elementary + schools was established in 1882. There are some 300 connected with the + Greek Orthodox Church, and 160 elementary Moslem schools. Aid is also + given to a few Armenian and Maronite schools. Among other schools are + a Moslem high school (maintained entirely by government), a training + college at Nicosia for teachers in the Orthodox Church schools, Greek + high schools at Larnaca and Limasol, an English school for boys and a + girls' school at Nicosia. By a law of 1895 separate boards of + education for Moslem and Greek Christian schools were established, and + in each district there are separate committees, presided over by the + commissioner. An institution worthy of special notice is the home and + farm for lepers near Nicosia, accommodating over a hundred inmates. + + +HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY DOWN TO THE ROMAN OCCUPATION + +The Stone Age has left but few traces in Cyprus; no sites have been +found and even single implements are very rare. The "megalithic" +monuments of Agia Phaneromeni[1] and Hala Sultan Teke near Larnaca may +perhaps be early, like the Palestinian cromlechs; but the vaulted +chamber of Agia Katrina near Enkomi seems to be Mycenaean or later; and +the perforated monoliths at Ktima seem to belong to oil presses of +uncertain but probably not prehistoric date. + +The Bronze Age, on the other hand, is of peculiar importance in an area +which, like Cyprus, was one of the chief early sources of copper. Its +remains have been carefully studied both on settlement sites at +Leondari Vouno and Kalopsida, and in tombs in more than thirty places, +notably at Agia Paraskevi, Psemmatismeno, Alambra, Episkopi and Enkomi. +Throughout this period, which began probably before 3000 B.C. and ended +about 1000 B.C., Cyprus evidently maintained a large population, and an +art and culture distinct from those of Egypt, Syria and Cilicia. The +Cypriote temper, however, lacks originality; at all periods it has +accepted foreign innovations slowly, and discarded them even more +reluctantly. The island owes its importance, therefore, mainly to its +copious supply of a few raw materials, notably copper and timber. +Objects of Cypriote manufacture are found but rarely on sites abroad; in +the later Bronze Age, however, they occur in Egypt and South Palestine, +and as far afield as Thera (Santorin), Athens and Troy (Hissarlik). + +The Bronze Age culture of Cyprus falls into three main stages. In the +first, the implements are rather of copper than of bronze, tin being +absent or in small quantities (2 to 3%); the types are common to Syria +and Asia Minor as far as the Hellespont, and resemble also the earliest +forms in the Aegean and in central Europe; the pottery is all hand-made, +with a red burnished surface, gourd-like and often fantastic forms, and +simple geometrical patterns incised; zoomorphic art is very rare, and +imported objects are unknown. In the second stage, implements of true +bronze (9 to 10% tin) become common; painted pottery of buff clay with +dull black geometrical patterns appears alongside the red-ware; and +foreign imports occur, such as Egyptian blue-glazed beads (XIIth-XIIIth +Dynasty, 2500-2000 B.C.),[2] and cylindrical Asiatic seals (one of +Sargon I., 2000 B.C.).[3] + +In the third stage, Aegean colonists introduced the Mycenaean (late +Minoan) culture and industries; with new types of weapons, wheel-made +pottery, and a naturalistic art which rapidly becomes conventional; gold +and ivory are abundant, and glass and enamels are known. Extended +intercourse with Syria, Palestine and Egypt brought other types of +pottery, jewelry, &c. (especially scarabs of XVIIIth and XIXth +Dynasties, 1600-1200 B.C.), which were freely copied on the spot. There +is, however, nothing in this period which can be ascribed to +specifically "Phoenician" influence; the only traces of writing are in a +variety of the Aegean script. The magnificent tombs from Enkomi and +Episkopi illustrate the wealth and advancement of Cyprus at this +time.[4] + +It is in this third stage that Cyprus first appears in history, under +the name _Asi_, as a conquest of Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. of Egypt +(XVIIIth Dynasty, c. 1500 B.C.),[5] yielding tribute of chariots, +horses, copper, blue-stone and other products. It was still in Egyptian +hands under Seti I., and under Rameses III. a list of Cypriote towns +seems to include among others the names of Salamis, Citium, Soli, +Idalium, Cerynia (Kyrenia), and Curium. Another Egyptian dependency, +Alasia, has by some been identified with Cyprus or a part of it (but may +perhaps be in North Syria). It sent copper, oil, horses and cattle, +ivory and timber; under Amenophis (Amenhotep) III. it exported timber +and imported silver; it included a town Sikra, traded with Byblus in +North Syria, and was exposed to piratical raids of _Lykki_ (? Lycians). + +The decline of Egypt under the XXth Dynasty, and the contemporary fall +of the Aegean sea-power, left Cyprus isolated and defenceless, and the +Early Iron Age which succeeds is a period of obscurity and relapse. +Iron, which occurs rarely, and almost exclusively for ornaments, in a +few tombs at Enkomi, suddenly superseded bronze for tools and weapons, +and its introduction was accompanied, as in the Aegean, by economic, and +probably by political changes, which broke up the high civilization of +the Mycenaean colonies, and reduced them to poverty, isolation and +comparative barbarism. It is significant that the first iron swords in +Cyprus are of a type characteristic of the lands bordering the Adriatic. +Gold and even silver become rare;[6] foreign imports almost cease; +engraved cylinders and scarabs are replaced by conical and pyramidal +seals like those of Asia Minor, and dress-pins by brooches (_fibulae_) +like those of south-eastern Europe. Representative art languishes, +except a few childish terra-cottas; decorative art becomes once more +purely geometrical, but shows only slight affinity with the contemporary +geometrical art of the Aegean. + +Lingering thus in Cyprus (as also in some islands of the Aegean) +Mycenaean traditions came into contact with new oriental influences from +the Syrian coast; and these were felt in Cyprus somewhat earlier than in +the West. But there is at present no clear proof of Phoenician or other +Semitic activity in Cyprus until the last years of the 8th century. + +No reference to Cyprus has been found in Babylonian or Assyrian records +before the reign of Sargon II. (end of 8th century B.C.), and the +occasional discovery of Mesopotamian cylinders of early date in Cyprus +is no proof of direct intercourse.[7] Isaiah (xxiii. 1, 12), writing +about this time, describes Kittim (a name derived from Citium, q.v.) as +a port of call for merchantmen homeward bound for Tyre, and as a shelter +for Tyrian refugees; but the Hebrew geographers of this and the next +century classify _Kittim_, together with other coast-lands and islands, +under the heading _Javan_, "Ionian" (q.v.), and consequently reckoned it +as predominantly Greek. + +Sargon's campaigns in north Syria, Cilicia and south-east Asia Minor +(721-711) provoked first attacks, then an embassy and submission in 709, +from seven kings of _Yatnana_ (the Assyrian name for Cyprus); and an +inscription of Sargon himself, found at Citium, proves an Assyrian +protectorate, and records tribute of gold, silver and various timbers. +These kings probably represent that "sea-power of Cyprus" which precedes +that of Phoenicia in the Greek "List of Thalassocracies" preserved by +Eusebius. Under Sennacherib's rule, _Yatnana_ figures (as in Isaiah) as +the refuge of a disloyal Sidonian in 702; but in 668 ten kings of +Cypriote cities joined Assur-bani-pal's expedition to Egypt; most of +them bear recognizable Greek names, e.g. Pylagoras of Chytroi, Eteandros +of Paphos, Onasagoras of Ledroi. They are gazetted with twelve other +"kings of the Hatti" (S.E. Asia Minor). Citium, the principal Phoenician +state, does not appear by name; but is usually recognized in the list +under its Phoenician title _Karti-hadasti_, "new town." + +Thus before the middle of the 7th century Cyprus reappears in history +divided among at least ten cities, of which some are certainly Greek, +and one at least certainly Phoenician: with this, Greek tradition +agrees.[8] The Greek colonists traced their descent, at Curium, from +Argos; at Lapathus, from Laconia; at Paphos, from Arcadia; at Salamis, +from the Attic island of that name; and at Soli, also from Attica. The +settlements at Paphos and Salamis, and probably at Curium, were believed +to date from the period of the Trojan War, i.e. from the 13th century, +and the latter part of the Mycenaean age; the name of Teucer, the +legendary founder of Salamis, probably is a reminiscence of the +piratical Tikkara who harried the Egyptian coast under Rameses III. (c. +1200 B.C.), and the discovery of late Mycenaean settlements on these +sites, and also at Lapathus, suggests that these legends rest upon +history. The Greek dialect of Cyprus points in the same direction; it +shows marked resemblances with that of Arcadia, and forms with it a +"South Achaean" or "South Aeolic" group, related to the "Northern +Aeolic" of Thessaly and other parts of north Greece.[9] Further +evidence of continuity comes from the peculiar Cypriote script, a +syllabary related to the linear scripts of Crete and the south Aegean, +and traceable in Cyprus to the Mycenaean age.[10] It remained in regular +use until the 4th century; before that time the Greek alphabet occurs in +Cyprus only in a few inscriptions erected for visitors.[11] In Citium +and Idalium, on the other hand, a Phoenician dialect and alphabet were +in use from the time of Sargon onward.[12] Sargon's inscription at +Citium is cuneiform.[13] + +The culture and art of Cyprus in this Graeco-Phoenician period are well +represented by remains from Citium, Idalium, Tamassus, Amathus and +Curium; the earlier phases are best represented round Lapathus, Soli, +Paphos and Citium; the later Hellenization, at Amathus and +Marion-Arsinoe. Three distinct foreign influences may be distinguished: +they originate in Egypt, in Assyria, and in the Aegean. The first two +predominate earlier, and gradually recede before the last-named. Their +effects are best seen in sculpture and in metal work, though it remains +doubtful whether the best examples of the latter were made in Cyprus or +on the mainland. Among a great series of engraved silver bowls,[14] +found mostly in Cyprus, but also as far off as Nineveh, Olympia, Caere +and Praeneste, some examples show almost unmixed imitation of Egyptian +scenes and devices; in others, Assyrian types are introduced among the +Egyptian in senseless confusion; in others, both traditions are merged +in a mixed art, which betrays a return to naturalism and a new sense of +style, like that of the Idaean bronzes in Crete.[15] From its +intermediate position between the art of Phoenicia and its western +colonies (so far as this is known) and the earliest Hellenic art in the +Aegean, this style has been called Graeco-Phoenician. The same sequence +of phases is represented in sculpture by the votive statues from the +sanctuaries of Aphrodite at Dali and of Apollo at Voni and Frangissa; +and by examples from other sites in the Cesnola collection; in painting +by a rare class of naively polychromic vases; and in both by the +elaborately coloured terra-cotta figures from the "Toumba" site at +Salamis. Gem-engraving and jewelry follow similar lines; +pottery-painting for the most part remains geometrical throughout, with +crude survivals of Mycenaean curvilinear forms. Those Aegean influences, +however, which had been predominant in the later Bronze Age, and had +never wholly ceased, revived, as Hellenism matured and spread, and +slowly repelled the mixed Phoenician orientalism. Imported vases from +the Aegean, of the "Dipylon," "proto-Corinthian" and "Rhodian" fabrics, +occur rarely, and were imitated by the native potters; and early in the +6th century appears the specific influence of Ionia, and still more of +Naucratis in the Egyptian delta. For the failure of Assyria in Egypt in +668-664, and the revival of Egypt as a phil-Hellene state under the +XXVIth Dynasty, admitted strong Graeco-Egyptian influences in industry +and art, and led about 560 B.C. to the political conquest of Cyprus by +Amasis (Ahmosi) II.;[16] once again Cypriote timber maintained a foreign +sea-power in the Levant. + +The annexation of Egypt by Cambyses of Persia in 525 B.C. was preceded +by the voluntary surrender of Cyprus, which formed part of Darius's +"fifth satrapy."[17] The Greek cities, faring ill under Persia, and +organized by Onesilaus of Salamis, joined the Ionic revolt in 500 +B.C.;[18] but the Phoenician states, Citium and Amathus, remained loyal +to Persia; the rising was soon put down; in 480 Cyprus furnished no less +than 150 ships to the fleet of Xerxes;[19] and in spite of the repeated +attempts of the Delian League to "liberate" the island, it remained +subject to Persia during the 5th century.[20] The occasion of the siege +of Idalium by Persians (which is commemorated in an important Cypriote +inscription) is unknown.[21] Throughout this period, however, Athens and +other Greek states maintained a brisk trade in copper, sending vases and +other manufactures in return, and bringing Cyprus at last into full +contact with Hellenism. But the Greek cities retained monarchical +government throughout, and both the domestic art and the principal +religious cults remained almost unaltered. The coins of the Greek +dynasts and autonomous towns are struck on a variable standard with a +stater of 170 to 180 grs.[22] The principal Greek cities were now +Salamis, Curium, Paphos, Marion, Soli, Kyrenia and Khytri. Phoenicians +held Citium and Amathus on the south coast between Salamis and Curium, +also Tamassus and Idalium in the interior; but the last named was little +more than a sanctuary town, like Paphos. At the end of the 5th century a +fresh Salaminian League was formed by Evagoras (q.v.), who became king +in 410, aided the Athenian Conon after the fall of Athens in 404, and +revolted openly from Persia in 386, after the peace of Antalcidas.[23] +Athens again sent help, but as before the Phoenician states supported +Persia; the Greeks were divided by feuds, and in 380 the attempt failed; +Evagoras was assassinated in 374, and his son Nicocles died soon after. +After the victory of Alexander the Great at Issus in 333 B.C. all the +states of Cyprus welcomed him, and sent timber and ships for his siege +of Tyre in 332. + +After Alexander's death in 323 B.C. Cyprus, coveted still for its copper +and timber, passed, after several rapid changes, to Ptolemy I., king of +Egypt. Then in 306 B.C. Demetrius Poliorcetes of Macedon overran the +whole island, besieged Salamis, and utterly defeated there the Egyptian +fleet. Ptolemy, however, recovered it in 295 B.C. Under Ptolemaic rule +Cyprus has little history. Usually it was governed by a viceroy of the +royal line, but it gained a brief independence under Ptolemy Lathyrus +(107-89 B.C.), and under a brother of Ptolemy Auletes in 58 B.C. The +great sanctuaries of Paphos and Idalium, and the public buildings of +Salamis, which were wholly remodelled in this period, have produced but +few works of art; the sculpture from local shrines at Voni and Vitsada, +and the frescoed tombstones from Amathus, only show how incapable the +Cypriotes still were of utilizing Hellenistic models; a rare and +beautiful class of terra-cottas like those of Myrina may be of Cypriote +fabric, but their style is wholly of the Aegean. It is in this period +that we first hear of Jewish settlements,[24] which later become very +populous. + +In 58 B.C. Rome, which had made large unsecured loans to Ptolemy +Auletes, sent M. Porcius Cato to annex the island, nominally because its +king had connived at piracy, really because its revenues and the +treasures of Paphos were coveted to finance a corn law of P. +Clodius.[25] Under Rome Cyprus was at first appended to the province of +Cilicia; after Actium (31 B.C.) it became a separate province, which +remained in the hands of Augustus and was governed by a _legatus +Caesaris pro praetore_ as long as danger was feared from the East.[26] +No monuments remain of this period. In 22 B.C., however, it was +transferred to the senate,[27] so that Sergius Paulus, who was governor +in A.D. 46, is rightly called [Greek: anthypatos](proconsul).[28] Of +Paulus no coins are known, but an inscription exists.[29] Other +proconsuls are Julius Cordus and L. Annius Bassus who succeeded him in +A.D. 52.[30] The copper mines, which were still of great importance, +were farmed at one time by Herod the Great.[31] The persecution of +Christians on the mainland after the death of Stephen drove converts as +far as Cyprus; and soon after converted Cypriote Jews, such as Mnason +(an "original convert" ) and Joses the Levite (better known as +Barnabas), were preaching in Antioch. The latter revisited Cyprus twice, +first with Paul on his "first journey" in A.D. 46, and later with +Mark.[32] In 116-117 the Jews of Cyprus, with those of Egypt and Cyrene, +revolted, massacred 240,000 persons, and destroyed a large part of +Salamis. Hadrian, afterwards emperor, suppressed them, and expelled all +Jews from Cyprus. + +For the culture of the Roman period there is abundant evidence from +Salamis and Paphos, and from tombs everywhere, for the glass vessels +which almost wholly supersede pottery are much sought for their (quite +accidental) iridescence; not much else is found that is either +characteristic or noteworthy; and little attention has been paid to the +sequence of style. + +The Christian church of Cyprus was divided into thirteen bishoprics. It +was made autonomous in the 5th century, in recognition of the supposed +discovery of the original of St Matthew's Gospel in a "tomb of Barnabas" +which is still shown at Salamis. The patriarch has therefore the title +[Greek: makariotatos] and the right to sign his name in red ink. A +council of Cyprus, summoned by Theophilus of Alexandria in A.D. 401, +prohibited the reading of the works of Origen (see CYPRUS, CHURCH OF). + +Of the Byzantine period little remains but the ruins of the castles of +St Hilarion, Buffavento and Kantara; and a magnificent series of gold +ornaments and silver plate, found near Kyrenia in 1883 and 1897 +respectively. Christian tombs usually contain nothing of value. + +The Frank conquest is represented by the "Crusaders' Tower" at Kolossi, +and the church of St Nicholas at Nicosia; and, later, by masterpieces of +a French Gothic style, such as the church (mosque) of St Sophia, and +other churches at Nicosia; the cathedral (mosque) and others at +Famagusta (q.v.), and the monastery at Bella Pais; as well as by +domestic architecture at Nicosia; and by forts at Kyrenia, Limasol and +elsewhere. + +The Turks and British have added little, and destroyed much, converting +churches into mosques and grain-stores, and quarrying walls and +buildings at Famagusta. + +_History of Excavation._--Practically all the archaeological discoveries +above detailed have been made since 1877. A few chance finds of vases, +inscriptions and coins; of a hoard of silver bowls at Dali (anc. +_Idalium_)[33] in 1851; and of a bronze tablet with Phoenician and +Cypriote bilingual inscriptions,[34] also at Dali, and about the same +time, had raised questions of great interest as to the art and the +language of the ancient inhabitants. T. B. Sandwith, British consul +1865-1869, had laid the foundations of a sound knowledge of Cypriote +pottery;[35] his successor R. H. Lang (1870-1872) had excavated a +sanctuary of Aphrodite at Dali;[36] and at the time of the publication +of the 9th ed. of the _Ency. Brit._,[37] General Louis P. di Cesnola +(q.v.), American consul, was already exploring ancient sites, and +opening tombs, in all parts of the island, though his results were not +published till 1877.[38] But though his vast collection, now in the +Metropolitan Museum of New York, remains the largest series of Cypriote +antiquities in the world, the accounts which have been given of its +origin are so inadequate, and have provoked so much controversy,[39] +that its scientific value is small, and a large part of subsequent +excavation has necessarily been directed to solving the problems +suggested by its practically isolated specimens. From 1876 to 1878 Major +Alexander P. di Cesnola continued his brother's work, but the large +collection which he exhibited in London in 1880 was dispersed soon +afterwards.[40] + +On the British occupation of Cyprus in 1878, the Ottoman law of 1874 in +regard to antiquities was retained in force. Excavation is permitted +under government supervision, and the finds are apportioned in thirds, +between the excavator, the landowner (who is usually bought out by the +former), and the government. The government thirds lie neglected in a +"Cyprus Museum" maintained at Nicosia by voluntary subscription. There +is no staff, and no effective supervision of ancient sites or monuments. +A catalogue of the collections was published by the Oxford University +Press in 1899.[41] + +Since 1878 more than seventy distinct excavations have been made in +Cyprus, of which the following are the most important. In 1879 the +British government used the acropolis of _Citium_ (Larnaca) to fill up +the ancient harbour; and from the destruction a few Phoenician +inscriptions and a proto-Ionic capital were saved. In 1882 tombs were +opened by G. Hake at _Salamis_ and _Curium_ for the South Kensington +Museum, but no scientific record was made. In 1883 the Cyprus Museum was +founded by private enterprise, and on its behalf Max Ohnefalsch-Richter, +who had already made trial diggings for Sir Charles Newton and the +British Museum, excavated sanctuaries at Voni and Kythrea (_Chytri_), +and opened tombs on some other sites.[42] + +In 1885 Dr F. Dummler opened tombs at Dali, Alambra and elsewhere, and +laid the foundations of knowledge of the Bronze Age and Early Iron +Age;[43] and Richter, on behalf of officials and private individuals, +excavated parts of Frangissa (_Tamassus_), Episkopi and Dali.[44] + +In the same year, 1885, and in 1886, a syndicate opened many tombs at +Poli-tis-Khrysochou (_Marium_, _Arsinoe_), and sold the contents by +auction in Paris. From Richter's notes of this excavation, Dr P. +Herrmann compiled the first scientific account of Graeco-Phoenician and +Hellenistic Cyprus.[45] In 1886 also M. le vicomte E. de Castillon de St +Victor opened rich Graeco-Phoenician tombs at Episkopi, the contents of +which are in the Louvre.[46] + +The successes of 1885-1886 led to the foundation of the Cyprus +Exploration Fund, on behalf of which (1) in 1888 the sanctuary of +Aphrodite at _Paphos_ (Kouklia) was excavated by Messrs E. Gardner, M. +R. James, D. G. Hogarth and R. Elsey Smith;[47] (2) in 1889-1890 more +tombs were opened at Poli by Messrs J. A. R. Munro and H. A. Tubbs;[48] +(3) in 1890-1891 extensive trials were made at _Salamis_, by the +same;[49] (4) minor sites were examined at Leondari Vouno (1888),[50] +Amargetti (1888),[51] and Limniti (1889);[52] (5) in 1888 Hogarth made a +surface-survey of the Karpass promontory;[53] and finally, (6) in 1894 +the balance was expended by J. L. Myres in a series of trials, to settle +special points, at Agia Paraskevi, Kalopsida and Larnaca.[54] In 1894 +also Dr Richter excavated round _Idalium_ and _Tamassus_ for the +Prussian government: the results, unpublished up to 1902, are in the +Berlin Museum.[55] Finally, a legacy from Miss Emma T. Turner enabled +the British Museum to open numerous tombs, by contract, of the +Graeco-Phoenician age, in 1894, at Palaeo-Lemesso (_Amathus_); and of +the Mycenaean age, in 1894-1895 at Episkopi, in 1895-1896 at Enkomi +(near _Salamis_), and in 1897-1899 on small sites between Larnaca and +Limasol.[56] + + For ancient Oriental references to Cyprus see E. Oberhummer, _Die + Insel Cypern_, i. (Munich, 1903); for classical references, W. H. + Engel, _Kypros_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1841); for culture and art, G. + Perrot and C. Chipiez, _Histoire de l'art dans l'antiquite_, vol. iii. + "Phenicie et Cypre" (Paris, 1885); L. P. di Cesnola, _A Descriptive + Atlas of the Cesnola Collection of Cypr. Antiquities in the + Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York_ (3 vols., Boston, U.S.A., + 1884-1886); M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, _Kypros, the Bible and Homer_ (2 + vols., London and Berlin, 1893); J. L. Myres and M. + Ohnefalsch-Richter, _Cyprus Museum Catalogue_ (Oxford, 1899). The + principal publications on special topics are given in the footnotes. + For Cypriote coins see also NUMISMATICS. See further the general + bibliography below. (J. L. M.) + + +MODERN HISTORY + +After the division of the Roman empire Cyprus naturally passed, with all +the neighbouring countries, into the hands of the Eastern or Byzantine +emperors, to whom it continued subject, with brief intervals, for more +than seven centuries. Until 644 the island was exceedingly prosperous, +but in that year began the period of Arab invasions, which continued +intermittently until 975. At the outset the Arabs under the caliph +Othman made themselves masters of the island, and destroyed the city of +Salamis, which until that time had continued to be the capital. The +island was recovered by the Greek emperors and, though again conquered +by the Arabs in the reign of Harun al-Rashid (802), it was finally +restored to the Byzantine empire under Nicephorus Phocas. Its princes +became practically independent, and tyrannized the island, until in 1191 +Isaac Comnenus provoked the wrath of Richard I., king of England, by +wantonly ill-treating his crusaders. He thereupon wrested the island +from Isaac, whom he took captive. He then sold Cyprus to the Knights +Templars, who presently resold it to Guy de Lusignan, titular king of +Jerusalem. + +Guy ruled from 1192 till his death in 1194; his brother Amaury took the +title of king, and from this time Cyprus was governed for nearly three +centuries by a succession of kings of the same dynasty, who introduced +into the island the feudal system and other institutions of western +Europe. During the later part of this period, indeed, the Genoese made +themselves masters of Famagusta--which had risen in place of Salamis to +be the chief commercial city in the island--and retained possession of +it for a considerable time (1376-1464); but it was recovered by King +James II., and the whole island was reunited under his rule. His +marriage with Caterina Cornaro, a Venetian lady of rank, was designed to +secure the support of the powerful republic of Venice, but had the +effect after a few years, in consequence of his own death and that of +his son James III., of transferring the sovereignty of the island to his +new allies. Caterina, feeling herself unable to contend alone with the +increasing power of the Turks, was induced to abdicate the sovereign +power in favour of the Venetian republic, which at once entered into +full possession of the island (1489). + +The Venetians retained their acquisition for eighty-two years, +notwithstanding the neighbourhood of the Turks. Cyprus was now harshly +governed by a lieutenant, and the condition of the natives, who had been +much oppressed under the Lusignan dynasty, became worse. In 1570 the +Turks, under Selim II., made a serious attempt to conquer the island, in +which they landed an army of 60,000 men. The greater part of the island +was reduced with little difficulty; Nicosia, the capital, was taken +after a siege of 45 days, and 20,000 of its inhabitants put to the +sword. Famagusta alone made a gallant and protracted resistance, and +did not capitulate till after a siege of nearly a year's duration +(August 1571). The terms of the capitulation were shamefully violated by +the Turks, who put to death the governor Marcantonio Bragadino with +cruel torments. From that time Cyprus was under Turkish administration +until the agreement with Great Britain in 1878. Its history during that +period is almost a blank. A serious insurrection broke out in 1764, but +was speedily suppressed; and a few similar incidents are the only +evidence of the Turkish oppression of the Christian population of the +island, and the consequent stagnation of its trade. + + AUTHORITIES.--_An Attempt at a Bibliography of Cyprus_, by C. D. + Cobham (4th ed., Nicosia, 1900), registers over 700 works which deal + with Cyprus. _A Handbook of Cyprus_, by Sir J. T. Hutchinson and C. D. + Cobham (London), treats the island briefly from every standpoint. See + also E. Oberhummer, _Die Insel Cypern_ (Munich, 1903 et seq.), a + comprehensive work. The most interesting travels may be found under + the names of Felix Faber, _Evagatorium_ (Stuttgart, 1843); de + Villamont, Voyages (Arras, 1598); van Kootwyck, _Cotovici itinerarium_ + (Antwerp, 1619); R. Pococke, _Description of the East_ (London, 1743); + A. Drummond, _Travels_ (London, 1754); E. D. Clarke, _Travels_ + (London, 1812); Sir S. Baker, _Cyprus in 1879_ (London, 1879); W. H. + Mallock, _In an Enchanted Island_ (London, 1879). The geology of the + island has been handled by A. Gaudry, _Geologie de l'ile de Chypre_ + (Paris, 1862); C. V. Bellamy, _Notes on the Geology of Cyprus, to + accompany a Geological Map of Cyprus_ (London, 1905); C. V. Bellamy + and A. J. Jukes-Brown, _Geology of Cyprus_ (Plymouth, 1905). Its + natural history by F. Unger and T. Kotschy, _Die Insel Cypern_ (Wien, + 1865). Numismatics by the Duc de Luynes, _Numismatique et inscriptions + cypriotes_ (Paris, 1852); R. H. Lang, _Numism. Chronicle_, vol. xi. + (1871); J. P. Six, _Rev. num._ pp. 249-374 (Paris, 1883); and E. + Babelon, _Monnaies grecques_ (Paris, 1893). The coins of medieval date + have been described by P. Lambros, _Monnaies inedites_ (Athens, 1876); + and G. Schlumberger, _Num. de l'orient latin_ (Paris, 1878). + Inscriptions in the Cypriote character have been collected by M. + Schmidt, _Sammlung_ (Jena, 1876); and W. Deecke, _Die + griechisch-kyprischen Inschriften_ (Gottingen, 1883); in Phoenician in + the _C.I.P._ (Paris, 1881). J. Meursius, _Cyprus_ (Amsterdam, 1675), + marshals the classical authorities; and W. Engel, _Kypros_ (Berlin, + 1841), gives a good summary of the ancient history of the island. For + the Phoenician element, see F. Movers, _Die Phonizier_ (Bonn and + Berlin, 1841-1856). L. Comte de Mas Latrie published between 1852 and + 1861 one volume of _History_ (1191-1291), and two of most precious + documents in illustration of the reigns of the Lusignan kings. Fra + Stefano Lusignano, _Chorograffia di Cipro_ (Bologna, 1573), and Bp. + Stubbs, _Two Lectures_ (Oxford, 1878), are useful for the same period; + and perhaps a score of contemporary pamphlets--the best of them by N. + Martinengo, _Relatione di tutto il successo di Famagosta_ (Venezia, + 1572), and A. Calepio (in Lusignan's _Chorograffia_)--preserve details + of the famous sieges of Nicosia and Famagusta. G. Mariti, _Viaggi_ + (Lucca, 1769; Eng. trans. C. D. Cobham, 2nd ed., 1909), and Cyprianos, + _History_ (Venice, 1768), are the best authorities of Cyprus under + Turkish rule. Medieval tombs and their inscriptions are recorded and + illustrated in T. J. Chamberlayne, _Lacrimae nicossienses_ (Paris, + 1894); and C. Enlart's volumes, _L'Art gothique et la Renaissance en + Chypre_ (Paris, 1899), deal with medieval architecture. For Cypriote + pottery in Athens and Constantinople, see G. Nicole, _Bulletin de + l'Institut Genevois_, xxxvii. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, _Arch. Zeitung_ (1881), p. 311, pl. xviii. + The principal publications respecting this and all sites and phases + of culture mentioned in this section are collected in Myres and + Ohnefalsch-Richter, _Cyprus Museum Catalogue_ (Oxford, 1899), pp. + 1-35. + + [2] Myres, _Journ. Hellenic Studies_, xvii. p. 146. + + [3] Sayce, _Trans. Soc. Bibl. Arch._ v. pp. 441-444. The exact + provenance of these cylinders is not known, but there is every reason + to believe that they were found in Cyprus. + + [4] British Museum, _Excavations in Cyprus_ (London, 1900). The + official publication stands alone in referring these tombs to the + Hellenic period (800-600 B.C.). + + [5] E. Oberhummer, _Die Insel Cypern_ (Munich, 1903), i. pp. 1-3 (all + the Egyptian evidence). + + [6] A. J. Evans, _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xxx. p. 199 ff.; J. Naue, + _Die vorromischen Schwerter_ (Munich, 1903), p. 25. + + [7] E. Oberhummer, _l.c._ p. 5 ff. (all the Assyrian and biblical + evidence). + + [8] W. H. Engel, _Kypros_ (Berlin, 1841) (all the Greek traditions). + + [9] Moriz Schmidt, _Z. f. vergl. Sprachw._ (1860), p. 290 ff., 361 + ff.; H. W. Smith, _Trans. Amer. Philol. Assoc._ xviii. (1887); R. + Meister, _Zum eleischen, arkadischen u. kyprischen Dialekte_ + (Leipzig, 1890); O. Hoffmann, _Die griechischen Dialekte_, i. + (Gottingen, 1891); C. D. Cobham, _Bibliography of Cyprus_, pp. 40-45. + + [10] G. Smith, _Tr. Soc. Bibl. Arch._ i. 129 ff.; Moritz Schmidt, + _Monatsb. k. Ak. Wiss._ (Berlin, 1874), pp. 614-615; _Sammlung kypr. + Inschriften_ (Jena, 1876); W. Deecke, _Ursprung der kypr. + Sylbenschrift_ (Strassburg, 1877); cf. Deecke-Collitz, _Samml. d. gr. + Dialektinschriften_, i. (Gottingen, 1884); cf. C. D. Cobham, l.c. On + its Aegean origin, A. J. Evans, "Cretan Pictographs" (1895), _Journ. + Hell. Studies_, xiv., cf. xvii.; British Museum, _Exc. in Cypr._ + (London, 1900), p. 27. + + [11] British Museum, _Exc. in Cypr._ (London, 1900), p. 95 (Ionic + inscriptions of 5th century from Amathus). + + [12] M. de Vogue, _Melanges d'archeologie orientale_ (Paris, 1869); + J. Euting, _Sitzb. k. preuss. Ak. Wiss._ (1887), pp. 115 ff.; Ph. + Berger, _C. R. Acad. Inscr._ (1887), pp. 155 ff., 187 ff., 203 ff. + Cf. _Corpus Inscr. Semit._ (Paris, 1881), ii. 35 ff. + + [13] E. Schrader, _Abh. d. k. preuss. Ak. Wiss._ (1881). + + [14] G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, _Histoire de l'art dans l'antiquite_, + iii. (Paris, 1885), interpret these and most other Cypriote materials + without reserve as "Phoenician." + + [15] F. Halbherr and P. Orsi, _Antichita dell' antro di Zeus Ideo in + Creta_ (Rome, 1888). Cf. H. Brunn, _Griechische Kunstgeschichte_ + (Munich, 1893), i. 90 ff. + + [16] Herod. ii. 182; see also EGYPT: _History_ (Dyn. XXVI.). + + [17] Herod. iii. 19. 91; see also PERSIA: _History_. + + [18] Herod. v. 108, 113, 115. + + [19] Herod. vii. 90. + + [20] Thuc. i. 94, 112. + + [21] M. Schmidt, _Die Inschrift von Idalion_ (Jena, 1874). + + [22] G. F. Hill, _Brit. Mus. Cat. Coins of Cyprus_ (London, 1904). + Earlier literature in Cobham, _l.c._ p. 39. + + [23] H. F. Talbot, _Tr. Soc. Bibl. Arch._ v. 447 ff. (translation). + For Evagoras and the place of Cyprus in later Greek history, see G. + Grote, _History of Greece_ (Index, _s.v._), and W. H. Engel, _Kypros_ + (Berlin, 1841). + + [24] 1 Macc. xv. 23. + + [25] Livy, _Epit._ 104; Cic. _pro Sestio_, 26, 57. + + [26] Dio Cass. liii. 12; Strabo 683, 840. + + [27] Dio Cass. liv. 4; Strabo 685. + + [28] Acts xiii. 7. + + [29] D. G. Hogarth, _Devia Cypria_, pp. 114 ff. and app. + + [30] _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ 2631-2632. + + [31] Jos. _Ant._ 16. 4, 5; 19. 26, 28. + + [32] Acts iv. 36, xi. 19, 20, xiii. 4-13, xv. 39, xxi. 16. + + [33] De Longperier, _Athenaeum francais_ (1853), pp. 413 ff.; _Musee + Napoleon_, pls. x. xi. + + [34] De Luynes, _Numismatique et inscriptions chypriotes_ (1852). + + [35] _Archaeologia_, xlv. (1877), pp. 127-142. + + [36] _Trans. Roy. Soc. Literature_, 2nd ser. xi. (1878), pp. 30 ff. + + [37] Article "Cyprus" _ad. fin._ + + [38] _Cyprus: its Cities, Tombs and Temples_ (London, 1877). + + [39] See Cobham, _An Attempt at a Bibliography of Cyprus_ (4th ed., + Nicosia, 1900), Appendix, "Cesnola Controversy," p. 54. + + [40] _The Lawrence-Cesnola Collection_ (London, 1881); _Salaminia_, + _id._ 1882. + + [41] Myres and Ohnefalsch-Richter, _A Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum, + with a Chronicle of Excavations since the British Occupation, and + Introductory Notes on Cypriote Archaeology_ (Oxford, 1899). + + [42] _Mitt. d. arch. Inst._ ii. (Athens, 1881). + + [43] _Mitt. d. arch. Inst._ vi. (Athens, 1886); _Bemerkungen z. alt + Kunsthandwerk_, &c., ii. "Der kypr. geometrische Stil" (Halle, 1888). + + [44] Summarized in _Cyprus, the Bible and Homer_ (London and Berlin, + 1893). + + [45] _Das Graberfeld von Marion_ (Berlin, 1888). + + [46] _Archives des missions scientifiques_, xvii. (Paris, 1891). + + [47] _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, ix. (London, 1888). + + [48] _Id._ xi. (1890); xii. (1891). + + [49] _Id._ xii. (1891). + + [50] _Id._ ix. (1888). + + [51] _Id._ ix. (1888). + + [52] _Id._ xi. (1890). + + [53] _Devia Cypria_ (Oxford, 1889). + + [54] _J.H.S._ xvii. (1897). + + [55] Summarized in _Cyprus Museum Catalogue_ (Oxford, 1899). + + [56] _Excavations in Cyprus_ (London, 1900). + + + + +CYPRUS, CHURCH OF. The Church of Cyprus is in communion and in doctrinal +agreement with the other Orthodox Churches of the East (see ORTHODOX +EASTERN CHURCH), but is independent and subject to no patriarch. This +position it has always claimed (see, however, W. Bright, _Notes on the +Canons_, on Ephesus 8). At any rate, its independence "by ancient +custom" was recognized, as against the claims of the patriarch of +Antioch, by the council of Ephesus, A.D. 431, by an edict of the emperor +Zeno (to whom the church had sent a cogent argument on its own behalf, +the alleged body of its reputed founder St Barnabas, then just +discovered at Salamis), and by the Trullan Council in 692. Attempts have +been made subsequently by the patriarchs of Antioch to claim authority +over it, the last as recently as 1600; but they came to nothing. And +excepting for the period during which Cyprus was in the hands of the +Lusignans and the Venetian Republic (1193-1571), the Church has never +lost its independence. It receives the holy ointment ([Greek: myron]) +from without, till 1860 from Antioch and subsequently from +Constantinople, but this is a matter of courtesy and not of right. Of +old there were some twenty sees in the island. The bishop of the +capital, Salamis or Constantia, was constituted metropolitan by Zeno, +with the title "archbishop of all Cyprus," enlarged subsequently into +"archbishop of Justiniana Nova and of all Cyprus," after an enforced +expatriation to Justinianopolis in 688. Zeno also gave him the unique +privileges of wearing and signing his name in the imperial purple, &c., +which are still preserved. A Latin hierarchy was set up in 1196 (an +archbishop at Nicosia with suffragans at Limasol, Paphos and Famagusta), +and the Greek bishops were made to minister to their flocks in +subjection to it. The sees were forcibly reduced to four, the +archbishopric was ostensibly abolished, and the bishops were compelled +to do homage and swear fealty to the Latin Church. This bondage ceased +at the conquest of the island by the Turks: the Latin hierarchy +disappeared (the cathedral at Nicosia is now used as a mosque), and the +native church emerged into comparative freedom. In 1821, it is true, all +the bishops and many of their flock were put to death by way of +discouraging sympathies with the Greeks; but successors were soon +consecrated, by bishops sent from Antioch at the request of the +patriarch of Constantinople, and on the whole the Church has prospered. +The bishops-elect required the _berat_ of the sultan; but having +received this, they enjoyed no little civil importance. Since 1878 the +_berat_ has not been given, and the bishops are less influential. The +suppressed sees have never been restored, but the four which survive +(now known as Nicosia, Paphos, Kition and Kyrenia) are of metropolitan +rank, so that the archbishop, whose headquarters, first at Salamis, then +at Famagusta, are now at Nicosia, is a primate amongst metropolitans. +There are several monasteries dating from the 11th century and onwards; +also an archiepiscopal school at Nicosia, founded in 1812 and raised to +the status of a "gymnasion" in 1893; and a high school for girls. + + AUTHORITIES.--Ph. Georgiou, [Greek: Eideseis Historikai peri tes + Ekklesias tes Kyprou] (Athens, 1875); K. Kouriokurineos (Archbishop of + Cyprus), [Greek: Historia chronologike tes nesou Kyprou] (Venice, + 1788); de Mas Latrie, _Histoire de l'ile de Chypre sous les princes de + la maison de Lusignan_ (Paris, 1852 f.); H. T. F. Duckworth, _The + Church of Cyprus_(London, 1900); J. Hackett, _History of the Orthodox + Church of Cyprus_ (1901). (W. E. Co.) + + + + +CYPSELUS, tyrant of Corinth (c. 657-627 B.C.), was the son of Aeetion +and Labda, daughter of Amphion, a member of the ruling family, the +Bacchiadae. He is said to have derived his name from the fact that when +the Bacchiadae, warned that he would prove their ruin, sent emissaries +to kill him in his cradle, his mother saved him by concealing him in a +chest (Gr. [Greek: kypsele]). The story was, of course, a subsequent +invention. When he was grown up, Cypselus, encouraged by an oracle, +drove out the Bacchiadae, and made himself master of Corinth. It is +stated that he first ingratiated himself with the people by his liberal +conduct when Polemarch, in which capacity he had to exact the fines +imposed by the law. In the words of Aristotle he made his way through +demagogy to tyranny. Herodotus, in the spirit of 5th-century Greeks, +which conventionally regarded the tyrants as selfish despots, says he +ruled harshly, but he is generally represented as mild, beneficent and +so popular as to be able to dispense with a bodyguard, the usual +attribute of a tyrannis. He pursued an energetic commercial and colonial +policy (see CORINTH), and thus laid the foundations of Corinthian +prosperity. He may well be compared with the Athenian Peisistratus in +these respects. He laid out the large sums thus derived on the +construction of buildings and works of art. At the same time he wisely +strove to gain the goodwill of the powerful priesthoods of the great +sanctuaries of Delphi and Olympia. At Delphi he built a treasure-house +for Corinthian votive offerings; at Olympia he dedicated a colossal +statue of Zeus and the famous "chest of Cypselus," supposed to be +identical with the chest of the legend, of which Pausanias (v. 17-19) +has given an elaborate description. It was of cedar-wood, gold and +ivory, and on it were represented the chief incidents in Greek +(especially Corinthian) mythology and legend. Cypselus was succeeded by +his son Periander. + + See CORINTH: _History_; histories of Greece; Herodotus v. 92; + Aristotle, _Politics_, 1310b, 1315b; P. Knapp, _Die Kypseliden und die + Kypseloslade_ (Tubingen, 1888); L. Preller, _Ausgewahlte Aufsatze_ + (1864); H. Stuart Jones, in _Journ. Hell. Stud._ (1894), 30 foll. + + + + + +CYRANO DE BERGERAC, SAVINIEN (1620-1655), French romance-writer and +dramatist, son of Abel de Cyrano, seigneur de Mauvieres et de Bergerac, +was born in Paris on the 6th of March 1619-1620. He received his first +education from a country priest, and had for a fellow pupil his friend +and future biographer, Henri Lebret. He then proceeded to Paris to the +college de Beauvais, where he had for master Jean Grangier, whom he +afterwards ridiculed in his comedy _Le Pedant joue_ (1654). At the age +of nineteen he entered a corps of the guards, serving in the campaigns +of 1639 and 1640, and began the series of exploits that were to make of +him a veritable hero of romance. The story of his adventure +single-handed against a hundred enemies is vouched for by Lebret as the +simple truth. After two years of this life Cyrano left the service and +returned to Paris to pursue literature, producing tragedies cast in the +orthodox classical mode. He was, however, as a pupil of Gassendi, +suspected of thinking too freely, and in the _Mort d'Agrippine_ (1654) +his enemies even found blasphemy. The most interesting section of his +work is that which embraces the two romances _L'Histoire comique des +etats du soleil_ (1662) and _L'Histoire comique des etats de la lune_ +(1656?). Cyrano's ingenious mixture of science and romance has furnished +a model for many subsequent writers, among them Swift and E. A. Poe. It +is impossible to determine whether he adopted his fanciful style in the +hope of safely conveying ideas that might be regarded as unorthodox, or +whether he simply found in romance writing a relaxation from the serious +study of physics. Cyrano spent a stormy existence in Paris and was +involved in many duels, and in quarrels with the comedian Montfleury, +with Scarron and others. He entered the household of the duc d'Arpajon +as secretary in 1653. In the next year he was injured by the fall of a +piece of timber, as he entered his patron's house. Arpajon, perhaps +alarmed by his reputation as a free-thinker, desired him to leave, and +he found refuge with friends in Paris. During the illness which followed +his accident, he is said to have been reconciled with the Church, and he +died in September 1655. + + M. Edmond Rostand's romantic play of _Cyrano de Bergerac_ (1897) + revived interest in the author of the _Histoires comiques_. A modern + edition of his _Oeuvres_ (2 vols.), by P. L. Jacob (Paul Lacroix), + appeared in 1858, with the preface by H. Lebret originally prefixed to + the _Histoire comique des etats de la lune_ (1656?). For an + interesting analysis of the romances see Garnet Smith in the + _Cornhill_ for July 1898. See also P.A. Brun, _Savinien de Cyrano + Bergerac_ (1894). Other studies of Cyrano are those of Charles Nodier + (1841), F. Merilhon (Perigueux, 1856), Fourgeaud-Lagreze (in _Le + Perigord litteraire_, 1875) and of Theophile Gautier, in his + _Grotesques_. + + + + +CYRENAICA, in ancient geography, a district of the N. African coast, +lying between the Syrtis Major and Marmarica, the western limit being +Arae Philaenorum, and the eastern a vague line drawn inland from the +head of the gulf of Platea (Bomba). On the south the limit was +undefined, but understood to be the margin of the desert, some distance +north of the oasis of Augila (Aujila). The northern half of this +district, which alone was fertile, was known as Pentapolis from its +possession of five considerable cities (1) Hesperides-Berenice +(Bengazi), (2) Barca (Merj), (3) Cyrene (Ain Shahat-Grenna), (4) +Apollonia (Marsa Susa), (5) Teucheira-Arsinoe (Tocra). In later times +two more towns rose to importance, Ptolemais (Tolmeita) and +Darnis-Zarine (Derna). These all lay on the coast, with the exception of +Barca and Cyrene, which were situated on the highland now called Jebel +Akhdar, a few miles inland. Cyrene was the first city to arise, being +founded among Libyan barbarians by Aristotle of Thera (later called +Battus) in the middle of the 7th century B.C. (see CYRENE). For about +500 years this district enjoyed great prosperity, owing partly to its +natural products, but more to its trade with interior Africa. + +Under the Ptolemies, the inland cities declined in comparison with the +maritime ones, and the Cyrenaica began to feel the commercial +competition of Egypt and Carthage, whence easier roads lead into the +continent. After all N. Africa had passed to Rome, and Cyrenaica itself, +bequeathed by Apion, the last Ptolemaic sovereign, was become (in +combination with Crete) a Roman province (after 96 B.C.), this +competition told more severely than ever, and the Greek colonists, grown +weaker, found themselves less able to hold their own against the Libyan +population. A great revolt of the Jewish settlers in the time of Trajan +settled the fate of Cyrene and Barca; the former is mentioned by +Ammianus Marcellinus in the 4th century A.D. as "urbs deserta," and +Synesius, a native, describes it in the following century as a vast ruin +at the mercy of the nomads. Long before this its most famous article of +export, the _silphium_ plant, a representation of which was the chief +coin-type of Cyrene, had come to an end. This plant, credited with +wonderful medicinal and aromatic properties, has not been certainly +identified with any existing species. The similar _Thapsia garganica_ +(Arab. _drias_), which now grows freely in Cyrenaica, though it has +medicinal properties, has not those ascribed to silphium. Henceforward +till the Arab invasion (A.D. 641) Apollonia was the chief city, with +Berenice and Ptolemais next in order. After the conquest by Amr ibn +el-'Asi, inland Cyrenaica regained some importance, lying as it did on +the direct route between Alexandria and Kairawan, and Barca became its +chief place. But with the substitution of Ottoman for Arab empire, +resulting in the virtual independence of both Egypt and Tripoli, the +district lying between them relapsed to anarchy. This state of things +continued even after Mahmud II. had resumed direct control over Tripoli +(1835), and in the middle of the 19th century Cyrenaica was still so +free of the Turks that Sheik Ali bin-Senussi chose it as the +headquarters of his nascent dervish order. All over the district were +built Senussi convents (_zawia_), which still exist and have much +influence, although the headquarters of the order were withdrawn about +the year 1855 to Jarabub, and in 1895 to Kufra, still farther into the +heart of Africa. In 1875 the district, till then a sanjak of the vilayet +of Tripoli, was made to depend directly on the Ministry of the Interior +at Constantinople; and the Senussites soon ceased to be _de facto_ +rulers of Cyrenaica. Their preserves have now been still further +encroached upon by a number of Cretan Moslem refugees (1901-1902). This +is not the first effort made by Turkey to colonize Cyrenaica. In 1869 +Ali Riza Pasha of Tripoli tried to induce settlers to go to Bomba and +Tobruk; and in 1888 an abortive effort was made to introduce Kurds. To +protect the Cretans the Ottoman government has extended the civil +administration and created several small garrisoned posts. The district +is accordingly safer for Europeans than it was; but these still find +themselves ill received. The Ottoman officials discourage travel in the +interior, partly from fear of the Senussites, partly from suspicions, +excited by the lively interest manifested by Italy in Cyrenaica. + +At the present day we understand by Cyrenaica a somewhat larger district +than of old, and include ancient Marmarica up to the head of the gulf of +Sollum (Catabathmus Magnus). The whole area is about 30,000 sq. m., and +has some 250,000 inhabitants, inclusive of nomads. Projecting like a +bastion into the Mediterranean at a very central point, Cyrenaica seems +intended to play a commercial part; but it does not do so to any extent +because of (1) lack of natural harbours, Bengazi and Derna having only +open and dangerous roads (this is partly due to coastal subsidence; +ancient ports have sunk); (2) the difficulty of the desert routes behind +it, wells being singularly deficient in this part of the Sahara. The +ivory and feather caravans from Wadai and Borku have latterly deserted +it altogether. Consequently Cyrenaica is still in a very backward and +barbarous state and largely given up to nomad Arabs. There are only two +towns, Bengazi and Derna, and not half a dozen settlements beside, +worthy to be called villages. In many districts the Senussi convents +supply the only settled element, and the local Bedouins largely belong +to the Order. There are no roads in the province, and very little +internal communication and trade; but a wireless telegraphic system has +been installed in communication with Rhodes: and there is a landline +from Bengazi to Tripoli. + +Geologically and structurally Cyrenaica is a mass of Miocene limestone +tilted up steeply from the Mediterranean and falling inland by a gentle +descent to sea-level again at the line of depression, which runs from +the gulf of Sidra through Aujila to Siwa. This mass is divided into two +blocks, the higher being the western Jebel Akhdar, on which Cyrene was +built (about 1800 ft.): the lower, the eastern Jebel el-Akabah, the +ancient Marmaric highlands (700 ft.). There is no continuous littoral +plain, the longest strip running from the recess of the Syrtis round +past Bengazi to Tolmeita. Thereafter, except for deltaic patches at +Marsa Susa and Derna, the shore is all precipitous. Jebel Akhdar, being +without "faults," has no deep internal valleys, and presents the +appearance of downs: but its seaward face is very deeply eroded, and +deep circular sinkings (swallow-holes) are common. There is much forest +on its northward slopes, and good red earth on the higher parts, which +bears abundant crops of barley, much desired by European maltsters. +Plenty of springs issue on the highlands, and wide expanses of grassy +country dotted with trees like an English park are met with. Here the +Bedouins (mostly Beni Hassa) pasture flocks and herds, amounting to +several million head. The climate is temperate and the rainfall usually +adequate, but one year in five is expected to be droughty. The southward +slopes fall through ever-thinning pasture lands to sheer desert about 80 +m. inland. Jebel el-Akabah is much more barren than Jebel Akhdar, and +the desert comes right down to the sea in Marmarica, whose few +inhabitants are more concerned with salt-collecting and sponge fishing +than with agriculture. They have, however, the only good ports on the +whole coast, Bomba and Tobruk. Much might be made of Cyrenaica by +judicious colonization. All kinds of trees grow well, from the date palm +to the oak; and there are over 200,000 wild olives in the country. The +conditions in general are very like those of central Italy, and there is +ample room for new settlers. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(1) Ancient Cyrenaica: J. P. Thrige, _Historia Cyrenes_ + (1819); C. Ritter, _Erdkunde_, i. (1822); A. F. Gottschick, _Gesch. + der Grundung und Blute des hell. Staates in Kyrenaika_ (1858). + + (2) Modern Cyrenaica: Paul Lucas, _Voyage_ (1712); T. Shaw, _Travels + and Observations_ (1738); J. Bruce, _Travels_ (1790); P. della Cella, + _Viaggio da Tripoli_, &c. (1819); G. F. Lyon, _Narrative of Travels_ + (1821); A. Cervelli, in _Recueil de voyages_, pub. by Soc. de Geog., + ii. (1825); J. R. Pacho, _Relation d'un voyage_ (1827); F. W. Beechey, + _Proceedings of Expedition to explore N. Coast of Africa_ (1828); H. + Barth, _Wanderungen_, &c. (1849); V. de Bourville, _Rapport_ (1850); + J. Hamilton, _Wanderings in N. Africa_ (1856); R. M. Smith and E. A. + Porcher, _Hist. of Discoveries_ (1864); G. Rohlfs, _Von Tripoli nach + Alexandrien_ (1871); G. Haimann, _La Cirenaica_ (1882); M. Camperio, + _Una Gita in Cirenaica_ (1881); H. Duveyrier, "La Confr. musulmane de + Sidi Moh. Ben Ali es-Senousi" (_Bull. soc. geog._, 1884); H. W. + Blundell in _Geog. Journ._ v. (1895) and _Annual Brit. Sch. at + Athens_, ii. (1895); D. G. Hogarth in _Monthly Review_ (Jan. 1904); G. + Hildebrand, _Cyrenaika_, &c. (1904); G. de Martino, _Cirene e + Cartagine_ (1908). + + (3) Maps: The best are that by P. Carlo, to illustrate Camperio and + Haimann's Report, in Petermann's _Mitth._ (1881); and Sheet No. 2 of + _Carte de l'Afrique_ (Service geog. de l'armee, 1892). (D. G. H.) + + + + +CYRENAICS, a Greek school of philosophy, so called from Cyrene, the +birthplace of the founder, Aristippus (q.v.). It was one of the two +earliest Socratic schools, and emphasized one side only of the Socratic +teaching (cf. CYNICS). Socrates, although he held that virtue was the +only human good, admitted to a certain extent the importance of its +utilitarian side, making happiness at least a subsidiary end of moral +action (see ETHICS). Aristippus and his followers seized upon this, and +made it the prime factor in existence, denying to virtue any intrinsic +value. Logic and physical science they held to be useless, for all +knowledge is immediate sensation (see PROTAGORAS). These sensations are +motions ([Greek: kineseis]) which (1) are purely subjective, and (2) are +painful, indifferent or pleasant, according as they are violent, +tranquil or gentle. Further they are entirely individual, and can in no +way be described as constituting absolute objective knowledge. Feeling, +therefore, is the only possible criterion alike of knowledge and of +conduct. "Our modes of being affected ([Greek: pathe]) alone are +knowable." Thus Cyrenaicism goes beyond the critical scepticism of the +Sophists and deduces a single, universal aim for all men, namely +pleasure. Furthermore, all feeling is momentary and homogeneous. It +follows (1) that past and future pleasure have no real existence for us, +and (2) that among present pleasures there is no distinction of kind, +but only of intensity. Socrates had spoken of the higher pleasures of +the intellect; the Cyrenaics denied the validity of this distinction and +said that bodily pleasures as being more simple and more intense are to +be preferred. Momentary pleasure ([Greek: monochronos hedone]), +preferably of a carnal kind, is the only good for man. Yet Aristippus +was compelled to admit that some actions which give immediate pleasure +entail more than their equivalent of pain. This fact was to him the +basis of the conventional distinction of right and wrong, and in this +sense he held that regard should be paid to law and custom. It is of the +utmost importance that this development of Cyrenaic hedonism should be +fully realized. To overlook the Cyrenaic recognition of social +obligation and the hedonistic value of altruistic emotion is a very +common expedient of those who are opposed to all hedonistic theories of +life. Like many of the leading modern utilitarians, they combined with +their psychological distrust of popular judgments of right and wrong, +and their firm conviction that all such distinctions are based solely on +law and convention, the equally unwavering principle that the wise man +who would pursue pleasure logically must abstain from that which is +usually denominated "wrong" or "unjust." This idea, which occupies a +prominent position in systems like those of Bentham, Volney, and even +Paley, was evidently of prime importance at all events to the later +Cyrenaics. + +Developing from this is a new point of practical importance to the +hedonism of the Cyrenaics. Aristippus, both in theory and in practice, +insisted that true pleasure belongs only to him who is self-controlled +and master of himself. The truly happy man must have [Greek: phronesis] +(prudence), which alone can save him from falling a prey to mere +passion. Thus, in the end, Aristippus, the founder of the purest +hedonism in the history of thought, comes very near not only to the +Cynics, but to the more cultured hedonism of Epicurus and modern +thinkers. Theodorus, held even more strongly that passing pleasure may +be a delusion, and that permanent tranquillity is a truer end of +conduct. Hegesias denied the possibility of real pleasure and advocated +suicide as ensuring at least the absence of pain. Anniceris, in whose +thought the school reached its highest perfection, declared that true +pleasure consists sometimes in self-sacrifice and that sympathy in +enjoyment is a real source of happiness. Other members of the school +were Arete, wife of Aristippus, Aristippus the younger (her son), Bio +and Euhemerus. + +The Cyrenaic ideal was, of course, utterly alien to Christianity, and, +in general, subsequent thinkers found it an ideal of hopeless pessimism. +Yet in modern times it has found expression in many ethical and literary +works, and it is common also in other ancient non-Hellenic literature. +There are quatrains in the _Rubaiyat_ of Omar Khayyam and pessimistic +verses in Ecclesiastes which might have been uttered by Aristippus. +("Then I commended mirth, because a man hath no better thing than to eat +and to drink and to be merry; for that shall abide with him of his +labour the days of his life which God giveth him under the sun"). So in +Byron and Heine, and, in a sense, in Walter Pater (_Marius the +Epicurean_), there is the same tendency to seek relief from the +intellectual _cul-de-sac_ in frankly aesthetic satisfaction. Thus +Cyrenaicism did not entirely vanish with its absorption in Epicureanism. + + See HEDONISM, EPICURUS; histories of philosophy by Zeller, Windelband, + Ueberweg; H. Sidgwick, _Methods of Ethics_ and _Outlines of the + History of Ethics_; J. Watson, _Hedonistic Theories_ (1895); James + Seth, Ethical Principles, c. i. (A), (1898); A. Wendt, _De philosophia + Cyrenaica_ (1841); H. von Stein, _De philosophia Cyrenaica_ (1855); T. + Gomperz, _Greek Thinkers_ (Eng. trans., vol. ii. bk. iv., _ad fin._, + 1905); Beare, _Greek Theories of Elementary Cognition_; G. van Lyng, + _Om den Kyrenaiske skole_ (Christiania, 1868); and general ethical + text-books. + + + + +CYRENE [mod. _Ain Shahat-Grenna_], the original capital of ancient +Cyrenaica (q.v.) and one of the greatest of Greek colonies. The Theraean +story of its foundation, as told by Herodotus, runs thus. Battus (whose +true Greek name seems to have been Aristoteles), a native of Thera +(Santorin), itself a Laconian colony, was bidden by the Delphic oracle, +if he wished to put an end to domestic dissensions, to lead a portion +of the citizens to Libya and build a city in a "place between waters." +(For other stories see BATTUS.) By this he understood an island, and +therefore established his followers on the barren islet of Platea in the +gulf of Bomba. The colony being unsuccessful made further application to +the oracle and was bidden to transfer itself to the mainland. The Libyan +barbarians reported that a fertile and well-watered district lay to the +west and were induced to act as guides. They brought the Greeks through +forests to high ground from various points of which issued springs, and +Battus, recognizing "a place between waters," began to build. This was +in the middle of the 7th century B.C. + +The result was Cyrene, so called (it was said) from a local nymph, who +has been shown by Studniczka to have been a Nature goddess, like the +Greek Artemis. The point first occupied was probably the hill above the +"Apollo" fountain on the west; and there was erected the fortress-palace +of the Battiadae, who continued to rule the colony for eight +generations. The neighbouring Libyans were conciliated and given a +position similar to that of Laconian _perioeci_, and intermarriage +between them and Greeks became so frequent that the colony rapidly +assumed a somewhat hybrid character, and while being one of the centres +of Hellenic culture, showed barbarian characteristics of violence and +luxury. Battus I. reigned c. 630 to 590 B.C. and was succeeded by his +son Arcesilaus (c. 590-574) of whom nothing is known. The kings +henceforth bore alternately the names Battus and Arcesilaus, of which +the first is said to be simply the native Libyan word for "king": the +latter is, of course, Greek. This fact suggests that some compromise +with the natives had been come to, resulting, perhaps, in an alternation +of the supreme office. Under Battus II. (570 B.C.?) a fresh band of +settlers was invited from Greece, and the colony tended to become +henceforth more maritime and democratic. Its port, Apollonia (Marsa +Susa), now rose to importance: and a second (winter) port was created at +Naustathmos (Marsa Hilal) about 15 m. E. behind a sheltering cape. Fine +roads were cut through the rock connecting these harbours with the +capital. Trouble followed, however, with the Libyans, who saw themselves +robbed in favour of the new settlers, and they called in Egyptian help; +but the force sent by Apries was defeated near the spring Theste, and +presently Amasis of Egypt made peace and took a Battiad princess to +wife. Under Arcesilaus II. (c. 560-550) domestic dissensions and Libyan +revolt led to the founding of a rival inland city, Barca, and a severe +defeat and massacre. These misfortunes, coupled with the fact that +Battus III. was thought to have disgraced the house by his lameness, +prompted the Cyrenaeans to send to Delphi for more advice, and as a +result Demonax of Mantinea arrived as arbitrator and framed a +constitution limiting the monarchy and dividing the citizens tribally +according to the date of their settlement and their place of origin. +Further attempts of the Battiadae (e.g. of Pheretima, wife of Battus +III., and Arcesilaus his son) to annul this constitution, and bitter +family dissensions, brought about a Persian invasion and finally the +extinction of the dynasty about 450 B.C. A republic of more or less +Spartan type succeeded, but it was often interrupted by tyrannies; and +having made submission by embassy to Alexander in 331, Cyrene passed +under Ptolemaic domination ten years later. From this epoch dates a +decline which was due to economic causes (see CYRENAICA) and to the +Ptolemaic policy of favouring easily controlled harbour-towns rather +than an inland place like Cyrene, whose ancient factions still continued +to give trouble under the earlier Ptolemies. Apollonia and Berenice +gradually superseded Cyrene and Barca respectively, being more in touch +with Greece and less exposed to the hostile nomad Libyans, who increased +in boldness and power: but Cyrene continued to be a great city after it +had passed to Rome (96 B.C.), and up to the reign of Trajan, when a +Jewish revolt and the repressive measures taken by the imperial +government dealt it an irreparable blow. Ere Christianity became the +religion of the empire, it was largely a ruin, and henceforward to the +epoch of Arab conquest (A.D. 641) its Greek life gradually deserted it +for Apollonia. At its acme Cyrene is said to have had over 100,000 +inhabitants. It was noted among the ancients for its intellectual life. +Its medical school was famous, and it numbered among its celebrities +Callimachus the poet, Carneades, the founder of the New Academy at +Athens, Aristippus, a pupil of Socrates and the founder of the so-called +Cyrenaics (q.v.), Eratosthenes the polyhistor, and Synesius, one of the +most elegant of the ancient Christian writers. + +The first account of the site in modern times seems to be that of M. le +Maire, who was French consul at Tripoli from 1703 to 1708, and twice +visited Cyrene. Paul Lucas was there in 1710, and again in 1723, and Dr +Thomas Shaw in 1738; an Italian, Dr A. Cervelli, who was there in 1812, +furnished some information to the Societe de Geographie of Paris; and P. +Della Cella published an account of his visit, made in 1817. In +1821-1822 important explorations were made by Lieutenant F. W. Beechey, +R.N.; and he was almost immediately followed by a French artist, M. J. +R. Pacho, whose pencil preserved a number of interesting monuments that +have since disappeared. L. Delaporte, French consul at Tangier, and +Vattier de Bourville come next in order of time. H. Barth, the famous +African traveller, published an account of his investigations in his +_Wanderungen durch die Kustenlander des Mittelmeers_, 1849, and James +Hamilton, who was there in 1851, described the place in his _Wanderings +in N. Africa_. In 1861 excavations were made on behalf of the British +Museum by Lieuts. R. Murdoch Smith, R.E., and E. A. Porcher, R.N., the +results of which are detailed in their valuable _Discoveries in Cyrene_ +(London, 1864). Since that date, owing to the increase of Senussi +influence, and the consequent fears of the Ottoman authorities, the site +has been very seldom visited. The Italians, M. Camperio and G. Haimann, +leading commercial missions, were there in the eighties, and Mr H. W. +Blundell succeeded with a special _firman_ and a strong escort in +reaching the place in 1895, but had trouble with the local Senussi +Arabs. The prohibition of travel became thereafter more stringent, and +it has only been overcome by a party from Mr A. V. Armour's yacht +"Utowana," which marched up from Marsa Susa in April 1904, and stayed +one night. They found some fifty families of Cretan refugees established +at Ain Shahat and a _mudir_ with a small guard on the spot: but no +inhabited houses, except the Senussi convent and the _mudiria_. Cretans +and Arabs live in the ancient rock-tombs. An Italian senator, Chev. G. +de Martino, with two Italian residents at Derna, passed through the +place in 1907, and found it in Bedouin hands. + +The site lies on the crest of the highland of Jebel Akhdar (about 1800 +ft.) and 10 m. from the sea. The ground slopes very gradually south, and +being entirely denuded of trees, makes good corn land. The northward +slope falls more steeply in a succession of shelves, covered here and +there with forest. Ravines surround the site on three sides, and there +are at least four springs in its area, of which one, having great +volume, has been at all times the attraction and focus of the place. +This is the so-called "Fount of Apollo," which issues from a tunnel +artificially enlarged, and once faced with a portico. The acropolis was +immediately above this on the W., and the main entrance of the city, +through which came the sacred processions, passed it. The remains of +Cyrene itself are enclosed by a wall having a circuit of about 4 m., of +which little remains but the foundations and fragments of two towers; +but tombs and isolated structures extend far outside this area. The +local Arabs say it takes them six camel-hours to go from one end to the +other of the ruins, which they call generally "_Grenna_" (i.e. Kyrenna). +Within the city itself not very much is now to be seen. Below the Apollo +fountain on the N. lie a great theatre and the substructures of the main +temple of Apollo, both included now in the Senussi convent garden. Above +the fountain and by the main road is a smaller theatre. On the E., upon +the crown of the plateau, are the sites on which Smith and Porcher +placed temples of Bacchus, Venus and Augustus, but they are marked only +by rubbish heaps. Remains of a large Byzantine church and a much ruined +stadium lie to S.E. On the S. are immense covered tanks of Roman date, +with remains of the aqueducts which supplied them. On the W. a fine +fragment of a tower, the fortifications of the acropolis, and a +pedestal sculptured on four sides in good 3rd century style, are the +only things worth seeing. The Cretan occupation is fast obliterating +other traces. The great spectacle, however, which distinguishes the site +of Cyrene, is provided by its cemeteries, which for extent, variety and +preservation are unparalleled in the classic lands. There is one along +each of the approaches to the main gates, but the largest and most +splendid lies by the Apollonian road which winds by easy curves up the +northern buttresses of the plateau. Here the sepulchres rise in tiers +one above the other along fully a mile of the way. The most important +have pillared facades, Doric, Ionic, and even a hybrid mixture of both +orders. Within, they open out either into large halls, leading one out +of another with graves in recesses and pits in the floor; or into rock +corridors lined with _loculi_, disposed one above another like pigeon +holes. Most of the wall paintings, seen by Beechey and Pacho, have +perished or become black with the smoke of troglodytes' fires; but one +tomb below the road at about the middle of the cemetery still retains +its decoration comparatively fresh, and seems to be that specially +described by Smith and Porcher. The scenes are agonistic, i.e. represent +funeral games, in which both white and black persons take part, the +latter doubtless Libyan _perioeci_: but all wear Greek garments. Several +tombs are inscribed and on some external paintings are still faintly +visible. The commonest type of grave is a simple pit covered by a gabled +lid. These occur by hundreds. But not all the sepulchres are rock-cut: +altar tombs and other forms of _heroa_ are found built upon plinths of +rock. All visible tombs have long ago been violated, but it is probable +that there are others still virgin under the _talus_ of the hill side. +To discover these and determine the topography of the city, excavation +is urgently needed. + +Many historical and artistic questions concerning Cyrene remain +unsettled, but since the discoveries made in Laconia in 1908, the much +disputed "Cyrenaic ware" has been ascribed to Sparta. A good deal of +Cyrenaic sculpture, all of comparatively late date, was sent to the +British Museum by Smith and Porcher. Nothing has yet been found on the +site belonging to the great age of the city's independence, the fine +vases sent to the British Museum in 1864, by Mr G. Dennis, having been +discovered not there, but near Berenice (Bengazi). The latter site, with +Ptolemais and Apollonia, has supplied most of the antiquities found +latterly in Cyrenaica. + + See authorities for CYRENAICA, and F. Studniczka, _Kyrene, eine + alt-griechische Gottin_ (1890). (D. G. H.) + + + + +CYRIL (c. 315-386), bishop of Jerusalem, where he was probably born, was +ordained a presbyter in 345, and had the instruction of the catechumens +entrusted to him. In 350 he was elevated to the see of Jerusalem, and +became deeply involved in the dogmatic controversies of his time. His +metropolitan, Acacius of Caesarea, inclined to Arianism, while Cyril +strongly espoused the Nicene creed and was, in consequence, deposed for +a time. On the death of the emperor Constantine he was restored; but on +the accession of Valens, an Arian emperor, he had once more to resign +his post till the accession of Theodosius permitted him to return +finally in peace in 379. He attended the second oecumenical council held +at Constantinople in 381, where he was received with grateful +acclamations for his sufferings in defence of orthodoxy. Cyril was even +more conspicuous as a pastor than as a controversialist, and this is +seen in his one important work--his twenty-three addresses to +catechumens delivered in A.D. 348. The first eighteen of these were +meant for candidates for baptism; they deal with general topics like +repentance and faith, and then expound in detail the baptismal creed of +the Jerusalem church. The remaining five addresses were spoken to the +newly-baptized in Easter week and explain the mysteries and ritual of +baptism, confirmation and the Eucharist. These lectures are said to be +"the first example of a popular compend of religion," and are +particularly interesting for the insight which they give us both into +the creed-forms of the early church and the various ceremonies of +initiation constituting baptism in the 4th century. The evidence which +Cyril supplies as to the Jerusalem use is supplemented by the _S. +Silviae peregrinatio_, dating from about a generation later. Other +tracts and homilies have been ascribed to Cyril of Jerusalem, but they +are of doubtful genuineness. + + EDITIONS.--A. A. Touttee (Paris, 1720); W. C. Reischl and J. Rupp + (Munich, 1848-1860); Migne, _Patrol. Graeca._ xxxiii. Translation: + _Catecheses_ ("Oxford Library of Fathers," vol. ii.). See + Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyk._ (Forster); Delacroix, _St C. de Jerus., sa + vie et ses oeuvres_ (Paris, 1865). + + + + +CYRIL (376-444), bishop of Alexandria, a more distinguished father of +the church than his namesake of Jerusalem, was born in 376, and died in +444. Becoming patriarch of Alexandria about 412, he soon made himself +known by the violence of his zeal against Jews, pagans and heretics or +supposed heretics alike. He had hardly entered upon his office when he +closed all the churches of the Novatians and seized their ecclesiastical +effects. He assailed the Jewish synagogues with an armed force, drove +the Jews in thousands from the city, and exposed their houses and +property to pillage. The prefect of Egypt, Orestes, who endeavoured to +withstand his furious zeal, was in turn denounced himself, and had +difficulty in maintaining his ground against the fury of the Christian +multitude. It was during one of the violent commotions kindled by the +strifes of these parties in Alexandria that the illustrious Hypatia, +famed for her beauty and her eloquent advocacy of the Neo-Platonic +philosophy in opposition to Christianity, was murdered. Her murder has +been attributed to the direct instigation of the patriarch himself; but +this charge is held to be baseless by others, although there can be no +doubt that "the perpetrators were officers of his church," and +undoubtedly drew encouragement from his own violent proceedings. Hypatia +was a friend of Orestes, and the hostility that existed betwixt the +prefect and the patriarch overflowed towards her, and undoubtedly led to +her destruction. + +But Cyril's violence was not merely confined to those who might be +considered enemies of the church. He inherited from Theophilus, his +uncle and predecessor in the see of Alexandria, a strong aversion to +John Chrysostom, the noble bishop of Constantinople, and even after his +death opposed for a time all attempts to remove the unjust sentence of +condemnation which had been passed upon him. Afterwards he so far +yielded to remonstrances as to allow the name of Chrysostom to appear in +the list of distinguished martyrs and bishops mentioned in the prayers +of his church. These names were inserted in what were called "diptychs" +([Greek: diptycha nekron]), or two-leaved tablets preserved in the +churches--a usage which the Greek Church has continued to this day. + +Cyril thus represents--though he differs largely from his +predecessors--the tendencies dominant at Alexandria in the 5th century, +and their antagonism to the Antiochene school. The story of his +opposition to Nestorius at the council of Ephesus in 431 is told +elsewhere (see NESTORIUS). He himself incurred the charge of heresy from +the oriental bishops. Satisfied, however, with the deprivation and exile +of his opponent, he returned to Alexandria in triumph as the great +champion of the faith, and thence continued, by the "unscrupulous use of +all the means at his command," the theological strife for years. He was +a bitter opponent of the great Antiochene expositor and apologist +Theodoret. + +Altogether Cyril presents a character not only unamiable, but singularly +deficient in the graces of the Christian life. His style of writing is +as objectionable as his character and spirit. Yet he takes high rank as +a dogmatic theologian, and those who seek precise and rigid definitions +of orthodox belief conjoined with tenacity of conviction find him +indispensable. In addition to his _Twelve Anathematisms_ and the defence +of the same, he wrote five other books against Nestorius, _Thesaurus_--a +treatise in dialogue form on the Trinity, a book _On the Right Way_ and +another _On the Incarnation_. In other fields--mystical, exegetical and +apologetical--he was equally prolific and forceful. He wrote a tract "On +worshipping in spirit and in truth" to defend a spiritual interpretation +of the Mosaic law, several commentaries, festival-orations, and a reply +to the emperor Julian's attack on the church. His letters are valuable +sources to the student of the Nestorian controversy. + + LITERATURE.--The collected edition of J. Aubert (Paris, 1638) formed + the basis of Migne's reprint in vols. 68-77 of the _Patr. Graec._ Many + of the writings have been edited separately (see bibliography in + Herzog-Hauck). For an account of his career and position in the + history of dogma, see A. Harnack, vols. iii. and iv. _passim_; O. + Bardenhewer's _Patrologie_ (Freiburg, 1894), pp. 335-343; R. L. + Ottley's _Doctrine of the Incarnation_, ii. 80 ff.; A. Largent's + _Etudes d'hist. eccles.; St Cyrille d'Alexandrie et le concile + d'Ephese_ (Paris, 1892). See also Charles Kingsley's romance + _Hypatia_. + + + + +CYRIL (827-869), apostle of the Slavs, amongst whom he worked in +conjunction with his elder brother Methodius (q.v.). Tradition says that +while in the Khazar country (where he combated Jewish and Mahommedan +influence) he found at Kherson the remains of Clement of Rome, which he +bore with him wherever he went, finally depositing them at Rome in 867. +His name is associated with the invention of the modified (Cyrillic) +form of the Greek alphabet, which largely superseded the ancient +Slavonic characters. + + + + +CYRILLIC, the alphabet used by the Orthodox Slavs. It is modelled on the +Greek Liturgical Uncial of the 9th century, and its invention is +traditionally, though in all probability wrongly, ascribed to the Greek +missionary Cyril (d. 869). For an account of its origin and development, +with a table of its letters, see Slavs. + + + + +CYRILLUS, Greek jurist of the 5th century, was professor in the ancient +law college of Berytus, and one of the founders of the oecumenical +school of jurists ([Greek: tes oikoumenes didaskaloi]) which preceded +the succession of Anastasius to the Eastern empire (A.D. 491), and paved +the way for Justinian's legislation. His reputation as a teacher of law +was very great; and from the fragments of his works which have been +preserved it may be inferred that his merit as a teacher consisted in +his going direct to the ancient sources of law, and in interpreting the +best writers, such as the commentary of Ulpian on the edict and the +Responsa Papiniani. He wrote a treatise on definitions ([Greek: +hupomnema ton dephiniton]), in which, according to a statement of his +contemporary Patricius, the subject of contracts was treated with +superior precision and great method, and which has supplied the +materials for many important scholia appended to the first and second +titles of the eleventh book of the Basilica. He is generally styled "the +great," to distinguish him from a more modern jurist of the same name, +who lived after the reign of Justinian, and who compiled an epitome of +the Digest. + + + + +CYRTO-STYLE (Gr. [Greek: kyrtos], convex, and [Greek: stylos], column), +in architecture, a circular projecting portico with columns; like those +of the transept entrances of St Paul's cathedral and the western +entrance of St Mary-le-Strand, London. + + + + +CYRUS (Gr. [Greek: Kyros]; Pers. _Kuru-sh_; Babyl. _Kurash_; Hebr. +_Koresh_), the Latinized form of a Persian name borne by two prominent +members of the Achaemenid house. + +1. CYRUS THE GREAT, the founder of the Persian empire, was the son of +Cambyses I. His family belonged to the clan of the Achaemenidae--in the +inscription on the pillars and columns of the palace of Pasargadae +(Murghab) he says: "I am Cyrus the king, the Achaemenid"--the principal +clan ([Greek: phretre]) of the Persian tribe of the Pasargadae (q.v.). +But in his proclamation to the Babylonians (V.R. 35; Sir H. Rawlinson, +_Journal of the R. Asiat. Soc._, n.s., xii., 1880; Schrader, +_Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek_, iii. 2, 120 ff.; Hagen, in Delitzsch +and Haupt, _Beitrage zur Assyriologie_, ii., 1894, where the chronicle +of Nabonidus is also published anew with a much improved translation) he +calls his ancestors, Teispes, Cyrus I. and Cambyses I., "kings of +Anshan," and the same title is given to him in the inscriptions and in +the chronicle of Nabonidus of Babylon before his victory over Astyages. +Anshan is a district of Elam or Susiana, the exact position of which is +still subject to much discussion. As we know from Jeremiah xlix. 34 ff. +(cf. Ezekiel xxxii. 24 ff.) that the Elamites suffered a heavy defeat in +596 B.C., it is very probable that the Pasargadian dynast Teispes +conquered Anshan in this year. Modern authors have often supposed that +Cyrus and his ancestors were in reality Elamites; but this is contrary +to all tradition, and there can be no doubt that Cyrus was a genuine +Persian and a true believer in the Zoroastrian religion. In Herodotus +vii. 11 the genealogy of Cyrus is given in exactly the same way as in +the proclamation of Cyrus himself; Teispes is called here the son of the +eponym Achaemenes. + +The Pasargadian kings of Anshan were vassals of the Median empire. Their +kingdom cannot have been of large extent, as Nabonidus in a contemporary +inscription (Cylinder from Abu Habba, VR. 64, Schrader, _Keilinschriftl. +Bibliothek_, iii. 2, 96), where he mentions his rebellion against +Astyages, calls Cyrus "king of Anshan, his (i.e. Astyages') small +servant (vassal)." From this inscription we learn that the rebellion of +Cyrus (who seems to have become king in 558 B.C., as Herod. i. 214 gives +him a reign of 29 years) began in 553 B.C., and from the annals that in +550 Astyages marched against Cyrus, but was defeated; his troops +revolted against him, he was taken prisoner, and Cyrus occupied and +plundered Ecbatana. The relation of Ctesias (preserved by Nic. Dam. fr. +66; Anaximenes of Lampsacus in Steph. Byz. s.v. [Greek: Pasargadai], +Strabo xv. p. 729; Polyaen. vii. 6. 1, 9, 45. 2) that Cyrus was three +times beaten by Astyages and that the decisive battle took place in the +mountains of Pasargadae, is certainly in the main historical although +Herodotus (i. 127 ff.) only mentions the treason of the Median general +Harpagus and the defeat and captivity of Astyages. In the rebellion the +Persian tribes of the Maraphians and Maspians joined the Pasargadae +(Herod. i. 125), while the other tribes appear not to have acknowledged +Cyrus till after his victory (see PERSIS). From then he calls himself +"king of the Persians." + +The history of Cyrus very soon became involved and quite overgrown with +legends. Herodotus (i. 95) tells us that he knew four different +traditions about him. One makes him the son of Mandane, a daughter of +Astyages (originally evidently by a god), who is exposed in the +mountains by his grandfather on account of an oracle, but suckled by a +dog (a sacred animal of the Iranians) and educated by a shepherd; i.e. +the myth which we know from the stories of Oedipus, Perseus, Telephus, +Pelias and Neleus, Romulus, Sargon of Agade, Moses, the Indian hero +Krishna, and many others, has been transferred to the founder of the +Persian empire. At the same time, the rule of Cyrus and the Persians is +legitimated by his family connexion with Astyages. This account is +partly preserved in Justin i. 4. 10 (probably from Charon of Lampsacus) +and in Aelian, _Var. Hist._ xiv. 42, and alluded to by Herodotus i. 95 +and 122. The second account, which Herodotus follows, is a rationalized +version of the first, where the dog is changed into a woman (the wife of +the shepherd) named Spako (bitch). In the later part of his story +Herodotus is dependent on the family traditions of Harpagus, whose +treason is justified by the cruelty with which Astyages had treated him +(the story of Atreus and Thyestes is transferred to them). Harpagus +afterwards stood in high favour with Cyrus, and commanded the army which +subdued the coasts of Asia Minor; his family seems to have been settled +in Lycia. In a third version, preserved from Ctesias in Nicolaus Damasc. +p. 66 (cf. Dinon ap. Athen. xiv. 633 C), Cyrus is the son of a poor +Mardian bandit Atradates (the Mardians are a nomadic Persian tribe, +Herod. i. 125), who comes as a voluntary slave to the court of Astyages, +and finds favour with the king. A Chaldaean sage prophesies to him his +future greatness, and another Persian slave, Oebares, becomes his +associate. He flies to Persia, evades the pursuers whom Astyages sends +after him, and begins the rebellion. After the victory Oebares kills +Astyages against the will of Cyrus, and afterwards kills himself to +evade the wrath of Cyrus. Parts of this story are preserved also in +Strabo xv. p. 729, and Justin i. 6. 1-3; 7. 1; cf. Ctesias _ap._ Photium +2-7; many traces of it were afterwards transferred to the story of +Ardashir I. (q.v.), the founder of the Sassanid empire. With this +version Ctesias and Nicolaus have connected another, in which Cyrus is +the son of a Persian shepherd who lives at Pasargadae, and fights the +decisive battle at this place. The didactic novel of Xenophon, the +_Cyropaedia_, is a free invention adapted to the purposes of the author, +based upon the account of Herodotus and occasionally influenced by +Ctesias, without any independent traditional element. The account of +Aeschylus, _Pers._ 765 ff., is a mixture of Greek traditions with a few +oriental elements; here the first king is Medos (the Median empire); his +nameless son is succeeded by Cyrus, a blessed ruler, beloved by the +gods, who gave peace to all his friends and conquered Lydia, Phrygia, +Ionia. Then comes his nameless son, then Mardos (i.e. Smerdis, to whom +the name of the Mardians is transferred) who is killed by Artaphrenes +(i.e. Artaphernes, Herod. iii. 78, one of the associates of Darius), +then Maraphis (eponym of the Maraphian tribe), then another Artaphrenes, +then Darius. + +The principal events of the later history of Cyrus are in the main +correctly stated by Herodotus, although his account contains many +legendary traditions. The short excerpt from Ctesias, which Photius has +preserved, contains useful information, although we must always mistrust +him. Of great value are a short notice in the fragments of Berossus and +another in the Old Testament. The original sources are very scanty, +besides the cylinder containing his proclamation to the Babylonians we +possess only a great many dated private documents from Babylon. These +serve to fix the chronology, which is here as everywhere quite in +accordance with the dates of the canon of Ptolemy. + +Soon after the conquest of the Median empire, Cyrus was attacked by a +coalition of the other powers of the East, Babylon, Egypt and Lydia, +joined by Sparta, the greatest military power of Greece. In the spring +of 546 Croesus of Lydia began the attack and advanced into Cappadocia, +while the other powers were still gathering their troops. But Cyrus +anticipated them; he defeated Croesus and followed him to his capital. +In the autumn of 546 Sardis was taken and the Lydian kingdom became a +province of the Persians. The famous story of Herodotus, that the +conqueror condemned Croesus to the stake, from which he was saved by the +intervention of the gods, is quite inconsistent with the Persian +religion (see CROESUS). + +During the next years the Persian army under Harpagus suppressed a +rebellion of the Lydians under Pactyas, and subjugated the Ionian +cities, the Carians and the Lycians (when the town Xanthus resisted to +the utmost). The king of Cilicia (Syennesis) voluntarily acknowledged +the Persian supremacy. Why the war with Babylon, which had become +inevitable, was delayed until 539, we do not know. Here too Cyrus in a +single campaign destroyed a mighty state. The army of Nabonidus was +defeated; Babylon itself attempted no resistance, but surrendered on the +16th Tishri (10th of October) 539, to the Persian general Gobryas +(_Gaubaruva_, see the chronicle of the reign of Nabonidus; the name +Gobryas is preserved also by Xenophon, _Cyrop._ vii. 4. 24); it is +possible that the Chaldaean priests, who were hostile to Nabonidus, +betrayed the town. In a proclamation issued after his victory Cyrus +guarantees life and property to all the inhabitants and designates +himself as the favourite of Marduk, the great local god (Bel, +Bel-Merodak) of Babel. It is very odd that modern authors have +considered this proclamation as inconsistent with the Zoroastrian creed. + +From the beginning of 538 Cyrus dates his years as "king of Babylon and +king of the countries" (i.e. of the world). With the capital, the +Babylonian provinces in Syria fell to the Persians; in 538 Cyrus granted +to the Jews, whom Nebuchadrezzar had transported to Babylonia, the +return to Palestine and the rebuilding of Jerusalem and its temple (see +JEWS, S 19). It is probable that Cyrus had fought more than one war +against the peoples of eastern Iran; according to Ctesias he had, before +the war with Croesus, defeated the Bactrians and the Sacae (in Ferghana; +their king Amorges is the eponym of the Amyrgian Sacae, Herod. vii. 64, +called by Darius _Haumavarka_); and the historians of Alexander mention +a march through Gedrosia, where he lost his whole army but seven men +(Arrian vi. 24. 2; Strabo xv. 722), a tribe Ariaspae on the Etymandros +(in Sijistan), who, on account of the support which they gave him +against the Scythians, were called Euergetae (Arrian iii. 27. 4; Diod. +xvii. 81; Curt. vii. 3. 1), and a town Cyropolis, founded by him on the +Jaxartes (Arrian iv. 2. 3; Curt. vii. 6. 16; Strabo xi. 517, called +Cyreskhata by Ptolem. vi. 12. 5). In 530, having appointed his son +Cambyses king of Babel, he set out for a new expedition against the +East. In this war he was killed (Herod.) or mortally wounded (Ctesias). +According to Herodotus he attacked the Massagetae beyond the Jaxartes; +according to Ctesias, the Derbices, a very barbarous tribe (cf. Strabo +xi. 520; Aelian, _Var. Hist._ iv. 1) on the border of the Caspian, near +the Hyrcanians (Strabo xi. 514; Steph. Byz.; Curt. vii. 2. 7; Dion. +Perieg. 734 ff.; Pomp. Mela iii. 5), or on the Oxus (Plin. vi. 48; +Ptolem. vi. 10. 2; _Tab. Peuting._). Berossus (_ap._ Euseb. _Chron._ i. +29) simply says that he fell against the Dahae, i.e. the nomads of the +Turanian desert. His death occurred in 528 B.C., as we have a Babylonian +tablet from the Adar of the tenth year of Cyrus, i.e. February 528; for +in Babylon the first year of Cyrus began in the spring of 538. + +In his native district Cyrus had built a city with a palace, called +after his tribe Pasargadae (now Murghab), and here he was buried (see +PASARGADAE). In a short time he, the petty prince of an almost unknown +tribe, had founded a mighty empire, which extended from the Indus and +Jaxartes to the Aegaean and the borders of Egypt. This result shows that +Cyrus must have been a great warrior and statesman. Nor is his character +without nobility. He excels in the humanity with which he treated the +vanquished. He destroyed no town nor did he put the captive kings to +death; in Babylonia he behaved like a constitutional monarch; by the +Persians his memory was cherished as "the father of the people" (Herod. +iii. 89), and the Greek tradition preserved by Aeschylus (cf. above) +shows that his greatness was acknowledged also by his enemies. He +therefore deserves the homage which Xenophon paid to him in choosing him +as hero for his didactic novel. + +2. CYRUS THE YOUNGER, son of Darius II. and Parysatis, was born after +the accession of his father in 424. When, after the victories of +Alcibiades, Darius II. decided to continue the war against Athens and +give strong support to the Spartans, he sent in 408 the young prince +into Asia Minor, as satrap of Lydia and Phrygia Major with Cappadocia, +and commander of the Persian troops, "which gather into the field of +Castolos" (Xen. _Hell._ i. 4. 3; _Anab._ i. 9. 7), i.e. of the army of +the district of Asia Minor. He gave strenuous support to the Spartans; +evidently he had already then formed the design, in which he was +supported by his mother, of gaining the throne for himself after the +death of his father; he pretended to have stronger claims to it than his +elder brother Artaxerxes, who was not born in the purple. For this plan +he hoped to gain the assistance of Sparta. In the Spartan general +Lysander he found a man who was willing to help him, as Lysander himself +hoped to become absolute ruler of Greece by the aid of the Persian +prince. So Cyrus put all his means at the disposal of Lysander in the +Peloponnesian War, but denied them to his successor Callicratidas; by +exerting his influence in Sparta, he brought it about that after the +battle of Arginusae Lysander was sent out a second time as the real +commander (though under a nominal chief) of the Spartan fleet in 405 +(Xen. _Hell._ ii. 1. 14). At the same time Darius fell ill and called +his son to his deathbed; Cyrus handed over all his treasures to Lysander +and went to Susa. After the accession of Artaxerxes II. in 404, +Tissaphernes denounced the plans of Cyrus against his brother (cf. Plut. +_Artax._ 3); but by the intercession of Parysatis he was pardoned and +sent back to his satrapy. Meanwhile Lysander had gained the battle of +Aegospotami and Sparta was supreme in the Greek world. Cyrus managed +very cleverly to gather a large army by beginning a quarrel with +Tissaphernes, satrap of Caria, about the Ionian towns; he also pretended +to prepare an expedition against the Pisidians, a mountainous tribe in +the Taurus, which was never obedient to the Empire. Although the +dominant position of Lysander had been broken in 403 by King Pausanias, +the Spartan government gave him all the support which was possible +without going into open war against the king; it caused a partisan of +Lysander, Clearchus, condemned to death on account of atrocious crimes +which he had committed as governor of Byzantium, to gather an army of +mercenaries on the Thracian Chersonesus, and in Thessaly Menon of +Pharsalus, head of a party which was connected with Sparta, collected +another army. + +In the spring of 401 Cyrus united all his forces and advanced from +Sardis, without announcing the object of his expedition. By dexterous +management and large promises he overcame the scruples of the Greek +troops against the length and danger of the war; a Spartan fleet of +thirty-five triremes sent to Cilicia opened the passes of the Amanus +into Syria and conveyed to him a Spartan detachment of 700 men under +Cheirisophus. The king had only been warned at the last moment by +Tissaphernes and gathered an army in all haste; Cyrus advanced into +Babylonia, before he met with an enemy. Here ensued, in October 401, the +battle of Cunaxa. Cyrus had 10,400 Greek hoplites and 2500 peltasts, and +besides an Asiatic army under the command of Ariaeus, for which Xenophon +gives the absurd number of 100,000 men; the army of Artaxerxes he puts +down at 900,000. These numbers only show that he, although an +eyewitness, has no idea of large numbers; in reality the army of Cyrus +may at the very utmost have consisted of 30,000, that of Artaxerxes of +40,000 men. Cyrus saw that the decision depended on the fate of the +king; he therefore wanted Clearchus, the commander of the Greeks, to +take the centre against Artaxerxes. But Clearchus, a tactician of the +old school, disobeyed. The left wing of the Persians under Tissaphernes +avoided a serious conflict with the Greeks; Cyrus in the centre threw +himself upon Artaxerxes, but was slain in a desperate struggle. +Afterwards Artaxerxes pretended to have killed the rebel himself, with +the result that Parysatis took cruel vengeance upon the slayer of her +favourite son. The Persian troops dared not attack the Greeks, but +decoyed them into the interior, beyond the Tigris, and tried to +annihilate them by treachery. But after their commanders had been taken +prisoners the Greeks forced their way to the Black Sea. By this +achievement they had demonstrated the internal weakness of the Persian +empire and the absolute superiority of the Greek arms. + + The history of Cyrus and of the retreat of the Greeks is told by + Xenophon in his _Anabasis_ (where he tries to veil the actual + participation of the Spartans). Another account, probably from + Sophaenetus of Stymphalus, was used by Ephorus, and is preserved in + Diodor. xiv. 19 ff. Further information is contained in the excerpts + from Ctesias by Photius; cf. also Plutarch's life of Artaxerxes. The + character of Cyrus is highly praised by the ancients, especially by + Xenophon (cf. also his _Oeconomics_, c. iv.); and certainly he was + much superior to his weak brother in energy and as a general and + statesman. If he had ascended the throne he might have regenerated the + empire for a while, whereas it utterly decayed under the rule of + Artaxerxes II. (See also PERSIA: _Ancient History_.) (Ed. M.) + + + + +CYSTOFLAGELLATA (so named by E. Haeckel), a group of Mastigophorous +Protozoa, distinguished from Flagellata by their large size (0.15-1.5 +mm.), and their branched endoplasm, recalling that of _Trachelius_ among +Infusoria, within a firm ectosarc bounded by a strong cuticle. Nutrition +is holozoic, a deep groove leading down to a mouth and pharynx. A long +fine flagellum arises from the pharynx in _Noctiluca_ (E. Suriray) +_Leptodiscus_ and (R. Hertwig); and in the former genus, a second +flagellum, thick, long and transversely striated, rises farther out, in +the groove; this was likened by E. R. Lankester to a proboscis, whence +his name of Rhynchoflagellata, which we discard as unnecessary and +posterior to Haeckel's. _Noctiluca_ has thus the form of an apple with a +long stalk. _Leptodiscus_ (R. Hertwig) has the form of a medusa without +a proboscis--it is menisciform with the thin contractile margin produced +inwards like a velum on the concave side, while the mouth is on the +convex surface and the single flagellum springs from a blind tube on the +same surface. _Craspedotella_ (C. A. Kofoid), the third genus, is still +more medusiform, with a broad velum, and the mouth in a convex central +protrusion of the roof of the bell; and a thick flagellum springs from a +blind tube on the convex surface. All three genera are pelagic and +phosphorescent, this property being seated in the ectoplasm; _Noctiluca +miliaris_ is indeed the chief source of the phosphorescence of our +summer seas. O. Butschli, like other writers, regards the +Cystoflagellates as closely allied to the Dinoflagellates, the small +flagellum corresponding to the longitudinal, the large flagellum to the +transverse flagellum of that group. + +[Illustration: After E. Ray Lankester, _Ency. Brit._, 9th ed. + +Cystoflagellate Protozoa. + + 1 and 2, Young stages of _Noctiluca miliaris_. + a, the big flagellum; the unlettered filament becomes the oral + flagellum of the adult. + n, nucleus. + s, the so-called spine (superficial ridge of the adult). + + 3 and 4, Two stages in the fission of _Noctiluca miliaris_, Suriray. + n, nucleus. + N, food-particles. + t, muscular flagellum. + + 5. _Noctiluca miliaris_, viewed from the aboral side (after Allman, + _Quart. Jour. Mic. Sci._, 1872). + a, entrance to atrium or flagellar fossa (= longitudinal groove of + Dinoflagellata). + c, superficial ridge. + d, big flagellum (= flagellum of transverse groove of Dinoflagellata). + h, nucleus. + + 6. _Noctiluca miliaris_, acted upon by iodine solution, showing the + protoplasm shrunk away from the structureless pellicle. + a = entrance to atrium. + + 7. Lateral view of _Noctiluca miliaris_. + a, entrance to atrium. + b, atrium. + c, superficial ridge. + d, big flagellum. + e = mouth and gullet, in which is seen Krohn's oral flagellum (= the + chief flagellum, or flagellum of the longitudinal groove of + Dinoflagellata). + f, broad process of protoplasm extending from the superficial ridge c + to the central protoplasm. + g, duplicature of pellicle in connexion with superficial ridge. + h, nucleus.] + +The reproduction of _Noctiluca_ has been fairly made out; in the adult +state it divides by fission down the oral groove; as a preliminary the +external differentiations disappear, and the nucleus divides by modified +mitosis; then the external organs are regenerated. Under circumstances +not well made out, conjugation between two adults takes place by their +fusion commencing at the oral region; flagella and pharynx disappear and +the nuclei fuse, while the cytoplasts condense into a sphere. The +nucleus undergoes broad division, the young nuclei pass to the surface, +which becomes imperfectly divided by grooves into as many rounded +prominences as there are nuclei (up to 128 or 256); and these become +constricted off from the residual useless cytoplasm as zoospores with +two unequal flagella, which were at first regarded as Dinoflagellates, +of which they have the form (figs. 5, 6). The metamorphosis of these +has not yet been observed. + + LITERATURE.--E. Suriray, _Magazin de zoologie_, 1836; G. J. Allman, + _Quarterly Journal of Microscopic Science_, n.s. xii., 1872; L. + Cienkowsky, "Zoospore formation in Noctiluca," _Archiv f. + mikroskopische Anatomie_, vii., 1871; R. Hertwig, "Leptodiscus," + _Jenaische Zeitschrift_, xi., 1877; C. Ischikawa, _Journal of the + College of Science_ (Tokyo, 1894), xii., 1899; F. Doflein, + "Conjugation of Noctiluca," _Zoologische Jahrbucher, Anatomie_, xiv., + 1900; C. A. Kofoid, "Craspedotella," in _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. + Harvard_, xlvi., 1905; O. Butschli, "Mastigophora," in _Protozoa_ + (_Braun's Thierreich_, vol. i., _Protozoa_) (1883-1887). (M. Ha.) + + + + +CYSTOLITH (Gr. [Greek: kystis], cavity, and [Greek: lithos], stone), a +botanical term for the inorganic concretions, usually of calcium +carbonate, formed in a cellulose matrix in special cells, generally in +the leaf of plants of certain families, e.g. _Ficus elastica_, the +india-rubber plant. + + + + +CYTHERA (mod. _Cerigo_, but still officially known as Cythera), one of +the Ionian islands, situated not less than 150 m. from Zante, but only +about 8 m. from Cape Malea on the southern coast of Greece. Its length +from N. to S. is nearly 20 m., and its greatest breadth about 12; its +area is 114 sq. m. The surface is rocky and broken, but streams abound, +and there are various parts of considerable fertility. Two caves, of +imposing dimensions, and adorned with stalactites of great beauty, are +the most notable among its natural peculiarities; one is situated at the +seaward end of the glen of the Mylopotamus, and the other, named Santa +Sophia, about two hours' ride from Capsali (Kapsali). Less of the ground +is cultivated and more of it is in pasture land than in any other of the +seven islands. Some wine and corn are produced, and the quality of the +olive oil is good. The honey is still highly prized, as it was in remote +antiquity; and a considerable quantity of cheese is manufactured from +the milk of the goat. Salt, flax, cotton and currants are also mentioned +among the produce. The people are industrious, and many of them seek +employment as labourers in the Morea and Asia Minor. Owing to +emigration, the population appears to be steadily diminishing, and is +now only about 6000, or less than half what it was in 1857. +Unfortunately the island has hardly a regular harbour on any part of the +coast; from its situation at the meeting, as it were, of seas, the +currents in the neighbourhood are strong, and storms are very frequent. +The best anchorage is at San Nicolo, at the middle of the eastern side +of the island. The principal village is Capsali, a place of about 1500 +inhabitants, at the southern extremity, with a bishop, and several +convents and churches; the lesser hamlets are Modari, Potamo and San +Nicolo. + +There are comparatively few traces of antiquity, and the identification +of the ancient cities has been disputed. The capital, which bore the +same name as the island, was at Paleo-Kastro, about 3 m. from the +present port of Avlemona. In the church of St Kosmas are preserved some +of the archaic Doric columns of the famous temple of Aphrodite of +Cythera, whose worship had been introduced from Syria, and ultimately +spread over Greece. According to the accepted story, it was here that +the goddess first landed when she emerged from the sea. At a very early +date Cythera was the seat of a Phoenician settlement, established in +connexion with the purple fishery of the neighbouring coast; it is said +that it was therefore called Porphyris (cf. Pliny iv. 18, 19). For a +time dependent on Argos, it became afterwards an important possession of +the Spartans, who annually despatched a governor named the Cytherodices. +In the Peloponnesian war, Nicias occupied the island, but in 421 it was +recovered by Sparta. Its modern history has been very much the same as +that of the other Ionian islands; but it was subject to Venice for a +much shorter period--from 1717 to 1797. + + See the works referred to under CEPHALONIA, and also Weil, in + _Mittheil. d. deutsch. Inst. zu Athen_ (1880), pp. 224-243. + + + + +CYTISINE (_Ulexin_, _Sophorin_), C11H14N2O, an alkaloid discovered in +1818 by J. B. Chevreul in the seeds of laburnum (_Cytisus Laburnum_) and +isolated by A. Husemann and W. Marme in 1865 (_Zeit. f. Chemie_, 1865, +i. p. 161). It is also found in the seeds of furze (_Ulex europaeus_), +_Sophora tormentosa_, and _Euchresta horsfieldii_. It is extracted from +the seeds by an alcoholic solution of acetic acid, and forms large +crystals which melt at 153 deg. C., and are easily soluble in water, +alcohol and chloroform. It is a secondary and tertiary di-acid base, and +is strongly alkaline in its reaction. Hydrogen peroxide oxidizes it to +oxycytisine, C11H14N2O2, chromic acid to an acid, C11H9NO3, and +potassium permanganate to oxalic acid and ammonia. It acts as a violent +poison. + + See further, P. C. Plugge, _Arch. der Pharm._ (1891), 229, p. 48 et + seq.; A. Partheil, _Ber._ (1890), 23, p. 3201, _Arch. der Pharm._ + (1892), 230, p. 448; M. Freund and A. Friedmann, _Ber._ (1901), 34, p. + 615; and J, Herzig and H. Meyer, _Monats. f. Chem._ (1897), 18, p. + 379. + + + + +CYTOLOGY (from [Greek: kytos], a hollow vessel, and [Greek: logos], +science), the scientific study of the "cells" or living units of +protoplasm (q.v.), of which plants and animals are composed. All the +higher, and the great majority of the lower, plants and animals are +composed of a vast number of these vital units or "cells." In the case +of many microscopic forms, however, the entire organism, plant or +animal, consists throughout life of a single cell. Familiar examples of +these "unicellular" forms are Bacteria and Diatoms among the plants, and +Foraminifera and Infusoria among the animals. In all cases, however, +whether the cell-unit lives freely as a unicellular organism or forms an +integral part of a multicellular individual, it exhibits in itself all +the phenomena characteristic of living things. Each cell assimilates +food material, whether this is obtained by its own activity, as in the +majority of the protozoa, or is brought, as it were, to its own door by +the blood stream, as in the higher Metazoa, and builds this food +material into its own substance, a process accompanied by respiration +and excretion and resulting in growth. Each cell exhibits in greater or +less degree "irritability," or the power of responding to stimuli; and +finally each cell, at some time in its life, is capable of reproduction. +It is evident therefore that in the multicellular forms all the complex +manifestations of life are but the outcome of the co-ordinated +activities of the constituent cells. The latter are indeed, as Virchow +has termed them, "vital units." It is therefore in these vital units +that the explanation of vital phenomena must be sought (see PHYSIOLOGY). +As Verworn[1] said, "It is to the cell that the study of every bodily +function sooner or later drives us. In the muscle cell lies the problem +of the heart beat and that of muscular contraction; in the gland cell +reside the causes of secretion; in the epithelial cell, in the white +blood corpuscle, lies the problem of the absorption of food, and the +secrets of the mind are hidden in the ganglion cell." So also the +problems of development and inheritance have shown themselves to be cell +problems, while the study of disease has produced a "cellular +pathology." The most important problems awaiting solution in biology are +cell problems. + +_Historical._--The cell-theory ranks with the evolution theory in the +far-reaching influence it has exerted on the growth of modern biology; +and although almost entirely a product of the 19th century, the history +of its development gives place, in point of interest, to that of no +other general conception. The cell-theory--in a form, however, very +different from that in which we now know it--was originally suggested by +the study of plant structure; and the first steps to the formulation, +many years later, of a definite cell-theory, were made as early as the +later part of the 17th century by Robert Hooke, Marcello Malpighi and +Nehemiah Grew. Hooke (1665) noted and described the vesicular nature of +cork and similar vegetable substances, and designated the cavities by +the term "cells." A few years later Malpighi (1674) and Grew (1682), +still of course working with the low power lenses alone available at +that time, gave a more detailed description of the finer structure of +plant tissue. They showed that it consisted in part of little cell-like +cavities, provided with firm cell-walls and filled with fluid, and in +part of long tube-like vessels. A long time passed before the next +important step forward was made by C. L. Treviranus,[2] who, working on +the growing parts of young plants, showed that the tubes and vessels of +Malpighi and Grew arose from cells by the latter becoming elongated and +attached end to end, the intervening walls breaking down; a conclusion +afterwards confirmed by Hugo von Mohl (1830). It was not, however, until +the appearance of Matthias Jakob Schleiden's paper _Beitrage zur +Phytogenesis_ (1838) that we have a really comprehensive treatment of +the cell, and the formulation of a definite cell-theory for plants. It +is to the wealth of correlated observations and to the philosophic +breadth of the conclusions in this paper that the subsequent rapid +progress in cytology is undoubtedly to be attributed. Schleiden in this +paper attempted to solve the problem of the mode of origin of cells. The +nucleus (_vide infra_) of the cell had already been discovered by Robert +Brown (1831), who, however, failed to realize its importance. Schleiden +utilized Brown's discovery, and although his theory of phytogenesis is +based on erroneous observations, yet the great importance which he +rightly attached to the nucleus as a cell-structure made it possible to +extend the cell-theory to animal tissues also. We may indeed date the +birth of animal cytology from Schleiden's short but epoch-making paper. +Comparisons between plant and animal tissues had already been made by +several workers, among others by Johannes Muller (1835), and by F. G. J. +Henle and J. E. Purkinje (1837). But the first real step to a +comprehensive cell-theory to include animal tissues was made by Theodor +Schwann. This author, stimulated by Schleiden's work, published in 1830 +a series of _Mikroskopische Untersuchungen uber die Ubereinstimmung in +der Structur und dem Wachstum der Tiere und Pflanzen_. This epoch-making +work ranks with that of Schleiden in its stimulating influence on +biological research, and in spite of the greater technical difficulties +in the way, raised animal cytology at one blow to the position already, +and so laboriously, acquired by plant cytology. In the animal cell it is +the nucleus and not the cell-wall that is most conspicuous, and it is +largely to the importance which Schwann, following the example of +Schleiden, attached to this structure as a cell constituent, that the +success and far-reaching influence of his work is due. Another feature +determining the success of Schwann's work was his selection of embryonic +tissue as material for investigation. He showed that in the embryo the +cells all closely resemble one another, only becoming later converted +into the tissue elements--nerve cells, muscle cells and so forth--as +development proceeded; just as a similar mode of investigation had +enabled Treviranus to trace the origin from typical cells of the +vascular tissue in plants more than 30 years previously. And just as +Treviranus showed that there was a union of cells to form the vessels in +plants, so Schwann now showed that a union of cells frequently occurred +in the formation of animal tissues. + +So great was the stimulus given to cytological research by the work of +Schleiden and Schwann that these authors are often referred to as the +founders of the cell-theory. Their theory, however, differed very +greatly from that of the present time. Not only did they suppose new +cells to arise by a sort of "crystallization" from a formative "mother +liquor" or "cytoblastema" (_vide infra_), but they both defined the cell +as a "vesicle" provided with a firm cell-wall and with fluid contents. +The cell-wall was regarded as the essential cell-structure, which by its +own peculiar properties controlled the cell-processes. The work of +Schleiden and Schwann marks the close of the first period in the history +of the cell-theory--the period dominated by the cell-wall. The +subsequent history is marked by the gradual recognition of the +importance of the cell-contents. Schleiden had noticed in the plant cell +a finely granular substance which he termed "plant slime" +(_Pflanzenschleim_). In 1846 Hugo von Mohl applied to this substance the +term "protoplasm"; a term already used by Purkinje six years previously +for the formative substance of young animal embryos. Mohl showed that +the young plant cell was at first completely filled by the protoplasm, +and that only later, by the gradual accumulation of vacuoles in the +interior, did this substance come to form a thin layer on the inner +surface of the cell-wall. Mohl also described the spontaneous movement +of the protoplasm, a phenomenon already noted by Schleiden for his plant +slime, and originally discovered by Bonaventura Corti in 1772 for the +cells of _Chara_, and rediscovered in 1807 by Treviranus. Not only was +attention thus gradually directed to the importance of the +cell-contents, but observations were not lacking, even in the plant +kingdom, tending to weaken the importance hitherto attached to the +cell-wall. Among these may be mentioned Cohn's observation that in the +reproduction of Algal forms the protoplasm contracts away from the +cell-wall and escapes as a naked "swarm spore." Similarly in the animal +kingdom instances began to be noted in which no membrane appeared to be +present (Kolliker, 1845; Bischoff, 1842), and for some time it was hotly +debated whether these structures could be regarded as true cells. As a +result of the resemblance between the streaming movements in these +apparently naked cells (e.g. lymphocytes) and those seen in plant cells, +R. Remak was led (1852-1853) to apply Mohl's term "protoplasm" to the +substance of these animal cells also. Similarly Max Schultze (1863) and +H. A. de Bary (1859), as a result of the study of unicellular animals, +came to the conclusion that the substance of these organisms, originally +termed "Sarcode" by F. Dujardin, was identical with that of the plant +and animal cell. Numerous workers now began to realize the subordinate +position of the cell-wall (e.g. Nageli, Alexander Braun, Leydig, +Kolliker, Cohn, de Bary, &c.), but it is to Max Schultze above all that +the credit is due for having laid the foundation of the modern +conception of the cell--a conception often referred to as the +_proto-plasmic-theory_ in opposition to the _cell_-theory of Schleiden +and Schwann. Max Schultze showed that one and the same substance, +protoplasm, occurred in unicellular forms and in the higher plants and +animals; that in plants this substance, though usually enclosed _within_ +a cell membrane, was sometimes naked (e.g. swarm spores), while in many +animal tissues and in many of the unicellular forms the cell-membrane +was always absent. He therefore concluded that in all cases the +cell-membrane was unessential, and he redefined the "cell" of Schleiden +and Schwann as "a small mass of protoplasm endowed with the attributes +of life" (1861). In the same year the physiologist Brucke maintained +that the complexity of vital phenomena necessitated the assumption for +the cell-protoplasm itself of a complex structure, only invisible +because of the limitations of our methods of observation. The cell in +fact was to be regarded as being itself an "elementary organism." By +this time too it was realized that the formation of cells _de novo_, +postulated by Schleiden's theory of "phytogenesis," did not occur. Cells +only arose by the division of pre-existing cells,--as Virchow neatly +expressed it in his since famous aphorism, _omnis cellula e cellula_. It +was, however, many years before the details of this "cell-division" were +laid bare (see _Cell-Division_ below). + +_General Morphology of the Cell._--In its simplest form the cell is a +more or less spherical mass of viscid, translucent and granular +protoplasm. In addition to the living protoplasm there is present in the +cell food-material in various stages of assimilation, which usually +presents the appearance of fine granules or spherules suspended in the +more or less alveolar or reticular mesh-work of the living protoplasm. +In addition there may be more or less obvious accumulations of waste +material, pigment, oil drops, &c.--products of the cell's metabolic +activity. All these relatively passive inclusions[3] are distinguished +from the living protoplasm by the term "metaplasm" (Hanstein), or +"paraplasm" (Kupffer), although in practice no very sharp distinction +can be drawn between them. The cell is frequently, but by no means +always, bounded by a cell-wall of greater or less thickness. In plants +this cell-wall consists of cellulose, a substance closely allied to +starch; in animals only very rarely is this the case. Usually the +cell-wall, when this is present, is a product of the cell's secretive +activity; sometimes, however, it appears to be formed by an actual +conversion of the surface layer of the protoplasm, and retains the power +of growth by "intussusception" like the rest of the protoplasm. Even +when a limiting membrane is present, however, evidence is steadily +accumulating to show that the cell is not an isolated physiological +unit, but that, in the vast majority of cases, there is a protoplasmic +continuity between the cells of the organism. This continuity, which is +effected by fine protoplasmic threads ("cell-bridges") piercing the +cell-wall and bridging the intercellular spaces when these are present, +is to be regarded as the morphological expression of the physiological +interdependence of the various--often widely separated--tissues of the +body.[4] It is probable that it is the specialization of this primitive +condition which has produced the cell-elements of the nervous system. In +many cases the cell-connexions are so extensive as to obliterate +cell-boundaries. A good example of such a "syncytial" tissue is provided +by the heart muscle of Vertebrates and the intestinal musculature of +Insects (Webber).[5] + +In all multicellular, and in the great majority of unicellular, +organisms the protoplasm of the cell-unit is differentiated into two +very distinct regions,--a more or less central region, the _nucleus_, +and a peripheral region (usually much more extensive), the cell-body or +_cytoplasm_. This universal morphological differentiation of the +cell-protoplasm is accompanied by corresponding chemical differences, +and is the expression of a physiological division of labour of +fundamental importance. In some of the simpler unicellular organisms, +e.g. _Tetramitus_, the differentiated protoplasm is not segregated. Such +forms are said to have a "distributed" nucleus, and among the Protozoa +correspond to Haeckel's "Protista." It is probable that among plants the +Bacteria and Cyanophyceae have a similar distributed nucleus. In all the +higher forms, however, the segregation is well marked, and a "nuclear +membrane" separates the substance of the nucleus, or "karyoplasm"[6] +from the surrounding "cytoplasm." Within the nuclear membrane the +karyoplasm is differentiated into two very distinct portions, a clear +fluid portion, the "karyolymph," and a firmer portion in the form of a +coarser or finer "nuclear reticulum." This latter is again composed of +two parts, the "linin reticulum,"[7] and, embedded in the latter and +often irregularly aggregated at its nodal points, a granular substance, +the "chromatin,"[8] the latter being the essential constituent of the +nucleus. In addition to the chromatin there may be present in the +nucleus one or more, usually spherical, and as yet somewhat enigmatical +bodies, the "nucleoli." In addition to the nucleus and cytoplasm, a +third body, the "centrosome," has often been considered as a constant +cell-structure. It is a minute granule, usually lying in the cytoplasm +not far from the nucleus, and plays an important part in cell-division +and fertilization (see below). + +_Cell-differentiation._--Both among unicellular and multicellular +individuals the cell assumes the most varied forms and performs the most +diverse functions. In all cases, however, whether we examine the +free-living shapeless and slowly creeping _Amoeba_, or the striped +muscle cell or spermatozoon of the Metazoa (fig. 1, b and c), the +constant recurrence of cytoplasm and nucleus show that we have to deal +in each case with a cell. The variation in the form and structure of the +cell is an expression of that universal economic law of nature, +"division of labour," with its almost invariable accompanying +"morphological differentiation"; the earliest and most fundamental +example being in the differentiation of the cell-protoplasm into +cytoplasm and nucleus. In multicellular individuals the division of +labour to which the structural complexity of the organism is due is +between the individual cell-units, some cells developing one aspect, +some another, of their vital attributes. Thus one cell specializes in, +say, secretion, another in contractility, another in receiving and +carrying stimuli, and so forth, so that we have the gland cell, the +muscle cell, and the nerve cell, each appropriately grouped with its +fellows to constitute the particular tissue or organ--gland, muscle or +brain--which has for its function that of its constituent cells. In +unicellular animals we also find division of labour and its accompanying +morphological differentiation, but here there is no subdivision of the +protoplasm of the organism into the semi-autonomous units which so +greatly facilitate division of labour in the Metazoa; instead, division +of labour must be between different regions of protoplasm in the single +cell. The sharply defined character of this regional differentiation in +the Protozoa, and the surprising structural complexity it may produce, +sufficiently clearly show that although multicellular structure has +greatly facilitated regional differentiation in the Metazoa, it is by no +means essential to this process (see below, _Present Position of the +Cell-theory_). + +It is not within the scope of this article to attempt a comprehensive +review of the variety in structural complexity to which this division of +labour among the cells of the Metazoan and the regional differentiation +of the cell-bodies of the Protozoa has given rise. Some indication of +the wealth of variety may be best given by taking a general survey of +cell-modifications, grouped according to the cell-attributes the +expression of which they facilitate. + +[Illustration: a and b from Schafer's _Essentials of Histology_, by +permission of Longmans, Green & Co. + +FIG. 1.--Types of Cells. a, Fat-cell enclosing a huge fat-globule. b, +Part of a Mammalian "striated" muscle-cell (diagrammatic). c, +Spermatozoa of mouse and bird.] + +(a) _Structural Complexity facilitating Movement._--One of the most +striking, and hence earliest described, of the fundamental attributes of +protoplasm is its power of spontaneous movement. This is seen in the +walled cell of plant tissue and in the naked cell-body of _Amoeba_. In +the latter case the streaming movements of the naked protoplasm are +accompanied by the formation of "pseudopodia," and result in the highly +characteristic "amoeboid" creeping movement of this and similar +organisms (e.g. lymph corpuscles of the blood).[9] In these examples the +whole protoplasm participates in the movement,--there has been no +division of labour, and there is, therefore, no visible morphological +differentiation. In many cells, movement (either of the entire body or +of the surrounding medium) is by means of slender whip-like processes of +the protoplasm flagella or cilia. These represent modified pseudopodia, +and in the formation of the motile gametes of some of the lower forms, +e.g. Myxomycetes (de Bary, 1859), Rhizopods (R. Hertwig, 1874), &c., the +actual conversion of a pseudopodium into a flagellum can be witnessed. +These vibratile processes may be either one or few in number, and are +then large in size and move independently of one another; or they may be +very numerous, covering the free surface of the cell (fig. 2, a); they +are then very small and move strictly in unison. In the former case they +are termed "flagella," in the latter "cilia." In some cases the +flagellum is accompanied by an undulating membrane (e.g. Trypanosoma +among the protozoa and in many spermatozoa), and it may be situated +either at the front end (Euglena) or hind end (spermatozoa) of the body +during motion. The cilia may form a uniform coating to the free surface +of the cell, as in ciliated epithelium (fig. 2, a) and many infusoria, +or the cilia may be variously modified and restricted to special regions +of the body, e.g. the "undulating membrane" of the peristomial region in +many infusoria, the swimming combs of the Ctenophora (q.v.), and the +flame cells of the Platyelmia (q.v.). In one group of infusoria +(Hypotricha), the cilia, "cirri," have attained a high degree of +differentiation, and reach a considerable size. Both cilia and flagella +spring directly from the cell-protoplasm, piercing the cell-membrane, +when this is present. At the point where they become continuous with the +cell-body there is usually a deeply staining "basal granule." In some +cases the flagella are in direct connexion with the centrosome (see +below, _Cell-division_), e.g. Trypanosoma and spermatozoa, in some cases +even while the centrosome is functioning in mitosis (e.g. insect +spermatogenesis, Henneguy[10] and Meves[11] (fig. 3). + +[Illustration: From A. Gurwitsch, _Morphologie und Biologie der Zelle_, +by permission of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 2.--Types of Cells. a, Ciliated epithelial cells. (After +Heidenhain.) b, Mucus-secreting "goblet"-cells. (After Gurwitsch.)] + +[Illustration: From O. Hertwig, _Allgemeine Biologie_, by permission of +Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 3.--Spermatocytes of _Bombyx mori_, showing the precocious +appearance of the spermatozoon flagellum and its relation to the +centrosome. (After Henneguy.)] + +In the ability of _Amoeba_ to contract into a spherical mass, and in the +presence in its protoplasm of the contractile vacuole, we see another +type of spontaneous movement--contractility--of the protoplasm. In the +"musculo-epithelial" cells of _Hydra_, the elongated basal portion of +the cell alone possesses this contractility. In the higher Metazoa the +whole cell--muscle cell--is specialized for contractility, and shows, as +a result of its specialization, a distinct fibrillation. This +fibrillation is foreshadowed in the contractile regions of many +Protozoa, e.g. in the cirri of hypotrichous Infusoria, the tentacle of +_Noctiluca_, and the myophane layer of Gregarines. In the quickly +contracting muscle cell of Vertebrates and insects, further +specialization has produced a structure of considerable complexity (fig. +1, b). Here also the cell is fibrillated, but the fibrillae +(sarcostyles) are much more distinct, and are segmented in a manner +which gives to the entire cell a "cross striated" appearance. Since +quick movement is usually (but not always) associated with voluntary +control, these striated muscle cells are often termed "voluntary" muscle +fibres. The great increase in length of these cells is accompanied by +the fragmentation of the originally single nucleus. + +(b) _Cell-modification in Relation to Secretion._--Just as the complex +movements considered above were the result of a great development of the +power of spontaneous movement possessed by all protoplasm, so +cell-secretion is the result of a development of the metabolic processes +underlying all vital phenomena. But whereas specialization of the +protoplasm for movement resulted in a very obvious morphological +complexity, specialization for secretion results in molecular +complexity, and only rarely and indirectly results in morphological +differentiation. Usually indeed the specialization is only rendered +evident by the appearance of the formed secretion, e.g. mucus-secreting +epithelial cells (fig. 2, b), the ovarian ovum and the fat cell (fig. 1, +a). In some cases a distinct fibrillation of the cytoplasm accompanies +or precedes the appearance of the cell-secretion (Mathews, pancreas cell +of Amphibia). In many cases the internal secretion is no mere +accumulation, e.g. the internal skeleton of the Radiolaria, and the +nematocysts of the Coelentera. Frequently in animal tissues the +cell-secretions are accumulated in the intercellular spaces, and result +in the formation of the various "connective tissues," all of which are +characterized by the immense amount of intercellular substance, e.g. +fibrous tissue, cartilage and bone. Cell-modifications facilitating the +general metabolism, but not necessarily indicating specialized +secretion, also occur, e.g. the "gullet" of many Protozoa, the suctorial +tubules of the Acinetaria, and the "nutritive processes" of the ovarian +ova in many Lepidoptera. Mention may be made here of the network or +canal system of the cytoplasm, described for many cells by Golgi, +Holgren and others. An enigmatical structure, the "yolk-nucleus" of many +ova, has been frequently regarded as a structure of considerable +metabolic importance, e.g. Bambeke (1898) for _Pholcus_.[12] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Types of Nuclei. + +From Prof. E. B. Wilson's The Cell in _Development and Inheritance_, by +permission of the author and of the Macmillan Co., New York. + + a, Permanent spireme-nuclei in cells from the intestinal epithelium of + a dipterous larva, _Ptychoptera_. (After van Gehuchten.) + +From Korschelt and Heider, _Lehrbuch der verg. Entwicklungsgeschichte +der wirbellosen Tiere_, by permission of Gustav Fischer. + + b, Branched nucleus of the "nutritive" cell, from a portion of an + ovarial tube of _Forficula auricularia_.] + +Striking modifications resulting from specialization in secretion are +frequently presented by the nucleus. In many secreting cells this +structure is extensively branched, e.g. many gland cells and ovarian +nutritive cells of insects (fig. 4, b). In some cases the nucleus of the +gland cell contains a persistent spireme thread (fig. 4, a); while +almost all actively secreting cells are characterized by the possession +of large or numerous nucleoli. + +[Illustration: From Schafer's _Essentials of Histology_, by permission +of Longmans, Green & Co. + +FIG. 5.--Nervous and Sensory Cells. + + A and B, Ganglion cells from the cerebral cortex; in A the only + slightly branched axon may extend the whole length of the spinal cord. + (After Schafer.) + + C, Body of a ganglion-cell showing "Nissl's granules." + + D, Sensory cells from olfactory epithelium. (After Schultze.) + + E, Diagrammatic representation of the sensory epithelium of retina + (rod and cone layer). (After Schwalbe.)] + +(c) _Specialization for the Reception and Conduction of Stimuli._--One +of the most striking of the fundamental attributes of living protoplasm +is its "irritability," that is to say, its power of responding to +external impressions, "stimuli," by movement, which, both in kind and +intensity, is wholly independent of the amount of energy expended by the +stimulus. The stimulus conveyed by the nerve fibre to the muscle is out +of all proportion to the amount of work it may cause the muscle to do. +Although protoplasmic irritability is thus incapable of a simple +mechanical explanation, science has rejected the assumption of a special +"vital force," and interprets protoplasmic response as being a long +series of chemico-physical changes,[13] initiated, but only initiated, +by the original stimulus; the latter thus standing in the same relation +to the response it produces as the pull on the trigger to the propulsion +of the rifle bullet. The function of receiving stimuli from the outer +world, originally possessed to a greater or less extent by all cells, +has, in the Metazoa, been relegated to one class of cells, the sensory +cells[14] (fig. 5, D and E). Another class of cells--the "ganglion +cells" or "neurones" (fig. 5, A and B), are concerned with the +conduction of the stimuli so received. The contractile elements in the +Metazoa are thus dependent for their stimuli on the nervous +elements--the sensory cells and neurones. + +_Origin of Cells._--In the preceding sections we have considered the +structure of the cell in relation to the fundamental attributes of +cell-metabolism, irritability, and movement. We have now to consider +the cell in relation to yet another vital attribute, that of +reproduction. Just as we now know that the phenomena of assimilation, +respiration, excretion, response, movement and so forth, characteristic +of living things, are but the co-ordinated expressions of the +corresponding activities of the constituent cells, so we now know that +the reproduction of the organism is, in its ultimate analysis, a +cell-process. Our knowledge of the essential fact that cells only arise +by the division of pre-existing cells, now a fundamental axiom of +biology, and of the details of this process, have been acquired during +recent years by the strenuous efforts of numerous workers.[15] Matthias +Jakob Schleiden (1838) supposed that in plants the new cell arose from +the parent cell by a sort of "crystallizing" process from the cell fluid +or "cytoblastema"; the nucleolus appearing first, then the nucleus, and +finally the cell-body. Theodor Schwann (1839) extended Schleiden's +theory to animal tissues, with this yet greater error, that new cells +might arise, not only within the mother cell as Schleiden had supposed, +but also in the intercellular substance so common in animal tissues (to +which he also gave the term "cytoblastema"). By 1846, however, the +botanists, thanks mainly to the efforts of Hugo von Mohl and Nageli, +recognized as a general law that cells only arise by the division of a +pre-existing cell. But it was long before the universal application of +this law was recognized by zoologists; the delay being largely due to +pathological phenomena. The work of Kolliker (1844-1845), Karl Bogislaus +Reichert (1841-1847), and Remak (1852-1855), however, finally enabled +Virchow in 1858 to maintain the law of the genetic continuity of cells +in the since famous aphorism _omnis cellula e cellula_. At this time, +however, nothing was known of the details of cell-division,--one school +(Reichert, L. Auerbach, and the majority of the botanists) maintaining +that the nucleus disappeared prior to cell-division, the other school +(von Baer, Remak, Leydig, Haeckel, &c.) maintaining that it took a +leading part in the process. It is not until the appearance of Anton +Schneider's work in 1873, followed by those of Fol, Auerbach, +Strasburger and many others, that we begin to gain an insight into the +process. In 1882 W. Flemming was able to extend Virchow's aphorism to +the nucleus also: _omnis nucleus e nucleo_. + +_Outline of Cell-division._--There are two very distinct methods of +cell-division. The more general and also more complicated method is +accompanied by the formation of a complex fibrillar mechanism, and was +on this account termed "mitosis" ([Greek: mitos], a thread) by W. +Flemming (1882), and "karyokinesis" ([Greek: karyon], nut, nucleus, and +[Greek: kinesis], change, movement) by W. Schleicher (1878). The other +method, "amitosis," or direct division, is unaccompanied by any visible +mechanism and is of relatively exceptional occurrence. In the more usual +method of cell-division, or "mitosis," we can distinguish two distinct +but parallel processes, the one undergone by the chromatin and resulting +in the "chromatic figure," the other usually only concerning the +cytoplasm and resulting in the "achromatic figure."[16] + +[Illustration: a, b and c from Prof. E. B. Wilson's _The Cell in +Development and Inheritance_, by permission of the author and the +Macmillan Co., New York; d from A. Gurwitsch, _Morphologie u. Biologie +der Zelle_, by permission of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 6.--Diagram of Nuclear Division. a, Spireme stage; b, Spindle +formed; c, Spindle complete; equatorial plate formed; d, Division +completed.] + +We will consider the chromatin changes first. The chromatin granules +lose their scattered arrangement on the nuclear reticulum, and become +instead arranged in a linear series to form a coiled and deeply staining +"spireme thread"[17] (fig. 6, a). As the thread contracts, its granular +origin becomes less evident, and at the same time the coils become fewer +in number; the "close" spireme of earlier stages becomes the "loose" +spireme of later stages. As the spireme thread contracts, it segments +into a number of short, and usually U-shaped, segments--the +"chromosomes" (Waldeyer, 1888). The number of these chromosomes is +always constant for the cells of any given species of plant or animal, +but varies greatly in number in different species. Thus in the +parasitic worm _Ascaris megalocephala_, var. _univalens_, there are only +two. In the crustacean _Artemia_ Bauer found 168, while in the amphibian +_Salamandra maculata_, as also in the lily, the number is 24. While +these changes have been proceeding in the nucleus, changes in the +cytoplasm have resulted in the formation of the achromatic figure. These +cytoplasmic changes are initiated by the division into two of a minute +body, the "centrosome," originally discovered by P. J. van Beneden in +1883,[18] and usually lying not far from the nucleus (fig. 6, a). The +daughter centrosomes separate from one another, travelling to opposite +poles of the nucleus. At the same time radiations extend out into the +cytoplasm from the centrosomes, and, as the nuclear membrane disappears, +invade the nuclear area (fig. 7, a). Some of the fibrillae in the latter +region become attached to the chromosomes and are termed "mantle +fibres"; others become continuous from one centrosome to the other and +constitute the "spindle fibres." The remaining radiations at the two +poles of the spindle are the "astral rays." (The details of the +formation of the achromatic figure vary considerably, some indication of +this is given in the next section in connexion with the question of the +origin of the mitotic mechanism.) The chromosomes now arrange themselves +in the "equatorial plate" of the spindle and each splits longitudinally +into two[19] (fig. 6, b and c). The sister chromosomes now pass to +opposite poles of the spindle (fig. 6, d), and there, returning to the +"resting" condition, constitute the daughter nuclei. Division of the +cell follows, usually, in animals, by simple constriction. Both Theodor +Boveri and van Beneden, in their papers of 1887, regarded the centrosome +as initiating, not only the division of the cell-body but that of the +chromatin also; Beneden even suggested that the pull of the mantle +fibres caused the division of the chromatin in the equatorial plate. W. +Pfitzner in 1882 was the first to show that the splitting of the +chromosomes in the equatorial plate was only the reappearance of a split +in the spireme thread and was due to a corresponding division into two +of each of the chromatin granules. In the spermatogenic cells of +_Ascaris_, A. Brauer has shown that the chromatin granules divide while +still scattered over the nuclear reticulum and before either the +formation of a spireme thread or the division of the centrosome. In many +other cases the reverse of this condition occurs, the centrosome +dividing long before there is any indication of division in the nucleus +(e.g. salamander spermatogenic cells, Meves, &c.). We must therefore, +with Boveri and Brauer, regard the division of the chromatin in mitosis +as a distinct reproductive act on the part of the chromatin granules, +the chromosomes being merely aggregates (temporary or permanent, _vide +infra_) of these self-propagating units. + +For convenience of description it is usual to recognize four periods in +mitosis: (i.) Prophase, (ii.) Metaphase, (iii.) Anaphase, and (iv.) +Telophase (Strasburger, 1884). The prophase covers all changes up to the +completion of the mitotic figure. The metaphase is the parting of the +sister chromosomes in the equatorial plate; their passage to opposite +poles of the spindle constitutes the anaphase; and their reconstruction +to form the resting daughter nuclei, the telophase. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Centrosomes. + +From Prof. E. B. Wilson's _The Cell in Development and Inheritance_, by +permission of the author and of The Macmillan Co., New York. + + a, Leucocyte from a Salamander, showing permanent aster and + centrosome. + +From A. Gurwitsch, _Morphologie u. Biologie der Zelle_, by permission of +Gustav Fischer. + + b, Sperm-mother cell of _Salamandra maculata_, showing Hermann's + "central spindle."] + +_The Achromatic Figure._--The mode of origin of the achromatic figure +varies greatly. In some cases a distinct and continuous spindle, the +"central spindle" of F. Hermann, is visible from the very first +separation of the daughter centrosomes (e.g. salamander spermatogenic +cell)[20] (fig. 7, b). In other cases the rays only invade the nuclear +area and become continuous in the equatorial plane after the centrosomes +have assumed their definitive positions at the two poles of the nucleus, +and may even appear to indent the disappearing nuclear membrane as they +invade the nuclear area.[21] In the salamander testis cell (fig. 7, b), +and in many other cases, the whole of the achromatic figure is obviously +of cytoplasmic origin. In many cases, however, it equally obviously +arises within the nucleus,[22] while in yet other cases[23] the spindle +fibres are of mixed origin. The question, therefore, of the cytoplasmic +or nuclear origin of the achromatic figure, at one time regarded as of +considerable importance, is wholly immaterial. Various elaborate +theories have been propounded to explain the mechanism of the mitotic +figure. H. Fol (1873) regarded the centrosomes as centres of attractive +forces, and compared the mitotic figure to the lines of force in the +magnetic field, a comparison made by numerous subsequent workers. E. +Klein's hypotheses of two opposing systems of contractile fibrillae, +elaborated by van Beneden (1883, 1887) and accepted by Boveri (1888), +was still further extended by R. Heidenhain in relation to the +leucocytes of the salamander, in which there is a permanent centrosome +and astral rays to which the contractile movements of the cell appear to +be due[24] (fig. 7, a). Hermann on the other hand confined the +contractility to the astral and mantle fibres; while L. Druner regarded +the spindle as exerting a pushing force, for not only do the interzonal +spindle fibres elongate during the anaphase, but they were often at this +period contorted, while on the other hand astral rays may be entirely +absent (e.g. Infusoria), and in some cases the spindle pole may be +caused to project at the surface of the cell. The futility of these +attempted mechanical explanations of mitosis is sufficiently clearly +shown, not only by the contradictory nature of the explanations +themselves, but by the fact that, in amitosis, nuclear and cytoplasmic +division occur without any fibrillar mechanism whatever. + +_Centrosome._[25]--This minute body was first detected at the spindle +poles by Flemming in 1875, and independently by P. J. van Beneden in +1876. The important part played by the centrosome in fertilization,[26] +first described by van Beneden and Theodor Boveri in their papers of +1887-1888, together with the behaviour of this structure in mitosis, led +these authors to regard the centrosome not only as the dynamic centre of +the cell but as a permanent cell-organ, which, like the nucleus, passed +by division from one cell-generation to the next. This conclusion +appeared to receive considerable support from the recognition of the +centrosome in various kinds of resting cells,[27] and especially from +the relation this structure frequently shows to the locomotor apparatus +of the cell (e.g. its position in the centre of the radiating fibrillae +in the contractile lymph and pigment cells, and its relation to the +vibratile flagellum in spermatozoa and some protozoa, e.g. +Trypanosoma).[28] In almost all cases the centrosome of the resting +cell, when this can be detected, lies in the cytoplasm, and is often +already divided in preparation for the next mitotic division (e.g. +spermatogenic cells of the salamander; Meves). In some cases, however, +it resides in, or arises from, the nucleus (Brauer; spermatogenesis of +_Ascaris_, var. _univalens_). This indifferent nuclear or cytoplasmic +position for the centrosome is paralleled by the attraction sphere or +homologue of the centrosome in many Protozoa. Thus in many forms, e.g. +_Euglena_ (Keuten), it lies within the nucleus, while in other forms, +e.g. _Noctiluca_ (Ishikawa, 1894, 1898; Calkins, 1898) and _Paramoeba_ +(F. Schaudinn, 1896), it lies in the cytoplasm, while in _Tetramitus_ it +coexists with a "distributed" nucleus. In the Heliozoa conditions are +exceptionally interesting; not only is the centrosome--here resembling +in appearance that of the higher forms--permanently visible and +extranuclear, lying at the centre of the radiations characteristic of +these forms, but there is the strongest possible evidence for its +formation _de novo_. For Schaudinn has shown in _Acanthocystis_ that, in +the formation of the swarm spores, the nucleus divides amitotically, the +centrosome remaining visible and unchanged at the centre of the +radiating processes. Yet a centrosome appears later in the nucleus of +the swarm spores and migrates into the cytoplasm. The experiments of T. +H. Morgan and E. B. Wilson, in which numerous centrosomes and asters +("cytasters") are caused to appear in unfertilized sea-urchin eggs by a +brief immersion in a 13% solution of magnesium chloride in +sea-water,[29] as also the possibility in many cases that even in normal +fertilization the cleavage centrosomes may arise _de novo_,[30] make it +no longer possible to regard the centrosome as a permanent +cell-structure. + +_Significance of Mitosis._--Whatever may be the nature of the +chemico-physical changes occurring during cell-division, of which the +achromatic spindle and astral rays are the visible expression, it is +certain that the whole of this complicated process has for its function, +not the division of the chromatin, for that has already occurred on the +spireme thread or even earlier, but the distribution of the divided +chromatin granules to the two daughter nuclei. It is indeed usually +assumed that the mitotic mechanism is not merely for the distribution, +but for the _equal_ distribution, of the sister granules to the two +daughter nuclei. The conspicuous part the chromatin is seen to play in +the whole mechanism of heredity--in maturation, fertilization and +development--indicating as it does that the chromatin is the chief, if +not the only, bearer of the specific qualities of the organism, +sufficiently clearly emphasizes the importance of the equal distribution +of this substance between the daughter cells at successive +cell-divisions. There are, however, serious objections to the +interpretation of mitosis as an adaptation to ensure this equal +distribution of the chromatin. Not only does the occurrence of amitosis +show that the mitotic mechanism is not essential for either nuclear or +cytoplasmic division, but direct division may occur[31] in the +life-history of the germ cells, the very point at which it should not +occur had mitosis the significance usually attached to it. On the other +hand, the most elaborate mitosis occurs in cell-tissues (e.g. skin of +salamander larva) which can take no possible share in the reproduction +of the species. Moreover, we have no reason for supposing that the +division of the chromatin in amitosis is not as meristic, and its +subsequent distribution as equal, as is so visibly the case in +mitosis.[32] It is necessary, therefore, to seek for some other +explanation of the elaborate mechanism of mitosis than that which +assumes it necessary for the equal distribution of the divided chromatin +granules. The present writer believes the true explanation to be found +in that great economic law of nature, "division of labour." The same +economy which, working under the control of natural selection, has +produced the complexly differentiated tissues of the higher metazoa, +which has led to the sexual differentiation between the conjugating +gametes and thus to the sexual differentiation of the parents, has +resulted in the production of mitosis. Only here the economy finds +expression in division of labour, not in space, but in time. The work of +the self-propagating chromatin granules is so ordered that periods of +undisturbed metabolic activity alternate with periods of reproductive +activity. The brief space of time occupied by the latter process has +necessitated a more elaborate specialization of the forces--whatever +their nature--controlling cell-division; a specialization which has +resulted, just as a similar specialization in so many other cases has +resulted, in a visible differentiation of the cell-protoplasm. This +explanation is in harmony with the occurrence of typical mitosis in +active tissue cells on the one hand, and of amitosis in the relatively +quiescent primary germ cells on the other. + +_Individuality of the Chromosomes._--The most striking feature in the +behaviour of the chromatin in mitosis is its resolution, at each +division, into a--for any particular species--constant number of +chromosomes. This constant recurrence of the specific number of +chromosomes at every cell-division is capable of explanation in two +radically different ways. One explanation assumes for the organism a +specific peculiarity determining the segmentation of the spireme thread +into a definite number of segments (Delage, 1899 and 1901).[33] The +other regards chromosomes as independent units of the cell, retaining +their identity between successive cell-divisions. The latter +"Individualitats Hypothese" was originally put forward by Theodor Boveri +in 1887 as a result of C. Rabl's observation (1885) that in epidermal +cells of the salamander larva the chromosomes reappear in the mitosis of +the daughter cells with the same arrangement as they possessed in the +prophase of the mother cell--the angles of the U-shaped chromosomes +being all directed towards one pole (Rabl's "Poleseite") of the nucleus. +In the formation of the "resting" nucleus, the chromatin, becoming +metabolically active, flows out on to the linin reticulum, all trace of +the chromosomes being for the time lost. In _Ascaris_, Boveri (1888) +obtained similar but still more striking results. The thickened ends of +the four elongated chromosomes cause projections on the nuclear surface +throughout the resting period, and the ends of the reappearing +chromosomes always coincided with these protuberances; cf. also Sutton +(1902) on locust spermatagonia. Moreover, the arrangement of the +chromosomes must follow one of three well-marked groupings, and this is +determined for each individual in the cleavage spindle of the egg and +maintained throughout later development (fig. 8). + +[Illustration: From Boveri's _Ergebnisse u. d. Konstitution der +chromatischen Substanz des Zellkerns_, by permission of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 8.--Preparation for Mitosis. a, Nucleus of "1/2 blastomere" of +_Ascaris megalocephala bivalens_ in resting condition; b and c, nuclei +from sister 1/2 blastomeres in preparation for mitosis.] + +In the same worm (var. _univalens_) Boveri (1888 and 1899) found that +occasional abnormalities in maturation resulted in the suppression of +the first polar body and the inclusion of its chromosomes in the second +maturation spindle; the egg-nucleus at the time of fertilization thus +having two chromosomes instead of one, while the spermatozoon nucleus +has only one. Three chromosomes instead of two reappear in subsequent +divisions. Boveri's "Individualitats Hypothese" received striking +support from the work of Herla (1893), L. R. Zoja (1895) and O. zur +Strassen (1898). Herla and Zoja showed that if the egg of _Ascaris +megalocephala_ (var. _bivalens_), which possesses two chromosomes, be +fertilized with the spermatozoon of var. _univalens_, in which the germ +cell has only one chromosome and that smaller than either of the two in +the other variety, three chromosomes reappear, two large and one small, +in the cleavage divisions of the resulting hybrid embryo. Zur Strassen's +observations on the giant embryos of _Ascaris_ also support Boveri's +theory. These embryos arise by the fusion of eggs, either before or +after fertilization. The number of chromosomes in the subsequent +cleavage-figures is proportional to the number of nuclei that have fused +together. Similar results are given by Boveri's (1893-1895) and T. H. +Morgan's (1895) experiments on the fertilization of enucleated +sea-urchin egg-fragments; all the nuclei of the resulting embryo having +only half the number of chromosomes characteristic of the species (e.g. +in _Echinus_ 9 instead of 18). All the above facts point to the +conclusion that, as Boveri expressed it in his _Grundgesetz der +Zahlenkonstanz_ (1888), "the number of chromosomes arising from a +resting nucleus is solely dependent on the number which originally +entered into its composition."[34] + +_Boveri's Law of Proportional Nuclear Growth._--The chromatin in the +nucleus is exactly halved at every cell-division. As the bulk of the +chromatin remains constant from one cell-generation to another, it must +double its bulk between successive divisions. That this proportional +growth of the chromatin is dependent solely on the chromatin mass, and +not on that of the cell, is very clearly indicated by cases where the +normal chromatin mass has been artificially increased or reduced,[35] +the chromatin in either case doubling its bulk between successive +cell-divisions, and neither the mass of the chromatin nor the number of +the chromosomes undergoing any readjustment. By double or partial +fertilization, different regions in the same embryo may show nuclei of +different sizes (Boveri). We must therefore distinguish in the cell +between "young" and "adult" chromatin. In other words the chromatin must +be regarded as being composed of individual units, each with a definite +constant structure and maximum growth (Boveri, 1904). This conclusion is +strongly suggested, not only by the evidence in favour of the +individuality of the chromosomes considered above, but also by the +independent reproductive activity of the chromatin granules in the +prophase of mitosis. + +[Illustration: From Boveri's _Ergebnisse u. d. Konstitution der +chromatischen Substanz des Zellkerns_, by permission of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 9.--Preparation for Mitosis. a, Spermatogonium of _Brachystola +magna_ with resting nucleus; b, Same with prophase for mitosis. (After +Sutton.)] + +_Differentiation among the Chromosomes._--If we grant the assumption of +a persistent individuality for the chromosomes, then it becomes possible +to consider whether in one and the same nucleus these structures may not +take varying parts in controlling the cell's activity in development and +in inheritance. Such a differentiation among the chromosomes would be +due to independent ancestry rather than to the economy resulting from a +division of labour; nevertheless a division of labour of a sort would be +the result of this gradual divergence of the chromosomes from one +another, and we might therefore expect that, in some cases at least, a +_morphological_ would accompany the _physiological_ differentiation. +Examples of such a morphological differentiation do indeed occur in the +"accessory" chromosomes first described by H. Henking (1891) for the +spermatogonia of _Pyrrhocoris_, and since described for numerous other +insects, Arachnids and Myriapods. W. Sutton's work on the +spermatogenesis of _Brachystola magna_ is of especial interest in this +connexion. Not only does the "accessory chromosome" in this insect form +a resting nucleus independent, and obviously physiologically +differentiated from that formed from the remaining chromosomes (fig. 9, +a), but the latter are themselves differentiated by size, there being +one pair of chromosomes of each size (fig. 9, b), a point of +considerable interest when we remember that half the chromosomes in each +cell are necessarily derived from each parent.[36] + +Although this morphological differentiation among the chromosomes is +undoubtedly to be regarded as indicating a corresponding physiological +differentiation, it by no means follows that the latter need always, or +even generally, be accompanied by the former. Since, however, the +specific characters of the organism must be due to the combined activity +of _all_ the chromosomes, any physiological differentiation among the +latter should result in abnormal development if the full complement of +chromosomes be not present.[37] Boveri,[38] utilizing Herbst's +method[39] for separating echinoderm blastomeres, has interpreted in +this manner the abnormal development which H. Driesch[40] found almost +invariably to follow the double fertilization of the sea-urchin egg. In +such eggs the first cleavage spindle is four-poled. The chromosomes are +half again as numerous as in normally fertilized eggs (54 instead of +36), but each is only divided once, so that in the distribution of the +resulting 108 chromosomes the four daughter nuclei receive each only 27 +instead of 36 (assuming the distribution to be fairly equal, which is by +no means usually the case in four-poled mitosis). Driesch had already +(1900) shown that any one of the first four blastomeres of a normally +fertilized egg will, if isolated, develop normally. Boveri found that in +the case of the doubly fertilized egg the isolated "1/4" blastomeres +develop very variously, a variability only to be accounted for by their +varying chromosome equipment. Occasionally a three-poled instead of a +four-poled figure resulted from double fertilization. In such cases +Driesch found, as we should expect from Boveri's interpretation, that +the percentage of approximately normal larvae was considerably greater; +for not only would the chances of an equal distribution of the +chromosomes be much greater, but the number received by each of the +three daughter cells would approximate to, or even equal, the normal. + +_Reduction._--In all the Metazoa the prevailing, and in the higher forms +the only, method of reproduction is by the union (conjugation) of two +"sexually" differentiated germ-cells or "gametes"; a small motile +"microgamete" or spermatozoon and a large yolk-laden "macrogamete" or +ovum (see Reproduction). This differentiation between the germ-cells is +another example of the advantages of division of labour; for while the +onus of bringing about the union of the germ-cells is thrown entirely on +the spermatozoon, the egg devotes itself to the accumulation of +food-material (yolk) for the subsequent use of the developing embryo. +Far more yolk is thus secreted than would be possible by the combined +efforts of both the germ-cells had each of these at the same time to +preserve its motility. The fundamental physiological difference which +this division of labour has produced in the germ-cells is reflected on +to the general metabolism of the parents and underlies the sexual +differentiation of the latter.[41] Beyond this, however, sexual +differentiation does not go. The two germ nuclei which enter into the +formation of the first mitotic figure of the developing egg are not only +physiologically equivalent, but, at the time of their union in the egg, +are usually morphologically identical.[42] The essence of fertilization +is, therefore, the union of two germ nuclei only differing from one +another in that they are derived from separate individuals.[43] Since +the number of chromosomes appearing in mitosis is solely dependent on +the number which originally entered into the composition of the nucleus +(Boveri's Law of Chromosome-Constancy), it follows that, in the mitotic +figures of the developing embryo, the chromosomes will be half maternal, +half paternal in origin;[44] the germ nuclei thus necessarily possessing +only half the number of chromosomes characteristic of the ordinary +tissue cells of species, i.e. the somatic number.[45] The manner in +which this "reduction" in the number of chromosomes in the germ-cells is +brought about, and the significance to be attached to the process, +constitute the most hotly debated questions in cytology. In all the +metazoa the phenomenon of reduction is associated with the two last and, +usually, rapidly succeeding "maturation" divisions by which the +definitive germ-cells--ova or spermatozoa--are produced.[46] + +Assuming the persistent individuality of the chromosomes, then there are +only three conceivable methods by which this numerical reduction can be +brought about (Boveri, 1904, p. 60). (1) One-half the chromosomes +degenerate. (2) The chromosomes are distributed entire, half to one +daughter cell, half to the other (reducing division of Weismann, 1887). +(3) The chromosomes fuse in pairs (_Conjugation of the Chromosomes_, +Boveri, 1892). The first possibility--that of an actual degeneration of +a part of the chromatin originally suggested by van Beneden and adopted +by August Weismann, Boveri and others, has been long abandoned, and a +steadily increasing bulk of evidence is tending to prove the general, if +not universal, occurrence of the second method--the distribution between +the daughter cells of undivided chromosomes. The occurrence of such a +"reducing division" was postulated on theoretical grounds by Weismann +(1887)[47] and by Boveri (1888); by the former as a result of his +adoption of de Vries's hypothesis of self-propagating and qualitatively +varying units for the chromatin; by the latter in relation to his theory +of chromosome individuality. The actual occurrence of this reducing +division was first demonstrated by Henking (1891) for _Pyrrhocoris_, and +afterwards by Hacker, vom Rath and many others, but especially by +Ruckert (1894) for _Cyclops_ (fig. 10). In this latter type the +chromatin of the oocyte, as this prepares for the first maturation +division, resolves itself into 12 (instead of 24) longitudinally split +chromosomes (fig. 10, a). As these continue to thicken and contract a +transverse fission appears (fig. 10, c). This is to be regarded as a +belated segmentation of the spireme thread, and shows that the reduction +so far is only a "pseudo-reduction" (Ruckert), the chromosomes being +really all present but temporally united in pairs, i.e. "bivalent" +(Hacker). A striking confirmation of this interpretation is provided by +Korschelt's description of reduction in the annelid _Ophryotrocha_. In +this type the full somatic number of split chromosomes (here only four) +appears, and these secondarily associate end to end in pairs, thus +forming split "diads" (i.e. tetrads), in every way similar to those +described by Ruckert for _Cyclops_. In the latter type, at the first +maturation division, the sister diads are separated from one another, an +"equating" division thus taking place. At the second division the diads +are resolved into their constituent parts, and the "univalent" +chromosomes are distributed to the daughter cells (reducing division). +A similar process has since been described for numerous other types +(e.g. various arthropods, Hacker, 1895-1898; vom Rath, 1895; and by +Sutton for _Brachystola_, 1902-1903). In _Ophryotrocha_, as in +_Pyrrhocoris_ (Henking), _Anasa_ (Paulmeir), _Peripatus_ (Montgomery), +&c., reduction occurs at the first maturation division ("pre-reduction" +of Korschelt and Heider, 1900), instead of at the second division +(post-reduction) as in most Copepods and Orthoptera. In many cases the +tetrads (i.e. split chromosomes associated in pairs) have the form of +rings, the genesis of which was first clearly determined by vom Rath +(1892) in the mole cricket _Gryllotalpa_ (fig. 11). In this form the +sister diads remain united by their ends but widely separate in the +middle (fig. 11, b). As in _Cyclops_, the belated transverse +segmentation appears as the condensation of the chromatin proceeds (fig. +11, d), but the symmetrical tetrads which this process here produces +make it impossible to determine at which of the two divisions reduction +is effected. An essentially similar ring formation occurs in _Enchaeta_ +and _Calanus_ (vom Rath), and in the Copepods _Heterocope_ and Diaptomus +(Ruckert), and in other types.[48] + +[Illustration: From Korschelt and Heider's _Lehrbuch d. vergl. +Entwicklungsgeschichte d. wirbellosen Tiere_, by permission of Gustav +Fischer. + +FIG. 10.--Maturation Divisions. a-d, Formation of the tetrads in +_Cyclops_. (After Ruckert.) e, 1st maturation division; separation of +the bivalent sister chromosomes. f, 2nd maturation division; +distribution of the univalent chromosomes.] + +[Illustration: From Prof. E. B. Wilson's _The Cell in Development and +Inheritance_, by permission of the author and of the Macmillan Co., N. +Y. + +FIG. 11.--Maturation Divisions. Origin of the tetrads by ring formation +in the spermatogenesis of the mole-cricket (_Gryllotalpa_) (vom Rath). +a, Primary spermatocyte with six split, bivalent chromosomes. b and c, +Split has opened out. d, Concentration of the chromatin has made visible +the belated transverse division. e and f, Grouping of the completed +tetrads in the equatorial plate of the first maturation division.] + +[Illustration: From O. Hertwig, _Allgemeine Biologie_, by permission of +Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 12.--Heterotypical Mitosis. (Schematic, after Flemming.)] + +All the above cases, in which the reduction is effected by the +distribution of entire chromosomes at one or other of the maturation +divisions, may be grouped together as "pseudomitotic" (Hacker, and +Korschelt & Heider). In sharp contrast to the pseudomitotic method is +the "Eumitotic" method, in which the chromosomes are longitudinally +divided at both divisions. Such a method not only robs the process of +any "reducing" value in Weismann's sense, but is in serious conflict +with the chromosome-individuality hypothesis. Nevertheless it is in this +sense that Boveri (1881) and van Beneden (1883-1887) described the +maturation of the egg, and at a later period Brauer (1893) that of the +spermatozoon, in _Ascaris_. In each case the tetrads are formed by the +double longitudinal splitting of the chromosomes, the latter appearing +in the prophase in the reduced number. Not only was the eumitotic method +of _Ascaris_ the first method to be described, but the descriptions are +fully equal in point of clearness to that of Hertwig for the +pseudomitotic maturation of _Cyclops_.[49] A similar eumitotic +maturation has been described for other types also, e.g. _Sagitta_ and +the Heteropods, but nowhere more frequently than in the Vertebrates +among animals and the Phanerogams among plants. In these two latter +groups the chromosomes of the reducing division only rarely have a ring +form comparable to that seen in _Gryllotalpa_, &c. When such rings do +occur their genesis is very obscure, and at no time do they present the +appearance of "tetrads." It is the characteristic appearance these +looped chromosomes give to the first maturation division in many +Vertebrates, and especially in the Amphibia (fig. 12), that originally +led Flemming (1887) to term this type of mitosis "heterotypical"; the +second division, lacking this peculiar appearance, being distinguished +as "homotypical." Until quite recently these looped chromosomes of the +heterotypical mitosis of Vertebrates (and plants) were described as +arising by the opening out of longitudinally split chromosomes, exactly +as this occurs in the early prophase of the maturation divisions in such +types as _Gryllotalpa_, _Diaptomus_, &c. In the heterotype mitosis, +however, no transverse segmentation appears, and the halves of the +rings, as they separate in the first division, show an obvious +longitudinal split in preparation for the second division.[50] Both +divisions were thus interpreted as equating divisions.[51] The more +recent works of Farmer and Moore (1903-1905), Montgomery (1903, +Amphibia), and (for plants) Strasburger (1903-1904) have shown, however, +that even for the higher plants and animals, a reducing division in +Weismann's sense occurs in an essentially similar manner to that so +convincingly described by Ruckert, vom Rath and others, for +Invertebrate types. For the chromosomes of the heterotype mitosis arise +by the looping round, not opening out, of the bivalent chromosomes. The +first division is thus a reducing division, while the split appearing in +the anaphase of the heterotype and presumably reappearing in the +prophase of the homotype is the original split of the spireme thread. + +The widespread, if not universal, formation of tetrads, i.e. the +temporary union in pairs of split chromosomes, in reduction, and the +relation this latter process always bears to _two_ rapidly succeeding +maturation divisions--those completing the gametogenic cycle in animals +and terminating the sporophytic generation in plants,--has received a +suggestive explanation at the hands of Boveri (1904). The growth of the +chromatin is an indispensable prelude to its reproduction (Boveri's Law +of Proportional Growth). The chromatin is therefore incapable of +undergoing reproductive fission in two successive mitotic divisions when +these are not separated by a resting (i.e. growth) period. In addition +to this, the "bipolar" condition of the adult chromosomes, which +determines its mode of attachment to mantle fibres from _both_ poles of +the spindle, is not possessed by the unripe chromatin. The undivided, +i.e. unripe, chromosomes are therefore incapable of utilizing the +mitotic mechanism for such a transverse fission as Weismann originally +postulated. The difficulty is, however, at once overcome if the unripe +chromosomes are associated in pairs in the equatorial plate, for the +bivalent chromosomes so produced are bipolar just as are the adult (i.e. +split) chromosomes in the ordinary and homotype mitosis.[52] + +_Synopsis_ ([Greek: synaptein], to fuse together).--During the prophase +of the reducing or heterotype divisions the whole of the chromatin +becomes temporarily massed together at one pole of the nucleus (Moore, +1896, for Elasmobranchs). Montgomery (1901) has suggested that this is +to facilitate the temporary union in pairs, or "conjugation" of +homologous paternal and maternal chromosomes. In _Ascaris megalocephala_ +var. _univalens_, where the somatic number is only two, the association +must necessarily be between homologous chromosomes. The assumption that +this "selective pairing" of equivalent chromosomes is universal is +supported by the behaviour of the "Heterochromosomes" (Montgomery) of +the Hemiptera. These chromosomes, distinguished by their size, are +paired before, and single after, the "pseudo-reduction" has taken place. +Even more convincing is Sutton's account of reduction in _Brachystola_ +already referred to.[53] Boveri (1904) has suggested that this temporary +association of the chromosomes--presumably facilitated by the +synapsis--has a much deeper meaning than to ensure their correct +distribution between the daughter nuclei in the heterotype mitosis; the +associated chromosomes exchanging material in a manner analogous to +conjugation in _Paramoecium_.[54] + +_Present Position of the Cell-theory._--Since the time of Schleiden and +Schwann a wealth of evidence has accumulated in support of the +"cell-theory"--the theory which regards the cell as the unit of organic +structure. "The organism consists morphologically, of cells, and +subsists, physiologically, by means of the 'reciprocal action' of the +cells,"--this was the cell standpoint of Schleiden and Schwann, and it +is no exaggeration to say that this same conception has dominated the +cell-theory almost to the present day.[55] The frequently striking +correlation between cell-division and cell-differentiation in +development has caused this process to be regarded as dependent on +cell-division, while a wholly exaggerated importance has been attached +to the distinction between "unicellular" and "multicellular" +organisms--between "intercellular" and "intracellular" organs. The +influence of the "cells" upon one another, the subordination of the +cell's growth, division and differentiation, to the requirements of the +whole organism--seen in normal growth, but nowhere more strikingly than +in development and regeneration,--is, however, very difficult of +explanation in terms of the cell-theory as this was, until quite +recently, generally understood. The very elaborate regional +differentiation of the protoplasm often seen in the Protozoa +sufficiently indicate that multicellular structure is no essential +condition for complex regional differentiation. That the regional +differentiation of the protoplasm in the Metazoa should usually +correspond with cell-limits is scarcely surprising. Nor is it to be +wondered at that, with so convenient a mechanism for segregation to hand +as cell-division, the progressive differentiation seen during +development should often appear to go hand in hand with this process. In +recent years, however, evidence has been steadily accumulating to show +that this association between cell-division and regional differentiation +of the protoplasm in development is a casual one--as casual, and as +natural, as the correspondence between cell limits and regional +differentiation in the formed tissues. The fact that the regional +differentiation may be foreshadowed in the egg before cleavage +begins,[56]--that as Driesch has shown, the mode of cleavage may be +artificially altered without affecting the ultimate organization of the +embryo,--and many other similar observations, tend to emphasize the +importance of the "organism" standpoint (C. O. Whitman, 1903, p. 642) in +contradistinction to the widely prevalent "cell" standpoint. The +occurrence of syncytial organs and organisms, and the increasing +frequency with which protoplasmic continuity is being demonstrated +between all kinds of cells, are facts tending in the same direction. In +the plant kingdom the growth of the _mass_ has been recognized as the +primary factor in development;[57] _die Pflanze bildet Zellen, nicht die +Zelle bildet Pflanzen_ (de Bary). For the animal kingdom this +"Inadequacy of the Cell-Theory of Development" has been maintained +amongst others by Whitman,[58] and by Adam Sedgwick.[59] The latter +author, mainly as the result of work on the development of _Peripatus_ +and of Elasmobranch embryos, regards the developing embryo as a +continuous protoplasmic reticulum, for the nuclei of which the limiting +epithelial layers constitute as it were a breeding ground. +Differentiation is a regional specialization of this nucleated meshwork, +and is not to be regarded as the result of the proliferation and +subsequent specialization of cells predestined by cleavage for this end. + +It is possible to suggest a mechanico-physical explanation of +multicellular structure which will deprive the cell of much of its +assumed significance as a unit of organization. The fact that surface +area becomes relatively less extensive as bulk increases would alone set +a limit to the size of "unicellular" organisms; for not only is there a +constant reaction between nucleus and cytoplasm through the nuclear +membrane, but the surface of the cell serves both for the intake of food +and the elimination of waste material. In addition to the limit thus +imposed upon the cytoplasmic area which can be effectually controlled by +the nucleus, and the necessity for a minimum surface area to the +protoplasmic mass, the advantages of the more or less complete +subdivision of the living substance into--as far as their metabolism is +concerned--semi-autonomous units, is indicated by the mechanical support +derived from the specialized cell walls and turgescent cells of the +plant, and the intercellular secretions of the animal tissues. It is +more than possible that these two conditions--i.e. surface area for +diffusion, and mechanical support--are alone responsible for the +_origin_ of multicellular structure, and that the sharply defined +character this now so generally possesses has been secondarily acquired +as a result of the facilities it undoubtedly offers for regional +specialization in the protoplasmic mass. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The special literature of cytology has grown to large + dimensions. The following are the more important text-books and papers + of general interest: E. B. Wilson, _The Cell in Development and + Inheritance_ (2nd ed., 1900); A. Gurwitsch, _Morphologie und Biologie + der Zelle_ (Jena, 1904); O. Hertwig, _Allgemeine Biologie_ (Jena, + 1906); Korschelt and Heider, _Lehrbuch der vergl. + Entwicklungsgeschichte der wirbellosen Tiere_, Allgem. Teil, "The Germ + Cells and Experimental Embryology" (Jena, 1903); Whitman, "The + Inadequacy of the Cell Theory of Development," _Journ. Morph._ viii., + 1893; Adam Sedgwick, "On the Inadequacy of the Cellular Theory of + Development," _Quart. Journ. Micro. Science_, xxxvii.; G. C. Bourne, + "A Criticism of the Cell Theory" (an answer to Sedgwick's paper), + _Quart. Journ. Micro. Science_, xxxviii.; Th. Boveri, "Befruchtung," + _Merkel-Bonnets Ergebnisse der Anat. u. Entwicklungsgesch._ Bd. i. + (1892), _Das Problem der Befruchtung_ (Jena, 1902), _Ergebnisse uber + die Konstitution der chromatischen Substanz des Zellkerns_ (Jena, + 1904); J. Ruckert, "Die Chromatinreduktion bei der Reifung der + Sexualzellen," _Merkel-Bonnets Ergebnisse_, Bd. iii. (1894); V. + Hacker, "Die Reifungserscheinungen," _Ergebn. Anat. u. + Entwicklungsgesch._ Bd. viii. (1898); F. Meves, "Zellteilung," + _Merkel-Bonnets Ergebnisse_, Bd. viii. (1898, 1899); W. Waldeyer, "Die + Geschlechtszellen," in O. Hertwig's _Handbuch der vergleich. u. + experiment. Entwicklungslehre d. Wirbeltiere_ (1901, 1903). + (G. C. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Allgemeine Physiologie_, p. 53 (1895). + + [2] _Vom inwendigen Bau der Gewachse_ (1806). + + [3] The Chromoplastids of the vegetable cell come under a different + category of cell-inclusions; see PLANTS: _Cytology_. + + [4] Cf. Pfeffer's classical experiments on the physiological + significance of cell-continuity in plant tissues (_Uber den Einfluss + des Zellkerns auf die Bildung der Zellhaut_, 1896). The recent work + in physiology on the influence substances secreted by certain tissues + and circulating in the blood-stream exert upon other and widely + different tissues, should not be lost sight of in this connexion. + + [5] The influence this protoplasmic continuity may have upon our + conception of the cell as a unit of organization is referred to below + (_Present Position of the Cell-theory_). + + [6] A term (from [Greek: karyon], kernel) suggested by Flemming to + replace Strasburger's hybrid term "nucleoplasm" (1882). The earlier + workers, e.g. Leydig, Schultze, Brucke, de Bary, &c., restricted the + term protoplasm to the cell-body--the "Cytoplasm" of Strasburger, an + example still followed by O. Hertwig. + + [7] From _linum_, a thread, Schwarz, 1887. + + [8] From [Greek: chroma], colour, Flemming, 1879. + + [9] The formation of pseudopodia and accompanying changes in form of + _Amoeba_ were observed as early as 1755 by Raesel von Rosenhof, who + named it on this account the "little Proteus." + + [10] "Sur les rapports des cils vibratiles avec les centrosomes," + _Archives d'anatomie microscopique_ (1898). + + [11] "Uber Zentralkorper in mannlichen Geschlechtszellen von + Schmetterlingen" (Anat. Anz. Bd. xiv., 1897). Cf. also the papers of + Lenhossek (_Uber Flimmerzellen_, 1898), Karl Peter (_Das Zentrum fur + die Flimm- und Giesselbewegung_, 1899) and Verworn (_Studien zur + Physiologie der Flimmerbewegung_, 1899). + + [12] Cf., however, the present writer's interpretation of this + structure in the oocyte of _Antedon_. _Phil. Trans. Royal Soc._ + (1906), B. 249. + + [13] Claude Bernard expressed the same conclusion in 1885. Rejecting + both the view that vital phenomena were identical with + chemico-physical phenomena, and that which regarded them as totally + distinct, he suggested a third point of view: "l'element ultime du + phenomene est physique; l'arrangement est vital." + + [14] Many forms of response to stimulus involve no visible + specialization, e.g. positive and negative heliotropism, + chemiotropism, geotropism, &c., seen more especially in plants, but + occurring also in the animal kingdom. + + [15] Prominent among these are: Schleiden (1873), Fol (1873-1877), + Auerbach (1874), Butschli (1876), Strasburger (1875-1888), O. Hertwig + (1875-1890), R. Hertwig (1875-1877); Flemming (1879-1891), van + Beneden (1883-1887), Rabl (1889), Boveri (1887-1903). + + [16] This distinction between the chromatic and achromatic portions + of the mitotic figure is due to Flemming. + + [17] The genesis of the spireme thread was first described by E. G. + Balbiani in 1876. + + [18] "Recherches sur la maturation de l'oeuf, la fecondation et la + division cellulaire" (_Archives de biologie_, vol. iv.). + + [19] First discovered by Flemming in 1879 and confirmed by Retzius in + 1881. + + [20] The discovery by Hermann of the central spindle first clearly + showed that two kinds of fibres must be recognized in the mitotic + figure. Those of the central spindle correspond to the continuous + spindle fibres of Flemming (1891) and Strasburger (1884), and the + mantle fibres, i.e. half-spindle or _Polstrahlen_, of van Beneden + (1887) and Boveri (1889-1890). + + [21] Planter, Watase, Griffen and others. + + [22] e.g. _Euglypha_ (Schewiakoff, 1888), Infusoria (R. Hertwig, + 1898). So also Korschelt for _Ophryotrocha_, and many other cases. + + [23] e.g. Bauer, spermatogenic cells of _Ascaris univalens_. + + [24] Cf. also Watase, Solger and Zimmermann. + + [25] This term is due to Boveri (_Zellenstudien_, ii., 1888, p. 68; + _Jen. Zeit._ xxii.), but it was intended by him to include the region + of modified cytoplasm or "centrosphere" often enclosing the + centrosome proper, i.e. "centriole" of Boveri. + + [26] For outline of fertilization see article REPRODUCTION. + + [27] e.g. lymph and various epithelial and connective tissue cells of + salamander larva (Flemming, 1891; Heidenhain, 1892); pigment cells of + fishes (Solger, 1891); red blood corpuscles (Heidenhain, Eisen, + 1897); and numerous other cases. + + [28] For an interesting development of this subject see Watase + (1894). This author not only identifies the centrosome with the + structures seen in lymph cells, &c., but compares it to the basal + granules of ciliated cells and to the varicose swellings on the + sarcostyles of striped muscle cells! + + [29] The force of this evidence is admitted by Boveri himself. Meves, + however, maintains the possibility that the numerous centrosomes + appearing in the egg arise by the rapid fragmentation of a centrosome + already present. + + [30] Cf. especially the behaviour of the centrosomes in the + fertilization of the egg of _Pleurophyllidia_ (MacFarland, 1897) and + that of _Cerebratulus_ (Coe, 1901). Not only may the sperm + centrosomes totally disappear before reaching the egg-nucleus, but in + the latter type the definitive centrosomes appear while the last + traces of the sperm asters are still visible. + + [31] e.g. Meves; Spermatagonia of Salamandra. + + [32] Cf. especially the artificial production of amitosis in + _Spirogyra_; W. Pfeffer, 1899. + + [33] Cf. Boveri, 1904, p. 13. (For Boveri's criticism of Delage's + views, cf. Boveri, 1901 and 1902.) + + [34] It should, however, be noted that the assumption that a + particular group of characters remains always associated in a + particular chromosome is one that is very difficult to reconcile with + the mode of inheritance of Mendelian pairs of characters in the case + of organisms with a relatively small chromosome number. + + [35] Boveri (1902), "Fertilization of enucleated _Echinus_-egg + fragments," and M. Boveri (1903); by shaking the egg shortly after + fertilization the sperm centrosome is prevented from dividing, and a + monaster instead of a diaster results, the divided chromosomes + remaining in the one nucleus. + + [36] Cf. especially in this connexion Hacker's paper _Uber die + Schicksale der elterlichen und grosselterlichen Kernanteile_ (1902). + + [37] Each nucleus contains a duplicate set of chromosomes, the one of + maternal, the other of paternal origin, and either of these sets + alone suffices for development. This is clearly shown by the + experiments of Loeb (1899) and Wilson (1901) on the artificial + parthenogenesis of the sea-urchin egg; and those of O. Hertwig (1889 + and 1895), Delage (1899) and Winkler (1901), on the fertilization of + enucleated Echinoderm eggs (_Merogony_, Delage). The fact that in + some forms, e.g. _Ascaris megalocephala_ var. _univalens_, only one + chromosome is derived from each parent, originally led Boveri to + conclude that _all_ chromosomes must necessarily be physiologically + equivalent. + + [38] _Uber mehrpolige Mitosen als Mittel zur Analyse des Zellkerns_ + (1902). + + [39] _Uber das Auseinandergehen von Furchungs- und Gewebezellen in + kalkfreien Medium_ (1900). + + [40] "Entwicklungsmechanische Studien V." (_Zeit. fur wiss. Zool._, + Bd. lv., 1892). + + [41] See Geddes and Thomson, _Sex_, esp. pp. 127, 137 and 139. + + [42] The equivalence of the germ nuclei in development is shown by + the experiments on the fertilization of enucleated eggs and + artificial parthenogenesis already referred to. + + [43] O. Hertwig, 1873; but esp. van Beneden, 1883. + + [44] Hacker, "Uber die Selbststandigkeit der vaterlichen und + mutterlichen Kernbestandteile," _Arch. f. mikr. Anat._ Bd. xlvi. + (1896). + + [45] First discovered by van Beneden (1883, 1887) for the egg of + _Ascaris_. + + [46] In the case of the egg the whole of the yolk stored by the + "oocyte" (cell-generation immediately preceding the maturation + divisions) is handed on to only one of the four resulting cells--an + obvious economy. The three yolkless cells are necessarily + functionless--abortive ova--and are known as the "polar bodies" + (Hertwig). In spermatogenesis the maturation divisions, though + bearing the same relation to reduction as in oogenesis (Platner, + 1889; O. Hertwig, 1890), give rise to four functional germ-cells. The + explanation of sexual differentiation given above, and that of polar + body formation given here, render it needless to do more than mention + the theories of Mimot (1877), van Beneden (1883) and others, by which + "maturation" was regarded as removing the "male" element from the + otherwise "hermaphrodite" egg. + + [47] Weismann postulated a transverse division of the chromosomes, + not a distribution of entire chromosomes; but the result as far as + the reduction in the number of hereditary qualities goes is the same. + The inability of the mitotic mechanism to effect the transverse + division of unsplit chromosomes is pointed out by Boveri (1904). + + [48] For an exhaustive account of reduction in Invertebrates see + Korschelt and Heider, _Entwicklungsgeschichte_, Allgem. Teil ii. + (Jena, 1903). + + [49] Nevertheless the possibility of a pseudomitotic interpretation + of maturation in _Ascaris_ also has been maintained by O. Hertwig + (1890), p. 277, Carnoy and Boveri (1904). + + [50] The partial or even complete reconstruction of the nucleus + between the heterotype and homotype division in Vertebrates makes it + difficult to determine the identity of the split seen in the anaphase + of the heterotype with that reappearing in the prophase of the + homotype. + + [51] e.g. Moore, 1895 (_Scyllium_); Flemming, 1897; Carnoy and + Lebrun, 1899 (_Amphibia_); McGregor, 1899; Lenhossek, 1898 (mammals), + and many others. So also for plants: Strasburger and Mottier, 1897; + Dixon, 1896; Sargant, 1896-1897; Farmer and Moore, 1895; Gregoire, + 1899; Guignard, 1899, &c. + + [52] H. Henking (1899), T. Montgomery (1898) and F. C. Paulmeir + (1899) describe the diverging bivalent halves of the tetrad as being + united each by _two_ fibres with the corresponding spindle pole. At + the next division, at which the diad is resolved into its constituent + univalent chromosomes, the daughter chromosomes are attached to the + spindle pole each by only one fibre; the two fibres now passing to + opposite poles of the spindle being the same fibres which, in the + preceding mitosis, were attached to one and the same pole. + + [53] Reference may be here made to Rosenberg's description (1904) of + the heterotype mitosis in _Drosera_ hybrids. In the one parent (_D. + rotundifolia_) the somatic number is 20, in the other (_D. + longifolia_) 10; while the hybrid itself has a somatic number of 30. + The reduced number in the hybrid, however, is not 15 but 20. Of these + 10 are large and 10 small, the latter presumably representing the + supernumerary, and hence unpaired, chromosomes of the _D. + rotundifolia_ parent. + + [54] In their 1905 paper J. B. Farmer and J. E. S. Moore describe two + successive synaptic stages (e.g. Elasmobranchs), the first during the + contraction of the spireme thread, the second during the looping up + of the bivalent segments. (In this paper the authors suggest the term + "Meiosis" or "Meiotic phase" for the nuclear changes accompanying the + two maturation divisions in plants and animals ([Greek: meiosis], + reduction). + + [55] Whitman, _Jour. Morph._, 1903. + + [56] This "Precocious segregation" (Lankester, 1877) is well seen in + the eggs of many Ctenophorae, Annelids, Gastropods and Nematodes. See + the papers by Lillie (1901), Conklin (1902), &c., and especially + Wilson on "Dentalium," _Journ. of Exp. Zool._, No. 1, 1904. + + [57] Hofmeister, de Bary, Sachs, &c. + + [58] _Loc. cit._ + + [59] _Quart. Journ. Micro. Science_, 1894, vol. xxxvii. + + + + +CYZICENUS, the architectural term given by Vitruvius to the large hall, +used by the Greeks, which faced the north, with a prospect towards the +gardens; the windows of this hall opened down to the ground, so that the +green verdure could be seen by those lying on the couches. + + + + +CYZICUS, an ancient town of Mysia in Asia Minor, situated on the +shoreward side of the present peninsula of Kapu-Dagh (Arctonnesus), +which is said to have been originally an island in the Sea of Marmora, +and to have been artificially connected with the mainland in historic +times. It was, according to tradition, occupied by Thessalian settlers +at the coming of the Argonauts, and in 756 B.C. the town was founded by +Greeks from Miletus. Owing to its advantageous position it speedily +acquired commercial importance, and the gold _staters_ of Cyzicus were a +staple currency in the ancient world till they were superseded by those +of Philip of Macedon. During the Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.) +Cyzicus was subject to the Athenians and Lacedaemonians alternately, and +at the peace of Antalcidas (387 B.C.), like the other Greek cities in +Asia, it was made over to Persia. The history of the town in Hellenistic +times is closely connected with that of the dynasts of Pergamum, with +whose extinction it came into direct relations with Rome. Cyzicus was +held for the Romans against Mithradates in 74 B.C. till the siege was +raised by Lucullus: the loyalty of the city was rewarded by an extension +of territory and other privileges. Still a nourishing centre in Imperial +times, the place appears to have been ruined by a series of +earthquakes--the last in A.D. 1063--and the population was transferred +to Artaki at least as early as the 13th century, when the peninsula was +occupied by the Crusaders. The site is now known as Bal-Kiz ([Greek: +Palaia Kuzikos]?) and entirely uninhabited, though under cultivation. +The principal extant ruins are:--the walls, which are traceable for +nearly their whole extent, a picturesque amphitheatre intersected by a +stream, and the substructures of the temple of Hadrian. Of this +magnificent building, sometimes ranked among the seven wonders of the +ancient world, thirty-one immense columns still stood erect in 1444. +These have since been carried away piecemeal for building purposes by +the Turks. + + See J. Marquardt, _Cyzicus_ (Berlin, 1830); G. Perrot, _Exploration de + la Galatie_ (Paris, 1862); F. W. Hasluck and A. E. Henderson in + _Journal of Hellenic Studies_ (1904), 135-143. (F. W. Ha.) + + + + +CZARNIECKI, STEPHEN (1590-1665), Polish general, learnt the science of +war under Stanislaw Koniecpolski in the Prussian campaigns against +Gustavus Adolphus (1626-1629), and under Wladislaus IV. in the Muscovite +campaign of 1633. On the 15th of April 1648 he was one of the many noble +Polish prisoners who fell into the hands of Chmielnicki at the battle of +"Yellow Waters," and was sent in chains to the Crimea, whence he was +ransomed in 1649. He took an active part in all the subsequent wars with +the Cossacks and received more disfiguring wounds than any other +commander. When Charles X. of Sweden invaded Poland in 1655, Czarniecki +distinguished himself by his heroic defence of Cracow, which he only +surrendered under the most honourable conditions. His energy and ability +as a leader of guerillas hampered Charles X. at every step, and though +frequently worsted he from time to time inflicted serious defeats upon +the Swedes, notably at Jaroslaw and at Kozienice in 1656. Under his +direction the popular rising against the invader ultimately proved +triumphant. It was he who brought King John Casimir back from exile and +enabled him to regain his lost kingdom. It was against his advice that +the great battle of Warsaw was fought, and his subsequent strategy +neutralized the ill effects of that national disaster. On the retirement +of the Swedes from Cracow and Warsaw, and the conclusion of the treaty +of Copenhagen with the Danes, he commanded the army corps sent to drive +the troops of Charles X. out of Jutland and greatly contributed to the +ultimate success of the Allies. On the conclusion of the Peace of Oliva, +which adjusted the long outstanding differences between Poland and +Sweden, Czarniecki was transferred to the eastern frontier where the war +with Muscovy was still raging. In the campaign of 1660 he won the +victories of Polonka and Lachowicza and penetrated to the heart of the +enemy's country. The diet of 1661 publicly thanked him for his services; +the king heaped honours and riches upon him, and in 1665 he was +appointed acting commander-in-chief of Poland, but died a few days after +receiving this supreme distinction. By his wife Sophia Kobierzycka he +left two daughters. Czarniecki is rightly regarded as one of the most +famous of heroic Poland's great captains, and to him belongs the chief +merit of extricating her from the difficulties which threatened to +overwhelm her during the disastrous reign of John Casimir. Czarniecki +raised partisan-warfare to the dignity of a science, and by his ubiquity +and tenacity demoralized and exhausted the regular armies to which he +was generally opposed. + + See Ludwik Jenike, _Stephen Czarniecki_ (Pol.) (Warsaw, 1891); Michal + Dymitr Krajewski, _History of Stephen Czarniecki_ (Pol.), (Cracow, + 1859). + + + + +CZARTORYSKI, ADAM GEORGE, PRINCE (1770-1861), Polish statesman, was the +son of Prince Adam Casimir Czartoryski and Isabella Fleming. After a +careful education at home by eminent specialists, mostly Frenchmen,[1] +he first went abroad in 1786. At Gotha he heard Goethe read his +_Iphigenie auf Tauris_, and made the acquaintance of the dignified +Herder and "fat little Wieland." In 1789 he visited England with his +mother, and was present at the trial of Warren Hastings. On a second +visit in 1793 he made many acquaintances among the English aristocracy +and studied the English constitution. In the interval between these +visits he fought for his country during the war of the second partition, +and would subsequently have served under Kosciuszko also had he not been +arrested on his way to Poland at Brussels by the Austrian government. +After the third partition the estates of the Czartoryskis were +confiscated, and in May 1795 Adam and his younger brother Constantine +were summoned to St Petersburg; later in the year they were commanded to +enter the Russian service, Adam becoming an officer in the horse, and +Constantine in the foot guards. Catherine was so favourably impressed by +the youths that she restored them part of their estates, and in the +beginning of 1796 made them gentlemen in waiting. Adam had already met +the grand duke Alexander at a ball at the princess Golitsuin's, and the +youths at once conceived a strong "intellectual friendship" for each +other. On the accession of the emperor Paul, Czartoryski was appointed +adjutant to Alexander, now Cesarevich, and was permitted to revisit his +Polish estates for three months. At this time the tone of the Russian +court was extremely liberal, humanitarian enthusiasts like Peter +Volkonsky and Nikolai Novosiltsov possessing great influence. + +Throughout the reign of Paul, Czartoryski was in high favour and on +terms of the closest intimacy with the emperor, who in December 1798 +appointed him ambassador to the court of Sardinia. On reaching Italy +Czartoryski found that the monarch to whom he was accredited was a king +without a kingdom, so that the outcome of his first diplomatic mission +was a pleasant tour through Italy to Naples, the acquisition of the +Italian language, and a careful exploration of the antiquities of Rome. +In the spring of 1801 the new emperor Alexander summoned his friend back +to St Petersburg. Czartoryski found the tsar still suffering from +remorse at his father's assassination, and incapable of doing anything +but talk religion and politics to a small circle of private friends. To +all remonstrances he only replied "There's plenty of time." The senate +did most of the current business; Peter Vasilevich Zavadovsky, a pupil +of the Jesuits, was minister of education. Alexander appointed +Czartoryski curator of the academy of Vilna (April 3, 1803) that he +might give full play to his advanced ideas. He was unable, however, to +give much attention to education, for from the beginning of 1804, as +adjunct of foreign affairs, he had the practical control of Russian +diplomacy. His first act was to protest energetically against the murder +of the due d'Enghien (March 20, 1804), and insist on an immediate +rupture with France. On the 7th of June the French minister Hedouville +quitted St Petersburg; and on the 11th of August a note dictated by +Czartoryski to Alexander was sent to the Russian minister in London, +urging the formation of an anti-French coalition. It was Czartoryski +also who framed the Convention of the 6th of November 1804, whereby +Russia agreed to put 115,000 and Austria 235,000 men in the field +against Napoleon. Finally, on the 11th of April 1805 he signed an +offensive-defensive alliance with England. But his most striking +ministerial act was a memorial written in 1805, but otherwise undated, +which aimed at transforming the whole map of Europe. In brief it +amounted to this. Austria and Prussia were to divide Germany between +them. Russia was to acquire the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora, the +Bosphorus with Constantinople, and Corfu. Austria was to have Bosnia, +Wallachia and Ragusa. Montenegro, enlarged by Mostar and the Ionian +Islands, was to form a separate state. England and Russia together were +to maintain the equilibrium of the world. In return for their +acquisitions in Germany, Austria and Prussia were to consent to the +erection of an autonomous Polish state extending from Danzig to the +sources of the Vistula, under the protection of Russia. Fantastic as it +was in some particulars, this project was partly realized[2] in more +recent times, and it presented the best guarantee for the independent +existence of Poland which had never been able to govern itself. But in +the meantime Austria had come to an understanding with England as to +subsidies, and war had begun. + +In 1805 Czartoryski accompanied Alexander both to Berlin and Olmutz as +chief minister. He regarded the Berlin visit as a blunder, chiefly owing +to his profound distrust of Prussia; but Alexander ignored his +representations, and in February 1807 he lost favour and was superseded +by Andrei Eberhard Budberg. But though no longer a minister Czartoryski +continued to enjoy Alexander's confidence in private, and in 1810 the +emperor candidly admitted to Czartoryski that his policy in 1805 had +been erroneous and he had not made a proper use of his opportunities. +The same year Czartoryski quitted St Petersburg for ever; but the +personal relations between him and Alexander were never better. The +friends met again at Kalisch shortly before the signature of the +Russo-Prussian alliance of the 20th of February 1813, and Czartoryski +was in the emperor's suite at Paris in 1814, and rendered his sovereign +material services at the congress of Vienna. + +On the erection of the congressional kingdom of Poland every one +thought that Czartoryski, who more than any other man had prepared the +way for it, would be its first governor-general, but he was content with +the title of senator-palatine and a share in the administration. In 1817 +the prince married Anna Sapiezanko, the wedding leading to a duel with +his rival Pac. On the death of his father in 1823 he retired to his +ancestral castle at Pulawy; but the Revolution of 1830 brought him back +to public life. As president of the provisional government he summoned +(Dec. 18th, 1830) the Diet of 1831, and after the termination of +Chlopicki's dictatorship was elected chief of the supreme council by 121 +out of 138 votes (January 30th). On the 16th of September his +disapproval of the popular excesses at Warsaw caused him to quit the +government after sacrificing half his fortune to the national cause; but +it must be admitted that throughout the insurrection he did not act up +to his great reputation. Yet the energy of the sexagenarian statesman +was wonderful. On the 23rd of August he joined Girolano Ramorino's +army-corps as a volunteer, and subsequently formed a confederation of +the three southern provinces of Kalisch, Sandomir and Cracow. At the end +of the war he emigrated to France, where he resided during the last +thirty years of his life. He died at his country residence at +Montfermeil, near Meaux, on the 15th of July 1861. He left two sons, +Witold (1824-1865), and Wladyslaus (1828-1894), and a daughter Isabella, +who married Jan Dzialynski in 1857. The principal works of Czartoryski +are _Essai sur la diplomatie_ (Marseilles, 1830); _Life of J. U. +Niemcewiez_ (Pol). (Paris, 1860); _Alexander I. et Czartoryski: +correspondance ... et conversations_ (1801-1823) (Paris, 1865); +_Memoires et correspondance avec Alex. I._, with preface by C. de +Mazade, 2 vols. (Paris, 1887); an English translation _Memoirs of +Czartoryski, &c._, edited by A. Gielguch, with documents relating to his +negotiations with Pitt, and conversations with Palmerston in 1832 (2 +vols., London, 1888). + + See Bronislaw Zaleski, _Life of Adam Czartoryski_ (Pol.) (Paris, + 1881); Lubomir Gadon, _Prince Adam Czartoryski_ (Pol.) (Cracow, 1892); + Ludovik Debicki, _Pulawy_, vol. iv.; Lubomir Gadon, _Prince Adam + Czartoryski during the Insurrection of November_ (Pol.) (Cracow, + 1900). (R. N. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Among them was the famous democrat Dupont de Nemours. + + [2] e.g. Austria obtained Bosnia, and Montenegro has been enlarged. + + + + +CZARTORYSKI, FRYDERYK MICHAL, PRINCE (1696-1775), Polish statesman, was +born in 1696. Of small means and no position, he owed his elevation in +the world to extraordinary ability, directed by an energetic but +patriotic ambition. After a careful education on the best French models, +which he completed at Paris, Florence and Rome, he attached himself to +the court of Dresden, and through the influence of Count Fleming, the +leading minister there, obtained the vice-chancellorship of Lithuania +and many other dignities. Czartoryski was one of the many Polish nobles +who, when Augustus II. was seriously ill at Bialyvostok in 1727, signed +the secret declaration guaranteeing the Polish succession to his son; +but this did not prevent him from repudiating his obligations when +Stanislaus Leszczynski was placed upon the throne by the influence of +France in 1733. When Stanislaus abdicated in 1735 Czartoryski voted for +Augustus III. (of Saxony), who gladly employed him and his family to +counteract the influence of the irreconcilable Potokis. For the next +forty years Czartoryski was certainly the leading Polish statesman. In +foreign affairs he was the first to favour an alliance with Russia, +Austria and England, as opposed to France and Prussia--a system +difficult to sustain and not always beneficial to Poland or Saxony. In +Poland Czartoryski was at the head of the party of reform. His palace +was the place where the most promising young gentlemen of the day were +educated and sent abroad that they might return as his coadjutors in the +great work. His plan aimed at the restoration of the royal prerogative +and the abolition of the _liberum veto_, an abuse that made any durable +improvement impossible. These patriotic endeavours made the Czartoryskis +very unpopular with the ignorant _szlachta_, but for many years they had +the firm and constant support of the Saxon court, especially after Bruhl +succeeded Fleming. + +Czartoryski reached the height of his power in 1752 when he was +entrusted with the great seal of Lithuania; but after that date the +influence of his rival Mniszek began to prevail at Dresden, whereupon +Czartoryski sought a reconciliation with his political opponents at home +and foreign support both in England and Russia. In 1755 he sent his +nephew Stanislaus Poniatowski to St Petersburg as Saxon minister, a +mission which failed completely. Czartoryski's philo-Russian policy had +by this time estranged Bruhl, but he frustrated all the plans of the +Saxon court by dissolving the diets of 1760, 1761 and 1762. In 1763 he +went a step farther and proposed the dethronement of Augustus III., who +died the same year. During the ensuing interregnum the prince chancellor +laboured night and day at the convocation diet of 1764 to reform the +constitution, and it was with displeasure that he saw his incompetent +nephew Stanislaus finally elected king in 1765. But though disgusted +with the weakness of the king and obliged to abandon at last all hope of +the amelioration of his country, Czartoryski continued to hold office +till the last; and as chancellor of Lithuania he sealed all the +partition treaties. He died in the full possession of his faculties and +was considered by the Russian minister Repnin "the soundest head in the +kingdom." It is a mistake, however, to regard Czartoryski as the sole +reforming statesman of his day, and despite his great services there +were occasions when the partisan in him got the better of the statesman. +His foreign policy, moreover, was very vacillating, and he changed his +"system" more frequently perhaps than any contemporary diplomatist. But +when all is said he must remain one of the noblest names in Polish +history. + + See the _Correspondence_ of Czartoryski in the Collections of the + Russian Historical Society, vols. 7, 10, 13, 48, 51, 67 (St + Petersburg, 1890, &c.); Wladyslaw Tadeusz Kisielewski, _Reforms of the + Czartorysccy_ (Pol.) (Sambor, 1880); Adalbert Roepell, _Polen um die + Mitte des XVIII. Jahrhunderts_ (Gotha, 1876); Jacques Victor Albert de + Broglie, _Le Secret du roi_ (Paris, 1878); Antoni Waliszewki, _The + Potoccy and the Czartorysccy_ (Pol.); Carl Heinrich Heyking, _Aus + Polens und Kurlands letzten Tagen_ (Berlin, 1897); Ludwik Denbicki, + _Pulawy_ (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1887-1888). (R. N. B.) + + + + +CZECH (in Bohemian, _Cech_), a name which signifies an inhabitant of +Cechy, the native designation of Bohemia. The Czechs belong to the +Slavic race, and according to the usually accepted division they form, +together with the Poles and the almost extinct Lusatians, the group of +the Western Slavs. Speaking generally, it can be said that the Czechs +inhabit a large part of Bohemia, a yet larger part of Moravia, parts of +Silesia--both Austrian and Prussian--and extensive districts in northern +Hungary. In the 19th century the Czechs of Hungary--much to their own +detriment--developed a written language that differs slightly from that +used in Bohemia, but as regards their race they are identical with the +Bohemians and Moravians. Beyond the borders of this continuous territory +there are many Czechs in Lower Austria. Vienna in particular has a large +and increasing Czech population. There are also numerous Czechs in +Russia, particularly Volhynia, in the United States--where a large +number of newspapers and periodicals are published in the Czech +language--and in London. Though the statistics are very uncertain and +untrustworthy, it can be stated that the Czechs number about eight +millions. + +The period at which the Czechs settled in Bohemia is very uncertain; all +theories, indeed, with regard to the advent of the Slavs in northern and +eastern Europe are merely conjectural. It was formerly generally +accepted as a fact that all Bohemia was originally inhabited by Celtic +tribes, who were succeeded by the Germanic Marcomanni, and later by the +Slavic Czechs. According to a very ancient tradition reproduced in the +book of Cosmas, the earliest Bohemian chronicler, the Czechs arrived in +Bohemia led by their eponymous chief Cechus, and first settled on the +Rip Hill (Georgberg) near Roudnice. It is a strange proof of the intense +obscurity of the earliest Bohemian history that Cosmas, writing at the +beginning of the 12th century, is already unaware of the existence of +pre-Slavic inhabitants of Bohemia. It is historically certain that the +Czechs inhabited parts of Bohemia as early as the 6th century. In the +absence of all historical evidence, modern Czech scholars have +endeavoured by other means to throw some light on the earliest period of +the Czechs. By craniological studies and a thorough examination of the +fields where the dead were burnt (in Czech _zarove pole_), still found +in some parts of Bohemia, they have arrived at the conclusion that parts +of the country were inhabited by Czechs, or at least by Slavs, long +before the Christian era, perhaps about the year 500 B.C. + +It is certain that the Slavs at the time when they first appeared in +history had a common language, known as the ancient Slavic +(_praslovansky_) language. When in the course of time the Slavs occupied +various countries, which were often widely apart, different dialects +arose among them, many of which were influenced by the language of the +neighbouring non-Slavic populations. Thus the Czech language from an +early period absorbed many German words. It is probable that the +development of the Czech language as an independent one, was very +gradual. Existent documents, such as the hymn to St Wenceslas, which +belongs to the second half of the 10th century, are written partly in +old-Slavic, partly in Czech. When the Slavs first occupied Bohemia, they +were probably divided into several tribes, of which the Czechs, who +inhabited Prague and the country surrounding it, were the most powerful. +It is probable that these smaller tribes were only gradually subdued by +the Czechs and that some of them had previously to their absorption +adopted special dialects. The Netolice, Lucane, Psovane, Sedlcane appear +to have been among the more important tribes who were forced to +acknowledge the supremacy of the Czechs, and it may be conjectured that +their language for a time differed slightly from that of their +conquerors. The Czech language has, like all Slavic ones, a strong +tendency to develop dialects; this was the case at the time of its first +appearance as an independent language, and has to a certain extent +continued up to the present day. The dialects of Moravia and the +northern districts of Hungary still show variations from the generally +accepted forms of the Czech language, though since the foundation of the +Czech university of Prague this--at least among the educated classes--is +no longer true to the same extent as it formerly was. The Czech language +at the time of its formation naturally remained closest to those other +Slav-speaking countries which were geographically its neighbours, the +Poles and the Lusatians, and it may be said that this is still the case. +The Czech language at the time when in the 12th and 13th centuries it +first appears as a separate and distinct one, differed considerably from +that of the present day. Ancient Czech had several diphthongs, such as: +_ia_, _ie_, _iu_, _uo_ and _au_, that are unknown to the present +language. The letter "_l_" had a threefold sound, and besides the +letters _b_, _p_, _m_, _v_, the softer forms _b'_, _p'_, _m'_, _v'_, +were also in existence. The letter _g_ (as in other Slavic languages) +was often used where modern Czechs employ the letter _h_. Ancient +Bohemian had three numbers, the singular, plural and dual; of the dual +only scant vestiges remain in modern Czech. + +Once it had obtained its independence, the Czech language developed +rapidly, and the philosophical and theological writings of Thomas of +Stitny (1331-1401) proved that it could already be used even for dealing +with the most abstract subjects, though Stitny was blamed by the monks +for not writing in Latin, as was then customary. The Czech language is +greatly indebted also to John Hus, whose best and most original works +were written in the language of his country. Hus showed great interest +in the orthography and grammar of his language, and has devoted an +interesting treatise entitled "_Orthographia bohemica_" to it. As +already mentioned, the Czech language had sprung from diverse dialects, +and Hus endeavoured to establish uniformity. To the Bohemian reformer is +also due the system of so-called diacritic marks--such as _c_, _u_, +_y_--which with some modifications are still in use.[1] The Latin +characters which were in the earliest times, as again at the present +day, used when writing Czech, are quite unable to reproduce some sounds +peculiar to Slavic languages. This was remedied by the introduction of +these marks, and Hus's system of orthography became known as the +diacritic one. The Bohemian reformer, zealous for the purity of the +language of his country, often in his sermons inveighed quaintly and +vehemently against those who defiled the Czech language by introducing +numerous "Germanisms." A century later the Czech language was largely +indebted to the then recently founded community of the Bohemian (or as +they were also often called, Moravian) brethren. A member of the +community, Brother John Blakoslav, wrote in 1571 a _Grammatika Ceska_, +that still has considerable philological interest. It contains a full +account of the construction of the Czech language, based on Latin +grammar, with which the writer was thoroughly acquainted. Divines +belonging to the same community also at the end of the 16th century +published at Kralice in Moravia a complete Czech version of the Old and +New Testaments. Together with the _Labyrint Sveta_ (Labyrinth of the +World) of Komensky (Comenius), who was also a member of the brotherhood, +it can be considered a model of the Czech language in the period +immediately preceding its downfall. + +The Czechs have always enthusiastically upheld the language of their +country. In ancient Czech, indeed, the same word _jazyk_ denotes both +"nation" and "language." As late as in 1608 a decree of the estates of +Bohemia declared that Czech was the only official and recognized +state-language, and that all who wished to acquire citizenship in the +country should be obliged to acquire the knowledge of it. While all +patriots thus supported the national language, it was greatly disliked +by the absolutists who were opposed to the ancient free constitution of +Bohemia, as well as by all who favoured the Church of Rome. The +overthrow of Bohemian independence at the battle of the White Mountain +(1620) was therefore shortly followed by the decline of the Czech +language. All Czech writings which could be found were destroyed by the +Austrian authorities as being tainted with heresy, while no new books +written in Czech appeared, except occasional prayer-books and almanacs. +For these scanty writings the German so-called "Schwabach" characters +were used, and this custom only ceased in the middle of the 19th +century. The Czech language, for some time entirely excluded from the +schools, all but ceased to be written, and its revival at the beginning +of the 19th century was almost a resurrection. + +The first originator of the movement, Joseph Dobrovsky or Doubravsky +(1753-1829) seems himself, at least at the beginning of his life, to +have considered it impossible that Czech should again become a +widely-spoken language, and one whose literature could successfully +compete with that of larger countries. Yet it was the works of this +"patriarch of Slavic philology" which first drew the public attention to +the half-forgotten Czech language. Dobrovsky's work was afterwards +continued by Kolar, Jungmann, Palacky, Safarek, and many others, and +Czech literature has, both as regards its value and its extension, +reached a height that in the middle of the 19th century would have +appeared incredible. + +Though met by constant opposition on the part of the Austrian +authorities, the Czechs have succeeded in re-establishing the use of +their language in many of the lower and middle schools of Bohemia and +Moravia, and the foundation of a Czech university at Prague (1882-1884) +has of course contributed very largely to the ever-increasing expansion +of the Czech language. The national language has at all times appeared +to the Bohemians as the palladium of their nationality and independence, +and the movement in favour of the revival of the Czech language +necessarily became a political one, as soon as circumstances permitted. +The friends of the national language at the beginning of the 19th +century were generally known as the _vlastenci_ (patriots), but when in +1848 representatives of many parts of Austria met at Vienna, the +deputies of Bohemia--with the exception of the Germans--formed what was +called the national or Czech party. Parliamentary government did not at +that period long survive, and at the end of the year 1851 absolutism had +been re-established. In 1860 a new attempt to establish constitutional +government in Austria was made, and representatives of the Czech party +appeared at the provincial diet of Prague and the central parliament at +Vienna. The Czech party endeavoured to obtain the re-establishment of +the ancient Bohemian constitution, but, allied as they were with a +large part of the Bohemian nobility, it was their policy to maintain a +somewhat conservative attitude. After having absented themselves for a +considerable time from the parliament of Vienna, the legality of which +they denied, the Czech deputies reappeared in Vienna in 1879, and, +together with the representatives of the Bohemian nobility, formed there +what was known as the Cesky Klub. + +While the Czechs for a time continued united at Vienna, a schism among +them had some time previously occurred at Prague. Dissatisfied with the +policy of the Czechs, a new party had been formed in Bohemia which +affected more advanced views and became known as the "Young Czech" +party. The more conservative Czechs were henceforth known as the "Old +Czechs." The "Young Czechs," when the party first became independent in +1872, had thirty-five representatives in the diet of Prague, but at the +elections of 1874 their number was reduced to seven. They continued, +however, to gain in strength, and obtained for a long time a large +majority in the diet, while the Old Czech party for a considerable +period almost disappeared. In Vienna also the Old Czech party gradually +lost ground. Its leader Dr Rieger, indeed, obtained for the Czechs +certain concessions which, underrated at the time, have since proved by +no means valueless. The decision of the Old Czech party to take part at +a conference in Vienna under the presidency of Count Taafe--then +Austrian prime-minister--which was to settle the national differences in +Bohemia, caused its complete downfall. The proposals of the Vienna +conference were rejected with indignation, and the Old Czechs, having +become very unpopular, for a time ceased to contest the elections for +the legislative assemblies of Prague and Vienna. The victorious Young +Czechs, however, soon proved themselves very unskilful politicians. +After very unsuccessfully assuming for a short time an attitude of +intransigeant opposition, they soon became subservient to the government +of Vienna to an extent which the Old Czechs had never ventured. Dr +Kramar, in particular, as leader of the Young Czech party, supported the +foreign policy of Austria even when its tendency was most hostile to the +interests of Bohemia. The Vienna government has, in recent years, as +regards internal affairs, also adopted a policy very unfavourable to the +Czech race. Even the continuance of some of the concessions formerly +obtained by the Old Czechs has become doubtful. At the elections to the +diet of Prague which took place in March 1908, the Young Czechs lost +many seats to the Old Czechs, while the Agrarians, Clericals and +Radicals were also successful. + + See J. Dobrovsky, _Geschichte der bohmischen Sprache_ (1818), and + _Lehrgebaude der bohmischen Sprache_ (1819); J. Blahoslav, _Grammatika + Ceska_, printed from MS. (1867); Lippert, _Social-Geschichte Bohmens_ + (1896); Gebauer, _Slovnik Starocesky_ (Dictionary of the ancient Czech + language, 1903); I. Herzer, _Bohmisch-deutsches Worterbuch_ (Prague, + 1901, &c.); Coufal and Zaba, _Slovnik Cesko-latinsky a Latinsko-cesky_ + (Prague, 1904, &c.), and _Historicka Uluonice Jazyka ceskeha_ + (Historical grammar of the Czech language, 1904); Morfill, _Grammar of + the Bohemian or Cech Language_ (1899); Bourlier, _Les Tcheques_ + (1897). (L.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For the pronunciation of these see the footnote at the beginning + of the article BOHEMIA. + + + + +CZENSTOCHOWA, or CHENSTOKHOV, a town of Russian Poland, in the +government of Piotrkow, on the left bank of the Warta (Warthe), 143 m. +S.W. of Warsaw, on the railway between that city and Cracow. Pop. (1900) +53,650. Here is a celebrated monastery crowning the steep eminence +called Yaznagora or Klarenberg. It was founded by King Vladislaus of the +house of Jagiello and was at one time fabulously wealthy. In 1430 it was +attacked and plundered by the Hussites; in 1655, and again in 1705, it +bravely resisted the Swedes; but in 1772 it was forced to capitulate to +the Russians, and in 1793 to the Prussians. The fortifications, which +had been built from 1500 onwards, were razed in 1813. This monastery, +which is occupied by monks of the order of Paul the Hermit, contains +over the altar in its church a painted image of the Virgin, +traditionally believed to have been painted by St Luke, and visited +annually by throngs (400,000) of pilgrims from all over Russia, eastern +Prussia and other neighbouring regions. The inhabitants of the town +manufacture cotton, cloth and paper, and do a lively business in +rosaries, images, scapularies and so forth. + + + + +CZERNOWITZ (Rum. _Cernautzi_), the capital of the Austrian duchy of +Bukovina, 420 m. E. of Vienna and 164 m. S.E. of Lemberg by rail. Pop. +(1900) 69,619. It is picturesquely situated on a height above the right +bank of the river Pruth, which is crossed here by two bridges, of which +one is a railway bridge. Czernowitz is a clean, pleasant town of recent +date, and is the seat of the Greek Orthodox archbishop or metropolitan +of Bukovina. The principal buildings include the Greek Orthodox +cathedral, finished in 1864 after the model of the church of St Isaac at +St Petersburg; the Armenian church, in a mixed Gothic and Renaissance +style, consecrated in 1875; a handsome new Jesuit church, and a new +synagogue in Moorish style, built in 1877. The most conspicuous building +of the town is the Episcopal palace, in Byzantine style, built in +1864-1875, which is adorned with a high tower and possesses a +magnificent reception hall. In one of the public squares stands the +Austrian monument, executed by Pekary and erected in 1875 to commemorate +the centenary of Austria's possession of Bukovina. It consists of a +marble statue of Austria erected on a pedestal of green Carpathian +sandstone. The Francis Joseph University, also opened in 1875, had 50 +lecturers and over 500 students in 1901. The language of instruction is +German, and it possesses three faculties: theology, law and philosophy. +The industry is not very developed and consists chiefly in corn-milling +and brewing. An active trade is carried on in agricultural produce, +wood, wool, cattle and spirits. Czernowitz has a mixed population, which +consists of Germans, Ruthenians, Rumanians, Poles, Jews, Armenians and +Gypsies. The town presents, therefore, a cosmopolitan and on market days +a very varied appearance, when side by side with people turned out in +the latest fashions from Paris or Vienna, we meet peasants of various +nationalities, attired in their national costume, intermingled with very +scantily-clad Gypsies. + +On the opposite bank of the Pruth, at a very little distance to the N., +is situated the town of Sadagora (pop. 4512, mostly Jews), where a +famous cattle fair takes place every year. + +Czernowitz was at the time of the Austrian occupation (1775) an +unimportant village. It was created a town in 1786, and at the beginning +of the 19th century it numbered only 5000 inhabitants. + + + + +CZERNY, KARL (1791-1857), Austrian pianist and composer, was born at +Vienna on the 21st of February 1791. His father, who was a teacher of +the piano, trained him for that instrument from an early age with such +success that he performed in public at the age of nine, and commenced +his own career as a teacher at fourteen. He was brought under the notice +of Beethoven, and was his pupil in the sense in which the great master +had pupils. It is perhaps his greatest claim to distinction as a +performer that he was selected to be the first to play Beethoven's +celebrated Emperor concerto in public. He soon became the most popular +teacher of his instrument in a capital which abounded in pianists of the +first rank. Among his pupils he numbered Liszt, Theodor Dohler +(1814-1843) and many others who afterwards became famous. As a composer +he was prolific to an astonishing degree, considering the other demands +on his time. His works, which included every class of composition, +numbered 849 at the time of his death. Comparatively few of them possess +high merit, and none is the production of genius. He had considerable +skill in devising variations for the piano of the display type, and in +this and other ways helped to develop the executive power which in the +modern school of pianoforte playing seems to have reached the limits of +the possible. His various books of exercises, elementary and advanced, +of which the best known are the _Etudes de la velocite_, have probably +had a wider circulation than any other works of their class. To the +theory of music he contributed a translation of Reicha's _Traite de +composition_, and a work entitled _Umriss der ganzen Musikgeschichte_. +Czerny died on the 15th of July 1857 at Vienna. Having no family, he +left his fortune, which was considerable, to the Vienna Conservatorium +and various benevolent institutions. + + + + +D The fourth letter in the English alphabet occupies the same position +in the Latin, Greek and Phoenician alphabets, which represent the +preceding stages in its history. The Phoenician name _Daleth_ is +represented by the Greek _Delta_. In form D has varied throughout its +career comparatively little. In the earliest Phoenician it is [symbol] +with slight variations; in most Greek dialects [symbol] which has been +adopted as the Greek literary form, but in others as e.g. the earliest +Attic [symbol] or [symbol]. The form with the rounded back, which has +passed from Latin into the languages of western Europe, was borrowed +from the Greeks of S.W. Italy, but is widely spread also amongst the +peoples of the Peloponnese and of northern Greece. It arises from a form +like [symbol] when the sides which meet to the right are written or +engraved at one stroke. From a very early period one side of the +triangle was often prolonged, thus producing a form [symbol] which is +characteristic of Aramaic from 800 B.C. In Greek this was avoided +because of the likelihood of its confusion with [symbol], the oldest +form of the symbol for _r_, but in the alphabets of Italy--which were +borrowed from Etruscan--this confusion actually takes place. Etruscan +had no sound corresponding to the symbol D (in inscriptions written from +right to left, [symbol]), and hence used it as a by-form for [symbol], +the symbol for _r_. The Oscans and Umbrians took it over in this value, +but having the sound d they used for it the symbol for _r_ ([symbol] in +Umbrian, [symbol] in Oscan). + +The sound which D represents is the voiced dental corresponding to the +unvoiced _t_. The English _d_, however, is not a true dental, but is +really pronounced by placing the tongue against the sockets of the +teeth, not the teeth themselves. It thus differs from the _d_ of French +and German, and in phonetic terminology is called an alveolar. In the +languages of India where both true dentals and alveolars are found, the +English _d_ is represented by the alveolar symbol (transliterated _d_). +Etymologically in genuine English words d represents in most cases _dh_ +of the original Indo-European language, but in some cases an original +_t_. In many languages _d_ develops an aspirate after it, and this _dh_ +becomes then a voiced spirant (eth), the initial sound of _there_ and +_that_. This has occurred widely in Semitic, and is found also in +languages like modern Greek, where [delta], except after [nu], is always +spirant, [Greek: den] (= _not_) being pronounced like English _then_. As +the mouth position for _l_ differs from that for _d_ only by the breath +being allowed to escape past one or both sides of the tongue, confusion +has arisen in many languages between _d_ and _l_, the best-known being +cases like the Latin _lacrima_ as compared with the Greek [Greek: +dak-ry]. The English _tear_ and the forms of other languages show that +_d_ and not _l_ is the more original sound. Between vowels in the +ancient Umbrian _d_ passed into a sound which was transliterated in the +Latin alphabet by _rs_; this was probably a sibilant _r_, like the +Bohemian _r_. In many languages it is unvoiced at the end of words, thus +becoming almost or altogether identical with _t_. As an abbreviation it +is used in Latin for the _praenomen_ Decimus, and under the empire for +the title _Divus_ of certain deceased emperors. As a Roman numeral (= +500) it is only the half of the old symbol [symbol] (= 1000); this was +itself the old form of the Greek [phi], which was useless in Latin as +that language had no sound identical with the Greek [phi]. (P. Gi.) + + + + +DACCA, a city of British India, giving its name to a district and +division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It was made the capital of that +province on its creation in October 1905. The city is 254 m. N.E. by E. +of Calcutta, on an old channel of the Ganges. Railway station, 10 m. +from the terminus of the river steamers at Narayanganj. The area is +about 8 sq. m. The population in 1901 was 90,542. The ruins of the +English factory, St Thomas's church, and the houses of the European +residents lie along the river banks. Of the old fort erected by Islam +Khan, who in 1608 was appointed nawab of Bengal, and removed his +capital from Rajmahal to Dacca, no vestige remains; but the jail is +built on a portion of its site. The principal Mahommedan public +buildings, erected by subsequent governors and now in ruins, are the +Katra and the Lal-bagh palace--the former built by Sultan Mahommed Shuja +in 1645, in front of the _chauk_ or market place. Its extensive front +faced the river, and had a lofty central gateway, flanked by smaller +entrances, and by two octagonal towers rising to some height above the +body of the building. The Lal-bagh palace was commenced by Azam Shah, +the third son of the emperor Aurangzeb. It originally stood close to the +Buriganga river; but the channel has shifted its course, and there is +now an intervening space covered with trees between it and the river. +The walls on the western side, and the terrace and battlement towards +the river, are of a considerable height, and present a commanding aspect +from the water. These outworks, with a few gateways, the audience hall +and the baths, were the only parts of the building that survived in +1840. Since then their dilapidation has rapidly advanced; but even in +ruin they show the extensive and magnificent scale on which this +princely residence was originally designed. It appears never to have +been completed; and when Jean Baptiste Tavernier visited Dacca (c. +1666), the nawab was residing in a temporary wooden building in its +court. The English factory was built about that year. The central part +of the old factory continued to be used as a court-house till the 19th +century, but owing to its ruinous state it was pulled down in 1829 or +1830; in 1840 the only portion that remained was the outward wall. The +French and Dutch factories were taken possession of by the English in +the years 1778 and 1781 respectively. In the mutiny of 1857 two +companies of the 73rd Native Infantry which were stationed in the town +joined in the revolt, but were overpowered by a small European force and +dispersed. The city still shows some signs of its former magnificence. +The famous manufacture of fine muslins is almost extinct, but the +carving of shells, carried on from ancient times, is an important +industry in the city. There are a Government college, a collegiate +school and an unaided Hindu college. There is a large settlement of +mixed Portuguese descent, known as Feringhis. Many of the public +buildings, including the college, suffered severely from the earthquake +of the 12th of June 1897; and great damage was done by tornadoes in +April of 1888 and 1902. + +The district of Dacca comprises an area of 2782 sq. m. In 1901 the +population was 2,649,522, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. The +district consists of a vast level plain, divided into two sections by +the Dhaleswari river. The northern part, again intersected by the +Lakshmia river, contains the city of Dacca, and as a rule lies well +above flood-level. + +Dacca is watered by a network of rivers and streams, ten of which are +navigable throughout the year by native cargo boats of four tons +burthen. Among them are the Meghna, the Ganges or Padma, the Lakshmia, a +branch of the Brahmaputra, the Jamuna, or main stream of the +Brahmaputra, the Mendi-Khali, a large branch of the Meghna, the +Dhaleswari, an offshoot of the Jamuna, the Ghazi-khali and the +Buriganga. The soil is composed of red ferruginous _kankar_, with a +stratum of clay in the more elevated parts, covered by a thin layer of +vegetable mould, or by recent alluvial deposits. The scenery along the +Lakshmia is very beautiful, the banks being high and wooded. About 20 m. +north of Dacca city, small ridges are met with in the Madhupur jungle, +stretching into Mymensingh district. These hills, however, are mere +mounds of from 20 to 40 ft. high, composed of red soil containing a +considerable quantity of iron ore; and the whole tract is for the most +part unproductive. Towards the city the red soil is intersected by +creeks and morasses, whose margins yield crops of rice, mustard and +_til_ seed; while to the east of the town, a broad, alluvial, +well-cultivated plain reaches as far as the junction of the Dhaleswari +and Lakshmia rivers. The country lying to the south of the Dhaleswari is +the most fertile part of the district. It consists entirely of rich +alluvial soil, annually inundated to a depth varying from 2 to 14 ft. of +water. The villages are built on artificial mounds of earth, so as to +raise them above the flood-level. + +The wild animals found in the district comprise a few tigers, leopards +and wild elephants, deer, wild pig, porcupines, jackals, foxes, hares, +otters, &c. The green monkey is very common; porpoises abound in the +large rivers. The manufactures consist of weaving, embroidery, gold and +silver work, shell-carving and pottery. The weaving industry and the +manufacture of fine Dacca muslins have greatly fallen off, owing to the +competition of European piece goods. Forty different kinds of cloth were +formerly manufactured in this district, the bulk of which during many +years was made from English twist, country thread being used only for +the finest muslins. It is said that, in the time of the emperor +Jahangir, a piece of muslin, 15 ft. by 3, could be manufactured, +weighing only 900 grains, its value being L40. In 1840 the finest cloth +that could be made of the above dimensions weighed about 1600 grains, +and was worth L10. Since then the manufacture has still further decayed, +and the finer kinds are not now made at all except to order. The +district is traversed by a line of the Eastern Bengal railway, but most +of the traffic is still conducted by water. It is a centre of the jute +trade. + +The division of Dacca occupies the delta of the Brahmaputra, where it +joins the main stream of the Ganges. It consists of the four districts +of Dacca, Mymensingh, Faridpur and Backergunge. Its area is 15,837 sq. +m. Its population in 1901 was 10,793,988. + + + + +DACE, DARE, or DART (_Leuciscus vulgaris_, or _L. dobula_), a +fresh-water fish belonging to the family _Cyprinidae_. It is an +inhabitant of the rivers and streams of Europe north of the Alps, but it +is most abundant in those of France and Germany. It prefers clear +streams flowing over a gravelly bottom, and deep, still water, keeping +close to the bottom in winter but disporting itself near the surface in +the sunshine of summer. It is preyed upon by the larger predaceous +fishes of fresh waters, and owing to its silvery appearance is a +favourite bait in pike-fishing. The dace is a lively, active fish, of +gregarious habits, and exceedingly prolific, depositing its eggs in May +and June at the roots of aquatic plants or in the gravelly beds of the +streams it frequents. Its flesh is wholesome, but is not held in much +estimation. In appearance it closely resembles the roach, usually +attaining a length of 8 or 9 in., with the head and back of a dusky blue +colour and the sides of a shining silvery aspect, with numerous dark +lines running along the course of the scales. The ventral and anal fins +are white, tinged with pale red; and the dorsal, pectoral and caudal +tipped with black. The dace feeds on worms, insects, insect-larvae, and +also on vegetable matter. It is abundant in many of the streams of the +south of England, but is unknown in Scotland and Ireland. In America the +name of dace is also applied to members of other genera of the family; +the "horned dace" (_Semnotilus atromaculatus_) is a well-known variety. + + + + +DACH, SIMON (1605-1659), German lyrical poet, was born at Memel in East +Prussia on the 29th of July 1605. Although brought up in humble +circumstances, he received a careful education in the classical schools +of Konigsberg, Wittenberg and Magdeburg, and entered the university of +Konigsberg in 1626 as a student of theology and philosophy. After taking +his degree, he was appointed in 1633 _Kollaborator_ (teacher) and in +1636 co-rector of the Domschule (cathedral school) in that city. In 1639 +he received the chair of poetry at the university of Konigsberg, which +he occupied until his death on the 15th of April 1659. In Konigsberg he +entered into close relations with Heinrich Albert (1604-1651), Robert +Roberthin (1600-1648) and Sibylla Schwarz (1621-1638), and with them +formed the so-called _Konigsberger Dictergruppe_. He sang the praises of +the house of the electors of Brandenburg in a collection of poems +entitled _Kurbrandenburgische Rose, Adler, Lowe und Scepter_ (1661), and +also produced many occasional poems, several of which became popular; +the most famous of them is _Anke von Tharaw oss, de my gefollt_ +(rendered by Herder into modern German as _Annchen von Tharau_), +composed in 1637 in honour of the marriage of a friend. Among his +hymns, many of which are of great beauty, are the following: _Ich bin +ja, Herr, in deiner Macht_, _Ich bin bei Gott in Gnaden durch Christi +Blut und Tod_, and _O, wie selig seid ihr boch, ihr Frommen_. + + Editions of Dach's poems have been published by W. Muller (1823), by + H. Osterley (for the Stuttgart _Literarischer Verein_, 1876); also + selections by the same editor (1876), and in Kurschner's _Deutsche + Nationalliteratur_ (1883). See especially the introductions to + Osterley's editions; also H. Stiehler, _Simon Dach, sein Leben und + seine ausgewahlte Dichtungen_ (1896). + + + + +DACIA, in ancient geography, the land of the Daci, a large district of +central Europe, bounded on the N. by the Carpathians, on the S. by the +Danube, on the W. by the Pathissus (Theiss), on the E. by the Tyras +(Dniester), thus corresponding in the main to the modern Rumania and +Transylvania. Towards the west it may originally have extended as far as +the Danube where it runs from north to south at Waitzen (Vacz), while on +the other hand Ptolemy puts its eastern boundary as far back as the +Hierasus (Sereth). The inhabitants of this district were a Thracian +stock, originally called [Greek: Daoi], a name which after the 4th +century B.C. gave place to [Greek: Dakoi]. Of the other Thracian tribes +the Getae (q.v.) were most akin to them in language and manners; by the +Greeks the Dacians were usually called Getae, by the Romans Daci. +[Greek: Daos] and [Greek: Geta] (Davus, Geta) were common as names of +slaves in Attic comedy and in the adaptations of Plautus and Terence. + +The Dacians had attained a considerable degree of civilization when they +first became known to the Romans. They believed in the immortality of +the soul, and regarded death as merely a change of country ([Greek: +metoikizesthai]). Their chief priest held a prominent position as the +representative of the deity upon earth; he was the king's chief adviser +and his decisions were accepted as final. They were divided into two +classes--an aristocracy and a proletariate. The first alone had the +right to cover their heads and wore a felt hat (hence _tarabostesei_ = +[Greek: pilophoroi], _pileati_); they formed a privileged class, and +were the predecessors of the Rumanian boyars. The second class, who +comprised the rank and file of the army, the peasants and artisans, wore +their hair long ([Greek: kometai], _capillati_). They dwelt in wooden +huts surrounded by palisades, but in later times, aided by Roman +architects, built walled strongholds and conical stone towers. Their +chief occupations were agriculture and cattle breeding; horses were +mainly used as draught animals. They also worked the gold and silver +mines of Transylvania, and carried on a considerable outside trade, as +is shown by the number of foreign coins found in the country. + +A kingdom of Dacia was in existence at least as early as the beginning +of the 2nd century B.C. under a king Oroles. Conflicts with the +Bastarnae and the Romans (112-109, 74), against whom they had assisted +the Scordisci and Dardani, had greatly weakened the resources of the +Dacians. Under Burbista (Boerebista), a contemporary of Caesar, who +thoroughly reorganized the army and raised the moral standard of the +people, the limits of the kingdom were extended; the Bastarnae and Boii +were conquered, and even Greek towns (Olbia, Apollonia) on the Euxine +fell into his hands. Indeed the Dacians appeared so formidable that +Caesar contemplated an expedition against them, which was prevented by +his death. About the same time Burbista was murdered, and the kingdom +was divided into four (or five) parts under separate rulers. One of +these was Cotiso, whose daughter Augustus is said to have desired to +marry and to whom he betrothed his own five-year-old daughter Julia. He +is well known from the line in Horace ("Occidit Daci Cotisonis agmen," +_Odes_, iii. 8. 18), which, as the ode was written on the 1st of March +29, probably refers to the campaign of Marcus Crassus (30-28), not to +that of Cornelius Lentulus, who was not consul till 18. The Dacians are +often mentioned under Augustus, according to whom they were compelled to +recognize the Roman supremacy. But they were by no means subdued, and in +later times seized every opportunity of crossing the frozen Danube and +ravaging the province of Moesia. From A.D. 85 to 89 the Dacians were +engaged in two wars with the Romans, under Duras or Diurpaneus, and the +great Decebalus, who ruled from 86-87 to 107. After two severe +reverses, the Romans, under Tettius Julianus, gained a signal advantage, +but were obliged to make peace owing to the defeat of Domitian by the +Marcomanni. Decebalus restored the arms he had taken and some of the +prisoners and received the crown from Domitian's hands, an apparent +acknowledgment of Roman suzerainty. But the Dacians were really left +independent, as is shown by the fact that Domitian agreed to purchase +immunity from further Dacian inroads by the payment of an annual +tribute. + +To put an end to this disgraceful arrangement, Trajan resolved to crush +the Dacians once and for all. The result of his first campaign (101-102) +was the occupation of the Dacian capital Sarmizegethusa (Varhely) and +the surrounding country; of the second (105-107), the suicide of +Decebalus, the conquest of the whole kingdom and its conversion into a +Roman province. The history of the war is given in Dio Cassius, but the +best commentary upon it is the famous column of Trajan. According to +Marquardt, the boundaries of the province were the Tibiscus (Temes) on +the W., the Carpathians on the N., the Tyras on the E., and the Danube +on the S., but Brandis (in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_) maintains +that it did not extend farther eastwards than the river Olt (Aluta)--the +country beyond belonging to lower Moesia--and not so far as the Theiss +westwards, being thus limited to Transylvania and Little Walachia. It +was under a governor of praetorian rank, and the legio xiii. _gemina_ +with numerous auxiliaries had their fixed quarters in the province. To +make up for the ravages caused by the recent wars colonists were +imported to cultivate the land and work the mines, and the old +inhabitants gradually returned. Forts were built as a protection against +the incursions of the surrounding barbarians, and three great military +roads were constructed to unite the chief towns, while a fourth, named +after Trajan, traversed the Carpathians and entered Transylvania by the +Roteturm pass. The two chief towns were Sarmizegethusa (afterwards Ulpia +Trajana) and Apulum (Karlsburg). With the religion the Dacians also +adopted the language of the conquerors, and modern Rumanian is full of +Latin words easily recognizable. + +In 129, under Hadrian, Dacia was divided into Dacia _Superior_ and +_Inferior_, the former comprising Transylvania, the latter Little +Walachia, with procurators, probably both under the same praetorian +legate (according to Brandis, the procurator of Dacia _inferior_ was +independent, but see A. Domaszewski in _Rheinisches Museum_, xlviii., +1893). Marcus Aurelius redivided it into three (_tres Daciae_): +Porolissensis, from the chief town Porolissum (near Mojrad), Apulensis +from Apulum and Maluensis (site unknown). The _tres Daciae_ formed a +commune in so far that they had a common capital, Sarmizegethusa, and a +common diet, which discussed provincial affairs, formulated complaints +and adjusted the incidence of taxation; but in other respects they were +practically independent provinces, each under an ordinary procurator, +subordinate to a governor of consular rank. + +The Roman hold on the country was, however, still precarious. Indeed it +is said that Hadrian, conscious of the difficulty of retaining it, had +contemplated its abandonment and was only deterred by consideration for +the safety of the numerous Roman settlers. Under Gallienus (256), the +Goths crossed the Carpathians and drove the Romans from Dacia, with the +exception of a few fortified places between the Temes and the Danube. No +details of the event are recorded, and the chief argument in support of +the statement in Ruf(i)us Festus that "under the Emperor Gallienus Dacia +was lost" is the sudden cessation of Roman inscriptions and coins in the +country after 256. Aurelian (270-275) withdrew the troops altogether and +settled the Roman colonists on the south of the Danube, in Moesia, where +he created the province Dacia Aureliani. This was subsequently divided +into Dacia Ripensis on the Danube, with capital Ratiaria (Arcar in +Bosnia), and Dacia Mediterranea, with capital Sardica (Sofia, the +capital of Bulgaria), the latter again being subdivided into Dardania +and Dacia Mediterranea. + + See J. D. F. Neigebaur, _Dacien aus den Uberresten des klassischen + Alterthums_. (Kronstadt, 1851); C. Gooss, _Studien zur Geographie und + Geschichte des trajanischen Daciens_ (Hermannstadt, 1874); E. R. + Rosler, _Dacier und Romanen_ (Vienna, 1866), and _Romanische Studien_ + (Leipzig, 1871); J. Jung, _Romer und Romanen in den Donaulandern_ + (Innsbruck, 1877), _Die romanischen Landschaften des romischen + Reiches_ (1881), and _Fasten der Provinz Dacien_ (1894); W. Tomaschek, + "Die alten Thraker," in _Sitzungsberichte der k. Akad. der + Wissenschaften_, cxxviii. (Vienna, 1893); J. Marquardt, _Romische + Staatsverwaltung_, i. (1881), p. 308; T. Mommsen in _Corpus + Inscriptionum Latinarum_, iii. 160, and _Provinces of Roman Empire_ + (Eng. trans., 1886); C. G. Brandis in Pauly-Wissowa's + _Realencyclopadie_, iv. pt. 2 (1901); W. Miller, _The Balkans_ in "The + Story of the Nations," vol. 44; on the boundaries of the Roman + province of Dacia, see T. Hodgkin and F. Haverfield in _English + Historical Review_, ii. 100, 734. (See also VLACHS.) + + + + +DACIER, ANDRE (1651-1722), French classical scholar, was born at Castres +in upper Languedoc, on the 6th of April 1651. His father, a Protestant +advocate, sent him first to the academy of Puy Laurens, and afterwards +to Saumur to study under Tanneguy Lefevre. On the death of Lefevre in +1672, Dacier removed to Paris, and was appointed one of the editors of +the Delphin series of the classics. In 1683 he married Anne Lefevre, the +daughter of his old tutor (see below). In 1695 he was elected member of +the Academy of Inscriptions, and also of the French Academy; not long +after, as payment for his share in the "medallic" history of the king's +reign, he was appointed keeper of the library of the Louvre. He died two +years after his wife, on the 18th of September 1722. The most important +of his works were his editions of Pompeius Festus and Verrius Flaccus, +and his translations of Horace (with notes), Aristotle's _Poetics_, the +_Electra_ and _Oedipus Coloneus_ of Sophocles, Epictetus, Hippocrates +and Plutarch's _Lives_. + +His wife, ANNE LEFEVRE (1654-1720), French scholar and translator from +the classics, was born at Saumur, probably in March 1654. On her +father's death in 1672 she removed to Paris, carrying with her part of +an edition of Callimachus, which she afterwards published. This was so +well received that she was engaged as one of the editors of the Delphin +series of classical authors, in which she edited Florus, Dictys +Cretensis, Aurelius Victor and Eutropius. In 1681 appeared her prose +version of Anacreon and Sappho, and in the next few years she published +prose versions of Terence and some of the plays of Plautus and +Aristophanes. In 1684 she and her husband retired to Castres, with the +object of devoting themselves to theological studies. In 1685 the result +was announced in the conversion to Roman Catholicism of both M. and Mme +Dacier, who were rewarded with a pension by the king. In 1699 appeared +the prose translation of the _Iliad_ (followed nine years later by a +similar translation of the _Odyssey_), which gained for her the position +she occupies in French literature. The appearance of this version, which +made Homer known for the first time to many French men of letters, and +among others to A. Houdart de la Motte, gave rise to a famous literary +controversy. In 1714 la Motte published a poetical version of the +_Iliad_, abridged and altered to suit his own taste, together with a +_Discours sur Homere_, stating the reasons why Homer failed to satisfy +his critical taste. Mme Dacier replied in the same year in her work, +_Des causes de la corruption du gout_. La Motte carried on the +discussion with light gaiety and badinage, and had the happiness of +seeing his views supported by the abbe Jean Terrasson, who in 1715 +produced two volumes entitled _Dissertation critique sur l'Iliade_, in +which he maintained that science and philosophy, and especially the +science and philosophy of Descartes, had so developed the human mind +that the poets of the 18th century were immeasurably superior to those +of ancient Greece. In the same year Pere C. Buffier published _Homere en +arbitrage_, in which he concluded that both parties were really agreed +on the essential point--that Homer was one of the greatest geniuses the +world had seen, and that, as a whole, no other poem could be preferred +to his; and, soon after (on the 5th of April 1716), in the house of M. +de Valincourt, Mme Dacier and la Motte met at supper, and drank together +to the health of Homer. Nothing of importance marks the rest of Mme +Dacier's life. She died at the Louvre, on the 17th of August 1720. + + See C. A. Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol ix.; J. F. Bodin, + _Recherches historiques sur la ville de Saumur_ (1812-1814); P. J. + Burette, _Eloge de Mme Dacier_ (1721); _Memoires de Mme de Stael_ + (1755); E. Egger, _L'Hellenisme en France_, ii. (1869); _Memoires de + Saint-Simon_, iii.; R. Rigault, _Histoire de la querelle des anciens + et des modernes_ (1856). + + + + +DACITE (from Dacia, mod. Transylvania), in petrology, volcanic rocks +which may be considered a quartz-bearing variety of andesite. Like the +latter they consist for the most part of plagioclase felspar with +biotite, hornblende, augite or enstatite, and have generally a +porphyritic structure, but they contain also quartz as rounded, corroded +phenocrysts, or as an element of the ground-mass. Their felspar ranges +from oligoclase to andesite and labradorite, and is often very zonal; +sanidine occurs also in some dacites, and when abundant gives rise to +rocks which form transitions to the rhyolites. The biotite is brown; the +hornblende brown or greenish brown; the augite usually green. The +ground-mass of these rocks is often micro-crystalline, with a web of +minute felspars mixed with interstitial grains of quartz; but in many +dacites it is largely vitreous, while in others it is felsitic or +cryptocrystalline. In the hand specimen many of the hornblende and +biotite dacites are grey or pale brown and yellow rocks with white +felspars, and black crystals of biotite and hornblende. Other dacites, +especially augite- and enstatite-dacites, are darker coloured. The rocks +of this group occur in Hungary, Almeria (Spain), Argyllshire and other +parts of Scotland, New Zealand, the Andes, Martinique, Nevada and other +districts of western North America, Greece, &c. They are mostly +associated with andesites and trachytes, and form lava flows, dikes, and +in some cases massive intrusions in the centres of old volcanoes. Among +continental petrographers the older dacites (Carboniferous, &c.) are +often known as "porphyrites." (J. S. F.) + + + + +DACOIT, a term used in India for a robber belonging to an armed gang. +The word is derived from the Hindustani _dakait_, and being current in +Bengal got into the Indian penal code. By law, to constitute _dacoity_, +there must be five or more in the gang committing the crime. In the time +of the Thugs (q.v.) a special police department was created in India to +deal with thuggy and dacoity (_thagi_ and _dakaiti_), which exists down +to the present day. In Burma also the word dacoit came to be applied in +a special sense to the armed gangs, which maintained a state of guerilla +warfare for several years after the defeat of the king and his army. +(See BURMESE WARS.) + + + + +DA COSTA, ISAAK (1798-1860), Dutch poet and theologian, was born at +Amsterdam on the 14th of January 1798. His father was a Jew of +Portuguese descent, and claimed kindred with the celebrated Uriel +D'Acosta. An early acquaintance with Bilderdijk had a strong influence +over the boy both in poetry and in theology. He studied at Amsterdam, +and afterwards at Leiden, where he took his doctor's degree in law in +1818, and in literature in 1821. In 1814 he wrote _De Verlossing van +Nederland_, a patriotic poem, which placed him in line with the +contemporary national romantic poets in Germany and in France. His +_Poezy_ (2 vols., 1821-1822) revealed his emancipation from the +Bilderdijk tradition, and the oriental colouring of his poems, his hymn +to Lamartine, and his translation of part of Byron's _Cain_, establish +his claim to be considered as the earliest of the Dutch romantic poets. +In 1822 he became a convert to Christianity, and immediately afterwards +asserted himself as a champion of orthodoxy and an assailant of +latitudinarianism in his _Bezwaren tegen den Geest der Eeuw_ (1823). He +took a lively interest in missions to the Jews, and towards the close of +his life was a director of the seminary established in Amsterdam in +connexion with the mission of the Free Church of Scotland. He died at +Amsterdam on the 28th of April 1860. Da Costa ranked first among the +poets of Holland after the death of Bilderdijk. His principal poetical +works were: _Alphonsus I._ (1818), a tragedy; _Poezy_ (Leiden, 1821); +_God metons_ (1826); _Festliedern_ (1828); _Vijf-en-twintig jaren_ +(1840); _Hagar_ (1852); _De Slag bij Nieupoort_ (1857). He also +translated _The Persians_ (1816) and the _Prometheus_ (1818) of +Aeschylus, and edited the poetical works of Bilderdijk in sixteen +volumes, the last volume being an account of the poet. He was the author +of a number of theological works, chiefly in connexion with the +criticism of the gospels. + + His complete poetical works were edited by J. P. Hasebroek (3 vols., + Haarlem, 1861-1862). See G. Groen van Prinsterer, _Brieven van, Mr I. + da Costa, 1830-1849_ (1872), and J. ten Brink, _Geschiedenis der + Noord-Nederlandsche Letteren in de XIX^e Eeuw_ (vol. i., 1888), which + contains a complete bibliography of his works. + + + + +DACTYL (from Gr. [Greek: daktylos], a finger), in prosody, a long +syllable followed by two short (see VERSE). + + + + +DAEDALUS, a mythical Greek architect and sculptor, who figures largely +in the early legends of Crete and of Athens. He was said to have built +the labyrinth for Minos, to have made a wooden cow for Pasiphae and to +have fashioned a bronze man who repelled the Argonauts. Falling under +the displeasure of Minos, he fashioned wings for himself and his son +Icarus, and escaped to Sicily. These legends seem primarily to belong to +Crete; and the Athenian element in them which connected Daedalus with +the royal house of Erechtheus is a later fabrication. To Daedalus the +Greeks of the historic age were in the habit of attributing buildings, +and statues the origin of which was lost in the past, and which had no +inscription belonging to them. In a later verse in the _Iliad_ (date, +7th or 6th century), Daedalus is mentioned as the maker of a +dancing-place for Ariadne in Crete; and such a dancing-place has been +discovered by A. J. Evans, in the Minoan palace of Cnossus. Diodorus +Siculus says that he executed various works in Sicily for King Cocalus. +In many cities of Greece there were rude wooden statues, said to be by +him. Later critics, judging from their own notions of the natural course +of development in art, ascribed to Daedalus such improvements as +separating the legs of statues and opening their eyes. In fact the name +Daedalus is a mere symbol, standing for a particular phase of early +Greek art, when wood was the chief material, and other substances were +let into it for variety. + +This Daedalus must not be confused with Daedalus of Sicyon, a great +sculptor of the early part of the 4th century B.C., none of whose works +is extant. (P. G.) + + + + +DAFFODIL, the common name of a group of plants of the genus _Narcissus_, +and natural order Amaryllidaceae. (See generally under NARCISSUS.) The +common daffodil, _N. Pseudo-narcissus_, is common in woods and thickets +in most parts of the N. of Europe, but is rare in Scotland. Its leaves +are five or six in number, are about a foot in length and an inch in +breadth, and have a blunt keel and flat edges. The stem is about 18 in. +long, and the spathe single-flowered. The flowers are large, yellow, +scented and a little drooping, with a corolla deeply cleft into six +lobes, and a central bell-shaped nectary, which is crisped at the +margin. They appear early in the year, or, as Shakespeare says, "come +before the swallow dares, and take the winds of March with beauty." The +stamens are shorter than the cup, the anthers oblong and converging; the +ovary is globose, and has three furrows; the seeds are roundish and +black. Many new varieties of the flower have recently been cultivated in +gardens. The bulbs are large and orbicular, and have a blackish coat; +they, as well as the flowers, are reputed to be emetic in properties. +The Peruvian daffodil and the sea daffodil are species of the genus +_Ismene_. (For derivation see ASPHODEL.) + + + + +DAFYDD AB GWILYM (c. 1340-c. 1400), son of Gwilym Gam and Ardudful +Fychan, greatest of the medieval Welsh poets, was born at Bro Gynin, +Cardiganshire, about the year 1340. Educated by a scholarly uncle, +Llewelyn ab Gwilym Fychan of Emlyn, he became steward to his kinsman, +Ivor Hael of Maesaleg, Monmouthshire, who also appointed him instructor +to his daughter. The latter arrangement leading to an attachment between +tutor and pupil, the girl was banished to a convent in Anglesey, whither +the poet followed her, taking service in an adjacent monastery, but on +returning to Maesaleg he was permitted to retain his stewardship. He was +elected chief bard of Glamorgan and became household bard to Ivor Hael. +At Rhosyr in North Wales he met Morfudd Lawgam, to whom he addressed 147 +amatory odes. In consequence of attempting to elope with this lady, +Dafydd ab Gwilym, being unable to pay the fine demanded by her husband, +was imprisoned. Liberated by the goodwill of his friends, he went back +to Maesaleg, and after the death of his patron, retired to his +birthplace, Bro Gynin. Tradition states that he was a man of noble +appearance, and his poems bear evidence of high mental culture. He was +acquainted with the works of Homer, Virgil, Ovid and Horace, and was +also a student of Italian literature. Especially remarkable as a poet of +nature in an age when more warlike themes were chosen by his +contemporaries, his poems entitled "The Lark," "The Wind" and "The Mist" +are amongst his finest efforts. He has been called the Petrarch, the +Ovid, and (by George Borrow) the Horace of Wales. His poems were almost +all written in the _cywydd_ form: a short ode not divided into stanzas, +each line having the same number of syllables. The poet died about the +year 1400, and according to tradition was buried in the graveyard of the +monastery of Strata Florida, in Cardiganshire. + + See also under CELT; _Celtic Literature_, iv. Welsh. + + + + +DAGGER, a hand weapon with a short blade. The derivation is obscure (cf. +Fr. _dague_ and Ger. _Degen_), but the word is related to _dag_, a long +pointed jag such as would be made in deeply nicking the edge of a +garment. The war knife in various forms and under many names has of +course been in use in all ages and amongst all races. But the dagger as +generally understood was not a short sword, but a special stabbing +weapon which could be used along with the sword. The distinction is +often difficult to establish in a given case owing to the variations in +the length of the weapon. The principal medieval dagger was the +_misericorde_, which from the end of the 12th century was used, in all +countries in which chivalry flourished, to penetrate the joints of the +armour of an unhorsed adversary (hence Ger. _Panzerbrecher_, +armour-breaker). It was so called either because the threat of it caused +the vanquished to surrender "at mercy," or from its use in giving what +was called the _coup de grace_. From about 1330 till the end of the +succeeding century, in many knightly effigies it is often represented as +attached on the right side by a cord or a chain to the sword-belt. This +weapon and its sheath were often elaborately adorned. It was customary +to secure it from accidental loss by a guard-chain fastened to the +breast-armour. Occasionally the misericorde was fixed to the body-armour +by a staple; or, more rarely, it was connected with a _gypciere_ or +pouch. The misericorde may be called a poniard. The distinction between +the dagger and the poniard is arbitrary, and in ordinary language the +latter is taken as being the shorter and as having less resemblance to a +short sword or cutlass. A weapon, with a longer blade than the +misericorde, was habitually worn by civilians, including judges, during +the middle ages; such weapons bore the name of _anlace_ (from _annulus_, +as it was fastened by a ring), _basilarde_ or _langue de boeuf_, the +last from the broad ox-tongue shape of the blade. This had often a small +knife fixed on the scabbard, like a Highland officer's dirk of the +present day. By nobles and knights the dagger or poniard was worn when +they had exchanged their armour for the costume of peace. It is recorded +besides that when they appeared at a tournament and on some other +occasions, ladies at that time wore daggers depending, with their +gypcieres, from their girdles. Thus, writing of the year 1348, Knighton +speaks of certain ladies who were present at jousts as "habentes +cultellos, quos _daggerios_ vulgariter dicunt, in powchiis desuper +impositis." A longer and heavier dagger with a broad blade (Italian) is +called _cinquedea_. The Scottish "dirk" was a long dagger, and survives +in name in the dirk worn by midshipmen of the royal navy, and in fact in +that worn by officers of Highland regiments. In the 15th and 16th +centuries the infantry soldiers (Swiss or _landsknecht_) carried a heavy +poniard or dagger. This and the earlier Spanish dagger with a thumb-ring +were distinctively the weapons of professional soldiers. The rise of +duelling produced another type, called the _main gauche_, which was a +parrying weapon and often had a toothed edge on which the adversary's +sword was caught and broken. One form of this dagger had a blade which +expanded into a triple fork on pressing a spring; this served the same +purpose. The satellites of the _Vehmgericht_ had a similar weapon, in +order, it is suggested, that their acts should be done in the name of +the Trinity. The smaller poniards are generally called "stilettos." Much +ingenuity and skill have been lavished on the adornment of daggers, and +in rendering the blades more capable of inflicting severe wounds. +Daggers also were sometimes made to poison as well as to wound. Of +oriental daggers may be mentioned the Malay "crease" or "kris," which +has a long waxed blade; the Gurkha "kukri," a short curved knife, +broadest and heaviest towards the point; and the Hindu "khuttar," which +has a flat triangular-shaped blade, and a hilt of H-shape, the cross-bar +forming the grip and the sides the guard. + + + + +DAGHESTAN, a province of Russia, Transcaucasia, occupying the triangular +space between the Andi ridge, the south-east division of the main +Caucasus range, and the Caspian Sea. It has the province of Terek on the +N.W., the government of Tiflis on the S.W., and that of Baku on the S.E. +With the exception of a narrow strip along the sea-coast and a small +district in the N., it is entirely mountainous. Area, 11,332 sq. m. The +snow-clad Andi ridge, belonging to the system of transverse upheavals +which cross the Caucasus, branches off the latter at Borbalo Peak +(10,175 ft.), and reaches its highest altitudes in Tebulos-mta (14,775 +ft.) and Diklos-mta (13,740 ft.). It is encircled on the N. by a lower +outer ridge, the Karadagh, through which the rivers cut their way. This +ridge is thickly clothed with forests, chiefly beech. The Boz-dagh and +another ridge run between the four Koisu rivers, the head-streams of the +Sulak, which flows into the Caspian. The next most important stream, out +of the great number which course down the flanks of the Caucasus and +terminate in the Caspian, is the Samur. The most notable feature of the +province is, however, according to O. W. H. Abich (_Sur la structure et +la geologie du Daghestan_, 1862), the successive folds of Jurassic +limestones and slates, all nearly parallel to the Caucasus, which form +lofty, narrow plateaus. Many of the peaks upon them rise higher than +12,000 ft., and the passes lie at altitudes of 11,000 ft. in the +interior and 9000 ft. towards the Caspian. Towards the Caspian, +especially between Petrovsk and the river Sulak, the Cretaceous system +is well represented, and upon its rocks rest marls, shales, and +sandstones of the Eocene period. The country is altogether difficult of +access, and only one military route leads up from the river Terek, while +every one of the eleven passes known across the Caucasus is a mere +bridle-path. The climate is severe on the plateaus, hot towards the +Caspian, and dry everywhere. The average temperatures are--year 51 deg., +January 26 deg., July 73 deg. at Temir-khan-shura (42 deg. 49' N.; alt. +1510 ft.). The annual rainfall varies from 17 to 21 in. The population, +estimated at 605,100 in 1906, numbered 587,326 in 1897, of whom only +5000 were Russians. They consist chiefly of mountaineers known as +Lesghians (i.e. 158,550 Avars, 121,375 Darghis, 94,506 Kurins), a race +closely akin to the Circassians, intermingled towards the Caspian Sea +with Tatars and Georgians. There are also sprinklings of Jews and +Persians. The highlands of Daghestan were for many years the stronghold +of the Circassians in their struggle against Russia, especially under +the leadership of Shamyl, whose last stand was made on the steep +mountain fastness of Gunib, 74 m. S. of Temir-khan-shura, in 1859. The +difficulty of communication between the valleys has resulted in the +growth of a great number of dialects. Avarian is a sort of inter-tribal +tongue, while Lakh or Kazi-kumukh, Kurin, Darghi-kaitakh, Andi, and +Tabasaran are some of the more important dialects, each subdivided into +sub-dialects. The mountaineers breed some cattle and sheep, and +cultivate small fields on the mountain-sides. In the littoral districts +excellent crops of cereals, cotton, fruit, wine and tobacco are obtained +with the aid of irrigation. Silkworms are bred. The mountaineers excel +also in a variety of petty trades. Sulphur, salt and copper are the most +important of the minerals. A railway line to connect the North Caucasian +line (Rostov to Petrovsk) with the Transcaucasian line (Batum to Baku) +has been built along the Caspian shore from Petrovsk, through the "gate" +or pass of Derbent, to Baku. The province is divided into nine +districts--Temir-khan-shura, Avar, Andi, Gunib, Dargo, Kazi-kumukh, +Kaitago-Tabasaran, Kurin, and Samur. The only towns are Temir-khan-shura +(pop. 9208 in 1897), the capital of the government, Derbent (14,821) and +Petrovsk (9806), the last two both on the Caspian. + + See G. Radde, "Aus den Daghestanischen Hochalpen," in _Petermanns + Mitteilungen_, Erganzungsheft, No. 85, 1887, and, with E. Konig, "Der + Nordfuss des Daghestan," in _Petermanns Mitteil._, Erganzungsheft, No. + 117, 1895. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) + + + + +DAGO, a name given somewhat contemptuously to Spanish, Portuguese and +Italian sailors, as "Dutchman" is similarly applied to Germans and +Scandinavians as well as to natives of Holland. In America the word is +generally confined to the poorer class of Italian immigrants. In the +South Wales mining districts the casual labourers, who are only engaged +when work is plentiful, are so called. The word is apparently a +corruption of the common Spanish and Portuguese Christian name "Diego." + + + + +DAGOBERT I. (d. 639), king of the Franks, was the son of Clotaire II. In +623 his father established him as king of the region east of the +Ardennes, and in 626 revived for him the ancient kingdom of Austrasia, +_minus_ Aquitaine and Provence. As Dagobert was yet but a child, he was +placed under the authority of the mayor of the palace, Pippin, and +Arnulf, bishop of Metz. At the death of Clotaire II. in 629, Dagobert +wished to re-establish unity in the Frankish realm, and in 629 and 630 +made expeditions into Neustria and Burgundy, where he succeeded in +securing the recognition of his authority. In Aquitaine he gave his +brother Charibert the administration of the counties of Toulouse, +Cahors, Agen, Perigueux, and Saintes; but at Charibert's death in 632 +Dagobert became sole ruler of the whole of the Frankish territories +south of the Loire. Under him the Merovingian monarchy attained its +culminating point. He restored to the royal domain the lands that had +been usurped by the great nobles and by the church; he maintained at +Paris a luxurious, though, from the example he himself set, a disorderly +court; he was a patron of the arts, and delighted in the exquisite +craftsmanship of his treasurer, the goldsmith St Eloi. His authority was +recognized through the length and breadth of the realm. The duke of the +Basques came to his court to swear fidelity, and at his _villa_ at +Clichy the chief of the Bretons of Domnone promised obedience. He +intervened in the affairs of the Visigoths of Spain and the Lombards of +Italy, and was heard with deference. Indeed, as a sovereign, Dagobert +was reckoned superior to the other barbarian kings. He entered into +relations with the eastern empire, and swore a "perpetual peace" with +the emperor Heraclius; and it is probable that the two sovereigns took +common measures against the Slav and Bulgarian tribes, which ravaged in +turn the Byzantine state and the German territories subject to the +Franks. Dagobert protected the church and placed illustrious prelates at +the head of the bishoprics--Eloi (Eligius) at Noyon, Ouen (Audoenus) at +Rouen, and Didier (Desiderius) at Cahors. His reign is also marked by +the creation of numerous monasteries and by renewed missionary activity +in Flanders and among the Basques. He died on the 19th of January 639, +and was buried at St Denis. After his death the Frankish monarchy was +again divided. In 634 he had been obliged to give the Austrasians a +special king in the person of his eldest son Sigebert, and at the birth +of a second son, Clovis, in 635, the Neustrians had immediately claimed +him as king. Thus the unification of the realm, which Dagobert had +re-established with so much pains, was annulled. + + See the _Chronicon_ of Fredegarius; "_Gesta Dagoberti I. regis + Francorum_" in _Mon. Germ. hist. Script. rer. Meroving._ vol. ii. + edited by B. Krusch; J. H. Albers, _Konig Dagobert in Gesch., Legende, + und Sage_ (2nd ed., Kaiserslautern, 1884); E. Vacandard, _Vie de Saint + Ouen, eveque de Rouen_ (Paris, 1901); and H. E. Bonnell, _Die Anfange + des karoling. Hauses_ (Berlin, 1866). (C. Pf.) + + + + +DAGON, a god of the Philistines who had temples at Ashdod (1 Sam. v. 1), +and Gaza (Judg. xvi. 21, 23); the former was destroyed by Jonathan, the +brother of Judas the Maccabee (1 Macc. x. 84; 148 B.C.). But Dagon was +more than a mere local deity; there was a place called Beth-Dagon in +Judah (Josh. xv. 41), another on the borders of Asher (_ib._ xix. 27), +and a third underlies the modern Bet Dejan, south-east of Nablus. Dagon +was in all probability an old Canaanite deity; it appears in the name of +the Canaanite Dagantakala as early as the 15th century, and is possibly +to be identified with the Babylonian god Dagan. Little is known of his +cult (Judg. xvi. 23 seq.), although as the male counterpart of Ashtoreth +(see ASTARTE) his worship would scarcely differ from that of the Baalim +(see BAAL). The name Dagon seems to come from _dag_ "fish," and that his +idol was half-man half-fish is possible from the ichthyomorphic +representations found upon coins of Ascalon and Arvad, and from the fact +that Berossus speaks of an Assyrian merman-god. + + The true meaning of the name is doubtful. In 1 Sam. v. 4, Thenius and + Wellhausen, followed by Robertson Smith and others, read "only his + fish-part (_dago_) was left to him"; against this, see the comm. of H. + P. Smith and Budde. The identification of Dagon with the Babylonian + Dagan is doubted by G. F. Moore (_Encyc. Bib._, col. 985), and that of + the latter with Odacon and Ea-Oannes is questionable. Philo Byblius + (Muller, _Fr. Hist. Graec._ iii. 567 seq.) makes Dagon the inventor of + corn and the plough, whence he was called [Greek: Zeus Harotrios]. + This points to a natural though possibly late etymology from the + Hebrew and Phoenician _dagan_ "corn." It is not improbable that, at + least in later times, Dagon had in place of, or in addition to, his + old character, that of the god who presided over agriculture; for in + the last days of paganism, as we learn from Marcus Diaconus in the + _Life of Porphyry of Gaza_ (S 19), the great god of Gaza, now known as + Marna (our Lord), was regarded as the god of rains and invoked against + famine. That Marna was lineally descended from Dagon is probable in + every way, and it is therefore interesting to note that he gave + oracles, that he had a circular temple, where he was sometimes + worshipped by human sacrifices, that there were wells in the sacred + circuit, and that there was also a place of adoration to him situated, + as was usual, outside the town. Certain "marmora" in the temple, which + might not be approached, especially by women, may perhaps be connected + with the threshold which the priests of Dagon would not touch with + their feet (1 Sam. v. 5, Zeph. i. 9). See further, the comm. on the + Old Testament passages, Moore (_loc. cit._), and Lagrange, _Relig. + semit._ p. 131 seq. + + + + +DAGUERRE, LOUIS JACQUES MANDE (1789-1851), French, painter and +physicist, inventor of the daguerreotype, was born at Cormeilles, in the +department of Seine-et-Oise, and died on the 12th of July 1851 at +Petit-Brie-sur-Marne, near Paris. He was at first occupied as an inland +revenue officer, but soon took to scene-painting for the opera. He +assisted Pierre Prevost (1764-1823) in the execution of panoramic views +of Rome, Naples, London, Jerusalem, and Athens, and subsequently (July +11, 1822), in conjunction with Bouton, he opened at Paris the Diorama +([Greek: dis], double; [Greek: horama], view), an exhibition of +pictorial views, the effect of which was heightened by changes in the +light thrown upon them. An establishment similar to that at Paris was +opened by Daguerre in Regent's Park, London. On the 3rd of March 1839 +the Diorama, together with the work on which Daguerre was then engaged, +was destroyed by fire. This reverse of fortune was soon, however, more +than compensated for by the distinction he achieved as the inventor of +the daguerreotype photographic process. J. Nicephore Niepce, who since +1814 had been seeking a means of obtaining permanent pictures by the +action of sunlight, learned in 1826 that Daguerre was similarly +occupied. In 1829 he communicated to Daguerre particulars of his method +of fixing the images produced in the camera lucida by making use of +metallic plates coated with a composition of asphalt and oil of +lavender; this, where acted on by the light, remained undissolved when +the plate was plunged into a mixture of petroleum and oil of lavender, +and the development of the image was effected by the action of acids and +other chemical reagents on the exposed surface of the plate. The two +investigators laboured together in the production of their "heliographic +pictures" from 1829 until the death of Niepce in 1833. Daguerre, +continuing his experiments, discovered eventually the process connected +with his name. This, as he described it, consists of five +operations:--the polishing of the silver plate; the coating of the plate +with iodide of silver by submitting it for about 20 minutes to the +action of iodine vapour; the projection of the image of the object upon +the golden-coloured iodized surface, the development of the latent image +by means of the vapour of mercury; and, lastly, the fixing of the +picture by immersing the plate in a solution of sodium "hyposulphite" +(sodium thiosulphate). On the 9th of January 1839, at a meeting of the +Academy of Sciences, Arago dwelt on the importance of the discovery of +the daguerreotype; and, in consequence of the representations made by +him and Gay Lussac to the French government, Daguerre was on the 15th of +June appointed an officer of the Legion of Honour. On the same day a +bill was presented to the chambers, according to the provisions of which +Daguerre and the heir of Niepce were to receive annuities of 6000 and +4000 francs respectively, on the condition that their process should be +made known to the Academy. The bill having been approved at the meetings +of the two chambers on the 9th of July and on the 2nd of August, +Daguerre's process, together with his system of transparent and opaque +painting, was published by the government, and soon became generally +known (see PHOTOGRAPHY). + + Daguerre's _Historique et description des procedes du daguerreotype et + du diorama_ (Paris, 1839) passed through several editions, and was + translated into English. Besides this he wrote an octavo work, + entitled _Nouveau moyen de preparer la couche sensible des plaques + destinees a recevoir les images photographiques_ (Paris, 1844). + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 7, Slice 8, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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