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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 7, Slice 8 + "Cube" to "Daguerre, Louis" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: January 29, 2012 [EBook #38709] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 7, SLICE 8 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME VII SLICE VIII<br /><br /> +Cube to Daguerre, Louis</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">CUBE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">CURWEN, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">CUBEBS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">CURZOLA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">CUBICLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">CURZON OF KEDLESTON, GEORGE NATHANIEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">CUBITT, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">CUSANUS, NICOLAUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">CUBITT, SIR WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">CUSH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">CUCHULINN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">CUSHING, CALEB</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">CUCKOO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">CUSHING, WILLIAM BARKER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">CUCKOO-SPIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">CUSHION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">CUCUMBER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">CUSHMAN, CHARLOTTE SAUNDERS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">CUCURBITACEAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">CUSP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">CUDDALORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129a">CUSTARD APPLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">CUDDAPAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">CUSTER, GEORGE ARMSTRONG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">CUDWORTH, RALPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">CUSTINE, ADAM PHILIPPE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">CUENCA</a> (city of Ecuador)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">CUSTOM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">CUENCA</a> (province of Spain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">CUSTOMARY FREEHOLD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">CUENCA</a> (city of Spain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">CUSTOM-HOUSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">CUESTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">CUSTOM DUTIES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">CUEVAS DE VERA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">CUSTOS ROTULORUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">CUFF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">CUSTOZZA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">CUIRASS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">CÜSTRIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">CUIRASSIERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">CUTCH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">CUJAS, JACQUES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">CUTCH, GULF OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">CULDEES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">CUTCH, RUNN OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">CULEBRA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">CUTHBERT, SAINT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">CULLEN, PAUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">CUTLASS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">CULLEN, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">CUTLER, MANASSEH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">CULLEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">CUTLERY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">CULLERA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">CUTTACK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">CULLINAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">CUTTLE-FISH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">CULLODEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">CUTTS OF GOWRAN, JOHN CUTTS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">CULM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">CUVIER, GEORGES LÉOPOLD DAGOBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">CULMINATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">CUVILLES, FRANÇOIS DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">CULPRIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">CUXHAVEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">CULROSS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">CUYABÁ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">CULTIVATOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">CUYAPO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">CUMAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">CUYP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">CUMANÁ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">CUZA, ALEXANDER JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">CUMBERLAND, DUKES AND EARLS OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">CUZCO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">CUMBERLAND, RICHARD</a> (English philosopher)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">CYANAMIDE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">CUMBERLAND, RICHARD</a> (English dramatist)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">CYANIC ACID AND CYANATES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">CUMBERLAND, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">CYANIDE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">CUMBERLAND</a> (county of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">CYANITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">CUMBERLAND</a> (Maryland, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">CYANOGEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">CUMBERLAND</a> (Rhode Island, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">CYAXARES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">CUMBERLAND MOUNTAINS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">CYBELE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">CUMBERLAND RIVER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">CYCLADES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">CUMBRAES, THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">CYCLAMEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">CUMIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">CYCLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">CUMMERBUND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">CYCLING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">CUMMING, JOSEPH GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">CYCLOID</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">CUMNOCK AND HOLMHEAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">CYCLOMETER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">CUNARD, SIR SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">CYCLONE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">CUNAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">CYCLOPEAN MASONRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">CUNDINAMARCA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">CYCLOPES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">CUNEIFORM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">CYCLOSTOMATA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">CUNEO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">CYCLOSTYLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">CUNEUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">CYGNUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">CUNITZ, MARIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">CYLINDER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">CUNNINGHAM, ALEXANDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">CYLLENE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">CUNNINGHAM, ALLAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">CYMA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM</a> (Scottish theologian)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">CYMBALS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM</a> (English economist)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">CYNEGILS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">CUP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">CYNEWULF</a> (king of Wessex)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">CUPAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">CYNEWULF</a> (Old-English poet)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">CUPBOARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">CYNICS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">CUPID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">CYNOSURE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">CUPOLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">CYPERACEAE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">CUPPING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">CY-PRÈS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">CUPRA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">CYPRESS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">CUPRITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">CYPRIAN, SAINT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">CUPULIFERAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">CYPRINODONTS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">CURAÇAO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">CYPRUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">CURAÇOA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">CYPRUS, CHURCH OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">CURASSOW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">CYPSELUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">CURATE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">CYRANO DE BERGERAC, SAVINIEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">CURATOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">CYRENAICA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">CURCI, CARLO MARIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">CYRENAICS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">CUREL, FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">CYRENE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">CURÉLY, JEAN NICOLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">CYRIL</a> (bishop of Jerusalem)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">CURES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">CYRIL</a> (bishop of Alexandria)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">CURETES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">CYRIL</a> (apostle of the Slavs)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">CURETON, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">CYRILLIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">CURETUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">CYRILLUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">CURFEW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">CYRTO-STYLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">CURIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">CYRUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">CURIA REGIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">CYSTOFLAGELLATA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">CURIA ROMANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">CYSTOLITH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">CURICÓ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">CYTHERA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">CURIE, PIERRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">CYTISINE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">CURIO, GAIUS SCRIBONIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">CYTOLOGY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">CURITYBA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">CYZICENUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">CURLEW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">CYZICUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">CURLING, THOMAS BLIZARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">CZARNIECKI, STEPHEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">CURLING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">CZARTORYSKI, ADAM GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">CURLL, EDMUND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">CZARTORYSKI, FRYDERYK MICHAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">CURRAGH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">CZECH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">CURRAN, JOHN PHILPOT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">CZENSTOCHOWA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">CURRANT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">CZERNOWITZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">CURRICLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">CZERNY, KARL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">CURRIE, SIR DONALD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">D</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">CURRIE, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">DACCA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">CURRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">DACE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">CURSOR, LUCIUS PAPIRIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">DACH, SIMON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">CURSOR MUNDI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">DACIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">CURTAIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">DACIER, ANDRÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">CURTANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">DACITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">CURTEA DE ARGESH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">DACOIT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">CURTESY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">DA COSTA, ISAAK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">CURTILAGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">DACTYL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">CURTIN ANDREW GREGG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">DAEDALUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">CURTIS, GEORGE TICKNOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">DAFFODIL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">CURTIS, GEORGE WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">DAFYDD AB GWILYM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">CURTIUS, ERNST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">DAGGER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">CURTIUS, MARCUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">DAGHESTAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">CURTIUS RUFUS, QUINTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">DAGO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">CURULE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar234">DAGOBERT I.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">CURVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar235">DAGON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">CURVILINEAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar236">DAGUERRE, LOUIS JACQUES MANDÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">CURWEN, HUGH</a></td> <td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page606" id="page606"></a>606</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">CUBE<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kubos">κύβος</span>, a cube), in geometry, a solid bounded by +six equal squares, so placed that the angle between any pair of +adjacent faces is a right angle. This solid played an all-important +part in the geometry and cosmology of the Greeks. Plato +(<i>Timaeus</i>) described the figure in the following terms:—“The +isosceles triangle which has its vertical angle a right angle ... combined +in sets of four, with the right angles meeting at the +centre, form a single square. Six of these squares joined together +formed eight solid angles, each produced by three plane right +angles: and the shape of the body thus formed was cubical, +having six square planes for its surfaces.” In his cosmology +Plato assigned this solid to “earth,” for “‘earth’ is the least +mobile of the four (elements—‘fire,’ ‘water,’ ‘air’ and ‘earth’) +and most plastic of bodies: and that substance must possess +this nature in the highest degree which has its bases most stable.” +The mensuration of the cube, and its relations to other geometrical +solids are treated in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Polyhedron</a></span>; in the same article +are treated the Archimedean solids, the truncated and snub-cube; +reference should be made to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crystallography</a></span> +for its significance as a crystal form.</p> + +<p>A famous problem concerning the cube, namely, to construct +a cube of twice the volume of a given cube, was attacked with +great vigour by the Pythagoreans, Sophists and Platonists. +It became known as the “Delian problem” or the “problem +of the duplication of the cube,” and ranks in historical importance +with the problems of “trisecting an angle” and “squaring the +circle.” The origin of the problem is open to conjecture. The +Pythagorean discovery of “squaring a square,” <i>i.e.</i> constructing +a square of twice the area of a given square (which follows as a +corollary to the Pythagorean property of a right-angled triangle, +viz. the square of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares +on the sides), may have suggested the strictly analogous problem +of doubling a cube. Eratosthenes (<i>c.</i> 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), however, gives a +picturesque origin to the problem. In a letter to Ptolemy +Euergetes he narrates the history of the problem. The Delians, +suffering a dire pestilence, consulted their oracles, and were +ordered to double the volume of the altar to their tutelary god, +Apollo. An altar was built having an edge double the length of +the original; but the plague was unabated, the oracles not having +been obeyed. The error was discovered, and the Delians applied +to Plato for his advice, and Plato referred them to Eudoxus. +This story is mere fable, for the problem is far older than Plato.</p> + +<p>Hippocrates of Chios (<i>c.</i> 430 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the discoverer of the square +of a lune, showed that the problem reduced to the determination +of two mean proportionals between two given lines, one of them +being twice the length of the other. Algebraically expressed, +if x and y be the required mean proportionals and a, 2a, the lines, +we have a : x :: x : y :: y : 2a, from which it follows that x³ = 2a³. +Although Hippocrates could not determine the proportionals, +his statement of the problem in this form was a great advance, +for it was perceived that the problem of trisecting an angle was +reducible to a similar form which, in the language of algebraic +geometry, is to solve geometrically a cubic equation. According +to Proclus, a man named Hippias, probably Hippias of Elis +(<i>c.</i> 460 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), trisected an angle with a mechanical curve, named +the quadratrix (<i>q.v.</i>). Archytas of Tarentum (<i>c.</i> 430 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) solved +the problems by means of sections of a half cylinder; according +to Eutocius, Menaechmus solved them by means of the intersections +of conic sections; and Eudoxus also gave a solution.</p> + +<p>All these solutions were condemned by Plato on the ground +that they were mechanical and not geometrical, <i>i.e.</i> they were +not effected by means of circles and lines. However, no proper +geometrical solution, in Plato’s sense, was obtained; in fact +it is now generally agreed that, with such a restriction, the +problem is insoluble. The pursuit of mechanical methods +furnished a stimulus to the study of mechanical loci, for example, +the locus of a point carried on a rod which is caused to move +according to a definite rule. Thus Nicomedes invented the +conchoid (<i>q.v.</i>); Diocles the cissoid (<i>q.v.</i>); Dinostratus studied +the quadratrix invented by Hippias; all these curves furnished +solutions, as is also the case with the trisectrix, a special form of +Pascal’s limaçon (<i>q.v.</i>). These problems were also attacked by +the Arabian mathematicians; Tobit ben Korra (836-901) is +credited with a solution, while Abul Gud solved it by means of a +parabola and an equilateral hyperbola.</p> + +<p>In algebra, the “cube” of a quantity is the quantity multiplied +by itself twice, <i>i.e.</i> if a be the quantity a × a × a (= a³) is its cube. +Similarly the “cube root” of a quantity is another quantity +which when multiplied by itself twice gives the original quantity; +thus a<span class="sp">1/3</span> is the cube root of a (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arithmetic</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Algebra</a></span>). +A “cubic equation” is one in which the highest power of the +unknown is the cube (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equation</a></span>); similarly, a “cubic curve” +has an equation containing no term of a power higher than the +third, the powers of a compound term being added together.</p> + +<p>In mensuration, “cubature” is sometimes used to denote the +volume of a solid; the word is parallel with “quadrature,” to determine +the area of a surface (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mensuration</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Infinitesimal +Calculus</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page607" id="page607"></a>607</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">CUBEBS<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (Arab. <i>kabábah</i>), the fruit of several species of pepper +(<i>Piper</i>), belonging to the natural order Piperaceae. The cubebs +of pharmacy are produced by <i>Piper Cubeba</i>, a climbing woody +shrub indigenous to south Borneo, Sumatra, Prince of Wales +Island and Java. It has round, ash-coloured, smooth branches; +lanceolate, or ovate-oblong, somewhat leathery, shining leaves, +4 to 6½ in. long and 1½ to 2 in. broad. Male and female flowers +are borne on distinct plants. The fruits are small, globose, about +<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> in. in diameter, and not so large as white pepper; their contracted +stalk-like bases are between <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> and ½ in. in length; and +from forty to fifty of them are borne upon a common stem. The +cubeb is cultivated in Java and Sumatra, the fruits are gathered +before they are ripe, and carefully dried. Commercial cubebs +consist of the dried berries, usually with their stalks attached; +the pericarp is greyish-brown, or blackish and wrinkled; and +the seed, when present, is hard, white and oily. The odour of +cubebs is agreeable and aromatic; the taste, pungent, acrid, +slightly bitter and persistent. About 15% of a volatile oil is +obtained by distilling cubebs with water; after rectification +with water, or on keeping, this deposits rhombic crystals of +camphor of cubebs, C<span class="su">15</span>H<span class="su">26</span>O; cubebene, the liquid portion, has +the formula C<span class="su">15</span>H<span class="su">24</span>. Cubebin, CH<span class="su">2</span>[O]<span class="su">2</span>C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">3</span>·CH:CH·CH<span class="su">2</span>OH, +is a crystalline substance existing in cubebs, discovered by +Eugène Soubeiran and Capitaine in 1839; it may be prepared +from cubebene, or from the pulp left after the distillation of +the oil. The drug, along with gum, fatty oils, and malates of +magnesium and calcium, contains also about 1% of cubebic +acid, and about 6% of a resin.</p> + +<p>The dose of the fruit is 30 to 60 grains, and the British Pharmacopoeia +contains a tincture with a dose of ½ to 1 drachm. The +volatile oil—oleum cubebae—is also official, and is the form in +which this drug is most commonly used, the dose being 5 to 20 +minims, which may be suspended in mucilage or given after +meals in a cachet. The drug has the typical actions of a volatile +oil, but exerts some of them in an exceptional degree. Thus it +is liable to cause a cutaneous erythema in the course of its +excretion by the skin; it has a marked diuretic action; and it is +a fairly efficient disinfectant of the urinary passages. Its administration +causes the appearance in the urine of a salt of cubebic +acid which is precipitated by heat or nitric acid, and is therefore +liable to be mistaken for albumin, when these two most common +tests for the occurrence of albuminuria are applied. Cubebs is +frequently used in the form of cigarettes for asthma, chronic +pharyngitis and hay-fever. A small percentage of cubebs is +also commonly included in lozenges designed for use in bronchitis, +in which the antiseptic and expectoral properties of the drug +are useful. But the most important therapeutic application of +this drug is in gonorrhoea, where its antiseptic action is of much +value. As compared with copaiba in this connexion cubebs has +the advantages of being less disagreeable to take and somewhat +less likely to disturb the digestive apparatus in prolonged +administration. The introduction of the drug into medicine is +supposed to have been due to the Arabian physicians in the +middle ages. Cubebs were formerly candied and eaten whole, +or used ground as a seasoning for meat. Their modern employment +in England as a drug dates from 1815. “Cubebae” +were purchased in 1284 and 1285 by Lord Clare at 2s. 3d. and +2s. 9d. per ℔ respectively; and in 1307 1 ℔ for the king’s +wardrobe cost 9s., a sum representing about £3, 12s. in present +value (Rogers, <i>Hist. of Agriculture and Prices</i>, i. 627-628, ii. 544).</p> + +<p>A closely allied species, <i>Piper Clusii</i>, produces the African +cubebs or West African black-pepper, the berry of which is +smoother than that of common cubebs and usually has a curved +pedicel. In the 14th century it was imported into Europe from +the Grain Coast, under the name of pepper, by merchants of +Rouen and Lippe.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUBICLE<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (Lat. <i>cubiculum</i>), a small chamber containing a +couch or a bed. The small rooms opening into the atrium of +a Pompeian house are known as cubicula. In modern English +schools “cubicle” is the term given to the separate small bedrooms +into which the dormitories are divided, as opposed to the +system of large open dormitories.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUBITT, THOMAS<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1788-1855), English builder, was born at +Buxton, near Norwich, on the 25th of February 1788. Few men +have exhibited greater self-reliance in early life in the pursuit +of a successful career. In his nineteenth year, when he was +working as a journeyman carpenter, his father died, and he tried +to better his position by going on a voyage to India, as captain’s +joiner. He returned to London, two years after, in the possession +of a small capital, and began business as a carpenter. The growth +of his establishment was steady and rapid. He was one of the +first to combine several trades in a “builder’s” business; and +this very much increased his success. One of the earlier works +which gave him reputation was the London Institution in Finsbury +Circus; but it is from 1824 that the vast building operations +date which identify his name with many splendid ranges of +London houses, such as Tavistock, Gordon, Belgrave and Lowndes +Squares, and the district of South Belgravia. While these and +similar extensive operations were in progress, a financial panic, +which proved ruinous to many, was surmounted in his case +by a determined spirit and his integrity of character. He took +great interest in sanitary measures, and published, for private +circulation, a pamphlet on the general drainage of London, the +substance of which was afterwards embodied in a letter to +<i>The Times</i>; the plan he advocated was subsequently adopted +by the conveyance of the sewage matter some distance below +London. He advocated the provision of open spaces in the +environs of London as places of public recreation, and was one +of the originators of Battersea Park, the first of the people’s +parks. At a late period he received professionally the recognition +of royalty, the palace at Osborne being erected after his designs, +and under his superintendence; and in the <i>Life of the Prince +Consort</i> he is described by Queen Victoria as one “than whom +a better and kinder man did not exist.” In 1851, although he +was not identified with the management of the Great Exhibition, +he showed the warmest sympathy with its objects, and aided its +projectors in many ways, especially in the profitable investment +of their surplus funds. Cubitt, when he rose to be a capitalist, +never forgot the interests and well-being of his workpeople. +He was elected president of the Builders’ Society some time +before his death, which took place at his seat Denbies, near +Dorking, on the 20th of December 1855.</p> + +<p>His son, George Cubitt (1828-  ), who had a long and +useful parliamentary career, as Conservative member for West +Surrey (1860-1865) and Mid-Surrey (1885-1892), was in 1892 +raised to the peerage as Baron Ashcombe.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUBITT, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1785-1861), English engineer, was +born in 1785 at Dilham in Norfolk, where his father was a +miller. After serving an apprenticeship of four years (1800-1804) +as a joiner and cabinetmaker at Stalham, he became associated +with an agricultural-machine maker, named Cook, who resided +at Swanton. In 1807 he patented self-regulating sails for windmills, +and in 1812 he entered the works of Messrs Ransome +of Ipswich, where he soon became chief engineer, and ultimately +a partner. Meanwhile, the subject of the employment of criminals +had been much in his thoughts; and the result was his introduction +of the treadmill about 1818. In 1826 he removed to London, +where he gained a very large practice as a civil engineer. Among +his works were the Oxford canal, the Birmingham & Liverpool +Junction Canal, the improvement of the river Severn, the Bute +docks at Cardiff, the Black Sluice drainage and its outfall sluice +at Boston harbour, the Middlesborough docks and coal drops +in the Tees, and the South-Eastern railway, of which he was +chief engineer. The Hanoverian government consulted him +about the harbour and docks at Harburg; the water-works +of the city of Berlin were constructed under his immediate +superintendence; he was asked to report on the construction +of the Paris & Lyons railway; and he was consulting engineer +for the line from Boulogne to Amiens. Among his later works +were two floating landing stages at Liverpool, and the bridge +for carrying the London turnpike across the Medway at Rochester. +In 1851, when he was president of the Institution of Civil +Engineers, he was knighted for his services in connexion with the +buildings erected in Hyde Park for the exhibition of that year. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page608" id="page608"></a>608</span> +He retired from active work in 1858, and died on the 13th of +October 1861 at his house on Clapham Common, London. +His son, Joseph Cubitt (1811-1872), was trained under him, +and was engineer of various railways, including the Great +Northern, London, Chatham & Dover, and part of the London +& South-Western.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUCHULINN<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (<i>Cūchúlinn</i>; pronounced “Coohoollin”), the +chief warrior in the Conchobar-Cuchulinn or older heroic (Ulster) +cycle of Ireland. The story of his origin is very obscure. The +god Lug is represented as having been swallowed in a draught +of wine by his mother Dechtire, sister of Conchobar, who was +king of Ulster. But it is not unlikely that this story was invented +to supersede the account of the incestuous union of Conchobar +with his sister, which seems to be hinted at on various occasions. +Usually, however, he is styled son of Sualdam, an Ulster warrior +who plays a very inferior part in the cycle. His earliest name +was Setanta, and he was brought up at Dun Imbrith (Louth). +When he was six years of age he announced his intention of +going to Conchobar’s court at Emain Macha (Navan Rath near +Armagh) to play with the boys there. He defeats all the boys +in marvellous fashion and is received as one of their number. +Shortly after he kills Culann, the smith’s hound, a huge watch-dog. +The smith laments that all his property is of no value now that +his watchman is slain, whereupon the young hero offers to guard +his domains until a whelp of the hound’s has grown. From this +the boy received the name of Cū Chulinn or Culann’s Hound. +The next year Cuchulinn receives arms, makes his first foray, +and slays the three sons of Necht, redoubtable hereditary foes +of the Ulstermen, in the plain of Meath. The men of Ulster +decide that Cuchulinn must marry, as all the women of Ireland +are in love with him. Chosen envoys fail to find a bride worthy +of him after a year’s search, but the hero goes straight to Emer, +the daughter of Forgall the Wily, at Lusk (county Dublin). +The lady is promised to him if he will go to learn chivalry of +Domnall the Soldierly and the amazon Scathach in Alba. After +enduring great hardships he goes through the course and leaves +a son Connlaech behind in Scotland by another amazon, Aife. +On his return he carries off and weds Emer. He is represented +as living at Dun Delgan (Dundalk). The greatest of all the hero’s +achievements was the defence of the frontier of Ulster against +the forces of Medb, queen of Connaught, who had come to carry +off the famous Brown Bull of Cualnge (Cooley). The men of +Ulster were all suffering from a strange debility, and Cuchulinn +had to undertake the defence single-handed from November +to February. This was when he was seventeen years of age. +The cycle contains a large number of episodes, such as the +gaining of the champion’s portion and the tragical death by the +warrior’s hand of his own son Connlaech. When he was twenty-seven +he met with his end at the hands of Lugaid, son of Cūrōi +MacDaire, the famous Munster warrior, and the children of +Calatīn Dāna, in revenge for their father’s death (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Celt</a></span>: +<i>Irish Literature</i>).</p> + +<p>Medieval Christian synchronists make Cuchulinn’s death take +place about the beginning of the Christian era. It is not necessary +to regard Cuchulinn as a form of the solar hero, as some writers +have done. Most, if not all, of his wonderful attributes may be +ascribed to the Irish predilection for the grotesque. It is true +that Cuchulinn seems to stand in a special relation to the Tuatha +De Danann leader, the god Lug, but in primitive societies there +is always a tendency to ascribe a divine parentage to men who +stand out pre-eminently in prowess beyond their fellows.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Nutt, <i>Cuchulainn, the Irish Achilles</i> (London, 1900); E. +Hull, <i>The Cuchullin Saga</i> (London, 1898).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. Q.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUCKOO<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Cuckow</span>, as the word was formerly spelt, the +common name of a well-known and often-heard bird, the <i>Cuculus +canorus</i> of Linnaeus. In some parts of the United Kingdom +it is more frequently called gowk, and it is the Gr. <i><span class="grk" title="kokkux">κόκκυξ</span></i>, the +Ital. <i>cuculo</i> or <i>cucco</i>, the Fr. <i>coucou</i>, the Ger. <i>Kuckuk</i>, the +Dutch <i>koekkoek</i>, the Dan. <i>kukker</i> or <i>gjög</i>, and the Swed. <i>gök.</i> +The oldest English spelling of the name seems to have been +<i>cuccu</i>.</p> + +<p>No single bird has perhaps so much occupied the attention +both of naturalists and of those who are not naturalists, or has +had so much written about it, as the common cuckoo, and of +no bird perhaps have more idle tales been told. Its strange and, +according to the experience of most people, its singular habit +of entrusting its offspring to foster-parents is enough to account +for much of the interest which has been so long felt in its history; +but this habit is shared probably by many of its Old World +relatives, as well as in the New World by birds which are not +in any degree related to it. The cuckoo is a summer visitant +to the whole of Europe, reaching even far within the Arctic +circle, and crossing the Mediterranean from its winter quarters +in Africa at the end of March or beginning of April. Its arrival +is at once proclaimed by the peculiar and in nearly all languages +onomatopoeic cry of the cock—a true song in the technical +sense of the word, since it is confined to the male sex and to the +season of love. In a few days the cock is followed by the hen, +and amorous contests between keen and loud-voiced suitors are +to be commonly noticed, until the respective pretensions of +the rivals are decided. Even by night they are not silent; but +as the season advances the song is less frequently heard, and the +cuckoo seems rather to avoid observation as much as possible, +the more so since whenever it shows itself it is a signal for all +the small birds of the neighbourhood to be up in its pursuit, just +as though it were a hawk, to which indeed its mode of flight +and general appearance give it an undoubted resemblance—a +resemblance that misleads some into confounding it with the +birds of prey, instead of recognizing it as a harmless if not a +beneficial destroyer of hairy caterpillars. Thus pass away some +weeks. Towards the middle or end of June its “plain-song” +cry alters; it becomes rather hoarser in tone, and its first +syllable or note is doubled. Soon after it is no longer heard at all, +and by the middle of July an old cuckoo is seldom to be found +in the British Islands, though a stray example, or even, but very +rarely, two or three in company, may occasionally be seen for +a month longer. Of its breeding comparatively few have any +personal experience. Yet a diligent search for and peering into +the nests of several of the commonest little birds—more especially +the pied wagtail (<i>Motacilla lugubris</i>), the titlark (<i>Anthus pratensis</i>), +the reed-wren (<i>Acrocephalus streperus</i>), and the hedge-sparrow +(<i>Accentor modularis</i>)—will be rewarded by the discovery of the +egg of the mysterious stranger which has been surreptitiously +introduced, and those who wait till this egg is hatched may be +witnesses (as was Edward Jenner in the 18th century) of the +murderous eviction of the rightful tenants of the nest by the +intruder, who, hoisting them one after another on his broad +back, heaves them over to die neglected by their own parents, +of whose solicitous care he thus becomes the only object. In +this manner he thrives, and, so long as he remains in the country +of his birth his wants are anxiously supplied by the victims of +his mother’s dupery. The actions of his foster-parents become, +when he is full grown, almost ludicrous, for they often have to +perch between his shoulders to place in his gaping mouth the +delicate morsels he is too indolent or too stupid to take from +their bills. Early in September he begins to shift for himself, +and then follows the seniors of his kin to more southern climes.</p> + +<p>So much caution is used by the hen cuckoo in choosing a nest +in which to deposit her egg that the act of insertion has been +but seldom witnessed. The nest selected is moreover often so +situated, or so built, that it would be an absolute impossibility +for a bird of her size to lay her egg therein by sitting upon the +fabric as birds commonly do; and there have been a few +fortunate observers who have actually seen the deposition of +the egg upon the ground by the cuckoo, who, then taking it in +her bill, introduces it into the nest. Of these, the earliest in Great +Britain seem to have been two Scottish lads, sons of Mr Tripeny, +a farmer in Coxmuir, who, as recorded by Macgillivray (<i>Brit. +Birds</i>, iii. 130, 131) from information communicated to him +by Mr Durham Weir, saw most part of the operation performed, +June 24, 1838. But perhaps the most satisfactory evidence on +the point is that of Adolf Müller, a forester at Gladenbach in +Darmstadt, who says (<i>Zoolog. Garten</i>, 1866, pp. 374, 375) that +through a telescope he watched a cuckoo as she laid her egg on a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page609" id="page609"></a>609</span> +bank, and then conveyed the egg in her bill to a wagtail’s nest. +Cuckoos, too, have been not unfrequently shot as they were +carrying a cuckoo’s egg, presumably their own, in their bill, +and this has probably given rise to the vulgar, but seemingly +groundless, belief that they suck the eggs of other kinds of birds. +More than this, Mr G. D. Rowley, who had much experience of +cuckoos, declares (<i>Ibis</i>, 1865, p. 186) his opinion to be that traces +of violence and of a scuffle between the intruder and the owners +of the nest at the time of introducing the egg often appear, +whence we are led to suppose that the cuckoo ordinarily, when +inserting her egg, excites the fury (already stimulated by her +hawk-like appearance) of the owners of the nest by turning out +one or more of the eggs that may be already laid therein, and thus +induces the dupe to brood all the more readily and more strongly +what is left to her. Of the assertion that the cuckoo herself +takes any interest in the future welfare of the egg she has foisted +on her victim, or of its product, there is no good evidence.</p> + +<p>But a much more curious assertion has also been made, and +one that at first sight appears so incomprehensible as to cause +little surprise at the neglect it long encountered. To this +currency was first given by Salerne (<i>L’Hist. nat.</i> &c., Paris, +1767, p. 42), who was, however, hardly a believer in it, and it is +to the effect, as he was told by an inhabitant of Sologne, that +the egg of a cuckoo resembles in colour that of the eggs normally +laid by the kind of bird in whose nest it is placed. In 1853 the +same notion was prominently and independently brought forward +by Dr A. C. E. Baldamus (<i>Naumannia</i>, 1853, pp. 307-325), and +in time became known to English ornithologists, most of whom +were naturally sceptical as to its truth, since no likeness whatever +is ordinarily apparent in the very familiar case of the blue-green +egg of the hedge-sparrow and that of the cuckoo, which is so +often found beside it.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Dr Baldamus based his notion on a +series of eggs in his cabinet,<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> a selection from which he figured +in illustration of his paper, and, however the thing may be +accounted for, it seems impossible to resist, save on one supposition, +the force of the testimony these specimens afford. This one +supposition is that the eggs have been wrongly ascribed to the +cuckoo, and that they are only exceptionally large examples +of the eggs of the birds in the nests of which they were found, +for it cannot be gainsaid that some such abnormal examples are +occasionally to be met with. But it is well known that abnormally +large eggs are not only often deficient in depth of colour, but +still more often in stoutness of shell. Applying these rough +criteria to Dr Baldamus’s series, most of the specimens stood +the test very well.</p> + +<p>There are some other considerations to be urged. For instance, +Herr Braune, a forester at Greiz in the principality of Reuss +(<i>Naumannia, tom. cit.</i> pp. 307, 313), shot a hen cuckoo as she +was leaving the nest of an icterine warbler (<i>Hypolais icterina</i>). +In the oviduct of this cuckoo he found an egg coloured very like +that of the warbler, and on looking into the nest he found +there an exactly similar egg, which there can be no reasonable +doubt had just been laid by that very cuckoo. Moreover, Herr +Grunack (<i>Journ. für Orn.</i>, 1873, p. 454) afterwards found one +of the most abnormally coloured specimens, quite unlike the +ordinary egg of the cuckoo, to contain an embryo so fully +formed as to show the characteristic zygodactyl feet of the bird, +thus proving unquestionably its parentage.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, we must bear in mind the numerous +instances in which not the least similarity can be traced—as in +the not uncommon case of the hedge-sparrow already mentioned, +and if we attempt any explanatory hypothesis it must be one +that will fit all round. Such an explanation seems to be this. +We know that certain kinds of birds resent interference with +their nests much less than others, and among them it may be +asserted that the hedge-sparrow will patiently submit to various +experiments. She will brood with complacency the egg of a +redbreast (<i>Erithacus rubecula</i>), so unlike her own, and for aught +we know to the contrary may even be colour-blind. In the case +of such a species there would be no need of anything further to +ensure success—the terror of the nest-owner at seeing her home +invaded by a hawk-like giant, and some of her treasures tossed +out, would be enough to stir her motherly feelings so deeply that +she would without misgiving, if not with joy that something +had been spared to her, resume the duty of incubation so soon +as the danger was past. But with other species it may be, and +doubtless is, different. Here assimilation of the introduced egg +to those of the rightful owner may be necessary, for there can +hardly be a doubt as to the truth of Dr Baldamus’s theory as to +the object of the assimilation being to render the cuckoo’s egg +“less easily recognized by the foster-parents as a substituted +one.” It is especially desirable to point out that there is not +the slightest ground for imagining that the cuckoo, or any other +bird, can voluntarily influence the colour of the egg she is about +to lay. Over that she can have no control, but its destination +she can determine. It would seem also impossible that a cuckoo, +having laid an egg, should look at it, and then decide from its +appearance in what bird’s nest she should put it. That the colour +of an egg-shell can be in some mysterious way affected by the +action of external objects on the perceptive faculties of the +mother is a notion too wild to be seriously entertained. Consequently, +only one explanation of the facts can here be suggested. +Every one who has sufficiently studied the habits of animals +will admit the influence of heredity. That there is a reasonable +probability of each cuckoo most commonly putting her eggs in +the nest of the same species of bird, and of this habit being +transmitted to her posterity, does not seem to be a very violent +supposition. Without attributing any wonderful sagacity to +her, it does not seem unlikely that the cuckoo which had once +successfully foisted her egg on a reed-wren or a titlark should +again seek for another reed-wren’s or another titlark’s nest (as +the case may be), when she had another egg to dispose of, and +that she should continue her practice from one season to another. +It stands on record (<i>Zoologist</i>, 1873, p. 3648) that a pair of wagtails +built their nest for eight or nine years running in almost +exactly the same spot, and that in each of those years they +fostered a young cuckoo, while many other cases of like kind, +though not perhaps established on so good authority, are believed +to have happened. Such a habit could hardly fail to become +hereditary, so that the daughter of a cuckoo which always put +her egg into a reed-wren’s, titlark’s or wagtail’s nest would do +as did her mother. Furthermore it is unquestionable that, +whatever variation there may be among the eggs laid by different +individuals of the same species, there is a strong family likeness +between the eggs laid by the same individual, even at the interval +of many years, and it can hardly be questioned that the eggs +of the daughter would more or less resemble those of her mother. +Hence the supposition may be fairly credited that the habit of +laying a particular style of egg is also likely to become hereditary. +Combining this supposition with that as to the cuckoo’s habit +of using the nest of the same species becoming hereditary, it will +be seen that it requires only an application of the principle of +natural selection to show the probability of this principle operating +in the course of time to produce the facts asserted by the +anonymous Solognot of the 18th century, and by Dr Baldamus +and others since. The particular <i>gens</i> of cuckoo which inherited +and transmitted the habit of depositing in the nest of any +particular species of bird eggs having more or less resemblance to +the eggs of that species would prosper most in those members +of the <i>gens</i> where the likeness was strongest, and the other +members would (<i>ceteris paribus</i>) in time be eliminated. As +already shown, it is not to be supposed that all species, or even +all individuals of a species, are duped with equal ease. The +operation of this kind of natural selection would be most needed +in those cases where the species are not easily duped—that is, +in those cases which occur the least frequently. Here it is we +find it, for observation shows that eggs of the cuckoo deposited +in nests of the red-backed shrike (<i>Lanius collurio</i>), of the bunting +(<i>Emberiza miliaria</i>), and of the icterine warbler approximate in +their colouring to eggs of those species—species in whose nests +the cuckoo rarely (in comparison with others) deposits eggs. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page610" id="page610"></a>610</span> +Of species which are more easily duped, such as the hedge-sparrow, +mention has already been made.</p> + +<p>More or less nearly allied to the British cuckoo are many other +forms of the genus from various parts of Africa, Asia and their +islands, while one even reaches Australia. In some cases the +chief difference is said to lie in the diversity of voice—a character +only to be appreciated by those acquainted with the living birds, +and though of course some regard should be paid to this distinction, +the possibility of birds using different “dialects” according +to the locality they inhabit must make it a slender specific +diagnostic. All these forms are believed to have essentially +the same habits as the British cuckoo, and, as regards parasitism +the same is to be said of the large cuckoo of southern Europe and +North Africa (<i>Coccystes glandarius</i>), which victimizes pies (<i>Pica +mauritanica</i> and <i>Cyanopica cooki</i>) and crows (<i>Corvus cornix</i>). +True it is that an instance of this species, commonly known as +the great spotted cuckoo, having built a nest and hatched its +young, is on record, but the later observations of others tend to +cast doubt on the credibility of the ancient report. It is worthy +of remark that the eggs of this bird so closely resemble those of +one of the pies in whose nest they have been found, that even +expert zoologists have been deceived by them, only to discover +the truth when the cuckoo’s embryo had been extracted from +the supposed pie’s egg. This species of cuckoo, easily distinguishable +by its large size and long crest, has more than once +made its appearance as a straggler in the British Isles. Equally +parasitic are many other cuckoos, belonging chiefly to genera +which have been more or less clearly defined as <i>Cacomantis</i>, +<i>Chrysococcyx</i>, <i>Eudynamis</i>, <i>Oxylophus</i>, <i>Polyphasia</i> and <i>Surniculus</i>, +and inhabiting parts of the Ethiopian, Indian and Australian +regions;<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> but there are certain aberrant forms of Old World +cuckoos which unquestionably do not shirk parental responsibilities. +Among these especially are the birds placed in or allied +to the genera <i>Centropus</i> and <i>Coua</i>—the former having a wide +distribution from Egypt to New South Wales, living much on +the ground and commonly called lark-heeled cuckoos; the latter +bearing no English name, and limited to the island of Madagascar. +These build a nest, not perhaps in a highly finished style of +architecture, but one that serves its end.</p> + +<p>Respecting the cuckoos of America, the evidence, though it +has been impugned, is certainly enough to clear them from the +charge which attaches to so many of their brethren of the Old +World. There are two species very well known in parts of the +United States and some of the West Indian Islands (<i>Coccyzus +Americanus</i> and <i>C. erythrophthalmus</i>), and each of them has +occasionally visited Europe. They both build nests—remarkably +small structures when compared with those of other birds of +their size—and faithfully incubate their delicate sea-green eggs. +In the south-western states of the Union and thence into Central +America is found another curious form of cuckoo (<i>Geococcyx</i>)—the +chaparral-cock of northern and paisano of southern settlers. +The first of these names it takes from the low brushwood (<i>chaparral</i>) +in which it chiefly dwells, and the second is said to be due +to its pheasant-like (<i>faisan</i> corrupted into <i>paisano</i>, properly a +countryman) appearance as it runs on the ground. Indeed, +one of the two species of the genus was formerly described as a +<i>Phasianus</i>. They both have short wings, and seem never to fly, +but run with great rapidity. Returning to arboreal forms, the +genera <i>Neomorphus</i>, <i>Diplopterus</i>, <i>Saurothera</i> and <i>Piaya</i> (the last +two commonly called rain-birds, from the belief that their cry +portends rain) may be noticed—all of them belonging to the +Neotropical region; but perhaps the most curious form of +American cuckoos is the ani (<i>Crotophaga</i>), of which three species +inhabit the same region. The best-known species (<i>C. ani</i>) is +<span class="correction" title="amended from foud">found</span> throughout the Antilles and on the opposite continent. +In most of the British colonies it is known as the black witch, +and is accused of various malpractices—it being, in truth, a +perfectly harmless if not a beneficial bird. As regards its propagation +this aberrant form of cuckoo departs in one direction +from the normal habit of birds, for several females, unite to lay +their eggs in one nest. It is evident that incubation is carried +on socially, since an intruder on approaching the rude nest will +disturb perhaps half a dozen of its sable proprietors, who, loudly +complaining, seek safety either in the leafy branches of the tree +that holds it, or in the nearest available covert, with all the +speed that their feeble powers of flight permit.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> An instance to the contrary has been recorded by Mr A. C. +Smith (<i>Zoologist</i>, 1873, p. 3516) on Mr Brine’s authority.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This series was seen in 1861 by the writer.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Evidence tends to show that the same is to be said of the curious +channel-bill (<i>Scythrops novae-hollandiae</i>), though absolute proof +seems to be wanting.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUCKOO-SPIT,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> a frothy secretion found upon plants, and +produced by the immature nymphal stage of various plant-lice +of the familiar <i>Cercopidae</i> and <i>Jassidae</i>, belonging to the homopterous +division of the Hemiptera, which in the adult condition +are sometimes called frog-hoppers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUCUMBER<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (<i>Cucumis sativus</i>, Fr. <i>concombre</i>, O. Fr. <i>coucombre</i>, +whence the older English spelling and pronunciation +“cowcumber,” the standard in England up to the beginning +of the 18th century), a creeping plant of the natural order +Cucurbitaceae. It is widely cultivated, and originated probably +in northern India, where Alphonse de Candolle affirms +(<i>Origin of Cultivated Plants</i>) that it has been cultivated for at +least three thousand years. It spread westward to Europe and +was cultivated by the ancient Greeks under the name <span class="grk" title="sikuos">σίκυος</span>; +it did not reach China until two hundred years before the Christian +era. It is an annual with a rough succulent trailing stem and +stalked hairy leaves with three to five pointed lobes; the stem +bears branched tendrils by means of which the plant can be +trained to supports. The short-stalked, bell-shaped flowers are +unisexual, but staminate and pistillate are borne on the same +plant; the latter are recognized by the swollen warty green ovary +below the rest of the flower. The ovary develops into the +“cucumber” without fertilization, and unless seeds are wanted, +it is advisable to pinch off the male flowers.</p> + +<p>There are a great many varieties of cucumber in cultivation, +which may be grouped under the two headings (1) forcing, (2) +field varieties.</p> + +<p>1. The former are large-leaved strong-growing plants, not +suited to outdoor culture, with long smooth-rinded fruit; there +are many excellent varieties such as Telegraph, Sion House, +duke of Edinburgh, &c. The plants are grown in a hot-bed +which is prepared towards the end of February from rich stable +manure, leaves, &c. A rich turfy loam with a little well-decomposed +stable manure forms a good soil. The seeds are sown +singly in rich, sandy soil in small pots early in February and +plunged in a bottom heat. After they have made one or two +foliage-leaves the seedlings are transferred to larger pots, and +ultimately about the middle of March to the hot-bed. Each +plant is placed in the centre of a mound of soil about a foot deep +and well watered with tepid water. The plants should be well +watered during their growing period, and the foliage sprinkled +or syringed two or three times a day. In bright sunshine the +plants are lightly shaded. When grown in frames the tops of +the main stems are pinched off when the stems are about 2 ft. +long; this causes the development of side shoots on which fruits +are borne. When these have produced one or two fruits, they are +also stopped at the joint beyond the fruit. When grown in greenhouses +the vines may be allowed to reach the full length of +the house before they are stopped. To keep the fruits straight +they may be grown in cylindrical glass tubes about a foot long, +or along narrow wooden troughs. If seeds are required one or +more female flowers should be selected and pollen from male +flower placed on their stigmas.</p> + +<p>2. The outdoor varieties are known as hill or ridge cucumbers. +They may be grown in any good soil. A warm, sheltered spot with +a south aspect and a mound of rich, sandy loam with a little leaf-mould +placed over a hot-bed of dung and leaves is recommended. +The mounds or ridges should be 4 to 5 ft. apart, and one plant +is placed in the centre of each. The seeds are sown in March +in light, rich soil in small pots with gentle heat. The seedlings +are repotted and well hardened for planting out in June. The +plants must be well watered in and, until established, shaded by +a hand-light from bright sunshine. When the leading shoots are +from 1½ to 2 ft. long the tips are pinched off to induce the formation +of fruit-bearing side-shoots. If seed is required a pistillate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page611" id="page611"></a>611</span> +flower is selected and pollinated. There are numerous varieties +distinguished by size and the smooth or prickly rind. King of +the Ridge has smooth fruits a foot or more long; gherkin, a +short, prickly form, is much used for pickling.</p> + +<p>Cucumber is subject to the attacks of green fly, red spider and +thrips; for the two latter, infected leaves should be sponged with +soapy water; for green fly careful fumigating is necessary.</p> + +<p>The Sikkim cucumber, <i>C. sativus var. sikkimensis</i>, is a large +fruited form, reaching 15 in. long by 6 in. thick, grown in +the Himalayas of Sikkim and Nepal. It was discovered by Sir +Joseph Hooker in the eastern Himalayas in 1848. He says +“so abundant were the fruits, that for days together I saw +gnawed fruits lying by the natives’ paths by thousands, and +every man, woman and child seemed engaged throughout the +day in devouring them.” The fruit is reddish-brown, marked +with yellow, and is eaten both raw and cooked.</p> + +<p>The West India gherkin is <i>Cucumis Anguria</i>, a plant with +small, slender vines, and very abundant small ellipsoid green +fruit covered with warts and spines. It is used for pickling.</p> + +<p>Cucumbers were much esteemed by the ancients. According +to Pliny, the emperor Tiberius was supplied with them daily, +both in summer and winter. The kishuim or cucumbers of the +scriptures (Num. xi. 5; Isa. i. 8) were probably a wild form of +<i>C. Melo</i>, the melon, a plant common in Egypt, where a drink +is prepared from the ripe fruit. Peter Forskäl, one of the early +botanical writers on the country, describes its preparation. +The pulp is broken and stirred by means of a stick thrust through +a hole cut at the umbilicus of the fruit; the hole is then closed +with wax, and the fruit, without removing it from its stem, +is buried in a little pit; after some days the pulp is found to +be converted into an agreeable liquor (see <i>Flora aegyptiaco-arabica</i>, +p. 168, 1775). The squirting cucumber, <i>Ecballium +Elaterium</i>, the <span class="grk" title="Sikuos agrios">Σίκυος ἄγριος</span> of Theophrastus, furnishes the drug +elaterium (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Naudin in <i>Annal. des sci. nat.</i> ser. 4 (Botany), t. xi. (1859); +G. Nicholson, <i>Dictionary of Gardening</i> (1885); L. H. Bailey, <i>Cyclopaedia +of American Horticulture</i> (1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUCURBITACEAE,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a botanical order of dicotyledons, containing +87 genera and about 650 species, found in the temperate +and warmer parts of the earth but especially developed in the +tropics. The plants are generally annual herbs, climbing by +means of tendrils and having a rapid growth. The long-stalked +leaves are arranged alternately, and are generally palmately +lobed and veined. The flowers or inflorescences are borne in +the leaf-axils, in which a vegetative bud is also found, and at +the side of the leaf-stalk is a simple or branched tendril. There +has been much difference of opinion as to what member or +members the tendril represents; the one which seems most in +accordance with facts regards the tendril as a shoot, the lower +portion representing the stem, the upper twining portion a leaf. +The flowers are unisexual, and strikingly epigynous, the perianth +and stamens being attached to a bell-shaped prolongation of the +receptacle above the ovary. The five narrow pointed sepals +are followed by five petals which are generally united to form +a more or less bell-shaped corolla. There are five stamens in +the male flowers; the anthers open towards the outside, are +one-celled, with the pollen-sacs generally curved and variously +united. The carpels, normally three in number, form an ovary +with three thick, fleshy, bifid placentas bearing a large number +of ovules on each side, and generally filling the interior of the +ovary with a juicy mass. The short thick style has generally +three branches each bearing a fleshy, usually forked stigma. The +fruit is a fleshy many-seeded berry with a tough rind (known as +a <i>pepo</i>), and often attains considerable size. The embryo +completely fills the seed.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:394px; height:518px" src="images/img611a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—<i>Bryonia dioica</i>, Bryony. 1, part of corolla of male +flower with attached stamens; 2, female flower after removal of +calyx and <span class="correction" title="amended from carolla">corolla</span>; 3, berries; 1, 2, 3 about nat. size.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:522px; height:379px" src="images/img611b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>1, Male flower of cucumber (<i>Cucumis</i>).</p> +<p>2, Same, in vertical section, slightly enlarged.</p> +<p>3, Stamens, after removal of calyx and corolla.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>4, Female flower.</p> +<p>5, Horizontal plan of male flower.</p> +<p>6, Transverse section of fruit.</p> +<p><br />  1 and 4 nat. size.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The order is represented in Britain by bryony (<i>Bryonia dioica</i>), +(fig. 1) a hedge-climber, perennial by means of large fleshy tubers +which send up each year a number of slender angular stems. +The leaves are heart-shaped with wavy margined lobes. The +flowers are greenish, ½ to ¾ in. in diameter; the fruit, a red +several-seeded berry, is about ¼ in. in diameter.</p> + +<p>Many genera are of economic importance; <i>Cucumis</i> (fig. 2) +affords cucumber (<i>q.v.</i>) and melon (<i>q.v.</i>) <i>Cucurbita</i>, pumpkin and +marrow; <i>Citrullus vulgaris</i> is water-melon, and <i>C. Colocynthis</i>, +colocynth; <i>Ecballium Elaterium</i> (squirting cucumber) is +medicinal; <i>Sechium edule</i> (chocho), a tropical American species, +is largely cultivated for its edible fruit; it contains one large +seed which germinates in situ. <i>Lagenaria</i> is the gourd (<i>q.v.</i>). +The fruits of <i>Luffa aegyptiaca</i> have a number of closely netted +vascular bundles in the pericarp, forming a kind of loose felt +which supplies the well-known loofah or bath-sponge.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUDDALORE,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> a town of British India, in the South Arcot +district of Madras, on the coast 125 m. S. of Madras by rail. +Pop. (1901) 52,216, showing an increase of 10% in the decade. +It lies low, but is regarded as exceptionally healthy, and serves +as a kind of sanatorium for the surrounding district. The +principal exports are sugar, oil-seeds and indigo. There are two +colleges and two high schools. In the neighbourhood are the +ruins of Fort St David situated on the river Gadilam, which has +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page612" id="page612"></a>612</span> +as stirring a history as any spot in the Presidency. As a small +fort built by a Hindu merchant it fell into the hands of the +Mahrattas after the capture of Gingi by Sivaji in 1677. From +them it was purchased by the English in 1690, the purchase +including not only the fort but the adjacent towns and villages +“within ye randome shott of a piece of ordnance.” A great gun +was fired to different points of the compass and all the country +within its range, including the town of Cuddalore, passed into +the possession of the English. The villages thus obtained are +still spoken of as “cannon ball villages.” From 1725 onwards +the fortifications were greatly strengthened. In 1746 Fort +St David became the British headquarters for the south of India, +and Dupleix’ attack was successfully repulsed. Clive was +appointed its governor in 1756; in 1758 the French captured it, +but abandoned it two years later to Sir Eyre Coote. In 1782 +they again took it and restored it sufficiently to withstand a +British attack in 1783. In 1785 it finally passed into British +possession.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUDDAPAH,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the +Madras Presidency. The town is 6 m. from the right bank of +the river Pennar, and 161 m. by rail from Madras. Pop. (1901) +16,432. It is now a poor place, but has some trade in cotton and +indigo, and manufactures of cotton cloth. Hills surround it +on three sides, and it has a bad reputation for unhealthiness.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Cuddapah</span> has an area of 8723 sq. m. It +is in shape an irregular parallelogram, divided into two nearly +equal parts by the range of the Eastern Ghats, which intersects +it throughout its entire length. The two tracts thus formed +possess totally different features. The first, which constitutes +the north, east and south-east of the district, is a low-lying plain; +while the other, which comprises the southern and south-western +portion, forms a high table-land from 1500 to 2500 ft. +above sea-level. The chief river is the Pennar, which enters the +district from Bellary on the west, and flows eastwards into +Nellore. Though a large and broad river, and in the rains +containing a great volume of water, in the hot weather months +it dwindles down to an inconsiderable stream. Its principal +tributaries are the Kundaur, Saglair, Cheyair, and Papagni +rivers. One of the most interesting antiquities in the district +is the ancient fort of Gurramkonda. The fort is supposed to have +been built by the Golconda sultans; it stands on a hill 500 +ft. high, three sides of which consist of almost perpendicular +precipices. According to a local legend the name Gurramkonda, +meaning “horse hill,” was derived from the fact that a horse was +supposed to be guardian of the fort and that the place was +impregnable so long as the horse remained there. The story +goes that a Mahratta chief at length succeeded in scaling the +precipice and in carrying off the horse, and although the thief +was captured before reaching the base of the hill, the spell was +broken and the fort, when next attacked, fell. The population +of the district in 1901 was 1,291,267. The principal crops are +millet, rice, other food grains, pulse, oil-seeds, cotton and indigo. +The two last are largely exported. There are several steam +factories for pressing cotton, and indigo vats. The district +is served by lines of the Madras and the South Indian +railways.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUDWORTH, RALPH<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1617-1688), English philosopher, was +born at Aller, Somersetshire, the son of Dr Ralph Cudworth +(d. 1624), rector of Aller, formerly fellow of Emmanuel College, +Cambridge. His father died in 1624, and his mother then +married the Rev. Dr Stoughton, who gave the boy a good home +education. Cudworth was sent to his father’s college, was elected +fellow in 1639, and became a successful tutor. In 1642 he +published <i>A Discourse concerning the true Notion of the Lord’s +Supper</i>, and a tract entitled <i>The Union of Christ and the Church</i>. +In 1645 he was appointed master of Clare Hall and the same year +was elected Regius professor of Hebrew. He was now recognized +as a leader among the remarkable group known as the Cambridge +Platonists (<i>q.v.</i>). The whole party were more or less in sympathy +with the Commonwealth, and Cudworth was consulted by John +Thurloe, Cromwell’s secretary of state, in regard to university +and government appointments. His sermons, such as that +preached before the House of Commons, on the 31st of March +1647, advocate principles of religious toleration and charity. +In 1650 he was presented to the college living of North Cadbury, +Somerset. From the diary of his friend John Worthington we +learn that Cudworth was nearly compelled, through poverty, +to leave the university, but in 1654 he was elected master of +Christ’s College, whereupon he married. On the Restoration +he contributed some Hebrew verses to the <i>Academiae Cantabrigiensis</i> +<span class="grk" title="Sôstra">Σῶστρα</span>, a congratulatory volume addressed to the king. +In 1662 he was presented to the rectory of Ashwell, Herts. +In 1665 he almost quarrelled with his fellow-Platonist, Henry +More, because the latter had written an ethical work which +Cudworth feared would interfere with his own long-contemplated +treatise on the same subject. To avoid clashing, More brought +out his book, the <i>Enchiridion ethicum</i>, in Latin; Cudworth’s +never appeared. In 1678 he published <i>The True Intellectual +System of the Universe: the first part, wherein all the reason and +philosophy of atheism is confuted and its impossibility demonstrated</i> +(imprimatur dated 1671). No more was published, perhaps +because of the theological clamour raised against this first part. +Cudworth was installed prebendary of Gloucester in 1678. He +died on the 26th of June 1688, and was buried in the chapel +of Christ’s. His only surviving child, Damaris, a devout and +talented woman, became the second wife of Sir Francis Masham, +and was distinguished as the friend of John Locke. Much of +Cudworth’s work still remains in manuscript; <i>A Treatise +concerning eternal and immutable Morality</i> was published in 1731; +and <i>A Treatise of Freewill</i>, edited by John Allen, in 1838; both +are connected with the design of his <i>magnum opus</i>, the <i>Intellectual +System</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>Intellectual System</i> arose, so its author tells us, out of a +discourse refuting “fatal necessity,” or determinism. Enlarging +his plan, he proposed to prove three matters: (<i>a</i>) the existence +of God; (<i>b</i>) the naturalness of moral distinctions; and (<i>c</i>) the +reality of human freedom. These three together make up the +intellectual (as opposed to the physical) system of the universe; +and they are opposed respectively by three false principles, +atheism, religious fatalism which refers all moral distinctions to +the will of God, and thirdly the fatalism of the ancient Stoics, +who recognized God and yet identified Him with nature. The +immense fragment dealing with atheism is all that was published +by its author. Cudworth criticizes two main forms of materialistic +atheism, the atomic, adopted by Democritus, Epicurus and +Hobbes; and the hylozoic, attributed to Strato, which explains +everything by the supposition of an inward self-organizing life +in matter. Atomic atheism is by far the more important, if +only because Hobbes, the great antagonist whom Cudworth +always has in view, is supposed to have held it. It arises out of +the combination of two principles, neither of which is atheistic +taken separately, <i>i.e.</i> atomism and corporealism, or the doctrine +that nothing exists but body. The example of Stoicism, as +Cudworth points out, shows that corporealism may be theistic. +Into the history of atomism Cudworth plunges with vast erudition. +It is, in its purely physical application, a theory that he +fully accepts; he holds that it was taught by Pythagoras, +Empedocles, and in fact, nearly all the ancient philosophers, +and was only perverted to atheism by Democritus. It was +first invented, he believes, before the Trojan war, by a Sidonian +thinker named Moschus or Mochus, who is identical with the +Moses of the Old Testament. In dealing with atheism Cudworth’s +method is to marshal the atheistic arguments elaborately, +so elaborately that Dryden remarked “he has raised such objections +against the being of a God and Providence that many +think he has not answered them”; then in his last chapter, +which by itself is as long as an ordinary treatise, he confutes +them with all the reasons that his reading could supply. A +subordinate matter in the book that attracted much attention +at the time is the conception of the “Plastic Medium,” which +is a mere revival of Plato’s “World-Soul,” and is meant to +explain the existence and laws of nature without referring all +to the direct operation of God. It occasioned a long-drawn +controversy between Pierre Bayle and Le Clerc, the former +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page613" id="page613"></a>613</span> +maintaining, the latter denying, that the Plastic Medium is +really favourable to atheism.</p> + +<p>No modern reader can endure to toil through the <i>Intellectual +System</i>; its only interest is the light it throws upon the state of +religious thought after the Restoration, when, as Birch puts it, +“irreligion began to lift up its head.” It is immensely diffuse +and pretentious, loaded with digressions, its argument buried +under masses of fantastic, uncritical learning, the work of a +vigorous but quite unoriginal mind. As Bolingbroke said, +Cudworth “read too much to think enough, and admired too +much to think freely.” It is no calamity that natural procrastination, +or the clamour caused by his candid treatment of +atheism and by certain heretical tendencies detected by orthodox +criticism in his view of the Trinity, made Cudworth leave the +work unfinished.</p> + +<p>A much more favourable judgment must be given upon the +short <i>Treatise on eternal and immutable Morality</i>, which deserves +to be read by those who are interested in the historical development +of British moral philosophy. It is an answer to Hobbes’s +famous doctrine that moral distinctions are created by the state, +an answer from the standpoint of Platonism. Just as knowledge +contains a permanent intelligible element over and above the +flux of sense-impressions, so there exist eternal and immutable +ideas of morality. Cudworth’s ideas, like Plato’s, have “a +constant and never-failing entity of their own,” such as we see +in geometrical figures; but, unlike Plato’s, they exist in the +mind of God, whence they are communicated to finite understandings. +Hence “it is evident that wisdom, knowledge and +understanding are eternal and self-subsistent things, superior +to matter and all sensible beings, and independent upon them”; +and so also are moral good and evil. At this point Cudworth +stops; he does not attempt to give any list of Moral Ideas. It +is, indeed, the cardinal weakness of this form of intuitionism +that no satisfactory list can be given and that no moral principles +have the “constant and never-failing entity,” or the definiteness, +of the concepts of geometry. Henry More, in his <i>Enchiridion +ethicum</i>, attempts to enumerate the “<i>noemata moralia</i>”; but, +so far from being self-evident, most of his moral axioms are +open to serious controversy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Intellectual System</i> was translated into Latin by J. L. Mosheim +and furnished with notes and dissertations which were translated +into English in J. Harrison’s edition (1845). Our chief biographical +authority is T. Birch’s “Account,” which appears in editions of the +<i>Works</i>. There is a good chapter on Cudworth in J. Tulloch’s +<i>Rational Theology</i>, vol. ii. Consult also P. Janet’s <i>Essai sur le +médiateur plastique</i> (1860), W. R. Scott’s <i>Introduction to Cudworth’s +“Treatise,”</i> and J. Martineau’s <i>Types of Ethical Theory</i>, vol. ii.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. St.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUENCA,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> a city and the capital of the province of Azuay, +Ecuador, about 190 m. S. of Quito and 70 m. S.E. of Guayaquil. +Pop. (1908 estimate) 30,000 (largely Indians), including the +suburb of Ejido. Cuenca stands at the northern end of a broad +valley, or basin, of the Andes, lying between the transverse +ridges of Azuay and Loja, and is about 8640 ft. above sea-level. +Near by is the hill of Tarqui which the French astronomers chose +for their meridian in 1742. Communication with the coast is +difficult. Cuenca is the third most important city of Ecuador, +being the seat of a bishopric, and having a college, a university +faculty, a cathedral, and several churches, and a considerable +industrial and commercial development. It manufactures +sugar, woollen goods and pottery, and exports Peruvian bark +(cinchona), hats, cereals, cheese, hides, &c. It was founded in +1557 on the site of a native town called Tumibamba, and was +made an episcopal see in 1786.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUENCA,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> a province of central Spain bounded on the N. by +Guadalajara, N.E. by Teruel, E. by Valencia, S. by Albacete, +S.W. by Ciudad Real, W. by Toledo and N.W. by Madrid. +Pop. (1900) 249,696; area, 6636 sq. m. Cuenca occupies the +eastern part of the ancient kingdom of New Castile, and slopes +from the Serrania de Cuenca (highest point the Cerro de San +Felipe, on the north-eastern border of the province, 5905 ft.), +down into the great southern Castilian plain watered by the upper +streams of the Guadiana. The lowlands bordering on Ciudad +Real belong to the wide plain of La Mancha (<i>q.v.</i>). The rocky +and bare highland of Cuenca on the north and east includes the +upper valley of the Jucar and its tributary streams, but in the +north-west the province is watered by tributaries of the Tagus. +The forests are proverbial for their pine timber, and rival those +of Soria; considerable quantities of timber are floated down the +Tagus to Aranjuez and thence taken to Madrid for building +purposes. Excessive droughts prevail; the climate of the hills +and of the high plateaus is harsh and cold, but the valleys are +excessively hot in summer. The soil, where well watered, is +fertile, but little attention is paid to agriculture, and three-fourths +of the area is left under pasture. The rearing of cattle, +asses, mules and sheep is the principal employment of the people; +olive oil, nuts, wine, wheat, silk, wax and honey are the chief +products. Iron, copper, alum, saltpetre, jasper and agates are +found, but in 1903 all the workings had been abandoned except +three salt mines; and there are few manufactures except the +weaving of coarse cloth. The roads are in such a backward +condition that they cripple not only the mining interests but also +the exports of timber, and at the beginning of the 20th century +there was no railway except a branch line which passed westwards +from Aranjuez through Tarancon to Cuenca, the capital (pop. +1900, 10,756). No other town has as many as 6000 inhabitants, +and no other Spanish province is so thinly populated as Cuenca. +In 1900 there were only 37.6 inhabitants per sq. m. Education +is backward, and extreme poverty almost universal among the +peasantry. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Castile</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUENCA,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> the capital of the Spanish province of Cuenca; +125 m. by rail E. by S. of Madrid. Pop. (1900) 10,756. Cuenca +occupies a height of the well-wooded Serrania de Cuenca, at an +elevation of 2960 ft., overlooking the confluence of the rivers +Jucar and Huecar. A fine bridge, built in 1523, crosses the +Jucar to the convent of San Pablo. Among several interesting +churches in the city, the most noteworthy is the 13th-century +Gothic cathedral, celebrated for the beautiful carved woodwork +of its 16th-century doorway, and containing some admirable +examples of Spanish sculpture. The city has a considerable +trade in timber, and was long the headquarters of the provincial +wool industry; the loss of which, in modern times, has partly +been compensated by the development of soap, paper, chocolate, +match and leather manufactures. Cuenca was captured from +the Moors by Alphonso VIII. of Castile in 1177, and shortly +afterwards became an episcopal see. In 1874 it offered a prolonged +and gallant resistance to the Carlist rebels.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUESTA,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a name of Spanish origin used in New Mexico for +low ridges of steep descent on one side and gentle slope on the +other. It has been proposed as a term for the land form which +consists of the two elements of a steep scarp or “strike” face, +and an inclined plain or gentle “dip” slope.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUEVAS DE VERA,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province +of Almería; on the right bank of the river Almanzora, +8 m. W. of the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 20,562. Cuevas +de Vera is built at the eastern extremity of the Sierra de los +Filabres (6823 ft.), which isolate it from the railway system of +Almería. It is, however, the chief market for the rich agricultural +districts towards the south and for the argentiferous lead and +other mines among the mountains. In appearance it is modern, +with wide streets, two fine squares, and a parish church in Doric +style, dating from 1758. But in reality the town is of considerable +antiquity. One of the towers in the Moorish palace owned +by the marquesses of Villafranca is probably of Roman origin.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUFF.<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1) (Of uncertain origin), the lower edge of a sleeve +turned back to show an ornamental border, or with an addition +of lace or trimming; now used chiefly of the stiff bands of linen +worn under the coat-sleeve either loose or attached to the shirt. +(2) Also uncertain in origin, but with no connexion, probably, +with (1), a blow with the hand either open or closed, as opposed to +the use of weapons.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUIRASS<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (Fr. <i>cuirasse</i>, Lat. <i>coriaceus</i>, made of leather, from +<i>corium</i>, the original breastplate being of leather), the plate +armour, whether formed of a single piece of metal or other rigid +material or composed of two or more pieces, which covers the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page614" id="page614"></a>614</span> +front of the wearer’s person. In a suit of armour, however, since +this important piece was generally worn in connexion with a +corresponding defence for the back, the term cuirass commonly +is understood to imply the complete body-armour, including +both the breast and the back plates. Thus this complete body-armour +appears in the middle ages frequently to have been +described as a “pair of plates.” The <i>corslet</i> (Fr. <i>corselet</i>, diminutive +of the O. Fr. <i>cors</i>, body), a comparatively light cuirass, is +more strictly a breast-plate only. As parts of the military +equipment of classic antiquity, cuirasses and corslets of bronze, +and at later periods also of iron or some other rigid substance, +were habitually in use; but while some special kind of secondary +protection for the breast had been worn in earlier times by the +men-at-arms in addition to their mail hauberks and their “cotes” +armed with splints and studs, it was not till the 14th century that +a regular body-defence of plate can be said to have become an +established component of medieval armour. As this century +continued to advance, the cuirass is found gradually to have +come into general use, in connexion with plate defences for the +limbs, until, at the close of the century, the long familiar interlinked +chain-mail is no longer visible in knightly figures, except +in the camail of the bassinet and at the edge of the hauberk. +The prevailing, and indeed almost the universal, usage throughout +this century was that the cuirass was worn covered. Thus, +the globose form of the breast-armour of the Black Prince, in +his effigy in Canterbury cathedral, 1376, intimates that a cuirass +as well as a hauberk is to be considered to have been covered +by the royalty-emblazoned jupon of the prince. The cuirass, +thus worn in the 14th century, was always made of sufficient +length to rest on the hips; otherwise, if not thus supported, it +must have been suspended from the shoulders, in which case it +would have effectually interfered with the free and vigorous +action of the wearer. Early in the 15th century, the entire +panoply of plate, including the cuirass, began to be worn without +any surcoat; but in the concluding quarter of the century the +short surcoat, with full short sleeves, known as the tabard, was +in general use over the armour. At the same time that the disuse +of the surcoat became general, small plates of various forms and +sizes (and not always made in pairs, the plate for the right or +sword-arm often being smaller and lighter than its companion), +were attached to the armour in front of the shoulders, to defend +the otherwise vulnerable points where the plate defences of the +upper-arms and the cuirass left a gap on each side. About the +middle of the century, instead of being formed of a single plate, +the breast-plate of the cuirass was made in two parts, the lower +adjusted to overlap the upper, and contrived by means of a strap +or sliding rivet to give flexibility to this defence. In the second +half of the 15th century the cuirass occasionally was superseded by +the “brigandine jacket,” a defence formed of some textile fabric, +generally of rich material, lined throughout with overlapping +scales (resembling the earlier “imbricated” form) of metal, +which were attached to the jacket by rivets, having their heads, +like studs, visible on the outside. In the 16th century, when +occasionally, and by personages of exalted rank, splendid +surcoats were worn over the armour, the cuirass—its breast-piece +during the first half of the century, globular in form—was +constantly reinforced by strong additional plates attached +to it by rivets or screws. About 1550 the breast-piece of the +cuirass was characterized by a vertical central ridge, called the +“tapul” having near its centre a projecting point; this projection, +somewhat later, was brought lower down, and eventually +the profile of the plate, the projection having been carried to its +base, assumed the singular form which led to this fashion of the +cuirass being distinguished as the “peascod cuirass.”</p> + +<p>Corslets provided with both breast and back pieces were worn +by foot-soldiers in the 17th century, while their mounted comrades +were equipped in heavier and stronger cuirasses; and these +defences continued in use after the other pieces of armour, one +by one, had gradually been laid aside. Their use, however, +never altogether ceased, and in modern armies mounted +cuirassiers, armed as in earlier days with breast and back plates, +have in some degree emulated the martial splendour of the body-armour +of the era of medieval chivalry. Some years after +Waterloo certain historical cuirasses were taken from their +repose in the Tower of London, and adapted for service by the +Life Guards and the Horse Guards. For parade purposes, +the Prussian <i>Gardes du Corps</i> and other corps wear cuirasses +of richly decorated leather.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUIRASSIERS,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a kind of heavy cavalry, originally developed +out of the men-at-arms or gendarmerie forming the heavy +cavalry of feudal armies. Their special characteristic was the +wearing of full armour, which they retained long after other +troops had abandoned it. Hence they became distinguished +as cuirassiers. The first Austrian corps of <i>kyrissers</i> was formed +in 1484 by the emperor Maximilian and was 100 strong. In +1705 Austria possessed twenty regiments of cuirassiers. After +the war of 1866, however, the existing regiments were converted +into dragoons. Russia has likewise in modern times abolished +all but a few guard regiments of cuirassiers. The Prussian +cuirassiers were first so called under Frederick William I., and +in the wars of his successor Frederick the Great they bore a +conspicuous part. After the Seven Years’ War they ceased to +wear the cuirass on service, but after 1814 these were reintroduced, +the spoils taken from the French cuirassiers being used +to equip the troops. The cuirass is now worn only on ceremonial +parades. In France the cuirassiers date from 1666, when a +regiment, subsequently numbered 8th of the line, was formed. +During the first Empire many regiments were created, until +in 1812 there were fourteen. The number was reduced after the +fall of Napoleon, but in modern times it has been again increased. +The French regiments alone in Europe wear the cuirass on all +parades and at manœuvres.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUJAS<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Cujacius</span>), <b>JACQUES</b> (or as he called himself, +<span class="sc">Jacques de Cujas</span>) (1520-1590), French jurisconsult, was born +at Toulouse, where his father, whose name was Cujaus, was a +fuller. Having taught himself Latin and Greek, he studied law +under Arnoul Ferrier, then professor at Toulouse, and rapidly +gained a great reputation as a lecturer on Justinian. In 1554 +he was appointed professor of law at Cahors, and about a year +after L’Hôpital called him to Bourges. Duaren, however, who +also held a professorship at Bourges, stirred up the students +against the new professor, and such was the disorder produced +in consequence that Cujas was glad to yield to the storm, and +accept an invitation he had received to the university of Valence. +Recalled to Bourges at the death of Duaren in 1559, he remained +there till 1567, when he returned to Valence. There he gained +a European reputation, and collected students from all parts +of the continent, among whom were Joseph Scaliger and de +Thou. In 1573 Charles IX. appointed Cujas counsellor to the +parlement of Grenoble, and in the following year a pension was +bestowed on him by Henry III. Margaret of Savoy induced +him to remove to Turin; but after a few months (1575) he once +more took his old place at Bourges. But the religious wars +drove him thence. He was called by the king to Paris, and +permission was granted him by the parlement to lecture on civil +law in the university of the capital. A year after, however, +he finally took up his residence at Bourges, where he remained +till his death in 1590, in spite of a handsome offer made him by +Gregory XIII. in 1584 to attract him to Bologna.</p> + +<p>The life of Cujas was altogether that of a scholar and teacher. +In the religious wars which filled all the thoughts of his contemporaries +he steadily refused to take any part. <i>Nihil hoc ad +edictum praetoris</i>, “this has nothing to do with the edict of the +praetor,” was his usual answer to those who spoke to him on +the subject. His surpassing merit as a jurisconsult consisted +in the fact that he turned from the ignorant commentators on +Roman law to the Roman law itself. He consulted a very large +number of manuscripts, of which he had collected more than 500 +in his own library; but, unfortunately, he left orders in his will +that his library should be divided among a number of purchasers, +and his collection was thus scattered, and in great part lost. His +emendations, of which a large number were published under the +title of <i>Animadversiones et observationes</i>, were not confined to lawbooks, +but extended to many of the Latin and Greek classical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page615" id="page615"></a>615</span> +authors. In jurisprudence his study was far from being devoted +solely to Justinian; he recovered and gave to the world a part of +the Theodosian Code, with explanations; and he procured the +manuscript of the <i>Basilica</i>, a Greek abridgment of Justinian, +afterwards published by Fabrot (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Basilica</a></span>). He also composed +a commentary on the <i>Consueludines Feudorum</i>, and on +some books of the Decretals. In the <i>Paratitla</i>, or summaries +which he made of the Digest, and particularly of the Code of +Justinian, he condensed into short axioms the elementary +principles of law, and gave definitions remarkable for their +admirable clearness and precision. His lessons, which he never +dictated, were continuous discourses, for which he made no +other preparation than that of profound meditation on the +subjects to be discussed. He was impatient of interruption, +and upon the least noise he would instantly quit the chair and +retire. He was strongly attached to his pupils, and Scaliger +affirms that he lost more than 4000 livres by lending money to +such of them as were in want.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In his lifetime Cujas published an edition of his works (Neville, +1577). It is beautiful and exact, but incomplete; it is now very +scarce. The edition of Colombet (1634) is also incomplete. Fabrot, +however, collected the whole in the edition which he published at +Paris (1658), in 10 vols. folio, and which was reprinted at Naples +(1722, 1727), in 11 vols. folio, and at Naples and at Venice (1758), +in 10 vols. folio, with an index forming an eleventh volume. In the +editions of Naples and Venice there are some additions not to be +found in that of Fabrot, particularly a general table, which will be +found very useful, and interpretations of all the Greek words used +by Cujas.</p> + +<p>See Papire-Masson, <i>Vie de Cujas</i> (Paris, 1590); Terrasson, <i>Histoire +de la jurisprudence romaine</i>, and <i>Mélanges d’histoire, de littérature, +et de jurisprudence</i>; Bernardi, <i>Éloge de Cujas</i> (Lyons, +1775); Hugo, <i>Civilistisches Magazin</i>; Berriat Saint Prix, <i>Mémoires +de Cujas</i>, appended to his <i>Histoire du droit romain; Biographie +universelle</i>; Gravina, <i>De ortu et progressu juris civilis</i>; Spangenberg, +<i>Cujacius und seine Zeitgenossen</i> (Leipzig, 1882).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CULDEES,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> an ancient monastic order with settlements in +Ireland and Scotland. It was long fondly imagined by Protestant +and especially by Presbyterian writers that they had +preserved primitive Christianity free from Roman corruptions +in one remote corner of western Europe, a view enshrined in +Thomas Campbell’s <i>Reullura</i>:</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Peace to their shades. The pure Culdees</p> +<p class="i05">Were Albyn’s earliest priests of God,</p> +<p class="i05">Ere yet an island of her seas</p> +<p class="i05">By foot of Saxon monk was trod.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>Another view, promulgated like the above by Hector Boece +in his Latin history of Scotland (1516), makes them the direct +successors in the 9th to the 12th century of the organized Irish +and Iona monasticism of the 6th to the 8th century. Both these +views were disproved by William Reeves (1815-1892), bishop of +Down, Connor and Dromore.</p> + +<p>As found in the Irish MSS. the name is <i>Céle Dé</i>, <i>i.e.</i> God’s +comrade or sworn ally. It was latinized as <i>Coli dei</i>, whence +Boece’s <i>culdei</i>. The term seems, like the Latin <i>vir dei</i>, to have +been applied generally to monks and hermits. There are very +few trustworthy ancient sources of information, but it seems +probable that the Rule of Chrodegang,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> archbishop of Metz +(d. 766), was brought by Irish monks to their native land +from the monasteries of north-eastern Gaul, and that Irish +anchorites originally unfettered by the rules of the cloister +bound themselves by it. In the course of the 9th century we find +mention of nine places in Ireland (including Armagh, Clonmacnoise, +Clones, Devenish and Sligo) where communities of +these Culdees were established as a kind of annexe to the regular +monastic institutions. They seem especially to have had the +care of the poor and the sick, and were interested in the musical +part of worship. Meanwhile in Scotland the Iona monks had +been expelled by the Pictish king Nechtan in 717, and the +vacancies thus caused were by no means filled by the Roman +monks who thronged into the north from Northumbria. Into +the gap, towards the end of the 8th century, came the Culdees +from Ireland. The features of their life in Scotland, which is +the most important epoch in the history of the order, seem to +resemble closely those of the secular canons of England and the +continent. From the outset they were more or less isolated, +and, having no fixed forms or common head, tended to decay. +In the 12th century the Celtic Church was completely metamorphosed +on the Roman pattern, and in the process the Culdees +also lost any distinctiveness they may formerly have had, being +brought, like the secular clergy, under canonical rule. The +pictures that we have of Culdee life in the 12th century vary +considerably. The chief houses in Scotland were at St Andrews, +Dunkeld, Lochleven, Monymusk in Aberdeenshire, Abernethy +and Brechin. Each was an independent establishment controlled +entirely by its own abbot and apparently divided into +two sections, one priestly and the other lay and even married. +At St Andrews about the year 1100 there were thirteen Culdees +holding office by hereditary tenure and paying more regard to +their own prosperity and aggrandizement than to the services +of the church or the needs of the populace. A much-needed +measure of reform, inaugurated by Queen Margaret, was carried +through by her sons Alexander I. and David I.; gradually the +whole position passed into the hands of Turgot and his successors +in the bishopric. Canons Regular were instituted and some of +the Culdees joined the new order. Those who declined were +allowed a life-rent of their revenues and lingered on as a separate +but ever-dwindling body till the beginning of the 14th century, +when, excluded from voting at the election of the bishop, they +disappear from history. At Dunkeld, Crinan, the grandfather of +Malcolm Canmore, was a lay abbot, and tradition says that +even the clerical members were married, though like the priests +of the Eastern Church, they lived apart from their wives during +their term of sacerdotal service. The Culdees of Lochleven +lived on St Serf’s Inch, which had been given them by a Pictish +prince, Brude, about 850. In 1093 they surrendered their +island to the bishop of St Andrews in return for perpetual food +and clothing, but Robert, who was bishop in 1144, handed over +all their vestments, books,<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and other property, with the island, +to the newly founded Canons Regular, in which probably the +Culdees were incorporated. There is no trace of such partial +independence as was experienced at St Andrews itself, possibly +because the bishop’s grant was backed up by a royal charter. +In the same fashion the Culdees of Monymusk, originally perhaps +a colony from St Andrews, became Canons Regular of the +Augustinian order early in the 13th century, and those of +Abernethy in 1273. At Brechin, famous like Abernethy for its +round tower, the Culdee prior and his monks helped to form the +chapter of the diocese founded by David I. in 1145, though the +name persisted for a generation or two. Similar absorptions +no doubt account for the disappearance of the Culdees of York, +a name borne by the canons of St Peter’s about 925, and of +Snowdon and Bardsey Island in north Wales mentioned by +Giraldus Cambrensis (<i>c.</i> 1190) in his <i>Speculum Ecclesiae</i> and +<i>Itinerarium</i> respectively. The former community was, he says, +sorely oppressed by the covetous Cistercians. These seem to be +the only cases where the Culdees are found in England and +Wales. In Ireland the Culdees of Armagh endured until the +dissolution in 1541, and enjoyed a fleeting resurrection in 1627, +soon after which their ancient property passed to the vicars +choral of the cathedral.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. Reeves, <i>The Culdees of the British Islands</i> (Dublin, 1864); +W. F. Skene, <i>Celtic Scotland</i> (1876-1880), especially vol. ii.; W. +Beveridge, <i>Makers of the Scottish Church</i> (1908). The older view +will be found in J. Jamieson’s <i>Historical Account of the Ancient +Culdees</i> (1811).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Devised originally for the clergy of Chrodegang’s cathedral, it +was largely an adaptation of St Benedict’s rule to secular clergy living +in common. In 816 it was confirmed, with certain modifications, by +the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle, and became the law for collegiate and +cathedral churches in the Frankish empire. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canon</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The list of these in the deed of transfer is the oldest Scottish +library catalogue.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CULEBRA,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> the smaller of two islands lying in the Virgin +Passage immediately E. of Porto Rico and known as the Islas +de Passaje. It is about 18 m. distant from Cape San Juan and +rises from the same submerged plateau with the larger islands of +the Antilles. Its extreme dimensions are 3 by 6 m., and its +surface is low and comparatively uniform, which gives the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page616" id="page616"></a>616</span> +prevailing winds an unbroken sweep across it. For this reason +the rainfall is limited to a short season, and the population is +compelled to store rainwater in cisterns for drinking purposes. +Its soil is fertile, and cattle, poultry, vegetables and small +fruits are produced. The island has been a dependency of +Porto Rico since 1879, when its colonization was formally undertaken, +and it is now described as a ward of the Vieques district +of the department of Humacao. In 1902 the American naval +authorities selected the Playa Sardinas harbour on the S. side +of Culebra as a rendezvous of the fleet and marine encampments +were located on shore. The strategic position of the island, its +healthiness and its continued use as a naval station have given +it considerable importance. Its population was 704 in 1899, +which had increased to nearly 1200 in 1903.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CULLEN, PAUL<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1803-1878), cardinal and archbishop of +Dublin, was born near Ballytore, Co. Kildare, and educated +first at the Quaker school at Carlow and afterwards at Rome, +where he joined the Urban College of the Propaganda and, after +passing a brilliant course, was ordained in 1829. He then +became vice-rector, and afterwards rector, of the Irish National +College in Rome; and during the Mazzini revolution of 1848 he +was rector of the Urban College, saving the property under the +protection of the American flag. In 1849, on the strong recommendation +of Archbishop John MacHale of Tuam, Cullen was +nominated as successor to the primatial see of Armagh; and, +on his return to Ireland, presided as papal delegate at the +national council of Thurles in the August of 1850. Taking a +strong line on the educational question which was then agitating +Ireland, he took a leading part in the national movement of +1850-1852, and at first supported the Tenant Rights League. +In May 1852 he was translated to Dublin, and soon a divergence +of opinion broke out between him and the more ardent Nationalists +under Archbishop MacHale. When the Irish university +was started, with Newman, appointed by Cullen, at its head, +the scheme was wrecked by the personal opposition to the +archbishop of Dublin. As time went on, his distrust of the +national movement grew deeper; and in 1853 he sternly forbade +his clergy to take part publicly in politics, and for this he was +denounced by the <i>Tablet</i> newspaper. His own political opinion +had best be told in his own words. “For thirty years I have +studied the revolution on the continent, and for nearly thirty +years I have watched the Nationalist movement in Ireland. +It is tainted at its sources with the revolutionary spirit. If any +attempt is made to abridge the rights and liberties of the Catholic +Church in Ireland, it will not be by the English government nor +by a ‘No Popery’ cry in England, but by the revolutionary and +irreligious Nationalists of Ireland” (Purcell’s <i>Life of Manning</i>, +ii. 610). Cullen, therefore, while an ardent patriot, was consistently +an opponent of Fenianism. He was made cardinal in +1866, being the first Irish cardinal. Energetic as an administrator, +churches and schools rose throughout his diocese; and +the excellent Mater Misericordiae Hospital and the seminary +at Clonlife are lasting memorials of his zeal. He took part in +the Vatican Council as an ardent infallibilist. In 1873 he was +defendant in a libel action brought against him by the Rev. +R. O’Keeffe, parish priest of Callan, on account of two sentences +of ecclesiastical censure pronounced by the cardinal as papal +delegate. The damages were laid at £10,000. Three of the four +judges allowed the defence of the cardinal to be valid; but it +was held that the papal rescript upon which he relied for his +extraordinary powers as delegate was illegal under statute; and +the lord chief justice decided that the plaintiff could not renounce +his natural and civil liberty. After several days’ trial, during +which Cullen was submitted to a very close examination, the verdict +was given for the plaintiff with ¼d. damages. The cardinal +died in Dublin on the 24th of October 1878.</p> +<div class="author">(E. Tn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CULLEN, WILLIAM<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1710-1790), Scottish physician and +medical teacher, was born at Hamilton, Lanarkshire, on the +15th of April 1710. He received his early education at the +grammar-school of Hamilton, and he appears to have subsequently +attended some classes at the university of Glasgow. +He began his medical career as apprentice to John Paisley, a +Glasgow surgeon, and after completing his apprenticeship he +became surgeon to a merchant vessel trading between London +and the West Indies. On his return to Scotland in 1732 he +settled as a practitioner in the parish of Shotts, Lanarkshire, +and in 1734-1736 studied medicine at Edinburgh, where +he was one of the founders of the Royal Medical Society. +In 1736 he began to practise in Hamilton, where he rapidly +acquired a high reputation. From 1737 to 1740 William Hunter +was his resident pupil, and at one time they proposed to enter +into partnership. In 1740 Cullen took the degree of M.D. at +Glasgow, whither he removed in 1744. During his residence at +Hamilton, besides the arduous duties of medical practice, he +found time to devote to the study of the natural sciences, and +especially of chemistry. On coming to Glasgow he appears to +have begun to lecture in connexion with the university, the +medical school of which was as yet imperfectly organized. +Besides the subjects of theory and practice of medicine, he +lectured systematically on botany, materia medica and chemistry. +His great abilities, enthusiasm and power of conveying instruction +made him a successful and highly popular teacher, and his +classes increased largely in numbers. At the same time he +diligently pursued the practice of his profession. Chemistry +was the subject which at this time seems to have engaged the +greatest share of his attention. He was himself a diligent +investigator and experimenter, and he did much to encourage +original research among his pupils, one of whom was Dr Joseph +Black. In 1751 he was appointed professor of medicine, but +continued to lecture on chemistry, and in 1756 he was elected +joint professor of chemistry at Edinburgh along with Andrew +Plummer, on whose death in the following year the sole appointment +was conferred on Cullen. This chair he held for ten years—his +classes always increasing in numbers. He also practised his +profession as a physician with eminent success. From 1757 he +delivered lectures on clinical medicine in the Royal Infirmary. +This was a work for which his experience, habits of observation, +and scientific training peculiarly fitted him, and in which his +popularity as a teacher, no less than his power as a practical +physician, became more than ever conspicuous. On the death +of Charles Alston in 1760, Cullen at the request of the students +undertook to finish his course of lectures on materia medica; +he delivered an entirely new course, which were published in +an unauthorized edition in 1771, but which he re-wrote and issued +as <i>A Treatise on Materia Medica</i> in 1789.</p> + +<p>On the death of Robert Whytt (1714-1766), the professor of +the institutes of medicine, Cullen accepted the chair, at the same +time resigning that of chemistry. In the same year he had been +an unsuccessful candidate for the professorship of the practice +of physic, but subsequently an arrangement was made between +him and John Gregory, who had gained the appointment, by +which they agreed to deliver alternate courses on the theory and +practice of physic. This arrangement proved eminently satisfactory, +but it was brought to a close by the sudden death of +Gregory in 1773. Cullen was then appointed sole professor of +the practice of physic, and he continued in this office till a few +months before his death, which took place on the 5th of February +1790.</p> + +<p>As a lecturer Cullen appears to have stood unrivalled in his +day. His clearness of statement and power of imparting interest +to the most abstruse topics were the conspicuous features of +his teaching, and in his various capacities as a scientific lecturer, +a physiologist, and a practical physician, he was ever surrounded +with large and increasing classes of intelligent pupils, to whom +his eminently suggestive mode of instruction was specially +attractive. Living at the time he did, when the doctrines of +the humoral pathologists were carried to an extreme extent, +and witnessing the ravages which disease made on the solid +structures of the body, it was not surprising that he should +oppose a doctrine which appeared to him to lead to a false practice +and to fatal results, and adopt one which attributed more to +the agency of the solids and very little to that of the fluids of +the body. His chief works were <i>First Lines of the Practice of +Physic</i> (1774); <i>Institutions of Medicine</i> (1770); and <i>Synopsis</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page617" id="page617"></a>617</span> +<i>Nosologicae Medicae</i> (1785), which contained his classification +of diseases into four great classes—(1) Pyrexiae, or febrile diseases, +as typhus fever; (2) Neuroses, or nervous diseases, as epilepsy; +(3) Cachexiae, or diseases resulting from bad habit of body, +as scurvy; and (4) Locales, or local diseases, as cancer.</p> + +<p>Cullen’s eldest son Robert became a Scottish judge in 1796 +under the title of Lord Cullen, and was known for his powers of +mimicry.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The first volume of an account of <i>Cullen’s Life, Lectures and +Writings</i> was published by Dr John Thomson in 1832, and was reissued +with the second volume (completing the work) by Drs W. +Thomson and D. Craigie in 1859.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CULLEN,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a royal, municipal and police burgh of Banffshire, +Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1936. It is situated on Cullen Bay, +11½ m. W. by N. of Banff and 66½ m. N.W. of Aberdeen by the +Great North of Scotland railway. Deskford Burn, after a course +of 7½ m., enters the sea at Cullen, which it divides into two parts, +Seatown, the older, and Newtown, dating only from 1822. St +Mary’s, the parish church, a cruciform structure, was founded +by Robert Bruce, whose second wife died at Cullen. The industries +include rope and sail making, boat-building, brewing +and fishing. The harbour, constructed between 1817 and 1834, +though artificial, is one of the best on this coast. About 1 m. to +the S. is Cullen House, a seat of the earl of Seafield, which contains +some fine works of art. A mile and a half to the W. is +the picturesque fishing village of Port Knockie with a deep-sea +harbour, built in 1891. On the cliffs, 2 m. to the E., stand the +ruins of Findlater Castle, fortified in 1455. From 1638 to 1811, +when the title expired, it gave the title of earl to the Ogilvies, +whose name was adopted in addition to his own by Sir Lewis +Alexander Grant, when he succeeded, as 5th earl of Seafield, +to the surviving dignities. Five miles to the E. of Cullen is the +thriving fishing town of Portsoy, with a small, safe harbour and +a station on the Great North of Scotland railway. Besides the +fisheries there is fish-curing and a distillery; and the quarrying +of a pink-coloured variety of granite and of Portsoy marble is +carried on. Good limestone is also found in the district. Pop. +(1901) 2061.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CULLERA,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of +Valencia; on the Mediterranean Sea, at the mouth of the river +Jucar, and at the southern terminus of the Valencia-Silla-Cullera +railway. Pop. (1900) 11,947. Cullera is a walled town, containing +a ruined Moorish citadel, large barracks, several churches +and convents and a hospital. It occupies the Jucar valley, south +of the Sierra de Zorras, a low range of hills which terminates +eastward in Cape Cullera, a conspicuous headland surmounted +by a lighthouse. To the south and west extends a rich agricultural +district, noted for its rice. Besides farming and fishing, +the inhabitants carry on a coasting trade with various Mediterranean +ports. In 1903 the harbour was entered by 66 vessels +of about 25,000 tons, engaged in the exportation of grain, rice +and fruit, and the importation of guano. The town of Sueca +(<i>q.v.</i>) is 4 m. W.N.W. by rail.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CULLINAN,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> a town of the Transvaal, 36 m. by rail E. by N. +of Pretoria. It grew up round the Premier diamond mine and +dates from 1903, being named after T. Cullinan, the purchaser +of the ground on which the mine is situated. Here was discovered +in January 1905 a diamond—the largest on record—weighing +3025¾ carats. This diamond was in 1907 presented by the +Transvaal government to Edward VII. and was subsequently +cut into two stones, one of 516½ carats, the other of 309 carats, +intended to ornament the sceptre and crown of England. The +“chippings” yielded several smaller diamonds (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diamond</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CULLODEN,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> a desolate tract of moorland, Inverness-shire, +Scotland. It forms part of the north-east of Drummossie +Muir, and is situated about 6 m. by road E. of Inverness, and +½ m. from Culloden Muir station on the Highland railway from +Aviemore to Inverness via Daviot. It is celebrated as the scene +of the battle of the 16th of April 1746 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cumberland, William +Augustus, Duke of</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Murray, Lord George</a></span>), by which +the fate of the house of Stuart was decided. By Highlanders the +battle is more generally described as the battle of Drummossie. +Memorial stones bearing the names of the clans engaged in the +conflict were erected in 1881 at the head of each trench where the +clansmen—about 1000 in number—were buried. A monumental +cairn, 20 ft. high, marks the chief scene of the fight, and the +Cumberland Stone, a huge boulder, indicates the spot where +the English commander took up his position. A mile to the +north is Culloden House, which belonged to Duncan Forbes, +the president of the Court of Session. The <i>Culloden Papers</i>, a +number of historical documents ranging from 1625 to 1748, +were discovered in this mansion in 1812 and published in 1815 +by Duncan George Forbes. On the death of the 10th laird, +the collection of Jacobite relics and works of art was sold by +auction in 1897. About 1 m. to the south of the field, on the +right bank of the Nairn, is the plain of Clava, containing several +stone circles, monoliths, cairns and other prehistoric remains. +The circles, some apparently never completed, vary in circumference +from 12 yds. to 140 yds.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CULM,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> in geology, the name applied to a peculiar local phase +of the Carboniferous system. In 1837 A. Sedgwick and R. I. +Murchison classified into two divisions the dark shales, grits +and impure limestones which occupy a large area in Devonshire +and extend into the neighbouring counties of Somerset and Cornwall. +These two divisions were the Upper and Lower Culm +Measures, so named from certain impure coals, locally called +“culm,”<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> contained within the shales near Bideford. Subsequently, +these two geologists, when prosecuting their researches +in Germany and Austria, applied the same name to similar +rocks which contained, amongst others, <i>Posidonomya Becheri</i>, +common to the phase of sedimentation in both areas.</p> + +<p>The Culm measures of the Devonshire district are folded +into a broad syncline with its axis running east and west; but +within this major fold the rocks have been subjected to much +compression accompanied by minor folding. This circumstance, +together with the apparent barrenness of the strata, has always +made a correct interpretation of their position and relationships +a matter of difficulty; and for long they were regarded as an +abnormal expression of the Lower Carboniferous, with the uppermost +beds as doubtful equivalents of the Millstone Grit of other +parts of Britain. The labours of W. A. E. Ussher and of G. J. +Hinde and H. Fox have resulted in the differentiation of the +following subdivisions in the Devonshire Culm:—(1) <i>Upper +Culm Measures</i> or Eggesford grits; (2) <i>Middle Culm Measures</i>, +comprising the Morchard, Tiverton and Ugbrooke lithological +types overlying the Exeter type; (3) <i>Lower Culm</i>, the <i>Posidonomya</i> +limestone and shale overlying the Coddon Hill beds with +radiolaria. Ussher’s subdivisions were introduced to satisfy +the exigencies of geological mapping, but, as he pointed out, +while they are necessary in some parts of the district and convenient +in others, the lithological characters upon which they +are founded are variable and inconstant. More recently E. A. N. +Arber (1904-1907) clearly demonstrated that no palaeontological +subdivision of the Upper Culm (Middle and Upper) is possible, +and that these strata, on the evidence of the fossil plants, +represent the Middle Coal Measures of other parts of the country. +Wheelton Hind has called attention to the probability that the +<i>Posidonomya</i> limestone and shale may represent the Pendleside +group of Lancashire, Derbyshire, &c. The Coddon Hill beds +may belong to this or to a lower horizon. Thus the English Culm +measures comprise an Upper Carboniferous and a Lower Carboniferous +group, while in Germany, Austria and elsewhere, as it is +important to bear in mind, the Culm, or “Kulm,” stage is shown +by its contained fossils to belong to the lower division alone.</p> + +<p>The typical Carboniferous limestone of the Franco-Belgian +area changes as it is traced towards the east and south into the +sandy, shaly Culm phase, with the characteristic “Posidonia” +(<i>Posidonomya</i>) schists. This aspect of the Culm is found in +Saxony, where there are workable coals, in Bohemia, Thuringia, +the Fichtelgebirge, the Harz, where the beds are traversed by +mineral veins, and in Moravia and Silesia. In the last-mentioned +region the thickness of the Culm formation has been estimated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page618" id="page618"></a>618</span> +by D. Stur at over 45,000 ft. In the east and south of the +Schiefergebirge (a general term for the slaty mountains of the +Hundsrück and Taunus range, the Westerwald and part of the +Eifel district), the Culm shales pass upwards into a coarser +deposit, the “Culm-grauwacke,” which attains a considerable +thickness and superficial extent. Culm fossils appear in the +Carnic Alps, in the Balkans and parts of Spain, also in Spitzbergen +and part of New Guinea.</p> + +<p>The most characteristic fossil is of course <i>Posidonomya +Becheri</i>; others are <i>Glyphioceras sphaericum</i>, <i>Rhodea patentissima</i>, +<i>Asterocalamites scrobiculatus</i> (Schloth), <i>Lepidodendron veltheimianum</i>, +<i>Gastrioceras carbonarium</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. A. N. Arber, “On the Upper Carboniferous Rocks of +West Devon and North Cornwall,” <i>Q.J.G.S.</i> lxiii. (1907), which contains +a bibliography of the English Culm; E. Holzapfel, <i>Paläont. +Abhandl.</i> Bd. v. Heft i. (1889); H. Potonié, <i>Abhandl. preuss. geol. +Landesanst.</i>, Neue Folge, 36 (1901); D. Stur, “Die Culm Flora,” +<i>Abhandl. k.k. geol. Reichsanst.</i> viii. (Vienna, 1875).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. A. H.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This word is possibly connected with <i>col</i>, coal; distinguish +“culm,” the stem of a plant, Lat. <i>culmus</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CULMINATION<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>culmen</i>, summit), the attainment +of the highest point. In astronomy the term is given to the +passage of a heavenly body over the meridian of a place. Two +culminations take place in the course of the day, one above and +the other below the pole. The first is called the upper, the second +the lower. Either or both may occur below the horizon and +therefore be invisible.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CULPRIT,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> properly the prisoner at the bar, one accused of +a crime; so used, generally, of one guilty of an offence. In +origin the word is a combination of two Anglo-French legal +words, <i>culpable</i>, guilty, and <i>prit</i> or <i>prist</i>, <i>i.e.</i> prest, Old French for +prêt, ready. On the prisoner at the bar pleading “not guilty,” +the clerk of the crown answered “culpable,” and stated that he +was ready (<i>prest</i>) to join issue. The words <i>cul. prist</i> (or <i>prit</i>) were +then entered on the roll as showing that issue had been joined. +When French law terms were discontinued the words were taken +as forming one word addressed to the prisoner. The formula +“Culprit, how will you be tried?” in answer to a plea of “not +guilty,” is first found in the trial for murder of the 7th earl of +Pembroke in 1678.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CULROSS<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (locally pronounced <i>Coo-rus</i>), a royal and police +burgh, Fifeshire, Scotland, 6½ m. W. by S. of Dunfermline and +2½ m. from East Grange station on the North British railway +company’s line from Dunfermline to Stirling. Pop. 348. Until +1890 it belonged to the detached portion of Perthshire. Attractively +situated on a hillside sloping gently to the Forth, its +placid old-world aspect is in keeping with its great antiquity. +Here St Serf carried on his missionary labours, and founded a +church and cemetery, and here he died and was buried. For +centuries the townsfolk used to celebrate his day (July 1st) by +walking in procession bearing green boughs. Kentigern, the +apostle to Cumbria and first bishop of Glasgow, was born at +Culross, his mother having been driven ashore during a tempest, +and was adopted by St Serf as his son. These religious associations, +coupled with the fertility of the soil, led to the founding +of a Cistercian abbey in 1217. Of this structure the only remains +are the western tower and the choir, which, greatly altered as +well as repaired early in the 19th century, now forms the parish +church. It is supposed that a chapel of which some traces exist +in the east end of the town was dedicated to Kentigern. James +VI. made Culross a royal burgh in 1588. In 1808 there was +discovered in the abbey church, embalmed in a silver casket, +still preserved there, bearing his name and arms, the heart of +Edward, Lord Bruce of Kinloss, who was killed in August 1613 +near Bergen-op-Zoom in a duel with Sir Edward Sackville, +afterwards earl of Dorset. Robert Pont (1524-1606), the Reformer, +was born at Shirresmiln, or Shiresmill, a hamlet in Culross +parish. Nearly all its old industries—the coal mines, salt works, +linen manufacture, and even the making of iron girdles for the +baking of scones—have dwindled, but its pleasant climate and +picturesqueness make it a holiday resort. Dunimarle Castle, +a handsome structure on the sea-shore, adjoins the site of the +castle where, according to tradition, Macbeth slew the wife +and children of Macduff. Culross belongs to the Stirling district +group of parliamentary burghs.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:349px; height:272px" src="images/img618.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Ransome’s Spring Tine Cultivator.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">CULTIVATOR,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span><a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> also called <span class="sc">Scuffler</span>, <span class="sc">Scarifier</span> or <span class="sc">Grubber</span>, +an agricultural implement employed in breaking up land or in +stirring it after ploughing. The first all-iron cultivator, known +as Finlayson’s grubber, was a large harrow with curved teeth +carried on wheels, and was brought out about 1820. It was +designed to meet the need for some implement of intermediate +character between the plough and harrow, which should stir +the soil deeply and expeditiously without reversing it, and bring +the weeds unbroken +to the surface. The +chief modern improvement +has been +the imparting of +vibratory movement +and hence greater +stirring capacity to +the tines, either by +making them of +spring steel or by +fitting springs to the +point of attachment +of the tine to the +framework of the +machine. In its +modern form the implement consists of a framework fitted with +rows of curved stems or tines, which may be raised clear of the +ground or lowered into work by means of a lever, and differs +from the harrow in that it is provided with two wheels, which +prevent the tines from embedding themselves too deeply in the +soil. The stems may be fitted either with chisel-points or with +broad shares, according as it is required to merely stir the soil +or to bring up weeds and clean the surface. In the disk cultivator +revolving disks take the place of tines. The implement is usually +provided with a seat for the driver and is drawn by horses, but +steam power is also commonly applied to it, the speed of the +operation in that case increasing its effectiveness. The method +is the same as that of steam-ploughing (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plough</a></span>).</p> + +<hr class="foot" style="clear: both;" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> From Late Lat. <i>cultivare</i>, through <i>cultivus</i>, from <i>colere</i>, to till, +cultivate; whence <i>cultus</i>, worship, form of religion, cult.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUMAE<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Kymê">Κύμη</span>), an ancient city of Campania, Italy, about +12 m. W. of Neapolis, on the W. coast of Campania, on a volcanic +eminence, overlooking the plain traversed by the Volturno.</p> + +<p>There are many legends as to its foundation, but even the +actual period of its colonization by the Greeks is so early (ancient +authorities give it as 1050 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) that there is some doubt as to +who established it, whether Chalcidians from Euboea or Aeolians +from <span class="grk" title="Kymê">Κύμη</span> (Cyme), and it should probably be regarded as a joint +settlement. It was certainly, as Strabo says, the oldest of the +Greek colonies on the mainland of Italy or in Sicily. Livy tells +us (viii. 22) that the settlers first landed on Pithecusae (Ischia) +and thence transferred their position to the mainland, which +seems a probable story. We find it in 721 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> founding Zancle +(Messina) in Sicily jointly with Chalcis, and it extended its +power gradually over the coast of the Gulf of Puteoli and the +harbours of the promontory of Misenum. Puteoli itself under +the name Dicaearchia was probably founded by Cumae. In the +7th century, according to the legends, Parthenope, whither the +demos of Cumae had taken refuge after an unsuccessful rising +against the aristocracy, was attacked by the latter and destroyed, +but soon rebuilt under the name of Neapolis (New City, the +present Naples).<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The most fertile portion of the Campanian +plain was also under its dominion; the name “fossa Graeca” +still lingered on in 205 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to testify to its ancient limits. Cumae +was now at the height of its power, and many fine coins testify +to its prosperity. In 524 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it was the object of a joint attack +by the Etruscans of Capua, the Daunians of the district of Nola, +and the Aurunci of the Mons Massicus. A brilliant victory was, +however, won in the hilly district outside the town, largely owing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page619" id="page619"></a>619</span> +to the bravery of Aristodemus, who then led a force to the relief +of Aricia, which was being attacked by the Etruscans, and, +returning at the head of his victorious army, overturned the +aristocracy and made himself tyrant, but was ultimately +murdered by the aristocrats. These were unable to repel a +renewed Etruscan attack without the help of Hiero of Syracuse, +who in the battle of Cumae of 474 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> drove the Etruscan fleet +from the sea, and broke their power in Campania.</p> + +<p>The Samnites finally destroyed the Etruscan supremacy by +the capture of Capua in the latter half of the 5th century (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Capua</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Campania</a></span>), and the Greeks of Cumae were overwhelmed +by the same invasion, either in 420 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Livy iv. 44) or in 421 +(Diodor. Sic. xii. 76), if his statement is drawn from Greek sources, +428 if it is to be dated by the Roman consuls to whose year he +ascribes it. This catastrophe brought to an end the beautiful +series of Greek coins from the town (B. V. Head, <i>Historia +Numorum</i>, p. 31), and Oscan became its language, though in +many respects the Greek character of the town survived (Strabo +v. 4. 3, and the other references given by R. S. Conway, Italic +<i>Dialects</i>, p. 84). One or two inscriptions in Oscan survive +(<i>id. ib.</i> 88-92), one of which is a Iovila or heraldic dedication. +The date of the general disuse of Oscan in the town appears to be +fixed about 180 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the request (Livy xl. 44) which the +Cumaeans addressed to Rome that they might be allowed to use +Latin for public purposes. Cumae now ceased to have any +independent history. It came under the supremacy of Rome +in 343 (or 340) as Capua did, obtained the <i>civitas sine suffragio</i> +and was governed after 318 by the <i>praefecti Capuam Cumas</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(R. S. C.)</div> + +<p>In the Hannibalic wars it remained faithful to Rome. It +probably acquired civic rights in the Social War and remained +a <i>municipium</i> until Augustus established a colony here. Under +the empire it is spoken of as a quiet country town, in contrast +to the gay and fashionable Baiae, which, however, with the +<i>lacus Avernus</i> and <i>lacus Lucrinus</i>, formed a part of its territory. +Cicero’s villa on the east bank of the latter, for example, which +he called the Academia, was also known as Cumanum. In the +Gothic wars the acropolis of Cumae was, except Naples, the only +fortified town in Campania, and it retained its military importance +until it was destroyed by the Neapolitans in 1205, since, +which time it has been deserted.</p> + +<p>The acropolis hill (269 ft. above sea-level), a mass of trachyte +which has broken through the surrounding tufa, lies hardly +100 yds. from the low sandy shore. It is traversed by caves, +which are at three different levels with many branches. Some +of them may belong to a remote date, while others may be +quarries, but they have not been thoroughly investigated. They +are famous in legend as the seat of the oracle of the Cumaean +Sibyl.</p> + +<p>The acropolis has only one approach, on the south-east; +on all other sides it falls away steeply. Remains of fortifications +of all ages run round the edge of the hill; some of the original +Greek work, in finely hewn rectangular tufa blocks, exists on +the east. The medieval line follows the ancient, except on the +N.E., where it takes in a larger area.</p> + +<p>Within the acropolis stood the temple of Apollo, erected, +according to tradition, by Daedalus himself, the remains of +which, restored in Roman times, were discovered in 1817, on +the eastern and lower summit. On the higher western summit +stood another temple, excavated in 1792, but now covered up +again. This may be that of the Olympian Zeus (Liv. xxvii. 23).</p> + +<p>There are also various remains of buildings of the imperial +period, and these are far more frequent on the site of the lower +town (now occupied by vineyards) which lies below the acropolis +to the south. The line of the city walls can be traced both on +the E. and on the W., though the remains on the E. are insignificant, +and on the W. (the seaward side) only the scarping of the +hill remains. To the S. of the town, just outside the wall, is +the amphitheatre. To the N. of it is the point where the roads +from Liternum (the Via Domitiana running along the sandy +coast), Capua (a branch of the Via Campana), Misenum and +Puteoli meet. The last passes through the Arco Felice, an arch +of brick-faced concrete 63 ft. high which spans a cutting through +the Monte Grillo, made by Domitian to shorten the course of the +road, which had hitherto run farther north. The Grotto della +Pace leads to the shores of Avernus. On the E. side of Cumae +are considerable remains of the Roman period, among them +those of the temple of Demeter, as restored by the family of +the Lucceii.</p> + +<p>The cemeteries of Cumae extended on all sides of the ancient +city, except towards the sea, but the most important lay on the +north, between this temple and the Lago di Licola. Excavations +during the 19th century in Greek, Samnite and Roman graves +have produced many important objects, now in the various +museums of Europe, but especially at Naples. Recent discoveries +in this necropolis (including that of a circular archaic tomb with +a conical roof) have led to considerable discussion as to the true +date of the foundation of Cumae, and have made it clear that, +in any case, a pre-Hellenic indigenous settlement existed here—a +result of great importance.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Beloch, <i>Campanien</i> (Breslau, 1890), 145 seq.; G. Pellegrini, +<i>Monumenti dei Lincei</i>, xiii. (1903); G. Patroni, <i>Atti del Congresso +di Scienze Storiche</i> (1904), vol. v. p. 215 seq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Mommsen, however (Corpus Inscrip. Latin. x., Berlin, 1883, +p. 170), rightly throws considerable doubt on the existence of +Parthenope and even of Palaeopolis, of which there is some mention +in Roman annals; under both he is inclined to trace Cumae +itself.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUMANÁ,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> a city and port of Venezuela, capital of the state +of Bermudez, situated on the Manzanares river about 1 m. +above its mouth, 52 ft. above sea-level and 180 m. E. of Caracas. +It is the oldest existing European settlement on the South +American continent, having been founded by Diego Castellon +in 1523 under the name of Nueva Toledo. The city was almost +totally destroyed by an earthquake in 1766, and again in 1797. +Slight shocks are very frequent, some of them severe enough to +cause considerable damage to the buildings. The mean annual +temperature is 83° F. and the climate is enervating. In colonial +times the city was rich and prosperous and enjoyed a lucrative +trade with the mother country, its population at that time being +estimated at 30,000, but much of its prosperity has disappeared +and its population is now estimated at 10,000. Excellent fruits +are produced in its vicinity, and its exports include cacáo, coffee, +sugar, hides, tobacco and sundry products in small quantities. +A tramway connects the city with its port at the mouth of the +Manzanares.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUMBERLAND, DUKES AND EARLS OF.<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> The earldom of +Cumberland was held by the family of Clifford (<i>q.v.</i>) from 1525 +to 1643, when it became extinct by the death of Henry, the 5th +earl. The 1st earl of Cumberland was Henry, 11th Lord Clifford +(1493-1542), a son of Henry, 10th Lord Clifford (<i>c.</i> 1454-1523). +Created an earl by Henry VIII. in 1525, Henry remained loyal +during the great rising in the north of England in 1536, and +died on the 22nd of April 1542. His son and successor, Henry, +the 2nd earl (<i>c.</i> 1517-1570), married Eleanor (d. 1547), a daughter +of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, and Mary, daughter of +King Henry VII.; he had the tastes of a scholar rather than a +soldier, and died early in 1570. By his first wife, Eleanor, he +left an only daughter Margaret (1540-1596), who married Henry +Stanley, 4th earl of Derby, and who in 1557 was regarded by +many as the rightful heiress to the English throne. By his +second wife he left two sons and a daughter; his elder son George +succeeding to the earldom in 1570, and his younger son Francis +succeeding his brother in 1605. George, 3rd earl of Cumberland +(1558-1605), was born on the 8th of August 1558, and married +Margaret (<i>c.</i> 1560-1616), daughter of his guardian, Francis, +2nd earl of Bedford. Although interested in mathematics and +geography he passed his early years in dissipation and extravagance; +then he took to the sea, commanded the “Bonaventure” +against the Spanish Armada, and from this time until his death +on the 30th of October 1605 was mainly engaged in fitting out +and leading plundering expeditions, some of which, especially +the one undertaken in 1589, gained a large amount of booty. +The earl left no sons, and his barony was claimed by his only +daughter Anne (1590-1676), the wife successively of Richard +Sackville, 3rd earl of Dorset, and of Philip Herbert, 4th earl of +Pembroke and Montgomery; while his earldom was inherited +by his brother Francis (1559-1641). A long law-suit between +the new earl and the countess Anne over the possession of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page620" id="page620"></a>620</span> +family estates was settled in 1617. The 5th earl was Francis’s +only son Henry (1591-1643), who was born on the 28th of +February 1591, and was educated at Christ Church, Oxford. +He was a supporter of Charles I. during his two short wars with +the Scots, and also during the Civil War until his death on the +11th of December 1643. He left no sons; his earldom became +extinct; his new barony of Clifford, created in 1628, passed to +his daughter Elizabeth (1618-1691), wife of Richard Boyle, earl +of Cork and Burlington; and the Cumberland estates to his +cousin Anne, countess of Dorset and Pembroke.</p> + +<p>In 1644 the English title of duke of Cumberland was created +in favour of Rupert, son of Frederick V., elector palatine of the +Rhine, and nephew of Charles I. Having lapsed on Rupert’s +death without legitimate issue in 1682, it was created again in +1689 to give an English title to George, prince of Denmark, +who had married the lady who afterwards became Queen Anne. +It again became extinct when George died in 1708, but was +revived in 1726 in favour of William Augustus, third son of +George II. As this duke was never married the title lapsed on his +death in 1765, but was revived in the following year in favour +of Henry Frederick (1745-1790), son of Frederick, prince of +Wales, and brother of George III. Having again become +extinct on Henry Frederick’s death, the title of duke of Cumberland +was created for the fifth time in favour of Ernest Augustus, +who was made duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale in 1799. +In 1837 Ernest (<i>q.v.</i>) became king of Hanover, and on his death +in 1851 the title descended with the kingdom of Hanover to his +son King George V. (<i>q.v.</i>), and on George’s death in 1878 to his +grandson Ernest Augustus (b. 1845). In 1866 Hanover was +annexed by Prussia, but King George died without renouncing +his rights. His son Ernest, while maintaining his claim to the +kingdom of Hanover, is generally known by his title of duke of +Cumberland.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUMBERLAND, RICHARD<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1632-1718), English philosopher +and bishop of Peterborough, the son of a citizen of London, was +born in the parish of St Ann, near Aldersgate. He was educated +in St Paul’s school, and at Magdalene College, Cambridge, where +he obtained a fellowship. He took the degree of B.A. in 1653; +and, having proceeded M.A. in 1656, was next year incorporated +to the same degree in the university of Oxford. For some time +he studied medicine; and although he did not adhere to this +profession, he retained his knowledge of anatomy and medicine. +He took the degree of B.D. in 1663 and that of D.D. in 1680. +Among his contemporaries and intimate friends were Dr Hezekiah +Burton, Sir Samuel Morland, who was distinguished as a mathematician, +Sir Orlando Bridgeman, who became keeper of the +great seal, and Samuel Pepys. To this academical connexion he +appears to have been in a great measure indebted for his advancement +in the Church. When Bridgeman was appointed lord +keeper, he nominated Cumberland and Burton as his chaplains, +nor did he afterwards neglect the interest of either. Cumberland’s +first preferment, bestowed upon him in 1658 by Sir John +Norwich, was the rectory of Brampton in Northamptonshire. +In 1661 he was appointed one of the twelve preachers of the +university. The lord keeper, who obtained his office in 1667, +invited him to London, and soon afterwards bestowed upon him +the rectory of Allhallows at Stamford, where he acquired new +credit by the fidelity with which he discharged his duties. In +addition to his ordinary work he undertook the weekly lecture. +This labour he constantly performed, and in the meantime found +leisure to prosecute his scientific and philological studies.</p> + +<p>At the age of forty he published his earliest work, entitled +<i>De legibus naturae disquisitio philosophica, in qua earum forma, +summa capita, ordo, promulgatio, el obligatio e rerum natura +investigantur; quin etiam elementa philosophiae Hobbianae, +cum moralis tum civilis, considerantur et refutantur</i> (London, +1672). It is dedicated to Sir Orlando Bridgeman, and is prefaced +by an “Alloquium ad Lectorem,” contributed by Dr Burton. +It appeared during the same year as Pufendorf’s <i>De jure naturae +et gentium</i>, and was highly commended in a subsequent publication +by Pufendorf, whose approbation must have had the effect +of making it known on the continent. Having thus established +a solid reputation, Cumberland next prepared a work on a very +different subject—<i>An Essay towards the Recovery of the Jewish +Measures and Weights, comprehending their Monies; by help +of ancient standards, compared with ours of England: useful also +to state many of those of the Greeks and Romans, and the Eastern +Nations</i> (London, 1686). This work, dedicated to Pepys, +obtained a copious notice from Leclerc, and was translated into +French.</p> + +<p>About this period he was depressed by apprehensions respecting +the growth of Popery; but his fears were dispelled by the +Revolution, which brought along with it another material change +in his circumstances. One day in 1691 he went, according to +his custom on a post-day, to read the newspaper at a coffee-house +in Stamford, and there, to his surprise, he read that the king had +nominated him to the bishopric of Peterborough. The bishop +elect was scarcely known at court, and he had resorted to none +of the usual methods of advancing his temporal interest.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“Being then sixty years old,” says his great-grandson, “he was +with difficulty persuaded to accept the offer, when it came to him +from authority. The persuasion of his friends, particularly Sir +Orlando Bridgeman, at length overcame his repugnance; and +to that see, though very moderately endowed, he for ever after +devoted himself, and resisted every offer of translation, though +repeatedly made and earnestly recommended. To such of his +friends as pressed an exchange upon him he was accustomed to +reply, that Peterborough was his first espoused, and should be his +only one.”</p> +</div> + +<p>He discharged his new duties with energy and kept up his +episcopal visitations till his eightieth year. His charges to the +clergy are described as plain and unambitious, the earnest +breathings of a pious mind. When Dr Wilkins (David Wilke) +published the New Testament in Coptic he presented a copy to +the bishop, who began to study the language at the age of eighty-three. +“At this age,” says his chaplain, “he mastered the +language, and went through great part of this version, and would +often give me excellent hints and remarks, as he proceeded in +reading of it.” He died in 1718, in the eighty-seventh year of +his age; he was found sitting in his library, in the attitude of +one asleep, and with a book in his hand.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> His great-grandson +was Richard Cumberland, the dramatist.</p> + +<p>Bishop Cumberland was distinguished by his gentleness and +humility. He could not be roused to anger, and spent his days +in unbroken serenity. The basis of his ethical theory is Benevolence, +and is the natural outcome of his temperament. He was +a man of a sound understanding, improved by extensive learning, +and left behind him several monuments of his talents and +industry. His favourite motto was that a man had better +“wear out than rust out.”</p> + +<p>The philosophy of Cumberland is expounded in the treatise +<i>De legibus naturae</i>. The merits of the work are almost confined +to its speculative theories; its style is destitute of strength and +grace, and its reasoning is diffuse and unmethodical. Its main +design is to combat the principles which Hobbes had promulgated +as to the constitution of man, the nature of morality, and the +origin of society, and to prove that self-advantage is not the chief +end of man, that force is not the source of personal obligation +to moral conduct nor the foundation of social rights, and that the +state of nature is not a state of war. The views of Hobbes seem +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page621" id="page621"></a>621</span> +to Cumberland utterly subversive of religion, morality and civil +society, and he endeavours, as a rule, to establish directly +antagonistic propositions. He refrains, however, from denunciation, +and is a fair opponent up to the measure of his insight.</p> + +<p>Laws of nature are defined by him as “immutably true propositions +regulative of voluntary actions as to the choice of good +and the avoidance of evil, and which carry with them an obligation +to outward acts of obedience, even apart from civil laws and +from any considerations of compacts constituting government.” +This definition, he says, will be admitted by all parties. Some +deny that such laws exist, but they will grant that this is what +ought to be understood by them. There is thus common ground +for the two opposing schools of moralists to join issue. The +question between them is, Do such laws exist or do they not? +In reasoning thus Cumberland obviously forgot what the position +maintained by his principal antagonist really was. Hobbes +must have refused to accept the definition proposed. He did +not deny that there were laws of nature, laws antecedent to +government, laws even in a sense eternal and immutable. The +virtues as means to happiness seemed to him to be such laws. +They precede civil constitution, which merely perfects the obligation +to practise them. He expressly denied, however, that “they +carry with them an obligation to outward acts of obedience, +even apart from civil laws and from any consideration of compacts +constituting governments.” And many besides Hobbes +must have felt dissatisfied with the definition. It is ambiguous +and obscure. In what sense is a law of nature a “proposition”? +Is it as the expression of a constant relation among facts, or is it +as the expression of a divine commandment? A proposition is +never in itself an ultimate fact although it may be the statement +of such a fact. And in what sense is a law of nature an “immutably +true” proposition? Is it so because men always and everywhere +accept and act on it, or merely because they always and +everywhere ought to accept and act on it? The definition, in +fact, explains nothing.</p> + +<p>The existence of such laws may, according to Cumberland, +be established in two ways. The inquirer may start either from +effects or from causes. The former method had been taken by +Grotius, Robert Sharrock (1630-1684) and John Selden. They +had sought to prove that there were universal truths, entitled +to be called laws of nature, from the concurrence of the testimonies +of many men, peoples and ages, and through generalizing +the operations of certain active principles. Cumberland admits +this method to be valid, but he prefers the other, that from +causes to effects, as showing more convincingly that the laws +of nature carry with them a divine obligation. It shows not only +that these laws are universal, but that they were intended as +such; that man has been constituted as he is in order that they +might be. In the prosecution of this method he expressly +declines to have recourse to what he calls “the short and easy +expedient of the Platonists,” the assumption of innate ideas of +the laws of nature. He thinks it ill-advised to build the doctrines +of natural religion and morality on a hypothesis which many +philosophers, both Gentile and Christian, had rejected, and which +could not be proved against Epicureans, the principal impugners +of the existence of laws of nature. He cannot assume, he says, +that such ideas existed from eternity in the divine mind, but must +start from the data of sense and experience, and thence by search +into the nature of things discover their laws. It is only through +nature that we can rise to nature’s God. His attributes are not +to be known by direct intuition. He, therefore, held that the +ground taken up by the Cambridge Platonists could not be +maintained against Hobbes. His sympathies, however, were all +on their side, and he would do nothing to diminish their chances +of success. He would not even oppose the doctrine of innate +ideas, because it looked with a friendly eye upon piety and +morality. He granted that it might, perhaps, be the case that +ideas were <i>both</i> born with us and afterwards impressed upon us +from without.</p> + +<p>Cumberland’s ethical theory (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethics</a></span>) is summed up in his +principle of universal Benevolence, the one source of moral good. +“No action can be morally good which does not in its own nature +contribute somewhat to the happiness of men.” The theory +is important in comparison (1) with that of Hobbes, and (2) +with modern utilitarianism.</p> + +<p>1. Cumberland’s Benevolence is, deliberately, the precise +antithesis to the Egoism of Hobbes. To this fact it owes its +existence and also its extravagance. Feeling that the most +forcible method of attacking Hobbes was to assert the opposite +in the same form, he maintained that the whole-hearted pursuit +of the good of all contributes to the good of each and brings +personal happiness; that the opposite process involves misery +to individuals including the self. If, then, Hobbes went to the +one extreme of postulating selfishness as the sole motive of human +action, Cumberland was equally extravagant as regards Benevolence. +The testimony of history shows, <i>prima facie</i> at least, +that both motives have operated throughout, and just as self-interest +has been increasingly modified by conscious benevolence, +so benevolence alone does not explain all personal virtue nor +love to God. But it is essential to notice that Cumberland never +appealed to the evidence of history, although he believed that +the law of universal benevolence had been accepted by all nations +and generations; and he carefully abstains from arguments +founded on revelation, feeling that it was indispensable to establish +the principles of moral right on nature as a basis. His method +was the deduction of the propriety of certain actions from the +consideration of the character and position of rational agents +in the universe. He argues that all that we see in nature is +framed so as to avoid and reject what is dangerous to the integrity +of its constitution; that the human race would be an +anomaly in the world had it not for end its conservation in its +best estate; that benevolence of all to all is what in a rational +view of the creation is alone accordant with its general plan; +that various peculiarities of man’s body indicate that he has +been made to co-operate with his fellow men and to maintain +society; and that certain faculties of his mind show the common +good to be more essentially connected with his perfection than +any pursuit of private advantage. The whole course of his +reasoning proceeds on, and is pervaded by, the principle of +final causes.</p> + +<p>2. To the question, What is the foundation of rectitude?, +he replies, the greatest good of the universe of rational beings. +He may be regarded as the founder of English utilitarianism, +but his utilitarianism is distinct from what is known as the +selfish system; it goes to the contrary extreme, by almost +absorbing individual in universal good. Nor does it look merely +to the lower pleasures, the pleasures of sense, for the constituents +of good, but rises above them to include especially what tends +to perfect, strengthen and expand our true nature. Existence +and the extension of our powers of body and mind are held to +be good for their own sakes without respect to enjoyment. +Cumberland’s views on this point were long abandoned by +utilitarians as destroying the homogeneity and self-consistency +of their theory; but J. S. Mill and some recent writers have +reproduced them as necessary to its defence against charges not +less serious than even inconsistency.</p> + +<p>The answer which Cumberland gives to the question, Whence +comes our obligation to observe the laws of nature?, is that +happiness flows from obedience, and misery from disobedience +to them, not as the mere results of a blind necessity, but as the +expressions of the divine will. Reward and punishment, supplemented +by future retribution, are, in his view, the sanctions of +the laws of nature, the sources of our obligation to obey them. +To the other great ethical question, How are moral distinctions +apprehended?, he replies that it is by means of right reason. +But by right reason he means merely the power of rising to +general laws of nature from particular facts of experience. It +is no peculiar faculty or distinctive function of mind; it involves +no original element of cognition; it begins with sense and +experience; it is gradually generated and wholly derivative. +This doctrine lies only in germ in Cumberland, but will be found +in full flower in Hartley, Mackintosh and later associationists.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Editions of the <i>De legibus naturae</i> (Lübeck, +1683 and 1694); English versions by John Maxwell, prebendary of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page622" id="page622"></a>622</span> +Connor, <i>A Treatise of the Laws of Nature</i> (London, 1727), and John +Towers (Dublin, 1750); French translation by Jean Barbeyrac +(Amsterdam, 1744); James Tyrrell (1642-1718), grandson of +Archbishop Ussher, published an abridgment of Cumberland’s +views in <i>A Brief Disquisition of the Laws of Nature according to the +Principles laid down in the Rev. Dr Cumberland’s Latin Treatise</i> +(London, 1692; ed. 1701). For biographical details see Squier +Payne, <i>Account of the Life and Writings of R. Cumberland</i> (London, +1720); Cumberland’s <i>Memoirs</i> (1807), i. 3-6; Pepys’s <i>Diary</i>. +For his philosophy, see E. Albee, <i>Philosophical Review</i>, iv. 3 (1895), +pp. 264 and 371; F. E. Spaulding, <i>R. Cumberland als Begründer +der englischen Ethik</i> (Leipzig, 1894); and text-books on ethics.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The care of his posthumous publications devolved upon his +domestic chaplain and son-in-law, Squier Payne, who soon after the +bishop’s death edited “<i>Sanchoniato’s Phoenician History</i>, translated +from the first book of Eusebius, <i>De praeparatione evangelica</i>: with +a continuation of Sanchoniato’s history of Eratosthenes Cyrenaeus’s +Canon, which Dicaearchus connects with the first Olympiad. These +authors are illustrated with many historical and chronological +remarks, proving them to contain a series of Phoenician and Egyptian +chronology, from the first man to the first Olympiad, agreeable to +the Scripture accounts” (London, 1720). The preface contains an +account of the life, character and writings of the author, which was +likewise published in a separate form, and exhibits a pleasing +picture of his happy old age. A German translation appeared under +the title of <i>Cumberlands phönizische Historie des Sanchoniathons, +übersetzt von Joh. Phil. Cassel</i> (Magdeburg, 1755). The sequel to +the work was likewise published by Payne—<i>Origines gentium +antiquissimae; or Attempts for discovering the Times of the First +Planting of Nations: in several Tracts</i> (London, 1724).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUMBERLAND, RICHARD<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1732-1811), English dramatist, +was born in the master’s lodge of Trinity College, Cambridge, +on the 19th of February 1732. He was the great-grandson of +the bishop of Peterborough; and his father, Dr Denison Cumberland, +became successively bishop of Clonfert and of Kilmore. +His mother was Joanna, the youngest daughter of the great +scholar Richard Bentley, and the heroine of John Byrom’s once +popular little eclogue, <i>Colin and Phoebe</i>. Of the great master +of Trinity his grandson has left a kindly account; he afterwards +collected all the pamphlets bearing on the <i>Letters of Phalaris</i> +controversy, and piously defended the reputation of his ancestor +in his <i>Letter</i> to Bishop Lowth, who had called Bentley “aut +caprimulgus aut fossor.” Cumberland was in his seventh +year sent to the grammar-school at Bury St Edmunds, and he +relates how, on the head-master Arthur Kinsman undertaking, +in conversation with Bentley, to make the grandson as good a +scholar as the grandfather himself, the latter retorted: “Pshaw, +Arthur, how can that be, when I have forgot more than thou ever +knewest?” Bentley died during his grandson’s Bury schooldays; +and in 1744 the boy, who, while rising to the head of his +school, had already begun to “try his strength in several slight +attempts towards the drama,” was removed to Westminster, +then at the height of its reputation under Dr Nicholls. Among +his schoolfellows here were Warren Hastings, George Colman +(the elder), Lloyd, and (though he does not mention them as +such) Churchill and Cowper. From Westminster Cumberland +passed, in his fourteenth year, to Trinity College, Cambridge, +where in 1750 he took his degree as tenth wrangler. His account +of his degree examination, as well as that for a fellowship at his +college, part of which he underwent in the “judges’ chamber,” +where he was born, is curious; he was by virtue of an alteration +in the statutes elected to his fellowship in the second year of his +degree.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile his projects of work as a classical scholar had been +interspersed with attempts at imitating Spenser—whom, by his +mother’s advice, he “laid upon the shelf”—and a dramatic +effort (unprinted) on the model of Mason’s <i>Elfrida</i>, called +<i>Caractacus</i>. He had just begun to read for his fellowship, when +he was offered the post of private secretary by the earl of Halifax, +first lord of trade and plantations in the duke of Newcastle’s +ministry. His family persuaded him to accept the office, to +which he returned after his election as fellow. It left him +abundant leisure for literary pursuits, which included the design +of a poem in blank verse on India. He resigned his Trinity +fellowship on his marriage—in 1759—to his cousin Elizabeth +Ridge, to whom he had paid his addresses on receiving through +Lord Halifax “a small establishment as crown-agent for Nova +Scotia.” In 1761 he accompanied his patron (who had been +appointed lord-lieutenant) to Ireland as Ulster secretary; and +in acknowledgment of his services was afterwards offered a +baronetcy. By declining this he thinks he gave offence; at all +events, when in 1762 Halifax became secretary of state, Cumberland +in vain applied for the post of under-secretary, and could +only obtain the clerkship of reports at the Board of Trade under +Lord Hillsborough. While he takes some credit to himself for +his incorruptibility when in Ireland, he showed zeal for his +friend and secured a bishopric for his father. On the accession +to office of Lord George Germaine (Sackville) in 1775, Cumberland +was appointed secretary to the Board of Trade and Plantations, +which post he held till the abolition of that board in 1782 by +Burke’s economical reform. Before this event he had, in 1780, +been sent on a confidential mission to Spain, to negotiate a +separate treaty of peace with that power; but though he was +well received by King Charles III. and his minister Floridablanca, +the question of Gibraltar proved a stumbling-block, and the +Gordon riots at home a most untoward occurrence. He was +recalled in 1781, and was refused repayment of the expenses +he had incurred, towards which only £1000 had been advanced +to him. He thus found himself £4500 out of pocket: in vain, +he says, “I wearied the door of Lord North till his very servants +drove me from it”; his memorial remained unread or unnoticed +either by the prime minister or by secretary Robinson, through +whom the original promise had been made. Soon after this +experience he lost his office, and had to retire on a compensation +allowance of less than half-pay. He now took up his residence +at Tunbridge Wells; but during his last years he mostly lived +in London, where he died on the 7th of May 1811. He was +buried in Westminster Abbey, a short oration being pronounced +on this occasion by his friend Dean Vincent.</p> + +<p>Cumberland’s numerous literary productions are spread over +the whole of his long life; but it is only by his contributions +to the drama, and perhaps by his <i>Memoirs</i>, that he is likely to +be remembered. The collection of essays and other pieces +entitled <i>The Observer</i> (1785), afterwards republished together +with a translation of <i>The Clouds</i>, found a place among <i>The +British Essayists</i>. For the accounts given in <i>The Observer</i> of +the Greek writers, especially the comic poets, Cumberland availed +himself of Bentley’s MSS. and annotated books in his possession; +his translations from the Greek fragments, which are not inelegant +but lack closeness, are republished in James Bailey’s +<i>Comicorum Graecorum</i> (part i., 1840) and <i>Hermesianactis, Archilochi, +et Pratinae fragmenta</i>. Cumberland further produced +<i>Anecdotes of Eminent Painters in Spain</i> (1782 and 1787); a +<i>Catalogue of the King of Spain’s Paintings</i> (1787); two novels—<i>Arundel</i> +(1789), a story in letters, and <i>Henry</i> (1795), a “diluted +comedy” on the construction and polishing of which he seems +to have expended great care; a religious epic, <i>Calvary, or the +Death of Christ</i> (1792); his last publication was a poem entitled +<i>Retrospection</i>. He is also supposed to have joined Sir James +Bland Burges in an epic, the <i>Exodiad</i> (1807), and in <i>John de +Lancaster</i>, a novel. Besides these he wrote the <i>Letter to the +Bishop of O</i>[<i>xfor</i>]<i>d</i> in vindication of Bentley (1767); another +<i>to the Bishop of Llandaff</i> (Richard Watson) on his proposal for +equalizing the revenues of the Established Church (1783); a +<i>Character of the late Lord Sackville</i> (1785), whom in his <i>Memoirs</i> +he vindicates from the stigma of cowardice; and an anonymous +pamphlet, <i>Curtius rescued from the Gulf</i>, against the redoubtable +Dr Parr. He was also the author of a version of fifty of the +Psalms of David; of a tract on the evidences of Christianity; +and of other religious exercises in prose and verse, the former +including “as many sermons as would make a large volume, +some of which have been delivered from the pulpits.” Lastly, +he edited, in 1809, a short-lived critical journal called <i>The London +Review</i>, intended to be a rival to the <i>Quarterly</i>, with signed +articles.</p> + +<p>Cumberland’s <i>Memoirs</i>, which he began at the close of 1804, +and concluded in September 1805, were published in 1806, and +a supplement was added in 1807. This narrative, which includes +a long account of his Spanish mission, contains some interesting +reminiscences of several persons of note—more especially Bubb +Dodington, Single-Speech Hamilton, and Lord George Sackville +among politicians, and of Garrick, Foote and Goldsmith; +but the accuracy of some of the anecdotes concerning the last-named +is not beyond suspicion. The book exhibits its author +as an amiable egotist, careful of his own reputation, given to +prolixity and undistinguished by wit, but a good observer of +men and manners. The uneasy self-absorption which Sheridan +immortalized in the character of Sir Fretful Plagiary in <i>The +Critic</i> is apparent enough in this autobiography, but presents +itself there in no offensive form. The incidental criticisms of +actors have been justly praised.</p> + +<p>Cumberland was hardly warranted in the conjecture that +no English author had yet equalled his list of dramas in point of +number; but his plays, published and unpublished, have been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page623" id="page623"></a>623</span> +computed to amount to fifty-four. About 35 of these are regular +plays, to which have been added 4 operas and a farce; and about +half of the whole list are comedies. The best known of them +belong to what he was pleased to term “legitimate comedy,” +and to that species of it known as “sentimental.” The essential +characteristic of these plays is the combination of plots of +domestic interest with the rhetorical enforcement of moral +precepts, and with such small comic humour as the author +possesses. These comedies are primarily, to borrow Cumberland’s +own phraseology, designed as “attempts upon the heart.” +He takes great credit to himself for weaving his plays out of +“homely stuff, right British drugget,” and for eschewing “the +vile refuse of the Gallic stage”; on the other hand, he borrowed +from the sentimental fiction of his own country, including +Richardson, Fielding and Sterne. The favourite theme of his +plays is virtue in distress or danger, but safe of its reward in +the fifth act; their most constant characters are men of feeling +and young ladies who are either prudes or coquettes. Cumberland’s +comic power—such as it was—lay in the invention of +comic characters taken from the “outskirts of the empire,” +and professedly intended to vindicate from English prejudice +the good elements in the Scotch, the Irish and the colonial +character. For the rest, patriotic sentiment liberally asserts +itself by the side of general morality. If Cumberland’s dialogue +lacks brilliance and his characters reality, the construction of +the plots is as a rule, skilful, and the situations are contrived +with what Cumberland indisputably possessed—a thorough +insight into the secrets of theatrical effect. It should be added +that, though Cumberland’s sentimentality is often wearisome, +his morality is generally sound; that if he was without the genius +requisite for elevating the national drama, he did his best to keep +it pure and sweet; and that if he borrowed much, as he undoubtedly +did, it was not the vicious attractions of other +dramatists of which he was the plagiary.</p> + +<p>His début as a dramatic author was made with a tragedy, +<i>The Banishment of Cicero</i>, published in 1761 after its rejection +by Garrick; this was followed in 1765 by a musical drama, +<i>The Summer’s Tale</i>, subsequently compressed into an afterpiece +<i>Amelia</i> (1768). Cumberland first essayed sentimental comedy +in <i>The Brothers</i> (1769). The theme of this comedy is inspired +by Fielding’s <i>Tom Jones</i>; its comic characters are the jolly +old tar Captain Ironsides, and the henpecked husband Sir +Benjamin Dove, whose progress to self-assertion is genuinely +comic, though not altogether original. Horace Walpole said +that it acted well, but read ill, though he could distinguish in +it “strokes of Mr Bentley.” The epilogue paid a compliment +to Garrick, who helped the production of Cumberland’s second +comedy <i>The West-Indian</i> (1771). The hero of this comedy, which +probably owes much to the suggestion of Garrick, is a young +scapegrace fresh from the tropics, “with rum and sugar enough +belonging to him to make all the water in the Thames into +punch,”—a libertine with generous instincts, which in the end +prevail. This early example of the modern <i>drame</i> was received +with the utmost favour; it was afterwards translated into +German by Boden, and Goethe acted in it at the Weimar court. +<i>The Fashionable Lover</i> (1772) is a sentimental comedy of the +most pronounced type. <i>The Choleric Man</i> (1774), founded on +the <i>Adelphi</i> of Terence, is of a similar type, the comic element +rather predominating, but philanthropy being duly represented +by a virtuous lawyer called Manlove. Among his later comedies +may be mentioned <i>The Natural Son</i> (1785), in which Major +O’Flaherty who had already figured in <i>The West-Indian</i>, makes +his reappearance; <i>The Impostors</i> (1789), a comedy of intrigue; +<i>The Box Lobby Challenge</i> (1794), a protracted farce; <i>The Jew</i> +(1794), a serious play, highly effective when the character of +Sheva was played by the great German actor Theodor Döring; +<i>The Wheel of Fortune</i> (1795), in which John Kemble found a +celebrated part in the misanthropist Penruddock, who cannot +forget but learns to forgive (a character declared by Kotzebue +to have been stolen from his <i>Menschenhass und Reue</i>), while +the lawyer Timothy Weasel was made comic by Richard Suett; +<i>First Love</i> (1795); <i>The Last of the Family</i> (1795); <i>False +Impressions</i> (1797); <i>The Sailor’s Daughter</i> (1804); and a <i>Hint to +Husbands</i> (1806), which, unlike the rest, is in blank verse. The +other works printed during his lifetime include <i>The Note of +Hand</i> (1774), a farce; the songs of his musical comedy, <i>The +Widow of Delphi</i> (1780); his tragedies of <i>The Battle of Hastings</i> +(1778); and <i>The Carmelite</i> (1784), a romantic domestic drama +in blank verse, in the style of Home’s <i>Douglas</i>, furnishing some +effective scenes for Mrs Siddons and John Kemble as mother and +son; and the domestic drama (in prose) of <i>The Mysterious +Husband</i> (1783). His posthumously printed plays (published +in 2 vols. in 1813) include the comedies of <i>The Walloons</i> (acted +in 1782); <i>The Passive Husband</i> (acted as <i>A Word for Nature</i>, +1798); <i>The Eccentric Lover</i> (acted 1798); and <i>Lovers’ Resolutions</i> +(once acted in 1802); the serious quasi-historic drama <i>Confession</i>; +the drama <i>Don Pedro</i> (acted 1796); and the tragedies of <i>Alcanor</i> +(acted as <i>The Arab</i>, 1785); <i>Torrendal</i>; <i>The Sibyl, or The Elder +Brutus</i> (afterwards amalgamated with other plays on the subject +into a very successful tragedy for Edmund Kean by Payne); +<i>Tiberius in Capreae</i>; and <i>The False Demetrius</i> (on a theme +which attracted Schiller). Cumberland translated the <i>Clouds</i> +of Aristophanes (1797), and altered for the stage Shakespeare’s +<i>Timon of Athens</i> (1771), Massinger’s <i>The Bondman</i> and <i>The +Duke of Milan</i> (both 1779).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1806-1807 appeared <i>Memoirs of R. Cumberland, written by +himself</i>. Cumberland’s novel, <i>Henry</i>, was printed in Ballantyne’s +Novelists’ Library (1821), with a prefatory notice of the author by +Sir Walter Scott. A so-called <i>Critical Examination</i> of Cumberland’s +works and a memoir of the author based oh his autobiography, +with the addition of some more or less feeble criticisms, by William +Madford, appeared in 1812. An excellent account of Cumberland +is included in “George Paston’s” <i>Little Memoirs of the Eighteenth +Century</i> (1901). Hettner well characterizes Cumberland’s position +in the history of the English drama in <i>Litteraturgesch. d. 18. Jahrhunderts</i> +(2nd ed., 1865), i. 520. Cumberland’s portrait by Romney +(whose talent he was one of the first to encourage) is in the National +Portrait Gallery.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUMBERLAND, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duke of</span> (1721-1765), +son of King George II. and Queen Caroline, was born on +the 15th of April 1721, and when five years of age was created +duke of Cumberland. His education was well attended to, +and his courage and capacity in outdoor exercises were notable +from his early years. He was intended by the king and queen +for the office of lord high admiral, and in 1740 he sailed as a +volunteer in the fleet under the command of Sir John Norris; +but he quickly became dissatisfied with the navy, and early in +1742 he began a military career. In December 1742 he was +made a major-general, and in the following year he first saw +active service in Germany. George II. and the “martial boy” +shared in the glory of Dettingen (June 27), and Cumberland, +who was wounded in the action, displayed an energy and valour, +the report of which in England founded his military popularity. +After the battle he was made lieutenant-general. In 1745, having +been made captain-general of the British land forces at home and +in the field, the duke was again in Flanders as commander-in-chief +of the allied British, Hanoverian, Austrian and Dutch +troops. Advancing to the relief of Tournay, which was besieged +by Marshal Saxe, he engaged that great general in the battle of +Fontenoy (q v.) on the 11th of May. It cannot now be doubted +that, had the duke been supported by the allies in his marvellously +courageous attack on the superior positions of the French army, +Fontenoy would not have been recorded as a defeat to the British +arms. He himself was in the midst of the heroic column which +penetrated the French centre, and his conduct of the inevitable +retreat was unusually cool and skilful.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the severity of his discipline, the young duke +had the power to inspire his men with a strong attachment to +his person and a very lively <i>esprit de corps</i>. As a general his +courage and resolution were not sufficiently tempered with +sagacity and tact; but he displayed an energy and power in +military affairs which pointed him out to the British people as the +one commander upon whom they could rely to put a decisive stop +to the successful career of Prince Charles Edward in the rebellion +of 1745-1746. John (Earl) Ligonier wrote of him at this time: +“Ou je suis fort trompé ou il se forme là un grand capitaine.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page624" id="page624"></a>624</span></p> + +<p>He was recalled from Flanders, and immediately proceeded with +his preparations for quelling the insurrection. He joined the +midland army under Sir John Ligonier, and was at once in pursuit +of his swift-footed foe. But the retreat of Charles Edward from +Derby disconcerted his plans; and it was not till they had +reached Penrith, and the advanced portion of his army had been +repulsed on Clifton Moor, that he became aware how hopeless +an attempt to overtake the retreating Highlanders would then +be. Carlisle having been retaken, he retired to London, till +the news of the defeat of Hawley at Falkirk roused again the +fears of the English people, and centred the hopes of Britain on +the royal duke. He was appointed commander of the forces +in Scotland.</p> + +<p>Having arrived in Edinburgh on the 30th of January 1746, he +at once proceeded in search of the young Pretender. He diverged, +however, to Aberdeen, where he employed his time in training +the well-equipped forces now under his command for the peculiar +nature of the warfare in which they were about to engage. +What the old and experienced generals of his time had failed to +accomplish or even to understand, the young duke of Cumberland, +as yet only twenty-four years of age, effected with simplicity +and ease. He prepared to dispose his army so as to withstand +with firmness that onslaught on which all Highland successes +depended; and he reorganized the forces and restored their +discipline and self-confidence in a few weeks.</p> + +<p>On the 8th of April 1746 he set out from Aberdeen towards +Inverness, and on the 15th he fought the decisive battle of +Culloden, in which, and in the pursuit which followed, the forces +of the Pretender were completely destroyed. He had become +convinced that the sternest measures were needed to break +down the Jacobitism of the Highlanders. He told his troops to +take notice that the enemy’s orders were to give no quarter to +the “troops of the elector,” and they took the hint. No trace +of such orders remains (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Murray, Lord George</a></span>), and it is +probable that Cumberland had merely received word of wild +talk in the enemy’s camp, which he credited the more easily +as he thought that those who were capable of rebellion were capable +of any crime. On account of the merciless severity with +which the fugitives were treated, Cumberland received the +nickname of the “Butcher.” That the implied taunt was +unjust need not be laboured. It was used for political purposes +in England, and his own brother, the prince of Wales, encouraged, +it appears, the virulent attacks which were made upon the duke. +In any case there is a marked similarity between Cumberland’s +conduct in Scotland and that of Cromwell in Ireland. Both +dared to do acts which they knew would be cast against them for +the rest of their lives, and terrorized an obstinate and unyielding +enemy into submission. How real was the danger of a protracted +guerrilla warfare in the Highlands may be judged from +the explicit declarations of Jacobite leaders that they intended +to continue the struggle. As it was, the war came to an end +almost at once. Here, as always, Cumberland preserved the +strictest discipline in his camp. He was inflexible in the execution +of what he deemed to be his duty, without favour to any man. +At the same time he exercised his influence in favour of clemency +in special cases that were brought to his notice. Some years +later James Wolfe spoke of the duke as “for ever doing noble and +generous actions.”</p> + +<p>The relief occasioned to Britain by the duke’s victorious +efforts was acknowledged by his being voted an income of +£40,000 per annum in addition to his revenue as a prince of the +royal house. The duke took no part in the Flanders campaign +of 1746, but in 1747 he again opposed the still victorious Marshal +Saxe; and received a heavy defeat at the battle of Lauffeld, +or Val, near Maestricht (2nd of July 1747). During the ten years +of peace Cumberland occupied himself chiefly with his duties as +captain-general, and the result of his work was clearly shown +in the conduct of the army in the Seven Years’ War. His unpopularity, +which had steadily increased since Culloden, interfered +greatly with his success in politics, and when the death of +the prince of Wales brought a minor next in succession to the +throne the duke was not able to secure for himself the contingent +regency, which was vested in the princess-dowager of Wales. +In 1757, the Seven Years’ War having broken out, Cumberland +was placed at the head of a motley army of allies to defend +Hanover. At Hastenbeck, near Hameln, on the 26th of July +1757, he was defeated by the superior forces of D’Estrées (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seven Years’ War</a></span>). In September of the same year his defeat +had almost become disgrace. Driven from point to point, and +at last hemmed in by the French under Richelieu, he capitulated +at Klosterzeven on the 8th of the month, agreeing to disband +his army and to evacuate Hanover. His disgrace was completed +on his return to England by the king’s refusal to be bound by +the terms of the duke’s agreement. In chagrin and disappointment +he retired into private life, after having formally resigned +the public offices he held. In his retirement he made no attempt +to justify his conduct, applying in his own case the discipline +he had enforced in others. For a few years he lived quietly at +Windsor, and subsequently in London, taking but little part in +politics. He did much, however, to displace the Bute ministry +and that of Grenville, and endeavoured to restore Pitt to office. +Public opinion had now set in his favour, and he became almost +as popular as he had been in his youth. Shortly before his +death the duke was requested to open negotiations with Pitt for +a return to power. This was, however, unsuccessful. On the +31st of October 1765 the duke died.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A Life of the duke of Cumberland by Andrew Henderson was +published in 1766, and anonymous (Richard Rolt) <i>Historical Memoirs</i> +appeared in 1767. See especially A. N. Campbell Maclachlan, +<i>William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland</i> (1876).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUMBERLAND,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> the north-westernmost county of England, +bounded N. by the Scottish counties of Dumfries and Roxburgh, +E. by Northumberland, S. by Westmorland and Lancashire, +and W. by the Irish Sea. Its area is 1520.4 sq m. In the south +the county includes about one-half of the celebrated <span class="sc">Lake +District</span> (<i>q.v.</i>), with the highest mountain in England, Scafell +Pike (3210 ft.), and the majority of the principal lakes, among +which are Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite, Buttermere and +Crummock Water, Ennerdale, Wastwater, and, on the boundary +with Westmorland, Ullswater. From this district valleys +radiate north, west and south to a flat coastal belt, the widest +part of which (about 8 m.) is found in the north in the Solway +Plain, bordering Solway Firth, which here intervenes between +England and Scotland. The valley of the Eden, opening upon +this plain from the south-east, separates the mountainous Lake +District from the straight westward face of a portion of the +Pennine Chain (<i>q.v.</i>), which, though little of it lies within +this county, reaches its highest point within it in Cross Fell +(2930 ft.). A well-marked pass, called the Tyne Gap, at the +water-parting between the rivers Irthing and South Tyne, +traversed by the Newcastle & Carlisle railway, intervenes between +these hills and their northward continuation in the hills of the +Scottish border. Besides the waters of the Eden, Solway Firth +receives those of the Esk, which enter Cumberland from Scotland. +Liddel Water, joining this river from the north east from Liddisdale, +forms a large part of the boundary with Scotland. The +Eden receives the Irthing from the east, and from the Lake +District the Caldew, rising beneath Skiddaw and joining the main +river at Carlisle, and the Eamont, draining Ullswater and forming +part of the boundary with Westmorland. The principal streams +flowing east and south from the Lake District are the Derwent, +from Borrowdale and Derwentwater, the Eden from Ennerdale, +the Esk from Eskdale, and the Duddon, forming the greater +part of the boundary with Lancashire. There are valuable salmon +fisheries in the Eden, and trout are taken in many of the streams +and lakes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The mountainous portion of Cumberland is built up of +two different types of rock. The older, a sedimentary slaty series +of Ordovician age, the Skiddaw slates, surrounds Bassenthwaite, +Saddleback, Crummock Water, Keswick and Cockermouth and the +western end of Ennerdale Water. The same formation is found +in the northern flanks of Ullswater also north and east of Whitbeck. +The other type of rock is volcanic; it gives a more rugged aspect +to the scenery, as may be seen in comparing the rough outlines of +Scafell and Honister Crags or Helvellyn with the smoother form +of Saddleback or Skiddaw. These volcanic rocks, owing to much +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page625" id="page625"></a>625</span> +alteration, are often slaty; they have been called the “green slates +and porphyries” or the Borrowdale Series. The Skiddaw slates are +usually separated from the newer green slates above them by a plane +of differential movement, for both have been thrust by earth-pressures +from south to north, but the former rocks have travelled +farther than the latter which have lagged behind; hence Messrs +Marr and Harker describe the plane of separation as a “lag-fault.” +Much general faulting and folding have resulted from the movement; +the thrusting took place in Devonian times. About the same period +great masses of granitic rock were intruded into the slates in the +form of laccolites, which often lie along the lag planes. Such rocks +are the granophyre hills of Buttermere and Ennerdale, the microgranite +patches on either side of the Vale of St John, and the great +mass of Eskdale granite which reaches from Wastwater to the flanks +of Black Combe. At Carrock Fell, N.E. of Skiddaw, is an extremely +interesting complex of volcanic rocks, and in many other places are +diabase and other forms, <i>e.g.</i> the well-known rock at Castle Head, +Keswick.</p> + +<p>From Pooley Bridge, Ullswater, on the east, by Udale round to +Egremont on the west, the mountainous region just described, is +surrounded by the Carboniferous Limestone series, with a conglomerate +at the base. Upon these rocks the coalfield of Whitehaven +rests and extends as far as Maryport. The coal seams are worked +for some distance beneath the sea. The vale of Eden between +Penrith, Hornsby and Wreay is occupied by Permian sandstone, +usually bright red in colour. Red Triassic rocks form a strip about +4 m. broad east of the Permian outcrop; a similar strip forms a +coastal fringe from St Bees Head to Duddon Sands. The same +formations are spread out round Carlisle, Brampton, Longtown, +Wigton and Aspatria. East of Carlisle they are covered by an +outlier of Lias. A great dislocation, the Pennine Fault, runs along +the eastern side of the vale of Eden; it throws up the Lower Carboniferous +limestones with their associated shales and sandstones to +form the elevated ground in the north and north-east of the county. +Several basic intrusions penetrate the limestone series, the best +known being the Whin Sill, which may be traced for a number of +miles northward from Crossfell. Evidences of glacial action are +abundant; till with sands and gravel lie on the lower ground; +striated rocks and <i>roches moutonnées</i> are common; perched blocks +are found on the plateau by Sprinkling Tarn and elsewhere. Moraine +mounds are quite numerous in the valleys, and have frequently +been the cause of small lakes.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Climate and Agriculture.</i>—The climate is generally temperate, +but in the higher parts bleak, snow sometimes lying fully six +months of the year on Cross Fell and the mountains of the Lake +District. As regards rainfall, the physical configuration makes +for contrast. At Carlisle, on the Solway plain, the mean annual +fall is 30.6 in. At Penrith, on the north-eastern flank of the +Lake District, it is 31.67; on the western flank 42.3 in. are +recorded at Ravenglass, close to the coast, and 51.78 at Cockermouth, +some miles inland. In the heart of the district, however, +the fall is as a rule much heavier, in fact, the heaviest recorded +in the British Isles (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lake District</a></span>). Somewhat less than +three-fifths of the total area of the county is under cultivation, +the proportion being higher than that of the neighbouring +counties of Northumberland and Westmorland, but still much +below the average of the English counties. Black peaty earth +is the most prevalent soil in the mountainous districts; but dry +loams occur in the lowlands, and are well adapted to green crops, +grain and pasture. Wheat and barley are practically neglected, +but large crops of oats are grown. Turnips and swedes form the +bulk of the green crops. Hill pasture amounts to nearly 270,000 +acres, and a good number of cattle are reared, but the principal +resource of the farmer is sheep-breeding. The sheep on the +lowland farms are generally of the Leicester class or cross-bred +between the Leicester and Herdwick, with a few Southdowns. +Throughout the mountainous districts the Herdwicks have taken +the place of the smaller black-faced heath variety of sheep +once so commonly met with on the sheep farms. They are +peculiar to this part of England; the ewes and wethers and +many of the rams are polled, the faces and legs are speckled, +and the wool is finer and heavier in fleece than that of the +heath breed. They originally came from the neighbourhood of +Muncaster in the Duddon and Esk district, and tradition ascribes +their origin variously to introduction by Scandinavian settlers, +or to parents that escaped from a wrecked ship of the Spanish +Armada. In general they belong to the proprietors of the sheep-walks, +and have been farmed out with them from time immemorial, +from which circumstance it is said they obtained the name of +“Herdwicks.” Long after the Norman Conquest Cumberland +remained one of the most densely forested regions of England, +and much of the low-lying land is still well wooded, the Lake +District in particular displaying beautiful contrasts between +bare mountain and tree-clad valley. The oak, ash and birch +are the principal natural trees, while sycamores have been +planted for shelter round many farmsteads. Plantations of +larch are also numerous, and the holly, yew, thorn and juniper +flourish locally.</p> + +<p>Landed property was formerly much divided in this county, +and the smaller holdings were generally occupied by their owners, +who were known as “statesmen,” <i>i.e.</i> “estatesmen,” a class of +men long noted for their sturdy independence and attachment +to routine husbandry. Most of these estates were held of the +lords of manors under customary tenure, which subjected them +to the payments of fines and heriots on alienation as well as on +the death of the lord or tenant. According to the <i>Agricultural +Survey</i> printed in 1794, about two-thirds of the county was held +by this tenure, in parcels worth from £15 to £30 rental. On +large estates, also, the farms were in general rather small, few +then reaching £200 a year, held on verbal contracts, or very +short leases, and burdened like the small estates with payments +or services over and above a money rent. In modern times these +conditions have changed, the “statesmen” gradually becoming +extinct as a class, and many of the small holdings falling into the +hands of the larger landed proprietors.</p> + +<p><i>Other Industries.</i>—Carlisle is the seat of a variety of manufactures; +there are also in the county cotton and woollen +industries, pencil mills at Keswick, and iron shipbuilding yards +at Whitehaven. But the mining industry is the most important, +coal being raised principally in the district about Whitehaven, +Workington and Maryport. Side by side with this industry +much iron ore is raised, and there is a large output of pig-iron, +and ore is also found in the south, in the neighbourhood of +Millom. Gypsum, zinc and some lead are mined. Copper was +formerly worked near Keswick, and there was a rich deposit of +black lead at the head of Borrowdale. Granite and limestone +are extensively quarried. Stone is very largely used even for +housebuilding, a fine green slate being often employed. Shap +and other granites are worked for building and roadstones.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—The chief ports of Cumberland are Whitehaven, +Workington, Maryport, Harrington and Silloth. The +London & North-Western railway enters the county near Penrith, +and terminates at Carlisle, which is also served by the +Midland. The Caledonian, North British and Glasgow & South-Western +lines further serve this city, which is thus an important +junction in through communications between England and +Scotland. The North-Eastern railway connects Carlisle with +Newcastle. The Maryport & Carlisle, the Cockermouth, Keswick +& Penrith, and the Cleator & Workington Junction lines serve +the districts indicated by their names, while the Furness railway +passes along the west coast from the district of Furness in +Lancashire as far north as Whitehaven, also serving Cleator and +Egremont. The Ravenglass & Eskdale light railway gives access +from this system to Boot in Eskdale. Coaches and motor cars +maintain passenger communications in the Lake District where +the railways do not penetrate.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>—The area of the ancient and +the administrative county is 973,086 acres, with a population +in 1891 of 266,549 and in 1901 of 266,933. The county contains +five wards, divisions which in this and neighbouring counties +correspond to hundreds, and also appear in Lanarkshire and +Renfrewshire in Scotland. The municipal boroughs are Carlisle +(pop. 45,480), a city and the county town, Whitehaven (19,324), +and Workington (26,143). The other urban districts are Arlecdon +and Frizington (5341), Aspatria (2885), Cleator Moor (8120), +Cockermouth (5355), Egremont (5761), Harrington (3679), +Holme Cultram (4275), Keswick (4451), Maryport (11,897), +Millom (10,426), Penrith (9182), Wigton (3692). Of these all +except Keswick, Millom and Penrith are in the industrial district +of the west and north-west. The urban district of Holme +Cultram includes the port of Silloth. Among lesser towns may +be mentioned St Bees (1236), on the coast south of Whitehaven, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page626" id="page626"></a>626</span> +until 1897 the seat of a Church of England theological college. +The grammar school here, founded in 1533, is liberally endowed, +with scholarships and exhibitions. Cumberland is in the +northern circuit, and assizes are held at Carlisle. It has one +court of quarter sessions and 12 petty sessional divisions. The +city of Carlisle has a separate commission of the peace and court +of quarter sessions. There are 213 civil parishes. Cumberland +is in the diocese of Carlisle, with a small portion in that of +Newcastle. There are 167 ecclesiastical parishes or districts +within the county. There are four parliamentary divisions, the +Northern or Eskdale, Mid or Penrith, Cockermouth and Western +or Egremont, each returning one member; while the parliamentary +boroughs of Carlisle and Whitehaven each return one +member.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—After the withdrawal of the Romans (of whose +occupation there are various important relics in the county) +little is known of the region which is now Cumberland, until +the great battle of Ardderyd in 573 resulted in its consolidation +with the kingdom of Strathclyde. About 670-680 the western +district between the Solway and the Mersey was conquered by +the Angles of Northumbria and remained an integral portion +of that kingdom until the Danish invasion of the 9th century. +In 878 the kingdom of the Cumbri is referred to, but without +any indication of its extent, and the first mention of Cumberland +to denote a geographical area occurs in 945 when it was ceded +by Edmund to Malcolm of Scotland. At this date it included +the territory north and south of the Solway from the Firth of +Forth to the river Duddon. The Scottish supremacy was not +uninterrupted, for the district at the time of its invasion by +Ethelred in 1000 was once more a stronghold of the Danes, +whose influence is clearly traceable in the nomenclature of the +Lake District. At the time of the Norman invasion Cumberland +was a dependency of the earldom of Northumbria, but its history +at this period is very obscure, and no notice of it occurs in the +Domesday Survey of 1086; Kirksanton, Bootle and Whicham, +however, are entered under the possessions of the earl of Northumbria +in the West Riding of Yorkshire. The real Norman +conquest of Cumberland took place in 1092, when William Rufus +captured Carlisle, repaired the city, built the castle, and after +sending a number of English husbandmen to till the land, placed +the district under the lordship of Ranulf Meschines. The fief +of Ranulf was called the Power or Honour of Carlisle, and a sheriff +of Carlisle is mentioned in 1106. The district was again captured +by the Scots in the reign of Stephen, and on its recovery in 1157 +the boundaries were readjusted to include the great barony +of Coupland. At this date the district was described as the +county of Carlisle, and the designation county of Cumberland is +not adopted in the sheriff’s accounts until 1177. The five +present wards existed as administrative areas in 1278, when +they were termed bailiwicks, the designation ward not appearing +until the 16th century, though the bailiwicks of the Forest of +Cumberland are termed wards in the 14th century. In the +17th and 18th centuries each of the five wards was under the +administration of a chief constable.</p> + +<p>Owing to its position on the Border Cumberland was the scene +of constant warfare from the time of its foundation until the +union of England and Scotland, and families like the Tilliols, +the Lucies, the Greystokes, and the Dacres were famous for +their exploits in checking or avenging the depredations of the +Scots. During the War of Independence in the reign of Edward I. +Carlisle was the headquarters of the English army. In the Wars +of the Roses the prevailing sympathy was with the Lancastrian +cause, which was actively supported by the representatives of +the families of Egremont, Dacre and Greystoke. In 1542 the +Scottish army under James V. suffered a disastrous defeat at +Solway Moss. After the union of the crowns of England and +Scotland in 1603, the countries hitherto known as “the Borders” +were called “the Middle Shires,” and a period of comparative +peace ensued. On the outbreak of the Civil War of the 17th +century the northern counties associated in raising forces for +the king, and the families of Howard, Dalston, Dacre and +Musgrave rendered valuable service to the royalist cause. In +1645 Carlisle was captured by the parliamentary forces, but in +April 1648 it was retaken by Sir Philip Musgrave and Sir Thomas +Glenham, and did not finally surrender until the autumn of 1648. +Cumberland continued, however, to support the Stuarts; it was +one of the first counties to welcome back Charles II.; in 1715 +it was associated with the rising on behalf of the Pretender, and +Carlisle was the chief seat of operations in the 1745 rebellion.</p> + +<p>In 685 Carlisle and the surrounding district was annexed by +Ecgfrith king of Northumbria to the diocese of Lindisfarne, +to which it continued subject, at least until the Danish invasion +of the 9th century. In 1133 Henry I. created Carlisle (<i>q.v.</i>) a +bishopric. The diocese included the whole of modern Cumberland +(except the barony of Coupland and the parishes of Alston, +Over-Denton and Kirkandrews), and also the barony of Appleby +in Westmorland. The archdeaconry of Carlisle, co-extensive +with the diocese, comprised four deaneries. Coupland was a +deanery in the archdeaconry of Richmond and diocese of York +until 1541, when it was annexed to the newly created diocese of +Chester. In 1856 the area of the diocese of Carlisle was extended, +so as to include the whole of Cumberland except the parish of +Alston, the whole of Westmorland, and the Furness district +of Lancashire. In 1858 the deaneries were made to number +eighteen, and in 1870 were increased to twenty.</p> + +<p>The principal industries of Cumberland have been from earliest +times connected with its valuable fisheries and abundant mineral +wealth. The mines of Alston and the iron mines about Egremont +were worked in the 12th century. The Keswick copper mines +were worked in the reign of Henry III., but the black-lead mine +was not worked to any purpose until the 18th century. Coal-mining +is referred to in the 15th century, and after the revival +of the mining industries in the 16th century, rose to great +importance. The saltpans about the estuaries of the Esk and +the Eden were a source of revenue in the 12th century.</p> + +<p>Cumberland returned three members for the county to the +parliament of 1290, and in 1295 returned in addition two members +for the city of Carlisle and two members each for the boroughs +of Cockermouth and Egremont. The boroughs did not again +return members until in 1640 Cockermouth regained representation. +Under the Reform Act of 1832, Cumberland returned +four members for two divisions, and Whitehaven returned one +member. The county now returns six members to parliament; +one each for the four divisions of the county, Egremont, Cockermouth, +Eskdale and Penrith, one for the city of Carlisle and one +for the borough of Whitehaven.</p> + +<p><i>Antiquities.</i>—Very early crosses, having Celtic or Scandinavian +characteristics, are seen at Gosforth, Bewcastle and elsewhere. +In ecclesiastical architecture Cumberland is not rich as a whole, +but it possesses Carlisle cathedral, with its beautiful choir, and +certain monastic remains of importance. Among these are the +fine remnants of Lanercost priory (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brampton</a></span>). Calder +Abbey, near Egremont, a Cistercian abbey founded in 1134, +has ruins of the church and cloisters, of Norman and Early +English character, and is very beautifully situated on the Calder. +The parish Church of St Bees, with good Norman and Early +English work, belonged to a Benedictine priory of 1120; but +according to tradition the first religious house here was a nunnery +founded <i>c.</i> 650 by St Bega, who became its abbess. Among the +parish churches there are a few instances of towers strongly +fortified for purposes of defence; that at Burgh-on-the-Sands, +near Carlisle, being a good illustration. Castles, in some cases +ruined, in others modernized, are fairly numerous, both near the +Scottish border and elsewhere. Naworth Castle near Brampton +is the finest example; others are at Bewcastle, Carlisle, Kirkoswald, +Egremont, Cockermouth and Millom. Among many +notable country seats, Rose Castle, the palace of the bishops +of Carlisle; Greystoke Castle and Armathwaite Hall may be +mentioned.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Nicolson and R. Burn, <i>History and Antiquities of the Counties +of Westmorland and Cumberland</i> (London, 1777); W. Hutchinson, +<i>History of Cumberland</i> (Carlisle, 1794); S. Jefferson, <i>History and +Antiquities of Cumberland</i> (Carlisle, 1840-1842); S. Gilpin, <i>Songs +and Ballads of Cumberland</i> (London, 1866); W. Dickinson, <i>Glossary +of Words and Phrases of Cumberland</i> (London, English Dialect +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page627" id="page627"></a>627</span> +Society, 1878, with a supplement, 1881); Sir G. F. Duckett, <i>Early +Sheriffs of Cumberland</i> (Kendal, 1879); J. Denton, “Account of +Estates and Families in the County of Cumberland, 1066-1603,” in +<i>Antiquarian Society’s Transactions</i> (1887); R. S. Ferguson, <i>History of +Cumberland</i> (London, 1890); “Archaeological Survey of Cumberland,” +in Archaeologia, vol. liii. (London, 1893); W. Jackson, <i>Papers +and Pedigrees relating to Cumberland</i> (2 vols., London, 1892); T. +Ellwood, <i>The Landnama Book of Iceland as it illustrates the Dialect +and Antiquities of Cumberland</i> (Kendal, 1894); <i>Victoria County +History, Cumberland</i>; and <i>Transactions of the Cumberland and +Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUMBERLAND,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Allegany +county, Maryland, U.S.A., on the Potomac river, about 178 m. +W. by N. of Baltimore and about 153 m. S. by E. of Pittsburg. +Pop. (1890) 12,729; (1900) 17,128, of whom 1113 were foreign-born +and 1100 were of negro descent; (1910) 21,839. +Cumberland is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Western +Maryland, the Pennsylvania, the Cumberland & Pennsylvania +(from Cumberland to Piedmont, Virginia), and the George’s +Creek & Cumberland railways, the last a short line extending to +Lonaconing (19 m.); by an electric line extending to Western +Port, Maryland; and by the Chesapeake & Ohio Canal, of which +it is a terminus. The city is about 635 ft. above sea-level, and +from a distance appears to be completely shut in by lofty ranges +of hills, which are cut through to the westward by a deep gorge +called “The Narrows,” making a natural gateway of great +beauty. Cumberland has a large trade in coal, which is mined in +the vicinity. As a manufacturing centre it ranked in 1905 second +in the state, the chief products being iron, steel, bricks, flour, +cement, silk and leather; there is also a large dyeing and cleaning +establishment. The value of the city’s factory products +increased from $2,900,267 in 1900 to $4,595,023 in 1905, or +58.4%. Cumberland is an important jobbing centre also. +The municipality owns and operates its water-works and electric +lighting plant. The first settlement of the place was made in +1750; in 1754 Fort Cumberland was erected within what are +now the city limits, and in the year following this fort was +occupied by General Edward Braddock. Cumberland was laid +out in 1763, but there was little growth until 1787, and it was not +incorporated as a town until 1815; it was chartered as a city in +1850.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUMBERLAND,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a township of Providence county, Rhode +Island, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, about 6 m. N. +of Providence and having the Blackstone river for most of its +W. boundary. Pop. (1890) 8090; (1900) 8925, of whom 3473 +were foreign-born; (1910) 10,107; area, 27.5 sq. m. +It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway. +Within its borders are the villages of Cumberland Hill, Diamond +Hill, Arnold Mills, Abbott Run, Berkeley, Robin Hollow, Happy +Hollow, East Cumberland, and parts of Manville, Ashton, +Lonsdale and Valley Falls. The surface of the township is generally +hilly and rocky. In the N. part is a valuable granite quarry; +and limestone, and some coal, iron and gold are also found. +Cumberland has been called the “mineral pocket of New +England.” The Blackstone and its tributaries provide considerable +water power; and there are various manufactures, including +cotton goods, silk goods, and horse-shoes and other iron ware. +The value of the township’s factory product in 1905 was +$3,171,318, an increase of 80.6% since 1900, this ratio of increase +being greater than that shown by any other “municipality” +in the state having a population in 1900 of 8000 or more. At +Lonsdale, William Blackstone (<i>c.</i> 1595-1675), the first permanent +white settler within the present limits of Rhode Island, built +his residence, “Study Hall,” about 1635. Cumberland was +originally a part of Rehoboth, and then of Attleborough, Massachusetts, +and for many years was called, like other sparse settlements, +the Gore, or Attleborough Gore. In 1747, by the royal +decree establishing the boundary between Massachusetts and +Rhode Island, Attleborough Gore, with other territory formerly +under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, was annexed to Rhode +Island, and the township of Cumberland was incorporated, +the name being adopted in honour of William Augustus, duke of +Cumberland. In 1867 a part of Cumberland was set off to form +the township of Woonsocket.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUMBERLAND MOUNTAINS<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (or more correctly the Cumberland +Plateau or Highlands), the westernmost of the three great +divisions of the Appalachian uplift in the United States, composed +of many small ranges of mountains (of which Cumberland +Mountain in eastern Kentucky is one). It extends from Pennsylvania +to Alabama, attaining its greatest height (about 4000 ft.) +in Virginia. The plateau is rich in a variety of mineral products, +of which special mention may be made of coal, which occurs in +many places, and of the beautiful marbles quarried in that +portion of the plateau which lies between Virginia and Kentucky +and crosses Tennessee. The plateau has an abrupt descent, +almost an escarpment, into the great Appalachian Valley on its +E., while the W. slope is deeply and roughly broken. The whole +mass is eroded in Virginia into a maze of ridges. Cumberland +Mountain parts the waters of the Cumberland and Tennessee +rivers. This range and the other ranges about it are perhaps the +loveliest portion of the whole plateau. The peaks here and in the +Blue Ridge to the E. are the highest of the Appalachian system. +Forest-filled valleys, rounded hills and rugged gorges afford in +every part scenery of surpassing beauty. The Cumberland Valley +between the Cumberland range and the Pine range is one of +special fame. In the former range there are immense caverns +and subterranean streams. Cumberland Gap, crossing the ridge +at about 167 ft. above the sea, where Kentucky, Virginia and +Tennessee meet, is a gorge about 500 ft. deep, with steep sides +that barely give room in places for a roadway. The mountains, +river and gap were all discovered by a party of Virginians in +1748, and named in honour of the victor of Culloden, William, +duke of Cumberland. Afterwards the gap gained a place in +American history as one of the main pathways by which +emigrants crossed the mountains to Kentucky and Tennessee. +During the Civil War it was a position of great strategic importance, +as it afforded an entrance to eastern and central +Tennessee from Kentucky, which was held by the Union arms; +and it was repeatedly occupied in alternation by the opposing +forces.</p> + +<p>The mountaineers of Kentucky and Tennessee are a strange +stock, who retain in their customs and habits the primitive +conditions of a life that has elsewhere long since disappeared. +They have been pictured in the novels of Miss Murfree and John +Fox, Junr. They are a tall, straight, angular folk, of fine physical +development; the volunteers for the Union army from Kentucky +and Tennessee during the Civil War—most of whom came from +the non-slave-holding mountain region—exceeded in physical +development the volunteers from all other states. For the +education of these mountaineers Major-General Oliver Otis +Howard founded in 1895 at Cumberland Gap, Tennessee, the +Lincoln Memorial University (co-educational; non-sectarian; +opened in 1897), which has collegiate, normal training and industrial +courses, and an affiliated school of medicine, Tennessee +Medical College, at Knoxville. The university had in 1907-1908 +14 instructors and 570 students. Berea College in Kentucky was +a pioneer institution for the education of mountaineers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUMBERLAND RIVER,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> a large southern branch of the Ohio +river, U.S.A., rising in the highest part of the Cumberland plateau +in south-east Kentucky, and emptying into the Ohio in Kentucky +(near Smithland) after a devious course of 688 m. through that +state and Tennessee. It drains a basin of somewhat more than +18,000 sq. m., and is navigable for light-draught steamers through +about 500 m. under favourable conditions—Burnside, Pulaski +county, 518 m. from the mouth, is the head of navigation—and +through 193 m.—to Nashville—all the year round; for boats +drawing not more than 3 ft. the river is navigable to Nashville for +6 to 8 months. At the Great Falls, in Whitley county, Kentucky, +it drops precipitously 63 ft. Above the falls it is a mountain +stream, of little volume in the dry months. It descends rapidly +at its head to the highland bench below the mountains and +traverses this to the falls, then flows in rapids (the Great Shoals) +for some 10 m. through a fine gorge with cliffs 300-400 ft. high, +and descends between bluffs of decreasing height and beauty +into its lower level. Save in the mountains its gradient is slight, +and below the falls, except for a number of small rapids, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page628" id="page628"></a>628</span> +flow of the stream is equable. Timbered ravines lend charm +to much of its shores, and in the mountains the scenery is most +beautiful. Below Nashville the stream is some 400 to 500 ft. +wide, and its high banks are for the most part of alluvium, with +rocky bluffs at intervals. At the mouth of the river lies Cumberland +Island, in the Ohio. During low water of the latter stream +the Cumberland discharges around both ends of the island, but +in high water of the Ohio the gradient of the Cumberland is so +slight that its waters are held back, forming a deep quiet pool +that extends some 20 m. up the river. A system of locks and +dams below Nashville was planned in 1846 by a private company, +which accomplished practically nothing. Congress appropriated +$155,000 in 1832-1838; in the years immediately after 1888 +$305,000 was expended, notably for deepening the shoals at the +junction of the Cumberland and the Ohio; in 1892 a project +was undertaken for 7 locks and dams 52 ft. wide and 280 ft. +long below Nashville. Above Nashville $346,000 was expended +on the open channel project (of 1871-1872) from Nashville to +Cumberland Ford (at Pineville); in 1886 a canalization project +was undertaken and 22 locks and dams below Burnside and 6 +above Burnside were planned, but by the act of 1907 the project +was modified—$2,319,000 had been appropriated up to 1908 +for the work of canalization. During the Civil War Fort Donelson +on the Cumberland, and Fort Henry near by on the Tennessee +were erected by the Confederates, and their capture by Flag-officer +A. H. Foote and General Grant (Feb. 1862) was one of +the decisive events of the war, opening the rivers as it did +for the advance of the Union forces far into Confederate +Territory.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUMBRAES, THE,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> two islands forming part of the county of +Bute, Scotland, lying in the Firth of Clyde, between the southern +shores of Bute and the coast of Ayrshire. <span class="sc">Great Cumbrae +Island</span>, about 1½ m. W.S.W. of Largs, is 3¾ m. long and 2 m. +broad, and has a circumference of 10 m. and an area of 3200 +acres or 5 sq. m. Its highest point is 417 ft. above the sea. +There is some fishing and a little farming, but the mainstay of +the inhabitants is the custom of the visitors who crowd every +summer to Millport, which is reached by railway steamer from +Largs. This town (pop. 1901, 1663) is well situated at the head +of a fine bay and has a climate that is both warm and bracing. +Its chief public buildings include the cathedral, erected in Gothic +style on rising ground behind the town, the college connected +with it, the garrison, a picturesque seat belonging to the marquess +of Bute, who owns the island, the town hall, a public hall, +library and reading room, the Lady Margaret fever hospital, +and a marine biological station. The cathedral, originally the +collegiate church, was founded in 1849 by the earl of Glasgow +and opened in 1851. In 1876 it was constituted the cathedral +of Argyll and the Isles. Millport enjoys exceptional facilities +for boating and bathing, and there is also a good golf-course. +Pop. (1901) 1754, of whom 1028 were females, and 59 spoke both +English and Gaelic. <span class="sc">Little Cumbrae Island</span> lies to the south, +separated by the Tan, a strait half a mile wide. It is 1¾ m. long, +barely 1 m. broad, and has an area of almost a square mile. +Its highest point is 409 ft. above sea-level. On the bold cliffs +of the west coast stands a lighthouse. Robert II. is said to have +built a castle on the island which was demolished by Cromwell’s +soldiers in 1653.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The strata met with in the Great and Little Cumbrae belong to the +Upper Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous systems. The former, +consisting of false-bedded sandstones and conglomerates, are confined +to the larger island. The Carboniferous rocks of the Cumbrae +belong to the lower part of the Calciferous Sandstone series with the +accompanying volcanic zone. In the larger island these sediments, +comprising sandstones, red, purple and mottled clays with occasional +bands of nodular limestone or cornstone, occupy a considerable area +on the north side of Millport Bay. In the Little Cumbrae they appear +on the east side, where they underlie and are interbedded with the +lavas. The interesting geological feature of these islands is the +development of Lower Carboniferous volcanic rocks. They cover +nearly the whole of the Little Cumbrae, where they give rise to +marked terraced features and are arranged in a gentle synclinal fold. +The flows are often scoriaceous at the top and sometimes display +columnar structure, as in the crags at the lighthouse. Those rocks examined +microscopically consist of basalts which are often porphyritic. +In Great Cumbrae the intrusive rocks mark four periods of eruption, +three of which may be of Carboniferous age. The oldest, +consisting of trachytes, occur as sheets and dikes trending generally +E.N.E., and are confined chiefly to the Upper Old Red Sandstone. +They seem to be of older date than the Carboniferous lavas of Little +Cumbrae and south Bute. Next come dikes of olivine basalt of the +type of the Lion’s Haunch on Arthur’s Seat, which, though possessing +the same general trend as the trachytes, are seen to cut them. +The members of the third group comprise dikes of dolerite or basalt +with or without olivine, which have a general east and west trend, +and as they intersect the two previous groups they must be of later +date. They probably belong to the east and west quartz dolerite +dikes which are now referred to late Carboniferous time. Lastly +there are representatives of the basalt dikes of Tertiary age with a +north-west trend.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUMIN,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Cummin</span> (<i>Cuminum Cyminum</i>), an annual herbaceous +plant, a member of the natural order Umbelliferae and probably +a native of some part of western Asia, but scarcely known at the +present time in a wild state. It was early cultivated in Arabia, +India and China, and in the countries bordering the Mediterranean. +Its stem is slender and branching, and about a foot +in height; the leaves are deeply cut, with filiform segments; +the flowers are small and white. The fruits, the so-called seeds, +which constitute the cumin of pharmacy, are fusiform or ovoid +in shape and compressed laterally; they are two lines long, are +hotter to the taste, lighter in colour, and larger than caraway +seeds, and have on each half nine fine ridges, overlying as many +oil-channels or vittae. Their strong aromatic smell and warm +bitterish taste are due to the presence of about 3% of an essential +oil. The tissue of the seeds contains a fatty oil, with resin, +mucilage and gum, malates and albuminous matter; and in the +pericarp there is much tannin. The volatile oil of cumin, which +may be separated by distillation of the seed with water, is mainly +a mixture of cymol or cymene, C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">14</span>, and cumic aldehyde, +C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>(C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">7</span>)COH. Cumin is mentioned in Isaiah xxviii. 25, 27, +and Matthew xxiii. 23, and in the works of Hippocrates and +Dioscorides. From Pliny we learn that the ancients took the +ground seed medicinally with bread, water or wine, and that it +was accounted the best of condiments as a remedy for squeamishness. +It was found to occasion pallor of the face, whence the +expression of Horace, <i>exsangue cuminum</i> (<i>Epist.</i> i. 19), and that +of Persius, <i>pallentis grana cumini</i> (<i>Sat.</i> v. 55). Pliny relates the +story that it was employed by the followers of Porcius Latro, +the celebrated rhetorician, in order to produce a complexion +such as bespeaks application to study (xx. 57). In the middle +ages cumin was one of the commonest spices of European growth. +Its average price per pound in England in the 13th and 14th +centuries was 2d. or, at present value, about 1s. 4d. (Rogers, <i>Hist. +of Agric. and Prices</i>, i. 631). It is stimulant and carminative, and +is employed in the manufacture of curry powder. The medicinal +use of the drug is now confined to veterinary practice. Cumin +is exported from India, Mogador, Malta and Sicily.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUMMERBUND,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a girdle or waistbelt (Hindostani <i>kamar-band</i>, +a loin-band). In the East the principle of health is to keep the +head cool and the stomach warm; the turban protects the one +from the sun, and the cummerbund ensures the other against +changes of temperature. In India the cummerbund consists of +many folds of muslin or bright-coloured cloth.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUMMING, JOSEPH GEORGE<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1812-1868), English geologist +and archaeologist, was born at Matlock in Derbyshire on the +15th of February 1812. He was educated at Oakham grammar +school, and Emmanuel College, Cambridge, taking the degree of +M.A., and entering holy orders in 1835. In 1841 he was appointed +vice-principal of King William’s College, Castletown, in the Isle +of Man, and this position he held until 1856. During this period +his leisure time was devoted to a study of the geology and +archaeology of the island. The results were published in a +classic volume <i>The Isle of Man; its History, Physical, Ecclesiastical, +Civil and Legendary</i> (1848). In 1856 he became master +of King Edward’s grammar school at Lichfield, in 1858 warden +and professor of classical literature and geology in Queen’s +College, Birmingham, in 1862 rector of Mellis, in Suffolk, and +in 1867 vicar of St John’s, Bethnal Green, London. He died +in London on the 21st of September 1868.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page629" id="page629"></a>629</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">CUMNOCK AND HOLMHEAD,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> a police burgh of Ayrshire, +Scotland, on the Lugar, 33¾ m. S. of Glasgow by road, with two +stations (Cumnock and Old Cumnock) on the Glasgow & South-Western +railway. Pop. (1901) 3088. It lies in the parish of +Old Cumnock (pop. 5144), and is a thriving town, with a town +hall, cottage hospital, public library and an athenaeum. Coal +and ironstone are extensively mined in the neighbourhood, and +the manufactures include woollens, tweeds, agricultural implements +and pottery. When Alexander Peden (1626-1686), the +persecuted Covenanter, died, he was buried in the Boswell aisle +of Auchinleck church; but his corpse was borne thence with +every indignity by a company of dragoons to the foot of the +gallows at Cumnock, where they intended to hang it in chains. +This proving to be impracticable they buried it at the gallows-foot. +After the Revolution the inhabitants out of respect for +the “Prophet’s” memory abandoned their then burying-ground +and turned the old place of execution into the present cemetery. +Five miles S.E. lies the parish of New Cumnock (pop. 5367) at +the confluence of Afton Water and the Nith. It is rich in +minerals, iron, coal, limestone and freestone, and has a station +on the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Two miles N.W. of +Cumnock is Auchinleck (pronounced Affleck), with a station +on the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Coal and iron mining +and farming are important industries. It is the seat of the +Boswell family, three generations of which abbreviated greatness—Lord +Auchinleck, the judge (who dubbed Dr Johnson “Ursa +Major”), his son James, the biographer, and his grandson Sir +Alexander, the author of “Gude nicht and joy be wi’ you a’,” +“Jenny’s Bawbee,” “Jenny dang the weaver,” and other songs +and poems, who perished miserably in a duel. Pop. of Auchinleck +parish (1901) 6605.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUNARD, SIR SAMUEL,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> Bart. (1787-1865), British civil +engineer, founder of the Cunard line of steam-ships, was born +at Halifax, Nova Scotia, on the 21st of November 1787. He was +the son of a merchant, and was himself trained for the pursuits +of commerce, in which, by his abilities and enterprising spirit, +he attained a conspicuous position. When, in the early years +of steam navigation, the English government made known its +desire to substitute steam vessels for the sailing ships then +employed in the mail service between England and America, +Cunard heartily entered into the scheme, came to England, and +accepted the government tender for carrying it out. In conjunction +with Messrs Burns of Glasgow and Messrs MacIver +of Liverpool, proprietors of rival lines of coasting steamers +between Glasgow and Liverpool, he formed a company, and the +first voyage of a Cunard steamship was successfully made by +the “Britannia” from Liverpool to Boston, U.S.A., between +July 4 and 19, 1840 (see <span class="sc">Steamship Lines</span>). In acknowledgment +of his energetic and successful services Cunard was, in 1859, +created a baronet. He died in London on the 28th of April +1865.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUNAS,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> a tribe of Central American Indians. Their home is +the Isthmus of Panama, from the Chagres to the Atrato. They +are sometimes called Darien or San Blas Indians. They are a +small active people, with remarkably light complexions.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUNDINAMARCA,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> till 1909 a department of the eastern +plateau of Colombia, South America, having the departments +of Quesada and Tundama on the N., Tolima on the W. and S., +and the Meta territory on the S.E. and E. The territorial +redistribution of 1905 deprived Cundinamarca of its territories +on the eastern plains, and a part of its territory in the Eastern +Cordillera out of which Quesada and the Federal district were +created—its area being reduced from 79,691 to 5060 sq. m., +and its estimated population from 500,000 to 225,000. A +considerable part of its area consists of plateaus enjoying a +temperate climate and producing the fruits and cereals of the +temperate zone, and another important part lies in the valley +of the Magdalena and is tropical in character. The district of +Fusagasuga in the southern part of this region is celebrated +for the excellence of its coffee. The capital of the department +was Facatativá (est. population, 7500), situated on the western +margin of the <i>sabana</i> of Bogotá, 25 m. N.W. from that capital +by rail. Other important towns are Caqueza, Sibaté, La Meza +and Tocaima.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUNEIFORM<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>cuneus</i>, a wedge), a form of writing, +extensively used in the ancient world, especially by the Babylonians +and Assyrians. The word “cuneiform” was first +applied in 1700 by Thomas Hyde, professor of Hebrew in the +university of Oxford, in the expression “dactuli pyramidales +seu cuneiformes,” and it has found general acceptance, though +efforts have been made to introduce the expression “arrow-headed” +writing. The name “cuneiform” is fitting, for each +character or sign is composed of a wedge (<img style="width:10px; height:22px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img629a.jpg" alt="" /> or <img style="width:24px; height:12px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img629b.jpg" alt="" />), or a combination +of wedges (<img style="width:47px; height:24px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img629c.jpg" alt="" />), written from left to right. The wedge +is always pointed towards the right (<img style="width:24px; height:12px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img629b.jpg" alt="" />) or downwards (<img style="width:10px; height:22px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img629a.jpg" alt="" />) or +aslant (<img style="width:14px; height:22px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img629d.jpg" alt="" />), or two may be so combined as to form an angle (<img style="width:12px; height:21px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img629e.jpg" alt="" />) +called by German Assyriologists a <i>Winkelhaken</i>, a word now +sometimes adopted by English writers on the subject. The +word cuneiform has passed into most modern languages, but +the Germans use <i>Keilschrift</i> (<i>i.e.</i> wedge-script) and the Arabs +<i>mismārī</i> (<img style="width:55px; height:23px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img629f.jpg" alt="" />) or nail-writing.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:509px; height:82px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img629g.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">In Persia, 40 m. N.E. of Shiraz, is a range of hills, Mount +Rachmet, in front of which, in a semicircular form, rises a vast +terrace-like platform. It is partly natural, but was +walled up in front, levelled off and used as the base +<span class="sidenote">Discovery and decipherment.</span> +of great temples and palaces. The earliest European, +at present known to us, who visited the site was a +wandering friar Odoricus (about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1320), who does not seem +to have noticed the inscriptions cut in the stone. These were +first observed by Josaphat Barbaro, a Venetian traveller, about +1472. In 1621 the ruins were visited by Pietro della Valle, who +was the first to copy a few of the signs, which he sent in a letter +to a friend in Naples. His copy was not well made, but it served +the useful purpose of directing attention to an unknown script +which was certain to attract scholars to the problem of its +decipherment. To this end it was necessary that complete +inscriptions and not merely separate signs should be made +accessible to European scholars. The first man to attempt to +satisfy this need was Sir John Chardin, in whose volumes of +travels published at Amsterdam in 1711 one of the small inscriptions +found at the ruins of Persepolis was carefully and accurately +reproduced. It was now plainly to be seen, as indeed others had +surmised, that these inscriptions at Persepolis had been written +in three languages, distinguished each from other by an increasing +complexity in the signs with which they were written. The three +languages have since been determined as Persian, Susian and +Babylonian. But before the decipherment could begin it was +necessary that all the available material should be copied and +published. The honour of performing this great task fell to +Carsten Niebuhr, who visited Persepolis in March 1765, and in +three weeks and a half copied all the texts, so well that little +improvement has been made in them since. When Niebuhr +returned to Denmark he studied carefully the little inscriptions +and convinced himself that the guesses of some of his predecessors +were correct, and that the inscriptions were to be read from left +to right. He observed that three systems of writing were +discernible, and that these were always kept distinct in the +inscriptions. He did not, however, draw the natural conclusion +that they represented three languages, but supposed that the +proud builders of Persepolis had written their inscriptions in +threefold form. He divided the little inscriptions into three +classes, according to the manner of their writing, calling them +classes I., II. and III. He then arranged all those he had +copied that belonged to class I., and by careful comparison +decided that in them there were employed altogether but forty-two +signs. These he copied out and set in order in one of +his plates. This list of signs was so nearly complete and accurate +that later study has made but slight changes in it. When +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page630" id="page630"></a>630</span> +Niebuhr had made his list of signs he naturally enough decided +that this language, whatever it might be, was written in alphabetic +characters, a conclusion which later investigation has not +overthrown. Beyond this Niebuhr was not able to go, and not +even one sign revealed its secret to his inquiry. When, however, +he had published his copies (in 1777) there were other scholars +ready to take up the difficult task. Two scholars independently, +Olav Tychsen of Rostock and Friedrich Münter of Copenhagen, +began work upon the problem. Tychsen first observed that +there occurred at irregular intervals in the inscriptions of the +first class a wedge that pointed neither directly to the right nor +downward, but inclined diagonally. This he suggested was the +dividing sign used to separate words. This very simple discovery +later became of great importance in the hands of Münter. +Tychsen also correctly identified the alphabetic signs for “<i>a</i>,” +“<i>d</i>,” “<i>u</i>” and “<i>s</i>,” but he failed to decipher an entire inscription, +chiefly perhaps because, through an error in history, he supposed +that they were written during the Parthian dynasty (246 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> +227). Münter was more fortunate than Tychsen in his +historical researches, and this made him also more successful +in linguistic attempts. He rightly identified the builders of +Persepolis with the Achaemenian dynasty, and so located in +time the authors of the inscriptions (538-465 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Independently +of Tychsen he identified the oblique wedge as a +divider between words, and found the meaning of the sign for +“b.” These may appear to be small matters, but it must be +remembered that they were made without the assistance of any +bilingual text, and were indeed taken bodily out of the gloom +which had settled upon these languages centuries before. They +did not, however, bring us much nearer to the desired goal of +a reading of any portion of the inscriptions. The whole case +indeed seemed now perilously near a stalemate. New methods +must be found, and a new worker, with patience, persistence, +power of combination, insight, the historical sense and the +feeling for archaeological indications.</p> + +<p>In 1802 Georg Friedrich Grotefend (<i>q.v.</i>) was persuaded by +the librarian of Göttingen University to essay the task. He +began with the assumption that there were three languages, +and that of these the first was ancient Persian, the language of +the Achaemenians, who had erected these palaces and caused +these inscriptions to be written. For his first attempts at +decipherment he chose two of these old Persian inscriptions and +laid them side by side. They were of moderate length, and the +frequent recurrence of the same signs in them seemed to indicate +that their contents were similar. The method which he now +pursued was so simple, yet so sure, as he advanced step by step, +that there seemed scarcely a chance of error. Münter had +observed in all the Persian texts a word which occurred in two +forms, a short and a longer form. This word appeared in +Grotefend’s two texts in both long and short forms. Münter +had suggested that it meant “king” in the short form and +“kings” in the longer, and that when the two words occurred +together the expression meant “king of kings.” But further, +this word occurred in both inscriptions in the first line, and in +both cases was followed by the same word. This second word +Grotefend supposed to mean “<i>great</i>,” the combined expression +being “king great,” that is, “great king.” All this found support +in the phraseology of the lately deciphered Sassanian inscriptions, +and it was plausible in itself. It must, however, be supported +by definite facts, and furthermore each word must be separated +into its alphabetic parts, every one of them identified, and the +words themselves be shown to be philologically possible by the +production of similar words in related languages. In other +words, the archaeological method must find support in a philological +method. To this Grotefend now devoted himself with +equal energy. His method was as simple as before. He had +made out to his own satisfaction the titles “great king, king of +kings.” Now, in the Sassanian inscriptions, the first word was +always the king’s name, followed immediately by “great king, +king of kings,” and Grotefend reasoned that this was probably +true in his texts. But if true, then these two texts were set up +by two different kings, for the names were not the same at the +beginning. Furthermore the name with which his text No. I. +began appears in the third line of text No. II., but in a somewhat +longer form, which Grotefend thought was a genitive and meant +“of N.” It followed the word previously supposed to be “king” +and another which might mean son (N king son), so that the +whole expression would be “son of N king.” From these facts +Grotefend surmised that in these two inscriptions he had the +names of three rulers, grandfather, father and son. It was now +easy to search the list of the Achaemenian dynasty and to find +three names which would suit the conditions, and the three +which he ventured to select were Hystaspes, Darius, Xerxes. +According to his hypothesis the name at the beginning of inscription +I. was Darius, and he was ready to translate his texts in +part as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">I.</td> <td class="tcl">Darius, great king, king of kings ... son of Hystaspes....</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">II.</td> <td class="tcl">Xerxes, great king, king of kings ... son of Darius king.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The form which he provisionally adopted for Darius was +Darheush; later investigation has shown that it ought really +to be read as Daryavush, but the error was not serious, and he +had safely secured at least the letters D, A, R, SH. It was a +most wonderful achievement, the importance of which he did +not realize, for in it was the key to the decipherment of three +ancient languages. To very few men has it been given to make +discoveries so important both for history and for philology.</p> + +<p>To Grotefend it was, however, not given to translate a whole +text, or even to work out all the words whose meaning he had +surmised. Rasmus Christian Rask (1787-1832), who followed +him, found the plural ending in Persian, which had baffled him; +and Eugène Burnouf (1801-1852), by the study of a list of +Persian geographical names found at Naksh-i-Rustam, discovered +at a single stroke almost all the characters of the Persian +alphabet, and incidentally confirmed the values already determined +by his predecessors.</p> + +<p>At the same time as Burnouf, the eminent Sanskrit scholar +Professor Christian Lassen (1800-1876), of Bonn, was studying +the same list of names; and his results were published at the +same time. The controversy which resulted as to priority of +discovery may be here passed over while we sum up the results +in general conclusions. Lassen may certainly claim in the final +court of history that he discovered independently of Burnouf +the values of at least six and possibly of eight signs. But in +another respect he made very definite progress over Burnouf. +He discovered that, if the system of Grotefend were rigidly +followed, and to every sign were given the value Grotefend had +assigned, some words would be left wholly or almost wholly +without vowels; and therefore unpronounceable. As instances +of such words he mentioned ÇPRD, THTGUS, KTPTUK, +FRAISJM. This situation led Lassen to a very important +discovery, towards which his knowledge of the Sanskrit alphabet +did much to bring him. He came, in short, to the conclusion +that the ancient Persian signs were not entirely alphabetic, +but were at least partially syllabic, that is, that certain signs +were used to represent not merely an alphabetic character like +“b,” but also a syllable such as “ba,” “bi” or “bu.” He +claimed that he had successfully demonstrated that the sign +for “a” was only used at the beginning of a word, or before +a consonant, or before another vowel, and that in every other +case it was included in the consonant sign. Thus in the +inscription No I. in the second line the signs should be read +VA-ZA-RA-KA. This was a most important discovery, and may +be said to have revolutionized the study of these long puzzling +texts.</p> + +<p>During the entire time of this slow process of decipherment, +from the first essays of Grotefend in 1802 until the publication +of Lassen’s book in 1836, there were more sceptics than believers +in the results of the deciphering process. Indeed the history of +all forms of decipherment of unknown languages shows that +scepticism concerning them is far more prevalent than credulity +or even a too ready acceptance. There was need for a man of +another people, of different training and a fresh and unbiased +mind, to put the capstone upon the decipherment, and he was +already at work when Lassen’s important researches appeared.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page631" id="page631"></a>631</span></p> + +<p>Major (afterward Sir) Henry Rawlinson had gone out to India, +in the service of the East India Company, while still a boy. There +he had learned Persian and several of the Indian vernaculars. +That was not the sort of training that had prepared Grotefend, +Burnouf or Lassen, but it was the kind that the early travellers +and copyists had enjoyed. In 1833 young Rawlinson went to +Persia, to work with other British officers in the reorganization +of the Persian army. While engaged in this service his attention +was drawn to the ancient Persian cuneiform inscriptions. In +1835 he copied with great care the texts at Hamadan, and began +their decipherment. Of all the eager work which had been going +on in Europe he knew little. It is no longer possible to ascertain +when he gained his first information of Grotefend’s work, for +Norris, the secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society, has left +us no record of when he began to send notices of the German’s +work. Whenever it was, there seems to be no doubt that +Rawlinson worked independently for a time. His method was +strikingly like Grotefend’s. He had copied two trilingual inscriptions, +and recognized at once that he had three languages +before him. In 1839 (<i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</i>, x. +pp. 5, 6) he thus wrote of his method: “When I proceeded ... to +compare and interline the two inscriptions (or rather the +Persian columns of the two inscriptions, for, as the compartments +exhibiting the inscription in the Persian language occupied the +principal place in the tablets, and were engraved in the least +complicated of the three classes of cuneiform writing, they were +naturally first submitted to examination) I found that the +characters coincided throughout, except in certain particular +groups, and it was only reasonable to suppose that the grounds +which were thus brought out and individualized must represent +proper names. I further remarked that there were but three of +these distinct groups in the two inscriptions; for the group +which occupied the second place in one inscription, and which, +from its position, suggested the idea of its representing the name +of the father of the king who was there commemorated, corresponded +with the group which occupied the first place in the other +inscription, and thus not only served determinately to connect +the two inscriptions together, but, assuming the groups to +represent proper names, appeared also to indicate a genealogical +succession. The natural inference was that in these three groups +of characters I had obtained the proper names belonging to three +consecutive generations of the Persian monarchy; and it so +happened that the first three names of Hystaspes, Darius and +Xerxes, which I applied at hazard to the three groups, according +to the succession, proved to answer in all respects satisfactorily +and were, in fact, the true identification.”</p> + +<p>Rawlinson’s next work was the copying of the great inscription +of Darius on the rocks at Behistun (<i>q.v.</i>). He had first seen it in +1835, and as it was high up on the rocky face, and apparently +inaccessible, he had studied it by means of a field-glass. He was +not able to copy the whole of the Persian text, but in 1837, when +he was more skilled in the script, he secured more of it. In the +next year he forwarded to the Royal Asiatic Society of London +his translation of the first two paragraphs of the Persian text, +containing the name, titles and genealogy of Darius. This was +little less than a <i>tour de force</i>, for it must be remembered that +this had been accomplished without the knowledge of other +ancient languages which his European competitors had enjoyed. +The translation, received in London on the 14th of March, made a +sensation, and a transcript sent in April to the Asiatic Society +of Paris secured him an honorary membership in that distinguished +body. He was now known, and many made haste to +send him copies of everything important which had been published +in Europe. The works of Burnouf, Niebuhr, le Brun and +Porter came to his hands, and with such assistance he made rapid +progress, and in the winter of 1838-1839 his alphabet of ancient +Persian was almost complete. In 1839 he was in Bagdad, his +work written out and almost ready for publication. But he +delayed, hoping for more light, and revising sign by sign with +exhaustless patience. He expected to publish his preliminary +memoir in the spring of 1840, when he was suddenly sent to +Afghanistan as political agent at Kandahar. Here he was too +busily engaged in war administration to attend to his favourite +studies, which were not renewed until 1843 when he returned +to Bagdad. There he received fresh copies and corrections of +the Persepolis inscriptions which had been made by Westergaard, +and later made a journey to Behistun to perfect his own copies +of the texts which had formed the basis of his own first study. +At last, after many delays and discouragements, he published, +in 1846, in the <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</i>, his memoir, +or series of memoirs, on the ancient Persian inscriptions, in which +for the first time he gave a nearly complete translation of the +Persian text of Behistun. In this one publication Rawlinson +attained imperishable fame in Oriental research. His work had +been carried on under greater difficulties than those in the path +of his European colleagues, but he had surpassed them all in the +making of an intelligible and connected translation of a long +inscription. He had indeed not done it without assistance from +the work of Burnouf, Grotefend and Lassen, but when all +allowance is made for these influences his fame is not diminished +nor the extent of his services curtailed. His method was adopted +before he knew of Lassen’s work. That two men of such different +training and of such opposite types of mind should have lighted +upon the same method, and by it have attained the same results, +confirmed in the eyes of many the truth of the decipherment.</p> + +<p>The work of the decipherment of the old Persian texts was now +complete for all practical purposes. But in 1846 there appeared +a paper read before the Royal Irish Academy by the Rev. +Edward Hincks of Killyleagh, County Down, Ireland, whose keen +criticisms of Lassen’s work, and original contributions to the +definite settlement of syllabic values, may be regarded as closing +the period of decipherment of Persian cuneiform writing.</p> + +<p>The next problem in the study of cuneiform was the decipherment +of the second language in each of the trilingual groups. +The first essay in this difficult task was made in 1844 by Niels +Louis Westergaard. His method was very similar to that used by +Grotefend in the decipherment of Persian. He selected the names +of Darius, Hystaspes, Persians and others, and compared them +with their equivalents in the Persian texts. By this means he +learned a number of signs, and sought by their use in other +words to spell out syllables or words whose meanings were then +ascertained by conjecture or by comparison. He estimated the +number of characters at eighty-two or eighty-seven, and judged +the writing to be partly alphabetic and partly syllabic. The +language he called Median, and classified it in “the Scythian, +rather than in the Japhetic family.” The results of Westergaard +were subjected to incisive criticism by Hincks, who made a +distinct gain in the problem. It next passed to the hands of de +Saulcy, who was able to see further than either. But the matter +moved with difficulty because the copied texts were not accurate. +By the generosity of Sir Henry Rawlinson his superb copies +of the Behistun text, second column, were placed in the hands +of Mr Edwin Norris, who was able in 1852 to present a paper +to the Royal Asiatic Society deciphering nearly all of it. Mordtmann +followed him, naming the language Susian, which was met +with general acceptance and was not displaced by the name +Amardian, suggested by A. H. Sayce in two papers which otherwise +made important contributions to the subject. With his +contributions the problem of decipherment of Susian may be +considered as closed. The latter workers could only be builders +on foundations already laid.</p> + +<p>The decipherment of the third of the three languages found +at Persepolis and Behistun followed quickly on the success with +Susian. The first worker was Isadore Löwenstern, who made +out the words for “king” and “great” and the sign for the +plural, but little more. The first really great advance was made +by Hincks in 1846 and 1847. In these he determined successfully +the values of several signs, settled the numerals, and was +apparently on the high-road toward the translation of an entire +Assyrian text. He was, however, too cautious to proceed so far, +and the credit of first translating a short Assyrian text belongs +to Longpérier, who in 1847 published the following as the translation +of an entire text: “Glorious is Sargon, the great king, +the (...) king, king of kings, king of the land of Assyria.” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page632" id="page632"></a>632</span> +It was nearly all correct, but it advanced our knowledge but +slightly because it did not give the forms of the words—because +(to put it in another way) he was not able to transliterate the +Assyrian words. This was the great problem. In the Persian +texts there were but forty-four signs, but in the third column +of the Persepolis texts Grotefend had counted one hundred +and thirty different characters, and estimated that in all the +Babylonian texts known to him there were about three hundred +different signs, while Botta discovered six hundred and forty-two +in the texts found by him at Khorsabad. That was enough to +make the stoutest heart quail, for a meaning must be found for +every one of these signs. There could not be so many syllables, +and it was, therefore, quite plain that the Babylonian language +must have been written in part at least in ideograms. But in +1851 Rawlinson published one hundred and twelve lines of the +Babylonian column from Behistun, accompanied by an interlinear +transcription into Roman characters, and a translation +into Latin. That paper, added to Hinck’s still more acute +detail studies, brought to an end the preliminary decipherment +of Babylonian. There were still enormous difficulties to be +surmounted in the full appreciation of the complicated script, +but these would be solved by the combined labours of many +workers.</p> + +<p>The cuneiform script had its origin in Babylonia and its +inventors were a people whom we call the Sumerians. Before +the Semitic Babylonians conquered the land it was +inhabited by a people of unknown origin variously +<span class="sidenote">Origin.</span> +classified, by different scholars, with the Ural-altaic or even +with the Indo-European family, or as having blood relationship +with both. This people is known to us from thousands of cuneiform +inscriptions written entirely in their language, though our +chief knowledge of them was for a long time derived from +Sumerian inscriptions with interlinear translations in Assyrian. +Their language is called Sumerian (li-ša-an Su-me-ri) by the +Assyrians (Br. Mus. 81-7-27, 130), and its characteristics are +being slowly developed by the elaborate study of the immense +literature which has come down to us. In 1884 Halévy denied +the existence of the Sumerian language, and claimed that it +was merely a cabalistic script invented by the priests of the +Semites. His early success has not been sustained, and the vast +majority of scholars have ceased to doubt the existence of the +language.</p> + +<p>The Sumerians developed their script from a rude picture-writing, +some early forms of which have come down to us. In +course of time they used the pictures to represent sounds, apart +from ideas. They wrote first on stone, and when clay was +adopted soon found that straight lines in soft clay when made +by a single pressure of the stylus tend to become wedges, and the +pictures therefore lost their character and came to be mere +conventional groups of wedges. Some of these wedge-shaped +signs are of such character that we are still able to recognize +or re-construct the original picture from which they came. The +Assyrian sign <img style="width:39px; height:23px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632a.jpg" alt="" />, which means heaven, appears in early texts +in the form <img style="width:35px; height:31px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632b.jpg" alt="" /> in which its star-like form is quite evident +(star = heaven) and from which the linear form <img style="width:30px; height:27px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632c.jpg" alt="" /> may be not +improbably pre-supposed. A number of other cases were +enumerated by the Assyrians themselves (see <i>Cuneiform Texts +from Bab. Tab. in Brit. Museum</i>, vol. v., 1898), and there can be +no reasonable doubt that this is the origin of the script.</p> + +<p>The number of the original picture-signs cannot have been +great, but the development of new signs never ceased till the +cuneiform script passed wholly from use. The simplest +form of development was doubling, to express plurality +<span class="sidenote">Development and characteristics.</span> +or intensity. After this came the working of two +signs into one; thus <img style="width:14px; height:23px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632d.jpg" alt="" /> “water,” when placed in <img style="width:50px; height:25px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632e.jpg" alt="" /> +“mouth” gave the new sign <img style="width:50px; height:24px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632f.jpg" alt="" /> “to drink,” and many others. +Other signs were formed by the addition of four lines, either +vertically or horizontally, to intensify the original meaning. +Thus, for instance, the old linear sign <img style="width:50px; height:27px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632g.jpg" alt="" /> means dwelling, but +with four additional signs, thus <img style="width:49px; height:30px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632h.jpg" alt="" />, it means “great house.” +This sign gradually changed in form until it came to be <img style="width:60px; height:23px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632i.jpg" alt="" />. +This method of development was called by the Sumerians <i>gunu</i>, +and signs thus formed are now commonly called by us, <i>gunu</i> +signs. They number hundreds and must be reckoned with in +our study of the script development, though perhaps recent +scholars have somewhat exaggerated their importance. The +process of development is obscure and must always remain so.</p> + +<p>The script as finally developed and used by the Assyrians is +cumbrous and complicated, and very ill adapted to the sounds +of the Semitic alphabet. It has (1) simple syllables, consisting +of one vowel and a consonant, or a vowel by itself, thus <img style="width:17px; height:23px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632j.jpg" alt="" /> “a,” +<img style="width:32px; height:22px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632k.jpg" alt="" /> ab, <img style="width:35px; height:22px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632l.jpg" alt="" /> ib, <img style="width:32px; height:23px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632m.jpg" alt="" /> ub, <img style="width:36px; height:21px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632n.jpg" alt="" /> ba, <img style="width:25px; height:21px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632o.jpg" alt="" /> bi, <img style="width:32px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632p.jpg" alt="" /> bu. In addition to +these the Assyrian had also (2) compound syllables, such as <img style="width:40px; height:23px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632q.jpg" alt="" /> +bit, <img style="width:49px; height:21px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632r.jpg" alt="" /> bal, and (3) ideograms, or signs which express an +entire word, such as <img style="width:41px; height:22px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632s.jpg" alt="" /> <i>beltu</i>, lady, <img style="width:34px; height:23px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632t.jpg" alt="" /> <i>abu</i>, father. The +difficulty of reading this script is enormously increased by the +fact that many signs are polyphonous, <i>i.e.</i> they may have more +than one syllabic value and also be used as an ideogram. Thus +the sign <img style="width:20px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632u.jpg" alt="" /> has the ideographic values of <i>matu</i>, land, <i>shadu</i>, +mountain, <i>kashadu</i>, to conquer, <i>napachu</i>, to arise (of the sun), +and also the syllabic values <i>kur</i>, <i>mad</i>, <i>mat</i>, <i>shad</i>, <i>shat</i>, <i>lat</i>, <i>nad</i>, +<i>nat</i>, <i>kin</i> and <i>gin</i>. This method of writing must lead to ambiguity, +and this difficulty is helped somewhat by (4) determinatives, +which are signs intended to indicate the class to which the word +belongs. Thus, the <img style="width:9px; height:21px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632v.jpg" alt="" /> is placed before names of persons, and <img style="width:20px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632u.jpg" alt="" /> +(the ideogram for <i>matu</i>, country, and <i>shadu</i>, mountain) is +placed before names of countries and mountains, and <img style="width:34px; height:21px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img632w.jpg" alt="" /> (<i>ilu</i>, +god) before the names of gods.</p> + +<p>The cuneiform writing, begun by the Sumerians in a period +so remote that it is idle to speculate concerning it, had a long +and very extensive history. It was first adopted by +the Semitic Babylonians, and as we have seen was +<span class="sidenote">History.</span> +modified, developed, nay almost made over. Their inscriptions +are written in it from <i>circa</i> 4500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +From their hands it passed to the Assyrians, who simplified +some characters and conventionalized many more, and used +the script during the entire period of their national existence +from 1500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to 607 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> From the Babylonian by a slow +process of evolution the much simplified Persian script was +developed, and with the Babylonian is also to be connected the +Susian, less complicated than the Babylonian, but less simple +than the Persian. The Chaldians (not Chaldaeans), who lived +about Lake Van, also adopted the cuneiform script with values +of their own, and expressed a considerable literature in it. The +discovery in 1887 of the Tell-el-Amarna tablets in upper Egypt +showed that the same script was in use in the 15th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +from Elam to the Mediterranean and from Armenia to the +Persian Gulf for purposes of correspondence. There is good +reason to expect the discovery of its use by yet other peoples. +It was one of the most widely used of all the forms of ancient +writing.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The history of the decipherment may be further +studied in R. W. Rogers, <i>History of Babylonia and Assyria</i>, vol. i. (N.Y. +and London, 1900); and in A. J. Booth, <i>The Discovery and Decipherment +of the Trilingual Cuneiform Inscriptions</i> (London, 1902), which +is very exhaustive and accurate. The Sumerian question may best +be studied in F. H. Weissbach, <i>Die Sumerische Frage</i> (Leipzig, 1898), +and Charles Fossey, <i>Manuel d’Assyriologie</i>, tome i. (Paris, 1904). +For development and characteristics, see Friedrich Delitzsch, <i>Die +Entstehung des ältesten Schriftsystems</i> (Leipzig, 1897); Paul Toscanne, +<i>Les Signes sumériens dérivés</i> (Paris, 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. W. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUNEO<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Coni</i>), a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, +Italy, the capital of the province of Cuneo, 55 m. by rail S. of +Turin, 1722 ft. above sea-level. Cuneo lies on the railway from +Turin to Ventimiglia, which farther on passes under the Col di +Tenda (tunnel 5 m. long). It is also a junction for Mondovi +and Saluzzo, and has steam tramways to Borgo S. Dalmazzo, +Boves, Saluzzo and Dronero. Pop. (1901) 15,412 (town), 26,879 +(commune). Its name (“wedge”) is due to its position on a hill +between two streams, the Stura and the Gesso, with fine views +of the mountains. The Franciscan church, now converted into +a military storehouse, belongs to the 12th century, but there are +no other buildings of special interest. The fortifications have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page633" id="page633"></a>633</span> +been converted into promenades. Cuneo was founded about +1120 by refugees from local baronial tyranny, who, after the +destruction of Milan by Barbarossa, were joined by Lombards. +In 1382 it swore fealty to Amedeus VI., duke of Savoy. It was +an important fortress, and was ceded by the treaty of Cherasco +(1796), with Ceva and Tortona, to the French. In 1799 it was +taken after ten days’ bombardment by the Austrian and Russian +armies, and, in 1800, after the victory of Marengo, the French +demolished the fortifications.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUNEUS<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (Latin for “wedge”; plural, <i>cunei</i>), the architectural +term applied to the wedge-shaped divisions of the Roman +theatre separated by the <i>scalae</i> or stairways; see Vitruvius v. 4.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUNITZ, MARIA<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1610-1664), Silesian astronomer, was +the eldest daughter of Dr Heinrich Cunitz of Schweinitz, and the +wife (1630) of Dr Elias von Löven, of Pitschen in Silesia—both +of them men of learning and distinction. From her universal +accomplishments she was called the “Silesian Pallas,” and the +publication of her work, <i>Urania propitia</i> (Oels, 1650), a simplification +of the Rudolphine Tables, gained her a European reputation. +It was composed at the village of Lugnitz, close by the convent +of Olobok (Posen), where, with her husband, she had taken +refuge at the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War, and was dedicated +to the emperor Frederick III. The author became a widow +in 1661, and died at Pitschen on the 24th of August 1664.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. G. Kästner, <i>Geschichte der Mathematik</i>, iv. 430 (1800); +N. Henelii, <i>Silesiographia renovata</i>, cap. vi. p. 684; J. C. Eberti’s +<i>Schlesiens wohlgelehrtes Frauenzimmer</i>, p. 25 (Breslau, 1727); +<i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i> (Schimmelpfenning); &c.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUNNINGHAM, ALEXANDER<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1655-1730), Scottish classical +scholar and critic, was born in Ayrshire. Very little is known +of his uneventful life. It is probable that he completed his +education at Leiden or Utrecht. He was tutor to the son of +the first duke of Queensberry, through whose influence he was +appointed professor of civil law in the university of Edinburgh. +In 1710, the Edinburgh magistrates, regarding the university +patronage as their privilege, appointed another professor, ignoring +the appointment of Cunningham, who had been installed in the +office for at least ten years. Cunningham thereupon left England +for the Hague, where he resided until his death. He is chiefly +known for his edition of Horace (1721) with notes, mostly critical, +which included a volume of <i>Animadversiones</i> upon Richard +Bentley’s notes and emendations. They marked him as one of +the most able critics of Bentley’s (in many cases) rash and tasteless +conjectural alterations of the text. Cunningham also edited +the works of Virgil and Phaedrus (together with the <i>Sententiae</i> +of Publilius Syrus and others). He had also been engaged for +some years in the preparation of an edition of the Pandects and +of a work on Christian evidences.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Life by D. Irving in <i>Lives of Scottish Writers</i> (1839).</p> +</div> + +<p>The above must not be confused with Alexander Cunningham, +British minister to Venice (1715-1720), a learned historian and +author of <i>The History of Great Britain</i> (from 1688 to the accession +of George I.), originally written in Latin and published in an +English translation after his death.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUNNINGHAM, ALLAN<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1784-1842), Scottish poet and man +of letters, was born at Keir, Dumfriesshire, on the 7th of December +1784, and began life as a stone mason’s apprentice. His father +was a neighbour of Burns at Ellisland, and Allan with his brother +James visited James Hogg, the Ettrick shepherd, who became +a friend to both. Cunningham contributed some songs to Roche’s +<i>Literary Recreations</i> in 1807, and in 1809 he collected old ballads +for Robert Hartley Cromek’s <i>Remains of Nithsdale and Galloway +Song</i>; he sent in, however, poems of his own, which the editor +inserted, even though he may have suspected their real authorship. +In 1810 Cunningham went to London, where he supported +himself chiefly by newspaper reporting till 1814, when he became +clerk of the works in the studio of Francis Chantrey, retaining this +employment till the sculptor’s death in 1841. He meanwhile +continued to be busily engaged in literary work. Cunningham’s +prose is often spoiled by its misplaced and too ambitious rhetoric; +his verse also is often over-ornate, and both are full of mannerisms. +Some of his songs, however, hold a high place among +British lyrics. “A Wet Sheet and a Flowing Sea” is one of the +best of our sea-songs, although written by a landsman; and many +other of Cunningham’s songs will bear comparison with it. He +died on the 30th of October 1842.</p> + +<p>He was married to Jean Walker, who had been servant in a +house where he lived, and had five sons and one daughter. +<span class="sc">Joseph Davey Cunningham</span> (1812-1851) entered the Bengal +Engineers, and is known by his <i>History of the Sikhs</i> (1849). +<span class="sc">Sir Alexander Cunningham</span> (1814-1893) also entered the +Bengal Engineers, attaining the rank of major-general; he was +director general of the Indian Archaeological Survey (1870-1885), +and wrote an <i>Ancient Geography of India</i> (1871) and <i>Coins of +Medieval India</i> (1894). <span class="sc">Peter Cunningham</span> (1816-1869) published +several topographical and biographical studies, of which +the most important are his <i>Handbook of London</i> (1849) and +<i>The Life of Drummond of Hawthornden</i> (1833). <span class="sc">Francis +Cunningham</span> (1820-1875) joined the Indian army, and published +editions of Ben Jonson (1871), Marlowe (1870) and Massinger +(1871).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The works of Allan Cunningham include <i>Lives of the Most Eminent +British Painters, Sculptors and Architects</i> (1829-1833); <i>Sir Marmaduke +Maxwell</i> (1820), a dramatic poem; <i>Traditionary Tales of the +Peasantry</i> (1822), several novels (<i>Paul Jones, Sir Michael Scott, +Lord Roldan</i>); the <i>Maid of Elwar</i>, a sort of epic romance; the <i>Songs +of Scotland</i> (1825); <i>Biographical and Critical History of the Literature +of the Last Fifty Years</i> (1833); an edition of <i>The Works of Robert +Burns</i>, with notes and a life containing a good deal of new material +(1834); <i>Biographical and Critical Dissertations</i> affixed to Major’s +<i>Cabinet Gallery of Pictures</i>; and <i>Life, Journals and Correspondence +of Sir David Wilkie</i>, published in 1843. An edition of his <i>Poems and +Songs</i> was issued by his son, Peter Cunningham, in 1847.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1805-1861), Scottish theologian +and ecclesiastic, was born at Hamilton, in Lanarkshire, on the +2nd of October 1805, and educated at the university of Edinburgh. +He was licensed to preach in 1828, and in 1830 was ordained to +a collegiate charge in Greenock, where he remained for three +years. In 1834 he was transferred to the charge of Trinity +College parish, Edinburgh. His removal coincided with the commencement +of the period known in Scottish ecclesiastical history +as the Ten Years’ Conflict, in which he was destined to take a +leading share. In the stormy discussions and controversies which +preceded the Disruption the weight and force of his intellect, +the keenness of his logic, and his firm grasp of principle made him +one of the most powerful advocates of the cause of spiritual +independence; and he has been generally recognized as one of +three to whom mainly the existence of the Free Church is due, +the others being Chalmers and Candlish. On the formation of +the Free Church in 1843, Cunningham was appointed professor +of church history and divinity in the New College, Edinburgh, +of which he became principal in 1847 in succession to Thomas +Chalmers. His career was very successful, his controversial +sympathies combined with his evident desire to be rigidly impartial +qualifying him to be an interesting delineator of the more +stirring periods of church history, and a skilful disentangler of the +knotty points in theological polemics. In 1859 he was appointed +moderator of the General Assembly. He had received the degree +of D.D. from the university of Princeton in 1842. He died on the +14th of December 1861. He was one of the founders of the +Evangelical Alliance. A theological lectureship at the New +College, Edinburgh, was endowed in 1862, to be known as the +Cunningham lectureship.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A <i>Life of Cunningham</i>, by Rainy and Mackenzie, appeared in 1871.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1849-  ), English economist, +was born at Edinburgh on the 29th of December 1849. Educated +at Edinburgh Academy and University and Trinity College, +Cambridge, he graduated 1st class in the Moral Science tripos in +1873, and in the same year took holy orders. He was university +lecturer in history from 1884 to 1891, in which year he was +appointed professor of economics at King’s College, London, +a post which he held until 1897. He was lecturer in economic +history at Harvard University (1899), and Hulsean lecturer at +Cambridge (1885). He became vicar of Great St Mary’s, Cambridge, +in 1887, and was made a fellow of the British Academy. +In 1906 he was appointed archdeacon of Ely. Dr Cunningham’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page634" id="page634"></a>634</span> +<i>Growth of English Industry and Commerce during the Early and +Middle Ages</i> (1890; 4th ed., 1905) and <i>Growth of English Industry +and Commerce in Modern Times</i> (1882; 3rd ed., 1903) are the +standard works of reference on the industrial history of England. +He also wrote <i>The Use and Abuse of Money</i> (1891); <i>Alien +Immigration</i> (1897); <i>Western Civilization in its Economic Aspect +in Ancient Times</i> (1898), and <i>in Modern Times</i> (1900), and +<i>The Rise and Decline of Free Trade</i> (1905). Dr Cunningham’s +eminence as an economic historian gave special importance to +his attitude as one of the leading supporters of Mr Chamberlain +from 1903 onwards in criticizing the English free-trade policy +and advocating tariff reform.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUP<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (in O.E. <i>cuppe</i>; generally taken to be from Late Lat. +<i>cuppa</i>, a variant of Lat. <i>cupa</i>, a cask, cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="kypellon">κύπελλον</span>), a drinking +vessel, usually in the form of a half a sphere, with or without +a foot or handles. The footless type with a single handle is +preserved in the ordinary tea-cup. The cup on a stem with a +base is the usual form taken by the cup as used in the celebration +of the eucharist, to which the name “chalice” (Lat. <i>calix</i>, +Gr. <span class="grk" title="kylix">κύλιξ</span>, a goblet) is generally given. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drinking Vessels</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plate</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUPAR,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> a royal, municipal and police burgh, and capital of +the county of Fifeshire, Scotland, 11 m. W. by S. of St Andrews +by the North British railway. Pop. (1901) 4511. It is situated +on the left bank of the Eden, in the east of the Howe (Hollow) +of Fife, and is sometimes written Cupar-Fife to distinguish it +from Coupar-Angus in Perthshire. Among the chief buildings +are the town hall, county buildings, corn exchange, Duncan +Institute, cottage hospital, Union Street Hall and the Bell-Baxter +school. The school, formerly called the Madras Academy, +was originally endowed (1832) by Dr Bell, founder of the +Madras system of education, but, having been enriched at a +later date by a bequest of Sir David Baxter (1873), it was afterwards +called the Bell-Baxter school. The Mercat Cross stands +at “the Cross” in the main street, where it was set up in 1897, +having been removed from Hilltarvit, an eminence in the +neighbourhood of Cupar, on the western slope of which, at +Garliebank, the truce was signed between Mary of Guise and +the lords of the Congregation. In the parish, but at a distance +from the town, are the Fife and Kinross asylum and the Adamson +institute, a holiday home for poor children from Leith. +The town received its charter in 1356 from David II., and, +being situated between Falkland and St Andrews, was constantly +visited by Scottish sovereigns, James VI. holding his +court there for some time in 1583. The site of the 12th-century +castle, one of the strongholds of the Macduffs, thanes or earls +of Fife, is occupied by a public school. On the esplanade in +front of Macduff Castle, still called the Playfield, took place +in 1552 one of the first recorded performances of Sir David Lindsay’s +<i>Ane Satyre of the Three Estaits</i> (1540); his <i>Tragedy of the +Cardinal</i> (1547), referring to the murder of Beaton, being also +performed there. Sir David sat in the Scottish parliament as +commissioner for Cupar, his place, the Mount, being within +3 m. north-west of the town. Lord Chancellor Campbell +(1799-1861) was a native of Cupar.</p> + +<p>Cupar is an agricultural and legal centre. Its chief industry +is the manufacture of linen, and tanning is carried on. At +Cupar Muir, 1½ m. to the west, there are a sandstone quarry +and brick works. The town has also some repute for the +quality of its printing, both in black and colour. This was +largely due to the Tullis press, which produced about the +beginning of the 19th century editions of Virgil, Horace and +other classical writers, under the recension of Professor John +Hunter of St Andrews, which were highly esteemed for the +accuracy of their typography. Cupar belongs to the St Andrews +district group of burghs for returning one member to parliament, +the other constituents being Crail, the two Anstruthers, Kilrenny, +Pittenweem and St Andrews.</p> + +<p>There are several interesting places within a few miles. To +the north-east is the parish of Dairsie, where one of the few +parliaments that ever met in Fife assembled in 1335. The castle +in which the senate sat was also the residence for a period of +Archbishop Spottiswood, who founded the parish church in +1621. Two miles and a half north of Dairsie is situated Kilmany, +which was the first charge of Thomas Chalmers. He was ordained +to it in May 1803 and held it for twelve years. David Hackston, +the Covenanter, who was a passive assister at the assassination +of Archbishop Sharp, belonged to this parish, his place being +named Rathillet. After his execution at Edinburgh (1680) one +of his hands was buried at Cupar, where a monument inscription +records the circumstances of his death. To the west of Kilmany +lies Creich, where Alexander Henderson (1583-1646), the Covenanting +divine and diplomatist, and John Sage (1652-1711), +the non-juring archbishop of Glasgow, were born. Henderson +took a keen interest in education and gave the school at Creich +a small endowment. Some 3 m. to the south-west of Cupar is +Cults, where Sir David Wilkie, the painter, was born. His +father was minister of the parish, and Pitlessie, the fair of which +provided the artist with the subject of the first picture in which +he showed distinct promise, lies within a mile of the manse. In +the sandstone of Dura Den, a ravine on Ceres Burn, 2½ m. E. +of Cupar, have been found great quantities of fossils of ganoid +fishes. The rocks belong to the Upper Old Red Sandstone.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUPBOARD,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> a fixed or movable closet usually with shelves. +As the name suggests, it is a descendant of the credence or +buffet, the characteristic of which was a series of open shelves +for the reception of drinking vessels and table requisites. After +the word lost its original meaning—and down to the end of the +16th century we still find the expression “on the cupboard”—this +piece of furniture was, as it to some extent remains, movable, +but it is now most frequently a fixture designed to fill a corner +or recess. Throughout the 18th century the cupboard was a +distinguished domestic institution, and the housewife found her +chief joy in accumulating cupboards full of china, glass and +preserves. With the exception of a very few examples of fine +ecclesiastical cupboards which partook chiefly of the nature +of the armoire in that they were intended for the storage of +vestments, the so-called court-cupboard is perhaps the oldest +form of the contrivance. The derivation of the expression is +somewhat obscure, but it is generally taken to refer to the +French word <i>court</i>, short. This particular type was much used +from the Elizabethan to the end of the Carolinian period. It +was really a sideboard with small square doors below, and a +recessed superstructure supported upon balusters. Of these +many examples remain. Less frequent is the livery cupboard, +the meaning of which may be best explained by the following +quotation from Spenser’s <i>Account of the State of Ireland</i>:—“What +livery is we by common use in England know well +enough, namely, that it is an allowance of horse-meat, as they +commonly use the word stabling, as to keep horses at livery; +the which word I guess is derived of livering or delivering forth +their nightly food; so in great houses the livery is said to be +served up for all night—that is, their evening allowance for +drink.” The livery cupboard appears usually to have been +placed in bedrooms, so that a supply of food and drink was +readily available when a very long interval separated the last +meal of the evening from the first in the morning. The livery +cupboard was often small enough to stand upon a sideboard or +cabinet, and had an open front with a series of turned balusters. +It was often used in churches to contain the loaves of bread +doled out to poor persons under the terms of ancient charities. +They were then called dole cupboards; there are two large and +excellent examples in St Alban’s Abbey. The butter, or bread +and cheese cupboard, was a more ordinary form, with the back +and sides bored with holes, sometimes in a geometrical pattern, +for the admission of air to the food within. The corner cupboard, +which is in many ways the most pleasing and artistic form of this +piece of furniture, originated in the 18th century, which as we +have seen was the golden age of the cupboard. It was often of +oak, but more frequently of mahogany, and had either a solid +or a glass front. The older solid-fronted pieces are fixed to the +wall half-way up, but those of the somewhat more modern type, +in which there is much glass, usually have a wooden base with +glazed superstructure. Most corner cupboards are attractive +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page635" id="page635"></a>635</span> +in form and treatment, and many of them, inlaid with satinwood, +ebony, holly or box, are extremely elegant.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUPID<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (<i>Cupido</i>, “desire”), the Latin name for the god of +love, Eros (<i>q.v.</i>). Cupid is generally identical with Amor. The +idea of the god of love in Roman poetry is due to the influence of +Alexandrian poets and artists, in whose hands he degenerated +into a mischievous boy with essentially human characteristics. +His usual attribute is the bow. For the story of Cupid and +Psyche, see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psyche</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUPOLA<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (Ital., from Lat. <i>cupula</i>, small cask or vault, <i>cupa</i>, +tub), a term, in architecture, for a spherical or spheroidal covering +to a building, or to any part of it. In fortification the word is +used of a form of armoured structure, in which guns or howitzers +are mounted. It is a low flat turret resembling an overturned +saucer and showing little above the ground except the muzzles +of the guns. See for details and illustrations <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fortification +and Siegecraft</a></span>; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ordnance</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUPPING.<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> The operation of cupping is one of the methods +that have been adopted by surgeons to draw blood from an +inflamed part in order to relieve the inflammation. The skin +is washed and dried; a glass cup with a rounded edge is then +firmly applied, after the air in it has been heated; the cooling +of the air causes the formation of a partial vacuum, and the blood +is thus drawn from the neighbouring parts to the skin under the +cup. Either the blood is drawn from the patient’s body through +a number of small wounds which are made in the skin, with a +special instrument, before the cup is applied; or the cup is +simply applied to the unbroken skin and the blood drawn into +the subcutaneous tissue within the circumference of the cup. +The result of both methods is the same,—namely, a withdrawal +of blood locally from the inflamed part. The former is called +moist cupping, the latter dry cupping. This operation has naturally +declined in vogue with the obsolescence of blood-letting as +a remedy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUPRA,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> the name of two ancient Italian <i>municipia</i> in Picenum.</p> + +<p>1. Cupra Maritima (Civita di Marano near the modern Cupra +Marittima), on the Adriatic coast, 48 m. S.S.E. of Ancona, +erected in the neighbourhood of an ancient temple of the Sabine +goddess Cupra, which was restored by Hadrian in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 127, and +probably (though there is some controversy on the point) +occupied the site of the church of S. Martino, some way to the +south, in which the inscription of Hadrian exists. At Civita the +remains of what was believed to be the temple were more probably +those of the forum of the town, as is indicated by the discovery +of fragments of a calendar and of a statue of Hadrian. Some +statuettes of Juno were also among the finds. An inscription of +a water reservoir erected in 7 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> is also recorded. But the more +ancient Picene town appears to have been situated near the hill +of S. Andrea, a little way to the south, where pre-Roman tombs +have been discovered.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i> (Stuttgart, +1901), iv. 1760; G. Speranza, <i>Il Piceno</i> (Ascoli Piceno, 1900), +i. 119 seq.</p> +</div> + +<p>2. Cupra Montana, 10 m. S.W. of Aesis (mod. Jesi) by road. +The village, formerly called Massaccio, has resumed the ancient +name. Its site is fixed by inscriptions—cf. Th. Mommsen in +<i>Corp. Inscrip. Lat.</i> ix. (Berlin, 1883), p. 543; and various ruins, +perhaps of baths, and remains of subterranean aqueducts have +been discovered near the church of S. Eleuterio.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Menicucci in G. Colucci, <i>Antichità Picene</i>, xx. (1793).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:204px; height:213px" src="images/img635.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="bold">CUPRITE,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a mineral consisting of cuprous oxide, Cu<span class="su">2</span>O, +crystallizing in the cubic system, and forming an important ore +of copper, of which element cuprite contains 88.8%. The +name cuprite (from Lat. <i>cuprum</i>, copper) was given by W. +Haidinger in 1845; earlier names are red copper ore and ruby +copper, which at once distinguish this mineral from the other +native copper oxide—cupric oxide—known as black copper ore +or melaconite. Well-developed crystals are of common occurrence; +they usually have the form of the regular octahedron, +sometimes in combination with the cube and the rhombic +dodecahedron. A few Cornish crystals have been observed with +faces of a form {<i>hkl</i>} known as the pentagonal icositetrahedron, +since it is bounded by twenty-four irregular pentagons. In +this class of cubic crystals there are no planes or centre of symmetry, +but the full number (thirteen) of axes of symmetry; it is +known as the trapezohedral hemihedral class, and cuprite affords +the best example of this type of symmetry. The etching figures +do not, however, conform to this lower degree of symmetry, nor +do crystals of cuprite rotate the plane of polarization of plane-polarized +light. The colour of the +mineral is cochineal-red, and the lustre +brilliant and adamantine to sub-metallic +in character; crystals are +often translucent, and show a crimson-red +colour by transmitted light. On +prolonged exposure to light the crystals +become dull and opaque. The streak is +brownish-red. Hardness 3½; specific +gravity 6.0; refractive index 2.85.</p> + +<p>Compact to granular masses also +occur, and there are two curious +varieties—chalcotrichite and tile-ore—which require special +mention. Chalcotrichite (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="chalkos">χαλκός</span>, copper, and <span class="grk" title=" thrix">θρίξ</span>, +<span class="grk" title="trichos">τριχός</span>, hair) or “plush copper ore” is a capillary form +with a rich carmine colour and silky lustre; the delicate hairs +are loosely matted together, and each one is an individual +crystal enormously elongated in the direction of the diagonal +or the edge of the cube. Tile-ore (Ger. <i>Ziegelerz</i>) is a soft earthy +variety of a brick-red to brownish-red colour; it contains admixed +limonite, and has been formed by the alteration of chalcopyrite +(copper and iron sulphide).</p> + +<p>Cuprite occurs in the upper part of copper-bearing lodes, +and is of secondary origin, having been produced by the alteration +of copper sulphides. Beautifully crystallized specimens were +formerly found in Wheal Gorland and Wheal Unity at Gwennap, +and in Wheal Phoenix near Liskeard in Cornwall; they also +occur in the copper mines of the Urals, and in Arizona. Isolated +crystals bounded by faces on all sides, and an inch or more in +diameter, are found embedded in a soft white clay at Chessy +near Lyons; they are usually altered on the surface, or throughout, +to malachite. Chalcotrichite comes from Wheal Phoenix and +Fowey Consols mine in Cornwall, and from Morenci in Arizona; +tile-ore from Bogoslovsk in the Urals, Atacama in South America, +and other localities. Small crystals of cuprite, together with +malachite, azurite and cerussite, are sometimes found encrusting +ancient objects of copper and bronze, such as celts and Roman +coins, which have for long periods remained buried in the soil. +Artificially formed crystals have been observed in furnace +products.</p> +<div class="author">(R. W. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUPULIFERAE,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> a botanical order, or, in recent arrangements, +group of orders, containing several familiar trees. The plants +are trees or shrubs with simple leaves alternately arranged and +small unisexual flowers generally arranged in catkins and pollinated +by wind-agency. The generally one-seeded nut-like fruit +is associated with the persistent often hardened or greatly +enlarged bracts forming the so-called cupule which gives the +name to the group. The group is subdivided as follows, and +these subdivisions are now generally regarded either as distinct +natural orders or the first two as sub-orders of one natural order.</p> + +<p><i>Betuleae</i> or <i>Betulaceae</i>. Female flowers arranged, two to three +together on scale-like structures formed by the union of bracts, +in catkins; ovary two-celled; fruit small, flattened, protected +between the ripened scales of the catkin. Includes <i>Betula</i> +(birch) and <i>Alnus</i> (alder).</p> + +<p><i>Coryleae</i> or <i>Corylaceae</i>. Female flowers in pairs, the bracts +enlarging in the fruit to form a membranous cup (hazel), or a +flat three-lobed structure (hornbeam). Ovary two-celled. Includes +<i>Corylus</i> (hazel) and <i>Carpinus</i> (hornbeam).</p> + +<p><i>Fagaceae</i> (Cupuliferae in a restricted sense). Bracts forming +a fleshy or hard cupule which envelops the one to several fruits. +Ovary three-celled. Includes <i>Quercus</i> (oak), <i>Fagus</i> (beech), +<i>Castanea</i> (sweet-chestnut).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Detailed accounts of the trees will be found under separate +headings.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page636" id="page636"></a>636</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">CURAÇAO,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Curaçoa</span>, an island in the Dutch West Indies. +It lies 40 m. from the north coast of Venezuela, in 12° N. and +69° W., being 40 m. long from N.W. to S.E., with an average +width of 10 m. and an area of 212 sq. m. The surface is generally +flat, but in the south-west there are hills attaining an elevation +of 1200 ft. The shores are in places deeply indented, forming +several natural harbours, the chief of which is that of St Anna +on the south-west coast. Curaçao consists of eruptive rocks, +chiefly diorite and diabase, and is surrounded by coral reefs. +Streams are few and the rainfall is scanty, averaging only 16 in. +per annum. Although the plains are for the most part arid +wastes, sugar, aloes, tobacco and divi-divi are produced with +much toil in the more fertile glens. Salt, phosphates and cattle +are exported. The commerce is mainly with the United States, +and there is a large carrying trade with Venezuela. The famous +Curaçoa liqueur (see below) was originally made on the island +from a peculiar variety of orange, the <i>Citrus Aurantium curassuviensis</i>. +Willemstad (pop. about 8000), on the harbour of St. +Anna, is the principal town. It bears a strong resemblance to +a Dutch town, for the houses are built in the style of those of +Amsterdam, and the narrow channel separating it from its +western suburb of Overzijde and the waters of the Waigat, +which intersect it, recall the canals. The narrow entrance leading +to the Schottegat or Inner Harbour is protected by forts. The +negroes of the island speak a curious dialect called <i>Papaimento</i>, +composed of Spanish, Dutch, English and native words. Curaçao +gives name to the government of the Dutch West Indies, which +consists of Aruba, an island lying W. of Curaçao, with an area +of 69 sq. m. and a population of 9591; Buen Ayre, lying 20 m. +N.E., with an area of 95 sq. m. and a population of 4926; together +with St Eustatius, Saba and part of St Martin. The governor is +assisted by a council of four members and a colonial council of +eight members nominated by the crown. The island of Curaçao +has a population of 30,119; and altogether the Dutch West +Indies have a population of 51,693.</p> + +<p>Curaçao was discovered by Hojeda about 1499 and occupied +by the Spaniards in 1527. In 1634 it fell into the hands of the +Dutch, who have held it ever since, except during the year 1798 +and from 1806 to 1814 when it passed into the possession of Great +Britain.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Wynmalen, “Les Colonies néerlandaises dans les Antilles,” +<i>Revue colon. internat.</i> (1887), ii. p. 391; K. Martin, <i>West-Indische +Skizzen</i> (Leiden, 1887); De Veer, <i>La Colonie de Curaçoa</i> (Les Pays +Bas, 1898). Also several articles on all the islands in <i>Tijdschrift v. +h. Ned. Aardr. Genootschap</i> (1883-1886).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURAÇOA,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a liqueur, chiefly manufactured in Holland. It +is relatively simple in composition, the predominating flavour +being obtained from the dried peel of the Curaçoa orange. +The method of preparation is in principle as follows. The peel +is first softened by maceration; then a part of the softened peel +is distilled with spirit and water, and the remainder is macerated +in a portion of the distillate so obtained. After two or three days +the infusion is strained and added to the remainder of the original +distillate. This simple method is subject to variations in manufacture, +and the addition of a small quantity of Jamaica rum, +in particular, is said to much improve the flavour. Dry Curaçoa +contains about 39%, the sweet variety about 36% of alcohol. +A lighter variety of Curaçoa, made with fine brandy, is known +as “Grand Marnier.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURASSOW<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (<i>Cracinae</i>), a group of gallinaceous birds forming +one of the subfamilies of <i>Cracidae</i>, the species of which are +among the largest and most splendid of the game birds of South +America, where they may be said to represent the pheasants +of the Old World. They are large, heavy birds, many of them +rivalling the turkey in size, with short wings, long and broad +tail, and strong bill. In common with the family to which they +belong, they have the hind toe of the foot placed on a level with +the others, thus resembling the pigeons, and unlike the majority +of gallinaceous birds. With the exception of a single species +found north of Panama, the curassows are confined to the +tropical forests of South America, east of the Andes, and not +extending south of Paraguay. They live in small flocks, and +are arboreal in their habits, only occasionally descending to the +ground, while always roosting and building their nests on the +branches of trees. Their nests are neat structures, made of +slender branches interlaced with stems of grass, and lined +internally with leaves. They feed on fruits, seeds and insects. +They are often tamed in several parts of South America, but have +never been thoroughly domesticated anywhere. Large numbers +of these birds were, according to K. J. Temminck, brought to +Holland from Dutch Guiana towards the end of the 18th century, +and got so completely acclimatized and domesticated as to +breed in confinement like ordinary poultry; but the establishments +in which these were kept were broken up during the +troubles that followed on the French Revolution. Their flesh +is said to be exceedingly white and delicate, and this, together +with their size and the beauty of their plumage, would make the +curassows an important gain to the poultry yards of Europe, +if they were not such bad breeders. The subfamily of curassows +contains four genera and twelve species, all confined to South +America, with the exception of <i>Crax globicera</i>—a Central +American species, which extends northward into Mexico. This +bird is about 3 ft. in length, of a glossy black colour over the +whole body, excepting the abdomen and tail coverts, which are +white. In common with the other species of this genus its head +bears a crest of feathers curled forward at the tips, which can +be raised or depressed at will. The female is of a reddish-brown +colour, although varying greatly in this respect, and was formerly +described as a separate species—the red curassow. In another +species, <i>Crax incommoda</i>, the greater part of the black plumage +is beautifully varied with narrow transverse bars of white. The +galeated curassow (<i>Pauxi galeata</i>) is peculiar in having a large +blue tubercle, hard and stony externally, but cellular within, +and resembling a hen’s egg in size and shape, situated at the base +of the hill. It only appears after the first moulting, and is much +larger in the male than in the female.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURATE<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>curare</i>, to take care of), properly a +presbyter who has the cure of souls within a parish. The term +is used in this general sense in certain rubrics of the English +Book of Common Prayer, in which it is applied equally to rectors +and vicars as to perpetual curates. So, on the continent of +Europe, it is applied in this sense to parish priests, as the Fr. <i>curé</i>, +Ital. <i>curato</i>, Span. <i>cura</i>, &c. In a more limited sense it is applied +in the Church of England to the incumbent of a parish who has +no endowment of tithes, as distinguished from a perpetual vicar, +who has an endowment of small tithes, which are for that reason +sometimes styled vicarial tithes. The origin of such unendowed +curacies is traceable to the fact that benefices were sometimes +granted to religious houses <i>pleno jure</i>, and with liberty for them +to provide for the cure; and when such appropriations were +transferred to lay persons, being unable to serve themselves, +the impropriators were required to nominate a clerk in full orders +to the ordinary for his licence to serve the cure. Such curates, +being not removable at the pleasure of the impropriators, but +only on due revocation of the licence of the ordinary, came to be +entitled perpetual curates. The term “curate” in the present +day is almost exclusively used to signify a clergyman who is +assistant to a rector or vicar, by whom he is employed and paid; +and a clerk in deacon’s orders is competent to be licensed by a +bishop to the office of such assistant curate. The consequence +of this misuse of the term “curate” was that the title of “perpetual +curate” fell into desuetude in the Anglican Church, and +an act of parliament (1868) was passed to authorize perpetual +curates to style themselves vicars (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vicar</a></span>). The term is in +use in the Roman Catholic Church in Ireland to designate an +assistant clergyman, and also to a certain extent in the American +Episcopal Church, though “assistant minister” is usually +preferred.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURATOR<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (Lat. for “one who takes care,” <i>curare</i>, to take +care of), in Roman law the “caretaker” or guardian of a spendthrift +(<i>prodigus</i>) or of a person of unsound mind (<i>furiosus</i>), and, +more particularly, one who takes charge of the estate of an +<i>adolescens</i>, <i>i.e.</i> of a person <i>sui juris</i>, above the age of a <i>pupillus</i>, +fourteen or twelve years, according to sex, and below the full +age of twenty-five. Such persons were known as “minors,” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page637" id="page637"></a>637</span> +<i>i.e.</i> <i>minores viginti quinque annis</i>. While the tutor, the guardian +of the <i>pupillus</i>, was said to be appointed for the care of the person, +the curator took charge of the property. The term survives in +Scots law for the guardian of one in the second stage of minority, +<i>i.e.</i> below twenty-one, and above fourteen, if a male, and twelve, +if a female. Under the Roman empire the title of curator was +given to several officials who were in charge of departments of +public administration, such as the <i>curatores annonae</i>, of the public +supplies of corn and oil, or the <i>curatores regionum</i>, who were +responsible for order in the fourteen <i>regiones</i> or districts into +which the city of Rome was divided, and who protected the +citizen from exaction in the collection of taxes; the <i>curatores +aquarum</i> had the charge of the aqueducts. Many of these +curatorships were instituted by Augustus. In modern usage +“curator” is applied chiefly to the keeper of a museum, art +collection, public gallery, &c., but in many universities to an +official or member of a board having a general control over the +university, or with the power of electing to professorships. In +the university of Oxford “curators” are nominated to administer +certain departments, such as the University Chest.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURCI, CARLO MARIA<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1810-1891), Italian theologian, was +born at Naples. He joined the Jesuits in 1826, and for some time +was devoted to educational work and the care of the poor and +prisoners. He became one of the first editors of the Jesuit organ, +the <i>Civiltà Cattolica</i>; but then came under the influence of +Gioberti, Rosmini and other advocates for reform. He wrote a +preface to Gioberti’s <i>Primato</i> (1843), but dissented from his +<i>Prolegomena</i>. After the events of 1870, Curci, at Florence, +delivered a course on Christian philosophy; and in 1874 began +to publish several Scriptural works. In his edition of the New +Testament (1879-1880) he makes some severe remarks on the +neglect of the study of Scripture amongst the Italian clergy. +In the meantime he began to attack the political action of the +Vatican, and in his <i>Il Moderno Dissidio tra la Chiesa e l’Italia</i> +(1878) he advocated an understanding between the church and +state. This was followed by <i>La Nuova Italia ed i Vecchi Zelanti</i> +(1881), another attack on the Vatican policy; and by his +<i>Vaticano Regio</i> (1883), in which he accuses the Vatican of +trafficking in holy things and declares that the taint of worldliness +came from the false principles accepted by the Curia. His +former work at Naples drew him also in the direction of Christian +Socialism. He was condemned at Rome, and in a letter to <i>The +Times</i> (10th of September 1884) declares that it was on account +of his disobedience to the decrees of the Roman Congregation: +“I am a dutiful son of the Church who hesitates to obey an order +of his mother because he does not see clear enough the maternal +authority in it.” He was cast out of the Society of Jesus and +suspended, and during this time Cardinal Manning put his purse +at Curci’s disposal. Finally he accepted the decrees against him +and retracted “all that he said contrary to the faith, morals and +discipline of the Church.” He passed the remainder of his life in +retirement at Florence, and, a few months before his death, was +readmitted to the Jesuit Society. He died on the 8th of June +1891.</p> +<div class="author">(E. Tn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUREL, FRANÇOIS,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> <span class="sc">Vicomte de</span> (1854-  ), French +dramatist, was born at Metz on the 10th of June 1854. He was +educated at the École Centrale as a civil engineer, the family +wealth being derived from smelting works. He began his literary +career with two novels, <i>L’Été des fruits secs</i> (1885) and <i>Le Sauvetage +du grand duc</i> (1889). In 1891 three pieces were accepted by the +Théâtre Libre. The list of his plays includes <i>L’Envers d’une +sainte</i> (1892); <i>Les Fossiles</i> (1892), a picture of the prejudices +of the provincial nobility; <i>L’Invitée</i> (1893), the story of a mother +who returns to her children after twenty years’ separation; +<i>L’Amour brode</i> (1893), which was withdrawn by the author from +the Théâtre Français after the second representation; <i>La +Figurante</i> (1896); <i>Le Repas du lion</i> (1898), dealing with the +relations between capital and labour; <i>La Fille sauvage</i> (1902), +the history of the development of the religious idea; <i>La Nouvelle +Idole</i> (1899), dealing with the worship of science; and <i>Le Coup +d’aile</i> (1906).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <i>Contemporary Review</i> for August 1903.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURÉLY, JEAN NICOLAS<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1774-1827), French cavalry leader, +was the son of a poor peasant of Lorraine. Joining, in 1793, a +regiment of hussars, he served with great distinction as private +and as <i>sous-officier</i> in the Rhine campaigns from 1794 to 1800. +He was, however, still a non-commissioned officer of twelve +years’ service, when at Afflenz (12th of November 1805) he +attacked and defeated, with twenty-five men, a whole regiment +of Austrian cavalry. This brilliant feat of arms won him the +grade of <i>sous-lieutenant</i>, and the reputation of being one of the +men of the future. The next two campaigns of the <i>Grande +Armée</i> gained him two more promotions, and as a captain of +hussars he performed, in the campaign of Wagram, a feat of +even greater daring than the affair of Afflenz. Entrusted with +despatches for the viceroy of Italy, Curély, with forty troopers, +made his way through the Austrian lines, reconnoitred everywhere, +even in the very headquarters-camp of the archduke John, +and finally accomplished his mission in safety. This exploit, +only to be compared to the famous raids of the American Civil +War, and almost unparalleled in European war, gained him +the grade of <i>chef d’escadrons</i>, in which for some years he served +in the Peninsular War. Under Gouvion St Cyr he took part in +the Russian War of 1812, and in 1813 was promoted colonel. +In the campaign of France (1814) Curély, now general of brigade, +commanded a brigade of “improvised” cavalry, and succeeded +in infusing into this unpromising material some of his own +daring spirit. His regiments distinguished themselves in several +combats, especially at the battle of Arcis-sur-Aube. The +Restoration government looked with suspicion on the most +dashing cavalry leader of the younger generation, and in 1815 +Curély, who during the Hundred Days had rallied to his old +leader, was placed on the retired list. Withdrawing to the little +estate of Jaulny (near Thiaucourt), which was his sole property, +he lived in mournful retirement, which was saddened still further +when in 1824 he was suddenly deprived of his rank. This last +blow hastened his death. Curély, had he arrived at high +command earlier, would have been ranked with Lasalle and +Montbrun, but his career, later than theirs in beginning, was +ended by the fall of Napoleon. His devoted friend, De Brack, +in his celebrated work <i>Light Cavalry Outposts</i>, considers Curély +incomparable as a leader of light cavalry, and the portrait of +Curély to be found in its pages is justly ranked as one of the +masterpieces of military literature. The general himself left +but a modest manuscript, which was left for a subsequent +generation to publish.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Thoumas, <i>Le Général Curély: itinéraires d’un Cavalier +léger, 1793-1815</i> (Paris, 1887).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURES,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> a Sabine town between the left bank of the Tiber +and the Via Salaria, about 26 m. from Rome. According to the +legend, it was from Cures that Titus Tatius led to the Quirinal the +Sabine settlers, from whom, after their union with the settlers +on the Palatine, the whole Roman people took the name Quirites. +It was also renowned as the birthplace of Numa, and its importance +among the Sabines at an early period is indicated by the +fact that its territory is often called simply <i>ager Sabinus</i>. At +the beginning of the imperial period it is spoken of as an unimportant +place, but seems to have risen to greater prosperity +in the 2nd century. It appears as the seat of a bishop in the +5th century, but seems to have been destroyed by the Lombards +in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 589. The site consists of a hill with two summits, round +the base of which runs the Fosso Corese: the western summit +was occupied by the necropolis, the eastern by the citadel, and +the lower ground between the two by the city itself. A temple, +the forum, the baths, &c., were excavated in 1874-1877.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See T. Ashby in <i>Papers of the British School at Rome</i>, iii. 34.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURETES<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Kourêtes">Κούρητες</span> and <span class="grk" title="Kourêtes">Κουρῆτες</span>). (1) A legendary +people mentioned by Homer (<i>Il.</i> ix. 529 ff.) as taking part in +the quarrel over the Calydonian boar. They were identified +in antiquity as either Aetolians or Acarnanians (Strabo 462, +26), and were also represented by a stock in Chalcis in Euboea. +(2) In mythology (unconnected with the above), the attendants +of Rhea. The story went that they saved the infant Zeus from +his father Cronus in Crete by surrounding his cradle and with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page638" id="page638"></a>638</span> +clashing of sword and shield preventing his cries from being +heard, and thus became the body-guard of the god and the +first priests of Zeus and Rhea. In historic times the cult of the +Curetes was widely known in Greece in connexion with that of +Rhea (<i>q.v.</i>). Its ceremonies consisted principally in the performance +of the Pyrrhic dance to the accompaniment of hymns and +flute music, by the priests, who represented and thus commemorated +the original act of the Curetes themselves. The +dance was originally distinguished from that of the Corybantes +by its comparative moderation, and took on the full character +of the latter only after the cult of the Great Mother, Cybele, to +which it belonged, spread to Greek soil. The origin of the dance +may have lain in the supposed efficacy of noise in averting evil.</p> + +<p>The Curetes are represented in art with shield and sword +performing the sacred dance about the infant Zeus, sometimes +in the presence of a female figure which may be Rhea. Their +number in art is usually two or three, but in literature is sometimes +as high as ten. Of their names the following have survived: +Kures, Kres, Biennos, Eleuther, Itanos, Labrandos, Panamoros, +Palaxos; but no complete list of names is possible because of +their confusion with the names of the Corybantes and other +like deities. Their origin is variously related: they were earth-born, +sprung of the rain, sons of Zeus and Hera, sons of Apollo +and Danais, sons of Rhea, of the Dactyli, contemporary with +the Titans (Diod. Sic. v. 66). Rationalism made them the +mortal sons of a mortal Zeus, or originators of the Pyrrhic dance, +inventors of weapons, fosterers of agriculture, regulators of +social life, &c. A plausible theory is that of Georg Kaibel +(<i>Göttinger Nachrichten</i>, 1901, pp. 512-514), who sees in them, +together with the Corybantes, Cabeiri, Dactyli, Telchines, +Titans, &c., only the same beings under different names at +different times and in different places. Kaibel holds that they +all had a phallic significance, having once been great primitive +deities of procreation, and that having fallen to an indistinct, +subordinate position in the course of the development and +formalization of Greek religion, they survive in historic times +only as half divine, half demonic beings, worshipped in connexion +with the various forms of the great nature goddess. The +resemblances, especially between Rhea and her Curetes and the +Great Mother and her Corybantes (<i>q.v.</i>), were so striking that +their origins were inextricably confused even in the minds of +the ancients: <i>e.g.</i> Demetrius of Scepsis (Strabo 469, 12) derives +the Curetes and Rhea from the cult of the Great Mother in Asia, +while Virgil (<i>Aen.</i> iii. 111) looks upon the latter and the Corybantes +as derivations from the former. The worship of both +was akin in nature to that of the Dactyli, the Cabeiri, and even +of Dionysus, the special visible bond being the orgiastic character +of their rites.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Consult Immisch in Roscher’s <i>Lexicon</i>, s.v. “Kureten.”</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. Sn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURETON, WILLIAM<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1808-1864), English Orientalist, was +born at Westbury, in Shropshire. After being educated at the +free grammar school of Newport, and at Christ Church, Oxford, +he took orders in 1832, became chaplain of Christ Church, sub-librarian +of the Bodleian, and, in 1837, assistant keeper of MSS. +in the British Museum. He was afterwards appointed select +preacher to the university of Oxford, chaplain in ordinary to the +queen, rector of St Margaret’s, Westminster, and canon of Westminster. +He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society and a +trustee of the British Museum, and was also honoured by several +continental societies. He died on the 17th of June 1864.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Cureton’s most remarkable work was the edition with notes and +an English translation of the Epistles of Ignatius to Polycarp, the +Ephesians and the Romans, from a Syriac MS. that had been found +in the monastery of St Mary Deipara, in the desert of Nitria, near +Cairo. He held that the MS. he used gave the truest text, that all +other texts were inaccurate, and that the epistles contained in the +MS. were the only genuine epistles of Ignatius that we possess—a +view which received the support of F. C. Baur, Bunsen, and many +others, but which was opposed by Charles Wordsworth and by several +German scholars, and is now generally abandoned (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ignatius</a></span>). +Cureton supported his view by his <i>Vindiciae Ignatianae</i> and his +<i>Corpus Ignatianum,—a Complete Collection of the Ignatian Epistles, +genuine, interpolated and spurious</i>. He also edited a partial Syriac +text of the <i>Festal Letters of St Athanasius</i>, which was translated into +English by Henry Burgess (1854), and published in the <i>Library of +Fathers of the Holy Catholic Church</i>; <i>Remains of a very Ancient +Recension of the Four Gospels in Syriac, hitherto unknown in Europe</i>; +<i>Spicilegium Syriacum, containing Remains of Bardesan, Meliton, +Ambrose, Mara Bar Serapion</i>; <i>The third Part of the Ecclesiastical +History of John, Bishop of Ephesus</i>, which was translated by Payne +Smith; <i>Fragments of the Iliad of Homer from a Syriac Palimpsest</i>; +an Arabic work known as the <i>Thirty-first Chapter of the Book entitled +The Lamp that guides to Salvation</i>, written by a Christian of Tekrit; +<i>The Book of Religious and Philosophical Sects</i>, by Muhammed al +Sharastani; a <i>Commentary on the Book of Lamentations</i>, by Rabbi +Tanchum; and the <i>Pillar of the Creed of the Sunnites</i>. Cureton also +published several sermons, among which was one entitled <i>The +Doctrine of the Trinity not Speculative but Practical</i>. After his +death Dr W. Wright edited with a preface the <i>Ancient Syriac Documents +relative to the earliest Establishment of Christianity in Edessa +and the neighbouring Countries, from the Year of our Lord’s Ascension +to the beginning of the Fourth Century; discovered, edited and annotated +by the late W. Cureton</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURETUS,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> a tribe of South American Indians, inhabiting +the country between the rivers of Japura and Uaupés, north-western +Brazil. They are short but sturdy, wear their hair long, +and paint their bodies. Their houses are circular, with walls +of thatch and a high conical roof. They are a peaceable people, +living in small villages, each of which is governed by a chief.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURFEW,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> <span class="sc">Curfeu</span> or <span class="sc">Couvre-feu</span>, a signal, as by tolling a +bell, to warn the inhabitants of a town to extinguish their fires or +cover them up (hence the name) and retire to rest. This was a +common practice throughout Europe during the middle ages, +especially in cities taken in war. In the law Latin of those +times it was termed <i>ignitegium</i> or <i>pyritegium</i>. In medieval +Venice it was a regulation from which only the Barbers’ Quarter +was exempt, doubtless because they were also surgeons and their +services might be needed during the night. The curfew originated +in the fear of fire when most cities were built of timber. That +it was a most useful and practical measure is obvious when it is +remembered that the household fire was usually made in a hole +in the middle of the floor, under an opening in the roof through +which the smoke escaped. The custom is commonly said to have +been introduced into England by William the Conqueror, who +ordained, under severe penalties, that at the ringing of the curfew-bell +at eight o’clock in the evening all lights and fires should be +extinguished. But as there is good reason to believe that the +curfew-bell was rung each night at Carfax, Oxford (see Peshall, +<i>Hist. of Oxford</i>), in the reign of Alfred the Great, it would seem +that all William did was to enforce more strictly an existing +regulation. The absolute prohibition of lights after the ringing +of the curfew-bell was abolished by Henry I. in 1100. The +practice of tolling a bell at a fixed hour in the evening, still extant +in many places, is a survival of the ancient curfew. The common +hour was at first seven, and it was gradually advanced to eight, +and in some places to nine o’clock. In Scotland ten was not an +unusual hour. In early Roman times curfew may possibly have +served a political purpose by obliging people to keep within +doors, thus preventing treasonable nocturnal assemblies, and +generally assisting in the preservation of law and order. The +ringing of the “prayer-bell,” as it is called, which is still practised +in some Protestant countries, originated in that of the curfew-bell. +In 1848 the curfew was still rung at Hastings, Sussex, from +Michaelmas to Lady-Day, and this was the custom too at +Wrexham, N. Wales.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURIA,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> in ancient Rome, a section of the Roman people, +according to an ancient division traditionally ascribed to +Romulus. He is said to have divided the people into three tribes, +and to have subdivided each of these into ten <i>curiae</i>, each of +which contained a number of families (<i>gentes</i>). It is more probable +that the <i>curiae</i> were not purely artificial creations, but represent +natural associations of <span class="correction" title="amended from familief">families</span>, artificially regulated and +distributed to serve a political purpose. The local names of <i>curiae</i> +which have come down to us suggest a local origin for the groups; +but as membership was hereditary, the local tie doubtless grew +weak with successive generations. Each <i>curia</i> was organized +as a political and religious unit. As a political corporation +it had no recognized activities beyond the command of a vote +in the <i>Comitia Curiata</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Comitia</a></span>), a vote whose nature was +determined by a majority in the votes of the individual members +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page639" id="page639"></a>639</span> +(<i>curiales</i>). But as a religious unit the <i>curia</i> had more individual +activity. There were, it is true, ceremonies (<i>sacra</i>) performed +by all the <i>curiae</i> to <i>Juno Curis</i> in which each <i>curia</i> offered its +part in a collective rite of the whole people; but each <i>curia</i> had +also its peculiar <i>sacra</i> and its own special place of worship. +The religious affairs of each were conducted by a priest called +<i>curio</i> assisted by a <i>flamen curialis</i>. The thirty <i>curiae</i> must always +have comprised the whole Roman people; for citizenship depended +on membership of a <i>gens</i> (<i>gentilitas</i>) and every member +of a <i>gens</i> was <i>ipso facto</i> attached to a <i>curia</i>. They therefore +included plebeians as well as patricians (<i>q.v.</i>) from the date at +which plebeians were recognized as free members of the body +politic. But, just as enjoyment of the full rights of <i>gentilitas</i> +was only very gradually granted to plebeians, so it is probable +that a plebeian did not, when admitted through a <i>gens</i> into a +<i>curia</i>, immediately exercise all the rights of a <i>curialis</i>. It is +unlikely, for instance, that plebeians voted in the Comitia Curiata +at the early date implied by the authorities; but it is probable +that they acquired the right early in the republican period, and +certain that they enjoyed it in Cicero’s time. A plebeian was +for the first time elected <i>curio maximus</i> in 209 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The <i>curia</i> +ceased to have any importance as a political organization some +time before the close of the republican period. But its religious +importance survived during the principate; for the two festivals +of the Fornacalia and the Fordicidia were celebrated by the +<i>Curiales</i> (Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, ii. 527, iv. 635).</p> + +<p>The term <i>curia</i> seems often to have been applied to the common +shrine of the <i>curiales</i>, and thus to other places of assembly. +Hence the ancient senate house at Rome was known as the +Curia Hostilia. The <i>curia</i> was also adopted as a state division +in a large number of municipal towns; and the term was often +applied to the senate in municipal towns (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Decurio</a></span>), probably +from the name of the old senate house at Rome.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Mommsen, <i>Römisches Staatsrecht</i>, iii. p. 89 ff. +(Leipzig, 1887); <i>Römische Forschungen</i> i. p. 140 ff. (Berlin, 1864, +&c.); Clason, “Die Zusammensetzung der Curien und ihrer +Comitien” (<i>Kritische Erörterungen</i> i., Rostock, 1871); Karlowa, +<i>Römische Rechtsgeschichte</i>, i. p. 382 ff. (Leipzig, 1885); E. Hofmann, +<i>Patricische und plebeische Curien</i> (Wien, 1879); for the <i>Fornacalia</i>, +&c., Marquardt, <i>Staatsverwaltung</i>, iii. p. 197 (Leipzig, 1885); for +local names of curiae, Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, iv. p. 1822 +(new edition, 1893, &c.); O. Gilbert, <i>Geschichte und Topographie +der Stadt Rom</i> (Leipzig, 1883); for municipal <i>curiae</i>, Mommsen, in +<i>Ephemeris epigraphica</i>, ii. p. 125; Schmidt, in <i>Rheinisches Museum</i>, +xlv. (1890) p. 599 ff. On the Roman comitia in general see also +G. W. Botsford, <i>Roman Assemblies</i> (1909).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. M. Cl.)</div> + +<p>In medieval Latin the word <i>curia</i> was used in the general +sense of “court.” It was thus used of “the court,” meaning the +royal household (<i>aula</i>); of “courts” in the sense of solemn +assemblies of the great nobles summoned by the king (<i>curiae +solennes</i>, &c.); of courts of law generally, whether developed +out of the imperial or royal <i>curia</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Curia Regis</a></span>) or not (<i>e.g.</i> +<i>curia baronis</i>, Court Baron, <i>curia christianitatis</i>, Court Christian). +Sometimes <i>curia</i> means jurisdiction, or the territory over which +jurisdiction is exercised; whence possibly its use, instead of +<i>cortis</i>, for an enclosed space, the court-yard of a house, or for the +house itself (cf. the English “court,” <i>e.g.</i> Hampton Court, and +the Ger. <i>Hof</i>). The word Curia is now only used of the court of +Rome, as a convenient term to express the sum of the organs that +make up the papal government (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Curia Romana</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Du Cange, <i>Gloss. med. et inf. Lat.</i> (1883), s.v. “Curia.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURIA REGIS,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Aula Regis</span>, a term used in England from +the time of the Norman Conquest to about the end of the 13th +century to describe a council and a court of justice, the composition +and functions of which varied considerably from time +to time. Meaning in general the “king’s court,” it is difficult +to define the <i>curia regis</i> with precision, but it is important and +interesting because it is the germ from which the higher courts of +law, the privy council and the cabinet, have sprung. It was, +at first the general council of the king, or the <i>commune concilium</i>, +<i>i.e.</i> the feudal assembly of the tenants-in-chief; but it assumed +a more definite character during the reign of Henry I., when its +members, fewer in number, were the officials of the royal household +and other friends and attendants of the king. It was thus +practically a committee of the larger council, and assisted the king +in his judicial work, its authority being as undefined as his own. +About the same time the <i>curia</i> undertook financial duties, and +in this way was the parent of the court of exchequer (<i>curia regis +ad scaccarium</i>). The members were called “justices,” and in +the king’s absence the chief justiciar presided over the court. A +further step was taken by Henry II. In 1178 he appointed five +members of the <i>curia</i> to form a special court of justice, and these +justices, unlike the other members of the <i>curia</i>, were not to follow +the king’s court from place to place, but were to remain in one +place. Thus the court of king’s bench (<i>curia regis de banco</i>) +was founded, and the foundation of the court of common pleas +was provided for in one of the articles of Magna Carta. The court +of chancery is also an offshoot of the <i>curia regis</i>. About the time +of Edward I. the executive and advising duties of the <i>curia regis</i> +were discharged by the king’s secret council, the later privy council, +which is thus connected with the <i>curia regis</i>, and from the privy +council has sprung the cabinet.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In his work <i>Tractatus de legibus Angliae</i>, Ranulf de Glanvill treats +of the procedure of the <i>curia regis</i> as a court of law. See W. Stubbs, +<i>Constitutional History</i>, vol. i. (Oxford, 1883); R. Gneist, <i>Englische +Verfassungsgeschichte</i>, English translation by P. A. Ashworth +(London, 1891); A. V. Dicey, <i>The Privy Council</i> (London, 1887); +and the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Privy Council</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURIA ROMANA,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> the name given to the whole body of +administrative and judicial institutions, by means of which the +pope carries on the general government of the Church; the name +is also applied by an extension of meaning to the persons who +form part of it, and sometimes to the Holy See itself. Rome is +almost the only place where the word <i>curia</i> has preserved +its ancient form; elsewhere it has been almost always replaced +by the word court (<i>cour</i>, <i>corte</i>), which is etymologically the same. +Even at Rome, however, the expression “papal court” (<i>corte +romana</i>) has acquired by usage a sense different from that of +the word <i>curia</i>; as in the case of royal courts it denotes +the whole body of dignitaries and officials who surround and +attend on the pope; the pope, however, has two establishments: +the civil establishment, in which he is surrounded by what is +termed his “family” (<i>familia</i>); and the religious establishment, +the members of which form his “chapel” (<i>capella</i>). The word +curia is more particularly reserved to the tribunals and +departments which actually deal with the general business of +the Church.</p> + +<p>I. In order to understand the organization of the various +constituent parts of the Roman Curia, we must remember that +the modern principle of the separation of powers is +unknown to the Church; the functions of each department +<span class="sidenote">General remarks.</span> +are limited solely by the extent of the powers +delegated to it and the nature of the business entrusted to it; +but each of them may have a share at the same time in the +legislative, judicial and administrative power. Similarly, the +necessity for referring matters to the pope in person, for his +approval or ratification of the decisions arrived at, varies greatly +according to the department and the nature of the business. +But on the whole, all sections of the Curia hold their powers +direct from the pope, and exercise them in his name. Each of +them, then, has supreme authority within its own sphere, while the +official responsibility belongs to the pope, just as in all governments +it is the government that is responsible for the acts of its +departments. Of these official acts, however, it is possible +to distinguish two categories: those emanating directly from +the heads of departments are generally called Acts of the Holy +See (and in this sense the Holy See is equivalent to the Curia); +those which emanate direct from the pope are called Pontifical +Acts. The latter are actually the Apostolic Letters, <i>i.e.</i> those +documents in which the pope speaks in his own name (bulls, +briefs, encyclicals, &c.) even when he does not sign them, as we +shall see. The Apostolic Letters alone may be <i>ex cathedra</i> +documents, and may have the privilege of infallibility, if the +matter admit of it. There are also certain differences between +the two sorts of documents with regard to their penal consequences. +But in all cases the disciplinary authority is evidently +the same; we need only note that acts concerning individuals +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page640" id="page640"></a>640</span> +do not claim the force of general law; the legal decisions serve +at most to settle matters of jurisprudence, like the judgments of +all sovereign courts.</p> + +<p>The constituent parts of the Roman Curia fall essentially +into two classes: (1) the tribunals and offices, which for centuries +served for the transaction of business and which +continue their activity; (2) the permanent commissions +<span class="sidenote">Division.</span> +of cardinals, known by the name of the Roman Congregations. +These, though more recent, have taken precedence +of the former, the work of which they have, moreover, greatly +relieved; they are indeed composed of the highest dignitaries +of the church, the cardinals (<i>q.v.</i>), and are, as it were, subdivisions +of the consistory (<i>q.v.</i>), a council in which the whole of the +Sacred College takes part.</p> + +<p>II. <i>The Roman Congregations.</i>—The constitution of all of +these is the same; a council varying in numbers, the members +of which are cardinals, who alone take part in the +deliberations. One of the cardinals acts as president, +<span class="sidenote">Roman Congregations.</span> +or prefect, as he is called; the congregation is assisted +by a secretary and a certain number of inferior officials, +for secretarial and office work. They have also consultors, +whose duty it is to study the subjects for consideration. Their +deliberations are secret and are based on prepared documents +bearing on the case, written, or more often printed, which are +distributed to all the cardinals about ten days in advance. The +deliberations follow a simplified procedure, which is founded +more on equity than on the more strictly legal forms, and +decisions are given in the shortest possible form, in answer to +carefully formulated questions or <i>dubia</i>. The cardinal prefect, +aided by the secretariate, deals with the ordinary business, only +important matters being submitted for the consideration of the +general meeting. To have the force of law the acts of the congregations +must be signed by the cardinal prefect and secretary, +and sealed with his seal. Practically the only exception is in +the cases of the Holy Office, and of the Consistorial Congregation +of which the pope himself is prefect; the acts of the first are +signed by the “notary,” and the acts of the second by the +assessor.</p> + +<p>We may pass over those temporary congregations of cardinals +known also as “special,” the authority and existence of which +extend only to the consideration of one particular question; +and also those which had as their object various aspects of the +temporal administration of the papal states, which have ceased +to exist since 1870. We deal here only with the permanent +ecclesiastical congregations, the real machinery of the papal +administration. Some of them go quite far back into the 16th +century; but it was Sixtus V. who was their great organizer; +by his bull <i>Immensa</i> of the 22nd of January 1587, he apportioned +all the business of the Church (including that of the papal states) +among fifteen Congregations of cardinals, some of which were +already in existence, but most of which were established by him; +and these commissions, or those of them at least which are +concerned with spiritual matters, are still working. A few others +have been added by his successors. Pius X., by the constitution +<i>Sapienti Consilio</i> of the 29th of June 1908, proceeded to a +general reorganization of the Roman Curia: Congregations, +tribunals and offices. In this constitution he declared that the +competency of these various organs was not always clear, and +that their functions were badly arranged; that certain of them +had only a small amount of business to deal with, while others +were overworked; that strictly judicial affairs, with which +the Congregations had not to deal originally, had developed to an +excessive extent, while the tribunals, the Rota and the Signatura, +had nothing to do. He consequently withdrew all judicial affairs +from the Congregations, and handed them over to the two +tribunals, now revived, of the Rota and the papal Signatura; +all affairs concerning the discipline of the sacraments were +entrusted to a new Congregation of that name; the competency +of the remaining Congregations was modified, according to the +nature of the affairs with which they deal, and certain of them +were amalgamated with others; general rules were laid down +for the expedition of business and regarding <i>personnel</i>; in +short, the work of Sixtus V. was repeated and adapted to later +conditions. We will now give the nomenclature of the Roman +Congregations, as they were until 1908, and mentioning the +modifications made by Pius X.</p> + +<p>(1) The Holy Inquisition, Roman and universal, or Holy +Office (<i>Sacra Congregatio Romanae et universalis Inquisitionis +seu Sancti Officii</i>), the first of the Congregations, hence +called the supreme. It is composed of twelve cardinals, +<span class="sidenote">The Holy Office.</span> +assisted by a certain number of officials: the assessor, +who practically fulfils the functions of the secretary, the commissary +general, some consultors and the qualificators, whose +duty it is to determine the degree of theological condemnation +deserved by erroneous doctrinal propositions (<i>haeretica</i>, <i>erronea</i>, +<i>temeraria</i>, &c.). The presidency is reserved to the pope, and the +cardinal of longest standing takes the title of secretary. This +Congregation, established in 1542 by Paul III., constitutes the +tribunal of the Inquisition (<i>q.v.</i>), of which the origins are much +older, since it was instituted in the 13th century against the +Albigenses. It deals with all questions of doctrine and with the +repression of heresy, together with those crimes which are more +or less of the character of heresy. Its procedure is subject to the +strictest secrecy. Pius X. attached to it all matters concerning +indulgences; on the other hand, he transferred to the Congregation +of the Council matters concerning the precepts of the Church +such as fasting, abstinence and festivals. The choosing of +bishops, which had in recent times been entrusted to the Holy +Office, was given to the Consistorial Congregation, and dispensations +from religious vows to the Congregation of the Religious +Orders. The Holy Office continues, however, to deal with +mixed marriages and marriages with infidels.</p> + +<p>(2) The Consistorial Congregation (<i>Sacra Congregatio Consistorialis</i>), +established by Sixtus V., has as its object the preparation +of business to be dealt with and decided in secret +consistory (<i>q.v.</i>); notably promotions to cathedral +<span class="sidenote">Consistorial.</span> +churches and consistorial benefices, the erection of +dioceses, &c. To this congregation is also subject the administration +of the common property of the college of cardinals. Pius X. +restored this Congregation to a position of great importance; +in the first place he gave it the effective control of all matters +concerning the erection of dioceses and chapters and the appointment +of bishops, except in the case of countries subject to the +Propaganda, and save that for countries outside Italy it has to +act upon information furnished by the papal secretary of state. +He further entrusted to this Congregation everything relating +to the supervision of bishops and of the condition of the dioceses, +and business connected with the seminaries. It has also the duty +of deciding disputes as to the competency of the other Congregations. +The pope continues to be its prefect, and the cardinal +secretary of the Holy Office and the secretary of state are <i>ex +officio</i> members of it; the cardinal who occupies the highest +rank in it, with the title of secretary, is chosen by the pope; +he is assisted by a prelate with the title of assessor, who is +<i>ex officio</i> secretary of the Sacred College. The assessor of the +Holy Office and the secretary for extraordinary ecclesiastical +affairs are <i>ex officio</i> consultors.</p> + +<p>(3) The Pontifical Commission for the reunion of the dissident +Churches, established by Leo XIII. in 1895 after his constitution +<i>Orientalium</i>. The pope reserved the presidency for himself; +its activity is merely nominal. It was attached by Pius X. +to the Congregation of the Propaganda.</p> + +<p>(4) The Congregation of the Apostolic Visitation (<i>Sacra +Congregatio Visitationis apostolicae</i>). The Visitation is the +personal inspection of institutions, churches, religious +establishments and their <i>personnel</i>, to correct abuses +<span class="sidenote">The Visitation.</span> +and enforce the observation of rules. Through this +Congregation the pope, as bishop of Rome, made the inspection +of his diocese; it is for this reason that he was president of +this commission, the most important member of which was the +cardinal vicar. He takes the place of the pope in the administration +of the diocese of Rome; he has his own offices and diocesan +assistants as in other bishoprics. The Congregation of the +Visitation was suppressed by Pius X. as a separate Congregation, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page641" id="page641"></a>641</span> +and was reduced to a mere commission which is attached, as +before, to the Vicariate.</p> + +<p>(5) The Congregation on the discipline of the sacraments +(<i>Sacra Congregatio de Disciplina Sacramentorum</i>), established +by Pius X., thus comes to occupy the third rank. With the +reservation of those questions, especially of a dogmatic character, +which belong to the Holy Office, and of purely ritual questions, +which come under the Congregation of Rites, this Congregation +brings under one authority all disciplinary questions concerning +the sacraments, which were formerly distributed among several +Congregations and offices. It deals with dispensations for +marriages, ordinations, &c., concessions with regard to the mass, +the communion, &c.</p> + +<p>(6) The Congregation of the Bishops and Regulars, of which the +full official title was, Congregation for the Affairs and Consultations +of the Bishops and Regulars (<i>Sacra Congregatio +super negotiis Episcoporum et Regularium</i>; now <i>Sacra +Congregatio negotiis religiosorum sodalium praeposita</i>). +<span class="sidenote">Bishops and Regulars.</span> +It is the result of the fusion of two previous commissions; +that for the affairs of bishops, established by Gregory +XIII., and that for the affairs of the regular clergy, founded by +Sixtus V.; the fusion dates from Clement VIII. (1601). This +congregation was very much occupied, being empowered to deal +with all disciplinary matters concerning both the secular and +regular clergy, whether in the form of consultations or of contentious +suits; it had further the exclusive right to regulate the +discipline of the religious orders and congregations bound by the +simple vows, the statutes of which it examined, corrected and +approved; finally it judged disputes and controversies between +the secular and regular clergy. On the 26th of May 1906, Pius X. +incorporated in this Congregation two others having a similar +object: that on the discipline of the regular clergy (<i>Congregatio +super Disciplina Regularium</i>), founded by Innocent XII. in 1695, +and that on the condition of the regular clergy (<i>Congregatio super +Statu Regularium</i>), established by Pius IX. in 1846. In 1908 +Pius X. withdrew from this Congregation all disciplinary matters +affecting the secular clergy, and limited its competency to matters +concerning the religious orders, both as regards their internal +affairs and their relations with the bishops.</p> + +<p>(7) The Congregation of the Council (<i>Sacra Congregatio +Cardinalium Concilii Tridentini interpretum</i>), <i>i.e.</i> a number of +cardinals whose duty it is to interpret the disciplinary +decrees of the council of Trent, was instituted by Pius +<span class="sidenote">Council.</span> +IV. in 1563, and reorganized by Sixtus V.; its mission is to +promote the observation of these disciplinary decrees, to give +authoritative interpretations of them, and to reconcile disputes +arising out of them. Pius X. in 1908 entrusted to this Congregation +the supervision of the general discipline of the secular clergy +and the faithful laity, empowering it to deal with matters concerning +the precepts of the Church, festivals, foundations, +church property, benefices, provincial councils and episcopal +assemblies. Proceedings for annulling marriages, which used +to be reserved to it, were transferred to the tribunal of the Rota; +reports on the condition of the dioceses were henceforth to be +addressed to the Consistorial Congregation, which involved the +suppression of the commission which had hitherto dealt with +them. The other commission, formerly charged with the revision +of the decrees of provincial councils, was merged in the Congregation +itself. The Congregation of Immunity (<i>Sacra Congregatio +Jurisdictionis et Immunitatis ecclesiasticae</i>) was created by +Urban VIII. (1626) to watch over the immunities of the clergy in +respect of person or property, whether local or general. This, +having no longer any object, was also attached to the Congregation +of the Council, and is now amalgamated with it.</p> + +<p>(8) The Congregation of the Propaganda (<i>Sacra Congregatio +de Propaganda Fide</i>) was established by Gregory XV. in 1622, +and added to by Urban VIII., who founded the +celebrated College of the Propaganda for the education +<span class="sidenote">Propaganda.</span> +of missionaries, and his polyglot press for printing +the liturgical books of the East. It had charge of the administration +of the Catholic churches in all non-Catholic countries, for +which it discharged the functions of all the Congregations, except +in doctrinal and strictly legislative matters. Its sphere was very +wide; it administered all non-European countries, except Latin +America and the old colonies of the Catholic countries of Europe; +in Europe it had also charge of the United Kingdom and the +Balkan States. But the constitution “<i>Sapienti</i>” of 1908 +withdrew from the Propaganda and put under the common law +of the Church most of those parts in which the episcopal hierarchy +had been re-established, <i>i.e.</i> in Europe, the United Kingdom, +Holland and Luxemburg; in America, Canada, Newfoundland +and the United States. Further, even for those countries which +it continues to administer, the Propaganda has to submit to the +various Congregations all questions affecting the Faith, marriage +and rites. The missions begin by establishing apostolic prefectures +under the charge of priests; the prefecture is later +transformed into an apostolic vicariate, having at its head a +bishop; finally, the hierarchy, <i>i.e.</i> the diocesan episcopate, is +established in the country, with residential sees. Thus the +hierarchy was re-established in England in 1850 by Pius IX., in +1878 by Leo XIII. in Scotland, in 1886 in India, in 1891 in Japan. +It is also the work of the Propaganda to appoint the bishops for +the countries it administers. Under the same cardinal prefect +is found that section of the Propaganda which deals with matters +concerning oriental rites (<i>Congregatio specialis pro negotiis +ritus Orientalis</i>), the object of which is indicated by its name. +To the former were attached two commissions, one for the +approbation of those religious congregations which devote +themselves to missions, which is now transferred to the Congregation +of the Religious Orders; the other for the examination +of the reports sent in by the bishops and vicars apostolic on their +dioceses or missions. With the latter is connected the commission +for the examination of the liturgical books of the East +(<i>Commissio pro corrigendis libris ecclesiae Orientalis</i>). Finally, +the popes have devoted to the missions the income arising from +the Chamber of Spoils (<i>Camera Spoliorum</i>), <i>i.e.</i> that portion of +the revenue from church property which cannot be bequeathed +by the holders of benefices as their own property; this source +of income, however, has decreased greatly.</p> + +<p>(9) The Congregation of the Index (<i>Congregatio indicis +librorum prohibitorum</i>), founded by St Pius V. in 1571 and +reorganized by Sixtus V., has as its object the examination +<span class="sidenote">Index.</span> +and the condemnation or interdiction of bad or +dangerous books which are submitted to it, or, since the constitution +“<i>Sapienti</i>,” of those which it thinks fit to examine on +its own initiative (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Index</a></span>).</p> + +<p>(10) The Congregation of Rites (<i>Congregatio sacrorum Rituum</i>), +founded by Sixtus V., has exclusive charge of the liturgy and +liturgical books; it also deals with the proceedings +<span class="sidenote">Rites.</span> +in the beatification and canonization of saints. Of +late years there have been added to it a Liturgical Commission, +a Historico-liturgical Commission, and a Commission for church +song, the functions of which are sufficiently indicated by their +names.</p> + +<p>(11) The Ceremonial Congregation (<i>Sacra Congregatio caeremonialis</i>), +the prefect of which is the cardinal dean, +<span class="sidenote">Ceremonial.</span> +was instituted by Sixtus V.; its mission is to settle +questions of precedence and etiquette, especially at +the papal court; it is nowadays but little occupied.</p> + +<p>(12) The Congregation of Indulgences and Relics (<i>Sacra +Congregatio Indulgentiarum et Sacrarum Reliquiarum</i>), founded +in 1669 by Clement IX., devoted itself to eradicating +any abuses which might creep into the practice of +indulgences and the cult of relics. It had also the +<span class="sidenote">Indulgences.</span> +duty of considering applications for the concession of indulgences +and of interpreting the rules with regard to them. In 1904 +Pius X. attached this Congregation to that of Rites, making the +<i>personnel</i> of both the same, without suppressing it. In 1908, +however, it was suppressed, as stated above, and its functions +as to indulgences were transferred to the Holy Office, and those +as to relics to the Congregation of Rites.</p> + +<p>(13) The Congregation of the Fabric of St Peter’s (<i>Sacra +Congregatio reverendae Fabricae S. Petri</i>) is charged with the +upkeep, repairs and temporal administration of the great basilica; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page642" id="page642"></a>642</span> +in this capacity it controls the famous manufacture of the +<span class="sidenote">Fabric of St Peter’s.</span> +Vatican mosaics. It also formerly enjoyed certain spiritual +powers for the reduction of the obligations imposed by +pious legacies and foundations, the objects of which, for +want of funds or any other reason, could not be fully +carried out, and for the condonation of past omission +of such obligations, <i>e.g.</i> of priests to celebrate the foundation +masses of their benefices. In 1908 these powers were taken away +from it by Pius X., and transferred to the Congregation of the +Council, which already exercised some of them.</p> + +<p>(14) The Congregation of Loretto (<i>Congregatio Lauretana</i>) +discharged the same functions for the sanctuary of that name; +its temporal administration was latterly very much reduced, and +in 1908 it was united by Pius X. with the Congregation of the +Council.</p> + +<p>(15) The Congregation for extraordinary ecclesiastical affairs +(<i>Sacra Congregatio super negotiis ecclesiasticis extraordinariis</i>), +established by Pius VI. at the end of the 18th century +to study the difficult questions relative to France, +<span class="sidenote">Extraordinary affairs.</span> +was afterwards definitively continued by Pius VII.; +and there has been no lack of fresh extraordinary +matters. It also dealt with the administration of the churches +of Latin America, not to mention certain European countries, +such as Russia, under the same conditions as the Propaganda +in countries under missions. Since the constitution <i>Sapienti</i>, +its competency has been confined to the examination, at the +request of the secretary of state, of questions which are submitted +to it, and especially those arising from civil laws and concordats.</p> + +<p>(16) The Congregation of Studies (<i>Congregatio pro Universitate +studii Romani, Congregazione degli Studi</i>), founded by Sixtus +V. to act as a higher council for the Roman university +of La Sapienza, had ceased to have any functions +<span class="sidenote">Studies.</span> +when in 1824 it was re-established by Leo XII. to supervise +education in Rome and the Papal States; since 1870 it has been +exclusively concerned with the Catholic universities, so far as +the sacred sciences are concerned. With this should be connected +the commission for historical studies, instituted in 1883 by Leo +XIII., at the same time as he threw the Vatican archives freely +open to scholars.</p> + +<p>III. <i>The Tribunals and Offices.</i>—Though it has been relieved +of the functions allotted to the Congregations of cardinals, the +old machinery of the ecclesiastical administration has +not been abolished; and the process of centralization +<span class="sidenote">Tribunals and offices.</span> +which has been accentuated in the course of the last +few centuries, together with the facility of communication, +ensured for them a fresh activity, new offices having even +been added. The chief thing to be observed is that the prelates +who were formerly at the head of these departments have almost +all been replaced by cardinals. The following is the list of the +tribunals and offices, including the changes introduced by the +reorganization of the Curia by Pius X. in 1908. The tribunals +are three in number: one for the <i>forum internum</i>, the Penitentiary; +the other two for judicial matters <i>in foro externo</i>, the +Rota and the papal Signatura.</p> + +<p>(1) The Penitentiary (<i>Sacra poenitentiaria Apostolica</i>) is the +tribunal having exclusive jurisdiction in matters of conscience +(<i>in foro interno</i>), <i>e.g.</i> dispensations from secret impediments +and private vows, the absolution of reserved +<span class="sidenote">Penitentiary.</span> +cases. These concessions are applied for anonymously. +It also had, previously to the constitution <i>Sapienti</i>, a certain +jurisdiction <i>in foro externo</i>, such as over matrimonial dispensations +for poor people. Its concessions are absolutely gratuitous. +Since the 12th century, the papal court had already had officials +known as penitentiaries (<i>poenitentiarii</i>) for matters of conscience; +the organization of the Penitentiary, after several modifications, +was renewed by Benedict XIV. in 1748. At the head of it is the +cardinal grand penitentiary (<i>major poenitentiarius</i>), assisted by +the <i>regens</i> (It. <i>regente</i>) and various other functionaries and +officials.</p> + +<p>(2) The court of the Rota (<i>Sacra Rota Romana</i>) used to be +the supreme ecclesiastical tribunal for civil affairs, and its +decisions had great authority. This tribunal goes back at least +as far as the 14th century, but its activity had been reduced as +<span class="sidenote">Rota.</span> +a result of the more expeditious and summary, and less costly, +procedure of the Congregations. The constitution +<i>Sapienti</i> restored the Rota to existence and activity: +it is now once more the ecclesiastical court of appeal for both +civil and criminal cases. Pius X. also made special regulations +for it, by which its ancient usages are adapted to modern circumstances. +The tribunal of the Rota consists of ten judges called +auditors (<i>uditori</i>), of whom the most senior is president with the +title of dean. Each judge has an auxiliary; to the tribunal are +attached a <i>promotor fiscalis</i>, charged with the duty of securing +the due application of the law, and an official charged with the +defence of marriage and ordination; there is also a clerical +staff (notaries, scribes) attached to the court. Cases are judged +by three auditors, who succeed each other periodically (<i>per +turnum</i>) according to the order in which the cases are entered, +and in exceptional cases by all the auditors (<i>videntibus omnibus</i>). +Under the jurisdiction of the Rota, in addition to cases of first +instance submitted to it by the pope, are such judgments of +episcopal courts as are strictly speaking subject to appeal; for +petitions against non-judicial decisions are referred to the Congregations. +Appeal is sometimes allowed from one “turn” to +another; if the second sentence of the Rota confirms the first, +it is definitive; if not, a third may be obtained.</p> + +<p>(3) The supreme tribunal of the papal Signatura (<i>Signatura +Apostolica</i>). There were formerly two sections: the Signatura +Justitiae and the Signatura Gratiae; by the constitution +<i>Sapientis</i> they were suppressed and amalgamated +<span class="sidenote">Signatura.</span> +into one body, the Signatura Apostolica, which is the +exact equivalent of other modern courts of cassation. This +tribunal is composed of six cardinals, one of whom is the prefect, +assisted by a prelate secretary, consultors and the necessary +inferior officials. It judges cases in which auditors of the +Rota are concerned, such as personal objections, but especially +objections (<i>querelae</i>) lodged against sentences of the Rota, +with a view to their being annulled or revised (<i>restitutio in +integrum</i>).</p> + +<p>Next come the offices, now reduced to six in number.</p> + +<p>(1) The Chancery (<i>Cancellaria Apostolica</i>), the department +from which are sent out the papal letters, has for a long time +drawn up only those letters written in solemn form +known as bulls. The bull, so called from the leaden +<span class="sidenote">Chancery.1<br /><br />Bull.</span> +seal (<i>bulla</i>), is written on thick parchment; the special writing +known as Lombard, which used to be used for bulls, was abolished +by Leo XIII., and the leaden seal reserved for the +more important letters; on the others it has been +replaced by a red ink stamp bearing both the emblems represented +on the leaden seal: the two heads, face to face, of St +Peter and St Paul, and the name of the reigning pope. Bulls +are written in the name of the pope, who styles himself “(<i>Pius</i>) +<i>Episcopus servus servorum Dei</i>; (Pius), bishop, servant of +the servants of God.” They were formerly dated by kalends +and from the era of the Incarnation, which begins on the 25th +of March, but in 1908 Pius X. ordered them to be dated according +to the common era. It is practically only bulls of canonization +which are signed by the pope and all the cardinals present in +Rome; the signature of the pope is then “(<i>Pius</i>) <i>Episcopus +Ecclesiae catholicae</i>,” while his ordinary signature bears only his +name and number, “Pius PP. X.” Ordinary bulls are signed +by several officials of the chancery, and a certain number only +by the cardinal at its head, who until 1908 was styled vice-chancellor, +because the chancellor used formerly to be a prelate, +not a cardinal; but since the constitution <i>Sapienti</i> has been +entitled chancellor. He is assisted by several officials, beginning +with the regens of the chancery. To the chancery were attached +the <i>abbreviatores de parco majori vel minori</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abbreviators</a></span>), +formerly charged with the drawing up or “extension” of bulls; +they were suppressed by Pius X., and their functions transferred +to the <i>Protonotarii apostolici participantes</i> (<i>i.e.</i> active). +Further, Pope Pius confined the functions of the chancery +to the sending out of bulls under the leaden seal (<i>sub plumbo</i>), +for the erection of dioceses, the provision of bishoprics and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page643" id="page643"></a>643</span> +consistorial benefices, and other affairs of importance, these +bulls being sent out by order of the Consistorial Congregation.</p> + +<p>(2) The Apostolic Dataria is the department dealing with +matters of grace, <i>e.g.</i> the concession of privileges, nominations +to benefices and dispensations <i>in foro externo</i>, especially +matrimonial ones; but its functions have been greatly +<span class="sidenote">Dataria Apostolica.</span> +reduced by the reforms of Pius X.; the matrimonial +section has been suppressed, dispensations for marriages +now belonging to the Congregation for the discipline of the +sacraments; the section dealing with benefices, which is the only +one preserved, deals with non-consistorial benefices reserved to +the Holy See; it examines the claims of the candidates, draws +up and sends out the letters of collation, gives dispensations, when +necessary, in matters concerning the benefices, and manages +the charges (<i>i.e.</i> pensions to incumbents who have resigned, &c.) +imposed on the benefices by the pope. It has at its head a +cardinal formerly called the <i>pro-datarius</i>, the <i>datarius</i> having +formerly been a prelate; and now <i>datarius</i>, since the reform +by Pius X. The cardinal is assisted by a prelate called the +<i>sub-datarius</i>, and other officials.</p> + +<p>(3) The Apostolic Chamber (<i>Reverenda Camera Apostolica</i>) +was before the abolition of the temporal power of the papacy +the ministry of finance, at once treasury and exchequer, +of the popes as heads of the Catholic Church as well as +<span class="sidenote">Apostolic chamber.</span> +sovereigns of the papal states. Although it is necessarily +diminished in importance, it has retained the administration +of the property of the Holy See, especially during a vacancy. +At its head is the cardinal camerlengo (<i>Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae +Cardinalis Camerarius</i>), who, as we know, exercises the external +authority during the vacancy of the Holy See.</p> + +<p>(4) Next come the palatine secretariates, the first and principal +of which is the secretariate of state (<i>Secretaria status</i>). The +cardinal secretary of state is as it were the pope’s +prime minister, gathering into one centre the internal +<span class="sidenote">Secretaryship of State.</span> +administration and foreign affairs, by means of the +nunciatures and delegations depending on his department. +The secretary of state is the successor of what was called +in the 17th century the cardinal nephew; his functions and +importance have increased more and more. The secretariate +of state is the department dealing with the political affairs +of the Church. To it belongs the internal administration of the +apostolic palaces, with the library, archives, museums, &c. +In 1908 Pius X. divided the departments of the secretariate of +state into three sections, under the authority of the cardinal +secretary. The first is the department of extraordinary ecclesiastical +affairs, having at its head the secretary of the Congregation +of the same name; the second, that of ordinary affairs, directed +by a substitute, is the department dealing, among other things, +with the concession of honorary distinctions, both for ecclesiastics +and laymen; the third is that of the briefs, which hitherto +<span class="sidenote">Briefs.</span> +formed a separate secretariate. It is this department +which sends out, at the command of the secretary of +state or the various Congregations, those papal letters which are +written in less solemn form, <i>brevi manu</i>, hence the word “brief.” +They are written in the pope’s name, but he only takes the less +solemn style of: “Pius PP. X.” The brief is written on thin +parchment, and dated by the ordinary era and the day of the +month; they were formerly signed only by the cardinal secretary +of briefs or his substitute, but now by the cardinal secretary of +state or the head of the office, called the chancellor of Briefs +(<i>cancellarius Brevium</i>). The seal is that of the fisherman’s +ring, hence the formula of conclusion, “<i>Datum Romae, sub annulo +Piscatoris</i>.” The “Fisherman’s ring” is a red ink stamp +representing St Peter on a boat casting out his nets, with the +name of the reigning pope.</p> + +<p>The reform of Pius X. maintained untouched the two offices +called the secretariate of briefs to princes, and the secretariate of +Latin Letters, the names of which are sufficient indication +of their functions. The secretariate of memorials +<span class="sidenote">Other offices.</span> +(<i>Secretaria Memorialium</i>), through which pass requests +addressed to the pope for the purpose of obtaining certain favours, +was formerly of great importance; it is now suppressed and the +requests are addressed to the proper departments. Finally, +the pope has his special secretary, his <i>auditor</i>, with his offices, +as well as the papal almonry, the officials of which administer +the papal charities.</p> + +<p>IV. The pontifical “family” (<i>familia</i>) forms the pope’s civil +court. First come the palatine cardinals, <i>i.e.</i> those who, on +account of their office, have the right of living in the +papal palaces. These were formerly four in number: +<span class="sidenote">The pontifical “family.”</span> +the <i>pro-datarius</i> (now <i>datarius</i>), the secretary of state, +the secretary of briefs, and the secretary of the +memorials; the two last of these were suppressed in 1908. +Next come the four palatine prelates, the majordomo, the +superintendent of the household and its staff, and successor +of the ancient <i>vicedominus</i>; the master of the chamber, who +presides over the arrangement of audiences; the <i>auditor</i>, or +private secretary; and finally the master of the sacred palace +(<i>magister sacri palatii</i>), a kind of theological adviser, always a +Dominican, whose special duty is nowadays the revision of books +published at Rome. Other prelates rank with the above, but in +a lower degree, notably the almoner and the various secretaries. +All ecclesiastics admitted, by virtue of their office or by a gracious +concession of the pope, to form part of the “family,” are called +domestic prelates, prelates of the household; this is an honorary +title conferred on many priests not resident in Rome. The external +service of the palace is performed by the Swiss Guard and +the <i>gendarmerie</i>; the service of the ante-chamber by the lay and +ecclesiastical chamberlains; this service has also given rise +to certain honorary titles both for ecclesiastics, <i>e.g.</i> honorary +chamberlain, and for laymen, <i>e.g.</i> secret chamberlain (<i>cameriere +segreto</i>). (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chamberlain</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>V. The pontifical “chapel” (<i>capella</i>) is the papal court for +purposes of religious worship. In it the pope is surrounded +by the cardinals according to their order; by the +patriarchs, archbishops and bishops attending at the +<span class="sidenote">Pontifical chapel.</span> +throne, and others; by the prelates of the Curia, +and by all the clergy both secular and regular. Among the +prelates we should mention the protonotaries, the successors of +the old notaries or officials of the papal chancery in the earliest +centuries; the seven <i>protonotarii participantes</i> were restored by +Pope Pius X. to the chancery, as noted above, but they have +kept important honorary privileges; this is yet another source +of distinctions conferred upon a great number of priests outside +of Rome, the protonotaries of different classes. In a lower +degree there are also the chaplains of honour. Since 1870 the +great pontifical ceremonies have lost much of their splendour.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—<i>La Gerarchia cattolica</i>, an annual directory published +at Rome; Lunadoro, <i>Relazione della corte di Roma</i> (Rome, +1765); Moroni, <i>Dizionario di erudizione</i>, under the various headings; +Card. De Luca, <i>Relatio curiae romanae</i> (Cologne, 1683); Bouix, +<i>De curia romana</i> (Paris, 1859); Ferraris, <i>Prompta bibliotheca</i> (addit. +<i>Cassinenses</i>), s.v. <i>Congregatio</i>; Grimaldi, <i>Les Congrégations romaines</i> +(Sienna, 1891); <i>Dictionnaire de théologie catholique</i>, s.v. <i>Cour romaine</i> +(Paris, 1907); Publications of the acts of the Roman Congregations: +Bishops and regulars—Bizzarri, <i>Collectanea in usum Secretariae</i> +(Rome, 1866, 1885). Council: the <i>Thesaurus resolutionum</i> has +published all business since 1700; a volume is issued every year, +and the contents have been published in alphabetical order by +Zamboni (4 vols., Rome, 1812; Arras, 1860) and by Pallottini +(18 vols., Rome, 1868, &c.). Immunity: Ricci, <i>Synopsis, decreta et +resolutiones</i> (Palestrina, 1708). Propaganda: De Martinis, <i>Juris +pontificii de Propaganda Fide</i>, &c. (Rome, 1888, &c.); <i>Collectanea +S. C. de Prop. Fide</i> (2nd ed., Rome, 1907). Index: <i>Index librorum +prohibitorum</i> (Rome, 1900). Rites: <i>Decreta authentica</i> (Rome, +1898). Indulgences: <i>Decreta authentica</i> (Regensburg, 1882); +<i>Rescripta authentica</i> (<i>ib.</i>, 1885).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Bo.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURICÓ,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> a province of central Chile, lying between the +provinces of Colchagua and Talca and extending from the +Pacific to the Argentine frontier; area, 2978 sq. m.; pop. (1895) +103,242. The eastern and western sections are mountainous, +and are separated by the fertile valley of central Chile. The +mineral resources are undeveloped, but are said to include +copper, gold and silver. Cattle, wheat and wine are the principal +products, but Indian corn and fruit also are produced. On the +coast are important salt-producing industries. The climate is +mild and the rainfall more abundant than at the northern part +of the valley, and the effects of this are to be seen in the better +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page644" id="page644"></a>644</span> +pasturage. Irrigation is used to a large extent. The province +was created in 1865 by a division of Colchagua. The capital +is Curicó, on the Mataquito river, in lat. 34° 58′ S. long. 71° 19′ +W., 114 m. S. of Santiago by the Chilean Central railway, which +crosses the province. The city stands on the great central plain, +748 ft. above sea-level, and in the midst of a comparatively well-cultivated +district. It was founded in 1742 by José de Manso, +and is one of the more cultured and progressive provincial towns +of Chile. Pop. (1895) 12,669. Vichiquen, on a tide-water lake +on the coast, is a prosperous town, the centre of the salt trade.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURIE, PIERRE<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1859-1906), French physicist, was born in +Paris on the 15th of May 1859, and was educated at the Sorbonne, +where he subsequently became professor of physics. Although +he had previously published meritorious researches on piezoelectricity, +the magnetic properties of bodies at different temperatures, +and other topics, he was chiefly known for his work +on radium carried out jointly with his wife, Marie Sklodowska, +who was born at Warsaw on the 7th of November 1867. After +the discovery of the radioactive properties of uranium by Henri +Becquerel in 1896, it was noticed that some minerals of uranium, +such as pitchblende, were more active than the element itself, +and this circumstance suggested that such minerals contained +small quantities of some unknown substance or substances +possessing radioactive properties in a very high degree. Acting +on this surmise M. and Mme Curie subjected a large amount +of pitchblende to a laborious process of fractionation, with +the result that in 1898 they announced the existence in it of +two highly radioactive substances, polonium and radium. In +subsequent years they did much to elucidate the remarkable +properties of these two substances, one of which, polonium, +came to be regarded as one of the transformation-products of the +other (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Radioactivity</a></span>). In 1903 they were awarded the +Davy medal of the Royal Society in recognition of this work, +and in the same year the Nobel prize for physics was divided +between them and Henri Becquerel. Professor Curie, who was +elected to the Academy of Sciences in 1905, was run over by a +dray and killed instantly in Paris on the 19th of April 1906.</p> + +<p>His elder brother, <span class="sc">Paul Jacques Curie</span>, born at Paris on +the 29th of October 1856, published an elaborate memoir on the +specific inductive capacities of crystalline bodies (<i>Ann. Chim. +Phys.</i> 1889, 17 and 18).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURIO, GAIUS SCRIBONIUS,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> Roman statesman and orator, +son of a distinguished orator of the same name, flourished during +the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He was tribune of the people in 90 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +and afterwards served in Sulla’s army in Greece against Archelaus, +general of Mithradates, and as his legate in Asia, where he was +commissioned to restore order in the kingdoms abandoned by +Mithradates. In 76 he was consul, and as governor of Macedonia +carried on war successfully against the Thracians and Dardanians, +and was the first Roman general who penetrated as far as the +Danube. On his return he was granted the honour of a triumph. +During the discussion as to the punishment of the Catilinarian +conspirators he supported Cicero, but he spoke in favour of P. +Clodius (<i>q.v.</i>) when the latter was being tried for the Bona Dea +affair. This led to a violent attack on the part of Cicero, but +it does not appear to have interfered with their friendship. Curio +was a vehement opponent of Caesar, against whom he wrote +a political pamphlet in the form of a dialogue. He was pontifex +maximus in 57, and died in 53. His reputation as an orator +was considerable, but according to Cicero he was very illiterate, +and his only qualifications were brilliancy of style and the purity +of his Latin. He was nicknamed Burbuleius (after an actor) +from the way in which he moved his body while speaking.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Orelli, <i>Onomasticon</i> to Cicero; Florus iii. 4; Eutropius vi. 2; +Val. Max. ix. 14, 5; Quintilian, <i>Instit.</i>, vi. 3, 76; Dio Cassius +xxxviii. 16.</p> +</div> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Gaius Scribonius Curio</span>, was first a supporter of +Pompey, but after his tribuneship (50 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) went over to Caesar, +by whom he was said to have been bribed. But, while breaking +off relations with Pompey, Curio desired to keep up the appearance +of impartiality. When it was demanded that Caesar should +lay down his imperium before entering Rome, Curio proposed +that Pompey should do the same, adding that, if the rivals +refused to do so, they ought both to be declared public enemies. +His proposal was carried by a large majority, but a report having +spread that Caesar was on the way to attack Rome, the consuls +called upon Pompey to undertake the command of all the troops +stationed in Italy. Curio’s appeal to the people to prevent the +levying of an army by Pompey was disregarded; whereupon, +feeling himself in danger, he fled to Ravenna to Caesar. He was +commissioned by Caesar, who was still unwilling to proceed to +extremities, to take a message to the senate. But Curio’s +reception was so hostile that he hurriedly returned during the +night to Caesar. It was now obvious that civil war would break +out. Curio collected troops in Umbria and Etruria for Caesar, +who sent him to Sicily as propraetor in 49. After having fought +with considerable success there against the Pompeians, Curio +crossed over to Africa, where he was defeated and slain by Juba, +king of Numidia. Curio, although a man of profligate character, +possessed conspicuous ability, and was a distinguished orator. +In spite of his faults, Cicero, as an old friend of his father, took +a great interest in him and did his utmost to reform him. Seven +of Cicero’s letters (<i>Ad. Fam.</i> ii. 1-7) are addressed to him. There +can be no doubt that Curio’s behaviour in regard to the laying +down of the imperium by Caesar and Pompey in great measure +contributed to the outbreak of civil war. The first amphitheatre +in Rome was erected by him (50), for the celebration of the +funeral games in honour of his father.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Orelli, <i>Onomasticon</i> to Cicero; Livy, <i>Epit.</i> 109, 110; Caesar, +<i>Bell. Civ.</i>, ii. 23, for Curio’s African campaign; Appian, <i>Bell. Civ.</i>, +ii. 26-44; Vell. Pat. ii. 48.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURITYBA<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (also <span class="sc">Corityba</span> and <span class="sc">Curitiba</span>), capital of the state +of Paraná, Brazil, situated on an elevated plateau (2916 ft. +above sea-level) 68 m. W. of its seaport Paranaguá, with which +it is connected by a railway remarkable for the engineering +difficulties overcome and for the beautiful scenery through which +it passes. Pop. (1890) 22,694; of the municipality, 24,553. +There is a large foreign element in the population, the Germans +preponderating. The city has a temperate, healthy climate, +and is surrounded by a charming <i>campo</i> country, which, however, +is less fertile than the forested river valleys. Maté is the principal +export.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURLEW<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Courlis</i> or <i>Corlieu</i>), a name given to two birds, +of whose cry it is an imitation, both belonging to the group +<i>Limicolae</i>, but possessing very different habits and features.</p> + +<p>1. The long-billed curlew, or simply curlew of most British +writers, the <i>Numenius arquata</i> of ornithologists, is one of the +largest of the family <i>Scolopacidae</i>, or snipes and allied forms. +It is common on the shores of the United Kingdom and most +parts of Europe, seeking the heaths and moors of the interior +and more northern countries in the breeding-season, where it +lays its four brownish-green eggs, suffused with cinnamon +markings, in an artless nest on the ground. In England it has +been ascertained to breed in Cornwall and in the counties of +Devon, Dorset, Salop, and Derby—though sparingly. In Yorkshire +it is more numerous, and thence to the extreme north of +Scotland, as well as throughout Ireland, it is, under the name of +whaup, familiar to those who have occasion to traverse the wild +and desolate tracts that best suit its habits. So soon as the young +are able to shift for themselves, both they and their parents +resort to the sea-shore or mouths of rivers, from the muddy +flats of which they at low tide obtain their living, and, though +almost beyond any other birds wary of approach, form an object +of pursuit to numerous gunners. While leading this littoral life +the food of the curlew seems to consist of almost anything edible +that presents itself. It industriously probes the mud or sand in +quest of the worms that lurk therein, and is also active in seeking +for such crustaceans and molluscs as can be picked up on the +surface, while vegetable matter as well has been found in its +stomach. During its summer-sojourn on the moorlands insects +and berries, when they are ripe, enter largely into its diet. In +bulk the curlew is not less than a crow, but it looks larger still +from its long legs, wings and neck. Its bill, from 5 to 7 in. in +length, and terminating in the delicate nervous apparatus +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page645" id="page645"></a>645</span> +common to all birds of its family, is especially its most remarkable +feature. Its plumage above is of a drab colour, streaked +and mottled with very dark brown; beneath it is white, while +the flight-quills are of a brownish black.</p> + +<p>Nearly allied to the curlew, but smaller and with a more +northern range, is the whimbrel (<i>N. phaeopus</i>), called in some +parts jack-curlew, from its small size; May-fowl, from the +month in which it usually arrives; and titterel, from one of its +cries.<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> This so much resembles the former in habit and appearance +that no further details need be given of it. In the countries +bordering on the Mediterranean occurs a third species (<i>N. +tenuirostris</i>). Some fifteen other species, or more, have been +described, but it is probable that this number is too great. The +genus <i>Numenius</i> is almost cosmopolitan. In North America +three very easily recognized species are found—the first (<i>N. +longirostris</i>) closely agreeing with the European curlew, but +larger and with a longer bill; the second (<i>N. hudsonicus</i>) representing +the British whimbrel; and the third (<i>N. borealis</i>), +which has several times found its way to Britain, very much less +in size—indeed the smallest of the genus. All these essentially +agree with the species of the Old World in habit; but it is remarkable +that the American birds can be easily distinguished by +the rufous colouring of their axillary feathers—a feature which +is also presented by the American godwits (<i>Limosa</i>).</p> + +<p>2. The curlew of inlanders, or stone-curlew—called also, by +some writers, from its stronghold in England, the Norfolk plover, +and sometimes the thick-knee—is usually classed among the +<i>Charadriidae</i>, but it offers several remarkable differences from +the more normal plovers. It is the <i>Charadrius oedicnemus</i> of +Linnaeus, the <i>C. scolopax</i> of Sam. Gottl. Gmelin, and the <i>Oedicnemus +crepitans</i> of K. J. Temminck. With much the same cry +as that of the <i>Numenii</i>, only uttered in a far sweeter tone, it is +as fully entitled to the name of curlew as the bird most commonly +so called. In England it is almost solely a summer visitor, +though an example will occasionally linger throughout a mild +winter; and is one of the few birds whose distribution is affected +by geological formation, since it is nearly limited to the chalk-country—the +open spaces of which it haunts, and its numbers +have of late years been sensibly diminished by their inclosure. +The most barren spots in these districts, even where but a superficial +coating of light sand and a thin growth of turf scarcely +hide the chalk below, supply its needs; though at night (and it +chiefly feeds by night) it resorts to moister and more fertile +places. Its food consists of snails, coleopterous insects, and +earth-worms, but larger prey, as a mouse or a frog, is not rejected. +Without making the slightest attempt at a nest, it lays its two +eggs on a level spot, a bare fallow being often chosen. These are +not very large, and in colour so closely resemble the sandy, flint-strewn +surface that their detection except by a practised eye +is difficult. The bird, too, trusts much to its own drab colouring +to elude observation, and, on being disturbed, will frequently run +for a considerable distance and then squat with outstretched +neck so as to become almost invisible. In such a case it may be +closely approached, and its large golden eye, if it do not pass for +a tuft of yellow lichen, is perhaps the first thing that strikes the +searcher. As autumn advances the stone-curlew gathers in +large flocks, and then is as wary as its namesake. Towards +October these take their departure, and their survivors return, +often with wonderful constancy, to their beloved haunts. In +size this species exceeds any other European plover, and looks +even still larger than it is. The bill is short, blunt, and stout; +the head large, broad, and flat at the top; the wings and legs +long—the latter presenting the peculiarity of a singular enlargement +of the upper part of the tarsus, whence the names <i>Oedicnemus</i> +and Thick-knee have been conferred. The toes are short +and fleshy, and the hind-toe is wanting. This bird seems to have +been an especial favourite with Gilbert White, in whose classical +writings mention of it is often made. Its range extends to North +Africa and India. Five other species of <i>Oedicnemus</i> from Africa +have also been described as distinct. Australia possesses a very +distinct species (<i>O. grallarius</i>), and the genus has two members +in the Neotropical Region (<i>O. bistriatus</i> and <i>O. superciliaris</i>). +An exaggerated form of <i>Oedicnemus</i> is found in <i>Aesacus</i>, of which +two species have been described, one (<i>A. recurvirostris</i>) from the +Indian, and the other (<i>A. magnirostris</i>) from the northern parts +of the Australian region.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The name spowe (cf. Icelandic <i>Spói</i>) also seems to have been +anciently given to this bird (see Stevenson’s <i>Birds of Norfolk</i>, +ii. 201).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURLING, THOMAS BLIZARD<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1811-1888), British surgeon, +was born in London in 1811. Through his uncle, Sir William +Blizard, he became assistant-surgeon to the London hospital in +1833, becoming full surgeon in 1849. After filling other important +posts in the College of Surgeons, he was appointed +president in 1873. In 1843 he won the Jacksonian prize for his +investigations on tetanus; and he became famous for his skill +in treating diseases of the testes and rectum, his published works +on which went through many editions. He died on the 4th of +March 1888.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURLING,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a game in which the players throw large rounded +stones upon a rink or channel of ice, towards a mark called the +tee. Where the game originated is not precisely known; but it +has been popular in Scotland for three centuries at least. Some +writers, looking to the name and technical terms of the game, +trace its invention to the Netherlands; thus “curl” may have +been derived from the Ger. <i>kurzweil</i>, a game; “tee” from the +Teutonic <i>tighen</i>, to point out; “bonspiel,” a district curling +competition, from the Belgic <i>bonne</i>, a district, and <i>spel</i>, play; +the further supposition that “rink” is merely a modification of +the Saxon <i>hrink</i>, a strong man, seems scarcely tenable. Curling +is called “kuting” in some parts of Lanarkshire and Ayrshire, +and very much resembles quoiting on the ice, so that the name +may have some connexion with the Dutch <i>coete</i>, a quoit; while +Cornelis Kiliaan (1528-1607) in his <i>Teutonic Dictionary</i> gives +the term <i>khuyten</i> as meaning a pastime in which large globes of +stone like the quoit or discus are thrown upon ice. Possibly +some of the Flemish merchants who settled in Scotland towards +the close of the 16th century may have brought the game to the +country. Unfortunately, however, for the theory that assigns +to it a far-away origin, we find no early mention of it in the +literature of the continent; while Camden, when describing the +Orkney Islands in 1607, tells us that one of them supplies “plenty +of excellent stones for the game called curling”; and incidental +references to it as a game played in Scotland are made by several +authors during the first half of the same century.</p> + +<p>If the game be not indigenous to Scotland it certainly owes +its development to that country, and in the course of time it has +come to be the national sport. It was played at first with very +rude engines—random whin boulders fashioned by nature alone, +or misshapen granite blocks, bored through to let in the +thumb of the player, having been the primitive channel stones. +In course of years the rough block was superseded by a symmetrical +object usually made of whinstone or granite, beautifully +rounded, brilliantly polished, and supplied with a convenient +handle.</p> + +<p>Although curling boasts a literature of its own and songs innumerable, +yet it has received but the scantiest notice from such +important Scottish writers as Scott and Burns, or from contemporary +literature in general. In 1834 an “Amateur Curling +Club of Scotland” was formed, but this “mutual admiration +amateur society came to nothing, as might be expected.” Far +more businesslike were the methods of the men who set afoot the +“Grand Caledonian Curling Club,” which began its existence +on the 15th of November 1838, and which, under its present title +of “The Royal Caledonian Curling Club,” is regarded in all parts +of the world as the mother-club and legislative body, even in +Canada, where, however, curling conditions differ widely from +those of Scotland; devotion to the mother-club does not by any +means imply submission. Starting with 28 allied clubs the Royal +Club grew so rapidly that there were 500 such in 1880 and 720 +in 1903. It was under the auspices of the Royal Caledonian that +a body of Scottish curlers visited Canada and the United States +in the winter of 1902-1903, and, while a slight margin of victory +remained with the home players under their own climatic conditions, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page646" id="page646"></a>646</span> +the visit did much to bring together the lovers of the +game on both sides of the Atlantic. The assumption of the title +“Royal” in place of “Grand” was due to the visit of Queen +Victoria and the prince consort to Scotland in 1842, on which +occasion they were initiated into the mysteries of the game on +the polished floor of the drawing-room in the Palace of Scone; +and the prince consort, who was presented with a pair of curling-stones, +consented to become patron of the club. On his death he +was succeeded by the prince of Wales, who, as Edward VII., +still continued his patronage. The Club’s main duties are to +further the interests of the game, to revise the laws and to arrange +the important matches, especially the grand match, played +annually between the Scottish clubs north of the Forth & Clyde +Canal and those south of it. In the first of these matches (1847) +only twelve “rinks” were played; in 1903 there were no fewer +than 286. During this time the southern clubs were usually +victorious. Curlers claim to be a united brotherhood within +which peer and peasant are equal “on the ice.” To the same end +the laws of the club are framed with a due regard to economy, +not forgetting conviviality in the matter of “beef and greens,” +the curler’s traditional dish, washed down with whisky. A +formal freemasonry exists among curlers, who must be initiated +into the mysteries and instructed in the grip, password and +ceremony, being liable at any moment to be examined in these +essentials and fined for lapses of memory. Betting, excepting +for the smallest stakes, is discountenanced.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Glossary.</i>—As curling has a language which contains many curious +terms, puzzling to the uninitiated, the English equivalents of some +of them are here given. <i>Baugh ice</i>, rough or soft ice. <i>Bias</i>, a slope +on the ice. <i>Boardhead</i> (also house or parish), the large circle round +the tee. <i>Bonspiel</i>, a match between two clubs. <i>Break an egg on a +stone</i>, touch it very slightly. <i>Broughs</i>, the small circles round the +tee. <i>Chipping</i>, striking a stone of which a small part can be seen. +<i>Core</i>, old name for rink. <i>Cowe</i> or <i>kowe</i>, a besom made of broom-twigs. +<i>Draw</i>, to play gently. <i>Drive</i>, to play hard. <i>Drug ice</i>, soft +bad ice. <i>Fill the port</i>, to block the interval between two stones. +<i>Gogsee</i>, tee. <i>Guard</i>, a stone that covers and protects another. +<i>Hack</i>, a hollow cut in the ice for the player’s foot, used in place of a +crampit. <i>Hands up!</i> stop sweeping. <i>Hog</i>, a stone that stops short +of the <i>hog-score</i>, a line drawn one-sixth of the length of the rink from +the tee. <i>Head</i>, an innings, both sides delivering all their stones once. +<i>Howe</i>, the middle of the rink, gradually hollowed by stones. <i>In-ringing</i>, +gaining a good position by rebounding off another stone. +<i>In-wick</i>, the same. <i>Lie shot</i>, the stone resting nearest the tee. +<i>Mar</i>, to interfere with a stone while running. <i>Out-Turn</i>, to make the +stone twist to the left. <i>In-Turn</i>, to make one turn to the right. +<i>Out-wick</i>, to strike a stone on the edge so as to drive it towards the +tee. <i>Pat-lid</i>, a stone that lies on the tee. <i>Pittycock</i>, the oldest form +of curling-stone. <i>Raise</i>, to drive a “friendly” stone nearer the tee. +<i>Rebut</i>, to deliver the stone with great force, so as to scatter the stones +on the boardhead. <i>Red the ice</i>, clear away the opponents’ stones. +<i>Rink</i>, the space in which the game is played; also the members of a +side. <i>Sole</i>, the under part of the stone; also to deliver the stone. +<i>Soop</i>, to sweep. <i>Souter</i>, to win without allowing the opponents to +score at all; a term derived from a famous team of cobblers (souters) +of Lochmaben, whose opponents seldom or never scored a point. +<i>Spiel</i>, a match between members of the same club. <i>Spend the stone</i>, +to waste a shot by playing wide intentionally. <i>Stug</i>, a fluke. <i>Tee</i>, +the mark in the centre of the boardhead, against which it is the curler’s +object to lay the stone. The tee may be any kind of a mark; a small +iron plate with a spike in it is often used. <i>Tozee</i>, tee. <i>Tramp</i>, +<i>crampit</i>, <i>trigger</i> or <i>tricker</i>, an iron plate fitted with spikes which the +player stands upon to deliver the stone. <i>Wittyr</i>, tee.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>The Rink and Implements.</i>—The rink is marked out in the ice, +which should be very hard and smooth, in curling language +“keen and clear.” To keep it swept every curler carries a broom, +sometimes a mere bundle of broom-twigs, more often an ordinary +housemaid’s broom. Good “sooping,” or sweeping, is part of +the curler’s art, and is performed subject to strict rules and under +the direction of the skip, or captain; its importance lying in the +fact that the progress of a stone is retarded by the ice-dust caused +by the play, the sweeping of which in front of a running stone +consequently prolongs its course. Apart from the broom and +the crampit, the “roarin’ game,” as curlers love to call it, +requires no further implement than the stone, a flattened, +polished disk, fitted with a handle. In weight it must not +exceed 44 ℔, 35 to 40 ℔ being usual. It must not exceed 36 in. +in circumference or be less in height than one-eighth of the +circumference. The two flat sides, or soles, are so shaped that +one is serviceable for keen ice and the other for ice that is soft, +rough or “baugh.” The handle can be fitted to either side, as +the case demands. The cost of a pair of stones is not less than +£2, generally more. In the intense cold of Canada and the United +States iron is found more serviceable than stone, and the irons +weigh from 60 to 70 ℔. Even these are light compared with the +earlier rough boulder-stones, some of which weighed over 115 ℔, +although the very early ones were much lighter. The modern +stone took shape at the beginning of the 19th century. The +ancient stones had no handles, but notches were hewn in +them for finger and thumb, and, as their weight varied from +5 to 25 ℔, it is probable that they were thrown after the +manner of quoits. Channel-stones, stones rounded by the +action of water in a river-bed, were the favourites, while the shape +was a matter of individual taste, oblong and triangular stones +having been common. The soles were artificially flattened. +During the next period we find the heavy boulder-stones, unhewn +blocks fitted with handles and probably used at shorter +distances, 70 or 80 ℔ being no uncommon weight. The rounded +stone, made on scientific principles, did not appear until about +1800. Even then it was of all shapes and sizes, with and without +handles, and not uncommonly made of wood. The stones of +to-day are named after the places in which they are quarried, +Ailsa Craigs, Burnocks, Carsphairn Reds and Crawfordjohns +being some of the best-known varieties. The stones are quarried +and never blasted, as the shock of the explosion is apt to strain +or split the rock.</p> + +<p><i>The Game.</i>—Curling is practically bowls played on the ice, +the place of the “jack” being taken by a fixed mark, as at +quoits, called the tee, to which the curler aims his stone; every +stone that finally lies nearer than any of the opposing stones +counting a point or “shot.” As each side has four players, each +playing two stones, it is possible for one side to score eight points +at a “head” or innings; but in practice it is found wiser, when +a good shot has been made, to play some or all following stones +to such positions as will prevent opposing stones from disturbing +the stone lying near the tee. Stones thus placed are called +“guards.” Strategic matters like this are decided by the skip, +or captain, of the rink, who plays last, and who is an autocrat +whose will is law. The “lead,” or first player, is expected to +play quietly up the rink, leaving his stone as close to the tee as +possible, but on no account beyond it. He is followed by the +“lead” of the other side, who, instructed by his skip, will either +try to drive away the first stone, if well placed, or put his own +stone in a better position. When the skip’s turn comes he is +“skipped,” or directed, by another player, appointed by himself, +usually the third player. When all sixteen stones have been +delivered the players cross over, the scores are counted, and the +game proceeds from the other end of the rink. If a stone fails +to cross the “hog-score” it is a “hog” and is removed from +the rink, unless it has struck another stone in position. Stones +that pass the back-score or touch the swept snow on either side +are also removed. By a cleverly imparted twist a stone may be +made to curve round a guard and either drive away an opposing +winner or find a favourable lie for itself. This, the equivalent +of “bias” in the game of bowls, is the height of scientific play. +If the situation seems desperate a very hard throw, a “thunderin’ +cast,” may succeed in clearing away the opponents’ stones from +the neighbourhood of the tee. Different methods are adopted +in delivering the stone, but in all of them a firm stand should +be taken on the crampit, and the stone swung, either quietly, or, +if the skip calls for a “thunderin’ cast,” vigorously; but care +must be taken to avoid striking the ice with the stone so as to +crack or “star” the ice. All matches are for a certain number +of “heads” or of points, or for all that can be made within a +certain time limit, as may be agreed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Abridged Rules.</i>—Tees shall be 38 yds. apart, and with the tee as +centre a circle having a radius of 7 ft. shall be drawn. In alignment +with the tees, lines, to be called Central Lines, are drawn from the tees +to points 4 yds. behind each tee, and at these points Foot Scores +18 in. long shall be drawn at right angles, on which, at 6 in. from +Central Line, the heel of the Crampit shall be placed. All matches +shall be of a certain number of heads, or shots, or by time, as agreed. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page647" id="page647"></a>647</span> +Every rink of players shall be composed of four a side. No shoes +likely to break the ice may be worn.</p> + +<p>The skips opposing each other shall settle by lot, or in any other +way they may agree upon, which party shall lead at the first head, +after which the winning party shall do so.</p> + +<p>All curling stones shall be of a circular shape. No stone shall be +of a greater weight than 44 ℔ imperial, or of greater circumference +than 36 in., or of less height than one-eighth part of its greatest +circumference.</p> + +<p>No stone, or side of a stone, shall be changed after a match has +been begun, or during its continuance, unless by consent.</p> + +<p>Should a stone happen to be broken, the largest fragment shall be +considered in the game for that end—the player being entitled afterwards +to use another stone or another pair.</p> + +<p>If a played stone rolls over, or stops, on its side or top, it shall +be put off the ice. Should the handle quit the stone in delivery, +the player must keep hold of it, otherwise he shall not be entitled to +replay the shot.</p> + +<p>Players, during the course of each end, to be arranged along the +sides of the rink, anywhere skips may direct; and no party, except +when sweeping according to rule, shall go upon the middle of the +rink, or cross it, under any pretence whatever. Skips alone to stand +at or about the tee—that of the playing party having the choice of +place, and not to be obstructed by the other.</p> + +<p>If a player should play out of turn, the stone so played may +be stopped in its progress, and returned to the player. Should the +mistake not be discovered till the stone be at rest, or has struck +another stone, the opposite skip shall have the option of adding +one to his score, allowing the game to proceed, or declaring the +end null and void. But if a stone be played before the mistake has +been discovered, the head must be finished as if it had been properly +played from the beginning.</p> + +<p>The sweeping shall be under the direction and control of the +skips. The player’s party may sweep the ice anywhere from the +centre line to the tee, and behind it,—the adverse party having +liberty to sweep behind the tee, and in front of any of their own +stones when moved by another, and till at rest. Skips to have full +liberty to clean and sweep the ice behind the tee at any time, except +when a player is being directed by his skip.</p> + +<p>If in sweeping or otherwise, a <i>running</i> stone be marred by any +of the party to which it belongs, it may, at the option of the opposite +skip, be put off the ice; if by any of the adverse party, it may be +placed where the skip of the party to which it belongs shall direct. +If otherwise marred, it shall be replayed.</p> + +<p>Every player to be ready to play when his turn comes, and not +to take more than a reasonable time to play. Should he play a +wrong stone, any of the players may stop it while running; but if +not stopped till at rest, the one which ought to have been played +shall be placed instead, to the satisfaction of the opposing skip.</p> + +<p>No measuring of shots allowable previous to the termination +of the end. Disputed shots to be determined by the skips, or, if +they disagree, by the umpire, or, when there is no umpire, by some +neutral person chosen by the skips. All measurements to be taken +from the centre of the tee, to that part of the stone which is nearest +it. No stone shall be considered without a circle, or over a line, +unless it clear it;—and in every case, this is to be determined by +placing a square on the ice, at the circle or line.</p> + +<p>Skips shall have the exclusive regulation and direction of the +game for their respective parties, and may play last stone, or in +what part of it they please; and, when their turn to play comes, they +may name one of their party to take charge for them.</p> + +<p>If any player shall speak to, taunt or interrupt another, not +being of his own party, while in the act of delivering his stone, one +shot shall be added to the score of the party so interrupted.</p> + +<p>If from any change of weather after a match has been begun, +or from any other reasonable cause, one party shall desire to shorten +the rink, or to change to another one, and, if the two skips cannot +agree, the umpire shall, after seeing one end played, determine +whether the rink shall be shortened, and how much or whether it +shall be changed, and his decision shall be final.</p> + +<p>See <i>Annual</i> of the Royal Caledonian Curling Club, Edinburgh.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURLL, EDMUND<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1675-1747), English bookseller, was born +in 1675 in the west of England. His parents were in humble +circumstances. After being apprenticed to an Exeter bookseller +he came to London and started business on his own account, +advertising himself by a system of newspaper quarrels. His +connexion with the anonymously-published <i>Court Poems</i> in 1716 +led to the long quarrel with Pope, who took his revenge by +immortalizing Curll in the <i>Dunciad</i>. Curll became notorious +for his indecent publications, so much so that “Curlicism” was +regarded as a synonym for literary indecency. In 1716 and again +in 1721 he had to appear at the bar of the House of Lords for +publishing matter concerning its members. In 1725 he was convicted +of publishing obscene books, and fined in 1728 for publishing +<i>The Nun in her Smock</i> and <i>De Usu Flagrorum</i>, while his <i>Memories +of John Ker of Kersland</i> cost him an hour in the pillory. When +Curll in 1735 announced the forthcoming publication of “<i>Mr +Pope’s Literary Correspondence</i>,” his stock, at Pope’s instigation, +was seized. It has since been proved that the publication was really +instigated by Pope, who wanted an excuse to print his letters, +as he actually did (1737-1741). In his forty years of business Curll +published a great variety of books, of which a very large number, +fortunately, were quite free from “Curlicisms.” A list of his +publications contains, indeed, 167 standard works. He died +on the 11th of December 1747.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For Curll’s relations with Pope, see the <i>Life of Pope</i>, by Sir Leslie +Stephen in the English Men of Letters series.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURRAGH,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> a level stretch of open ground in Co. Kildare, +Ireland, famous for its race-course and its military camp. It +has an area of upwards of 4800 acres; and its soft natural +sward, which has never been broken by the plough, affords +excellent pasture for sheep. From the peculiarity of its herbage, +the district is known in the neighbourhood as “the short grass”; +and the young men of Kildare are jocularly distinguished as +the “boys of the short grass.” The land is the property of the +crown, which appoints a special officer as the ranger of the +Curragh; but the right of pasturage is possessed by the landowners +of the vicinity. The oldest mention of the Curragh +occurs in the <i>Liber Hymnorum</i> (the manuscript of which probably +dates from the 10th century) in connexion with St Bridget, +who is said to have received a grant of the district from the king +of Leinster, and is popularly credited with the honour of having +turned it into a common. It is evident, however, that long before +the days of the saint the downs of Kildare had afforded a regular +place of assembly for the people of the south of Ireland. The +word <i>cuirrech</i>, cognate with the Lat. <i>cursus</i>, signifies a race-course, +and chariot-races are spoken of as taking place on the +Curragh as early as the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The <i>Aenach Colmain</i> +(Curragh fair), also called <i>Aenach Lifè</i> (the fair on the plain of +the Liffey), is frequently mentioned in the Irish annals, and both +racing and other sports were carried on at this, the principal +meeting of its kind in southern Ireland, and the plain appears +from time to time as the scene of hostile encounters between the +kings of Meath, Leinster and Offaly. In 1234 the earl of Pembroke +was defeated here by the viceroy of Ireland, Lord Geoffrey +de Monte Marisco; and in 1406 the Irish under the prior of +Connell were routed by the English. In 1789 the Curragh was +the great rendezvous for the volunteers, and in 1804 it saw the +gathering of 30,000 United Irishmen. The camp was established +at the time of the Crimean War, and is capable of accommodating +12,000 men. The races are held in April, June, September and +October.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. M. Hennessy, in <i>Proceedings of Royal Irish Acad.</i>, 1866.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURRAN, JOHN PHILPOT<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1750-1817), Irish politician and +judge, was born on the 24th of July 1750, at Newmarket, Cork, +where his father, a descendant of one of Cromwell’s soldiers, +was seneschal to the manor-court. He was educated at Middleton, +through the kind help of a friend, the Rev. Nathaniel Boyse, +and at Trinity College, Dublin; and in 1773, having taken his +M.A. degree, he entered the Middle Temple. In 1774 he married +a lady who brought him a small dowry; but the marriage proved +unhappy, and Mrs Curran finally eloped from her husband.</p> + +<p>In 1775 Curran was called to the Irish bar, where he very soon +obtained a practice. On his first rising in court excessive nervousness +prevented him from even reading distinctly the few words +of a legal form, and when requested by the judge to read more +clearly he became so agitated as to be totally unable to proceed. +But, his feelings once roused, all nervousness disappeared. +His effective and witty attack upon a judge who had sneered at +his poverty, the success with which he prosecuted a nobleman for +a disgraceful assault upon a priest, the duel which he fought +with one of the witnesses for this nobleman, and other similar +exploits, gained him such a reputation that he was soon the most +popular advocate in Ireland.</p> + +<p>In 1783 Curran was appointed king’s counsel; and in the same +year he was presented to a seat in the Irish House of Commons. +His conduct in connexion with this affair displays his conduct +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page648" id="page648"></a>648</span> +in a most honourable light; finding that he differed radically in +politics from the gentleman from whom he had received his seat, +he expended £1500 in buying another to replace that which he +occupied. In his parliamentary career Curran was throughout +sincere and consistent. He spoke vigorously on behalf of +Catholic emancipation, and strenuously attacked the ministerial +bribery which prevailed. His declamations against the government +party led him into two duels—the first with John Fitzgibbon, +then attorney-general, afterwards Lord Clare; the +second with the secretary of state, Major Hobart, afterwards +earl of Buckinghamshire. The Union caused him the bitterest +disappointment; he even talked of leaving Ireland, either for +America or for England.</p> + +<p>Curran’s fame rests most of all upon his speeches on behalf +of the accused in the state trials that were so numerous between +1794 and 1803; and among them may be mentioned those +in defence of Hamilton Rowan, the Rev. William Jackson, the +brothers John and Henry Sheares, Peter Finnerty, Lord Edward +Fitzgerald, Wolfe Tone and Owen Kirwan. Another of his +most famous and characteristic speeches is that against the +marquis of Headfort, who had eloped with the wife of a clergyman +named Massey. On the arrest of Robert Emmet, who had formed +an attachment to his daughter, Curran was himself under +suspicion; but, on examination before the privy council, nothing +was brought forward to implicate him in the intended rebellion.</p> + +<p>In 1806, on the death of Pitt and the formation of the Fox +ministry, Curran received the post of master of the rolls, with a +seat in the privy council, much to his disappointment, for he +had desired a position of greater political influence. For eight +years, however, he held this office. He then retired on a pension +of £3000; and the three remaining years of his life were spent +in London, where he became one of the most brilliant members +of the society which included Sheridan, Erskine, Thomas Moore, +and William Godwin. He died at his house in Brompton on +the 14th of October 1817.</p> + +<p>Curran’s legal erudition was never profound; and though he +was capable of the most ingenious pleading, his appeal was +always to the emotions of his audience. His best speeches are +one fiery torrent of invective, pathos, national feeling and wit. +His diction was lofty and sonorous. He was, too, a most brilliant +wit and of wonderful quickness in repartee. To his personal +presence he owed nothing; for he was short, slim and boyish-looking, +and his voice was thin and shrill.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Curran and his Contemporaries</i>, a most entertaining work, by +Charles Phillips, a personal friend of Curran’s (1818), and the <i>Life +of Curran</i>, by his son, W. H. Curran (1819), and with additions by +Dr Shelton Mackenzie, New York, (1855), both of which contain +numerous samples of Curran’s eloquence. See also <i>Curran’s Speeches</i> +(1805, 1808, 1845); <i>Memoirs of Curran</i>, by Wm. O’Regan (1817); +Letters to Rev. H. Weston (1819); T. Moore’s <i>Memoirs</i> (1853).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURRANT.<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1) The dried seedless fruit of a variety of the +grape-vine, <i>Vitis vinifera</i>, cultivated principally in Zante, +Cephalonia and Ithaca, and near Patras, in the Morea (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>). Currants were brought originally from Corinth, +whence their name; in the 13th and 14th centuries they were +known as <i>raisins de Corauntz</i>. In the Ionian Islands the currant-vine +is grown on the sides of the lower hills, or in the valleys, +the grape-vine occupying the higher and less open and rich +ground. Gypseous marls, or calcareous marls containing a +little gypsum, are preferred to limestone soils, as they allow of +deep penetration of the roots of the vines. The most favourable +situations are those where a good supply of water can be obtained +for the irrigation of the plantations. This is carried on from the +end of October to the close of the year, after which all that is +necessary is to keep the ground moist. The vines are planted in +rows 3 or 4 ft. apart. Propagation is effected by grafting on +stocks of the grape-vine, or by planting out in spring the young, +vigorous shoots obtained at the end of the previous year from +old currant-vines that have been cut away below the ground. +The grafts bear fruit in three years, the slips in about double +that time. The vine stock for grafting is cut down to the depth +of a foot below the surface of the soil; two or three perpendicular +incisions are made near the bark with a chisel; and into these +are inserted shoots of the last year’s growth. The engrafted part +then receives an application of moist marls, is wrapped in leaves +and bound with rushes, and is covered with earth, two or three +eyes of the shoots being left projecting above ground. In +December the currant plantations are cleared of dead and weak +wood. In February the branches are cut back, and pruned +of median shoots, which are said to prevent the lateral ones proceeding +from the same bud from bearing fruit. In order effectually +to water the trees, the earth round about them is in February +and March hoed up so as to leave them in a kind of basin, or is +piled up against their stems. In March, when the leaves begin +to show, the ground is thoroughly turned, and if requisite +manured, and is then re-levelled. By the middle of April the +leaves are fully out, and in June it is necessary to break back +the newly-formed shoots. The fruit begins to ripen in July, +and in the next month the vintage takes place. At this season +rain is greatly dreaded, as it always damages and may even +destroy the ripe fruit. The plantations, which are commonly +much exposed, are watched by dogs and armed men. In Cephalonia +the currant-grape is said to ripen at least a week earlier +than in Zante. To destroy the oïdium, a fungal pest that severely +injures the plantations, the vines are dusted, at the time the fruit +is maturing, with finely-ground brimstone. The currants when +sufficiently ripe are gathered and placed on a drying ground, +where they are exposed to the sun in layers half an inch thick; +from time to time they are turned and swept into heaps, until they +become entirely detached from stalk. They are then packed +in large butts for exportation. The wine made from the currant-grape +is inferior in quality, but is said to be capable of much +improvement. The fresh fruit is luscious and highly flavoured, +but soon cloys the palate.</p> + +<p>(2) The currants of British kitchen-gardens—so called from +a resemblance to the foregoing—are the produce of <i>Ribes nigrum</i> +and <i>R. rubrum</i>, deciduous shrubs of the natural order <i>Ribesiaceae</i>, +indigenous to Britain, northern and central Europe, Siberia and +Canada. The former species bears the black, the latter the red +currant. White currants are the fruit of a cultivated variety +of <i>R. rubrum</i>. Both red and black currants are used for making +tarts and pies, jams, jellies and wine; the latter are also employed +in lozenges, popularly supposed to be of value in relieving a +sore throat, are occasionally preserved in spirits, and in Russia +are fermented with honey to produce a strong liquor.</p> + +<p>Currants will flourish in any fairly good soil, but to obtain +large crops and fine fruit a good rich loam is desirable; with an +annual dressing of farmyard manure or cowdung, after the winter +pruning, for established trees. The plants are best propagated +by cuttings, which should consist of strong well-ripened young +shoots taken off close to the old wood. These should be planted +as soon as possible after the wood is matured in autumn about +6 in. apart. The plants are grown with the best results as bushes, +but may also be trained against a wall or trellis. In the matter +of pruning it must be borne in mind that red and white currants +form their fruit buds on wood two to three years old, and the +main shoots and side branches may therefore be cut back. Black +currants on the other hand form fruit buds on the new wood of the +previous year, hence the old wood should be cut away and the +young left.</p> + +<p>The black currant is subject to the attacks of a mite, +<i>Phytoptus ribis</i>, which destroys the unopened buds. The buds, +when attacked, recognized by their swollen appearance, should +be picked off and burned. The attacks of the caterpillars of +the gooseberry and other moths may be met by dusting the +bushes with lime and soot when the plants are moist with dew +or after syringing.</p> + +<p>The following forms are recommended for cultivation:—<i>Black</i>: +Lee’s Prolific, Baldwin’s or Carter’s Champion and +Black Naples; <i>Red</i>: Cherry, Raby Castle, Red Dutch and +Comet; <i>White</i>: White Dutch. A kind of black currant (<i>Ribes +magellanicum</i>), bearing poor and acid fruit, is indigenous to +Tierra del Fuego.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURRICLE<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (Lat. <i>curriculum</i>, a small car), a light two-wheeled +vehicle, generally for driving with two horses.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page649" id="page649"></a>649</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURRIE, SIR DONALD<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1825-1909), British shipowner, +was born at Greenock on the 17th of September 1825. At a +very early age he was employed in the office of a shipowner in +that port, but at the age of eighteen left Scotland for Liverpool, +where shipping business offered more scope. By a fortunate +chance he attracted the notice of the chief partner in the newly +started Cunard steamship line, who found him a post in that +company. In 1849 the Cunard Company started a service +between Havre and Liverpool to connect with their transatlantic +service. Currie was appointed Cunard agent at Havre and Paris, +and secured for his firm a large share of the freight traffic between +France and the United States. About 1856 he returned to Liverpool, +where till 1862 he held an important position at the Cunard +Company’s headquarters. In 1862 he determined to strike out +for himself, and leaving the Cunard established the “Castle” +line of sailing-ships between Liverpool and Calcutta. Business +prospered, but in 1864 Currie found it profitable to substitute +London for Liverpool as the home port of his vessels, and himself +settled in London. In 1872 he came to the conclusion, after a +careful study of all the circumstances, that the development of +Cape Colony justified the starting of a new line of steamers +between England and South Africa. The result of this decision +was the founding of the successful Castle line of steamers (see +under Steamship Lines), which after 1876 divided the South +African mail contract with the older Union line, and was finally +amalgamated with the latter under the title Union Castle line +in 1900. Currie’s intimate knowledge of South African conditions +and persons was on several occasions of material service to +the British government. His acquaintance with Sir John Brand, +the president of what was then the Orange Free State, caused him +to be entrusted by the home government with the negotiations +in the dispute concerning the ownership of the Kimberley +diamond-fields, which were brought to a successful conclusion. +He introduced the two Transvaal deputations which came to +England in 1877 and 1878 to protest against annexation, and +though his suggestions for a settlement were disregarded by the +government of the day, the terms on which the Transvaal was +subsequently restored to the Boers agreed, in essentials, with +those he had advised. The first news of the disaster of Isandhlwana +in the Zulu War was given to the home government through +his agency. At that time there was no cable between England +and South Africa, and the news was sent by a Castle liner to +St Vincent, and telegraphed thence to Currie. At the same +time by diverting his outward mail-boat then at sea from its +ordinary course to St Vincent, he enabled the government to +telegraph immediate instructions to that island for conveyance +thence by the mail, thus saving serious delay, and preventing the +annihilation of the British garrison at Eshowe. The present +arrangement under which the British admiralty is enabled to +utilize certain fast steamers of the mercantile marine as armed +cruisers in war-time was suggested and strongly urged by Currie +in 1880. In the same year he was returned to parliament as +Liberal member for Perthshire, but, though a strong personal +friend of W. E. Gladstone, he was unable to follow that statesman +on the Home Rule question, and from 1885 to 1900 he represented +West Perthshire as a Unionist. In 1881 his services in connexion +with the Zulu War were rewarded with knighthood, and in 1897 +he was created G.C.M.G. He died at Sidmouth on the 13th of +April 1909.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURRIE, JAMES<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1756-1805), Scottish physician and editor +of Burns, son of the minister of Kirkpatrick-Fleming, in Dumfriesshire, +was born there on the 31st of May 1756. Attracted by +the stories of prosperity in America he went in 1771 to Virginia, +where he spent five hard years, much of the time ill and always +in unprofitable commercial business. The outbreak of war between +the Colonies and England ended any further chance of +success, and sailing for home in the spring of 1776 after many +delays he reached England a year later. He then proceeded to +study medicine at Edinburgh, and after taking his degree at +Glasgow he settled at Liverpool in 1780, where three years later +he became physician to the infirmary. He died at Sidmouth +on the 31st of August 1805. Among other pamphlets Currie +was the author of <i>Medical Reports on the Effects of Water, Cold +and Warm, as a Remedy in Fevers and Febrile Diseases</i> (1797), +which had some influence in promoting the use of cold water +affusion, and contains the first systematic record in English +of clinical observations with the thermometer. But he is +best known for his edition (1800), long regarded as the +standard, of Robert Burns, which he undertook in behalf of +the family of the poet. It contained an introductory criticism +and an essay on the character and condition of the Scottish +peasantry.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Memoir</i> by W. W. Currie, his son (1831).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURRY.<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1) (Through the O. Fr. <i>correier</i>, from Late Lat. +<i>conredare</i>, to make ready, prepare; a later form of the French +is <i>courroyer</i>, and modern French is <i>corroyer</i>), to dress a horse by +rubbing down and grooming with a comb; to dress and prepare +leather already tanned. The currier pares off roughnesses and +inequalities, makes the leather soft and pliable, and gives it the +necessary surface and colour (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leather</a></span>). The word “currier,” +though early confused in origin with “to curry,” is derived from +the Late Lat. <i>coriarius</i>, a leather dresser, from <i>corium</i>, hide. +The phrase “to curry favour,” to flatter or cajole, is a 16th +century corruption of “to curry favel,” <i>i.e.</i> a chestnut horse. +This older phrase is an adaptation of an Old French proverbial +expression <i>estriller fauvel</i>, and is paralleled in German by the +similar <i>den fahlen Hengst streichen</i>. A chestnut or fallow horse +seems to have been taken as typical of deceit and trickery, at +least since the appearance of a French satirical beast romance +the <i>Roman de fauvel</i> (1310), the hero of which is a counterpart of +Reynard the Fox (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>(2) A name applied to a great variety of seasoned dishes, +especially those of Indian origin. The word is derived from the +Tamil <i>kari</i>, a sauce or relish for rice. In the East, where the +staple food of the people consists of a dish of rice, wheaten cakes, +or some other cereal, some kind of relish is required to lend +attraction to this insipid food; and that is the special office of +curry. In India the following are employed as ingredients in +curries: anise, coriander, cumin, mustard and poppy seeds; +allspice, almonds, assafoetida, butter or ghee, cardamoms, +chillies, cinnamon, cloves, cocoa-nut and cocoanut milk and +oil, cream and curds, fenugreek, the tender unripe fruit of +<i>Buchanania lancifolia</i>, cheroonjie nuts (the produce of another +species, <i>B. latifolia</i>), garlic and onions, ginger, lime-juice, +vinegar, the leaves of <i>Bergera Koenigii</i> (the curry-leaf tree), +mace, mangoes, nutmeg, pepper, saffron, salt, tamarinds and +turmeric.</p> + +<p>The cumin and coriander seeds are generally used roasted. +The various materials are cleaned, dried, ground, sifted, +thoroughly mixed and bottled. In the East the spices are ground +freshly every day, which gives the Indian curry its superiority +in flavour over dishes prepared with the curry-powders of the +European market.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURSOR, LUCIUS PAPIRIUS,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> Roman general, five times +consul and twice dictator. In 325 he was appointed dictator to +carry on the second Samnite War. His quarrel with Q. Fabius +Maximus Rullianus, his <i>magister equitum</i>, is well known. The +latter had engaged the enemy against the orders of Cursor, by +whom he was condemned to death, and only the intercession of +his father, the senate and the people, saved his life. Cursor +treated his soldiers with such harshness that they allowed +themselves to be defeated; but after he had regained their +good-will by more lenient treatment and lavish promises of booty, +they fought with enthusiasm and gained a complete victory. +After the disaster of the Caudine Forks, Cursor to some extent +wiped out the disgrace by compelling Luceria (which had revolted) +to surrender. He delivered the Roman hostages who +were held in captivity in the town, recovered the standards +lost at Caudium, and made 7000 of the enemy pass under the +yoke. In 309, when the Samnites again rose, Cursor was +appointed dictator for the second time, and gained a decisive +victory at Longula, in honour of which he celebrated a magnificent +triumph. Cursor’s strictness was proverbial; he was +a man of immense bodily strength, while his bravery was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page650" id="page650"></a>650</span> +beyond dispute. He was surnamed Cursor from his swiftness +of foot.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Livy viii., ix.; Aurelius Victor, <i>De viris illustribus</i>, 31; Eutropius +ii. 8. 9.</p> +</div> + +<p>His son of the same name, also a distinguished general, completed +the subjection of Samnium (272). He set up a sun-dial, +the first of its kind in Rome, in the temple of Quirinus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Livy x. 39-47; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i>, vii. 60.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURSOR MUNDI,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> an English poem in the Northern +dialect dating from the 13th century. It is a religious epic of +24,000 lines “over-running” the history of the world as related +in the Old and New Testaments. “Cursur o werld man aght +it call, For almast it over-rennes all.” The author explains in +his prologue his reasons for undertaking the work. Men desire +to read old romances of Alexander, Julius Caesar, Greece, Troy, +Brut, Arthur, of Tristram, Sweet Ysoude and others. But better +than tales of love is the story of the Virgin who is man’s best +lover, therefore in her honour he will write this book, founded on +the steadfast ground of the Holy Trinity. He writes in English +for the love of English people of merry England, so that those +who know no French may understand. The history is treated +under seven ages. The first four include the period from the +creation of the world to the successors of Solomon, the fifth deals +with Mary and the birth and childhood of Jesus, the sixth with +the lives of Christ and the chief apostles, and with the finding +of the holy cross, and the seventh with Doomsday. Four short +poems follow, more in some MSS. The bulk of the poem is +written in rhyming couplets of short lines of four accents, and +maintains a fair level throughout. The narrative is enlivened +by many legends and much entertaining matter drawn from +various sources; and the numerous transcripts of it prove that +it was able to hold its own against profane romance.</p> + +<p>The chief sources of the compilation have been identified by +Dr Haenisch. For the Old Testament history the author draws +largely from the <i>Historia scholastica</i> of Peter Comestor; for +the history of the Virgin he often translates literally from +Wace’s <i>Établissement de la fête de la conception Notre Dame</i>; +the parables of the king and four daughters, and of the castle of +Love and Grace, are taken from “Sent Robert bok” (1.9516), +that is, from the <i>Chasteau d’Amour</i> of Robert Grosseteste, bishop +of Lincoln; other sources are the apocryphal gospels of Matthew +and Nicodemus, a southern English poem on the Assumption +of Our Lady, attributed by the writer of <i>Cursor mundi</i> to +Edmund Rich of Pontigny, the Vulgate, the <i>Legenda aurea</i> +of Jacobus de Voragine, and the <i>De vita et morte sanctorum</i> +of Isidore of Seville. The original of the section on the invention +of the holy cross is still to seek. In its general plan +the work is similar to the <i>Livre de sapience</i> of Herman de +Valenciennes.</p> + +<p>Of the author nothing is known. In the Cotton MS. Vespasian +(A III.) the name of the owner William Cosyn is given (for +particulars of this family, which is mentioned in Lincolnshire +records as early as 1276, see Dr H. Hupe in the E.E.T.S. ed. +of <i>Cursor mundi</i>, vol. i. p. 124 *). The date of the book was +placed by Dr J. A. H. Murray (<i>The Dialect of the Southern Counties +of Scotland</i>, 1873, p. 30) in the last quarter of the 13th century, +and the place of writing near Durham. Dr Hupe (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 186 *) +gives good reasons for believing that the author was a Lincolnshire +man, who wrote between 1260 and 1290, although the Cotton +MS. probably belongs to the late 14th century. In the Göttingen +MS. there are lines (17099-17110) desiring the reader to pray +for John of Lindbergh, “that this bock gart dight,” and cursing +anybody who shall steal it. Lindberg is probably Limber Magna, +near Ulceby, in north Lincolnshire. Dr Hupe hazards an +identification of the author with this John of Lindberg, who may +have been a member of the Cistercian Abbey of Lindberg; but +this is improbable.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Cursor mundi</i> was edited for the Early English Text Society in +1874-1893 by Dr Richard Morris in parallel columns from four +MSS.:—Cotton Vespasian A III., British Museum; Fairfax MS. 14, +in the Bodleian library, Oxford; MS. theol. 107 at Göttingen; and +MS. R. 3.8 in Trinity College, Cambridge. The edition includes a +“Preface” by the editor, “An Inquiry into the Sources of the <i>Cursor +mundi</i>” (1885), by Dr Haenisch, an essay “On the Filiation and the +Text of the MSS. of <i>Cursor mundi</i>” (1885), by Dr H. Hupe, “Cursor +Studies and Criticisms on the Dialects of its MSS.” (1888), by Dr +Hupe and a glossary by Dr Max Kaluza.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURTAIN,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> a screen of any textile material, running by means +of rings fixed to a rod or pole. Curtains are now used chiefly to +cover windows and doors, but for many centuries every bed of +importance was surrounded by them, and sometimes, as in France, +the space thus screened off was much larger than the actual bed +and was called the <i>ruelle</i>. The curtain is very ancient—indeed the +absence of glass and ill-fitting windows long made it a necessity. +Originally single curtains were used; it would appear that it +was not until the 17th century that they were employed in pairs. +Curtains are made in an infinite variety of materials and styles; +when placed over a door they are usually called <i>portières</i>. In +fortification the “curtain” is that part of the enceinte which +lies between two bastions, towers, gates, &c.</p> + +<p>The word comes into English through the O. Fr. <i>cortine</i> or +<i>courtine</i> from the Late Lat. <i>cortina</i>. According to Du Cange +(<i>Glossarium</i>, s.v. “Cortis”) this is a diminutive of <i>cortis</i>, an +enclosed space, a court. It is used in the various senses of the +English “curtain.” Classical Latin had also a word <i>cortina</i>, +meaning a caldron or round kettle. It was very rarely applied +to round objects generally. In the Vulgate <i>cortina</i> is used of the +curtains of the tabernacle (Exodus xxvi). There is some +difficulty in connecting the classical and the Late Latin words. +The earliest use in English is, according to the <i>New English +Dictionary</i>, for the hangings of a bed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURTANA<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (a latinized form of the A.-Fr. <i>curtein</i>, from Lat. +<i>curtus</i>, shortened), the pointless sword of mercy, known also as +Edward the Confessor’s sword, borne at the coronation of the +kings of England between the two pointed swords of temporal +and spiritual justice (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Regalia</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURTEA DE ARGESH<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (Rumanian, <i>Curtea de Arges</i>; also +written <i>Curtea d’Argesh</i>, <i>Curtea d’Ardges</i>, <i>Argish</i> and <i>Ardjish</i>), +the capital of the department of Argesh, Rumania; situated +on the right bank of the river Argesh, where it flows through +a valley of the lower Carpathians; and on the railway from +Pitesci to the Rothenthurm Pass. Pop. (1900) 4210. The city +is one of the oldest in Rumania. According to tradition it was +founded early in the 14th century by Prince Radu Negru, +succeeding Câmpulung as capital of Walachia. Hence its name +<i>Curtea</i>, “the court.” It contains a few antique churches, and +was created a bishopric at the close of the 18th century.</p> + +<p>The cathedral of Curtea de Argesh, by far the most famous +building in Rumania, stands in the grounds of a monastery, +1½ m. N. of the city. It resembles a very large and elaborate +mausoleum, built in Byzantine style, with Moorish arabesques. +In shape it is oblong, with a many-sided annexe at the back. +In the centre rises a dome, fronted by two smaller cupolas; +while a secondary dome, broader and loftier than the central +one, springs from the annexe. Each summit is crowned by an +inverted pear-shaped stone, bearing a triple cross, emblematic +of the Trinity. The windows are mere slits; those of the tambours, +or cylinders, on which the cupolas rest, are curved, and +slant at an angle of 70°, as though the tambours were leaning +to one side. Between the pediment and the cornice a thick +corded moulding is carried round the main building. Above +this comes a row of circular shields, adorned with intricate +arabesques, while bands and wreaths of lilies are everywhere +<span class="correction" title="amended from scupltured">sculptured</span> on the windows, balconies, tambours and cornices, +adding lightness to the fabric. The whole is raised on a platform +7 ft. high, and encircled by a stone balustrade. Facing the main +entrance is a small open shrine, consisting of a cornice and +dome upheld by four pillars. The cathedral is faced with pale +grey limestone, easily chiselled, but hardening on exposure. +The interior is of brick, plastered and decorated with frescoes. +Close by stands a large royal palace, Moorish in style. The +archives of the cathedral were plundered by Magyars and +Moslems, but several inscriptions, Greek, Slav and Ruman, are +left. One tablet records that the founder was Prince Neagoe +Bassarab (1512-1521); another that Prince John Radu +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page651" id="page651"></a>651</span> +completed the work in 1526. A third describes the repairs executed +in 1681 by Prince Sherban Cantacuzino; a fourth, the +restoration, in 1804, by Joseph, the first bishop. Between 1875 +and 1885 the cathedral was reconstructed; and in 1886 it was reconsecrated. +Its legends have inspired many Rumanian poets, +among them the celebrated V. Alexandri (1821-1890). One +tradition describes how Neagoe Bassarab, while a hostage in +Constantinople, designed a splendid mosque for the sultan, +returning to build the cathedral out of the surplus materials. +Another version makes him employ one Manole or Manoli as +architect. Manole, being unable to finish the walls, the prince +threatened him and his assistant with death. At last Manole +suggested that they should follow the ancient custom of building +a living woman into the foundations; and that she who first +appeared on the following morning should be the victim. The +other masons warned their families, and Manole was forced to +sacrifice his own wife. Thus the cathedral was built except the +roof. So arrogant, however, did the masons become, that the +prince bade remove the scaffolding, and all, save Manole, perished +of hunger. He fell to the ground, and a spring of clear water, +which issued from the spot, is still called after him.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURTESY<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (a variant of “courtesy,” <i>q.v.</i>), in law, the life +interest which a husband has in certain events in the lands of +which his wife was in her lifetime actually seised for an estate +of inheritance. As to the historical origin of the custom and the +meaning of the word there is considerable doubt. It has been +said to be an interest peculiar to England and to Scotland, +hence called the “curtesy of England” and the “curtesy of +Scotland”; but this is erroneous, for it is found also in Germany +and France. The <i>Mirroir des Justices</i> ascribes it to Henry I. +K. E. Digby (<i>Hist. Real Prop.</i> chap. iii.) says that it is connected +with curia, and has reference either to the attendance of the +husband as tenant of the lands at the lord’s court, or to mean +simply that the husband is acknowledged tenant by the courts +of England (<i>tenens per legem Angliae</i>). The requisites necessary +to make tenancy by the curtesy are: (1) a legal marriage; +(2) an estate in possession of which the wife must have been +actually seised; (3) issue born alive and during the mother’s +existence, though it is immaterial whether the issue live or die, +or whether it is born before or after the wife’s seisin; in the +case of gavelkind lands the husband has a right to curtesy, +whether there is issue born or not; but the curtesy extends +only to a moiety of the wife’s lands and ceases if the husband +marries again. The issue must have been capable of inheriting +as heir to the wife, <i>e.g.</i> if a wife were seised of lands in tail male +the birth of a daughter would not entitle the husband to a +tenancy by curtesy; (4) the title to the tenancy vests only on +the death of the wife. The Married Women’s Property Act 1882 +has not affected the right of curtesy so far as relates to the wife’s +undisposed-of realty (<i>Hope</i> v. <i>Hope</i>, 1892, 2 Ch. 336), and the +Settled Land Act 1884, s. 8, provides that for the purposes of the +Settled Land Act 1882 the estate of a tenant by curtesy is to be +deemed an estate arising under a settlement made by the wife.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Pollock and Maitland, <i>Hist. Eng. Law</i>; K. E. Digby, <i>Hist. +Real Prop.</i>; Goodeve, <i>Real Property</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURTILAGE<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (Med. Lat. <i>curtilagium</i>, from <i>curtile</i> or <i>cortile</i>, a +court or yard, cf. “court”), the area of land which immediately +surrounds a dwelling-house and its yard and outbuildings. +In feudal times every castle with its dependent buildings was +protected by a surrounding wall, and all the land within the wall +was termed the curtilage; but the modern legal interpretation +of the word, <i>i.e.</i> what area is enclosed by the curtilage, depends +upon the circumstances of each individual case, such as the terms +of the grant or deed which passes the property, or upon what is +held to be a convenient amount of land for the occupation of +the house, &c. The importance of the word in modern law +depends on the fact that the curtilage marks the limit of the +premises in which housebreaking can be committed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURTIN ANDREW GREGG<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1817-1894), American political +leader, was born at Bellefonte, Centre county, Pennsylvania, +on the 22nd of April 1817, the son of a native of Ireland who was +a pioneer iron manufacturer in Pennsylvania. He graduated +from the law department of Dickinson College in 1837, was +admitted to the bar in 1839, and successfully practised his +profession. Entering politics as a Whig, he was chairman of +the Whig state central committee in 1854, and from 1855 to +1858 was secretary of the commonwealth. In this capacity he +was also <i>ex officio</i> the superintendent of common schools, and +rendered valuable services to his state in perfecting and expanding +the free public school system, and in establishing state +normal schools. Upon the organization of the Republican party +he became one of its leaders in Pennsylvania, and in October +1860 was chosen governor of the state on its ticket, defeating +Henry D. Foster, the candidate upon whom the Douglas and +Breckinridge Democrats and the Constitutional Unionists had +united, by 32,000 votes, after a spirited campaign which was +watched with intense interest by the entire country as an index +of the result of the ensuing presidential election. During the +Civil War he was one of the closest and most constant advisers +of President Lincoln, and one of the most efficient, most energetic +and most patriotic of the “war governors” of the North. +Pennsylvania troops were the first to reach Washington after the +president’s call, and from first to last the state, under Governor +Curtin’s guidance, furnished 387,284 officers and men to the +Northern armies. One of his wisest and most praiseworthy acts +Was the organization of the famous “Pennsylvania Reserves,” +by means of which the state was always able to fill at once its +required quota after each successive call. In raising funds and +equipping and supplying troops the governor showed great +energy and resourcefulness, and his plans and organizations for +caring for the needy widows and children of Pennsylvania +soldiers killed in battle, and for aiding and removing to their +homes the sick and wounded were widely copied throughout the +North. He was re-elected governor in 1863 and served until +January 1867. He was United States minister to Russia from +1869 until 1872, when he returned to America and took part in +the Liberal Republican revolt against President U. S. Grant. +In 1872-1873 he was a member of the state constitutional +convention. Subsequently he joined the Democratic party and +was a representative in Congress from 1881 to 1887. He died at +his birthplace, Bellefonte, Pennsylvania, on the 7th of October +1894.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See William H. Egle’s <i>Life and Times of Andrew Gregg Curtin</i> +(Philadelphia, 1896), which contains chapters written by A. K. +McClure, Jno. Russell Young, Wayne McVeagh, Fitz John Porter +and others.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURTIS, GEORGE TICKNOR<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1812-1894), American lawyer, +legal writer and constitutional historian, was born in Watertown, +Massachusetts, on the 28th of November 1812. He graduated +at Harvard in 1832, was admitted to the bar in 1836, and +practised in Worcester, Boston, New York and Washington, +appearing before the United States Supreme Court in many +important cases, including the Dred Scott case, in which he +argued the constitutional question for Scott, and the “legal +tender” cases. In Boston he was for many years the United +States commissioner, and in this capacity, despite the vigorous +protests of the abolitionists and his own opposition to slavery, +ordered the return to his owner of the famous fugitive slave, +Themas Sims, in 1852. He was the nephew and close friend of +George Ticknor, the historian of Spanish literature, and his +association with his uncle was influential in developing his +scholarly tastes; while his other personal friendships with eminent +Bostonians during the period of conservative Whig ascendancy +in Massachusetts politics were of direct influence upon his +political opinions and published estimates. He is best known +as the author of <i>A History of the Origin, Formation and Adoption +of the Constitution of the United States, with Notices of its principal +Framers</i> (1854), republished, with many additions, as <i>The +Constitutional History of the United States from their Declaration of +Independence to the Close of their Civil War</i> (2 vols., 1889-1896). +This history, which had been watched in its earlier progress by +Daniel Webster, may be said to present the old Federalist or +“Webster-Whig” view of the formation and powers of the Constitution; +and it was natural that Curtis should follow it with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page652" id="page652"></a>652</span> +a voluminous <i>Life of Daniel Webster</i> (2 vols., 1870), the most +valuable biography of that statesman. Both these works are +characterized by solidity and comprehensiveness rather than by +rhetorical attractiveness or literary perspective. In his later +years Mr Curtis, like so many of the followers of Webster, +turned towards the Democratic party; and he wrote, among +other works of minor importance, an exculpatory life of President +James Buchanan (2 vols., 1883) and two vindications of General +George B. McClellan’s career (1886 and 1887). He died in New +York on the 28th of March 1894.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In addition to the works above mentioned he published: <i>Digest of +the English and American Admiralty Decisions</i> (1839); <i>Rights and +Duties of Merchant Seamen</i> (1841), which elicited the hearty praise +of Justice Joseph Story; <i>Law of Patents</i> (1849); <i>Equity Precedents</i> +(1850); <i>Commentaries on the Jurisprudence, Practice and Peculiar +Jurisdiction of the Courts of the United States</i> (1854-1858); <i>Creation +or Evolution: A Philosophical Inquiry</i> (1887); and a novel, <i>John +Chambers: A Tale of the Civil War in America</i> (1889).</p> +</div> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Benjamin Robbins Curtis</span> (1809-1874), also +an eminent jurist, was born on the 4th of November 1809, in +Watertown, Massachusetts, graduated at Harvard in 1829, +studied law at Cambridge and at Northfield, Mass., where, after +his admission to the bar in 1832, he practised law for two years, +and then in Boston in 1834-1851. In 1851, being then a member +of the lower house of the Massachusetts legislature, he was on +the 22nd of September appointed to the Supreme Court of the +United States, where he gained his greatest fame in 1857 by his +dissenting opinion in the Dred Scott case, in which he argued +that the Missouri Compromise was constitutional, and that +negroes could become citizens. His argument was immediately +published as an anti-slavery document. On the 1st of September +1857 he resigned from the Supreme Court and resumed his private +practice. In 1868 he was one of the counsel for President +Andrew Johnson in his impeachment trial, and opened for the +defence in a remarkable two-days’ speech. He died at Newport, +Rhode Island, on the 15th of September 1874. He prepared +<i>Decisions of the Supreme Court</i> (22 vols.) and a <i>Digest</i> of its +decisions down to 1854.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>A Memoir of Benjamin Robbins Curtis, with Some of his Professional +and Miscellaneous Papers</i>, edited by his son Benjamin R. Curtis, +was published at Boston in 1879, the <i>Memoir</i> being by George +Ticknor Curtis.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURTIS, GEORGE WILLIAM<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1824-1892), American man of +letters, was born in Providence, Rhode Island, on the 24th of +February 1824, of old New England stock. His mother died +when he was two years old. At six he was sent with his elder +brother to school in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, where he +remained for five years. Then, his father having again married +happily, the boys were brought home to Providence, where they +stayed till, in 1839, their father removed to New York. Three +years later, Curtis, being allowed to determine for himself his +course of life, and being in sympathy with the spirit of the so-called +Transcendental movement, became a boarder at the community +of Brook Farm. He was accompanied by his brother, +James Burrill Curtis, whose influence upon him was strong and +helpful. He remained there for two years, brought into stimulating +and serviceable relations with many interesting men and +women. Then came two years, passed partly in New York, +partly in Concord in order mainly to be in the friendly neighbourhood +of Emerson, and then followed four years spent in Europe, +Egypt and Syria.</p> + +<p>Curtis returned from Europe in 1850, handsome, attractive, +accomplished, ambitious of literary distinction. He instantly +plunged into the whirl of life in New York, obtained a place on +the staff of the <i>Tribune</i>, entered the field as a popular lecturer, +set himself to work on a volume published in the spring of 1851, +under the title of <i>Nile Notes of a Howadji</i>, and became a favourite +in society. He wrote much for <i>Putnam’s Magazine</i>, of which he +was associate editor; and a number of volumes, composed of +essays written for that publication and for <i>Harper’s Monthly</i>, +came in rapid succession from his pen. The chief of these were +the <i>Potiphar Papers</i> (1853), a satire on the fashionable society +of the day; and <i>Prue and I</i> (1856), a pleasantly sentimental, +fancifully tender and humorous study of life. In 1855 he married +Miss Anna Shaw. Not long after his marriage he became, through +no fault of his own, deeply involved in debt owing to the failure +of <i>Putnam’s Magazine</i>; and his high sense of honour compelled +him to devote the greater part of his earnings for many years to +the discharge of obligations for which he had become only by +accident responsible, and from which he might have freed himself +by legal process. In the period just preceding the Civil War +other interests became subordinate to those of national concern. +Curtis made his first important speech on the questions of the +day at Wesleyan University in 1856; he engaged actively in the +presidential campaign of that year, and was soon recognized not +only as an effective public speaker, but also as one of the ablest, +most high-minded, and most trustworthy leaders of public +opinion. In 1863 he became the political editor of <i>Harper’s +Weekly</i>, and no other journal exercised during the war and after +it a more important part in shaping public opinion. His writing +was always clear, direct, forcible; his fairness of mind and sweetness +of temper were invincible. He never became a mere +partisan, and never failed to apply the test of moral principle +to political measures. From month to month he contributed +to <i>Harper’s Monthly</i>, under the title of “The Easy Chair,” +brief essays on topics of social and literary interest, charming in +style, touched with delicate humour and instinct with generous +spirit. His service to the Republican party was such, that more +than once he was offered nominations to office of high distinction, +and might have been sent as minister to England; but he refused +all offers of the kind, feeling that he could render more essential +service to the country as editor and public speaker.</p> + +<p>In 1871 he was appointed by President Grant chairman of the +commission to report on the reform of the civil service. The +report which he wrote was the foundation of every effort since +made for the purification and regulation of the service and for the +destruction of political patronage. From that time till his death +Curtis was the leader in this reform, and to his sound judgment, +his vigorous presentation of the evils of the corrupt prevailing +system, and his untiring efforts, the progress of the reform is +mainly due. He was president of the National Civil Service +Reform League and of the New York Civil Service Reform +Association. In 1884 he refused to support the nomination of +James G. Blaine as candidate for the presidency, and thus broke +with the Republican party, of which he had been one of the +founders and leaders. From that time he stood as the typical +independent in politics. In April 1892 he delivered at Baltimore +his eleventh annual address as president of the National Civil +Service Reform League, and in May he appeared for the last time +in public, to repeat in New York an admirable address on James +Russell Lowell, which he had first delivered in Brooklyn on the +22nd of the preceding February, the anniversary of Lowell’s +birth. On the 31st of the following August he died. He was a man +of consistent virtue, whose face and figure corresponded with +the traits and stature of his soul. The grace and charm of his +manner were the expression of his nature. Of the Americans of +his time few were more widely beloved, and the respect in which +he was held was universal.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>George William Curtis</i>, by Edward Cary, in the “American +Men of Letters” series (Boston, 1894), an excellent biography; “An +Epistle to George William Curtis,” by James Russell Lowell (1874-1887), +in Lowell’s <i>Poems</i>; <i>George William Curtis</i>, a Commemorative +Address delivered before The Century Association, 17th December +1892, by Parke Godwin (New York, 1893); <i>Orations and Addresses +by George William Curtis</i>, edited by Charles Eliot Norton (3 vols. +New York, 1894).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. E. N.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURTIUS, ERNST<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1814-1896), German archaeologist and +historian, was born at Lübeck on the 2nd of September 1814. +On completing his university studies he was chosen by C. A. +Brandis to accompany him on a journey to Greece for the +prosecution of archaeological researches. Curtius then became +Otfried Müller’s companion in his exploration of the Peloponnese, +and on Müller’s death in 1840 returned to Germany. In 1844 he +became an extraordinary professor at the university of Berlin, +and in the same year was appointed tutor to Prince Frederick +William (afterwards the Emperor Frederick III.)—a post which +he held till 1850. After holding a professorship at Göttingen and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page653" id="page653"></a>653</span> +undertaking a further journey to Greece in 1862, Curtius was +appointed (in 1863) ordinary professor at Berlin. In 1874 he +was sent to Athens by the German government, and concluded +an agreement by which the excavations at Olympia (<i>q.v.</i>) were +entrusted exclusively to Germany. Curtius died at Berlin on +the 11th of July 1896. His best-known work is his <i>History of +Greece</i> (1857-1867, 6th ed. 1887-1888; Eng. trans. by A. W. +Ward, 1868-1873). It presented in an attractive style what were +then the latest results of scholarly research, but was criticized as +wanting in erudition. It is now superseded (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: <i>History, +Ancient</i>, § Bibliography). His other writings are chiefly archaeological. +The most important are: <i>Die Akropolis von Athen</i> +(1844); <i>Naxos</i> (1846); <i>Peloponnesos, eine historisch-geographische +Beschreibung der Halbinsel</i> (1851); <i>Olympia</i> (1852); <i>Die Ionier +vor der ionischen Wanderung</i> (1855); <i>Attische Studien</i> (1862-1865); +<i>Ephesos</i> (1874); <i>Die Ausgrabungen zu Olympia</i> (1877, +&c.); <i>Olympia und Umgegend</i> (edited by Curtius and F. Adler, +1882); <i>Olympia; Die Ergebnisse der von dem deutschen Reich +veranstalteten Ausgrabung</i> (with F. Adler, 1890-1898); <i>Die +Stadtgeschichte von Athen</i> (1891); <i>Gesammelte Abhandlungen</i> +(1894). His collected speeches and lectures were published +under the title of <i>Altertum und Gegenwart</i> (5th ed., 1903 foll.), +to which a third volume was added under the title of <i>Unter drei +Kaisern</i> (2nd ed., 1895).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A full list of his writings will be found in L. Gurlitt, <i>Erinnerungen +an Ernst Curtius</i> (Berlin, 1902); see also article by O. Kern in +<i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, xlvii. (1903), to which may be added +<i>Ernst Curtius. Ein Lebensbild in Briefen</i>, by F. Curtius (1903); T. +Hodgkin, <i>Ernest Curtius</i> (1905).</p> +</div> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Georg Curtius</span> (1820-1885), philologist, was born +at Lübeck on the 16th of April 1820. After an education at +Bonn and Berlin he was for three years a schoolmaster in Dresden, +until (in 1845) he returned to Berlin University as <i>privat-docent</i>. +In 1849 he was placed in charge of the Philological Seminary +at Prague, and two years later was appointed professor of +classical philology in Prague University. In 1854 he removed +from Prague to a similar appointment at Kiel, and again in 1862 +from Kiel to Leipzig. He died at Hermsdorf on the 12th of +August 1885. His philological theories exercised a widespread +influence. The more important of his publications are: <i>Die +Sprachvergleichung in ihrem Verhältniss zur classischen Philologie</i> +(1845; Eng. trans. by F. H. Trithen, 1851); <i>Sprachvergleichende +Beiträge zur griechischen und lateinischen Grammatik</i> (1846); +<i>Grundzüge der griechischen Etymologie</i> (1858-1862, 5th ed. +1879); <i>Das Verbum der griechischen Sprache</i> (1873). The last +two works have been translated into English by A. S. Wilkins +and E. B. England. From 1878 till his death Curtius was general +editor of the <i>Leipziger Studien zur classischen Philologie</i>. His +<i>Griechische Schulgrammatik</i>, first published in 1852, has passed +through more than twenty editions, and has been edited in +English. In his last work, <i>Zur Kritik der neuesten Sprachforschung</i> +(1885), he attacks the views of the “new” school of philology.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Opuscula</i> of Georg Curtius were edited after his death by E. +Windisch (<i>Kleine Schriften von E. C.</i>, 1886-1887). For further +information consult articles by R. Meister in <i>Allgemeine deutsche +Biographie</i>, xlvii. (1903), and by E. Windisch in C. Bursian’s <i>Biographisches +Jahrbuch für Alterthumskunde</i> (1886).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURTIUS, MARCUS,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> a legendary hero of ancient Rome. It +is said that in 362 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> a deep gulf opened in the forum, which +the seers declared would never close until Rome’s most valuable +possession was thrown into it. Then Curtius, a youth of noble +family, recognizing that nothing was more precious than a brave +citizen, leaped, fully armed and on horseback, into the chasm, +which immediately closed again. The spot was afterwards +covered by a marsh called the Lacus Curtius. Two other +explanations of the name Lacus Curtius are given: (1) a Sabine +general, Mettius (or Mettus) Curtius, hard pressed by the Romans +under Romulus, leaped into a swamp which covered the valley +afterwards occupied by the forum, and barely escaped with his +life; (2) in 445 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the spot was struck by lightning, and enclosed +as sacred by the consul, Gaius Curtius. It was marked +by an altar which was removed to make room for the games in +celebration of Caesar’s funeral (Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xv. 77), but +restored by Augustus (cf. Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, vi. 403), in whose time +there was apparently nothing but a dry well. The altar seems to +have been restored early in the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> In April 1904, +on the N. side of the Via Sacra and 20 ft. N.W. of the Equus +Domitiani, remains of the buildings were discovered.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Livy i. 12, vii. 6; Dion Halic. ii. 42; Varro, <i>De lingua Latina</i>, +v. 148; Ch. Hülsen, <i>The Roman Forum</i> (Eng. trans. of 2nd ed., +J. B. Carter, 1906); O. Gilbert, <i>Geschichte und Topographie der +Stadt Rom im Altertum</i>, i. (1883), 334-338.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURTIUS RUFUS, QUINTUS,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> biographer of Alexander the +Great. Of his personal history nothing is known, nor can his +date be fixed with certainty. Modern authorities regard him +as a rhetorician who flourished during the reign of Claudius +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 41-54). His work (<i>De Rebus gestis Alexandri Magni</i>) +originally consisted of ten books, of which the first two are +entirely lost, and the remaining eight are incomplete. Although +the work is uncritical, and shows the author’s ignorance of +geography, chronology and military matters, it is written in +a picturesque style.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are numerous editions: (text) T. Vogel (1889), P. H. Damste +(1897), E. Hedicke (1908); (with notes), T. Vogel (1885 and later), +M. Croiset (1885), H. W. Reich (1895), C. Lebaigue (1900), T. Stangl +(1902). There is an English translation by P. Pratt (1821). See +S. Dosson, <i>Étude sur Quinte-Curce, sa vie, et ses œuvres</i> (1887) a valuable +work; F. von Schwarz, <i>Alexander des Grossen Feldzüge in +Turkestan</i> (1893), a commentary on Arrian and Curtius based upon +the author’s personal knowledge of the topography; C. Wachsmuth, +<i>Einleitung in das Studium der alten Geschichte</i> (1895), p. 574, cf. +p. 567, note 2; Schwarz, “Curtius Rufus” No. 31 in Pauly-Wissowa +(1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURULE<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (Lat. <i>currus</i>, “chariot”), in Roman antiquities, +the epithet applied to the chair of office, <i>sella curulis</i>, used by +the “curule” or highest magistrates and also by the emperors. +This chair seems to have been originally placed in the magistrate’s +chariot (hence the name). It was inlaid with ivory or in some +cases made of it, had curved legs but no back, and could be folded +up like a camp-stool. In English the word is used in the general +sense of “official.” (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Consul</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Praetor</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aedile</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURVE<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (Lat. <i>curvus</i>, bent), a word commonly meaning a +shape represented by a line bending continuously out of the +straight without making an angle, but only properly to be defined +in its geometrical sense in the terms set out below. This subject +is treated here from an historical point of view, for the purpose +of showing how the different leading ideas were successively +arrived at and developed.</p> + +<p>1. A curve is a line, or continuous singly infinite system of +points. We consider in the first instance, and chiefly, a plane +curve described according to a law. Such a curve may be regarded +geometrically as actually described, or kinematically +as in the course of description by the motion of a point; in the +former point of view, it is the locus of all the points which satisfy +a given condition; in the latter, it is the locus of a point moving +subject to a given condition. Thus the most simple and earliest +known curve, the circle, is the locus of all the points at a given +distance from a fixed centre, or else the locus of a point moving +so as to be always at a given distance from a fixed centre. (The +straight line and the point are not for the moment regarded as +curves.)</p> + +<p>Next to the circle we have the conic sections, the invention +of them attributed to Plato (who lived 430-347 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); the +original definition of them as the sections of a cone was by the +Greek geometers who studied them soon replaced by a proper +definition <i>in plano</i> like that for the circle, viz. a conic section +(or as we now say a “conic”) is the locus of a point such that its +distance from a given point, the focus, is in a given ratio to its +(perpendicular) distance from a given line, the directrix; or it is +the locus of a point which moves so as always to satisfy the +foregoing condition. Similarly any other property might be +used as a definition; an ellipse is the locus of a point such that +the sum of its distances from two fixed points (the foci) is constant, +&c., &c.</p> + +<p>The Greek geometers invented other curves; in particular, +the conchoid (<i>q.v.</i>), which is the locus of a point such that its +distance from a given line, measured along the line drawn through +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page654" id="page654"></a>654</span> +it to a fixed point, is constant; and the cissoid (<i>q.v.</i>), which is +the locus of a point such that its distance from a fixed point is +always equal to the intercept (on the line through the fixed +point) between a circle passing through the fixed point and the +tangent to the circle at the point opposite to the fixed point. +Obviously the number of such geometrical or kinematical +definitions is infinite. In a machine of any kind, each point +describes a curve; a simple but important instance is the +“three-bar curve,” or locus of a point in or rigidly connected +with a bar pivoted on to two other bars which rotate about +fixed centres respectively. Every curve thus arbitrarily defined +has its own properties; and there was not any principle of +classification.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Cartesian Co-ordinates.</i>—The principle of classification first +presented itself in the <i>Géometrie</i> of Descartes (1637). The idea +was to represent any curve whatever by means of a relation +between the co-ordinates (x, y) of a point of the curve, or say to +represent the curve by means of its equation. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>: +<i>Analytical</i>.)</p> + +<p>Any relation whatever between (x, y) determines a curve, +and conversely every curve whatever is determined by a relation +between (x, y).</p> + +<p>Observe that the distinctive feature is in the <i>exclusive</i> use of +such determination of a curve by means of its equation. The +Greek geometers were perfectly familiar with the property of an +ellipse which in the Cartesian notation is x²/a² + y²/b² = 1, the +equation of the curve; but it was as one of a number of properties, +and in no wise selected out of the others for the characteristic +property of the curve.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Order of a Curve.</i>—We obtain from the equation the notion +of an algebraical as opposed to a transcendental curve, viz. +an algebraical curve is a curve having an equation F(x, y) = 0 +where F(x, y) is a rational and integral function of the co-ordinates +(x, y); and in what follows we attend throughout +(unless the contrary is stated) only to such curves. The +equation is sometimes given, and may conveniently be used, +in an irrational form, but we always imagine it reduced to the +foregoing rational and integral form, and regard this as the +equation of the curve. And we have hence the notion of a curve +of a <i>given order</i>, viz. the order of the curve is equal to that of +the term or terms of highest order in the co-ordinates (x, y) +conjointly in the equation of the curve; for instance, xy − 1 = 0 +is a curve of the second order.</p> + +<p>It is to be noticed here that the axes of co-ordinates may be +any two lines at right angles to each other whatever; and that +the equation of a curve will be different according to the selection +of the axes of co-ordinates; but the order is independent of the +axes, and has a determinate value for any given curve.</p> + +<p>We hence divide curves according to their order, viz. a curve +is of the first order, second order, third order, &c., according as +it is represented by an equation of the first order, ax + by + c = 0, +or say (*<img style="width:10px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img654.jpg" alt="" /> x, y, 1) = 0; or by an equation of the second order, +ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2fy + 2gx + c = 0, say (*<img style="width:10px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img654.jpg" alt="" /> x, y, 1)² = 0; or by an +equation of the third order, &c.; or what is the same thing, +according as the equation is linear, quadric, cubic, &c.</p> + +<p>A curve of the first order is a right line; and conversely every +right line is a curve of the first order. A curve of the second +order is a conic, and is also called a quadric curve; and conversely +every conic is a curve of the second order or quadric curve. A +curve of the third order is called a cubic; one of the fourth +order a quartic; and so on.</p> + +<p>A curve of the order m has for its equation (*<img style="width:10px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img654.jpg" alt="" /> x, y, 1)<span class="sp">m</span> = 0; +and when the coefficients of the function are arbitrary, the curve +is said to be the general curve of the order m. The number of +coefficients is ½(m + 1)(m + 2); but there is no loss of generality +if the equation be divided by one coefficient so as to reduce the +coefficient of the corresponding term to unity, hence the number +of coefficients may be reckoned as ½(m + 1)(m + 2) − 1, that is, +½m(m + 3); and a curve of the order m may be made to satisfy +this number of conditions; for example, to pass through ½m(m + 3) +points.</p> + +<p>It is to be remarked that an equation may <i>break up</i>; thus a +quadric equation may be (ax + by + c)(a′x + b′y + c′) = 0, breaking +up into the two equations ax + by + c = 0, a′x + b′y + c′ = 0, viz. +the original equation is satisfied if either of these is satisfied. +Each of these last equations represents a curve of the first order, +or right line; and the original equation represents this pair of +lines, viz. the pair of lines is considered as a quadric curve. +But it is an <i>improper</i> quadric curve; and in speaking of curves +of the second or any other given order, we frequently imply that +the curve is a proper curve represented by an equation which +does not break up.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Intersections of Curves.</i>—The intersections of two curves +are obtained by combining their equations; viz. the elimination +from the two equations of y (or x) gives for x (or y) an equation +of a certain order, say the resultant equation; and then to each +value of x (or y) satisfying this equation there corresponds in +general a single value of y (or x), and consequently a single point +of intersection; the number of intersections is thus equal to the +order of the resultant equation in x (or y).</p> + +<p>Supposing that the two curves are of the orders m, n, respectively, +then the order of the resultant equation is in general and +at most = mn; in particular, if the curve of the order n is an +arbitrary line (n = 1), then the order of the resultant equation +is = m; and the curve of the order m meets therefore the line in +m points. But the resultant equation may have all or any of its +roots imaginary, and it is thus not always that there are m real +intersections.</p> + +<p>The notion of imaginary intersections, thus presenting itself, +through algebra, in geometry, must be accepted in geometry—and +it in fact plays an all-important part in modern geometry. +As in algebra we say that an equation of the <i>m</i>th order has +<i>m</i> roots, viz. we state this generally without in the first instance, +or it may be without ever, distinguishing whether these are real +or imaginary; so in geometry we say that a curve of the <i>m</i>th +order is met by an arbitrary line in <i>m</i> points, or rather we thus, +through algebra, obtain the proper geometrical definition of a +curve of the <i>m</i>th order, as a curve which is met by an arbitrary +line in m points (that is, of course, in <i>m</i>, and not more than <i>m</i>, +points).</p> + +<p>The theorem of the <i>m</i> intersections has been stated in regard +to an <i>arbitrary</i> line; in fact, for particular lines the resultant +equation may be or appear to be of an order less than <i>m</i>; for +instance, taking <i>m</i> = 2, if the hyperbola xy − 1 = 0 be cut by the +line y = β, the resultant equation in x is βx − 1 = 0, and there is +apparently only the intersection (x = 1/β, y = β); but the theorem +is, in fact, true for every line whatever: a curve of the order m +meets every line whatever in precisely m points. We have, in the +case just referred to, to take account of a point at infinity on the +line y = β; the two intersections are the point (x = 1/β, y = β), +and the point at infinity on the line y = β.</p> + +<p>It is, moreover, to be noticed that the points at infinity may +be all or any of them imaginary, and that the points of intersection, +whether finite or at infinity, real or imaginary, may coincide +two or more of them together, and have to be counted accordingly; +to support the theorem in its universality, it is necessary +to take account of these various circumstances.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Line at Infinity.</i>—The foregoing notion of a point at infinity +is a very important one in modern geometry; and we have also +to consider the paradoxical statement that in plane geometry, +or say as regards the plane, infinity is a right line. This admits +of an easy illustration in solid geometry. If with a given centre +of projection, by drawing from it lines to every point of a given +line, we project the given line on a given plane, the projection is +a line, <i>i.e.</i> this projection is the intersection of the given plane +with the plane through the centre and the given line. Say the +projection is <i>always</i> a line, then if the figure is such that the two +planes are parallel, the projection is the intersection of the given +plane by a parallel plane, or it is the system of points at infinity +on the given plane, that is, these points at infinity are regarded +as situate on a given line, the line infinity of the given plane.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page655" id="page655"></a>655</span></p> + +<p>Reverting to the purely plane theory, infinity is a line, related +like any other right line to the curve, and thus intersecting it +in <i>m</i> points, real or imaginary, distinct or coincident.</p> + +<p>Descartes in the <i>Géométrie</i> defined and considered the remarkable +curves called after him the ovals of Descartes, or simply +Cartesians, which will be again referred to. The next important +work, founded on the <i>Géométrie</i>, was Sir Isaac Newton’s <i>Enumeratio +linearum tertii ordinis</i> (1706), establishing a classification of +cubic curves founded chiefly on the nature of their infinite +branches, which was in some details completed by James Stirling +(1692-1770), Patrick Murdoch (d. 1774) and Gabriel Cramer; +the work also contains the remarkable theorem (to be again referred +to), that there are five kinds of cubic curves giving by their +projections every cubic curve whatever. Various properties of +curves in general, and of cubic curves, are established in Colin +Maclaurin’s memoir, “De linearum geometricarum proprietatibus +generalibus Tractatus” (posthumous, say 1746, published in +the 6th edition of his <i>Algebra</i>). We have in it a particular kind +of <i>correspondence</i> of two points on a cubic curve, viz. two points +correspond to each other when the tangents at the two points +again meet the cubic in the same point.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Reciprocal Polars. Intersections of Circles. Duality. +Trilinear and Tangential Co-ordinates.—The Géométrie descriptive</i>, +by Gaspard Monge, was written in the year 1794 or 1795 (7th +edition, Paris, 1847), and in it we have stated, <i>in plano</i> with +regard to the circle, and in three dimensions with regard to +a surface of the second order, the fundamental theorem of +reciprocal polars, viz. “Given a surface of the second order +and a circumscribed conic surface which touches it ... then +if the conic surface moves so that its summit is always in the same +plane, the plane of the curve of contact passes always through +the same point.” The theorem is here referred to partly on +account of its bearing on the theory of imaginaries in geometry. +It is in Charles Julian Brianchon’s memoir “Sur les surfaces du +second degré” (<i>Jour. Polyt.</i> t. vi. 1806) shown how for any given +position of the summit the plane of contact is determined, +or reciprocally; say the plane XY is determined when the point +P is given, or reciprocally; and it is noticed that when P is +situate in the interior of the surface the plane XY does not cut +the surface; that is, we have a real plane XY intersecting the +surface in the imaginary curve of contact of the imaginary +circumscribed cone having for its summit a given real point P +inside the surface.</p> + +<p>Stating the theorem in regard to a conic, we have a real point +P (called the pole) and a real line XY (called the polar), the line +joining the two (real or imaginary) points of contact of the (real +or imaginary) tangents drawn from the point to the conic; and +the theorem is that when the point describes a line the line +passes through a point, this line and point being polar and pole +to each other. The term “pole” was first used by François +Joseph Servois, and “polar” by Joseph Diez Gergonne (<i>Gerg.</i> +t. i. and iii., 1810-1813); and from the theorem we have the +method of reciprocal polars for the transformation of geometrical +theorems, used already by Brianchon (in the memoir above +referred to) for the demonstration of the theorem called by his +name, and in a similar manner by various writers in the earlier +volumes of Gergonne. We are here concerned with the method +less in itself than as leading to the general notion of duality.</p> + +<p>Bearing in a somewhat similar manner also on the theory of +imaginaries in geometry (but the notion presents itself in a more +explicit form), there is the memoir by L. Gaultier, on the graphical +construction of circles and spheres (<i>Jour. Polyt.</i> t. ix., 1813). +The well-known theorem as to radical axes may be stated as +follows. Consider two circles partially drawn so that it does not +appear whether the circles, if completed, would or would not +intersect in real points, say two arcs of circles; then we can, +by means of a third circle drawn so as to intersect in two real +points each of the two arcs, determine a right line, which, if +the complete circles intersect in two real points, passes through +the points, and which is on this account regarded as a line +passing through two (real or imaginary) points of intersection +of the two circles. The construction in fact is, join the two +points in which the third circle meets the first arc, and join also +the two points in which the third circle meets the second arc, +and from the point of intersection of the two joining lines, let +fall a perpendicular on the line joining the centre of the two +circles; this perpendicular (considered as an indefinite line) is +what Gaultier terms the “radical axis of the two circles”; +it is a line determined by a real construction and itself always +real; and by what precedes it is the line joining two (real or +imaginary, as the case may be) intersections of the given circles.</p> + +<p>The intersections which lie on the radical axis are two out of the +four intersections of the two circles. The question as to the +remaining two intersections did not present itself to Gaultier, but +it is answered in Jean Victor Poncelet’s <i>Traité des propriétés +projectives</i> (1822), where we find (p. 49) the statement, “deux +circles placés arbitrairement sur un plan ... ont idéalement +deux points imaginaires communs à l’infini”; that is, a circle +<i>qua</i> curve of the second order is met by the line infinity in two +points; but, more than this, they are the same two points for +any circle whatever. The points in question have since been +called (it is believed first by Dr George Salmon) the circular points +at infinity, or they may be called the circular points; these are +also frequently spoken of as the points I, J; and we have thus +the circle characterized as a conic which passes through the two +circular points at infinity; the number of conditions thus imposed +upon the conic is = 2, and there remain three arbitrary +constants, which is the right number for the circle. Poncelet +throughout his work makes continual use of the foregoing theories +of imaginaries and infinity, and also of the before-mentioned +theory of reciprocal polars.</p> + +<p>Poncelet’s two memoirs <i>Sur les centres des moyennes harmoniques</i> +and <i>Sur la théorie générale des polaires réciproques</i>, although +presented to the Paris Academy in 1824, were only published +(<i>Crelle</i>, t. iii. and iv., 1828, 1829) subsequent to the memoir by +Gergonne, <i>Considérations philosophiques sur les élémens de la +science de l’étendue</i> (<i>Gerg.</i> t. xvi., 1825-1826). In this memoir +by Gergonne, the theory of duality is very clearly and explicitly +stated; for instance, we find “dans la géométrie plane, à chaque +théorème il en répond nécessairement un autre qui s’en déduit en +échangeant simplement entre eux les deux mots <i>points</i> et <i>droites</i>; +tandis que dans la géométrie de l’espace ce sont les mots <i>points</i> +et <i>plans</i> qu’il faut échanger entre eux pour passer d’un théorème +à son corrélatif”; and the plan is introduced of printing correlative +theorems, opposite to each other, in two columns. There +was a reclamation as to priority by Poncelet in the <i>Bulletin +universel</i> reprinted with remarks by Gergonne (<i>Gerg.</i> t. xix., +1827), and followed by a short paper by Gergonne, <i>Rectifications +de quelques théorèmes, &c.</i>, which is important as first introducing +the word <i>class</i>. We find in it explicitly the two correlative +definitions: “a plane curve is said to be of the <i>m</i>th degree +(order) when it has with a line <i>m</i> real or ideal intersections,” and +“a plane curve is said to be of the <i>m</i>th class when from any point +of its plane there can be drawn to it <i>m</i> real or ideal tangents.”</p> + +<p>It may be remarked that in Poncelet’s memoir on reciprocal +polars, above referred to, we have the theorem that the number +of tangents from a point to a curve of the order <i>m</i>, or say the class +of the curve, is in general and at most = <i>m</i>(<i>m</i> − 1), and that he +mentions that this number is subject to reduction when the curve +has double points or cusps.</p> + +<p>The theorem of duality as regards plane figures may be +thus stated: two figures may correspond to each other in such +manner that to each point and line in either figure there correspond +in the other figure a line and point respectively. It is +to be understood that the theorem extends to all points or lines, +drawn or not drawn; thus if in the first figure there are any +number of points on a line drawn or not drawn, the corresponding +lines in the second figure, produced if necessary, must meet in +a point. And we thus see how the theorem extends to curves, +their points and tangents; if there is in the first figure a curve +of the order <i>m</i>, any line meets it in <i>m</i> points; and hence from the +corresponding point in the second figure there must be to the +corresponding curve <i>m</i> tangents; that is, the corresponding +curve must be of the class <i>m</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page656" id="page656"></a>656</span></p> + +<p>Trilinear co-ordinates (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>: <i>Analytical</i>) were first +used by E. E. Bobillier in the memoir <i>Essai sur un nouveau mode +de recherche des propriétés de l’étendue</i> (<i>Gerg.</i> t. xviii., 1827-1828). +It is convenient to use these rather than Cartesian co-ordinates. +We represent a curve of the order m by an equation (*<img style="width:10px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img654.jpg" alt="" /> x, y, z)<span class="sp">m</span> = 0, +the function on the left hand being a homogeneous rational and +integral function of the order <i>m</i> of the three co-ordinates (x, y, z); +clearly the number of constants is the same as for the equation +(*<img style="width:10px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img654.jpg" alt="" /> x, y, 1)<span class="sp">m</span> = 0 in Cartesian co-ordinates.</p> + +<p>The theorem of duality is considered and developed, but chiefly +in regard to its metrical applications, by Michel Chasles in the +<i>Mémoire de géométrie sur deux principes généraux de la science, +la dualité et l’homographie</i>, which forms a sequel to the <i>Aperçu +historique sur l’origine et le développement des méthodes en géométrie</i> +(<i>Mém. de Brux.</i> t. xi., 1837).</p> + +<p>We now come to Julius Plücker; his “six equations” were +given in a short memoir in <i>Crelle</i> (1842) preceding his great work, +the <i>Theorie der algebraischen Curven</i> (1844). Plücker first gave +a scientific dual definition of a curve, viz.; “A curve is a +locus generated by a point, and enveloped by a line—the point +moving continuously along the line, while the line rotates +continuously about the point”; the point is a point (ineunt.) +of the curve, the line is a tangent of the curve. And, assuming +the above theory of geometrical imaginaries, a curve such that +<i>m</i> of its points are situate in an arbitrary line is said to be of the +order <i>m</i>; a curve such that <i>n</i> of its tangents pass through an +arbitrary point is said to be of the class <i>n</i>; as already appearing, +this notion of the order and class of a curve is, however, due to +Gergonne. Thus the line is a curve of the order 1 and class 0; +and corresponding dually thereto, we have the point as a curve +of the order 0 and class 1.</p> + +<p>Plücker, moreover, imagined a system of line-co-ordinates +(tangential co-ordinates). (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>: <i>Analytical</i>.) The +Cartesian co-ordinates (x, y) and trilinear co-ordinates (x, y, z) +are point-co-ordinates for determining the position of a +point; the new co-ordinates, say (ξ, η, ζ) are line-co-ordinates +for determining the position of a line. It is possible, and +(not so much for any application thereof as in order to +more fully establish the analogy between the two kinds of +co-ordinates) important, to give independent quantitative +definitions of the two kinds of co-ordinates; but we may also +derive the notion of line-co-ordinates from that of point-co-ordinates; +viz. taking ξx + ηy + ζz = 0 to be the equation of +a line, we say that (ξ, η, ζ) are the line-co-ordinates of this line. +A linear relation aξ + bη + cζ = 0 between these co-ordinate +determines a point, viz. the point whose point-co-ordinates are +(a, b, c); in fact, the equation in question aξ + bη + cζ = 0 expresses +that the equation ξx + ηy + ζz = 0, where (x, y, z) are +current point-co-ordinates, is satisfied on writing therein +x, y, z = a, b, c; or that the line in question passes through the +point (a, b, c). Thus (ξ, η, ζ) are the line-co-ordinates of any line +whatever; but when these, instead of being absolutely arbitrary, +are subject to the restriction aξ + bη + cζ = 0, this obliges the line +to pass through a point (a, b, c); and the last-mentioned equation +aξ + bη + cζ = 0 is considered as the line-equation of this point.</p> + +<p>A line has only a point-equation, and a point has only a line-equation; +but any other curve has a point-equation and also a +line-equation; the point-equation (*<img style="width:10px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img654.jpg" alt="" /> x, y, z)<span class="sp">m</span> = 0 is the relation +which is satisfied by the point-co-ordinates (x, y, z) of each point +of the curve; and similarly the line-equation (*<img style="width:10px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img654.jpg" alt="" /> ξ, η, ζ)<span class="sp">n</span> = 0 is +the relation which is satisfied by the line-co-ordinates (ξ, η, ζ) +of each line (tangent) of the curve.</p> + +<p>There is in analytical geometry little occasion for any explicit +use of line-co-ordinates; but the theory is very important; it +serves to show that in demonstrating by point-co-ordinates any +purely descriptive theorem whatever, we demonstrate the correlative +theorem; that is, we do not demonstrate the one theorem, +and then (as by the method of reciprocal polars) deduce from it +the other, but we do at one and the same time demonstrate the +two theorems; our (x, y, z.) instead of meaning point-co-ordinates +may mean line-co-ordinates, and the demonstration is then in +every step of it a demonstration of the correlative theorem.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Singularities of a Curve. Plücker’s Equations.</i>—The above +dual generation explains the nature of the singularities of a plane +curve. The ordinary singularities, arranged according to a cross +division, are</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcc"><i>Proper.</i></td> <td class="tcc"><i>Improper.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Point-singularities—</td> <td class="tcl">1. The stationary point, cusp or spinode;</td> <td class="tcl">2. The double point or node;</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Line-singularities—</td> <td class="tcl">3. The stationary tangent or inflection;</td> <td class="tcl">4. The double tangent;</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="condensed"> + +<p class="noind">arising as follows:—</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>1. The cusp: the point as it travels along the line may come to +rest, and then reverse the direction of its motion.</p> + +<p>3. The stationary tangent: the line may in the course of its +rotation come to rest, and then reverse the direction of its +rotation.</p> + +<p>2. The node: the point may in the course of its motion come to +coincide with a former position of the point, the two positions +of the line not in general coinciding.</p> + +<p>4. The double tangent: the line may in the course of its motion +come to coincide with a former position of the line, the two +positions of the point not in general coinciding.</p> +</div></div> + +<p>It may be remarked that we cannot with a real point and +line obtain the node with two imaginary tangents (conjugate or +isolated point or acnode), nor again the real double tangent with +two imaginary points of contact; but this is of little consequence, +since in the general theory the distinction between real and +imaginary is not attended to.</p> + +<p>The singularities (1) and (3) have been termed proper singularities, +and (2) and (4) improper; in each of the first-mentioned +cases there is a real singularity, or peculiarity in the motion; +in the other two cases there is not; in (2) there is not when the +point is first at the node, or when it is secondly at the node, any +peculiarity in the motion; the singularity consists in the point +coming twice into the same position; and so in (4) the singularity +is in the line coming twice into the same position. Moreover +(1) and (2) are, the former a proper singularity, and the latter +an improper singularity, <i>as regards the motion of the point</i>; and +similarly (3) and (4) are, the former a proper singularity, and the +latter an improper singularity, <i>as regards the motion of the line</i>.</p> + +<p>But as regards the representation of a curve by an equation, +the case is very different.</p> + +<p>First, if the equation be in point-co-ordinates, (3) and (4) are +in a sense not singularities at all. The curve (*<img style="width:10px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img654.jpg" alt="" /> x, y, z)<span class="sp">m</span> = 0, +or general curve of the order m, has double tangents and inflections; +(2) presents itself as a singularity, for the equations +d<span class="su">x</span>(*<img style="width:10px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img654.jpg" alt="" /> x, y, z)<span class="sp">m</span> = 0, d<span class="su">y</span>(*<img style="width:10px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img654.jpg" alt="" /> x, y, z)<span class="sp">m</span> = 0, d<span class="su">z</span>(*<img style="width:10px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img654.jpg" alt="" /> x, y, z)<span class="sp">m</span> = 0, implying +(*<img style="width:10px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img654.jpg" alt="" /> x, y, z)<span class="sp">m</span> = 0, are not in general satisfied by any values (a, b, c) +whatever of (x, y, z), but if such values exist, then the point +(a, b, c) is a node or double point; and (1) presents itself as a +further singularity or sub-case of (2), a cusp being a double point +for which the two tangents becomes coincident.</p> + +<p>In line-co-ordinates all is reversed:—(1) and (2) are not singularities; +(3) presents itself as a sub-case of (4).</p> + +<p>The theory of compound singularities will be referred to farther +on.</p> + +<p>In regard to the ordinary singularities, we have</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc">m,</td> <td class="tcc">the</td> <td class="tcl">order,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">n</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">class,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">δ</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">number of double points,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">κ</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">    ”   cusps,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">τ</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">    ”   double tangents,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">ι</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">    ”   inflections;</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">and this being so, Plücker’s “six equations” are</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc">(1)</td> <td class="tcl">n = m (m − 1) − 2 δ − 3κ,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">(2)</td> <td class="tcl">ι = 3m (m − 2) − 6δ − 8κ,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">(3)</td> <td class="tcl">τ = ½m (m − 2) (m² − 9) − (m² − m − 6) (2δ + 3κ) + 2δ (δ − 1) + + 6δκ + <span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span>κ (κ − 1),</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">(4)</td> <td class="tcl">m = n (n − 1) − 2τ − 3ι,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">(5)</td> <td class="tcl">κ = 3n (n − 2) − 6τ − 8ι,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">(6)</td> <td class="tcl">δ = ½n (n − 2) (n² − 9) − (n² − n − 6) (2τ + 3ι) + 2τ (τ − 1) + 6τι + + <span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span>ι (ι − i).</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">It is easy to derive the further forms—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">(7)</td> <td class="tcl">ι − κ </td> <td class="tcl">= 3 (n − m),</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">(8)</td> <td class="tcl">2 (τ − δ) </td> <td class="tcl">= (n − m) (n + m − 9),</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">(9)</td> <td class="tcl">½m (m + 3) − δ − 2κ </td> <td class="tcl">= ½n (n + 3) − τ − 2ι,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">(10)</td> <td class="tcl">½ (m − 1) (m − 2) − δ − κ </td> <td class="tcl">= ½ (n − 1) (n − 2) − τ − ι,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">(11, 12)</td> <td class="tcl">m² − 2δ − 3κ </td> <td class="tcl">= n² − 2τ − 3<span class="sp">ι</span>, = m + n,—</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page657" id="page657"></a>657</span></p> + +<p class="noind">the whole system being equivalent to three equations only; and +it may be added that using a to denote the equal quantities +3m + ι and 3n + κ everything may be expressed in terms of m, n, a. +We have</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>κ = a − 3n,</p> +<p>ι = a − 3m,</p> +<p>2δ = m² − m + 8n − 3a.</p> +<p>2τ = n² − n + 8m − 3a.</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It is implied in Plücker’s theorem that, m, n, δ, κ, τ, ι signifying +as above in regard to any curve, then in regard to the reciprocal +curve, n, m, τ, ι, δ, κ will have the same significations, viz. for the +reciprocal curve these letters denote respectively the order, class, +number of nodes, cusps, double tangent and inflections.</p> + +<p>The expression ½m(m + 3) − δ − 2κ is that of the number of the +disposable constants in a curve of the order m with δ nodes and κ +cusps (in fact that there shall be a node is 1 condition, a cusp 2 +conditions) and the equation (9) thus expresses that the curve and +its reciprocal contain each of them the same number of disposable +constants.</p> + +<p>For a curve of the order m, the expression ½m(m − 1) − δ − κ is +termed the “deficiency” (as to this more hereafter); the equation +(10) expresses therefore that the curve and its reciprocal have each +of them the same deficiency.</p> + +<p>The relations m² − 2δ − 3κ = n² − 2τ − 3ι = m + n, present themselves +in the theory of envelopes, as will appear farther on.</p> +</div> + +<p>With regard to the demonstration of Plücker’s equations it +is to be remarked that we are not able to write down the equation +in point-co-ordinates of a curve of the order m, having the given +numbers δ and κ of nodes and cusps. We can only use the general +equation (*<img style="width:10px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img654.jpg" alt="" /> x, y, z)<span class="sp">m</span> = 0, say for shortness u = 0, of a curve of the +<i>m</i>th order, which equation, so long as the coefficients remain +arbitrary, represents a curve without nodes or cusps. Seeking +then, for this curve, the values, n, ι, τ of the class, number of +inflections, and number of double tangents,—first, as regards +the class, this is equal to the number of tangents which can be +drawn to the curve from an arbitrary point, or what is the same +thing, it is equal to the number of the points of contact of these +tangents. The points of contact are found as the intersections +of the curve u = 0 by a curve depending on the position of the +arbitrary point, and called the “first polar” of this point; +the order of the first polar is = m − 1, and the number of intersections +is thus = m(m − 1). But it can be shown, analytically +or geometrically, that if the given curve has a node, the first +polar passes through this node, which therefore counts as two +intersections, and that if the curve has a cusp, the first polar +passes through the cusp, touching the curve there, and hence +the cusp counts as three intersections. But, as is evident, the +node or cusp is not a point of contact of a proper tangent from the +arbitrary point; we have, therefore, for a node a diminution 2, +and for a cusp a diminution 3, in the number of the intersections; +and thus, for a curve with δ nodes and κ cusps, there is a diminution +2δ + 3κ, and the value of n is n = m(m − 1) − 2δ − +3κ.</p> + +<p>Secondly, as to the inflections, the process is a similar one; it +can be shown that the inflections are the intersections of the +curve by a derivative curve called (after Ludwig Otto Hesse +who first considered it) the Hessian, defined geometrically as +the locus of a point such that its conic polar (§8 below) in regard +to the curve breaks up into a pair of lines, and which has an +equation H = 0, where H is the determinant formed with the +second differential coefficients of u in regard to the variables +(x, y, z); H = 0 is thus a curve of the order 3(m − 2), and the +number of inflections is = 3m(m − 2). But if the given curve +has a node, then not only the Hessian passes through the node, +but it has there a node the two branches at which touch respectively +the two branches of the curve; and the node thus +counts as six intersections; so if the curve has a cusp, then the +Hessian not only passes through the cusp, but it has there a cusp +through which it again passes, that is, there is a cuspidal branch +touching the cuspidal branch of the curve, and besides a simple +branch passing through the cusp, and hence the cusp counts as +eight intersections. The node or cusp is not an inflection, and we +have thus for a node a diminution 6, and for a cusp a diminution 8, +in the number of the intersections; hence for a curve with δ nodes +and κ cusps, the diminution is = 6δ + 8κ, and the number of +inflections is ι = 3m(m − 2) − 6δ − 8κ.</p> + +<p>Thirdly, for the double tangents; the points of contact of +these are obtained as the intersections of the curve by a curve +Π = 0, which has not as yet been geometrically defined, but which +is found analytically to be of the order (m − 2)(m² − 9); the +number of intersections is thus = m(m − 2)(m² − 9); but if the +given curve has a node then there is a diminution = 4(m² − m − 6), +and if it has a cusp then there is a diminution = 6(m² − m − 6), +where, however, it is to be noticed that the factor (m² − m − 6) +is in the case of a curve having only a node or only a cusp the +number of the tangents which can be drawn from the node or cusp +to the curve, and is used as denoting the number of these tangents, +and ceases to be the correct expression if the number of nodes +and cusps is greater than unity. Hence, in the case of a curve +which has δ nodes and κ cusps, the apparent diminution +2(m² − m − 6)(2δ + 3κ) is too great, and it has in fact to be +diminished by 2{2δ(δ − 1) + 6δκ + +<span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span>κ(κ − 1)}, or the half thereof is +4 for each pair of nodes, 6 for each combination of a node and +cusp, and 9 for each pair of cusps. We have thus finally an expression +for 2τ, = m(m − 2)(m² − 9) − &c.; or dividing the whole +by 2, we have the expression for τ given by the third of Plücker’s +equations.</p> + +<p>It is obvious that we cannot by consideration of the equation +u = 0 in point-co-ordinates obtain the remaining three of Plücker’s +equations; they might be obtained in a precisely analogous +manner by means of the equation v = 0 in line-co-ordinates, but they +follow at once from the principle of duality, viz. they are obtained +by the mere interchange of m, δ, κ, with n, τ, ι respectively.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:472px; height:174px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img657.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">To complete Plücker’s theory it is necessary to take account +of compound singularities; it might be possible, but it is at any +rate difficult, to effect this by considering the curve as in course of +description by the point moving along the rotating line; and it +seems easier to consider the compound singularity as arising +from the variation of an actually described curve with ordinary +singularities. The most simple case is when three double points +come into coincidence, thereby giving rise to a triple point; +and a somewhat more complicated one is when we have a cusp +of the second kind, or node-cusp arising from the coincidence +of a node, a cusp, an inflection, and a double tangent, as shown +in the annexed figure, which represents the singularities as on the +point of coalescing. The general conclusion (see Cayley, <i>Quart. +Math. Jour.</i> t. vii., 1866, “On the higher singularities of plane +curves”; <i>Collected Works</i>, v. 520) is that every singularity +whatever may be considered as compounded of ordinary singularities, +say we have a singularity = δ′ nodes, κ′ cusps, τ′ double +tangents and ι′ inflections. So that, in fact, Plücker’s equations +properly understood apply to a curve with any singularities +whatever.</p> + +<p>By means of Plücker’s equations we may form a table—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">m</td> <td class="tcc allb">n</td> <td class="tcc allb">δ</td> <td class="tcc allb">κ</td> <td class="tcc allb">τ</td> <td class="tcc allb">ι</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">−</td> <td class="tcc rb">−</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">−</td> <td class="tcc rb">−</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">12</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">28</td> <td class="tcc rb">24</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">16</td> <td class="tcc rb">18</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb">16</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page658" id="page658"></a>658</span></p> + +<p>The table is arranged according to the value of m; and we have +m = 0, n = 1, the point; m = 1, n = 0, the line; m = 2, n = 2, the +conic; of m = 3, the cubic, there are three cases, the class being +6, 4 or 3, according as the curve is without singularities, or as it +has 1 node or 1 cusp; and so of m = 4, the quartic, there are ten +cases, where observe that in two of them the class is = 6,—the +reduction of class arising from two cusps or else from three nodes. +The ten cases may be also grouped together into four, according +as the number of nodes and cusps (δ + κ) is = 0, 1, 2 or 3.</p> + +<p>The cases may be divided into sub-cases, by the consideration +of compound singularities; thus when m = 4, n = 6, δ = 3, the +three nodes may be all distinct, which is the general case, or two +of them may unite together into the singularity called a tacnode, +or all three may unite together into a triple point or else into an +oscnode.</p> + +<p>We may further consider the inflections and double tangents, +as well in general as in regard to cubic and quartic curves.</p> + +<p>The expression for the number of inflections 3m(m − 2) for a +curve of the order m was obtained analytically by Plücker, +but the theory was first given in a complete form by Hesse in +the two papers “Über die Elimination, u.s.w.,” and “Über +die Wendepuncte der Curven dritter Ordnung” (<i>Crelle</i>, t. xxviii., +1844); in the latter of these the points of inflection are obtained +as the intersections of the curve u = 0 with the Hessian, or curve +Δ = 0, where Δ is the determinant formed with the second derived +functions of u. We have in the Hessian the first instance of a +covariant of a ternary form. The whole theory of the inflections +of a cubic curve is discussed in a very interesting manner by +means of the canonical form of the equation x³ + y³ + z³ + 6lxyz = 0; +and in particular a proof is given of Plücker’s theorem that the +nine points of inflection of a cubic curve lie by threes in twelve +lines.</p> + +<p>It may be noticed that the nine inflections of a cubic curve +represented by an equation with real coefficients are three real, +six imaginary; the three real inflections lie in a line, as was known +to Newton and Maclaurin. For an acnodal cubic the six +<span class="correction" title="amended from imaginery">imaginary</span> inflections disappear, and there remain three real +inflections lying in a line. For a crunodal cubic the six inflections +which disappear are two of them real, the other four imaginary, +and there remain two imaginary inflections and one real inflection. +For a cuspidal cubic the six imaginary inflections and two of the +real inflections disappear, and there remains one real inflection.</p> + +<p>A quartic curve has 24 inflections; it was conjectured by +George Salmon, and has been verified by H. G. Zeuthen that at +most eight of these are real.</p> + +<p>The expression ½m(m − 2)(m² − 9) for the number of double +tangents of a curve of the order m was obtained by Plücker only +as a consequence of his first, second, fourth and fifth equations. +An investigation by means of the curve Π = 0, which by its intersections +with the given curve determines the points of contact of +the double tangents, is indicated by Cayley, “Recherches sur +l’élimination et la théorie des courbes” (<i>Crelle</i>, t. xxxiv., 1847; +<i>Collected Works</i>, vol. i. p. 337), and in part carried out by Hesse +in the memoir “Über Curven dritter Ordnung” (<i>Crelle</i>, t. +xxxvi., 1848). A better process was indicated by Salmon in +the “Note on the Double Tangents to Plane Curves,” <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, +1858; considering the m − 2 points in which any tangent to +the curve again meets the curve, he showed how to form the +equation of a curve of the order (m − 2), giving by its intersection +with the tangent the points in question; making the +tangent touch this curve of the order (m − 2), it will be a double +tangent of the original curve. See Cayley, “On the Double +Tangents of a Plane Curve” (<i>Phil. Trans.</i> t. cxlviii., 1859; +<i>Collected Works</i>, iv. 186), and O. Dersch (<i>Math. Ann.</i> t. vii., +1874). The solution is still in so far incomplete that we have no +properties of the curve Π = 0, to distinguish one such curve from +the several other curves which pass through the points of contact +of the double tangents.</p> + +<p>A quartic curve has 28 double tangents, their points of contact +determined as the intersections of the curve by a curve Π = 0 +of the order 14, the equation of which in a very elegant form was +first obtained by Hesse (1849). Investigations in regard to them +are given by Plücker in the <i>Theorie der algebraischen Curven</i>, +and in two memoirs by Hesse and Jacob Steiner (<i>Crelle</i>, t. xlv., +1855), in respect to the triads of double tangents which have their +points of contact on a conic and other like relations. It was +assumed by Plücker that the number of real double tangents +might be 28, 16, 8, 4 or 0, but Zeuthen has found that the last +case does not exist.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Invariants and Covariants.</i> <i>Polar Curves.</i>—The Hessian Δ +has just been spoken of as a covariant of the form u; the notion +of invariants and covariants belongs rather to the form u than +to the curve u = 0 represented by means of this form; and the +theory may be very briefly referred to. A curve u = 0 may have +some invariantive property, viz. a property independent of +the particular axes of co-ordinates used in the representation +of the curve by its equation; for instance, the curve may have +a node, and in order to this, a relation, say A = 0, must exist +between the coefficients of the equation; supposing the axes +of co-ordinates altered, so that the equation becomes u′ = 0, and +writing A′ = 0 for the relation between the new coefficients, then +the relations A = 0, A′ = 0, as two different expressions of the +same geometrical property, must each of them imply the other; +this can only be the case when A, A′ are functions differing +only by a constant factor, or say, when A is an invariant of u. +If, however, the geometrical property requires two or more relations +between the coefficients, say A = 0, B = 0, &c., then we must +have between the new coefficients the like relations, A′ = 0, B′ = 0, +&c., and the two systems of equations must each of them imply +the other; when this is so, the system of equations, A = 0, B = 0, +&c., is said to be invariantive, but it does not follow that A, B, +&c., are of necessity invariants of u. Similarly, if we have a +curve U = 0 derived from the curve u = 0 in a manner independent +of the particular axes of co-ordinates, then from the transformed +equation u’ = 0 deriving in like manner the curve U′ = 0, the +two equations U = 0, U′ = 0 must each of them imply the other; +and when this is so, U will be a covariant of u. The case is less +frequent, but it may arise, that there are covariant systems +U = 0, V = 0, &c., and U′ = 0, V′ = 0, &c., each implying the other, +but where the functions U, V, &c., are not of necessity covariants +of u.</p> + +<p>If we take a fixed point (x′, y′, z′) and a curve u = 0 of order +m, and suppose the axes of reference altered, so that x′, y′, z′ +are linearly transformed in the same way as the current x, y, z, +the curves [x′(∂/∂x) + y′(∂/∂y) + z′(∂/∂z)]<span class="sp">r</span>u = 0, (r = 1, 2, ... m − 1) have the +covariant property. They are the polar curves of the point with +regard to u = 0.</p> + +<p>The theory of the invariants and covariants of a ternary cubic +function u has been studied in detail, and brought into connexion +with the cubic curve u = 0; but the theory of the invariants and +covariants for the next succeeding case, the ternary quartic +function, is still very incomplete.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Envelope of a Curve.</i>—In further illustration of the Plückerian +dual generation of a curve, we may consider the question of the +<i>envelope</i> of a variable curve. The notion is very probably older, +but it is at any rate to be found in Lagrange’s <i>Théorie des fonctions +analytiques</i> (1798); it is there remarked that the equation obtained +by the elimination of the parameter a from an equation ƒ(x, y, a) = 0 +and the derived equation in respect to a is a curve, the envelope +of the series of curves represented by the equation ƒ(x, y, a) = 0 +in question. To develop the theory, consider the curve corresponding +to any particular value of the parameter; this has +with the consecutive curve (or curve belonging to the consecutive +value of the parameter) a certain number of intersections and +of common tangents, which may be considered as the tangents +at the intersections; and the so-called envelope is the curve +which is at the same time generated by the points of intersection +and enveloped by the common tangents; we have thus a dual +generation. But the question needs to be further examined. +Suppose that in general the variable curve is of the order m with +δ nodes and κ cusps, and therefore of the class n with τ double +tangents and ι inflections, m, n, δ, κ, τ, ι being connected by the +Plückerian equations,—the number of nodes or cusps may be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page659" id="page659"></a>659</span> +greater for particular values of the parameter, but this is a +speciality which may be here disregarded. Considering the variable +curve corresponding to a given value of the parameter, +or say simply the variable curve, the consecutive curve has then +also δ and κ nodes and cusps, consecutive to those of the variable +curve; and it is easy to see that among the intersections of the +two curves we have the nodes each counting twice, and the cusps +each counting three times; the number of the remaining intersections +is = m² − 2δ − 3κ. Similarly among the common tangents +of the two curves we have the double tangents each counting +twice, and the stationary tangents each counting three times, and +the number of the remaining common tangents is = n² − 2τ − 3ι +(= m² − 2δ − 3κ, inasmuch as each of these numbers is as was +seen = m + n). At any one of the m² − 2δ − 3κ points the variable +curve and the consecutive curve have tangents distinct from yet +infinitesimally near to each other, and each of these two tangents +is also infinitesimally near to one of the n² − 2τ − 3ι common +tangents of the two curves; whence, attending only to the +variable curve, and considering the consecutive curve as coming +into actual coincidence with it, the n² − 2τ − 3ι common tangents +are the tangents to the variable curve at the m² − 2δ − 3κ points +respectively, and the envelope is at the same time generated +by the m² − 2δ − 3κ points, and enveloped by the n² − 2τ − 3ι +tangents; we have thus a dual generation of the envelope, +which only differs from Plücker’s dual generation, in that in place +of a single point and tangent we have the group of m² − 2δ − 3κ +points and n² − 2τ − 3ι tangents.</p> + +<p>The parameter which determines the variable curve may be +given as a point upon a given curve, or say as a parametric +point; that is, to the different positions of the parametric point +on the given curve correspond the different variable curves, +and the nature of the envelope will thus depend on that of the +given curve; we have thus the envelope as a derivative curve +of the given curve. Many well-known derivative curves present +themselves in this manner; thus the variable curve may be +the normal (or line at right angles to the tangent) at any point +of the given curve; the intersection of the consecutive normals +is the centre of curvature; and we have the evolute as at once +the locus of the centre of curvature and the envelope of the +normal. It may be added that the given curve is one of a series +of curves, each cutting the several normals at right angles. Any +one of these is a “parallel” of the given curve; and it can be +obtained as the envelope of a circle of constant radius having +its centre on the given curve. We have in like manner, as +derivatives of a given curve, the caustic, catacaustic or diacaustic +as the case may be, and the secondary caustic, or curve cutting +at right angles the reflected or refracted rays.</p> + +<p>10. <i>Forms of Real Curves.</i>—We have in much that precedes +disregarded, or at least been indifferent to, reality; it is only thus +that the conception of a curve of the <i>m</i>-th order, as one which +is met by every right line in <i>m</i> points, is arrived at; and the curve +itself, and the line which cuts it, although both are tacitly +assumed to be real, may perfectly well be imaginary. For +real figures we have the general theorem that imaginary intersections, +&c., present themselves in conjugate pairs; hence, in +particular, that a curve of an even order is met by a line in an +even number (which may be = 0) of points; a curve of an odd +order in an odd number of points, hence in one point at least; +it will be seen further on that the theorem may be generalized in +a remarkable manner. Again, when there is in question only +one pair of points or lines, these, if coincident, must be real; +thus, a line meets a cubic curve in three points, one of them +real, and other two real or imaginary; but if two of the intersections +coincide they must be real, and we have a line cutting +a cubic in one real point and touching it in another real point. +It may be remarked that this is a limit separating the two cases +where the intersections are all real, and where they are one real, +two imaginary.</p> + +<p>Considering always real curves, we obtain the notion of a +branch; any portion capable of description by the continuous +motion of a point is a branch; and a curve consists of one or +more branches. Thus the curve of the first order or right line +consists of one branch; but in curves of the second order, or +conics, the ellipse and the parabola consist each of one branch, the +hyperbola of two branches. A branch is either re-entrant, or +it extends both ways to infinity, and in this case, we may regard +it as consisting of two legs (<i>crura</i>, Newton), each extending one +way to infinity, but without any definite separation. The branch, +whether re-entrant or infinite, may have a cusp or cusps, or it may +cut itself or another branch, thus having or giving rise to crunodes +or double points with distinct real tangents; an acnode, or +double point with imaginary tangents, is a branch by itself,—it +may be considered as an indefinitely small re-entrant branch. +a branch may have inflections and double tangents, or there +may be double tangents which touch two distinct branches; +there are also double tangents with imaginary points of contact, +which are thus lines having no visible connexion with the curve. +A re-entrant branch not cutting itself may be everywhere +convex, and it is then properly said to be an oval; but the term +oval may be used more generally for any re-entrant branch not +cutting itself; and we may thus speak of a once indented, twice +indented oval, &c., or even of a cuspidate oval. Other descriptive +names for ovals and re-entrant branches cutting themselves +may be used when required; thus, in the last-mentioned case +a simple form is that of a figure of eight; such a form may break +up into two ovals or into a doubly indented oval or hour-glass. +A form which presents itself is when two ovals, one inside the +other, unite, so as to give rise to a crunode—in default of a better +name this may be called, after the curve of that name, a limaçon +(<i>q.v.</i>). Names may also be used for the different forms of infinite +branches, but we have first to consider the distinction of hyperbolic +and parabolic. The leg of an infinite branch may have at +the extremity a tangent; this is an asymptote of the curve, +and the leg is then hyperbolic; or the leg may tend to a fixed +direction, but so that the tangent goes further and further off +to infinity, and the leg is then parabolic; a branch may thus +be hyperbolic or parabolic as to its two legs; or it may be hyperbolic +as to one leg and parabolic as to the other. The epithets +hyperbolic and parabolic are of course derived from the conic +hyperbola and parabola respectively. The nature of the two +kinds of branches is best understood by considering them as +projections, in the same way as we in effect consider the hyperbola +and the parabola as projections of the ellipse. If a line Ω cut +an arc aa′ at b, so that the two segments ab, ba′ lie on opposite +sides of the line, then projecting the figure so that the line Ω goes +off to infinity, the tangent at b is projected into the asymptote, +and the arc ab is projected into a hyperbolic leg touching the +asymptote at one extremity; the arc ba′ will at the same time +be projected into a hyperbolic leg touching the same asymptote +at the other extremity (and on the opposite side), but so that the +two hyperbolic legs may or may not belong to one and the same +branch. And we thus see that the two hyperbolic legs belong +to a simple intersection of the curve by the line infinity. Next, +if the line Ω touch at b the arc aa’ so that the two portions +ab, ba’ lie on the same side of the line Ω, then projecting the +figure as before, the tangent at b, that is, the line Ω itself, is +projected to infinity; the arc ab is projected into a parabolic +leg, and at the same time the arc ba′ is projected into a parabolic +leg, having at infinity the same direction as the other leg, but so +that the two legs may or may not belong to the same branch. +And we thus see that the two parabolic legs represent a contact +of the line infinity with the curve,—the point of contact being +of course the point at infinity determined by the common direction +of the two legs. It will readily be understood how the like +considerations apply to other cases,—for instance, if the line Ω +is a tangent at an inflection, passes through a crunode, or touches +one of the branches of a crunode, &c.; thus, if the line Ω passes +through a crunode we have pairs of hyperbolic legs belonging +to two parallel asymptotes. The foregoing considerations also +show (what is very important) how different branches are connected +together at infinity, and lead to the notion of a complete +branch or circuit.</p> + +<p>The two legs of a hyperbolic branch may belong to different +asymptotes, and in this case we have the forms which Newton +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page660" id="page660"></a>660</span> +calls inscribed, circumscribed, ambigene, &c.; or they may +belong to the same asymptote, and in this case we have the +serpentine form, where the branch cuts the asymptote, so as +to touch it at its two extremities on opposite sides, or the +conchoidal form, where it touches the asymptote on the same +side. The two legs of a parabolic branch may converge to +ultimate parallelism, as in the conic parabola, or diverge to +ultimate parallelism, as in the semi-cubical parabola y² = x³, and +the branch is said to be convergent, or divergent, accordingly; +or they may tend to parallelism in opposite senses, as in the +cubical parabola y = x³. As mentioned with regard to a branch +generally, an infinite branch of any kind may have cusps, or, +by cutting itself or another branch, may have or give rise to a +crunode, &c.</p> + +<p>11. <i>Classification of Cubic Curves.</i>—We may now consider +the various forms of cubic curves as appearing by Newton’s +<i>Enumeratio</i>, and by the figures belonging thereto. The species +are reckoned as 72, which are numbered accordingly 1 to 72; +but to these should be added 10<span class="sp">a</span>, 13<span class="sp">a</span>, 22<span class="sp">a</span> and 22<span class="sp">b</span>. It is not +intended here to consider the division into species, nor even +completely that into genera, but only to explain the principle of +classification. It may be remarked generally that there are at +most three infinite branches, and that there may besides be a +re-entrant branch or oval.</p> + +<p>The genera may be arranged as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">1,2,3,4</td> <td class="tcl">redundant hyperbolas</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">5,6</td> <td class="tcl">defective hyperbolas</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">7,8</td> <td class="tcl">parabolic hyperbolas</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcl">  hyperbolisms of hyperbola</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcl">  hyperbolisms of ellipse</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcl">  hyperbolisms of parabola</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcl">  trident curve</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcl">  divergent parabolas</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcl">  cubic parabola;</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">and thus arranged they correspond to the different relations +of the line infinity to the curve. First, if the three intersections +by the line infinity are all distinct, we have the hyperbolas; if +the points are real, the redundant hyperbolas, with three hyperbolic +branches; but if only one of them is real, the defective +hyperbolas, with one hyperbolic branch. Secondly, if two of +the intersections coincide, say if the line infinity meets the curve +in a onefold point and a twofold point, both of them real, then +there is always one asymptote: the line infinity may at the +twofold point touch the curve, and we have the parabolic +hyperbolas; or the twofold point may be a singular point,—viz., +a crunode giving the hyperbolisms of the hyperbola; an acnode, +giving the hyperbolisms of the ellipse; or a cusp, giving the +hyperbolisms of the parabola. As regards the so-called hyperbolisms, +observe that (besides the single asymptote) we have +in the case of those of the hyperbola two parallel asymptotes; +in the case of those of the ellipse the two parallel asymptotes +become imaginary, that is, they disappear; and in the case of +those of the parabola they become coincident, that is, there is +here an ordinary asymptote, and a special asymptote answering +to a cusp at infinity. Thirdly, the three intersections by the line +infinity may be coincident and real; or say we have a threefold +point: this may be an inflection, a crunode or a cusp, that is, +the line infinity may be a tangent at an inflection, and we have +the divergent parabolas; a tangent at a crunode to one branch, +and we have the trident curve; or lastly, a tangent at a cusp, and +we have the cubical parabola.</p> + +<p>It is to be remarked that the classification mixes together +non-singular and singular curves, in fact, the five kinds presently +referred to: thus the hyperbolas and the divergent parabolas include +curves of every kind, the separation being made in the +species; the hyperbolisms of the hyperbola and ellipse, and the +trident curve, are nodal; the hyperbolisms of the parabola, and +the cubical parabola, are cuspidal. The divergent parabolas +are of five species which respectively belong to and determine the +five kinds of cubic curves; Newton gives (in two short paragraphs +without any development) the remarkable theorem that +the five divergent parabolas by their shadows generate and +exhibit all the cubic curves.</p> + +<p>The five divergent parabolas are curves each of them symmetrical +with regard to an axis. There are two non-singular +kinds, the one with, the other without, an oval, but each of them +has an infinite (as Newton describes it) <i>campaniform</i> branch; +this cuts the axis at right angles, being at first concave, but +ultimately convex, towards the axis, the two legs continually +tending to become at right angles to the axis. The oval may +unite itself with the infinite branch, or it may dwindle into a +point, and we have the crunodal and the acnodal forms respectively; +or if simultaneously the oval dwindles into a point and +unites itself to the infinite branch, we have the cuspidal form. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Parabola</a></span>.) Drawing a line to cut any one of these curves +and projecting the line to infinity, it would not be difficult to +show how the line should be drawn in order to obtain a curve +of any given species. We have herein a better principle of classification; +considering cubic curves, in the first instance, according +to singularities, the curves are non-singular, nodal (viz. crunodal +or acnodal), or cuspidal; and we see further that there are two +kinds of non-singular curves, the complex and the simplex. +There is thus a complete division into the five kinds, the complex, +simplex, crunodal, acnodal and cuspidal. Each singular kind +presents itself as a limit separating two kinds of inferior singularity; +the cuspidal separates the crunodal and the acnodal, and +these last separate from each other the complex and the simplex.</p> + +<p>The whole question is discussed very fully and ably by A. F. +Möbius in the memoir “Ueber die Grundformen der Linien +dritter Ordnung” (<i>Abh. der K. Sachs. Ges. zu Leipzig</i>, t. i., 1852). +The author considers not only plane curves, but also cones, or, +what is almost the same thing, the spherical curves which are +their sections by a concentric sphere. Stated in regard to the +cone, we have there the fundamental theorem that there are two +different kinds of sheets; viz., the single sheet, not separated +into two parts by the vertex (an instance is afforded by the plane +considered as a cone of the first order generated by the motion +of a line about a point), and the double or twin-pair sheet, +separated into two parts by the vertex (as in the cone of the +second order). And it then appears that there are two kinds +of non-singular cubic cones, viz. the simplex, consisting of a +single sheet, and the complex, consisting of a single sheet and a +twin-pair sheet; and we thence obtain (as for cubic curves) +the crunodal, the acnodal and the cuspidal kinds of cubic cones. +It may be mentioned that the single sheet is a sort of wavy form, +having upon it three lines of inflection, and which is met by any +plane through the vertex in one or in three lines; the twin-pair +sheet has no lines of inflection, and resembles in its form a cone +on an oval base.</p> + +<p>In general a cone consists of one or more single or twin-pair +sheets, and if we consider the section of the cone by a plane, +the curve consists of one or more complete branches, or say +circuits, each of them the section of one sheet of the cone; thus, +a cone of the second order is one twin-pair sheet, and any section +of it is one circuit composed, it may be, of two branches. But +although we thus arrive by projection at the notion of a circuit, +it is not necessary to go out of the plane, and we may (with +Zeuthen, using the shorter term <i>circuit</i> for his <i>complete branch</i>) +define a circuit as any portion (of a curve) capable of description +by the continuous motion of a point, it being understood that +a passage through infinity is permitted. And we then say that +a curve consists of one or more circuits; thus the right line, or +curve of the first order, consists of one circuit; a curve of the +second order consists of one circuit; a cubic curve consists of one +circuit or else of two circuits.</p> + +<p>A circuit is met by any right line always in an even number, +or always in an odd number, of points, and it is said to be an even +circuit or an odd circuit accordingly; the right line is an odd +circuit, the conic an even circuit. And we have then the theorem, +two odd circuits intersect in an odd number of points; an odd +and an even circuit, or two even circuits, in an even number +of points. An even circuit not cutting itself divides the plane +into two parts, the one called the internal part, incapable of +containing any odd circuit, the other called the external part, +capable of containing an odd circuit.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page661" id="page661"></a>661</span></p> + +<p>We may now state in a more convenient form the fundamental +distinction of the kinds of cubic curve. A non-singular cubic is +simplex, consisting of one odd circuit, or it is complex, consisting +of one odd circuit and one even circuit. It may be added that +there are on the odd circuit three inflections, but on the even +circuit no inflection; it hence also appears that from any point +of the odd circuit there can be drawn to the odd circuit two tangents, +and to the even circuit (if any) two tangents, but that +from a point of the even circuit there cannot be drawn (either to +the odd or the even circuit) any real tangent; consequently, +in a simplex curve the number of tangents from any point is two; +but in a complex curve the number is four, or none,—four if the +point is on the odd circuit, none if it is on the even circuit. It +at once appears from inspection of the figure of a non-singular +cubic curve, which is the odd and which the even circuit. The +singular kinds arise as before; in the crunodal and the cuspidal +kinds the whole curve is an odd circuit, but in an acnodal kind +the acnode must be regarded as an even circuit.</p> + +<p>12. <i>Quartic Curves.</i>—The analogous question of the classification +of quartics (in particular non-singular quartics and nodal +quartics) is considered in Zeuthen’s memoir “Sur les différentes +formes des courbes planes du quatrième ordre” (<i>Math. Ann.</i> +t. vii., 1874). A non-singular quartic has only even circuits; +it has at most four circuits external to each other, or two circuits +one internal to the other, and in this last case the internal circuit +has no double tangents or inflections. A very remarkable +theorem is established as to the double tangents of such a quartic: +distinguishing as a double tangent of the first kind a real double +tangent which either twice touches the same circuit, or else +touches the curve in two imaginary points, the number of the +double tangents of the first kind of a non-singular quartic is += 4; it follows that the quartic has at most 8 real inflections. +The forms of the non-singular quartics are very numerous, but +it is not necessary to go further into the question.</p> + +<p>We may consider in relation to a curve, not only the line +infinity, but also the circular points at infinity; assuming the +curve to be real, these present themselves always conjointly; +thus a circle is a conic passing through the two circular points, +and is thereby distinguished from other conics. Similarly a +cubic through the two circular points is termed a circular cubic; +a quartic through the two points is termed a circular quartic, +and if it passes twice through each of them, that is, has each of +them for a node, it is termed a bicircular quartic. Such a quartic +is of course binodal (m = 4, δ = 2, κ = 0); it has not in general, +but it may have, a third node or a cusp. Or again, we may have +a quartic curve having a cusp at each of the circular points: +such a curve is a “Cartesian,” it being a complete definition of +the Cartesian to say that it is a bicuspidal quartic curve (m = 4, +δ = 0, κ = 2), having a cusp at each of the circular points. The +circular cubic and the bicircular quartic, together with the +Cartesian (being in one point of view a particular case thereof), +are interesting curves which have been much studied, generally, +and in reference to their <i>focal</i> properties.</p> + +<p>13. <i>Foci.</i>—The points called <i>foci</i> presented themselves in the +theory of the conic, and were well known to the Greek geometers, +but the general notion of a focus was first established by Plücker +(in the memoir “Über solche Puncte die bei Curven einer +höheren Ordnung den Brennpuncten der Kegelschnitte entsprechen” +(<i>Crelle</i>, t. x., 1833). We may from each of the circular +points draw tangents to a given curve; the intersection of two +such tangents (belonging of course to the two circular points +respectively) is a focus. There will be from each circular point +λ tangents (λ, a number depending on the class of the curve and +its relation to the line infinity and the circular points, = 2 for +the general conic, 1 for the parabola, 2 for a circular cubic, or +bicircular quartic, &c.); the λ tangents from the one circular +point and those from the other circular point intersect in λ real +foci (viz. each of these is the only real point on each of the tangents +through it), and in λ² − λ imaginary foci; each pair of real foci +determines a pair of imaginary foci (the so-called antipoints +of the two real foci), and the ½λ(λ − 1) pairs of real foci thus +determine the λ² − λ imaginary foci. There are in some cases +points termed centres, or singular or multiple foci (the nomenclature +is unsettled), which are the intersections of improper +tangents from the two circular points respectively; thus, in the +circular cubic, the tangents to the curve at the two circular +points respectively (or two imaginary asymptotes of the curve) +meet in a centre.</p> + +<p>14. <i>Distance and Angle.</i> <i>Curves described mechanically.</i>—The +notions of <i>distance</i> and of lines <i>at right angles</i> are connected with +the circular points; and almost every construction of a curve +by means of lines of a determinate length, or at right angles +to each other, and (as such) mechanical constructions by means +of linkwork, give rise to curves passing the same definite number +of times through the two circular points respectively, or say to +circular curves, and in which the fixed centres of the construction +present themselves as ordinary, or as singular, foci. Thus the +general curve of three bar-motion (or locus of the vertex of a +triangle, the other two vertices whereof move on fixed circles) +is a tricircular sextic, having besides three nodes (m = 6, +δ = 3 + 3 + 3 = 9), and having the centres of the fixed circles each +for a singular focus; there is a third singular focus, and we have +thus the remarkable theorem (due to S. Roberts) of the triple +generation of the curve by means of the three several pairs of +singular foci.</p> + +<p>Again, the normal, <i>qua</i> line at right angles to the tangent, +is connected with the circular points, and these accordingly +present themselves in the before-mentioned theories of evolutes +and parallel curves.</p> + +<p>15. <i>Theories of Correspondence.</i>—We have several recent +theories which depend on the notion of <i>correspondence</i>: two +points whether in the same plane or in different planes, or on +the same curve or in different curves, may determine each other +in such wise that to any given position of the first point there +correspond α′ positions of the second point, and to any given +position of the second point a positions of the first point; the +two points have then an (α, α) correspondence; and if α, α are +each = 1, then the two points have α (1, 1) or rational correspondence. +Connecting with each theory the author’s name, the +theories in question are G. F. B. Riemann, the rational transformation +of a plane curve; Luigi Cremona, the rational transformation +of a plane; and Chasles, correspondence of points on +the same curve, and united points. The theory first referred to, +with the resulting notion of “Geschlecht,” or <i>deficiency</i>, is more +than the other two an essential part of the theory of curves, but +they will all be considered.</p> + +<p>Riemann’s results are contained in the memoirs on “Abelian +Integrals,” &c. (<i>Crelle</i>, t. liv., 1857), and we have next R. F. A. +Clebsch, “Über die Singularitäten algebraischer Curven” +(<i>Crelle</i>, t. lxv., 1865), and Cayley, “On the Transformation of +Plane Curves” (<i>Proc. Lond. Math. Soc.</i> t. i., 1865; <i>Collected +Works</i>, vol. vi. p. 1). The fundamental notion of the rational +transformation is as follows:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Taking u, X, Y, Z to be rational and integral functions (X, Y, Z +all of the same order) of the co-ordinates (x, y, z), and u′, X′, Y′, Z′ +rational and integral functions (X′, Y′, Z′, all of the same order) of +the co-ordinates (x′, y′, z′), we transform a given curve u = 0, by the +equations of x′ : y′ : z′ = X : Y : Z, thereby obtaining a transformed +curve u′ = 0, and a converse set of equations x : y : z = X′ : Y′ : Z′; +viz. assuming that this is so, the point (x, y, z) on the curve u = 0 +and the point (x′, y′, z′) on the curve u′ = 0 will be points having a +(1, 1) correspondence. To show how this is, observe that to a given +point (x, y, z) on the curve u = 0 there corresponds a single point +(x′, y′, z′) determined by the equations x′ : y′ : z′ = X : Y : Z; from +these equations and the equation u = 0 eliminating x, y, z, we obtain +the equation u′ = 0 of the transformed curve. To a given point +(x′, y′, z′) not on the curve u’ = 0 there corresponds, not a single point, +but the system of points (x, y, z) given by the equations x′ : y′ : z′ = +X : Y : Z, viz., regarding x′, y′, z′ as constants (and to fix the ideas, +assuming that the curves X = 0, Y = 0, Z = 0, have no common intersections), +these are the points of intersection of the curves X : Y : Z, += x′ : y′ : z′, but no one of these points is situate on the curve u = 0. +If, however, the point (x′, y′, z′) is situate on the curve u′ = 0, then +one point of the system of points in question is situate on the curve +u = 0, that is, to a given point of the curve u′ = 0 there corresponds +a single point of the curve u = 0; and hence also this point must +be given by a system of equations such as x : y : z = X′ : Y′ : Z′.</p> +</div> + +<p>It is an old and easily proved theorem that, for a curve of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page662" id="page662"></a>662</span> +the order m, the number δ + κ of nodes and cusps is at most += ½(m − 1)(m − 2); for a given curve the deficiency of the actual +number of nodes and cusps below this maximum number, viz. +½(m − 1)(m − 2) − δ − κ, is the “Geschlecht” or “deficiency,” +of the curve, say this is = D. When D = 0, the curve is said to be +unicursal, when = 1, bicursal, and so on.</p> + +<p>The general theorem is that two curves corresponding rationally +to each other have the same deficiency. [In particular +a curve and its reciprocal have this rational or (1, 1) correspondence, +and it has been already seen that a curve and its reciprocal +have the same deficiency.]</p> + +<p>A curve of a given order can in general be rationally transformed +into a curve of a lower order; thus a curve of any order +for which D = 0, that is, a unicursal curve, can be transformed +into a line; a curve of any order having the deficiency 1 or 2 +can be rationally transformed into a curve of the order D + 2, +deficiency D; and a curve of any order <span class="correction" title="amended from deficience">deficiency</span> = or > 3 +can be rationally transformed into a curve of the order D + 3, +deficiency D.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Taking x′, y′, z′ as co-ordinates of a point of the transformed curve, +and in its equation writing x′ : y′ : z′ = 1 : θ : φ we have φ a certain +irrational function of θ, and the theorem is that the co-ordinates x, y, z +of any point of the given curve can be expressed as proportional to +rational and integral functions of θ, φ, that is, of θ and a certain +irrational function of θ.</p> + +<p>In particular if D = 0, that is, if the given curve be unicursal, the +transformed curve is a line, φ is a mere linear function of θ, and +the theorem is that the co-ordinates x, y, z of a point of the unicursal +curve can be expressed as proportional to rational and integral +functions of θ; it is easy to see that for a given curve of the order +m, these functions of θ must be of the same order m.</p> + +<p>If D = 1, then the transformed curve is a cubic; it can be shown +that in a cubic, the axes of co-ordinates being properly chosen, φ +can be expressed as the square root of a quartic function of θ; and +the theorem is that the co-ordinates x, y, z of a point of the bicursal +curve can be expressed as proportional to rational and integral +functions of θ, and of the square root of a quartic function of θ.</p> + +<p>And so if D = 2, then the transformed curve is a nodal quartic; +φ can be expressed as the square root of a sextic function of θ and +the theorem is, that the co-ordinates x, y, z of a point of the tricursal +curve can be expressed as proportional to rational and integral +functions of θ, and of the square root of a sextic function of θ. But +D = 3, we have no longer the like law, viz. φ is not expressible as +the square root of an octic function of θ.</p> +</div> + +<p>Observe that the radical, square root of a quartic function, +is connected with the theory of elliptic functions, and the radical, +square root of a sextic function, with that of the first kind of +Abelian functions, but that the next kind of Abelian functions +does not depend on the radical, square root of an octic function.</p> + +<p>It is a form of the theorem for the case D = 1, that the co-ordinates +x, y, z of a point of the bicursal curve, or in particular +the co-ordinates of a point of the cubic, can be expressed as +proportional to rational and integral functions of the elliptic +functions snu, cnu, dnu; in fact, taking the radical to be +√<span class="ov">1 − θ²·1 − k²θ²</span>, and writing θ = sn<i>u</i>, the radical becomes += cn<i>u</i>, dn<i>u</i>; and we have expressions of the form in question.</p> + +<p>It will be observed that the equations x′ : y′ : z′ = X : Y : Z +before mentioned do not of themselves lead to the other system +of equations x : y : z = X′ : Y′ : Z′, and thus that the theory does +not in anywise establish a (1, 1) correspondence between the +points (x, y, z) and (x′, y′, z′) of two planes or of the same +plane; this is the correspondence of Cremona’s theory.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In this theory, given in the memoirs “Sulle trasformazioni geometriche +delle figure piani,” <i>Mem. di Bologna</i>, t. ii. (1863) and t. v. +(1865), we have a system of equations x′ : y′ : z′ = X : Y : Z which +<i>does</i> lead to a system x : y : z = X′ : Y′ : Z′, where, as before, X, Y, Z +denote rational and integral functions, all of the same order, of the +co-ordinates x, y, z, and X′, Y′, Z′ rational and integral functions, all +of the same order, of the co-ordinates x′, y′, z′, and there is thus a +(1, 1) correspondence given by these equations between the two +points (x, y, z) and (x′, y′, z′). To explain this, observe that starting +from the equations of x′ : y′ : z′ = X : Y : Z, to a given point (x, y, z) +there corresponds one point (x′, y′, z′), but that if n be the order of +the functions X, Y, Z, then to a given point x′, y′, z′ there would, if +the curves X = 0, Y = 0, Z = 0 had no common intersections, correspond +n² points (x, y, z). If, however, the functions are such that +the curves X = 0, Y = 0, Z = 0 have k common intersections, then +among the n² points are included these k points, which are fixed +points independent of the point (x′, y′, z′); so that, disregarding +these fixed points, the number of points (x, y, z) corresponding to +the given point (x′, y′, z′) is = n² − k; and in particular if k = n² − 1, +then we have one corresponding point; and hence the original +system of equations x′ : y′ : z′ = X : Y : Z must lead to the equivalent +system x : y : z = X′ : Y′ : Z′; and in this system by the like reasoning +the functions must be such that the curves X′ = 0, Y′ = 0, Z′ = 0 +have n′² − 1 common intersections. The most simple example is +in the two systems of equations x′ : y′ : z′ = yz : zx : xy and x : y : z = +y′z′ : z′x′ : x′y′; where yz = 0, zx = 0, xy = 0 are conics (pairs of lines) +having three common intersections, and where obviously either +system of equations leads to the other system. In the case where +X, Y, Z are of an order exceeding 2 the required number n² − 1 of +common intersections can only occur by reason of common multiple +points on the three curves; and assuming that the curves X = 0, +Y = 0, Z = 0 have α<span class="su">1</span> + α<span class="su">2</span> + α<span class="su">3</span> ... + +α<span class="su">n−1</span> common intersections, where +the α<span class="su">1</span> points are ordinary points, the α<span class="su">2</span> points are double points, the +α<span class="su">3</span> points are triple points, &c., on each curve, we have the condition</p> + +<p class="center">α<span class="su">1</span> + 4α<span class="su">2</span> + 9α<span class="su">3</span> + ... (n − 1)² α<span class="su">n−1</span> = n² − 1;</p> + +<p class="noind">but to this must be joined the condition</p> + +<p class="center">α<span class="su">1</span> + 3α<span class="su">2</span> + 6α<span class="su">3</span> ... + ½n(n − 1) α<span class="su">n−1</span> = ½n (n + 3) − 2</p> + +<p class="noind">(without which the transformation would be illusory); and the +conclusion is that α<span class="su">1</span>, α<span class="su">2</span>, ... α<span class="su">n−1</span> may be any numbers satisfying +these two equations. It may be added that the two equations +together give</p> + +<p class="center">α<span class="su">2</span> + 3α<span class="su">3</span> ... + ½ (n − 1) (n − 2) α<span class="su">n−1</span> = ½ (n − 1) (n − 2),</p> + +<p class="noind">which expresses that the curves X = 0, Y = 0, Z = 0 are unicursal. +The transformation may be applied to any curve u = 0, which is +thus rationally transformed into a curve u′ = 0, by a rational transformation +such as is considered in Riemann’s theory: hence the two +curves have the same deficiency.</p> +</div> + +<p>Coming next to Chasles, the principle of correspondence is +established and used by him in a series of memoirs relating to the +conics which satisfy given conditions, and to other geometrical +questions, contained in the <i>Comptes rendus</i>, t. lviii. (1864) et seq. +The theorem of united points in regard to points in a right line +was given in a paper, June-July 1864, and it was extended to +unicursal curves in a paper of the same series (March 1866), “Sur +les courbes planes ou à double courbure dont les points peuvent +se déterminer individuellement—application du principe de correspondance +dans la théorie de ces courbes.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The theorem is as follows: if in a unicursal curve two points +have an (α, β) correspondence, then the number of united points +(or points each corresponding to itself) is = α + β. In fact in a +unicursal curve the co-ordinates of a point are given as proportional +to rational and integral functions of a parameter, so that any point +of the curve is determined uniquely by means of this parameter; +that is, to each point of the curve corresponds one value of the +parameter, and to each value of the parameter one point on the +curve; and the (α, β) correspondence between the two points is given +by an equation of the form (*<img style="width:10px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img654.jpg" alt="" /> θ, +1)<span class="sp">α</span>(φ, 1)<span class="sp">β</span> = 0 between their parameters +θ and φ; at a united point φ = θ, and the value of θ is given by +an equation of the order α + β. The extension to curves of any given +deficiency D was made in the memoir of Cayley, “On the correspondence +of two points on a curve,”—<i><span class="correction" title="amended from Porc">Proc</span>. Lond. Math. Soc.</i> t. i. +(1866; <i>Collected Works</i>, vol. vi. p. 9),—viz. taking P, P′ as the corresponding +points in an (α, α′) correspondence on a curve of deficiency +D, and supposing that when P is given the corresponding points P′ +are found as the intersections of the curve by a curve Θ containing +the co-ordinates of P as parameters, and having with the given curve +k intersections at the point P, then the number of united points is +a = α + α′ + 2kD; and more generally, if the curve Θ intersect the +given curve in a set of points P′ each p times, a set of points Q′ each +g times, &c., in such manner that the points (P, P′) the points (P, Q′) +&c., are pairs of points corresponding to each other according to +distinct laws; then if (P, P′) are points having an (α, α′) correspondence +with a number = a of united points, (P, Q′) points having a (β, β′) +correspondence with a number = b of united points, and so on, the +theorem is that we have</p> + +<p class="center">p (a − α − α′) + q (b − β − β′) + ... = 2kD.</p> +</div> + +<p>The principle of correspondence, or say rather the theorem of +united points, is a most powerful instrument of investigation, +which may be used in place of analysis for the determination of +the number of solutions of almost every geometrical problem. +We can by means of it investigate the class of a curve, number of +inflections, &c.—in fact, Plücker’s equations; but it is necessary +to take account of special solutions: thus, in one of the most +simple instances, in finding the class of a curve, the cusps present +themselves as special solutions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Imagine a curve of order m, deficiency D, and let the corresponding +points P, P′ be such that the line joining them passes through a given +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page663" id="page663"></a>663</span> +point O; this is an (m − 1, m − 1) correspondence, and the value of k +is = 1, hence the number of united points is = 2m − 2 + 2D; the +united points are the points of contact of the tangents from O and +(as special solutions) the cusps, and we have thus the relation +n + κ = 2m − 2 + 2D; or, writing D = ½(m − 1)(m − 2) − δ − κ, this is +n = m(m − 1) − 2δ − 3κ, which is right.</p> +</div> + +<p>The principle in its original form as applying to a right line was +used throughout by Chasles in the investigations on the number +of the conics which satisfy given conditions, and on the number +of solutions of very many other geometrical problems.</p> + +<p>There is one application of the theory of the (α, α′) correspondence +between two planes which it is proper to notice.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Imagine a curve, real or imaginary, represented by an equation +(involving, it may be, imaginary coefficients) between the Cartesian +co-ordinates u, u′; then, writing u = x + iy, u′ = x′ + iy′, the equation +determines real values of (x, y), and of (x′, y′), corresponding to +any given real values of (x′, y′) and (x, y) respectively; that is, it +establishes a real correspondence (not of course a rational one) +between the points (x, y) and (x′, y′); for example in the imaginary +circle u² + u′² = (a + bi)², the correspondence is given by the two +equations x² − y² + x′² − y′² = a² − b², xy + x′y′ = ab. We have thus a +means of geometrical representation for the portions, as well imaginary +as real, of any real or imaginary curve. Considerations such as +these have been used for determining the series of values of the independent +variable, and the irrational functions thereof in the theory +of Abelian integrals, but the theory seems to be worthy of further +investigation.</p> +</div> + +<p>16. <i>Systems of Curves satisfying Conditions.</i>—The researches +of Chasles (<i>Comptes Rendus</i>, t. lviii., 1864, et seq.) refer to the +conics which satisfy given conditions. There is an earlier paper +by J. P. E. Fauque de Jonquières, “Théorèmes généraux +concernant les courbes géométriques planes d’un ordre quelconque,” +<i>Liouv.</i> t. vi. (1861), which establishes the notion of a +system of curves (of any order) of the index N, viz. considering +the curves of the order n which satisfy ½n(n + 3) − 1 conditions, +then the index N is the number of these curves which pass through +a given arbitrary point. But Chasles in the first of his papers +(February 1864), considering the conics which satisfy four +conditions, establishes the notion of the two characteristics +(μ, ν) of such a system of conics, viz. μ is the number of the conics +which pass through a given arbitrary point, and ν is the number +of the conics which touch a given arbitrary line. And he gives the +theorem, a system of conics satisfying four conditions, and having +the characteristics (μ, ν) contains 2ν − μ line-pairs (that is, conics, +each of them a pair of lines), and 2μ − ν point-pairs (that is, +conics, each of them a pair of points,—coniques infiniment +aplaties), which is a fundamental one in the theory. The characteristics +of the system can be determined when it is known +how many there are of these two kinds of degenerate conics in +the system, and how often each is to be counted. It was thus +that Zeuthen (in the paper <i>Nyt Bydrag</i>, “Contribution to the +Theory of Systems of Conics which satisfy four Conditions” +(Copenhagen, 1865), translated with an addition in the <i>Nouvelles +Annales</i>) solved the question of finding the characteristics of the +systems of conics which satisfy four conditions of contact with +a given curve or curves; and this led to the solution of the further +problem of finding the number of the conics which satisfy five +conditions of contact with a given curve or curves (Cayley, +<i>Comptes Rendus</i>, t. lxiii., 1866; <i>Collected Works</i>, vol. v. p. 542), +and “On the Curves which satisfy given Conditions” (<i>Phil. +Trans.</i> t. clviii., 1868; <i>Collected Works</i>, vol. vi. p. 191).</p> + +<p>It may be remarked that although, as a process of investigation, +it is very convenient to seek for the characteristics of a system +of conics satisfying 4 conditions, yet what is really determined is +in every case the number of the conics which satisfy 5 conditions; +the characteristics of the system (4p) of the conics which pass +through 4p points are (5p), (4p, 1l), the number of the conics +which pass through 5 points, and which pass through 4 points and +touch 1 line: and so in other cases. Similarly as regards cubics, +or curves of any other order: a cubic depends on 9 constants, and +the elementary problems are to find the number of the cubics +(9p), (8p, 1l), &c., which pass through 9 points, pass through 8 +points and touch 1 line, &c.; but it is in the investigation convenient +to seek for the characteristics of the systems of cubics +(8p), &c., which satisfy 8 instead of 9 conditions.</p> + +<p>The elementary problems in regard to cubics are solved very +completely by S. Maillard in his <i>Thèse</i>, <i>Recherche des caractéristiques +des systèmes élémentaires des courbes planes du troisième ordre</i> +(Paris, 1871). Thus, considering the several cases of a cubic</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">No. of consts.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1. With a given cusp</td> <td class="tcc">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">2.  ”  cusp on a given line</td> <td class="tcc">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">3.  ”  cusp</td> <td class="tcc">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">4.  ”  a given node</td> <td class="tcc">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">5.  ”  node on given line</td> <td class="tcc">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">6.  ”  node</td> <td class="tcc">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">7. non-singular</td> <td class="tcc">9</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">he determines in every case the characteristics (μ, ν) of the +corresponding systems of cubics (4p), (3p, 1l), &c. The same +problems, or most of them, and also the elementary problems +in regard to quartics are solved by Zeuthen, who in the elaborate +memoir “Almindelige Egenskaber, &c.,” <i>Danish Academy</i>, t. x. +(1873), considers the problem in reference to curves of any order, +and applies his results to cubic and quartic curves.</p> + +<p>The methods of Maillard and Zeuthen are substantially +identical; in each case the question considered is that of finding +the characteristics (μ, ν) of a system of curves by consideration of +the special or degenerate forms of the curves included in the +system. The quantities which have to be considered are very +numerous. Zeuthen in the case of curves of any given order +establishes between the characteristics μ, ν, and 18 other +quantities, in all 20 quantities, a set of 24 equations (equivalent +to 23 independent equations), involving (besides the 20 quantities) +other quantities relating to the various forms of the degenerate +curves, which supplementary terms he determines, partially for +curves of any order, but completely only for quartic curves. +It is the discussion and complete enumeration of the special +or degenerate forms of the curves, and of the supplementary +terms to which they give rise, that the great difficulty of the +question seems to consist; it would appear that the 24 equations +are a complete system, and that (subject to a proper determination +of the supplementary terms) they contain the solution of +the general problem.</p> + +<p>17. <i>Degeneration of Curves.</i>—The remarks which follow have +reference to the analytical theory of the degenerate curves which +present themselves in the foregoing problem of the curves which +satisfy given conditions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A curve represented by an equation in point-co-ordinates may +break up: thus if P<span class="su">1</span>, P<span class="su">2</span>, ... be rational and integral functions of the +co-ordinates (x, y, z) of the orders m<span class="su">1</span>, m<span class="su">2</span> ... respectively, we have the +curve P<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">α1</span>P<span class="su">2</span><span class="sp">α2</span> ... = 0, of the order m, = α<span class="su">1</span>m<span class="su">1</span> + α<span class="su">2</span>m<span class="su">2</span> + ..., composed +of the curve P<span class="su">1</span> = 0 taken α<span class="su">1</span> times, the curve P<span class="su">2</span> = 0 taken α<span class="su">2</span> times, &c.</p> + +<p>Instead of the equation P<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">α1</span>P<span class="su">2</span><span class="sp">α2</span> ... = 0, we may start with an +equation u = 0, where u is a function of the order m containing +a parameter θ, and for a particular value say θ = 0, of the parameter +reducing itself to P<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">α1</span>P<span class="su">2</span><span class="sp">α2</span>.... Supposing θ indefinitely small, we +have what may be called the penultimate curve, and when θ = 0 the +ultimate curve. Regarding the ultimate curve as derived from a +given penultimate curve, we connect with the ultimate curve, and +consider as belonging to it, certain points called “summits” on +the component curves P<span class="su">1</span> = 0, P<span class="su">2</span> = 0 respectively; a summit Σ is +a point such that, drawing from an arbitrary point O the tangents +to the penultimate curve, we have OΣ as the limit of one of these +tangents. The ultimate curve together with its summits may be regarded +as a degenerate form of the curve u = 0. Observe that the +positions of the summits depend on the penultimate curve u = 0, +viz. on the values of the coefficients in the terms multiplied by +θ, θ², ...; they are thus in some measure arbitrary points as regards +the ultimate curve P<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">α1</span>P<span class="su">2</span><span class="sp">α2</span> ... = 0.</p> + +<p>It may be added that we have summits only on the component +curves P<span class="su">1</span> = 0, of a multiplicity α<span class="su">1</span> > 1; the number of summits on +such a curve is in general = (α<span class="su">1</span>² − α<span class="su">1</span>)m<span class="su">1</span>². Thus assuming that the +penultimate curve is without nodes or cusps, the number of the +tangents to it is = m² − m, = (α<span class="su">1</span>m<span class="su">1</span> + +α<span class="su">2</span>m<span class="su">2</span> + ...)² − (α<span class="su">1</span>m<span class="su">1</span> + α<span class="su">2</span>m<span class="su">2</span> + ...). +Taking P<span class="su">1</span> = 0 to have δ<span class="su">1</span> nodes and κ<span class="su">1</span> cusps, and therefore its class +n<span class="su">1</span> to be = m<span class="su">1</span>² − m<span class="su">1</span> − 2δ<span class="su">1</span> − 3κ<span class="su">1</span>, &c., the expression for the number of +tangents to the penultimate curve is</p> + +<p class="center">= (α<span class="su">1</span>² − α<span class="su">1</span>) m<span class="su">1</span>² + (α<span class="su">2</span>² − α<span class="su">2</span>) m<span class="su">2</span>² + ... + 2α<span class="su">1</span>α<span class="su">2</span>m<span class="su">1</span>m<span class="su">2</span> +<br /> ++ α<span class="su">1</span> (n<span class="su">1</span> + 2δ<span class="su">1</span> + 3κ<span class="su">1</span>) + α<span class="su">2</span> (n<span class="su">2</span> + 2δ<span class="su">2</span> + 3κ<span class="su">2</span>) + ...</p> + +<p class="noind">where a term 2α<span class="su">1</span>α<span class="su">2</span>m<span class="su">1</span>m<span class="su">2</span> indicates tangents which are in the limit +the lines drawn to the intersections of the curves P<span class="su">1</span> = 0, P<span class="su">2</span> = 0 each +line 2α<span class="su">1</span>α<span class="su">2</span> times; a term α<span class="su">1</span>(n<span class="su">1</span> + 2δ<span class="su">1</span> + 3κ<span class="su">1</span>) tangents which are in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page664" id="page664"></a>664</span> +limit the proper tangents to P<span class="su">1</span> = 0 each α<span class="su">1</span> times, the lines to its +nodes each 2α<span class="su">1</span> times, and the lines to its cusps each 3α<span class="su">1</span>, times; +the remaining terms (α<span class="su">1</span>² − α<span class="su">1</span>)m<span class="su">1</span>² + (α<span class="su">2</span>² − α<span class="su">2</span>)m<span class="su">2</span>² + ... indicate tangents +which are in the limit the lines drawn to the several summits, that is, +we have (α<span class="su">1</span>² − α<span class="su">1</span>)m<span class="su">1</span>² summits on the curve P<span class="su">1</span> = 0, &c.</p> + +<p>There is, of course, a precisely similar theory as regards line-co-ordinates; +taking Π<span class="su">1</span>, Π<span class="su">2</span>, &c., to be rational and integral functions +of the co-ordinates (ξ, η, ζ) we connect with the ultimate curve +Π<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">α1</span>Π<span class="su">2</span><span class="sp">α2</span> ... = 0, and consider as belonging to it, certain lines, which +for the moment may be called “axes” tangents to the component +curves Π<span class="su">1</span> = 0<span class="su">1</span>, Π<span class="su">2</span> = 0 respectively. Considering an equation in +point-co-ordinates, we may have among the component curves right +lines, and if in order to put these in evidence we take the equation +to be L<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">γ1</span> .. P<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">α1</span> ... = 0, where L<span class="su">1</span> = 0 is a right line, P<span class="su">1</span> = 0 a curve of +the second or any higher order, then the curve will contain as part +of itself summits not exhibited in this equation, but the corresponding +line-equation will be <span class="su">1</span>Λ<span class="sp">δ1</span> ... Π<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">α1</span> = 0, where Λ<span class="su">1</span> = 0,... are the +equations of the summits in question, Π<span class="su">1</span> = 0, &c., are the line-equations +corresponding to the several point-equations P<span class="su">1</span> = 0, &c.; +and this curve will contain as part of itself axes not exhibited by +this equation, but which are the lines L<span class="su">1</span> = 0,... of the equation in +point-co-ordinates.</p> +</div> + +<p>18. <i>Twisted Curves.</i>—In conclusion a little may be said as to +curves of double curvature, otherwise twisted curves or curves in +space. The analytical theory by Cartesian co-ordinates was first +considered by Alexis Claude Clairaut, <i>Recherches sur les courbes +à double courbure</i> (Paris, 1731). Such a curve may be considered +as described by a point, moving in a line which at the same +time rotates about the point in a plane which at the same time +rotates about the line; the point is a point, the line a tangent, +and the plane an osculating plane, of the curve; moreover the +line is a generating line, and the plane a tangent plane, of a +developable surface or torse, having the curve for its edge of +regression. Analogous to the order and class of a plane curve +we have the order, rank and class of the system (assumed to be +a geometrical one), viz. if an arbitrary plane contains m points, +an arbitrary line meets r lines, and an arbitrary point lies in +n planes, of the system, then m, r, n are the order, rank and +class respectively. The system has singularities, and there +exist between m, r, n and the numbers of the several singularities +equations analogous to Plücker’s equations for a plane +curve.</p> + +<p>It is a leading point in the theory that a curve in space cannot +in general be represented by means of two equations U = 0, V = 0; +the two equations represent surfaces, intersecting in a curve; +but there are curves which are not the complete intersection of +any two surfaces; thus we have the cubic in space, or skew +cubic, which is the residual intersection of two quadric surfaces +which have a line in common; the equations U = 0, V = 0 of the +two quadric surfaces represent the cubic curve, not by itself, but +together with the line.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—In addition to the copious authorities mentioned +in the text above, see Gabriel Cramer, <i>Introduction à l’analyse des +lignes courbes algébriques</i> (Geneva, 1750). Bibliographical articles are +given in the <i>Ency. der math. Wiss.</i> Bd. iii. 2, 3 (Leipzig, 1902-1906); +H. C. F. von Mangoldt, “Anwendung der Differential- und Integralrechnung +auf Kurven und Flächen,” Bd. iii. 3 (1902); F. R. v. Lilienthal, +“Die auf einer Fläche gezogenen Kurven,” Bd. iii. 3 (1902); +G. W. Scheffers, “Besondere transcendente Kurven,” Bd. iii. 3 +(1903); H. G. Zeuthen, “Abzahlende Methoden,” Bd. iii. 2 (1906); +L. Berzolari, “Allgemeine Theorie der höheren ebenen algebraischen +Kurven,” Bd. iii. 2 (1906). Also A. Brill and M. Noether, “Die +Entwicklung der Theorie der algebraischen Funktionen in älterer +und neuerer Zeit” (<i>Jahresb. der deutschen math. ver.</i>, 1894); E. +Kötter, “Die Entwickelung der synthetischen Geometrie” (<i>Jahresb. +der deutschen math. ver.</i>, 1898-1901); E. Pascal, <i>Repertorio di +matematiche superiori</i>, ii. “Geometrìa” (Milan, 1900); H. Wieleitner, +<i>Bibliographie der höheren algebraischen Kurven für den Zeitabschnitt +von 1890-1894</i> (Leipzig, 1905).</p> + +<p><i>Text-books</i>:—G. Salmon, <i>A Treatise on the Higher Plane Curves</i> +(Dublin, 1852, 3rd ed., 1879); translated into German by O. W. +Fiedler, <i>Analytische Geometrie der höheren ebenen Kurven</i> (Leipzig, +2te Aufl., 1882); L. Cremona, <i>Introduzione ad una teoria geometrica +delle curve piane</i> (Bologna, 1861); J. H. K. Durège, <i>Die ebenen +Kurven dritter Ordnung</i> (Leipzig, 1871); R. F. A. Clebsch and +C. L. F. Lindemann, <i>Vorlesungen über Geometrie</i>, Band i. and i<span class="su">2</span> +(Leipzig, 1875-1876); H. Schroeter, <i>Die Theorie der ebenen Kurven +dritter Ordnung</i> (Leipzig, 1888); H. Andoyer, <i>Leçons sur la théorie +des formes et la géométrie analytique supérieure</i> (Paris, 1900); Wieleitner, +<i>Theorie der ebenen algebraischen Kurven höherer Ordnung</i> +(Leipzig, 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Ca.; E. B. El.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In solid geometry infinity is a plane—its intersection with any +given plane being the right line which is the infinity of this given +plane.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURVILINEAR,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> in architecture, that which is formed by +curved or flowing lines; the roofs over the domes and vaults +of the Byzantine churches were generally curvilinear. The term +is also given to the flowing tracery of the Decorated and the +Flamboyant styles.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURWEN, HUGH<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (d. 1568), English ecclesiastic and statesman, +was a native of Westmorland, and was educated at Cambridge, +afterwards taking orders in the church. In May 1533 he expressed +approval of Henry VIII.’s marriage with Anne Boleyn +in a sermon preached before the king. In 1541 he became dean +of Hereford, and in 1555 Queen Mary nominated him to the +archbishopric of Dublin, and in the same year he was appointed +lord chancellor of Ireland. He acted as one of the lords justices +during the absence from Ireland of the lord deputy, the earl of +Sussex, in 1557. On the accession of Elizabeth, Curwen at once +accommodated himself to the new conditions by declaring +himself a Protestant, and was continued in the office of lord +chancellor. He was accused by the archbishop of Armagh of +serious moral delinquency, and his recall was demanded both +by the primate and the bishop of Meath. In 1567 Curwen +resigned the see of Dublin and the office of lord chancellor, +and was appointed bishop of Oxford. He died on the 1st of +November 1568.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See John Strype, <i>Life and Acts of Archbishop Parker</i> (3 vols., +Oxford, 1824), and <i>Memorials of Thomas Cranmer</i> (2 vols., Oxford, +1840); John D’Alton. <i>Memoirs of the Archbishops of Dublin</i> (Dublin, +1838).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURWEN, JOHN<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1816-1880), English Nonconformist minister +and founder of the Tonic Sol-Fa system of musical teaching, +was born at Heckmondwike, Yorkshire, of an old Cumberland +family. His father was a Nonconformist minister, and he himself +adopted this profession, which he practised till 1864, when he +gave it up in order to devote himself to his new method of +musical nomenclature, designed to avoid the use of the stave with +its lines and spaces. He adapted it from that of Miss Sarah Ann +Glover (1785-1867) of Norwich, whose Sol-Fa system was based +on the ancient gamut; but she omitted the constant recital of +the alphabetical names of each note and the arbitrary syllable +indicating key relationship, and also the recital of two or more +such syllables when the same note was common to as many keys +(<i>e.g.</i> “C, Fa, Ut,” meaning that C is the subdominant of G and +the tonic of C). The notes were represented by the initials of the +seven syllables, still in use in Italy and France as their names +but in the “Tonic Sol-Fa” the seven letters refer to key relationship +and not to pitch. Curwen was led to feel the importance +of a simple way of teaching how to sing by note by his experiences +among Sunday-school teachers. Apart from Miss Glover, the +same idea had been elaborated in France since J. J. Rousseau’s +time, by Pierre Galin (1786-1821), Aimé Paris (1798-1866) +and Emile Chevé (1804-1864), whose method of teaching how +to read at sight also depended on the principle of “tonic relationship” +being inculcated by the reference of every sound to its +tonic, by the use of a <i>numeral</i> notation. Curwen brought out his +<i>Grammar of Vocal Music</i> in 1843, and in 1853 started the Tonic +Sol-Fa Association; and in 1879, after some difficulties with +the education department, the Tonic Sol-Fa College was opened. +Curwen also took to publishing, and brought out a periodical +called the <i>Tonic Sol-fa Reporter</i>, and in his later life was occupied +in directing the spreading organization of his system. He died +at Manchester on the 26th of May 1880. His son John Spencer +Curwen (b. 1847), who became principal of the Tonic Sol-Fa +College, published <i>Memorials of J. Curwen</i> in 1882. The Sol-Fa +system has been widely adopted for use in education, as an easily +teachable method in the reading of music at sight, but its more +ambitious aims, which are strenuously pushed, for providing a +superior method of musical notation generally, have not recommended +themselves to musicians at large.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURZOLA<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (Serbo-Croatian <i>Korčula</i> or <i>Karkar</i>), an island +in the Adriatic Sea, forming part of Dalmatia, Austria; and +lying west of the Sabionicello promontory, from which it is +divided by a strait less than 2 m. wide. Its length is about 25 m.; +its average breadth, 4 m. Curzola (<i>Korčula</i>), the capital and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page665" id="page665"></a>665</span> +principal port, is a fortified town on the east coast, and occupies +a rocky foreland almost surrounded by the sea. Besides the +interesting church (formerly a cathedral), dating from the 12th +or 13th century, the <i>loggia</i> or council chambers, and the palace +of its former Venetian governors, it possesses the noble mansion +of the Arnieri, and other specimens of the domestic architecture +of the 15th and 16th centuries, together with the massive walls +and towers, erected in 1420, and the 15th-century Franciscan +monastery, with its beautiful Venetian Gothic cloister. The +main resources of the islanders are boat-building (for which +they are celebrated throughout the Adriatic), fishing and sea-faring, +the cultivation of the vine, corn and olives, and breeding +of mules. Pop. (1900) of island, 17,377; of capital (town and +commune), 6486. Prehistoric grave-mounds are common on +the hills of the interior, and in later times Curzola may have +been a Phoenician settlement. Its early history is very obscure, +but it was certainly colonized by Greeks from Cnidus. The +present name is a corruption of the Gr. <span class="grk" title="Kerkyra Melaina">Κέρκυρα Μέλαινα</span>, or +Lat. <i>Corcyra Nigra</i>, “Black Corcyra”; and is perhaps due +to the dark pines which still partly cover the island. In 998 +Curzola first came under Venetian suzerainty. During the 12th +century it was ruled by Hungary and Genoa in turn, and enjoyed +a brief period of independence; but after 1255 its hereditary +counts again submitted to Venice. The Roman Catholic see of +Curzola, created in 1301, was only suppressed in 1806. Curzola +surrendered to the Hungarians in 1358, was purchased by Ragusa +(1413-1417), and finally declared itself subject to Venice in 1420. +In 1571 it defended itself so gallantly against the Turks that +it obtained the designation <i>fidelissima</i>. From 1776 to 1797 it +succeeded Lesina as the main Venetian arsenal in this region. +During the Napoleonic wars it was ruled successively by Russians, +French and British, ultimately passing to Austria in 1815.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CURZON OF KEDLESTON, GEORGE NATHANIEL,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st +Baron</span> (1859-  ), English statesman, eldest son of the 4th +baron Scarsdale, rector of Kedleston, Derbyshire, was born on the +11th of January 1859, and was educated at Eton and Balliol +College, Oxford. At Oxford he was president of the Union, and +after a brilliant university career was elected a fellow of All Souls +College in 1883. He became assistant private secretary to Lord +Salisbury in 1885, and in 1886 entered parliament as member +for the Southport division of S.W. Lancashire. He was appointed +under secretary for India in 1891-1892 and for foreign affairs +in 1895-1898. In the meantime he had travelled in Central Asia, +Persia, Afghanistan, the Pamirs, Siam, Indo-China and Korea, +and published several books describing central and eastern Asia +and the political problems connected with those regions. In 1895 +he married Mary Victoria Leiter (d. 1906), daughter of a Chicago +millionaire. In January 1899 he was appointed governor-general +of India, where his extensive knowledge of Asiatic affairs +showed itself in the inception of a strong foreign policy, while he +took in hand the reform of every department of Indian administration. +He was created an Irish peer on his appointment, +the creation taking this form, it was understood, in order that +he might remain free during his father’s lifetime to re-enter the +House of Commons. Reaching India shortly after the suppression +of the frontier risings of 1897-98, he paid special +attention to the independent tribes of the north-west frontier, +inaugurated a new province called the North West Frontier +Province, and carried out a policy of conciliation mingled with +firmness of control. The only trouble on this frontier during +the period of his administration was the Mahsud Waziri campaign +of 1901. Being mistrustful of Russian methods he exerted +himself to encourage British trade in Persia, paying a visit to +the Persian Gulf in 1903; while on the north-east frontier he +anticipated a possible Russian advance by the Tibet Mission of +1903, which rendered necessary the employment of military force +for the protection of the British envoys. The mission, which had +the ostensible support of China as suzerain of Tibet, penetrated +to Lhasa, where a treaty was signed in September 1904. In +pursuance of his reforming policy Lord Curzon appointed a +number of commissions to inquire into Indian education, irrigation, +police and other branches of administration, on whose +reports legislation was based during his second term of office as +viceroy. With a view to improving British relations with the +native chiefs and raising the character of their rule, he established +the Imperial Cadet corps, settled the question of Berar with +the nizam of Hyderabad, reduced the salt tax, and gave relief +to the smaller income-tax payers. Lord Curzon exhibited much +interest in the art and antiquities of India, and during his +viceroyalty took steps for the preservation and restoration of +many important monuments and buildings of historic interest. +In January 1903 he presided at the durbar held at Delhi in honour +of the coronation of King Edward VII. It was attended by all +the leading native princes and by large numbers of visitors from +Europe and America; and the magnificence of the spectacle +surpassed anything that had previously been witnessed even in +the gorgeous ceremonial of the East. On the expiration of his +first term of office, Lord Curzon was reappointed governor-general. +His second term of office was marked by the passing +of several acts founded on the recommendations of his previous +commissions, and by the partition of Bengal (1905), which roused +bitter opposition amongst the natives of that province. A difference +of opinion with the commander-in-chief, Lord Kitchener, +regarding the position of the military member of council in +India, led to a controversy in which Lord Curzon failed to obtain +support from the home government. He resigned (1904) and +returned to England. In 1904 he was appointed lord warden +of the Cinque Ports; in the same year he was given the honorary +degree of D.C.L. by Oxford University, and in 1908 he was +elected chancellor of the university. In the latter year he was +elected a representative peer for Ireland, and thus relinquished +any idea of returning to the House of Commons. In 1909-1910 +he took an active part in defending the House of Lords against +the Liberals. Lord Curzon’s publications include <i>Russia in +Central Asia</i> (1889); <i>Persia and the Persian Question</i> (1892); +<i>Problems of the Far East</i> (1894; new ed., 1896).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Caldwell Lipsett, <i>Lord Curzon in India</i>, 1898-1903 (1906); and +C. J. O’Donnell, <i>The Failure of Lord Curzon</i> (1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUSANUS, NICOLAUS<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Nicholas of Cusa</span>) (1401-1464), +cardinal, theologian and scholar, was the son of a poor fisherman +named Krypffs or Krebs, and derived the name by which he is +known from the place of his birth, Kues or Cusa, on the Moselle, +in the archbishopric of Trier (Treves). In his youth he was +employed in the service of Count Ulrich of Manderscheid, who, +seeing in him evidence of exceptional ability, sent him to study +at the school of the Brothers of the Common Life at Deventer, +and afterwards at the university of Padua, where he took his +doctor’s degree in law in his twenty-third year. Failing in his +first case he abandoned the legal profession, and resolved to +take holy orders. After filling several subordinate offices he +became archdeacon of Liége. He was a member of the council of +Basel, and dedicated to the assembled fathers a work entitled +<i>De concordantia Catholica</i>, in which he maintained the superiority +of councils over popes, and assailed the genuineness of the False +Decretals and the Donation of Constantine. A few years later, +however, he had reversed his position, and zealously defended the +supremacy of the pope. He was entrusted with various missions +in the interests of Catholic unity, the most important being to +Constantinople, to endeavour to bring about a union of the +Eastern and Western churches. From 1440 to 1447 he was +in Germany, acting as papal legate at the diets of 1441, 1442, 1445 +and 1446. In 1448, in recognition of his services, Nicholas V. +raised him to the cardinalate; and in 1450 he was appointed +bishop of Brixen against the wish of Sigismund, archduke of +Austria, who opposed the reforms the new bishop sought to +introduce into the diocese. In 1451 he was sent to Germany +and the Netherlands to check ecclesiastical abuses and bring +back the monastic life to the original rule of poverty, chastity +and obedience—a mission which he discharged with well-tempered +firmness. Soon afterwards his dispute with the archduke +Sigismund in his own diocese was brought to a point by his +claiming certain dues of the bishopric, which the temporal prince +had appropriated. Upon this the bishop was imprisoned by the +archduke, who, in his turn, was excommunicated by the pope. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page666" id="page666"></a>666</span> +These extreme measures were not persisted in; but the dispute +remained unsettled at the time of the bishop’s death, which +occurred at Lodi in Umbria on the 11th of August 1464. In +1459 he had acted as governor of Rome during the absence of his +friend Pope Pius II. at the assembly of princes at Milan; and +he wrote his <i>Crebratio Alcorani</i>, a treatise against Mahommedanism, +in support of the expedition against the Turks +proposed at that assembly. Some time before his death he had +founded a hospital in his native place for thirty-three poor +persons, the number being that of the years of the earthly life +of Christ. To this institution he left his valuable library.</p> + +<p>Although one of the great leaders in the reform movement +of the 15th century, Nicholas of Cusa’s interest for later times +lies in his philosophical much more than in his political or ecclesiastical +activity. As in religion he is entitled to be called one of +the “Reformers before the Reformation,” so in philosophy he +was one of those who broke with scholasticism while it was still +the orthodox system. In his principal work, <i>De docta ignorantia</i> +(1440), supplemented by <i>De conjecturis libri</i> duo published in +the same year, he maintains that all human knowledge is mere +conjecture, and that man’s wisdom is to recognize his ignorance. +From scepticism he escapes by accepting the doctrine of the +mystics that God can be apprehended by intuition (<i>intuitio, +speculatio</i>), an exalted state of the intellect in which all limitations +disappear. God is the absolute maximum and also the absolute +minimum, who can be neither greater nor less than He is, and +who comprehends all that is or that can be (“deum esse omnia, +ut non possit esse aliud quam est”). Cusanus thus laid himself +open to the charge of pantheism, which did not fail to be brought +against him in his own day. His chief philosophical doctrine +was taken up and developed more than a hundred years later +by Giordano Bruno, who calls him the divine Cusanus. In +mathematical and physical science Cusanus was much in advance +of his age. In a tract, <i>Reparatio Calendarii</i>, presented to the +council of Basel, he proposed the reform of the calendar after +a method resembling that adopted by Gregory. In his <i>De +Quadratura Circuli</i> he professed to have solved the problem; +and in his <i>Conjectura de novissimis diebus</i> he prophesied that +the world would come to an end in 1734. Most noteworthy, +however, in this connexion is the fact that he anticipated +Copernicus by maintaining the theory of the rotation of the earth.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The works of Cusanus were published in a complete form by +Henri Petrie (1 vol. fol., Basel, 1565). See F. A. Scharpff’s <i>Der +Kardinal und Bischof Nikolaus von Cusa als Reformator in Kirche, +Reich, und Philos. des 15. Jahrhund</i>. (Tübingen, 1871); J. M. Düx, +<i>Der deutsche Kard. Nicolaus von Cusa und die Kirche seiner Zeit</i> +(Regensburg, 1848); R. Falckenberg, <i>Grundzüge d. Philos. d. Nikolaus +Cusanus</i> (Breslau, 1880) and <i>Aufgabe und Wesen d. Erkenntniss +bei Nikolaus von Kues</i> (Breslau, 1880); T. Stumpf, <i>Die politischen +Ideen des Nikolaus von Cues</i> (Cologne, 1865); M. Glossner, <i>Nikolaus +von Cusa und Marius Nizolius als Vorläufer der neueren Philosophie</i> +(Münster, 1891); F. Fiorentino, <i>Il Risorgimento filosofico nel +quattro cento</i> (Naples, 1885); Axel Herrlin, <i>Studier i Nicolaus af +Cues’ Filosofi</i> (Lund, 1892); H. Höffding, <i>Hist. of Mod. Phil.</i> (Eng. +trans., 1900), bk. i. chap. x.; F. J. Clemens, <i>Giordano Bruno und +Nikolaus Cusanus</i> (Bonn, 1847); R. Zimmermann, <i>Der Card. +Nikolaus Cusanus als Vorläufer Leibnitzens</i> (Vienna, 1852); J. +Übinger, Philosophie des Nikolaus Cusanus (Würzburg, 1881); art. +by R. Schmid in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyk.</i> s.v. “Cusanus”; see +also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mysticism</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUSH,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> the eldest son of Ham, in the Bible, from whom seems to +have been derived the name of the “Land of Cush,” commonly +rendered “Ethiopia” by the Septuagint and by the Vulgate. +The locality of the land of Cush has long been a much-vexed +question. Bochart maintained that it was exclusively in Arabia; +Schulthess and Gesenius held that it should be sought for nowhere +but in Africa (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethiopia</a></span>). Others again, like Michaelis and +Rosenmüller, have supposed that the name Cush was applied to +tracts of country both in Arabia and in Africa, but the defective +condition of the ancient knowledge of countries and peoples, +as also the probability of early migrations of “Cushite” tribes +(carrying with them their name), will account for the main facts. +The existence of an African Cush cannot reasonably be questioned, +though the term is employed in the Old Testament with some +latitude. The African Cush covers Upper Egypt, and extends +southwards from the first cataract (Syene, Ezek. xxix. 10). +That the term was also applied to parts of Arabia is evident from +Gen. x. 7, where Cush is the “father” of certain tribal and +ethnical designations, all of which point very clearly to Arabia, +with the very doubtful exception of Seba, which Josephus (<i>Ant.</i> +ii. 10. 2) identifies with Meroë.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Even in the 5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +the Himyarites, in the south of Arabia, were styled by Syrian +writers Cushaeans and Ethiopians. Moreover, the Babylonian +inscriptions mention the Kashshi, an Elamite race, whose name +has been equated with the classical <span class="grk" title="Kossaioi">Κοσσαῖοι</span>, <span class="grk" title="Kissioi">Κίσσιοι</span>, and it +has been held that this affords a more appropriate explanation +of Cush (perhaps rather Kash), the ancestor of (the Babylonian) +Nimrod in Gen. x. 8. Although decisive evidence is lacking, it +seems extremely probable that several references to Cush in the +Old Testament cannot refer to Ethiopia, despite the likelihood +that considerable confusion existed in the minds of early writers. +The Cushite invasion in 2 Chron. xiv. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Asa</a></span>) is intelligible if +the historical foundation for the story be a raid by Arabians, +but in xvi. 8 the inclusion of Libyans shows that the enemy was +subsequently supposed to be African. In several passages the +interpretation is bound up with that of Mizraim (<i>q.v.</i>), and +depends in general upon the question whether Ethiopia at a +given time enjoyed the prominence given to it.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>On Num. xii. I see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jethro</a></span>; and consult H. Winckler, <i>Keil. u. +das alte Test.</i>, 3rd ed., p. 144 sq., and <i>Im Kampfe um den alten Orient</i>, +ii. pp. 36 seq., and the literature cited under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mizraim</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For Seba, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sabaeans</a></span>, and cf. generally the commentaries +on Gen. x. 7. In Hab. iii. 7 Cushan (obviously a related form) is +parallel to Midian.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUSHING, CALEB<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (1800-1879), American political leader +and lawyer, was born in Salisbury, Massachusetts, on the 17th +of January 1800. He graduated at Harvard in 1817, was tutor +in mathematics there in 1820-1821, was admitted to practice +in the court of common pleas in December 1821, and began the +practice of law in Newburyport, Mass., in 1824. After serving, +as a Democratic-Republican, in the state house of representatives +in 1825, in the state senate in 1826, and in the house again in +1828, he spent two years, from 1829 to 1831, in Europe, again +served in the state house of representatives in 1833 and 1834, +and in the latter year was elected by the Whigs a representative +in Congress. He served in this body from 1835 until 1843, and +here the marked inconsistency which characterized his public +life became manifest; for when John Tyler had become president, +had been “read out” of the Whig party, and had vetoed Whig +measures (including a tariff bill), for which Cushing had voted, +Cushing first defended the vetoes and then voted again for the +bills. In 1843 President Tyler nominated him for secretary of +the treasury, but the senate refused to confirm him for this office. +He was, however, appointed later in the same year commissioner +of the United States to China, holding this position until 1845, +and in 1844 negotiating the first treaty between China and the +United States. In 1847, while again a representative in the +state legislature, he introduced a bill appropriating money for +the equipment of a regiment to serve in the Mexican War; +although the bill was defeated, he raised the necessary funds +privately, and served in Mexico first as colonel and afterwards +as brigadier-general of volunteers. In 1847 and again in 1848 +the Democrats nominated him for governor of Massachusetts, but +on each occasion he was defeated at the polls. He was again a +representative in the state legislature in 1851, became an associate +justice of the supreme court of Massachusetts in 1852, and during +the administration (1853-1857) of President Pierce, was attorney-general +of the United States. In 1858, 1859, 1862 and 1863 he +again served in the state house of representatives. In 1860 he +presided over the National Democratic Convention which met +first at Charleston and later at Baltimore, until he joined those +who seceded from the regular convention; he then presided also +over the convention of the seceding delegates, who nominated +John C. Breckinridge for the presidency. During the Civil War, +however, he supported the National Administration. At the +Geneva conference for the settlement of the “Alabama” claims +in 1871-1872 he was one of the counsel for the United States. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page667" id="page667"></a>667</span> +In 1873 President Grant nominated him for chief justice of the +United States, but in spite of his great learning and eminence +at the bar, his ante-war record and the feeling of distrust experienced +by many members of the senate on account of his +inconsistency, aroused such vigorous opposition that his nomination +was soon withdrawn. From 1874 to 1877 Cushing was +United States minister to Spain. He died at Newburyport, +Mass., on the 2nd of January 1879. He published <i>History +and Present State of the Town of Newburyport, Mass.</i> (1826); +<i>Review of the late Revolution in France</i> (1833); <i>Reminiscences +of Spain</i> (1833); <i>Oration on the Growth and Territorial Progress +of the United States</i> (1839); <i>Life and Public Services of +William H. Harrison</i> (1840); and <i>The Treaty of Washington</i> +(1873).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUSHING, WILLIAM BARKER<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (1842-1874), American naval +officer, was born in Delafield, Wisconsin, on the 4th of November +1842. He entered the Naval Academy from New York in 1857, +but resigned in March 1861. When, however, the Civil War +began, he volunteered into the navy, was rated acting master’s +mate, and became a midshipman in October 1861, and a lieutenant +in July 1862, serving in the North Atlantic blockading squadron. +The work of blockade, and of harassing the Confederates on the +coast and the rivers of the Atlantic seaboard, called for much +service in boats, and entailed a great deal of exposure. Cushing +was distinguished by his readiness to volunteer, his indefatigability, +and by his good fortune, the reward of vigilance and +intelligence. The feat by which he will be remembered was the +destruction of the Confederate ironclad “Albemarle” in the +Roanoke river on the 27th of October in 1864. The vessel had +done much damage to the Federal naval forces, and her destruction +was greatly desired. She was at anchor surrounded by +baulks of timber, and a cordon of boats had been stationed to +row guard against an expected Federal attack. Lieutenant +Cushing undertook the attack on her with a steam launch carrying +a spar-torpedo and towing an armed cutter. He eluded the +Confederate lookout and reached the “Albemarle” unseen. +When close to he was detected, but he had time to drive the +steam launch over the baulks and to explode the torpedo against +the “Albemarle” with such success that a hole was made in her +and she sank. Cushing’s own launch was destroyed. He and +the few men with him were compelled to take to the water; +one was killed, another was drowned, Cushing and one other +escaped, and the rest were captured. Cushing himself swam to +the swamps on the river bank, and after wading among them +for hours reached a Federal picket boat. For destroying the +“Albemarle” he was thanked by Congress and was promoted +to be lieutenant-commander. On the 15th of January 1865 he +took a conspicuous part in the land attack on the sea-front wall +of Fort Fisher. After the war he commanded the “Lancaster” +(1866-1867) and the “Maumee” (1868-1869) in the Asiatic +Squadron. In 1872 he was promoted commander at what was +an exceptionally early age, but he died on the 17th of December +1874 of brain fever. He had suffered extreme pain for years +before his death, and in fact broke down altogether under disease +contracted in the discharge of his duty.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUSHION<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (from O. Fr. <i>coisson</i>, <i>coussin</i>; according to the +<i>New English Dict.</i>, from Lat. <i>coxa</i>, a hip; others say from Lat. +<i>culcita</i>, a quilt), a soft bag of some ornamental material, stuffed +with wool, hair, feathers, or even paper torn into fragments. It +may be used for sitting or kneeling upon, or to soften the hardness +or angularity of a chair or couch. It is a very ancient article +of furniture, the inventories of the contents of palaces and great +houses in the early middle ages constantly making mention of it. +It was then often of great size, covered with leather, and firm +enough to serve as a seat, but the steady tendency of all furniture +has been to grow smaller. It was, indeed, used as a seat, at all +events in France and Spain, at a very much later period, and in +Saint-Simon’s time we find that at the Spanish court it was still +regarded as a peculiarly honourable substitute for a chair. In +France the right to kneel upon a cushion in church behind the +king was jealously guarded and strictly regulated, as we may +learn again from Saint-Simon. This type of cushion was called +a <i>carreau</i> or square. When seats were rude and hard the cushion +may have been a necessity; it is now one of the minor luxuries +of life.</p> + +<p>The term “cushion” is given in architecture to the sides of +the Ionic capital. It is also applied to an early and simple form +of the Romanesque capitals of Germany and England, which +consist of cubical masses, square at the top and rounded off at +the four corners, so as to reduce the lower diameter to a circle of +the same size as the shaft.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUSHMAN, CHARLOTTE SAUNDERS<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (1816-1876), American +actress, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 23rd of July +1816. Her father, a West India merchant, left his family in +straitened circumstances, and Charlotte, who had a fine contralto +voice, went on the operatic stage. In 1835 she successfully +appeared at the Tremont theatre as the countess Almaviva in +<i>The Marriage of Figaro</i>. But her singing voice failing her she +entered the drama, and played Lady Macbeth in the same year. +She then engaged herself as a stock actress, but was soon given +leading parts. In 1842 she managed and played in the Walnut +Street theatre in Philadelphia. She accompanied Macready on +an American tour, winning a great reputation in tragedy, and in +1845 and in 1854-1855 she fulfilled successful engagements in +London. She was a keen student, and acquired a large range of +classic rôles. Her best parts were perhaps Lady Macbeth and +Queen Katherine, her most popular Meg Merrilies, in a dramatization +of Scott’s <i>Guy Mannering</i>. Her figure was commanding +and her face expressive, and she was animated by a temperament +full of vigour and fire. These qualities enabled her to play with +success such male parts as Romeo and Cardinal Wolsey. During +her later years Miss Cushman worked hard as a dramatic reader, +in which capacity she was much appreciated. Her last appearance +on the stage took place on the 15th of May 1875, at the +Globe theatre, Boston, in which city she died on the 18th of +February 1876.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Emma Stebbins’s <i>Charlotte Cushman, her Letters and Memories +of her Life</i> (Boston, 1878); H. A. Clapp’s <i>Reminiscences of a Dramatic +Critic</i> (Boston, 1902); and W. T. Price, <i>A Life of Charlotte Cushman</i> +(New York, 1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUSP<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (Lat. <i>cuspis</i>, a spear, point), a projecting point, or pointed +end. In architecture (Fr. <i>feuille</i>, Ital. <i>cuspide</i>, Ger. <i>Knöpfe</i>), +a cusp is the point where the foliations of tracery intersect. +The earliest example of a plain cusp is probably that at Pythagoras +school, at Cambridge,—of an ornamented cusp at Ely +cathedral, where a small roll, with a rosette at the end, is formed +at the termination of a cusp. In the later styles the terminations +of the cusps were more richly decorated; they also sometimes +terminate not only in leaves or foliages, but in rosettes, heads and +other fanciful ornaments. The term “feathering” is used of +the junction of the foliated cusps in window tracery, but is +usually restricted to those cases where it is ornamented with +foliage, &c.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUSTARD<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> APPLE,<a name="ar129a" id="ar129a"></a></span> a name applied to the fruit of various +species of the genus <i>Anona</i>, natural order <i>Anonaceae</i>. The +members of this genus are shrubs or small trees having alternate, +exstipulate leaves, and flowers with three small sepals, six petals +arranged in a double row and numerous stamens. The fruit +of <i>A. reticulata</i>, the common custard apple, or “bullock’s heart” +of the West Indies, is dark brown in colour, and marked with +depressions, which give it a quilted appearance; its pulp is +reddish-yellow, sweetish and very soft (whence the name); +the kernels of the seeds are said to be poisonous. The sour-sop +is the fruit of <i>A. muricata</i>, native of the West Indies. The plant, +which is a small tree, has become naturalized in some parts of +India where it is extensively cultivated, as elsewhere in the +tropics. It is covered with soft prickles, is of a light-greenish hue, +and has a peculiar but agreeable sour taste, and a scent resembling +that of black currants. The sweet-sop is produced by <i>A. squamosa</i>, +also a native of the West Indies and widely cultivated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page668" id="page668"></a>668</span> +in the tropics. It is known as the custard apple by Europeans +in India. It is an egg-shaped fruit, with a thick rind and luscious +pulp. An acrid principle, fatal to insects, is contained in its +seeds, leaves and unripe fruits, which, powdered and mixed with +the flour of gram (<i>Cicer arietinum</i>), are used to destroy vermin. +<i>A. Cherimolia</i> yield the Peruvian cherimoyer, which is held to +be a fruit of very superior flavour, and is much esteemed by the +creoles. <i>A. palustris</i>, alligator apple, or cork-wood, a native +of South America and the West Indies, is valued for its wood, +which serves the same purposes as cork; the fruit, commonly +known as the alligator-apple, is not eaten, being reputed to contain +a dangerous narcotic principle.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The term “custard,” now given to a dish made with eggs beaten +up with milk, &c., and either served in liquid form or baked to a +stiff consistency, originally denoted a kind of open pie. It represents +the older form “crustade,” Fr. <i>croustade</i>, Ital. <i>crostata</i>, from <i>crostare</i>, +to encrust.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUSTER, GEORGE ARMSTRONG<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (1839-1876), American +cavalry soldier, was born in New Rumley, Harrison county, +Ohio, on the 5th of December 1839. He graduated from West +Point in 1861, and was at once sent to the theatre of war in +Virginia, joining his regiment on the battlefield of Bull Run. +Afterwards he served on the staff of General Kearny, and on that +of General W. F. Smith in the Peninsular Campaign. His daring +and energy, and in particular a spirited reconnaissance on the +Chickahominy river, brought him to the notice of General +McClellan, who made him an aide-de-camp on his own staff, +with the rank of captain. A few hours afterwards Custer +attacked a Confederate picket post and drove back the enemy. +He continued to serve with McClellan until the general was +relieved of his command, when Custer returned to duty with +his regiment as a lieutenant. Early in 1863 General Pleasonton +selected him as his aide-de-camp, and in June 1863 Custer was +promoted to the rank of brigadier-general of volunteers. He +distinguished himself at the head of the Michigan cavalry brigade +in the battle of Gettysburg, and frequently did good service in +the remaining operations of the campaign of 1863. When the +cavalry corps of the Army of the Potomac was reorganized +under Sheridan in 1864, Custer retained his command, and took +part in the various actions of the cavalry in the Wilderness and +Shenandoah campaigns. At the end of September 1864, he was +appointed to command a division, and on the 9th of October +fought, along with General Merritt, the brilliant cavalry action +called the battle of Woodstock. Soon afterwards he was made +brevet-major-general, U.S.V., having already won the brevets +of major, lieutenant-colonel and colonel U.S.A., for his services +at Gettysburg, Yellow Tavern and Winchester. His part in +the decisive battle of Cedar Creek (<i>q.v.</i>) was most conspicuous. +He served with Sheridan in the last great cavalry raid, won the +action of Waynesboro, and in the final campaign added to his +laurels by his conduct at Dinwiddie and Five Forks, and in +other operations. At the close of the war he received the brevets +of brigadier and major-general in the regular army, and was +promoted major-general of volunteers. In 1866 Custer was +made lieutenant-colonel of the 7th U.S. Cavalry, and took part +under General Hancock in the expedition against the Cheyenne +Indians, upon whom he inflicted a crushing defeat at Washita +river on the 27th of November 1868. In 1873 he was sent to +Dakota Territory to serve against the Sioux.</p> + +<p>In 1876 an expedition, of which Custer and his regiment formed +part, was made against the Sioux and their allies. As the +advanced guard of the troops under General Terry, Custer’s +force arrived at the junction of Big Horn and Little Big Horn +rivers, in what is now the state of Montana, on the night of +June 24; the main body was due to join him on the 26th. +Unfortunately, the presence of what was judged to be a small +isolated force of Indians was reported to the general. On the 25th, +dividing his regiment into three parties, he moved forward to +surround this force. But instead of meeting only a small force of +Indians, the 7th were promptly attacked by the full forces of +the enemy. The flanking columns maintained themselves with +difficulty until Terry came up. Custer and 264 men of the centre +column rode into the midst of the enemy and were slaughtered +to a man.</p> + +<p>The general’s wife, <span class="sc">Elizabeth Bacon Custer</span>, who accompanied +him in many of his frontier expeditions, wrote <i>Boots and +Saddles, Life with General Custer in Dakota</i> (1885), <i>Tenting on the +Plains</i> (1887) and <i>Following the Guidon</i> (1891). General Custer +himself wrote <i>My Life on the Plains</i> (1874).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Whittaker, <i>Life of General George A. Custer</i> (1876).</p> +</div> + +<p>His brother <span class="sc">Thomas Ward Custer</span> (1845-1876), in spite of +his youth, fought in the early campaigns of the Civil War. Becoming +aide-de-camp to General Custer, he accompanied him +throughout the latter part of the war, distinguishing himself +by his daring on all occasions, and winning successively the +brevets of captain, major and lieutenant-colonel, though he was +barely twenty years of age when the war ended. He was first +lieutenant in the 7th cavalry when he fell with his brother at the +Little Big Horn.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUSTINE, ADAM PHILIPPE,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1740-1793), French +general, began his military career in the Seven Years’ War. +He next served with distinction against the English in the War +of American Independence. In 1789 he was elected to the +states-general by the <i>bailliage</i> of Metz. In October 1791 he +again joined the army, with the rank of lieutenant-general and +became popular with the soldiers, amongst whom he was known +as “<i>général moustache</i>.” General-in-chief of the army of the +Vosges, he took Spires, Worms, Mainz and Frankfort in September +and October 1792. He carried on the revolutionary propaganda +by proclamations, and levied heavy taxes on the nobility +and clergy. During the winter a Prussian army forced him to +evacuate Frankfort, re-cross the Rhine and fall back upon +Landau. He was accused of treason, defended by Robespierre, +and sent back to the army of the north. But he dared not take +the offensive, and did nothing to save Condé, which the Austrians +were besieging. Sent to Paris to justify himself, he was found +guilty by the Revolutionary Tribunal of having intrigued with +the enemies of the republic, and guillotined on the 28th of August +1793. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolutionary Wars</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Rambaud, <i>Les Français sur le Rhin</i> (Paris, 1880); A. +Chuquet, <i>Les Guerres de la Révolution</i> (1886-1895; vol. vi. “L’Expédition +de Custine”).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUSTOM<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (from O. Fr. <i>custume</i>, <i>costume</i> or <i>coustume</i>; Low Lat. +<i>costuma</i>, a shortened form of <i>consuetudo</i>), in general, a habit or +practice. Thus a tradesman calls those who deal with him his +“customers,” and the trade resulting as their “custom.” The +word is also used for a toll or tax levied upon goods; there was +at one time a distinction between the tax on goods exported or +imported, termed <i>magna custuma</i> (the great custom), and that +on goods taken to market within the realm, termed <i>parva +custuma</i> (the little custom), but the word is now used in this +sense only in the plural, to signify the duties levied upon imported +goods. It is also used as a name for that department of the +public service which is employed in levying the duty.</p> + +<p>In law, such long-continued usage as has by common consent +become a rule of conduct is termed custom. Jessel, M. R. +(<i>Hammerton</i> v. <i>Honey</i>, 24 W. R. 603), has defined it as “local +common law. It is common law because it is not statute law; +it is local law because it is the law of a particular place, as distinguished +from the general common law. Local common law is +the law of the country (<i>i.e.</i> particular place) as it existed before +the time of legal memory.” There has been much discussion +among jurists as to whether custom can properly be reckoned +a source of law (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jurisprudence</a></span>). As to the distinction +between prescription (which is a personal claim) and custom, see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prescription</a></span>. The adoption of local customs by the judiciary +has undoubtedly been the origin of a great portion of the English +common law. Blackstone divides custom into (1) general, +which is the common law properly so called, and (2) particular, +which affects only the inhabitants of particular districts. The +requisites necessary to make a particular custom good are: +(1) it must have been used so long that the memory of man +runneth not to the contrary; (2) it must have been continued, +and (3) enjoyed peaceably; (4) it must be reasonable, and (5) +certain; (6) it must be compulsory, and not left to the option +of every man whether he will use it or no; (7) it must be consistent +with other customs, for one custom cannot be set up in +opposition to another. Customs may be of various kinds, for +example, customs of merchants, customs of a certain district +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page669" id="page669"></a>669</span> +(such as gavelkind and borough English), customs of a particular +manor, &c. The word custom is also generally employed for the +<i>usage</i> of a particular trade or market; for a trade custom to be +established to the satisfaction of the law it must be a uniform +and universal practice so well defined and recognized that contracting +parties must be assumed to have had it in their minds +when they contracted (Russell, C. J., <i>Fox-Bourne</i> v. <i>Vernon</i>, 10 +<i>Times</i> Rep. 649).</p> + +<p>In the history of France the term “custom” was given to +those special usages of different districts which had grown up +into a body of local law, as the “custom of Paris,” the “custom +of Normandy” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>Law and Institutions</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUSTOMARY FREEHOLD,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> in English law, a species of tenure +which may be described as a variety of copyhold. It is also +termed privileged copyhold or copyhold of frank tenure. It is +a tenure by copy of court roll, but not expressed to be at the +will of the lord. It is, in fact, only a superior kind of copyhold, +and the freehold is in the lord. It is subject to the general law +of copyholds, except where the law may be varied by the custom +of the particular manor. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Copyhold</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUSTOM-HOUSE,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> the house or office appointed by a government +where the taxes or duties (if any) are collected upon the +importation and exportation of commodities; where duties, +bounties or drawbacks payable or receivable upon exportation +or importation are paid or received, and where vessels are entered +and cleared. In the United Kingdom there is usually a custom-house +established at every port or harbour to which any considerable +amount of shipping resorts, the officer in charge being called +“collector of customs”; in the minor ports the officer is usually +termed “superintendent of customs” or “principal coast +officer.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUSTOM DUTIES,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> the name given to taxes on the import +and export of commodities. They rank among the most ancient, +as they continue to prevail as one of the most common modes, in +all countries, of levying revenue for public purposes. In an +insular country like the United Kingdom customs duties came +in process of time to be levied only or chiefly in the seaports, and +thus applied only to the foreign commerce, where they may be +brought under the control of fair and reasonable principles of +taxation. But this simplification of customs duties was only +reached by degrees; and during a long period special customs +were levied on goods passing between England and Scotland; +and the trade of Ireland with Great Britain and with foreign +countries was subjected to fiscal regulations which could not +now stand in the light of public reason. The taxes levied, on +warrant of some ancient grant or privilege, upon cattle or goods +at a bridge or a ferry or other point of passage from one county +or province to another, of which there are some lingering remains +even in the United Kingdom, and those levied at the gates of +cities on the produce of the immediate country—a not uncommon +form of municipal taxation on the European continent—are all +of the nature of customs dues. It is from the universality of this +practice that the English term “customs” appears to have been +derived.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Taxation</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Protection</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tariff</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUSTOS ROTULORUM,<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> the keeper of the English county +records, and by virtue of that office the highest civil officer in +the county. The appointment until 1545 lay with the lord +chancellor, but is now exercised by the crown under the royal +sign-manual, and is usually held by a person of rank, most +frequently the lord-lieutenant of the county. He is one of the +justices of the peace. In practice the records are in the custody +of the clerk of the peace. This latter official was, until 1888, +appointed by the <i>custos rotulorum</i>, but since the passing of the +Local Government Act of that year, the appointment is made +by the standing joint-committee of the county council. Lambarde +described the <i>custos rotulorum</i> as a “man for the most part +especially picked out either for wisdom, countenance or credit.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUSTOZZA,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> a village of Italy, in the province of Verona, +11 m. S.W. of Verona, famous as the scene of two battles between +the Austrians and the Italians in the struggle for Italian unity. +The first battle of Custozza was fought on the 23rd-25th of July +1848, the Austrians commanded by Field-Marshal Radetzky +being victorious over the Piedmontese army under King Charles +Albert. The second battle was fought on the 24th of June 1866, +and resulted in the complete victory of the Austrians under the +archduke Albert, over the Italian army of King Victor Emmanuel +I. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Italian Wars</a></span>, 1848-1870.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CÜSTRIN<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Küstrin</span>, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of +Prussia, a fortress of the first rank, at the confluence of the Oder +and Warthe, 18 m. N.E. from Frankfort-on-Oder and 51 m. N.E. +of Berlin by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,473 (including the garrison). +It consists of the town proper within the strong fortifications, +a suburb on the left bank of the Oder, and one on the right bank +of the Warthe. There are three Evangelical churches and one +Roman Catholic, and a handsome town hall. There are bridges +over both rivers. Cüstrin has some manufactories of potato-meal, +machinery, pianos, furniture, cigars, &c., and there is a +considerable river trade.</p> + +<p>About 1250 a town was erected on the site of Cüstrin, where a +fishing village originally stood. From 1535 till 1571 it was the +residence of John, margrave of Brandenburg-Cüstrin, who died +without male heirs in 1571. Cüstrin was the prison of Frederick +the Great when crown-prince, and the scene of the execution +of his friend Hans Hermann von Katte on the 6th of November +1730.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUTCH,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kach</span>, a native state of India within the Gujarat +division of Bombay, with an area of 7616 sq. m. It is a peninsular +tract of land, enclosed towards the W. by the eastern branch of +the Indus, on the S. by the Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Cutch, +and on the N. and E. towards the interior, by the great northern +Runn, a salt morass or lake. The interior of Cutch is studded +with hills of considerable elevation, and a range of mountains +runs through it from east to west, many of them of the most +fantastic shapes, with large isolated masses of rock scattered +in all directions. The general appearance of Cutch is barren and +uninteresting. The greater part is a rock destitute of soil, and +presenting the wildest aspect; the ground is cold, poor and +sterile; and the whole face of the country bears marks of volcanic +action. From the violence of tyranny, and the rapine of a disorderly +banditti, by which this district long suffered, as well as +from shocks of earthquakes, the villages have a ruinous and dilapidated +appearance; and, with the exception of a few fields in their +neighbourhood, the country presents a rocky and sandy waste, +with in many places scarcely a show of vegetation. Water is +scarce and brackish, and is chiefly found at the bottom of low +ranges of hills, which abound in some parts; and the inhabitants +of the extensive sandy tracts suffer greatly from the want of it. +Owing to the uncertainty of the periodical rains in Cutch, the +country is liable to severe famines, and it has suffered greatly +from plague.</p> + +<p>The temperature of Cutch during the hot season is high, the +thermometer frequently rising to 100° or 105° F.; and in the +months of April and May clouds of dust and sand, blown about +by hurricanes, envelop the houses, the glass windows scarcely +affording any protection. The influence of the monsoon is +greatly moderated before it reaches this region, and the rains +sometimes fail altogether. Bhuj, the capital of the state, is +situated inland, and is surrounded by an amphitheatre of hills, +some of which approach within 3 or 4 m. of the city. The hill of +Bhuja, on which the fort is situated, rises to the height of 500 ft. +in the middle of the plain, and is detached from other high ground. +The residency is 4 m. distant in a westerly direction. There are +many mountain streams, but no navigable rivers. They contain +scarcely any water except in the rainy season, when they are +very full and rapid, and discharge themselves into the Runn, +all along the coast of which the wells and springs are more or +less impregnated with common salt and other saline ingredients.</p> + +<p>Various causes have contributed to thin the population of this +country. In 1813 it was ravaged by a famine and pestilence, +which destroyed a great proportion of its inhabitants,—according +to some accounts, nearly one-half. This, joined to the tyranny +and violence of the government until the year 1819, and subsequently +to a succession of unfavourable seasons, forced many +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page670" id="page670"></a>670</span> +of the cultivators to remove to Sind and other countries. The +inhabitants numbered 488,022 in 1901, being a decrease of 13% +during the decade, due to the famines of 1899-1900. One-third +are Mahommedans and the remainder Hindus of various castes. +The Jareja Rajputs form a particular class, being the aristocracy +of the country; and all are more or less connected with the family +of the rao or prince. There are in Cutch about 200 of these Jareja +chiefs, who all claim their descent from a prince who reigned +in Sind about 1000 years ago. From him also the reigning +sovereign is lineally descended, and he is the liege lord of whom +all the chiefs or nobles hold their lands in feu, for services which +they or their ancestors had performed, or in virtue of their +relationship to the family. They are all termed the brotherhood +of the rao or Bhayad, and supposed to be his hereditary advisers, +and their possessions are divided among their male children. +To prevent the breaking down of their properties, the necessary +consequence of this law of inheritance, there is no doubt that +infanticide was common among them, and that it extended to +the male as well as the female progeny, but it has been put down +by the Infanticide Rules, which provide for the registration of +Jareja children. The Jarejas have a tradition that when they +entered Cutch they were Mahommedans, but that they afterward +adopted the customs and religion of the Hindus. It is +certain, indeed, that they still retain many Mahommedan customs. +They take oaths equally on the Koran or on the Shastras; they +employ Mussulman books; they eat from their hands; the rao, +when he appears in public, alternately worships God in a Hindu +pagoda and a Mahommedan mosque; and he fits out annually +at Mandvi a ship for the conveyance of pilgrims to Mecca, who +are maintained during the voyage chiefly by the liberality of +the prince. The Mahommedans in Cutch are of the same +degenerate class as those usually found in the western parts of +India. The natives are in general of a stronger and stouter make, +and even handsomer, than those of western India; and the +women of the higher classes are also handsome. The peasants are +described as intelligent, and the artizans are justly celebrated +for their ingenuity and mechanical skill. The palace at Mandvi, +and a tomb of one of their princes at Bhuj, are fair specimens +of their architectural skill. The estimated gross revenue is +£126,322. There are special manufactures of silver filigree-work +and embroidery. The maritime population supplies the best +sailors in India. There are cotton presses and ginning factories.</p> + +<p>The country of Cutch was invaded about the 13th century +by a body of Mahommedans of the Summa tribe, who under +the guidance of five brothers emigrated from Sind, and who +gradually subdued or expelled the original inhabitants, consisting +of three distinct races. Cutch continued tranquil under their +sway for many years, until some family quarrel arose, in which +the chief of an elder branch of the tribe was murdered by a rival +brother. His son Khengayi fled to Ahmedabad to seek the assistance +of the viceroy, who reinstated him in the sovereignty of +Cutch, and Morvi in Káthiáwár, and in the title of rao, about the +year 1540. The succession continued in the same line from the +time of this prince until 1697, when a younger brother, Pragji, +murdered his elder brother and usurped the sovereignty. This +line of princes continued till 1760 without any remarkable event, +when, in the reign of Rao Ghodji, the country was invaded four +times by the Sinds, who wasted it with fire and sword. The +reign of this prince, as well as that of his son Rao Rayadan, +by whom he was succeeded in 1778, was marked by cruelty and +blood. The latter prince was dethroned, and, being in a state of +mental derangement, was during his lifetime confined by Fateh +Mahommed, a native of Sind, who continued, with a short interval +(in which the party of the legal heir, Bhaiji Bawa, gained the +ascendancy), to rule the country until his death in 1813. It +was in the reign of Fateh Mahommed that a communication first +took place with the British government. During the contests +for the sovereignty between the usurper and the legal heir, +the leader of the royal party, Hansraj, the governor of Mandvi, +sought the aid of the British. But no closer connexion followed +at that time than an agreement for the suppression of piracy, +or of inroads of troops to the eastward of the Runn or Gulf of +Cutch. But the gulf continued notwithstanding to swarm with +pirates, who were openly encouraged or connived at by the son +of Hansraj, who had succeeded his father, as well as by Fateh +Mahommed. The latter left several sons by different wives, who +were competitors for the vacant throne. Husain Miyan succeeded +to a considerable portion of his father’s property and +power. Jugjevan, a Brahman, the late minister of Fateh +Mahommed, also received a considerable share of influence; +and the hatred of these two factions was embittered by religious +animosities, the one being Hindu and the other Mahommedan. +The deceased rao had declared himself a Mahommedan, and +his adherents were preparing to inter his body in a magnificent +tomb, when the Jarejas and other Hindus seized the corpse and +consigned it to the flames, according to Hindu custom.</p> + +<p>The administration of affairs was nominally in the hands of +Husain Miyan and his brother Ibrahim Miyan. Many sanguinary +broils now ensued, in the course of which Jugjevan was murdered, +and the executive authority was much weakened by the usurpations +of the Arabs and other chiefs. In the meantime Ibrahim +Miyan was assassinated; and after various other scenes of +anarchy, the rao Bharmulji, son of Rao Rayadan, by general +consent, assumed the chief power. But his reign was one +continued series of the grossest enormities; his hostility to the +British became evident, and accordingly a force of 10,500 men +crossed the Runn in November 1815, and were within five miles +of Bhuj, the capital of the country, when a treaty was concluded, +by which the rao Bharmulji was confirmed in his title to the +throne, on agreeing, among other stipulations, to cede Anjar +and its dependencies in perpetuity to the British. He was, +however, so far from fulfilling the terms of this treaty that it +was determined to depose him; and an army being sent against +him, he surrendered to the British, who made a provision for +his maintenance, and elevated his infant son Desalji II. to the +throne (1819).</p> + +<p>In 1822 the relations subsisting between the ruler of Cutch +and the British were modified by a new treaty, under which the +territorial cessions made by the rao in 1816 were restored in +consideration of an annual payment. The sum fixed was subsequently +thought too large, and in 1832 the arrears, amounting +to a considerable sum, were remitted, and all future payments +on this account relinquished. From that time the rao has paid +a subsidy of £13,000 per annum to the British for the maintenance +of the military force stationed within his dominions.</p> + +<p>Rao Desalji II. did much to suppress infanticide, suttee and +the slave trade in his state. His successor Maharao Pragmalji +in recognition of his excellent administration was in 1871 honoured +with the title of knight grand commander of the Star of India. +During his rule harbour works were built at Mandvi, an immense +reservoir for rain water in the Chadwa hills was constructed, and +many schools and colleges were endowed. In 1876 he was succeeded +by Maharaja Rao Khengarji III., who was also a keen +advocate for education and especially the education of women. +He founded museums, libraries and schools, and inaugurated +scholarships and a fund from which deserving scholars desirous +of studying in England and America could obtain their expenses.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUTCH, GULF OF,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> an inlet of the sea on the coast of western +India. It lies between the peninsula of Kathiawar and that of +Cutch, leading into the Runn of Cutch.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUTCH, RUNN OF,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Rann of Kach</span>, a salt morass on the +western coast of India in the native state of Cutch. From May +to October it is flooded with salt water and communicates, at +its greatest extent, with the Gulf of Cutch on the west and the +Gulf of Cambay on the east, these two gulfs being united during +the monsoon. It varies in breadth from five to eighty miles +across, and during the rains is nearly impassable for horsemen. +The total area of this immense morass is estimated at about +8000 sq. m., without including any portion of the Gulf of Cutch, +which is in parts so shallow as to resemble a marshy fen rather +than an arm of the sea. The Runn is said to be formed by the +overflow of the rivers Pharan, Luni, Banas and others, during the +monsoon; but in December it is quite dry, and in most places +hard, but in some moist and muddy. The soil is impregnated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page671" id="page671"></a>671</span> +with salt, and the Runn is an important source for the supply +of salt. The present condition of the Runn is probably the +result of some natural convulsion, but the exact method of its +formation is disputed. The wild ass is very common on the +borders of this lake, being seen in herds of 60 or 70 together.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUTHBERT, SAINT<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (d. 687), bishop of Lindisfarne, was +probably a Northumbrian by birth. According to the extant +<i>Lives</i> he was led to take the monastic vows by a vision at the +death of bishop Aidan, and the date of his entry at Melrose +would be 651. At this time Eata was abbot there, and Boisel, +who is mentioned as his instructor, prior, in which office Cuthbert +succeeded him about 661, having previously spent some time +at the monastery of Ripon with Eata. Bede gives a glowing +picture of his missionary zeal at Melrose, but in 664 he was +transferred to act as prior at Lindisfarne. In 676 he became +an anchorite on the island of Farne, and it is said that he performed +miracles there. In 684 at the council of Twyford in +Northumberland, Ecgfrith, king of Northumbria, prevailed +upon him to give up his solitary life and become a bishop. He +was consecrated at York in the following year as bishop of +Hexham, but afterwards he exchanged his see with Eata for +that of Lindisfarne. In 687 he retired to Farne, and died on the +island on the 20th of March 687, the same day as his friend +Hereberht, the anchorite of Derwentwater. He was buried in +the island of Lindisfarne, but his remains were afterwards +deposited at Chester-le-Street, and then at Durham.</p> + +<p>Another Cuthbert was bishop of Hereford from 736 to about +740, and archbishop of Canterbury from the latter date until +his death in October 758.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are several lives of St Cuthbert, the best of which is the +prose life by Bede, which is published in Bede’s <i>Opera</i>, edited by +J. Stevenson (1841). See also C. Eyre, <i>The History of St Cuthbert</i> +(1887); and J. Raine, <i>St Cuthbert</i> (1828).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUTLASS,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> the naval side-arm, a short cutting sword with a +slightly curved blade, and a solid basket-shaped guard (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sword</a></span>). The word is derived from the Fr. <i>coutelas</i>, or <i>coutelace</i>, +a form of <i>coutel</i>, modern <i>couteau</i>, a knife, from Lat. <i>cultellus</i>, +diminutive of <i>culter</i>, a ploughshare, or cutting instrument. Two +variations appear in English: “curtelace,” where the <i>r</i> represents +probably the <i>l</i> of the original Latin word, or is a further variant +of the second variation; and “curtelaxe,” often spelled as two +words, “curtal axe,” where the prefix <i>curtal</i> is confused with +various English words such as “curtan,” “curtal” and “curtail,” +which all mean “shortened,” and are derived from the +Lat. <i>curtus</i>; the word thus wrongly derived has been supposed +to refer to some non-existent form of battle-axe. In every +case the weapon to which these various forms apply is a broad +cutting or slashing sword.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUTLER, MANASSEH<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1742-1823), American clergyman, +was born in Killingly, Connecticut, on the 13th of May 1742. +He graduated at Yale College in 1765, and after being a school +teacher and a merchant, and occasionally appearing in the +courts as a lawyer, he decided to enter the ministry, and from +1771 until his death was pastor of the Congregational church at +what is now Hamilton, but until 1793 was a parish of Ipswich, +Massachusetts. During the War of Independence he was for +several months in 1776 chaplain to the regiment of Colonel +Ebenezer Francis, raised for the defence of Boston; and in +1778, as chaplain to the brigade of General Jonathan Titcomb +(1728-1817), he took part in General John Sullivan’s expedition +to Rhode Island. Soon after his return from this expedition +he fitted himself for the practice of medicine, in order to supplement +the scanty income of a minister, and in 1782 he established +a private boarding school, which he conducted for about a +quarter of a century. In 1786 he became interested in the settlement +of western lands, and in the following year, as agent of the +Ohio Company (<i>q.v.</i>), which he had taken a prominent part in +organizing, he made a contract with Congress, whereby his +associates, former soldiers in the War of Independence, might +purchase, with the certificates of indebtedness issued to them +by the government for their services, 1,500,000 acres of land in +the region north of the Ohio at the mouth of the Muskingum +river. He also took a leading part in drafting the famous +Ordinance of 1787 for the government of the Northwest Territory, +the instrument as it was finally presented to Congress by Nathan +Dane (1752-1835), a Massachusetts delegate, probably being +largely Cutler’s work. From 1801 to 1805 he was a Federalist +representative in Congress. He died at Hamilton, Massachusetts, +on the 28th of July 1823. A versatile man, Cutler was one of +the early members of the American Academy of Arts and +Sciences, and besides being proficient in the theology, law and +medicine of his day, conducted painstaking astronomical and +meteorological investigations, and was one of the first Americans +to make researches of a real scientific value in botany. In 1789 +the degree of doctor of laws was conferred upon him by Yale.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See William P. and Julia P. Cutler, <i>The Life, Journals, and Correspondence +of Manasseh Cutler</i> (2 vols., Cincinnati, 1888); and an +article, “The Ordinance of 1787 and Dr Manasseh Cutler,” by W. F. +Poole, in vol. 122 of the <i>North American Review</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUTLERY<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (Fr. <i>coutellerie</i>, from the Lat. <i>cultellus</i>, a little knife), +a branch of industry which originally embraced the manufacture +of all cutting instruments of whatever form or material. The +progress of manufacturing industry has, however, detached +from it the fabrication of several kinds of edge-tools, saws and +similar implements, the manufacture of which is now regarded +as forming distinct branches of trade. On the other hand modern +cutlery includes a great number of articles which are not strictly +cutting instruments, but which, owing to their more or less +intimate relation to table or pocket cutlery, are classed with +such articles for convenience’ sake. A steel table or carving fork, +for example, is an important article of cutlery, although it is not +a cutting tool.</p> + +<p>The original cutting instruments used by the human race +consisted of fragments of flint, obsidian, or similar stones, rudely +flaked or chipped to a cutting edge; and of these tools numerous +remains yet exist. Stone knives and other tools must have +been employed for a long period by the prehistoric races of mankind, +as their later productions show great perfection of form and +finish. In the Bronze period, which succeeded the Stone Age, +the cutlery of our ancestors was fabricated of that alloy. The +use of iron was introduced at a later but still remote period; +and it now, in the form of steel, is the staple article from which +cutlery is manufactured.</p> + +<p>From the earliest period in English history the manufacture +of cutlery has been peculiarly associated with the town of +Sheffield, the prominence of which in this manufacture in his +own age is attested by Chaucer, who says of the miller of +Trumpington—</p> + +<p class="center f90">“A Sheffeld thwitel baar he in his hose.”</p> + +<p class="noind">That town still retains a practical monopoly of the ordinary +cutlery trade of Great Britain, and remains the chief centre of +the industry for the whole world. Its influence on methods of +production has also been widely extended; for instance, many +Sheffield workmen emigrated to the United States of America +to take part in the manufacture of pocket-knives when it was +started in Connecticut towards the middle of the 19th century.</p> + +<p>The thwitel or whittle of Chaucer’s time was a very poor rude +implement, consisting of a blade of bar steel fastened into a +wooden or horn handle. It was used for cutting food as well as +for the numerous miscellaneous duties which now fall to the +pocket-knife. To the whittle succeeded the Jack knife,—the +Jacques-de-Liége, or Jock-te-leg of the Scottish James VI.,—which +formed the prototype of the modern clasp-knife, inasmuch +as the blade closed into a groove in the handle. About the beginning +of the 17th century, the pocket-knife with spring back was +introduced, and no marked improvement thereafter took place +till the early part of the 19th century. In 1624, two centuries +after the incorporation of the Cutlers’ Company of London, +the cutlers of Hallamshire—the name of the district of which +Sheffield is the centre—were formed into a body corporate for +the protection of the “industry, labour, and reputation” of the +trade, which was being disgraced by the “deceitful and unworkmanlike +wares of various persons.” The act of incorporation +specifies the manufacture of “knives, scissors, shears, sickles and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page672" id="page672"></a>672</span> +other cutlery,” and provides that all persons engaged in the +business shall “make the edge of all steel implements manufactured +by them of steel, and steel only, and shall strike on their +wares such mark, and such only, as should be assigned to them +by the officers of the said company.” Notwithstanding these +regulations, and the pains and penalties attached to their infringement, +the corporation was not very successful in maintaining +the high character of Sheffield wares. Most manufacturers made +cutlery to the order of their customers, on which the name of +the retailer was stamped, and very inferior malleable or cast +iron blades went forth to the public with “London made,” +“best steel,” and other falsehoods stamped on them to order. +The corporate mark and name of a few firms, among which +Joseph Rodgers & Sons stand foremost, are a guarantee of the +very highest excellence of material and finish; and such firms +decline to stamp any name or mark other than their own on their +manufactures. In foreign markets, however, the reputation +of such firms is much injured by impudent forgeries; and so far +was this system of fraud carried that inferior foreign work was +forwarded to London to be transhipped and sent abroad ostensibly +as English cutlery. To protect the trade against frauds of +this class the Trades Mark Act of 1862 was passed chiefly at the +instigation of the Sheffield chamber of commerce.</p> + +<p>The variety of materials which go to complete any single article +of cutlery is very considerable; and as the stock list of a cutler +embraces a vast number of articles different in form, properties +and uses, the cutlery manufacturer must have a practical +knowledge of a wide range of substances. The leading articles +of the trade include carving and table knives and forks, pocket or +clasp knives, razors, scissors, daggers, hunting knives and similar +articles, surgical knives and lancets, butchers’ and shoemakers’ +knives, gardeners’ pruning-knives, &c. The blades or cutting +portions of a certain number of these articles are made of shear +steel, and for others crucible cast steel is employed. Sometimes +the cutting edge alone is of steel, backed or strengthened with +iron, to which it is welded. The tang, or part of the blade by +which it is fastened to the handles, and other non-cutting portions, +are also very often of iron. Brass, German silver, silver, horn, +tortoise-shell, ivory, bone, mother-of-pearl, and numerous fancy +woods are all brought into requisition for handles and other parts +of cutlery, each demanding special treatment according to its +nature. The essential processes in making a piece of steel cutlery +are (1) forging, (2) hardening and tempering, (3) grinding, (4) +polishing, and (5) putting together the various pieces and finishing +the knife, the workmen who perform these last operations being +the only ones known in the trade as “cutlers.”</p> + +<p>The following outline of the stages in the manufacture of a +razor will serve to indicate the sequence of operations in making +an article which, though simple in form, demands the highest care +and skill. The first essential of a good razor is that it be made +of the finest quality of cast steel. The steel for razors is obtained +in bars the thickness of the back of the instrument. Taking such +a bar, the forger heats one end of it to the proper forging temperature, +and then dexterously fashions it upon his anvil, giving it +roughly the required form, edge and concavity. It is then +separated from the remainder of the bar, leaving only sufficient +metal to form the tang, if that is to be made of steel. The tang +of the “mould,” as the blade in this condition is termed, is next +drawn out, and the whole “smithed” or beaten on the anvil to +compact the metal and improve the form and edge of the razor. +At this stage the razor is said to be “forged in the rough,” and +so neatly can some workmen finish off this operation that a +shaving edge may be given to the blade by simple whetting. +The forged blade is next “shaped” by grinding on the dry stone; +this operation considerably reduces its weight, and removes the +oxidized scale, thereby allowing the hardening and tempering +to be done with certainty and proper effect. The shaped razor +is now returned to the forge, where the tang is file-cut and pierced +with the joint-hole, and into the blade is stamped either the name +and corporate mark of the maker, or any mark and name ordered +by the tradesman for whom the goods are being manufactured. +The hardening is accomplished by heating the blade to a cherry-red +heat and suddenly quenching it in cold water, which leaves the +metal excessively hard and brittle. To bring it to the proper +temper for a razor, it is again heated till the metallic surface +assumes a straw colour, and after being plunged into water, it +is ready for the process of wet grinding. The wet grinding is +done on stones which vary in diameter from 1½ to 12 in. according +to the concavity of surface desired (“hollow-ground,” “half +hollow-ground,” &c.). “Lapping,” which is the first stage in +polishing, is performed on a wheel of the same diameter as the wet-grinding +stone. The lap is built up of segments of wood having +the fibres towards the periphery, and covered with a metallic alloy +of tin and lead. The lap is fed with a mixture of emery powder +and oil. “Glazing” and “polishing,” which follow, are for +perfecting the polish on the surface of the razor, leather-covered +wheels with fine emery being used; and the work is finished off +with crocus. The finished blade is then riveted into the scales +or handle, which may be of ivory, bone, horn or other material; +and when thereafter the razor is set on a hone it is ready for use.</p> + +<p>The processes employed in making a table-knife do not differ +essentially from those required for a razor. Table-knife blades +are forged from shear and other steels, and, if they are not in +one piece, a bit of malleable iron sufficient for the bolster or +shoulder and tang is welded to each, often by machinery, +especially in the case of the cheaper qualities. The bolster is +formed with the aid of a die and swage called “prints,” and the +tang is drawn out. The tang is variously formed, according to +the method by which it is to be secured in the haft, and the various +processes of tempering, wet grinding and polishing are pursued +as described above. Steel forks of an inferior quality are cast +and subsequently cleaned and polished; but the best quality +are forged from bar steel, and the prongs are cut or stamped out +of an extended flattened extremity called the mould or “mood.” +In the United States of America machinery has been extensively +adopted for performing the various mechanical operations in +forging and fitting table cutlery, and in Sheffield it is employed +to a great extent in the manufacture of table and pocket knife +blades, scissors and razors. The cutler of the 18th century was +an artisan who forged and ground the blades and fitted them in +the hafts ready for sale; to-day the division of labour is carried +to an extreme degree. In the making of a common pocket-knife +with three blades not fewer than one hundred separate operations +are involved, and these may be performed by as many workmen +composed of five distinct classes—the scale and spring makers +(the scale being the metal lining which is covered by the handle +proper), the blade forgers, the grinders, the cutters of the coverings +of ivory, horn, &c., that form the handles, and the hafters or +cutlers proper. Grinders are divided into three classes—dry, +wet and mixed grinders, according as they work at dry or wet +stones. This branch of trade is, in Sheffield, conducted in distinct +establishments called “wheels,” which are divided up into +separate apartments or “hulls,” the dry grinding being as much +as possible separated from the wet grinding. Dry grinding, +such as is practised in the shaping of razors described above, +the “humping” or rounding of scissors, and other operations, +used to be a process especially dangerous to health, lung diseases +being induced by the fine dust of silica and steel with which the +atmosphere was loaded; but a great improvement has been +effected by resorting to wet grinding as much as possible, by +arranging fans to remove the dust by suction, and by general +attention to sanitary conditions.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUTTACK,<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> a city and district of British India in the Orissa +division of Bengal. The city is situated at the head of the delta +of the Mahanadi. Pop. (1901) 51,364. It is the centre of the +Orissa canal system, and an important station on the East Coast +railway from Madras to Calcutta. It contains the government +college, named after Mr Ravenshaw, a former commissioner; +a high school, a training school, a survey school, a medical school +and a law school. The city formed one of the five royal strongholds +of ancient Orissa and was founded by a warlike Hindu +prince, Makar Kesari, who reigned from 953 to 961. Native +kings protected it from the rivers by a masonry embankment +several miles long, built of enormous blocks of hewn stone, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page673" id="page673"></a>673</span> +in some places 25 ft. high. A fortress defended the north-west +corner of the town, and was captured by the English from the +Mahrattas in October 1803. It is now abandoned as a place of +defence.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Cuttack</span> lies in the centre of Orissa, occupying +the deltas of the Mahanadi and Brahmani, together with a hilly +tract inland. Its area is 3654 sq. m. It consists of three physical +divisions: first, a marshy woodland strip along the coast, from +3 to 30 m. in breadth; second, an intermediate stretch of rice +plains; third, a broken hilly region, which forms the western +boundary of the district. The marshy strip along the coast is +covered with swamps and malaria-breeding jungles. Towards +the sea the solid land gives place to a vast network of streams +and creeks, whose sluggish waters are constantly depositing silt, +and forming morasses or quicksands. Cultivation does not +begin till the limits of this dismal region are passed. The intermediate +rice plains stretch inland for about 40 m. and occupy the +older part of the delta between the sea-coast strip and the hilly +frontier. They are intersected by three large rivers, the Baitarani, +Brahmani and Mahanadi. These issue in magnificent streams +through three gorges in the frontier hills. The Cuttack delta +is divided into two great valleys, one of them lying between the +Baitarani and the Brahmani, the other between the Brahmani +and the Mahanadi. The rivers having, by the silt of ages, +gradually raised their beds, now run along high levels. During +floods they pour over their banks upon the surrounding valleys, +by a thousand channels which interlace and establish communication +between the main streams. After numerous bifurcations +they find their way into the sea by three principal mouths. +Silt-banks and surf-washed bars render the entrance to these +rivers perilous. The best harbour in Cuttack district is at +False Point, on the north of the Mahanadi estuary. It consists +of an anchorage, land-locked by islands or sand-banks, and with +two fair channels navigable towards the land. The famine +commissioners in 1867 reported it to be the best harbour on the +coast of India from the Hugli to Bombay.</p> + +<p>The intermediate tract is a region of rich cultivation, dotted +with great banyan trees, thickets of bamboos, exquisite palm +foliage and mango groves. The hilly frontier separates the +delta of British Orissa from the semi-independent tributary +states. It consists of a series of ranges, 10 to 15 m. in length, +running nearly due east and west, with densely-wooded slopes +and lovely valleys between. The timber, however, is small, and +is of little value except as fuel. The political character of these +three tracts is as distinct as are their natural features. The first +and third are still occupied by feudal chiefs, and have never +been subjected to a regular land-settlement, by either the +Mussulman or the British government. They pay a light fixed +tribute. The intermediate rice plains, known as the Mogholbandi, +from their having been regularly settled by the Mahommedans, +have yielded to the successive dynasties and conquerors of Orissa +almost the whole of the revenues derived from the province. The +deltaic portions are of course a dead level; and the highest hills +within the district in the western or frontier tract do not exceed +2500 ft. They are steep, and covered with jungle, but can be +climbed by men. The most interesting of them are the Assa +range, with its sandal trees and Buddhist remains; Udayagiri +(Sunrise-hill), with its colossal image of Buddha, sacred reservoir, +and ruins; and Assagiri, with its mosque of 1719. The Mahavinayaka +peak, visible from Cuttack, has been consecrated for +ages to Siva-worship by ascetics and pilgrims.</p> + +<p>The population of the district in 1901 was 2,062,758, showing +an increase of 6% in the preceding decade. The aboriginal +tribes here, as elsewhere, cling to their mountains and jungles. +They chiefly consist of the Bhumij, Tala, Kol and Savara peoples, +the Savaras being by far the most numerous, numbering 14,775. +They are regarded by the orthodox Hindus as little better than the +beasts of the wildernesses which they inhabit. Miserably poor, +they subsist for the most part by selling firewood or other +products of their jungle; but a few of them have patches of +cultivated land, and many earn wages as day labourers to the +Hindus. They occupy, in fact, an intermediate stage of degradation +between the comparatively well-to-do tribes in the +tributary states (the stronghold and home of the race), and the +Pans, Bauris, Kandras and other semi-aboriginal peoples on +the lowlands, who rank as the basest castes of the Hindu community. +The great bulk of the Indo-Aryan or Hindu population +consists of Uriyas, with a residue of immigrant Bengalis, Lala +Kayets from Behar and northern India, Telingas from the +Madras coast, Mahrattas from central and western India, a few +Sikhs from the Punjab and Marwaris from Rajputana. The +Mahommedans are chiefly the descendants of the Pathans who +took refuge in Orissa after the subversion of their kingdom in +Bengal by the Moguls in the 16th century.</p> + +<p>Rice forms the staple product of the district; its three chief +varieties are <i>biali</i> or early rice, <i>sarad</i> or winter rice, and <i>dalua</i> or +spring rice. The other cereal crops consist of <i>mandua</i> (a grass-like +plant producing a coarse grain resembling rice), wheat, barley, +and <i>china</i>, a rice-like cereal. <i>Suan</i>, another rice-like cereal, not +cultivated, grows spontaneously in the paddy fields. Pulses +of different sorts, oilseeds, fibres, sugar-cane, tobacco, spices and +vegetables also form crops of the district. The cultivators consist +of two classes—the resident husbandmen (<i>thani</i>) and the non-resident +or migratory husbandmen (<i>pahe</i>).</p> + +<p>The Orissa canal system, which lies mainly within Cuttack +district, is used both for irrigation and transport purposes. The +railway across the district towards Calcutta, a branch of the +Bengal-Nagpur system, was opened in 1899. Considerable +trade is carried on at the mouth of the rivers along the coast.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUTTLE-FISH.<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> The more familiar and conspicuous types of +the molluscan class Cephalopoda (<i>q.v.</i>) are popularly known in +English as cuttle-fish, squid, octopus and nautilus. The first +of these names (from the A.S. <i>cudele</i>) is applied more particularly +to the common <i>Sepia</i> (fig. 1), characterized by its internal calcareous +shell, sometimes known as cuttle-bone, and its ink-sac, +the contents of which have been long in use as a pigment (sepia). +The term squid is employed among fishermen for the ten-armed +Cephalopods in which the shell is represented by an uncalcified +flexible structure somewhat resembling a pen. Hence in Italian +a squid is called <i>calamaio</i>, from <i>calamus</i> a reed or pen, and in +English the similar term calamary is sometimes used. Like the +<i>Sepia</i>, squids also possess the ink-sac, whence they have sometimes +been called pen and ink fish, and in German both <i>Sepia</i> +and squid and their allies are known as <i>Tinten-fische</i>. The squids +have generally softer and more watery tissues than the <i>Sepia</i>, +but the former term is not in general use, and the distinction +not generally understood. The term cuttle-fishes is sometimes +extended to include all the Cephalopoda, but as the peculiarities +of the remarkable shell of the true nautilus, and those of the shell-less +Octopoda are widely known, we shall consider the name here +as applying only to those forms which have ten arms, an ink-sac, +an internal shell-rudiment, and only one pair of gills in the mantle +cavity. Technically these form the sub-order Decapoda, of the +order Dibranchia.</p> + +<p>The cuttle-fishes are characteristically swimming animals, +in contrast with the octopods, which creep about by means of +their suckers among the rocks, and lurk in holes. In <i>Sepia</i> the +integument is produced laterally into two muscular fins, rather +narrow and of uniform breadth running the whole length of the +body, but separated by a notch behind. There are four pairs of +short non-retractile arms surrounding the mouth, and furnished +with suckers on their oral surface, and between the third and +fourth of these arms on each side is a much longer tentacular +arm, which is usually kept entirely withdrawn into a pocket +of the skin. The mantle cavity is on the posterior side of the +body, which is the lower side in the swimming position, and the +funnel is a tube open at both ends and connected with the body +within the mouth of the mantle cavity. The mantle during life +performs regular respiratory movements by which water is +drawn into the cavity, passing between mantle and funnel, and +is expelled through the funnel. In swimming the short arms +are directed forwards, the fins undulate, and the motion is slow +and deliberate; but if the animal is threatened or alarmed it +swims suddenly and rapidly backwards by expelling water +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page674" id="page674"></a>674</span> +forcibly from the mantle cavity through the funnel, at the same +time expelling a cloud of ink from its ink-sac.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:418px; height:675px" src="images/img674a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—<i>Sepia officinalis</i>, L., about ½ natural size, as seen when +dead, the long prehensile arms being withdrawn from the pouches +at the side of the head, in which they are carried during life when not +actually in use. <i>a</i>, Neck; <i>b</i>, lateral fin of the mantle-sac; <i>c</i>, the +eight shorter arms of the fore-foot; <i>d</i>, the two long prehensile arms; +e, the eyes.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The <i>Sepia</i> feeds principally on Crustacea, and in aquaria has +been observed to pursue and capture prawns. The method in +which it secures its prey has been carefully observed and described +by the present writer, who studied the living animal in +the aquarium of the biological laboratory at Plymouth. The +prawns support themselves on their long slender legs on convenient +points of the rockwork, and the <i>Sepia</i> stalks them with +great caution and determination, the rapid play of its chromatophores +giving evidence of its excitement. When it has arrived +within striking distance, the two tentacular arms are shot out +with great rapidity, and the prawn is seized between the two +expanded ends, drawn within the circle of short arms, and +devoured; unless, as sometimes happens, the prawn springs +away and the <i>Sepia</i> misses its aim.</p> + +<p>Two species of <i>Sepia</i> occur in British and European waters, +including the Mediterranean, namely, <i>S. elegans</i> and <i>S. officinalis</i>. +The usual length of the body is about 9 or 10 in. They live mostly +between ten and forty fathoms, coming into shallower water in +July and August to deposit their eggs, which are about as large +as black currants and of somewhat similar colour, and are connected +by elongated stalks into a cluster attached to the sea-bottom. +Other species occur in various parts of the world, <i>e.g.</i> +<i>S. cultrata</i>, which is common on the coasts of Australia. The +<i>Sepiidae</i> form the only family of cuttle-fishes in which the shell +is calcified. They belong to the tribe Myopsida, characterized +by the complete closure of the external corneal covering of the +eye outside the iris and the lens.</p> + +<p><i>Sepiola</i> and <i>Rossia</i> belong to another family of the Myopsida. +Both are British genera living in shallow water, and entering +estuaries. The animals of both genera are small, not more than +2 or 3 in. in length, with the body rounded at the aboral end, +and the fins short and rounded, inserted in the middle of the +body length, instead of extending from end to end. <i>Sepiola</i>, +although it swims by means of its fins and funnel when active, +spends much of its time buried in the sand for concealment. +<i>Rossia</i> has similar habits. The shell is chitinous and shorter than +the body. In other genera of the <i>Sepiolidae</i> the shell is entirely +absent. <i>Idiosepius</i> is the smallest of the Cephalopoda, only 1.5 +in. in length. It inhabits the Indian Ocean. The body +is elongated and the fins rudimentary. In the <i>Sepiadariidae</i> +also the shell is absent. The body is short and the mantle united +with the head dorsally. The two genera <i>Sepiadarium</i> and +<i>Sepioloidea</i> occur in the Pacific Ocean. The common squid +<i>Loligo</i> is the type of the only remaining family of the Myopsida. +In this species the shell is a well-developed chitinous pen or +gladius with a thickened axis narrowing to a point behind, but +bearing posteriorly a wide thin plate on each side. The shape +closely resembles that of a quill pen with the quill in front. +The fins are large and triangular, extending over rather more than +half of the length of the body aborally. The tentacular arms +are only partly retractile. The body is elongated and conical, and +reaches about a foot in length. The squid is gregarious, and forms +a favourite food of the larger fishes, especially of conger. All +the Myopsida are more or less littoral in habit, and the British +forms are familiar in consequence of their frequent capture in +the nets of fishermen. The shell, or “bone” as it is commonly +called, of the common <i>Sepia</i> frequently occurs in abundance on +the shore among the sea-weed and other refuse left by the tide.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:416px; height:628px" src="images/img674b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—A, <i>Loligo vulgaris</i>; <i>a</i>, arms; <i>t</i>, tentacles. B, Pen of the +same reduced in size. C, Side-view of one of the suckers, showing +the horny hooks surrounding the margin. D, View of the head +from in front, showing the arms (<i>a</i>), the tentacles (<i>t</i>), the mouth +(<i>m</i>), and the funnel (<i>f</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The Oigopsida, or cuttle-fishes in which the corneal covering +of the eye is perforated, are on the whole more oceanic than +littoral, and many of the species are abyssal. <i>Ommatostrephes +sagittatus</i> is one of the forms that occurs off the British coasts, +especially the more northern, <i>e.g.</i> in the Firth of Forth. In +general appearance it resembles the common squid, but the fins +are broader and shorter, not extending to the middle of the body. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page675" id="page675"></a>675</span> +The shell is similar to that of <i>Loligo</i>, but ends aborally in a little +hollow cone. The suckers bear chitinous rings which are toothed +along the outer edge. The tentacular arms are rather short and +thick. Two specimens of allied species have been taken on +British coasts, one of which, captured off Salcombe in Devonshire +in 1892, had a body 66 cm. (22 in.) long, and tentacular +arms 64 cm. long, or nearly the same length as the body. Most +of the species of <i>Ommatostrephes</i> are naturally gregarious and +oceanic, and occur in the open seas in all latitudes, swimming +near the surface and often leaping out of the water. They are +largely devoured by albatrosses and other marine birds, and by +Cetacea. They are used as bait in the Newfoundland cod fishery.</p> + +<p>Some of the oceanic cuttle-fishes reach a very large size, and +the stories of these ocean monsters which are narrated by the +older writers, though to some extent exaggerated, are now known +to be founded on fact. The figure given by one author of a +gigantic Cephalopod rising from the surface of the ocean and +embracing with its arms a full-rigged ship does not accurately +represent an actual occurrence, but on the other hand there are +authentic instances on record of fishermen in small boats on the +banks of Newfoundland being in great peril in consequence of +large squids throwing their arms across their boats. In November +1874 a specimen was brought ashore at St John’s, Newfoundland, +which had been caught in herring nets. Its body was 7 ft. long, +its fins 22 in. broad, and its tentacular arms 24 ft. long. Several +others have been recorded, taken in the same region, which were +as large or larger, the total length of the body and tentacles +together varying from 30 to 52 ft., and the estimated weight of +one of them being 1000 ℔.</p> + +<p>In April 1875 one of these large squids occurred off Boffin’s Island +on the Irish coast. The crew of a curragh rowed out to it and +attacked it, cutting off two of its arms and its head. The shorter +arms measured 8 ft. in length and 15 in. in circumference; the tentacular +arms are said to have been 30 ft. long. In the Natural +History Museum in London there is one of the shorter arms of a +specimen; this arm is 9 ft. in length and 11 in. in circumference, +and the total length of the specimen, including body and tentacles, +is stated to have been 40 ft. The maximum known length +of these giant squids is stated to be 18 metres or about 58½ ft. +All these gigantic specimens belong, so far as at present known, +to one genus called <i>Architeuthis</i>, referred to the same family as +<i>Ommatostrephes</i>. They are the largest known invertebrates.</p> + +<p>These huge cuttle-fishes as well as those of various other oceanic +species form the food of the cachalot or sperm whale, and +F. T. Bullen, in his <i>Cruise of the Cachalot</i> and other writings, has +graphically described contests which came under his own observation +between the cachalot and its prey. The prince of Monaco in +his yacht the “Princess Alice” was fortunate enough to be able to +make a very complete scientific investigation in the case of one +specimen of the cachalot, which not only confirmed the most +important of Mr Bullen’s statements, but added considerably +to our knowledge of oceanic cuttle-fishes. Off the Azores in July +1895 the prince in his yacht witnessed the killing of a cachalot +13.70 metres long (about 45 ft. 8 in.) by the crew of a whaler. +The animal in its death-agony vomited the contents of its stomach, +most of which were carefully collected and preserved, and afterwards +examined by Professor Joubin. On the lips of the whale +were found impressions several centimetres wide which corresponded +exactly to the toothed suckers of the largest cuttle-fish +arms obtained from its stomach. The contents of the stomach +consisted entirely of cuttle-fish or parts of cuttle-fish, including +the giant <i>Architeuthis</i>, and among them was the body, without +the head, of a form new to science, distinguished by a condition +of the external surface which occurs in no other species of the +group. The surface of the skin was divided into small angular flat +projections like scales, arranged in a regular spiral like the scales +of a pine cone. From this character the new genus was called +<i>Lepidoteuthis</i>. The body, without the head, of the specimen +obtained was 86 cm. (nearly 3 ft.) in length.</p> + +<p>The family <i>Onychoteuthidae</i> is remarkable for the formidable +chitinous hooks borne on the arms. These hooks are special +modifications of the toothed chitinous ring which covers the +sucker-rim in the Decapoda generally. The teeth of the ring are +often unequal in size, and in the <i>Onychoteuthidae</i> one tooth is +enormously developed. The maximum development occurs in +<i>Veranya</i>, found in the Mediterranean, where the suckers have +lost their function and are merely fleshy projections bearing +the hooks at their extremities. <i>Onychoteuthis</i> reaches a large +size, the length of the body without the arms being in one +specimen from the Pacific coast of America 8 ft. Figures of +this and several of the following genera are given in the article +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cephalopoda</a></span>.</p> + +<p>In the family <i>Cheiroteuthidae</i> many of the species occur at +abyssal depths of the ocean, and exhibit curious modifications +of structure. In <i>Cheiroteuthis</i> itself the tentacular arms are very +long and slender, and are not capable of retraction into pockets. +In several species of this genus the suckers are no longer organs of +adhesion, but are simple cups containing a network of filaments +resembling a fishing net. In <i>Histioteuthis</i> and <i>Histiopsis</i>, as in +some Octopods, the six dorsal arms are more or less completely +united by a web, which also probably serves for capturing fish. +In these two genera and in <i>Calliteuthis</i> the skin bears luminous +organs. <i>Cheiroteuthis</i> has been taken at 2600 fms., <i>Calliteuthis</i> +at 2200, <i>Histiopsis</i> at nearly 2000. <i>Bathyteuthis</i>, placed in the +same family as <i>Ommatostrephes</i>, has been taken at 1700 fms.</p> + +<p>The <i>Cranchiidae</i> are remarkable for their small size, the +shortness of the ordinary arms, and the protuberance of the +eyes, which in <i>Taonius</i> are actually on the ends of stalk-like +outgrowths of the body. <i>Cranchia</i> is a deep-sea form taken at +1700 fms. Its body is pear-shaped, swollen posteriorly and +quite narrow at the neck.</p> + +<p><i>Spirula</i> is distinguished from all other existing Cephalopods +by the structure of its coiled shell, which in many respects resembles +those of the extinct Ammonites, and is not completely +internal. In the structure of the body the animal is a true cuttle-fish +in the sense in which the term is here used, having ten arms +and a perforated cornea. Three species are distinguished, and +their empty shells occur abundantly on the shores of the tropical +regions of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. In German +the shells are known from their shape as <i>Posthörnchen</i>. They are +common on the shores of the Azores. But the animal has very +rarely been obtained; only a few specimens occur in museum +collections. One specimen was taken by the “Challenger” in +a deep-sea trawl, at a depth between 300 and 400 fathoms +off Banda Neira in the Molluccas. Dr Willemoes Suhm, in +describing the capture, stated that the specimen seemed to have +been in the stomach of a fish, as its surface was slightly digested, +and he thought it must have habits of concealment which usually +prevent its capture, and that it was secured on this occasion only +by the capture of the fish which had swallowed it. The fact that +the shells are washed ashore in such large numbers is not fully +explained. Possibly when freed from the animal the air in the +chambers of the shell causes it to float, and in that case it would +naturally be sooner or later washed ashore.</p> +<div class="author">(J. T. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUTTS OF GOWRAN, JOHN CUTTS,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1661-1707), +British soldier and author, came of an Essex family. After a +short university career at Catherine Hall, Cambridge, he came +into the enjoyment of the family estates, but evinced a decided +preference for the life of court and camp. The double ambition +for military and literary fame inspired his first work, which +appeared in 1685 under the name <i>La Muse de cavalier, or An +Apology for such Gentlemen as make Poetry their Diversion not +their Business</i>. The next year saw Cutts serving as a volunteer +under Charles of Lorraine in Hungary, and it is said that he was +the first to plant the imperialist standard on the walls at the +storm of Buda (July 1686). In 1687 he published a book of verse +entitled <i>Poetical Exercises</i>, and the following year we find him +serving as lieutenant-colonel in Holland. General Hugh Mackay +describes Cutts about this time as “pretty tall, lusty and well +shaped, an agreeable companion with abundance of wit, affable +and familiar, but too much seized with vanity and self-conceit.”</p> + +<p>Lieutenant-Colonel Cutts was one of William’s companions in +the English revolution of 1688, and in 1690 he went in command +of a regiment of foot to the Irish war. He served with distinction +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page676" id="page676"></a>676</span> +at the battle of the Boyne, and at the siege of Limerick (where he +was wounded), and King William created him Baron Cutts of +Gowran in the kingdom of Ireland. In 1691 he succeeded to the +command of the brigade of the prince of Hesse (wounded at +Aughrim), and on the surrender of Limerick was appointed +commandant of the town. Next year he served again in Flanders +as a brigadier, his brigade of Mackay’s division being one of +those almost destroyed at Steinkirk. At this battle Cutts himself +was wounded. For some time after this, Lord Cutts was +lieutenant-governor of the Isle of Wight, but he returned to active +service in 1694, holding a command in the disastrous Brest +expedition. He was one of Carmarthen’s companions in the +daring reconnaissance of Camaret Bay, and was soon afterwards +again wounded. He succeeded Talmash, the commander of the +expedition (who died of his wounds), as colonel of the Coldstream +Guards. Next year, after serving as a commissioner for settling +the bank of Antwerp, he distinguished himself once more at the +famous siege of Namur, winning for himself the name of “Salamander” +by his indifference to the heaviest fire. Henceforward +court service and war service alternated. He was deep in the +confidence of William III., and acted as a diplomatic agent in the +negotiations which ended in the peace of Ryswick. On the +occasion of the great fire in Whitehall (1698) Cutts, at the head of +the Coldstreams, earned afresh the honourable nickname of +“the Salamander.” A little later we find Captain Richard Steele +acting as his private secretary. In 1702, now a major-general, +Cutts was serving under Marlborough in the opening campaign +of the War of the Spanish Succession, and at the siege of Venloo, +conspicuous as usual for romantic bravery, he led the stormers +at Fort Saint Michael. His enemies, and even the survivors of +the assault, were amazed at the success of a seemingly hare-brained +enterprise. Probably, however, Cutts, who was now +a veteran of great and varied experience, measured the factors of +success and failure better than his critics. It was on this occasion +that Swift lampooned the lieutenant-general in his <i>Ode to a +Salamander</i>. He made the campaign of 1703 in Flanders, and +in 1704, after a visit to England, he rejoined Marlborough on +the banks of the Danube. At Blenheim he was third in command, +and it was his division that bore the brunt of the desperate fighting +at the village which gave its name to the battle.</p> + +<p>Blenheim was Cutts’s last battle. His remaining years were +spent at home, and, at the time of his death, he was the holder of +eight distinct political and military offices. He sat in five parliaments +for the county of Cambridge, and in Queen Anne’s first +Parliament he was returned for Newport in the Isle of Wight, +for which he sat until the time of his death. He was twice +married, but left no issue.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUVIER, GEORGES LÉOPOLD CHRÉTIEN FRÉDÉRIC DAGOBERT,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> +<span class="sc">Baron</span> (1769-1832), French naturalist, was born +on the 23rd of August 1769 at Montbéliard, and was the son of +a retired officer on half-pay belonging to a Protestant family +which had emigrated from the Jura in consequence of religious +persecution. He early showed a bent towards the investigation +of natural phenomena, and was noted for his studious habits and +marvellous memory. After spending four years at the Academy +of Stuttgart, he accepted the position of tutor in the family of the +Comte d’Héricy, who was in the habit of spending the summer +near Fécamp. It thus came about that he made the acquaintance +of the agriculturist, A. H. Tessier, who was then living at Fécamp, +and who wrote strongly in favour of his protégé to his friends in +Paris—with the result that Cuvier, after corresponding with the +well-known naturalist E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, was appointed +in 1795 assistant to the professor of comparative anatomy at +the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle. The National Institute was +founded in the same year and he was elected a member. In 1796 +he began to lecture at the École Centrale du Panthéon, and at +the opening of the National Institute in April, he read his first +palaeontological paper, which was subsequently published in +1800 under the title <i>Mémoires sur les espèces d’éléphants vivants +et fossiles</i>. In 1798 was published his first separate work, the +<i>Tableau élémentaire de l’histoire naturelle des animaux</i>, which +was an abridgment of his course of lectures at the École du +Panthéon, and may be regarded as the foundation and first and +general statement of his natural classification of the animal +kingdom.</p> + +<p>In 1799 he succeeded L. J. M. Daubenton as professor of +natural history in the Collège de France, and in the following +year he published the <i>Leçons d’anatomie comparée</i>, a classical +work, in the production of which he was assisted by A. M. C. +Dumeril in the first two volumes, and by G. L. Duvernoy in +three later ones. In 1802 Cuvier became titular professor at +the Jardin des Plantes; and in the same year he was appointed +commissary of the Institute to accompany the inspectors-general +of public instruction. In this latter capacity he visited +the south of France; but he was in the early part of 1803 chosen +perpetual secretary of the National Institute in the department +of the physical and natural sciences, and he consequently +abandoned the appointment just mentioned and returned to +Paris.</p> + +<p>He now devoted himself more especially to three lines of +inquiry—one dealing with the structure and classification of the +mollusca, the second with the comparative anatomy and systematic +arrangement of the fishes, and the third with fossil mammals +and reptiles primarily, and secondarily with the osteology of +living forms belonging to the same groups. His papers on the +mollusca began as early as 1792, but most of his memoirs on this +branch were published in the <i>Annales du muséum</i> between 1802 +and 1815; they were subsequently collected as <i>Mémoires pour +servir à l’histoire et à l’anatomie des mollusques</i>, published in +one volume at Paris in 1817. In the department of fishes, +Cuvier’s researches, begun in 1801, finally culminated in the +publication of the <i>Histoire naturelle des poissons</i>, which contained +descriptions of 5000 species of fishes, and was the joint +production of Cuvier and A. Valenciennes, its publication (so +far as the former was concerned) extending over the years +1828-1831. The department of palaeontology dealing with the +Mammalia may be said to have been essentially created and +established by Cuvier. In this region of investigation he published +a long list of memoirs, partly relating to the bones of +extinct animals, and partly detailing the results of observations +on the skeletons of living animals specially examined with a +view of throwing light upon the structure and affinities of the +fossil forms. In the second category must be placed a number +of papers relating to the osteology of the <i>Rhinoceros Indicus</i>, +the tapir, <i>Hyrax Capensis</i>, the hippopotamus, the sloths, the +manatee, &c. In the former category must be classed an even +greater number of memoirs, dealing with the extinct mammals +of the Eocene beds of Montmartre, the fossil species of hippopotamus, +the <i>Didelphys gypsorum</i>, the <i>Megalonyx</i>, the <i>Megatherium</i>, +the cave-hyaena, the extinct species of rhinoceros, the +cave-bear, the mastodon, the extinct species of elephant, fossil +species of manatee and seals, fossil forms of crocodilians, +chelonians, fishes, birds, &c. The results of Cuvier’s principal +palaeontological and geological investigations were ultimately +given to the world in the form of two separate works. One of +these is the celebrated <i>Recherches sur les ossements fossiles de +quadrupèdes</i>, published in Paris in 1812, with subsequent +editions in 1821 and 1825; and the other is his <i>Discours sur les +révolutions de la surface du globe</i>, published in Paris in 1825.</p> + +<p>But none of his works attained a higher reputation than +his <i>Règne animal distribué d’après son organisation</i>, the first +edition of which appeared in four octavo volumes in 1817, and +the second in five volumes in 1829-1830. In this classical +work Cuvier embodied the results of the whole of his previous +researches on the structure of living and fossil animals. The +whole of the work was his own, with the exception of the Insecta, +in which he was assisted by his friend P. A. Latreille.</p> + +<p>Apart from his own original investigations in zoology and +palaeontology Cuvier carried out a vast amount of work as +perpetual secretary of the National Institute, and as an official +connected with public education generally; and much of this +work appeared ultimately in a published form. Thus, in 1808 +he was placed by Napoleon upon the council of the Imperial +University, and in this capacity he presided (in the years 1809, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page677" id="page677"></a>677</span> +1811 and 1813) over commissions charged to examine the state +of the higher educational establishments in the districts beyond +the Alps and the Rhine which had been annexed to France, and +to report upon the means by which these could be affiliated +with the central university. Three separate reports on this +subject were published by him. In his capacity, again, of +perpetual secretary of the Institute, he not only prepared a +number of <i>éloges historiques</i> on deceased members of the Academy +of Sciences, but he was the author of a number of reports on the +history of the physical and natural sciences, the most important +of these being the <i>Rapport historique sur le progrès des sciences +physiques depuis 1789</i>, published in 1810. Prior to the fall of +Napoleon (1814) he had been admitted to the council of state, +and his position remained unaffected by the restoration of the +Bourbons. He was elected chancellor of the university, in +which capacity he acted as interim president of the council of +public instruction, whilst he also, as a Lutheran, superintended +the faculty of Protestant theology. In 1819 he was appointed +president of the committee of the interior, and retained the +office until his death. In 1826 he was made grand officer of the +Legion of Honour; and in 1831 he was raised by Louis Philippe +to the rank of peer of France, and was subsequently appointed +president of the council of state. In the beginning of 1832 he +was nominated to the ministry of the interior, but on the 13th +of May he died in Paris after a brief illness.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See P. J. M. Flourens, <i>Éloge historique de G. Cuvier</i>, published as +an introduction to the <i>Éloges historiques</i> of Cuvier; <i>Histoire des +travaux de Georges Cuvier</i> (3rd ed., Paris, 1858); A. P. de Candolle, +“Mort de G. Cuvier,” <i>Bibliothèque universelle</i> (1832, 59, p. 442); +C. L. Laurillard, “Cuvier,” <i>Biographie universelle</i>, supp. vol. 61 +(1836); Sarah Lee, <i>Memoirs of Cuvier</i>, translated into French by +T. Lacordaire (1833).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUVILLES, FRANÇOIS DE<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1698-c. 1767), French architect +and engraver. He helped to carry the French rococo taste to +Germany—he was summoned about 1720 to Cologne by the elector +James Clement; in 1738 he became architect to the elector of +Bavaria, and afterwards occupied the same position towards the +emperor Charles VII. His style, while essentially thin, is often +painfully elaborate and bizarre. He designed mirrors and +consoles, balustrades for staircases, ceilings and fireplaces, and +in furniture, beds and commodes especially. He also laid out +parks and gardens. He wrote several treatises on artistic and +decorative subjects, which were edited by his son, François +de Cuvilles the younger, who succeeded his father at the court +of Munich.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUXHAVEN,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kuxhaven</span>, a seaport town of Germany, +belonging to the state of Hamburg, and situated at the extremity +of the west side of the mouth of the Elbe, 71 m. by rail N.W. +from Hamburg. Pop. (1900) 6898. The harbour is good and +secure, and is much frequented by vessels delayed in the Elbe +by <span class="correction" title="amended from unfavourbale">unfavourable</span> weather. A new harbour was made in 1891-1896, +having a depth of 26¼ ft., with a fore port 1000 ft. long by +800 ft. wide; and it is now the place of departure and arrival +of the mail steamers of the Hamburg-American Steamship +Company, who in 1901 transferred here a part of their permanent +staff. The port is free, <i>i.e.</i> outside the customs union (<i>Zollverein</i>), +the imports being principally coals, bricks and timber, and the +exports fish. There is a fishing fleet, for which a new harbour +was opened in 1892. Though lying on a bare strand, the town +is much frequented as a bathing place by Hamburgers. It is +strongly fortified, and there are a lighthouse, and lifeboat and pilot +stations. The town only dates from 1873, having been formed +by uniting the villages of Ritzebüttel and Cuxhaven, which had +belonged to Hamburg since 1394.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUYABÁ,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Cuiabá</span>, capital of the inland state of Matto +Grosso, Brazil, about 972 m. N.W. of Rio de Janeiro, on the +Cuyabá river near its discharge into the São Lourenço, the +principal Brazilian tributary of the Paraguay. Pop. (1890) +14,507; of the municipality, 17,815. The surrounding country +is thickly populated. Cuyabá has uninterrupted steamer communication +with Montevideo, about 2500 m. distant, but has +no land communication with the national capital, except by +telegraph. The climate is hot and malaria is prevalent. Cuyabá +was founded in 1719 by Paulista gold hunters, and its gold-washings, +now apparently exhausted, yielded rich results in +the 18th century. It is the see of a bishopric and headquarters +of an important military district, having an arsenal and military +barracks.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUYAPO,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> a town of the province of Nueva Ecija, Luzon, +Philippine Islands, 28 m. N.N.W. of San Isidro, the capital. +Pop. (1903) 16,292. Rice is grown here. In 1907 the town of +Nampicuan was formed from part of Cuyapo.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUYP,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> the name of a Dutch family which produced two +generations of painters. The Cuyps were long settled at Dordrecht, +in the neighbourhood of which they had a country house, +where Albert Cuyp (the most famous) was born and bred.</p> + +<p>The eldest member of the family who acquired fame was +<span class="sc">Jacob Gerritsz Cuyp</span>, born it is said at Dordrecht in 1575, +and taught by Abraham Bloemaert of Utrecht. He is known +to have been alive in 1649, and the date of his death is obscure. +J. G. Cuyp’s pictures are little known. But he produced portraits +in various forms, as busts and half-lengths thrown upon plain +backgrounds, or groups in rooms, landscapes and gardens. +Solid and clever as an imitator of nature in its ordinary garb, he +is always spirited, sometimes rough, but generally plain, and quite +as unconscious of the sparkle conspicuous in Frans Hals as incapable +of the concentrated light-effects peculiar to Rembrandt. +In portrait busts, of which there are signed examples dated 1624, +1644, 1646 and 1649, in the museums of Berlin, Rotterdam, +Marseilles, Vienna and Metz, his treatment is honest, homely +and true; his touch and tone firm and natural. In portraying +children he is fond of introducing playthings and pets—a lamb, +a goat or a roedeer; and he reproduces animal life with realistic +care. In a family scene at the Amsterdam Museum we have +likenesses of men, women, boys and girls with a cottage and +park. In the background is a coach with a pair of horses. These +examples alone give us a clue to the influences under which +Albert Cuyp grew up, and explain to some extent the direction +which his art took as he rose to manhood.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Albert Cuyp</span> (1620-1691), the son of Jacob Gerritsz by +Grietche Dierichsdochter (Dierich’s daughter), was born at +Dordrecht. He married in 1658 Cornelia Bosman, a rich widow, +by whom he had an only daughter. By right of his possessions +at Dordwyck, Cuyp was a vassal of the county of Holland, and +privileged to sit in the high court of the province. As a citizen +he was sufficiently well known to be placed on the list of those +from whom William III., stadtholder of the Netherlands, chose +the regency of Dordrecht in 1672. His death, and his burial on +the 7th of November 1691 in the church of the Augustines of +Dordrecht, are historically proved. But otherwise the known +facts concerning his life are few. He seldom dates his pictures, +but it appears probable that he ceased to paint about 1675. +It has been said that Albert was the pupil of his father. The +scanty evidence of Dutch annalists to this effect seems confirmed +by a certain coincidence in the style and treatment of father and +son. That he was a pupil of van Goyen has been surmised on +the strength of the style of his early works. It has been likewise +stated that Albert was skilled, not only in the production of +portraits, landscapes and herds, but in the representation of +still life. His works are supposed to be divisible into such as +bear the distinctive marks C. or A. C. in cursive characters, +the letters A. C. in Roman capitals, and the name “A. Cuyp” +in full. A man of Cuyp’s acknowledged talent may have been +versatile enough to paint in many different styles. But whether +he was as versatile as some critics have thought is a question not +quite easy to answer. It is to be observed that pieces assigned +to Cuyp representing game, shell-fish and fruit, and inscribed +A. C. in Roman capitals (Rotterdam, Amsterdam and Berlin +museums), though cleverly executed, are not in touch or treatment +like other pictures of less dubious authenticity, signed either +with C. or A. C. or “A. Cuyp” in cursive letters. The panels +marked C. and A. C. in cursive are portraits or landscapes, with +herds, and interiors of stables or sheds, in which there are cows, +horses and poultry. The subjects and their handling are akin +to those which strike us in panels bearing the master’s full +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page678" id="page678"></a>678</span> +signature, though characterized, as productions of an artist +in the first phase of his progress would naturally be, by tones +more uniform, touch more flat, and colour more deep than we find +in the delicate and subtle compositions of the painter’s later +time. Generally speaking, the finished examples of Cuyp’s +middle and final period all bear his full signature. They are all +remarkable for harmonies attained by certain combinations of +shade in gradations with colours in contraposition.</p> + +<p>Albert Cuyp, a true child of the Netherlands, does not seem +to have wandered much beyond Rotterdam on the one hand or +Nijmwegen on the other. His scenery is that of the Meuse or +Rhine exclusively; and there is little variety to notice in his +views of water and meadows at Dordrecht, or the bolder undulations +of the Rhine banks east of it, except such as results from +diversity of effect due to change of weather or season or hour. +Cuyp is to the river and its banks what Willem Vandevelde is +to calm seas and Hobbema to woods. There is a poetry of effect, +an eternity of distance in his pictures, which no Dutchman ever +expressed in a similar way. His landscapes sparkle with silvery +sheen at early morning, they are bathed in warm or sultry haze +at noon, or glow with heat at eventide. Under all circumstances +they have a peculiar tinge of auburn which is Cuyp’s and Cuyp’s +alone. Bürger truly says van Goyen is gray, Ruysdael is brown, +Hobbema olive, but Cuyp “is blond.” The utmost delicacy may +be observed in Cuyp’s manner of defining reflections of objects +in water, or of sight from water on ship’s sides. He shows great +cleverness in throwing pale-yellow clouds against clear blue skies, +and merging yellow mists into olive-green vegetation. He is +also very artful in varying light and shade according to distance, +either by interchange of cloud-shadow and sun-gleam or by +gradation of tints. His horses and cattle are admirably drawn, +and they relieve each other quite as well if contrasted in black +and white and black and red, or varied in subtler shades of red +and brown. Rich weed-growth is expressed by light but marrowy +touch, suggestive of detail as well as of general form. The human +figure is given with homely realism in most cases, but frequently +with a charming elevation, when, as often occurs, the persons +represented are meant to be portraits. Whatever the theme may +be it remains impressed with the character and individuality of +Cuyp. Familiar subjects of the master’s earlier period are +stables with cattle and horses (Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Petersburg +and Brussels museums). Occasionally he painted portraits +in the bust form familiar to his father, one of which is dated 1649, +and exhibited in the National Gallery, London. More frequently +he produced likenesses of ladies and gentlemen on horseback, +in which the life and dress of the period and the forms of horses +are most vividly represented (Buckingham Palace, Bridgewater +Gallery, Louvre and Dresden Museum). Later on we find him +fondest of expansive scenery with meadows and cattle and flocks, +or rivers and barges in the foreground and distances showing +the towers and steeples of Dordrecht. Cuyp was more partial to +summer than to winter, to noon than to night, to calm than to +storm. But some of his best groups are occasionally relieved +on dark and gusty cloud (Louvre and Robarts’s collection). A +few capital pieces show us people sledging and skating or netting +ice-holes (Yarborough, Neeld and Bedford collections). A lovely +“Night on the Banks of a River,” in the Grosvenor collection, +reminds us that Cuyp’s friend and contemporary was the painter +of moonlights, Aart van der Neer, to whom he was equal in the +production of these peculiar effects and superior in the throw +of figures. Sometimes Cuyp composed fancy subjects. His +“Orpheus charming the Beasts,” in the Bute collection, is +judiciously arranged with the familiar domestic animals in the +foreground, and the wild ones, to which he is a comparative +stranger, thrown back into the distance. One of his rare gospel +subjects is “Philip baptizing the Eunuch” (Marchmont House, +Berwickshire), described as a fine work by Waagen. The best and +most attractive of Cuyp’s pieces are his Meuse and Rhine landscapes, +with meadows, cattle, flocks and horsemen, and occasionally +with boats and barges. In these he brought together and +displayed—during his middle and final period—all the skill of +one who is at once a poet and a finished artist; grouping, tinting, +touch, harmony of light and shade, and true chords of colours +are all combined. Masterpieces of acknowledged beauty are the +“Riders with the Boy and Herdsman” in the National Gallery; +the Meuse, with Dordrecht in the distance, in three or four +varieties, in the Bridgewater, Grosvenor, Holford and Brownlow +collections; the “Huntsman” (Ashburton); “Herdsmen with +Cattle,” belonging to the marquess of Bute; and the “Piper +with Cows,” in the Louvre. The prices paid for Cuyp’s pictures +in his own time were comparatively low. In 1750, 30 florins was +considered to be the highest sum to which any one of his panels +was entitled. But in more recent times the value of the pictures +has naturally risen very largely. At the sale of the Clewer +collection at Christie’s in 1876 a small “Hilly Landscape in +Morning Light” was sold for £5040, and a view on the Rhine, +with cows on a bank, for £3150.</p> +<div class="author">(J. A. C.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>John Smith’s <i>Catalogue raisonné</i> of the Dutch and Flemish painters, +in 9 vols. (1840), enumerated 335 of Albert Cuyp’s works, of which in +1877 Sir J. A. Crowe wrote in this encyclopaedia that “it would be +difficult now to find more than a third of them.” In C. Hofstede +de Groot’s <i>Catalogue raisonné</i>, vol. ii. (1909), revising Smith’s, the +number is extended to nearly 850, but he accepts too readily the +attributions of sale catalogues; the work is, however, the best modern +authority on the painter.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUZA<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Couza</span>), <b>ALEXANDER JOHN</b> [<i>Alexandru Joan</i>] +(1820-1873), first prince of Rumania, was born on the 20th of +March 1820, at Galatz in Moldavia, and belonged to an ancient +<i>boiar</i>, or noble, family. He was educated at Jassy, Pavia, +Bologna and Athens; and, after a brief period of military service, +visited Paris from 1837 to 1840 for a further course of study. +In 1845 he married the daughter of another boiar, Elena Rosetti, +who in 1862 founded the Princess Elena refuge for orphans, +at Bucharest. Cuza was imprisoned by the Russian authorities +for taking part in the Rumanian revolution of 1848, but escaped +to Vienna. On his return, in 1850, he was appointed prefect of +Galatz. In 1857 he rejoined the army, and within a few months +rose to the rank of colonel. He became minister of war in 1858, +and represented Galatz in the Assembly which was elected in the +same year to nominate a prince for Moldavia. Cuza was a +prominent speaker in the critical debates which ensued when the +assembly met at Jassy, and strongly advocated the union of the +two Danubian principalities, Moldavia and Walachia. In default +of a foreign prince, he was himself elected prince of Moldavia +by the assembly at Jassy (17th Jan. 1859), and prince of Walachia +by the assembly at Bucharest (5th Feb.). He thus became ruler +of the united principalities, with the title Prince Alexander +John I.; but as this union was forbidden by the congress of Paris +(18th Oct. 1858), his authority was not recognized by his suzerain, +the sultan of Turkey, until the 23rd of December 1861, when the +union of the principalities under the name of Rumania was +formally proclaimed. For a full account of Cuza’s reign see +Rumania. The personal vices of the prince, and the drastic +and unconstitutional reforms which he imposed on all classes, +alienated his subjects, although many of these reforms proved to +be of lasting excellence. Financial distress supervened, and the +popular discontent culminated in revolution. At four o’clock +on the morning of the 22nd of February 1866, a band of military +conspirators broke into the palace, and compelled the prince to +sign his abdication. On the following day they conducted him +safely across the frontier. Prince Alexander spent the remainder +of his life chiefly in Paris, Vienna and Wiesbaden. He died at +Heidelberg on the 15th of May 1873.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CUZCO,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> an inland city of southern Peru, capital of an Andean +department of the same name, about 360 m. E.S.E. of Lima, +in lat. 13° 31′ S., long. 73° 03′ W. The population, largely +composed of Indians and <i>mestizos</i>, was estimated at 30,000 in +1896, but according to the official estimate of 1906, it was then +about 25% less. The city stands at the head of a small valley, +11,380 ft. above sea-level, and is nearly enclosed by mountains of +considerable elevation. The valley itself is 9 m. in length and +extends S.E. to the valley of Vilcamayu. Overlooking the city +from the N. is the famous hill of Sacsahuaman, crowned by ruins +of the cyclopean fortress of the Incas and their predecessors, +and separated from adjacent heights by the deep ravines of two +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page679" id="page679"></a>679</span> +streams, called the Huatenay and Rodadero. The principal +part of the city lies between these two streams, with its great +<i>plaza</i> in the centre. On the W. side of the Huatenay are two more +fine squares, called the Cabildo and San Francisco. The houses +of the city are built of stone, their walls commonly showing the +massive masonry of the Incas at the bottom, crowned with a light +modern superstructure roofed with red tiles. The streets cross +each other at right angles and afford fine vistas on every side. +The principal public buildings are the cathedral, which is classed +among the best in South America, the convent of San Domingo, +which partly occupies the site of the great Temple of the Sun of +the Incas, the <i>cabildo</i> or government-house, a university founded +in 1598, a college of science and arts, a public library, hospital, +mint and museum of Incarial antiquities. Cuzco was made the +see of a bishopric soon after it was occupied by the Spaniards. +The Church has always exercised a dominating influence in this +region, and the city has many churches and religious establishments. +There are a number of small manufacturing industries in +Cuzco, including the manufacture of cotton and woollen fabrics, +leather, beer, embroidery and articles of gold and silver. Its +trade is not large, however, owing to the costs of transportation. +The climate is cool and bracing, and the products of the vicinity +include many of the temperate zone. A railway from Juliaca +(a station on the line from Mollendo to Puno) to Cuzco was virtually +completed early in 1908. This railway gives Cuzco an +outlet to the coast, and also direct connexion with La Paz, the +Bolivian capital. A branch of the Callao & Oroya railway is +also projected southward to Cuzco, and reached Huancayo +in 1908. Cuzco was the capital of a remarkable empire +ruled by the Incas previous to the discovery of Peru, and +it was one of the largest and most civilized of the native +cities of the New World. It was captured by Pizarro in 1533, +and it is said that its size and the magnificence of its principal +edifices filled the Spaniards with surprise. It was for many years +an object of contention among the Spanish factions, but ultimately +the greater attractions of Lima and its own isolation +diminished its importance.</p> + +<p>The department of Cuzco is the second largest in Peru, having +an area of 156,317 sq. m., and a population, according to a reduced +official estimate of 1906, of only 328,980. It occupies +an extremely mountainous region on the frontier of Bolivia, E. +of the departments of Junin, Ayacucho and Apurimac, and +extends from Loreto on the N. to Puno and Arequipa on the S. +Its area, however, includes a large district E. of the Andes which +is claimed by Bolivia, and the settlement of the dispute may +materially diminish its size. The elevation of a large part of the +department gives it a temperate climate and permits the cultivation +of cereals and other products of the temperate zone. Cattle +and sheep are produced in large numbers in some of the provinces, +while in others mining forms the chief industry. On the eastern +forested slopes and in the lower valleys tropical conditions prevail. +The population is chiefly composed of Indians who form +a sturdy, docile labouring class, but are in great part strongly +disinclined to accept the civilization of the dominant white race.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYANAMIDE,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> NC·NH<span class="su">2</span>, the amide of normal cyanic acid, +obtained by the action of ammonia on cyanogen chloride, +bromide or iodide, or by the desulphurization of thio-urea +with mercuric oxide; it is generally prepared by the latter +process. It forms white crystals, which melt at 40° C., and are +readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether. Heated above +its melting point it polymerizes to di-cyandiamide (CN<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">2</span>, +which at 150° C. is transformed into the polymer <i>n</i>-tri-cyantriamide +or melamine (CN<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">3</span>, the mass solidifying. Nascent +hydrogen reduces cyanamide to ammonia and methylamine. +It gives mono-metallic salts of the type NC·NHM when treated +with aqueous or alcoholic solutions of alkalis. Di-metallic +salts are obtained by heating cyanates alone, <i>e.g.</i> calcium, or +cyanides in a current of nitrogen, <i>e.g.</i> barium.</p> + +<p>Calcium cyanamide has assumed importance in agriculture +since the discovery of its economic production in the electric +furnace, wherein calcium carbide takes up nitrogen from the +atmosphere to form the cyanamide with the simultaneous +liberation of carbon. It may also be produced by heating lime +or chalk with charcoal to 2000° in a current of air. The commercial +product (which is known in Germany as “<i>Kalkstickstoff</i>”) +contains from 14 to 22% of nitrogen, which is liberated +as ammonia when the substance is treated with water; to this +decomposition it owes its agricultural value. It appears that +with soils which are not rich in humus or not deficient in lime, +calcium cyanamide is almost as good, nitrogen for nitrogen, +as ammonium sulphate or sodium nitrate; but it is of doubtful +value with peaty soils or soils containing little lime, nor is it +usefully available as a top-dressing or for storing.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYANIC ACID AND CYANATES.<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> Cyanic acid, CN·OH, +was discovered by F. Wöhler in 1824, and may be obtained by +distilling its polymeride, cyanuric acid, in a current of carbon +dioxide (F. Wöhler and J. v. Liebig, <i>Berzelius Jahresberichte</i>, +1827, 11, p. 84), the vapours which distil over being condensed +in a freezing mixture. It is a very volatile liquid of strong acid +reaction, and is only stable below 0° C. It has a smell resembling +that of acetic acid. At 0° C. it is rapidly converted into +a mixture of cyanuric acid, C<span class="su">3</span>N<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">3</span>, and another polymer, +cyamelide (CNOH)<i>x</i>; this latter substance is a white amorphous +powder, insoluble in water. An aqueous solution of cyanic acid +is rapidly hydrolysed (above 0° C.) into a mixture of carbon +dioxide and ammonia. Cyanogen chloride, CNCl, may be +regarded as the chloride of cyanic acid. It may be prepared +by the action of chlorine on hydrocyanic acid or on mercury +cyanide. It is a very poisonous volatile liquid, which boils at +15.5° C. It polymerizes readily to cyanuric chloride, C<span class="su">3</span>N<span class="su">3</span>Cl<span class="su">3</span>. +Caustic alkalis hydrolyse it readily to the alkaline chloride and +cyanate.</p> + +<p>The salts of cyanic acid are known as the cyanates, the +two most important being potassium cyanate (KOCN) and +ammonium cyanate (NH<span class="su">4</span>OCN). Potassium cyanate may be +prepared by heating potassium cyanide with an oxidizing agent, +or by heating potassium ferrocyanide with manganese dioxide, +potassium carbonate or potassium dichromate (J. v. Liebig, +<i>Ann.</i>, 1841, 38, p. 108; C. Lea, <i>Jahresb.</i>, 1861, p. 789; L. Gattermann, +<i>Ber.</i>, 1890, 23, p. 1224), the fused mass being extracted +with boiling alcohol. It crystallizes in flat plates and is readily +soluble in cold water. It is a somewhat important reagent, +and has been used by Emil Fischer in various syntheses in +the uric acid group (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Purin</a></span>). Ammonium cyanate possesses +considerable theoretical importance since the first synthetical +production of an organic from inorganic compounds was accomplished +by warming its aqueous solution for some time, urea +being formed (F. Wöhler, <i>Berzelius Jahresberichte</i>, 1828, 12, +p. 266). J. Walker and J. K. Wood (<i>Jour. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1900, 77, +p. 24) prepared pure ammonium cyanate by the union of gaseous +ammonia and cyanic acid, special precautions being taken to +keep the temperature below the point at which the salt is transformed +into urea. It crystallizes in fine needles, which melt +suddenly at about 80° C., then resolidify, and melt again at about +128° to 130° C. (this temperature being that of the melting point +of urea). Substituted ammonias were also made to combine +with cyanic acid, and it was found that the substituted ammonium +cyanates produced pass much more readily into the +corresponding ureas than ammonium cyanate itself. (On the +constitution of cyanic acid see F. D. Chattaway and J. M. +Wadmore, <i>Jour. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1902, 81, p. 191.)</p> + +<p>Esters of normal cyanic acid are not known, but those of +isocyanic acid (HN·CO) may be prepared by the action of +alkyl halides on silver cyanate, or by oxidizing the isonitriles +with mercuric oxide. They are volatile liquids which boil +without decomposition, and possess a nauseating smell. When +hydrolysed with caustic alkalis, they yield primary amines +(this reaction determines their constitution). C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>NCO + H<span class="su">2</span>O = +C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>NH<span class="su">2</span> + CO<span class="su">2</span>. When heated with water they yield carbon +dioxide and symmetrical dialkyl ureas; with ammonia and +amines they form alkyl ureas; and with acid anhydrides they +yield tertiary amides.</p> + +<p>Ethyl isocyanate, C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>NCO, was first prepared by A. Wurtz +(<i>Ann. chim.</i>, 1854 (3), 42, p. 43) by distilling a mixture of potassium +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page680" id="page680"></a>680</span> +ethyl sulphate and potassium cyanate. It is a colourless liquid +which boils at 60° C.</p> + +<p><i>Cyanuric acid</i>, H<span class="su">3</span>C<span class="su">3</span>N<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, was obtained by Wöhler and Liebig +by heating urea, and by A. Wurtz by passing chlorine into +melting urea. It forms white efflorescent crystals. Treatment +with phosphorus pentachloride gives cyanuric chloride, C<span class="su">3</span>N<span class="su">3</span>Cl<span class="su">3</span>, +which is also formed by the combination of anhydrous chlorine +and prussic acid in the presence of sunlight. These substances +contain a ring of three carbon and three nitrogen atoms, <i>i.e.</i> +they are symmetrical triazines.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYANIDE,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> in chemistry, a salt of prussic of hydrocyanic +acid, the name being more usually restricted to inorganic salts, +<i>i.e.</i> the salts of the metals, the organic salts (or esters) being +termed nitriles. The preparation, properties, &c., of cyanides +are treated in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prussic Acid</a></span>; reference should also +be made to the articles on the particular metals. The most +important cyanide commercially is potassium cyanide, which +receives application in the “cyanide process” of gold extraction +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gold</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:207px; height:207px" src="images/img680.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="bold">CYANITE,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> a native aluminium silicate, Al<span class="su">2</span>SiO<span class="su">5</span>, crystallizing +in the anorthic system. It has the same percentage chemical +composition as andalusite and sillimanite, but differs from +these in its crystallographic and physical characters. P. Groth +writes the formula as a metasilicate (AlO)<span class="su">2</span>SiO<span class="su">3</span>. The name +cyanite was given by A. G. Werner +in 1789, from <span class="grk" title="kyanos">κύανος</span>, blue, in allusion +to the characteristic colour of the +mineral; the form kyanite is also in +common use, and the name disthène, +proposed by R. J. Haüy in 1801, is +used by French writers.</p> + +<p>Distinctly developed crystals with +terminal planes are rare, the mineral +being commonly found as lamellar +cleavage masses or long blade-shaped +crystals embedded in crystalline rocks. +The colour is usually a pale sky-blue, but may be white, greenish +or yellowish; it varies in intensity in different bands, so that +the crystals usually present a more or less striped appearance. +There is a perfect cleavage parallel to the broad face <i>m</i> (100), +and a less perfect one parallel to <i>t</i> (010): the basal plane <i>p</i> (001), +oblique to the prism zone, is a gliding plane on which secondary +twinning is produced by pressure, giving rise to characteristic +horizontal striations on the cleavage face <i>m</i>. The accompanying +figure represents a crystal twinned on the plane <i>m</i> (100). A +negative biaxial optic figure is seen in convergent polarized +light through the cleavage plane <i>m</i>, the axial plane being inclined +at about 30° to the edge between <i>m</i> and <i>t</i>. A remarkable feature +of cyanite is the great difference in hardness on different faces +of the same crystal and in different directions on the same +face: on the face <i>m</i> in a direction parallel to the edge between +<i>m</i> and <i>p</i> the hardness is 7, whilst in a direction parallel to the +edge between <i>m</i> and <i>t</i> it is 4½. The name disthène, from <span class="grk" title="dis">δίς</span>, +two, and <span class="grk" title="sthenos">σθένος</span>, strong, has reference to these differences in +hardness.</p> + +<p>Analyses of cyanite often show the presence of a small amount +(usually less than 1%) of ferric oxide and sometimes traces of +copper, and to these constituents the blue or green colour of +the mineral is doubtless due. The mineral is infusible before +the blowpipe, and is not decomposed by acids. At a high +temperature, about 1350° C., it becomes transformed into +sillimanite, changing in specific gravity from 3.6 to 3.2.</p> + +<p>Cyanite is a characteristic mineral of the metamorphic crystalline +rocks—gneiss, schist, granulite and eclogite—and is often +associated with garnet and staurolite. A typical occurrence +is in the white, fine-scaled paragonite-schist of Monte Campione, +near St Gotthard in Switzerland, where long transparent crystals +of a fine blue colour are abundant. In the gneiss of the Pfitscher +Tal near Sterzing in Tirol a white variety known as rhaetizite is +found. It occurs at several places in Scotland, for instance, at +Botriphnie in Banffshire, with muscovite in a quartz-vein. +Fine specimens are found in mica-schist at Chesterfield in +Massachusetts, and at several other localities in the United +States. It is found in the gold-washings of the southern Urals +and in the diamond-washings of Brazil. As minute crystal +fragments it is met with in many sands and sandstones.</p> + +<p>When of sufficient transparency and depth of colour (deep +cornflower-blue) the mineral has a limited application as a +gem-stone; it is usually cut <i>en cabochon</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYANOGEN<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kyanos">κύανος</span>, blue <span class="grk" title="gennan">γεννᾶν</span>, to produce), C<span class="su">2</span>N<span class="su">2</span>, +in chemistry, a gas composed of carbon and nitrogen. The +name was suggested by Prussian blue, the earliest known compound +of cyanogen. It was first isolated in 1815 by J. Gay-Lussac, +who obtained it by heating mercury or silver cyanide; +this discovery is of considerable historical importance, since it +recorded the isolation of a “compound radical.” It may also +be prepared by heating ammonium oxalate; by passing induction +sparks between carbon points in an atmosphere of nitrogen +(see H. von Wartenburg, <i>Abs. J.C.S.</i>, 1907, i. p. 299), or by +the addition of a concentrated solution of potassium cyanide +to one of copper sulphate, the mixed solutions being then heated. +It also occurs in blast-furnace gases. When cyanogen is prepared +by heating mercuric cyanide, a residue known as para-cyanogen, +(CN)<span class="su">x</span>, is left; this is to be regarded as a polymer of cyanogen. +It is a brownish amorphous solid, which is insoluble in water. +Cyanogen is a colourless gas, possessing a peculiar characteristic +smell, and is very poisonous. It burns with a purple flame, +forming carbon dioxide and nitrogen; and may be condensed +(by cooling to −25° C.) to a colourless liquid, and further to a +solid, which melts at −34.4° C. (M. Faraday, <i>Ann.</i>, 1845, 56, +p. 158). It dissolves readily in water and the aqueous solution +decomposes on standing; a dark-brown flocculent precipitate of +azulmic acid, C<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">5</span>N<span class="su">5</span>O, separating whilst ammonium oxalate, +urea and hydrocyanic acid are found in the solution. In many +respects it resembles chlorine in its chemical behaviour, a circumstance +noted by Gay-Lussac; it combines directly with hydrogen +(at 500° to 550° C.) to form hydrocyanic acid, and with chlorine, +bromine, iodine and sulphur, to form cyanogen chloride, &c.; +it also combines directly with zinc, cadmium and iron to form +cyanides of these metals. It combines with sulphuretted +hydrogen, in the presence of water, to form the compound +C<span class="su">2</span>N<span class="su">2</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>S, and in the presence of alcohol, to form the compound +C<span class="su">2</span>N<span class="su">2</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>S. Concentrated hydrochloric acid converts it into +oxamide. Potash solution converts it into a mixture of potassium +cyanide and cyanate. When heated with hydriodic acid (specific +gravity 1.96) it forms amino-acetic acid, and with tin and +hydrochloric acid it yields ethylene diamine.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYAXARES<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (Pers. <i>Uvakhshatra</i>), king of Media, reigned +according to Herodotus (i. 107) forty years, about 624-584 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +That he was the real founder of the Median empire is proved by +the fact that in Darius’s time a Median usurper, Fravartish, +pretended to be his offspring (Behistun inscr. 2. 43); but about +his history we know very little. Herodotus narrates (i. 103 ff.) +that he renewed the war against the Assyrians, in which his +father Phraortes had perished, but was, while he besieged +Nineveh, attacked by a great Scythian army under Madyas, +son of Protothyes, which had come from the northern shores +of the Black Sea in pursuit of the Cimmerians. After their +victory over Cyaxares, the Scythians conquered and wasted +the whole of western Asia, and ruled twenty-eight years, till +at last they were made drunk and slain by Cyaxares at a banquet +(cf. another story about Cyaxares and a Scythian host in Herod, +i. 73). As we possess scarcely any contemporary documents +it is impossible to find out the real facts. But we know from +the prophecies of Jeremiah and Zephaniah that Syria and Palestine +were really invaded by northern barbarians in 626 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +and it is probable that this invasion was the principal cause of +the downfall of the Assyrian empire (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Media</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persia</a></span>: +<i>Ancient History</i>).</p> + +<p>After the destruction of the Scythians Cyaxares regained the +supremacy, renewed his attack on Assyria, and in 606 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +destroyed Nineveh and the other capitals of the empire (Herod. +i. 106; Berossus <i>ap.</i> Euseb. <i>Chron.</i> i. 29, 37, confirmed by a +stele of Nabonidus found in Babylon: Scheil in <i>Recueil de</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page681" id="page681"></a>681</span> +<i>travaux</i>, xviii.; Messerschmidt, “Die Inschrift der Stele +Nabonaids,” in <i>Mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft</i>, +i., 1896). According to Berossus he was allied with Nabopolassar +of Babylon, whose son Nebuchadrezzar married Amyitis, the +daughter of the Median king (who is wrongly called Astyages). +The countries north and east of the Tigris and the northern +part of Mesopotamia with the city of Harran (Carrhae) became +subject to the Medes. Armenia and Cappadocia were likewise +subdued; the attempt to advance farther into Asia Minor +led to a war with Alyattes of Lydia. The decisive battle, in +the sixth year, was interrupted by the famous solar eclipse on +the 28th of May 585 predicted by Thales. Syennesis of Cilicia +and Nebuchadrezzar (in Herodotus named Labynetus) of +Babylon interceded and effected a peace, by which the Halys +was fixed as frontier between the two empires, and Alyattes’s +daughter married to Cyaxares’s son Astyages (Herod. i. 74). +If Herodotus’s dates are correct, Cyaxares died shortly afterwards.</p> + +<p>In a fragmentary letter from an Assyrian governor to King +Sargon (about 715 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) about rebellions of Median chieftains, +a dynast Uvakshatar (<i>i.e.</i> Cyaxares) is mentioned as attacking +an Assyrian fortress (Kharkhar, in the chains of the Zagros). +Possibly he was an ancestor of the Median king.</p> +<div class="author">(Ed. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYBELE,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Cybebe</span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Knbelê">Κυβέλη</span>, <span class="grk" title="Knbêbê">Κυβήβη</span>), a goddess native +to Asia Minor and worshipped by most of the peoples of the +peninsula, was known to the Romans most commonly as the +<span class="sc">Great Mother or the Gods</span> (<i>q.v.</i>), or the Great Idaean Mother +of the Gods—<i>Magna Deum Mater, Mater Deum Magna Idaea</i>. +She was known by many other names, such as <i>Mater Idaea</i>, +Dindymene, Sipylene, derived from famous seats of worship, +and Mountain Mother, &c., in token of her character, but Cybele +is the name by which she is most frequently known in literature. +Her cult became centralized in Phrygia, had found its way into +Greece, where it never flourished greatly, as early as the latter +6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and was introduced at Rome in 204 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Under +the Empire it attained to great importance, and was one of the +last pagan cults to die. Cybele was usually worshipped in +connexion with Attis (<i>q.v.</i>), as Aphrodite with Adonis, the two +being a duality interpreted by the philosophers as symbolic of +Mother Earth and her vegetation.</p> +<div class="author">(G. Sn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYCLADES,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> a compact group of islands in the Greek Archipelago, +forming a cluster around the island of Syra (Syros), the +principal town of which, now officially known as Hermoupolis, +is the capital of a department. Population of the group (1907) +130,378. The islands, though seldom visited by foreigners, are +for the most part highly interesting and picturesque, notwithstanding +their somewhat barren appearance when viewed from +the sea; many of them bear traces of the feudal rule of Venetian +families in the middle ages, and their inhabitants in general +may be regarded as presenting the best type of the Greek race. +To the student of antiquity the most interesting are: Delos (<i>q.v.</i>), +one of the greatest centres of ancient religious, political and +commercial life, where an important series of researches has been +carried out by French archaeologists; Melos (<i>q.v.</i>), where, in +addition to various buildings of the Hellenic and Roman periods, +the large prehistoric stronghold of Phylakopi has been excavated +by members of the British school at Athens; and Thera (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Santorin</a></span>), the ancient capital of which has been explored by +Baron Hiller von Gaertringen. Thera is also of special interest +to geologists owing to its remarkable volcanic phenomena. +Naxos, the largest and most fertile island of the group, contains +the highest mountain in the Cyclades (Zia, 3290 ft.); the island +annually exports upwards of 2000 tons of emery, a state monopoly +the proceeds of which are now hypothecated to the foreign debt. +The oak woods of Ceos (Zeá) and Ios furnish considerable supplies +of valonia. Kimolos, which is absolutely treeless, produces +fuller’s-earth. The famous marble quarries of Paros have been +practically abandoned in modern times; the marble of Tenos +is now worked by a British syndicate. The mineral wealth of +the Cyclades has hitherto been much neglected; iron ore is +exported from Seriphos, manganese and sulphur from Melos, +and volcanic cement (pozzolana) from Santorin. Other articles +of export are wine, brandy, hides and tobacco. Cythnos, Melos +and other islands possess hot springs with therapeutic qualities. +The prosperity of Syra, formerly an important distributing +centre for the whole Levant, has been declining for several years.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Population (1907):—Syra 31,939 (communes, Hermoupolis +18,132, Mykonos 4589, Syra 9218); Andros 18,035 (Andros 8536, +Arni 2166, Gaurio 2897, Corthion 4436); Thera 19,597 (Thera 4226, +Egiale 1513, Amorgos 2627, Anaphe 579, Emporium 2172, Therasia +679, Ios 2090, Kalliste 3519, Oea 2192); Ceos 11,032 (Ceos 3817, +Dryopis 1628, Cythnos 1563, Seriphos 4024); Melos, 12,774 (Melos +4864, Adamas 529, Siphnos 3777, Kimolos 2015, Pholegandros 962, +Sikinos 627); Naxos 25,185 (Naxos 2064, Apiranthe 2421, Vivlos +4343, Coronis 3205, Marpessa 1313, Naoussa 1670, Paros 3586, +Tragea 4661, Hyrie 1922); Tenos 11,816 (Tenos 4697, Panorme +2658, Peree 2801, Sosthenion 1660).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYCLAMEN,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> in botany, a genus belonging to the natural order +Primulaceae, containing about ten species native in the mountains +of central Europe and the Mediterranean region. <i>C. europaeum</i> +(Sow-bread) is found as an introduced plant in copses in Kent +and Sussex. The plants are low-growing herbs with large tuberous +rootstocks, from the surface of which spring a number of +broad, generally heart-shaped or kidney-shaped, long-stalked +leaves, which in cultivated forms are often beautifully marbled, +ribbed or splashed. The flowers are nodding, and white, pink, +lilac or crimson in colour. The corolla has a short tube and five +large reflexed lobes. After flowering the stalk becomes spirally +coiled, drawing the fruit down to the soil. Cyclamen is a favourite +winter and spring flowering plant. <i>C. persicum</i> is probably the +best known. It is a small-growing kind bearing medium-sized +leaves and numerous flowers. <i>C. giganteum</i> is a large, strong-growing +species; not quite so free flowering as <i>C. persicum</i>, but +in all other respects superior to it when well grown. <i>C. papilio</i> +differs in the fringed character of the petals. It has been obtained +by selection from <i>C. persicum</i>. There is also a very beautiful +crested race, probably derived from <i>C. giganteum</i>.</p> + +<p>The plants are raised from seed, and, with good cultivation, +flower in fifteen to eighteen months from date of sowing. Seed +should be sown as soon as ripe, in July or August, in pots or pans, +filled up to 2½ in. of the rim with broken crocks for drainage. The +soil should consist of fibrous yellow loam, leaf-mould in flakes, +and coarse silver-sand, in equal parts. Sow the seed thinly—¼ +in. to ½ in. apart—and cover with a very thin sprinkling of the +soil. Protect with a square of glass covered with a piece of brown +paper for shade, and place on a shelf in a warm greenhouse. +The soil should never be allowed to get dry.</p> + +<p>When the seedlings appear, remove the covering, care being +taken that they do not suffer for want of shade, water or a moist +atmosphere. As soon as the third leaf appears, repot singly +into thumb-pots in slightly coarser soil, so that the crowns of the +little plants are just above the level of the soil. In December +transfer into a little richer soil, consisting of two parts fibrous +loam broken into small bits by hand and the fine particles +rejected, one part flaked leaf-mould, passed through a half-inch +sieve, half a part of plant ash from the burnt refuse heap and half +a part of coarse silver-sand. Keep through the winter in a moist +atmosphere at a temperature not below 50° Fahr., and as near +the glass as possible. In March they should be ready for their +next shift into 5-in. pots. The potting compost should be the +same as for the last shift, with the addition of half a part of well-sweetened +manure, such as a spent mushroom bed. Keep in a +warm moist atmosphere and shade from strong sunlight. In June +remove to cold frames and stand them on inverted pots well clear +of one another. Slugs show a marked partiality for the succulent +young leaves and should be excluded by dusting round the +frames occasionally with newly slaked lime. The inverted pots +serve as traps. The frames may thus be frequently syringed +without keeping the plants unduly wet. Shade heavily from +direct sunlight, but afford as much diffused light as practicable. +Ventilate on all favourable occasions, and close the frames early +after copious syringing.</p> + +<p>By the end of the month they will be ready for the final shift +into 7-in. pots. Much care must be used in handling them, the +leaves being large, tender and numerous. The soil is as for the +last potting. The frames should be kept close and heavily shaded +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page682" id="page682"></a>682</span> +for a few days after potting; then gradually reduce shade and +increase ventilation. By the end of July the elegance of the +foliage alone should well repay the care bestowed on them. +From this time onwards very little shading will be needed, the +object of the cultivator being to harden the growth already made. +With the advent of cool weather in September, remove to flowering +quarters in a warm greenhouse. Flowering will begin in +November and will continue through the winter and spring. +The damping off of the flower-buds may occasionally prove +troublesome during winter. This may generally be traced to +checks, such as sudden changes in temperature, too low a temperature, +careless watering, &c. During spring plants that are +flowering freely will require weak manure water about twice +a week.</p> + +<p>Plants selected to bear seed should be set aside for that purpose, +and as soon as the capsules are found to be developing properly +they should be reduced to six or seven per plant, and all flower-buds +picked off as soon as they are large enough to handle. +The production of strong seeds is of the utmost importance.</p> + +<p>Plants grown for market purposes, either for decoration or for +seed, are sown later than the above, are kept cooler, and during +summer receive more ventilation and less shade. This results in +the production of plants with much smaller and more erect leaves, +which travel well. They are flowered in spring and early summer. +The species grown for this purpose is <i>C. persicum</i>.</p> + +<p>A few species are hardy in dry sheltered positions, such as +rockeries, under walls and old trees, provided the positions are +well drained. Such are <i>C. europaeum</i>, with reddish-purple +flowers in summer; <i>C. hederifolium</i> in autumn; and <i>C. neapolitanum</i>, +with large leaves marbled with silver and rosy-pink +flowers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYCLE<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kuklos">κύκλος</span>, a circle), in astronomy, a period of time +at the end of which some aspect or relation of the heavenly bodies +recurs. The more important cycles are discussed in the articles +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calendar</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eclipse</a></span>. In physics, the term is applied to a +series of operations which, performed upon a system, brings it +back to its original state; “Carnot’s Cycle” is an example (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermodynamics</a></span>). From the use of the word for any period +at the end of which the same events recur in the same order or +for any complete series of phenomena, it is used loosely of any +long period of time. The name <span class="grk" title="ho épikòs kuklos">ὁ ἐπικὸς κύκλος</span>, the epic +cycle, was given to the poems which complete the Homeric +account of the Trojan War (see below). It is this use which has +given rise to the application of the term “cycle” to a series of +prose or poetical romances which have for a centre one subject, +whether a person, as in the Alexander, Arthurian or Charlemagne +cycles, or an object, such as the ring of the Nibelungenlied. +In music “Song-cycle” (Ger. <i>Liederkreis</i>) is similarly used of +a series of songs written round one subject or set to poems by +the same author. Beethoven’s <i>An die ferne Geliebte</i> (Op. 98), +published in 1816, is the earliest instance. Schubert’s <i>Die schöne +Müllerin</i>, Schumann’s <i>Dichterliebe</i> and Brahms’s <i>Magelone-Lieder</i> +are well-known instances.</p> + +<p><i>Epic Cycle.</i>—This is a collection or corpus of lays written about +776-580 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by poets of the Ionian School, introductory or +complementary to the Homeric poems, dealing with the legends +of the Trojan and Theban wars. At a later date they were +arranged so as to form a continuous narrative (the <i>Iliad</i> and +the <i>Odyssey</i> included), perhaps after certain alterations had been +made, to fill up gaps and remove inconsistencies and repetitions. +By whom, and when, they were so arranged, cannot be decided; +it is possible that it was the work of Zenodotus of Ephesus, +who had the care of the epic section of the Alexandrian library. +In order to furnish the general reader with a comprehensive +sketch of mythological history, Proclus—according to Welcker +and Valesius (Valois), not the neo-Platonist, but an unknown 2nd +or 3rd century grammarian, perhaps Eutychius Proclus of Sicca<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +in Africa, one of the tutors of Marcus Aurelius (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Proclus</a></span>)—compiled +a prose summary (<span class="grk" title="Grammatkê chrêstomatheia">Γραμματικὴ Χρηστομάθεια</span>) +of the contents of the poems, to serve as a sort of primer to +Greek literature. Extracts from this are preserved in the Codex +Venetus of Homer and Photius (cod. 239), according to which +the epic cycle began with the union of Uranus and Ge and ended +with the death of Odysseus on his return to Ithaca at the hands +of his son Telegonus. The cycle was in existence in his (Proclus’s) +time, and was in request not so much for its artistic merit, as for +the “sequence of the events described in it.” Further light is +thrown on the subject by pictorial representations, intended for +school use during the Roman imperial period, the most famous +of which is the <i>Tabula Iliaca</i> in the Capitoline museum.</p> + +<p>The expression “epic cycle” in the sense of a poetical collection +does not occur before the Christian era; the word <span class="grk" title="kyklos">κύκλος</span> +(“cycle,” “circle”) is used of a special kind of short poem and +also of a prose abstract of mythological history; the adjective +has the general sense of “hackneyed,” “conventional,” and is +applied contemptuously (by Callimachus and Horace) to a +particular Alexandrian school of poetry.</p> + +<p>The most important poems of the Trojan legendary cycle are +the <i>Cypria of Stasinus</i> (<i>q.v.</i>); the <i>Aethiopis</i> and <i>Iliou Persis</i> +(Sack of Troy) of Arctinus (<i>q.v.</i>); the <i>Little Iliad</i> of Lesches +(<i>q.v.</i>); the <i>Nosti</i> of Hagias or Agias; the <i>Telegonia</i> of Eugammon. +To the Theban cycle belong: the <i>Thebais</i> or <i>Expedition of +Amphiaraus</i> and the <i>Epigoni</i> of Antimachus. The <i>Oechalias +Halosis</i> (capture of <i>Oechalia</i>) of Creophylus (<i>q.v.</i>); the <i>Phocais</i> +(or <i>Minyas</i>) of Prodicus; and the <i>Danais</i> of Cercops, although +belonging to the old Homeric epos, cannot with certainty be +included in the epic cycle. The names of the authors are in +several cases exceedingly doubtful.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The standard work on the subject is F. G. +Welcker, <i>Der epische Cyclus</i> (1865-1882); see also T. W. Allen, +“The Epic Cycle,” in <i>Classical Quarterly</i>, Jan. and April 1908 +(summary of sources and authorities); Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, +<i>Homerische Untersuchungen</i> (1884), who regards the traditional +names and personalities of the poets of the cycle with great scepticism; +D. B. Monro, <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, iv. (1883), appendix +to his edition of the <i>Odyssey</i>, xiii.-xxiv. (1900), and on the Codex +Venetus fragment of Proclus; J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. of Class. Schol.</i> +(2nd ed., 1906), vol. i. ch. 2; J. B. Bury, <i>Ancient Greek Historians</i> +(1909), pp. 2-8 on the epics as history; articles by H. Flach in Ersch +and Gruber, <i>Allgemeine Encyklopädie</i>, and by E. Schwartz and +others in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> An objection to this view is that according to the Augustan +historian Capitolinus (<i>Antoninus</i>, 2) Eutychius of Sicca was a Latin +not a Greek grammarian.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYCLING,<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> the clipped term now given comprehensively to +the sport or exercise of riding a bicycle (<i>q.v.</i>) or tricycle (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:283px; height:175px" src="images/img683a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Gentleman’s Hobby Horse.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:289px; height:159px" src="images/img683b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Lady’s Hobby Horse.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:293px; height:221px" src="images/img683c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—The Boneshaker, 1868.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:304px; height:214px" src="images/img683d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—The “Phantom,” 1869.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Suggestions of vehicles having two or more wheels and propelled +by the muscular effort of the rider or riders are to be found in +very early times, even on the bas-reliefs of Egypt and +Babylon and the frescoes of Pompeii; but though +<span class="sidenote">History.</span> +sporadic examples of such contrivances are recorded in the 17th +and 18th centuries, it was apparently not till the beginning of +the 19th century that they were used to any considerable extent. +A “velocipede” invented by Blanchard and Magurier, and +described in the <i>Journal de Paris</i> on the 27th of July 1779, +differed little from the <i>célérifère</i> proposed by another Frenchman, +de Sivrac, in 1690; it consisted of a wooden bar rigidly connecting +two wheels placed one in front of the other, and was propelled +by the rider, seated astride the bar, pushing against the ground +with his feet. The next advance was made in the <i>draisine</i> of +Freiherr Karl Drais von Sauerbronn (1785-1851), described +in his <i>Abbildung und Beschreibung seiner neu erfundenen Laufmaschine</i> +(Nuremberg, 1817). In this the front wheel was pivoted +on the frame so that it could be turned sideways by a handle, +thus serving to steer the machine (figs. 1 and 2). A similar +machine, the “celeripede,” also with a movable front wheel, +is said to have been ridden by J. N. Niepce in Paris some years +before. In England the draisine achieved a great, though +temporary, vogue under various names, such as velocipede, +patent accelerator, bivector, bicipedes, pedestrian curricle +(patented by Dennis Johnson in 1818), dandy horse, hobby horse, +&c., and for a time it was popular in America also. The propulsion +of the draisine by pushing with the feet being alleged to +give rise to diseases of the legs, arrangements were soon suggested, +as by Louis Gompertz in England in 1821, by which the front +wheel could be rotated by the hands with the aid of a system +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page683" id="page683"></a>683</span> +of gearing, but the idea of providing mechanical connexions +between the feet and the wheels was apparently not thought +of till later. Pedals with connecting rods working on the rear +axle are said to have been applied to a tricycle in 1834 by Kirkpatrick +McMillan, a Scottish +blacksmith of Keir, Dumfriesshire, +and to a draisine +by him in 1840, and by a +Scottish cooper, Gavin Dalzell, +of Lesmahagow, Lanarkshire, +about 1845. The +draisine thus fitted had +wooden wheels, with iron +tires, the leading one about +30 in. in diameter and the +driving one about 40 in., and thus it formed the prototype, +though not the ancestor, of the modern rear-driven safety +bicycle.</p> + +<p>For the next 20 years little was done, and then began the +evolution of the high “ordinary” bicycle with a large driving +wheel in front and a small trailing one behind. About 1865 +Pierre Lallement in Paris +constructed a bicycle in +which the front wheel was +driven by pedals and +cranks attached directly +to its axle, but it is doubtful +whether the origin of +this idea must be attributed +to him or to Ernest Michaux, +the son of his employer, +who was a carriage repairer. Lallement took his machine to +the United States, and in 1866 was granted a patent which had +an important influence on the subsequent course of the cycle +industry in that country. This machine, consisting of a wooden +frame supported on two wooden wheels (fig. 3), soon became +popular in England, as well +as in France and America, +and came to be called +bicycle (or bysicle) by those +who took it seriously and +“boneshaker” by those +who did not. Improvements +quickly followed, +chiefly in England, for in +America the popularity of +the machine was short-lived, +and in France the industry +was checked by the Franco-German +war. Rubber tires, in place of iron ones, appeared in +1868, and in two or three years were made very large, 2 in. or +more in width. Suspension wheels, with wire spokes in tension, +were seen at the Crystal Palace, London, on the “Phantom” +(fig. 4) of W. F. Reynolds and J. A. Mays in 1869, and early in +the same year the manufacture +of bicycles, at +first for export to France, +was begun in England +by the Coventry Sewing +Machine Company, till +then makers of sewing +machines. There was a +rapid growth in the size +of the front wheel, which +in the boneshaker normally +measured 36 or 38 +in. in diameter, with a +corresponding shrinkage in the rear wheel (fig. 5), until by +1874, the date of the invention of the tangent wheel by +J. K. Starley 54-in. wheels were being made. The high +bicycle was now fairly established in form, and the changes +made in the subsequent 10 or 15 years during which it +retained its supremacy were chiefly in the details of construction, +such as the adoption of steel tubing for the frames, the use +of hollow rims in the wheels and the application first of cone +and then of ball bearings to points of friction. The weight +of a 54-in. bicycle, which in 1874-1875 exceeded 50 or even 60 ℔, +was thus reduced to well under 40 ℔ in machines intended for +use on ordinary roads, +and to not much over 20 +℔ in the case of racers.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:300px; height:240px" src="images/img683e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—Humber’s “Spider,” 1872.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:296px; height:252px" src="images/img683f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—Rudge Racing Ordinary, 1887.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:226px; height:217px" src="images/img683g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—Otto Dicycle, 1879.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The high “ordinary” +bicycle (fig. 6) gave unquestionable +pleasure to +many riders, and very +fast times were made +with it both on the road +and on the racing path. +In 1882 H. L. Cortis rode +20 m. 300 yds. in one +hour, and in April 1884 +Thomas Stevens started +from San Francisco to ride round the world, a feat which +he accomplished in December 1886. But it had various disadvantages. +The vibration set up by the small back wheel was +very trying, and in spite of the size of the front one the rider had +to move his pedals at an uncomfortably rapid rate if he wished +to maintain a good speed. Moreover his seat was placed in such +a position that he was liable to be pitched over the handlebar +if his wheel encountered a comparatively small obstacle. +Attempts were made to remedy these inconveniences in various +ways. From the early +’eighties much attention +was devoted to tricycles, +and these were produced +in innumerable designs, +whether for a single rider, +or for two in the form of +“sociables,” in which the +riders sat side by side, or +of “tandems,” in which +one sat behind the other. +But their weight, and +consequently the exertion +of propelling them, was +necessarily greater than +in the case of the bicycle, and by the end of the decade, the +demand for them had fallen off, though they are still made to a +certain extent, chiefly for carrying purposes. The two-track +dicycle (fig. 7), invented by E. C. F. Otto about 1879, in which +the rider balanced himself between two equal wheels placed +abreast, also failed to secure lasting success.</p> + +<p>The improvement of the high bicycle was attempted in two +directions. On the one hand it was modified by placing the +rider farther back, his position “over his work” being ensured +by arranging the pedals immediately below him and connecting +them to the front wheel, which was +usually reduced in size, by levers +and cranks or by chain-gearing, +often with a multiplying action. +On the other, the rear wheel was +enlarged and made the driving +wheel. The “’Xtraordinary” +(fig. 8), “Facile” (fig. 9) and +“Kangaroo” were examples of the +former kind, which were often +spoken of as “dwarf-safeties”; +but though a good many of them +were used about 1880 and following +years, both they and the “ordinary” +bicycle ultimately disappeared before +machines of the second kind, which developed into the +modern rear-driven safety. There are numerous claimants +for the invention—or rather the reinvention—of this type, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page684" id="page684"></a>684</span> +but it appears that the credit for its practical and commercial +introduction in substantially its present form is due to J. K. +Starley in England. His “Rover” (fig. 10), brought out late +in 1885, had two nearly equal wheels, the driving wheel 30 in. +in diameter and the steering 32 in., and the rider sat so far back +that he could not be thrown forward over the handles. The +motion imparted by the +pedals to a sprocket wheel +mounted between the wheels +was transmitted by an endless +chain to the rear wheel, +and by sufficiently increasing +the size of this sprocket +wheel the machine could be +made to travel as far or +farther than the “ordinary” +for each complete revolution +of the pedals. From +about 1890 the “safety” +monopolized the field. At +first it was fitted with the narrow rubber tires customary at +the time, but these gave way to pneumatic tires, invented +in 1888 by J. B. Dunlop, a veterinary surgeon of Belfast, whose +idea, however, had been anticipated in the English patent taken +out by R. W. Thomson in 1845. The result was a great gain +in comfort, due to reduction of vibration, and a remarkable +increase of speed or, alternatively, decrease of exertion. Subsequent +progress was mainly in the details of design and manufacture, +tending to secure lightness combined with adequate +strength, and such was the success attained, by the application +of scientific principles and of +improved methods and materials +to the construction of the frames +and other parts, that while the +weight of the original “Rover” +was about 50 ℔ that of its +successors 20 years later with +28-in. wheels was reduced by +35 or 45%, or even 60% in the +case of racing machines. The +beginning of the 20th century +saw the introduction of two +innovations: one was the “free-wheel,” a device which allows +the driving wheel to rotate independently of the chain and +pedals, so that the rider, controlling his speed with powerful +brakes, can “coast” down a hill using the stationary pedals as +foot-rests; and the other was the motor-cycle, in which a petrol-engine +relieves him, except at starting, from all personal exertion, +though at the cost of considerable vibration. A third contrivance, +which, however, was an idea of considerably older date, also +began to find favour about the same period in the shape of +two-speed and three-speed gears, enabling the rider at will to +alter the ratio between the +speed of revolution of his +pedals and of his driving +wheel, and thereby accommodate +himself to the varying +gradients of the road he is +traversing (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bicycle</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tricycle</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tire</a></span>).</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:272px; height:215px" src="images/img684a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—Singers’ “’Xtraordinary,” +1879.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:236px; height:191px" src="images/img684b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.—The “Facile,” 1879.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:266px; height:164px" src="images/img684c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.—Starley’s “Rover,” 1885.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The safety bicycle, with +pneumatic tires, rendered +cycling universally popular, not merely as a pastime but as a convenient +means of locomotion for everyday use. Made with a drop-frame, +it also enabled women to cycle without being confined to a +heavy tricycle or compelled to assume “rational dress.” In consequence +there was an enormous expansion in the cycle industry. +In England the demand for machines had become so great by +1895 that the makers were unable to cope with it. Numbers +of new factories were started, small shops grew into large companies, +and the capital invested advanced by millions of pounds. +The makers who had devoted their mechanical skill to perfecting +the methods of cycle-construction were swallowed up by company +promoters and adventurers, bent simply upon filling their own +pockets. The march of mechanical invention and improvement +was arrested, and machines, instead of being built by mechanics +proud of their work, in many cases were merely put together +in the shortest possible time and in a few standard patterns. +For these the world clamoured, and for a year they could not +be produced fast enough. Then the demand fell off, the British +market became over-stocked, and as the British makers declined +to consider the wants of foreign customers, their store-rooms +remained crowded with machines that could not be sold. Speculative +finance, such as was exemplified in 1896 by the flotation +for £5,000,000 of the Dunlop tire company, which had been +started in 1889 with a capital of £25,000, had its natural effects. +There ensued widespread and continuing disorganization of the +trade, which had to be met by extensive reconstructions of +over-capitalized companies. English makers too had lost the +commanding international position they once enjoyed, when +they supplied almost the entire demand for bicycles in many +parts of the world, including the United States. In America +the manufacture of bicycles was not begun until about 1878, +when it was introduced by A. A. Pope (1843-1909), and even by +1890 the value of the products barely exceeded 2½ million dollars, +while for several years later much of the steel tubing required +for bicycle manufacture continued to be imported from Great +Britain. The industry, however, thanks to automatic machinery +and perfect organization, grew rapidly, and in 1900 the value +of its products was nearly 32 million dollars. In the two years +1897 and 1898 the exports of cycles and cycle parts alone were +worth nearly 14 million dollars, though they fell off in subsequent +years, and English makers had to contend with an American +invasion in addition to their domestic troubles. But the competition +was short-lived. The American makers sent over machines +with single tube tires and wooden rims which did not secure +the approval of the British purchaser, and so they too lost +their hold. In the opening years of the 20th century the industry +in Great Britain gradually recovered itself. More attention +was paid to the production of cheap machines which were sound +and trustworthy, and sales were further stimulated by the +introduction of systems of deferred payments. In 1905 about +600,000 machines were made in Great Britain, and 47,604 were +exported, the total value of the home-market for cycles and their +parts being about 3½ millions sterling, and of the export trade +about one million. In the same year the number of machines +imported was only 2345.</p> + +<p>Cycle tours were taken and cycle clubs established almost +as soon as the cycle appeared, the Pickwick Bicycle Club +in London, founded in 1870, being the oldest in the +world. The organization of these clubs is chiefly of +<span class="sidenote">Touring clubs.</span> +a social character, and a few possess well-appointed +club-houses. To a great extent they have been superseded by +the large touring organizations. The Cyclists’ Touring Club, +organized in 1878 as the Bicycle Touring Club, has members +scattered through Europe, America and even the East. Many +other countries possess national clubs, as for instance the League +of American Wheelmen, founded in 1880, and the Touring Club +de France, founded in 1895, of whose objects cycling is only +one, though the chief. The aim of these national associations, +which have formed an international touring league, is the +promotion of cycle touring. To this end they publish roadbooks, +maps and journals; they recommend hotels, with fixed +tariffs, in their own and other countries; they appoint representatives +to aid their members when touring; and they have +succeeded in inducing most governments to allow their members +to travel freely across frontiers without paying duty on their +machines. In all countries they have erected warning-boards +at dangerous places; in France the best route is suggested by +a sign-post, and cyclists who meet with accidents in lonely +places find repair outfits provided for their free use. Another +important part of the work of these clubs, either directly or +indirectly, is the improvement of the roads. France has done +more for the cyclist than any other country, owing to the fact +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page685" id="page685"></a>685</span> +that she possesses the best roads, kept up to a certain extent +by the cycle tax, whereby the cyclist acquires a certain official +position and right; moreover cycles accompanied by their +owners are conveyed without extra charge on the railways, and +aid is given to the sport and pastime from public funds. In +Belgium the cycle has worked a veritable revolution in the +national life. The surface of the greater part of the country +being loose and sandy, the roads have been paved, and this +paving is so bad as to be impossible for light traffic. The cycle +tax has consequently been devoted, first, to the construction +of paths on which cyclists have equal rights with pedestrians, +and secondly to the replacing of the paving by macadam. In +this way alone cycling has proved of inestimable benefit to +Belgium and Luxembourg. In the United States measures +for securing good roads and side paths have been introduced in +various states, mainly at the instigation first of cyclists and +then of motorists, and in Great Britain the Roads Improvement +Association has worked for the same end.</p> + +<p>Each country also possesses an organization for the government +of cycle racing; and although these unions, one object +of which—usually the main one—is the encouragement +of cycle racing and cycle legislation, boast an enormous +<span class="sidenote">Racing.</span> +membership, their membership is often composed of clubs and not +individuals. Among the most important are the National Cyclists’ +Union of England and the Union Vélocipédique of France. +These bodies are also bound together by the International +Cyclists’ Association, which is devoted mainly to the promotion +of racing and legislation connected with it all over the world. +The National Cyclists’ Union, originally the Bicycle Union, which +was the parent body of all, formed in February 1878, was the +first to put up danger-boards, and also was early instrumental, +alone and with the C.T.C., in framing or suggesting laws for the +proper government and regulation of cycle traffic, notably in +establishing its position as a vehicle in securing universal rights, +in endeavouring, again in conjunction with the C.T.C., to increase +facilities for the carriage of cycles on the railways, in securing +the opening of parks, and in promoting many other equally +praiseworthy objects. For a number of years, however, it has +been more prominent as the ruling race-governing body. But +cycle racing has fallen upon evil days. At one time cycle racing +attracted a large number of spectators, but gradually it lost the +public favour, or rather was ignored by the public because it +became mainly an advertisement for cycle makers. The presence +of the man, directly or indirectly, in the employ of, or aided by a +maker, and the consequent mixing up of trade and sport, lowered +racing not only in the public estimation, but in that of all genuine +amateurs. There have always been a few amateurs who have +raced for the love of the sport, but the greater number of +prominent racing men have raced for the benefit of a firm, so +much so that, at one time, an entire section of racing men were +classed as “makers’ amateurs.” They did not confine themselves +to the race track, but appropriated the public roads until they +became a danger and a nuisance, and road-racing finally was +abolished, though record rides, as they are called, are still indulged +in, being winked at by the police and by the cycling authorities. +The makers’ amateurs at least rode to win and to make the best +time possible. But the scandal was so great that a system of +licensing riders was adopted by the N.C.U., and if this did not +effectively kill the sport, the introduction of waiting races did. +There probably is considerable skill in riding two-thirds of a race as +slowly as possible, and only hurrying the last part of the last lap, +but it does not amuse the public, who want to see a fast race as +well as a close finish. The introduction of pacing by multicycles +and motors next took from cycle racing what interest was left. A +motor race, in which the machines are run at top speed, is more +exciting than the spectacle of a motor being driven at a rate +which the cyclist can follow with the protection of a wind-shield. +In America this system of proving what cyclists can do with +racing machines was carried so far that in 1899 a board track was +laid down on the Long Island railway for about 2 m. between +the metals, and a cyclist named Murphy, followed a train, and +protected by enormous wind-shields, succeeded in covering a mile +in less than a minute in the autumn of 1900. Other cyclists have +devoted themselves, at the instigation of makers, to the riding +of 100 m. a day every day for a year. It would be difficult to +say what advantage there is in these trials and contests. They +are not convincing records, and only prove that some people +are willing to take great personal risks for the benefit of their +employers. E. Hale, during 1899-1900, covered 32,496 m. in +313 days. For many years also long-distance races, mostly of +six days’ duration, have been promoted on covered tracks, and +though condemned by all cycling organizations, they find a great +deal of pecuniary support.</p> + +<p>The cycle has also been taken up for military purposes. For +this idea the British army is indebted to Colonel A. R. Savile, who +<span class="sidenote">Military.</span> +in 1887 organized the first series of cycle manœvres +in England. Since then military cycling has undergone +a great development, not only in the country of its origin but in +most others.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Cycling has produced a literature of its own, both of the pastime +and of the trade. Owing to the enormous profits which, for several +years, were obtained by cycle makers, a trade press +<span class="sidenote">Literature.</span> +appeared which simply lived by, and out of, its advertisers; +and though each country has one or more genuine trade +journals, the large proportion of these sheets have been worth, in a +business aspect, as little practically as from a literary standpoint. +On the other hand a vast mass of practical and unpractical, scientific +and medical, historical and touring treatises and records have +appeared, but mostly of a rather ephemeral character.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYCLOID<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="kúklos">κύκλος</span>, circle, and <span class="grk" title="eidos">εἶδος</span>, form), in geometry, +the curve traced out by a point carried on a circle which rolls +along a straight line. The name cycloid is now restricted to the +curve described when the tracing-point is on the circumference +of the circle; if the point is either within or without the circle +the curves are generally termed <i>trochoids</i>, but they are also known +as the <i>prolate</i> and <i>curtate</i> cycloids respectively. The cycloid is +the simplest member of the class of curves known as roulettes.</p> + +<p>No mention of the cycloid has been found in writings prior +to the 15th century. Francis Schooten (<i>Commentary on Descartes</i>) +assigns the invention of the curve to René Descartes and the first +publication on this subject after Descartes to Marin Mersenne. +Evangelista Torricelli, in the first regular dissertation on the +cycloid (<i>De dimensione cycloidis</i>, an appendix to his <i>De dimensione +parabolae</i>, 1644), states that his friend and tutor Galileo +discovered the curve about 1599. John Wallis discussed both +the history and properties of the curve in a tract <i>De cycloide</i> +published at Oxford in 1659. He there shows that the cycloid +was investigated by Carolus Bovillus about 1500, and by Cardinal +Cusanus (Nicolaus de Cusa) as early as 1451. Honoré Fabri +(<i>Synopsis geometrica</i>, 1669) treated of the curve and enumerated +many theorems concerning it. Many other mathematicians have +written on the cycloid—Blaise Pascal, W. G. Leibnitz, the +Bernoullis, Roger Cotes and others—and so assiduously was it +studied that it was sometimes named the “Helen of Geometers.” +The determination of the area was the subject of many investigations +and much controversy. Galileo attempted the evaluation +by weighing the curve against the generating circle; this rough +method gave only an approximate value, viz., a little less than +thrice the generating circle. Torricelli, by employing the +“method of indivisibles,” deduced that the area was exactly +three times that of the generating circle; this result had been +previously established in 1640 in France by G. P. de Roberval, +but his investigation was unknown in Italy. Blaise Pascal +determined the area of the section made by any line parallel +to the base and the volumes and centres of gravity of the solids +generated by revolving the curve about its axis and base. Before +publishing his results he proposed these problems for public +competition in 1658 under the assumed name of Amos Dettonville. +John Wallis in England, and A. la Louère in France, +accepted the challenge, but the former could only submit incorrect +solutions, while the latter failed completely. Having +established his priority, Pascal published his investigations, +which occasioned a great sensation among his contemporaries, +and Wallis was enabled to correct his methods. Sir Christopher +Wren, the famous architect, determined the length of the arc and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page686" id="page686"></a>686</span> +its centre of gravity, and Pierre Fermat deduced the surface of +the spindle generated by its revolution. A famous period in the +history of the cycloid is marked by a bitter controversy which +sprang up between Descartes and Roberval. The evaluation +of the area of the curve had made Roberval famous in France, +but Descartes considered that the value of his investigation had +been grossly exaggerated; he declared the problem to be of +an elementary nature and submitted a short and simple solution. +At the same time he challenged Roberval and Fermat +to construct the tangent; Roberval failed but Fermat succeeded. +This problem was solved independently by Vicenzo +Viviani in Italy. The cartesian equation was first given by +Wilhelm Gottfried Leibnitz (<i>Acta eruditorum</i>, 1686) in the form +y = (2x − x²)½ + ∫(2x − x²)½dx. Among other early writers on the +cycloid were Phillippe de Lahire (1640-1718) and François Nicole +(1683-1758).</p> + +<p>The mechanical properties of the cycloid were investigated +by Christiaan Huygens, who proved the curve to be tautochronous. +His enquiries into evolutes enabled him to prove that +the evolute of a cycloid was an equal cycloid, and by utilizing +this property he constructed the isochronal pendulum generally +known as the <i>cycloidal pendulum</i>. In 1697 John Bernoulli +proposed the famous problem of the <i>brachistochrone</i> (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mechanics</a></span>), and it was proved by Leibnitz, Newton and several +others that the cycloid was the required curve.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:238px; height:106px" src="images/img686a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:141px; height:103px" src="images/img686b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:181px; height:83px" src="images/img686c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The method by which the cycloid is generated shows that it +consists of an infinite number of cusps placed along the fixed line +and separated by a constant distance equal to the circumference +of the rolling circle. The name cycloid is usually restricted to the +portion between two consecutive cusps (fig. 1, curve <i>a</i>); the fixed +line LM is termed the base, and the +line PQ which divides the curve +symmetrically is the <i>axis</i>. The +co-ordinates of any point R on the +cycloid are expressible in the form +x = a(θ + sin θ); y = a(1 − cos θ), +where the co-ordinate axes are the +tangent at the vertex O and the +axis of the curve, a is the radius of +the generating circle, and θ the +angle R′CO, where RR′ is parallel to LM and C is the centre of the +circle in its symmetric position. Eliminating θ between these two +relations the equation is obtained in the form x = (2ay − y²)½ + a +vers-¹ y/a. The clumsiness of the relation renders it practically +useless, and the two separate relations in terms of a single parameter +θ suffice for the deduction of most of the properties of the curve. +The length of any arc may be determined by geometrical considerations +or by the methods of the integral calculus. When measured +from the vertex the results may be expressed +in the forms s = 4a sin ½θ and s = √(8ay); the +total length of the curve is 8a. The intrinsic +equation is s = 4a sin ψ, and the equation to the +evolute is s = 4a cos ψ, which proves the evolute +to be a similar cycloid placed as in fig. 2, in +which the curve QOP is the evolute and QPR +the original cycloid. The radius of curvature +at any point is readily deduced from the +intrinsic equation and has the value ρ = 4 cos ½θ, and is equal to +twice the normal which is 2a cos ½θ.</p> + +<p>The <i>trochoids</i> were studied by Torricelli and F. van Schooten, +and more completely by John Wallis, who showed that they possessed +properties similar to those of the common cycloid. The cartesian +equation in terms similar to those used above is x = aθ + b sin θ; +y = a − b cos θ, where a is the radius of the generating circle and b +the distance of the carried point from the centre of the circle. If +the point is without the circle, <i>i.e.</i> if a < b, +then the curve exhibits a succession of +nodes or loops (fig. 1, curve <i>b</i>); if within +the circle, <i>i.e.</i> if a > b, the curve has the +form shown in fig. 1, curve <i>c</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>companion to the cycloid</i> is a curve so +named on account of its similarity of construction, +form and equation to the common +cycloid. It is generated as follows: Let ABC be a circle having AB +for a diameter. Draw any line DE perpendicular to AB and meeting +the circle in E, and take a point P on DE such that the line DP = arc +BE; then the locus of P is the companion to the cycloid. The curve +is shown in fig. 3. The cartesian equation, referred to the fixed +diameter and the tangent at B as axes may be expressed in the +forms x = aθ, y = a(1 − cos θ) and y − a = a sin (x/a − ½π); the latter +form shows that the locus is the harmonic curve.</p> + +<p>For epi- and hypo-cycloids and epi- and hypo-trochoids see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Epicycloid</a></span>.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">References.</span>—Geometrical constructions relating to the curves +above described are to be found in T. H. Eagles, <i>Constructive Geometry +of Plane Curves</i>. For the mechanical and analytical investigation, +reference may be made to articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mechanics</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Infinitesimal +Calculus</a></span>. A historical bibliography of these curves is given in +Brocard, <i>Notes de bibliographie des courbes géométriques</i> (1897). See +also Moritz Cantor, <i>Geschichte der Mathematik</i> (1894-1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYCLOMETER<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kyklos">κύκλος</span>, circle, and <span class="grk" title="métron">μέτρον</span>, measure), an +instrument used especially by cyclists to determine the distance +they have traversed. In a common form a stud attached to one +spoke of the wheel engages with a toothed pinion and moves it on +one tooth at each revolution. The pinion is connected with a +train of clockwork, the gearing of which bears such a ratio to +the circumference of the wheel that the distance corresponding +to the number of times it has revolved is shown on a dial in miles +or other units.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYCLONE<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kyklôn">κυκλῶν</span>, whirling, from <span class="grk" title="kyklos">κύκλος</span>, a circle), an +atmospheric system where the pressure is lowest at the centre. +The winds in consequence tend to blow towards the centre, but +being diverted according to Ferrel’s law they rotate spirally +inwards at the surface of the earth in a direction contrary to +the movement of the hands of a watch in the northern hemisphere, +and the reverse in the southern hemisphere. The whole system +has a motion of translation, being usually carried forward with +the great wind-drifts like eddies upon a swift stream. Thus their +direction of movement over the British Islands is usually from +S.W. to N.E., though they may remain stationary or move in +other directions. The strength of the winds depends upon the +atmospheric gradients. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Meteorology</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYCLOPEAN MASONRY<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (from the Cyclopes, the supposed +builders of the walls of Mycenae), a term in architecture, used, +in conjunction with Pelasgic, to define the rude polygonal +construction employed by the Greeks and the Etruscans in the +walls of their cities. In the earliest examples they consist only +of huge masses of rock, of irregular shape, piled one on the other +and trusting to their great size and weight for cohesion; sometimes +smaller pieces of rock filled up the interstices. The walls +and gates of Tiryns and Mycenae were thus constructed. Later, +these blocks were rudely shaped to fit one another. It is not +always possible to decide the period by the type of construction, +as this depended on the material; where stratified rocks could +be obtained, horizontal coursing might be adopted; in fact, there +are instances in Greece, where a later wall of cyclopean construction +has been built over one with horizontal courses.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYCLOPES<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Kyklôpes">Κύκλωπες</span>, the round-eyed, plural of Cyclops), +a type of beings variously described in Greek mythology. In +Homer they are gigantic cave-dwellers, cannibals having only +one eye, living a pastoral life in the far west (Sicily), ignorant of +law and order, fearing neither gods nor men. The most prominent +among them was Polyphemus. In Hesiod (<i>Theogony</i>, 264) they are +the three sons of Uranus and Gaea—Brontes, Steropes and Arges,—storm-gods +belonging to the family of the Titans, who furnished +Zeus with thunder and lightning out of gratitude for his having +released them from Tartarus. They were slain by Apollo for +having forged the thunderbolt with which Zeus slew Asclepius. +Later legend transferred their abode to Mt Aetna, the Lipari +islands or Lemnos, where they assisted Hephaestus at his forge. +A third class of Cyclopes are the builders of the so-called “Cyclopean” +walls of Mycenae and Tiryns, giants with arms in their +belly, who were said to have been brought by Proetus from +Lycia to Argos, his original home (Pausanias ii. 16. 5; 25. 8). +Like the Curetes and Telchines they are mythical types of prehistoric +workmen and architects, and as such the objects of +worship.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The standard work on these and similar mythological characters +is M. Mayer, <i>Die Giganten und Titanen</i> (1887); see also A. Boltz, +<i>Die Kyklopen</i> (1885), who endeavours to show that they were an +historical people; W. Mannhardt, <i>Wald- und Feldkulte</i> (1904); J. +E. Harrison, <i>Myths of the Odyssey</i> (1882); and article in Roscher’s +<i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i> (bibliography).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYCLOSTOMATA<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Marsipobranchii</span>, a group of fishes including +the ordinary lampreys and hagfish, and so called from +the wide permanently gaping mouth which is without the +hinged jaws characteristic of other vertebrates (<span class="sc">Gnathostomata</span>). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page687" id="page687"></a>687</span> +The class Cyclostomata consists of two orders, the Myxinoids +(or Hyperotreti) and the Petromyzontes (or Hyperoartii), +which, while showing sufficient resemblance in structure to +warrant their inclusion in the same class, are yet marked off by +such deep-seated differences as to indicate that they commenced +to diverge from one another far back in evolutionary time. The +order Myxinoids includes the hagfish (<i>Myxine</i>), common off the +eastern, and occurring also, though less commonly, off the western +coasts of the north Atlantic, and the genus <i>Bdellostoma</i> (also +known as <i>Homea</i>, <i>Eptatretus</i>, in part—<i>Polistotrema</i>), including +the “borers” of the western American coast, New Zealand and +the Cape of Good Hope. The order Petromyzontes includes +the widely distributed lampreys. The original genus <i>Petromyzon</i> +(which it is now customary to subdivide into a number of genera) +includes the large sea lamprey (<i>P. marinus</i>) of the north Atlantic +coasts and the two fresh-water lampreys of European streams +(<i>P. fluviatilis</i> and <i>P. planeri</i>, the latter of which is possibly only +a small-sized variety of the former species). In North America +nine or ten species of lampreys are known to occur, descriptions of +which are given by Jordan and Evermann (<b>1</b>). In the southern +hemisphere occur the two genera Mordacia (Chile, Tasmania) +and <i>Geotria</i> (Chile, Australia, New Zealand) (<b>2</b>).</p> + +<p>The Cyclostomes are remarkable among vertebrates in that +they are semiparasitic in habit. The lampreys—except some of +the small fresh-water forms—attach themselves to other fishes +by their suctorial mouth and proceed to rasp off the flesh by +means of the horny teeth carried by the highly-developed tongue. +The Myxinoids have gone a step further and actually bore their +way right into the body of their prey, devouring all the soft +parts and leaving the skin behind as a mere shell, empty but for +the bones. Where the hagfish or borers are abundant, as in +certain localities off the east coast of Scotland and off the west +coast of California, they may do great damage to fisheries from +their habit of attacking fishes which are in difficulties through +being caught by a hook or in a net; the fish when drawn up +being frequently completely deprived of their flesh.</p> + +<p>The Myxinoids retain the ancestral marine habitat, but the +lampreys have sought refuge from the struggle for existence +by taking to fresh water to a less or greater extent. Such +a form as <i>Petromyzon marinus</i> or <i>Entosphenus tridentatus</i> of +the west coast of America is what is known as anadromous in +habit, <i>i.e.</i> it takes refuge in fresh water during the breeding +season, ascending rivers like the salmon for the purpose of +spawning. Certain species of lampreys, on the other hand, have +completely deserted the sea and spend their whole lives in fresh-water +streams or lakes. The lake lampreys show a reminiscence +of their ancestral migratory habits in leaving lakes and ascending +streams in order to deposit their spawn.</p> + +<p><i>Anatomy.</i>—In structural features, the Cyclostomes show a +curious mixture of features which must be looked on as primitive +with others which are indicative of high specialization for their +peculiar mode of life. In general appearance they are “eel-like”: +they are elongated in shape and adapted for swimming in eel +fashion, <i>i.e.</i> the body is propelled forward by the backward +passage along it of waves of lateral flexure. There are, however, +certain conspicuous differences which at once serve to distinguish +a Cyclostome from any other fishes of eel-like shape:—(1) +the circular permanently open mouth, (2) the absence of +all trace of paired limbs, (3) the absence of paired external nasal +openings, and (4) the presence on the roof or at the tip of the head +of a conspicuous median opening—the pituitary opening.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It will be convenient, in describing the structural features of the +group, to take as a basis for the description the marine lamprey, +<i>Petromyzon marinus</i>. A marine lamprey is an eel-like creature +70 to 75 cm. in length. At the anterior end and situated somewhat +ventrally is the circular widely gaping mouth or buccal cavity, its +lining studded with sharply pointed thorn-like “teeth” and its edge +fringed with numerous sensory papillae. On the dorsal side of the +head is the conspicuous circular pituitary opening with prominent +lips, while on the sides are seen the eyes, and behind these a row of +somewhat rounded branchial openings or gill-clefts. At about the +beginning of the posterior fourth of the body, and in the midventral +line, is the anal opening, and immediately behind it is the prominent +papilla carrying the opening of the urogenital sinus. The hinder +portion of the body, in accordance with its function in locomotion, +is flattened from side to side, while its surface is increased by the +development of a median fin fold, divided, except in early stages +of development, into three portions, known as the first and second +dorsal fins and the caudal fin. The last mentioned is of the primitive +protocercal type. The whole surface of the body—which shows a +conspicuous dark marbling, especially dorsally, on a light ground—is +covered with highly glandular epidermis. An important feature +is the complete absence of all trace of the calcified placoid plates +which are so characteristic of the Elasmobranchii.</p> + +<p>The Myxinoids differ from the lampreys in regard to several of +the above-mentioned characters. The edges of the mouth carry +tentacle-like barbels. The pituitary opening is close to the anterior +edge of the mouth opening instead of being right up on the dorsal +side of the head. The eyes are invisible, being greatly reduced and +sunk far below the surface, and in <i>Myxine</i>, though not in <i>Bdellostoma</i>, +the row of gill openings is represented by a single opening on each +side nearly in the midventral line and situated at about the end of +the first quarter of the body length. Ventrally the Myxinoid +possesses on each side of the body a row of remarkable epidermal +glands which can produce at will enormous quantities of glutinous +slime. This secretion, which, no doubt, is of much value as a protection +from attack, is composed of very fine threads, formed by the +conversion of the protoplasm of certain cells of the epidermal +glands (“thread cells”) into an extremely fine, tightly coiled +filament, which becomes unwound when discharged to the exterior.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:531px; height:157px" src="images/img687.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From D. Starr Jordan, <i>A Guide to the Study of Fishes</i>, by permission of +A. Constable & Co., Ltd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—The Marine Lamprey (<i>Petromyzon marinus</i>, L.).</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Pituitary Tube.</i>—A remarkable peculiarity of the Cyclostomes +lies in the fact that the pituitary ingrowth of ectoderm does not, +as in other forms, become involved in the inpushing of ectoderm +which forms the buccal cavity. On the contrary, it lies outside +the edge of the stomodaeum, and in the case of the lampreys active +growth takes place in the tissue between the pituitary and stomodaeal +ingrowths, so that the two openings come to be widely separated, +the pituitary opening being pushed back on to the dorsal side of the +head. The pituitary opening remains patent throughout life, as is +the case with Crossopterygians alone amongst Gnathostomata. In +<i>Myxine</i> a further remarkable peculiarity in regard to the hypophysis, +probably adaptive in nature, occurs, inasmuch as the pituitary +invagination develops an opening at its posterior end into the +pharynx.</p> + +<p><i>Nervous System.</i>—The anterior end of the nervous tube is enlarged +and differentiated to form a brain as in other Vertebrates, but this +brain in the lampreys at least shows remarkably primitive features. +The enlargement as compared with the spinal cord is seen to be comparatively +slight: the brain is much elongated, and its various regions +lie in a straight line one behind the other: the roof of the brain +retains to a great extent the primitive epithelial condition. On each +side anteriorly there is present a comparatively large olfactory lobe, +and this is continued posteriorly into a small cerebral hemisphere.</p> + +<p>The lampreys are amongst those vertebrates in which there is an +eye-like apparatus (<b>3</b>) connected with the roof of the thalamencephalon. +There grow out from the roof of the thalamencephalon +two processes, a posterior (the pineal process), and an anterior +(the parapineal process). The pineal process grows forwards so as to +overlie the parapineal process. Each of these projections from the +roof of the thalamencephalon dilates to form a vesicle, and each +vesicle shows certain eye-like characteristics, its deep wall forming +a “retina” and its superficial wall being clear and translucent +(“pellucida”). The retinal cells are packed in the case of the pineal +organ with opaque white pigment: similar pigment occurs in smaller +quantity in the parapineal organ. Definite sensory cells are also +present with rod-like structures projecting into the lumen of the +vesicle. Nerve fibres have been traced—from the pineal organ into +the posterior commissure and possibly into the right habenular +ganglion. As regards other parts of the brain, the chief point to note +is that the cerebellum is in a most rudimentary condition, forming +merely a slight transverse thickening of the hind-brain roof at its +anterior end. In Myxinoids the brain is much larger as compared +with the spinal cord, and it differs from that of the lampreys by +being relatively much shorter in an anteroposterior direction. A +remarkable negative feature lies in the complete absence of the +pineal and parapineal organs so conspicuous in the lampreys. The +olfactory organ of Cyclostomes is remarkable for two special characteristics, +firstly, that the two olfactory organs of other vertebrates +are here represented by a single median structure, and secondly, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page688" id="page688"></a>688</span> +that the olfactory organ becomes sunk down beneath the surface +through becoming involved in the ectodermal ingrowth which forms +the pituitary tube. As a further consequence in the case of the +lampreys the olfactory organ becomes transported to the roof of +the head along with the pituitary opening, which latter functions as +an external nostril. That the unpaired olfactory organ of existing +Cyclostomes has passed through, in their ancestors, a paired condition +such as exists in other vertebrates, is indicated by the fact +that it retains a pair of olfactory nerves.</p> + +<p>The eyes in adult lampreys are of moderate size, while in the +Myxinoids they are greatly reduced—sunk beneath the skin (<i>Bdellostoma</i>) +or even in amongst the muscles of the head (<i>Myxine</i>). The +lens is completely absent, also the ocular muscles. The otocyst or +auditory organ is unique amongst craniate vertebrates in regard to +the semicircular canals. In the lampreys there are only two instead +of the normal three, while the Myxinoids have only one.</p> + +<p><i>Alimentary Canal.</i>—The widely gaping buccal funnel is morphologically +an inpushing of the outer skin, <i>i.e.</i> it is stomodaeal in nature. +The thorn-like teeth which stud its lining are formed simply by +cornification of the epidermal cells (<b>4</b>) like the provisional horny +teeth of a tadpole, and are not homologous with the true teeth of +ordinary vertebrates. As to whether they represent the remnant +of a once present system of epidermal scales, which may have +preceded the coating of placoid elements in the evolution of the +vertebrate, there is no evidence.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:532px; height:194px" src="images/img688.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">Modified from T. J. Parker, Zootomy, fig. 4, by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Median longitudinal section through anterior end of +<i>Petromyzon</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a.v.o</i>, Atrio-ventricular opening.</p> +<p><i>br</i>, Brain.</p> +<p><i>br.o</i>, Internal opening of gill sac.</p> +<p><i>d.a</i>, Dorsal aorta.</p> +<p><i>d.c</i>, Ductus cuvieri.</p> +<p><i>h.v</i>, Hepatic vein.</p> +<p><i>i.j.v</i>, Inferior jugular vein.</p> +<p><i>N</i>, Notochord.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>oes</i>, Oesophagus.</p> +<p><i>olf</i>, Olfactory organ.</p> +<p><i>pc</i>, Pericardium.</p> +<p><i>p.c.v</i>, Left posterior cardinal vein.</p> +<p><i>pit</i>, Pituitary tube.</p> +<p><i>V</i>, Ventricle.</p> +<p><i>v</i>, Velum.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The pharyngeal region, closely associated with the respiratory +function, possesses, on each side, a series of gill-sacs (six in <i>Myxine</i>: +seven in <i>Petromyzon</i>, besides an anterior one which is laid down in +the embryo but disappears later: up to as many as fourteen in +<i>Bdellostoma</i>) opening on the one hand to the pharynx and on the +other to the exterior. In <i>Bdellostoma</i> and in the larva of <i>Petromyzon</i> +the gill-sacs open directly from the pharynx to the exterior, but in +the adult lamprey and in <i>Myxine</i> the original relations are modified. +In <i>Myxine</i>, the external openings of the gill-sacs have migrated +backwards along the side of the body and become coincident at a +point slightly posterior to the last sac. It follows from this that each +sac is connected with the common aperture by a tube, longest in the +case of the first sac, shortest in the case of the last. In the adult +lamprey a different modification is found. Here the dorsal portion +of the pharynx has become nipped off as a narrow tube which +functions as an oesophagus from the larger ventral portion, which +forms an elongated saccular structure ending blindly at its hinder +end and having in its lateral wall the internal openings of the +gill-sacs.</p> + +<p><i>Breathing.</i>—The inspiratory current passes inwards by the mouth +opening in the larval lamprey, by the pituitary tube in <i>Myxine</i>, +while in the adult lamprey both expiration and inspiration takes +place through the external gill-openings. In the case of the lampreys +the elastic skeleton of the branchial region (see below) plays an +important part in respiration. The branchial region shows rhythmic +contraction through the agency of the transverse muscles—and +expansion, through the elasticity of the branchial skeleton—in the +adult lamprey. These rhythmic movements of the branchial region +cause successive inflow and outflow through the branchial openings. +In the larva, on the other hand, the respiratory current always passes +in one direction—backwards. This is helped by the presence of a +velar fold at the front end of the pharynx, which acts as a valve +opening only backwards, and to the presence of membranous flaps +projecting back from the anterior border of each gill-opening and +acting as valves which open only outwards.</p> + +<p>Behind the pharynx comes the truly digestive part of the alimentary +canal in the form of a straight tube showing little differentiation +into special regions. The lining of the intestine is increased in +area by an inwardly projecting fold, which is compared by some +morphologists with the spiral valve of certain other groups. In the +mature river lamprey the digestive tract becomes in great part +degenerate.</p> + +<p><i>Coelomic Organs.</i>—The chief point of interest about the splanchnocoele +or perivisceral cavity is that in the Myxinoids the adult shows +a persistent embryonic condition in that the pericardiac portion +never becomes isolated from the main body cavity.</p> + +<p>The renal organs are of special interest in the Myxinoids from +their very simple character. The kidney duct is seen running along +the roof of the coelom on either side. Into the duct open short +segmentally arranged tubes, each possessing at its closed rounded +extremity a Malpighian body. Each of these short tubes is morphologically +a nephric tubule, which, however, in correlation with its +shortness, is without the turns and twists so characteristic of such +tubules generally. A further consequence of the short simple +character of the tubules is that they are quite separate from one +another, instead of being massed together to form a compact gland +such as the kidney is elsewhere. In <i>Petromyzon</i> the kidney has the +ordinary compact form, and here also the Malpighian bodies are +shut off from the splanchnocoele.</p> + +<p>The ovary or testis is a large unpaired structure hanging from the +dorsal wall of the splanchnocoele and shedding its products into it; +from the coelomic space the genital products pass into the urogenital +sinus—formed by the fusion of the kidney ducts at their hinder ends—through +a small opening, one at each side. This opening, which +leads directly from coelom into urogenital sinus, is known as the +genital pore. Its morphological significance is doubtful.</p> + +<p><i>Skeleton.</i>—The vertebral column of the lamprey is represented by +a persistent notochord surrounded by a thick sheath, which shows +no signs of invasion by cartilage cells or of segmentation. Resting +on the sheath are paired dorsal arch elements, more numerous than +the neuromuscular segments. In the tail region these are united +into a continuous band of cartilage on each side: similar cartilaginous +bands represent the ventral arch elements of the tail region. The +skeleton of the head region consists of a cartilaginous cranium, into +the formation of which enter typical parachordal and trabecular +elements, together with olfactory and auditory capsules. In addition +to these, there are a number of other cartilaginous pieces present in +the head region, the homologies of which are doubtful.</p> + +<p><i>Branchial Basket.</i>—One of the most characteristic features of the +skeleton of the lamprey is the remarkable cartilaginous “branchial +basket,” which supports the gill region. In an adult river lamprey +the basketwork consists on each side of a series of eight vertical half-hoops +of cartilage. The hoops of each side are connected together +dorsally by a pair of longitudinal bars, lying ventral to the notochord, +and ventrally by a similar pair of rods which are fused in the +middle line. Slender cartilaginous projections arise from the anterior +and posterior sides of the hoops, and certain of these meeting at their +ends form additional longitudinal bars connecting together successive +hoops. Connected with the basketwork posteriorly is a remarkable +cup-shaped cartilage, which supports the hind wall of the pericardium. +The series of cartilaginous half-hoops naturally suggest +the half-hoops of cartilage which form the skeleton of the visceral +arches in the Gnathostomata. They are, however, more superficial +in position, and this has led many to doubt their actual homology +with the cartilaginous visceral arches. Taking into account, however, +our present knowledge of the development of the two sets of +structures, it seems on the whole probable that a true homology +exists and that the branchial basket of the lamprey represents +merely a set of visceral arches modified in accordance with the +peculiar breathing methods of the creature. In the Myxinoids the +branchial basket is reduced to a few vestigial masses of cartilage.</p> + +<p><i>Vascular System.</i>—The heart (<b>5</b>) of the lamprey consists of an +atrium and a single ventricle, the atrium on the left, the ventricle +on the right. Into the atrium, on its right side, and behind the +atrio-ventricular opening, there opens a nearly vertical chamber +usually termed the sinus venosus (see below), the opening guarded +by a pair of vertically placed valves. The ventricle passes anteriorly +into what is clearly the homologue of the conus arteriosus of other +forms. In its interior are present a pair of laterally placed longitudinal +ridges similar to the ridges which occur in other forms in +the conus. The opening from ventricle into conus is guarded by a +pair of laterally placed pocket valves situated just within the +boundary of the ventricle.</p> + +<p>The arterial system is of the ordinary piscine type. From the +heart there passes forwards a ventral aorta, split into two separate +vessels in its anterior half, and giving off on each side a series of +efferent vessels to the gill-sacs, one passing between each two gill-sacs +and an additional one to the front wall of the front sac and to the +posterior wall of the last. The blood is collected from the walls of +the gill-sacs by a series of efferent vessels which open into the dorsal +aorta. It is to be noted that the dorsal aorta retains the probably +primitive unpaired condition, except for a very short extent at its +anterior end, where it is split so as to form two short aortic roots.</p> + +<p><i>Venous System.</i>—The main venous channels are like those in other +fishes, though their connexion with the heart becomes modified in +the adult. The two posterior cardinals—with their continuations +forwards, the anterior cardinals—approach the median plane and +undergo fusion in the region of their opening into the two ductus +Cuvieri. The left ductus Cuvieri then atrophies so that all the blood +from the cardinals reaches the heart by way of the originally right +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page689" id="page689"></a>689</span> +ductus Cuvieri. It is this right ductus Cuvieri which forms the dorsal +part of what is usually termed the sinus venosus. The inferior +jugular veins which return the blood from the ventral side of the +head also become replaced in the adult by a median unpaired vein +which opens posteriorly into the sinus venosus by what probably +represents the hinder end of the original right inferior jugular. It +is interesting to note that in <i>Polypterus</i>, one of the Crossopterygian +ganoids, there is a somewhat similar asymmetrical condition of +inferior jugulars and ductus Cuvieri.</p> + +<p><i>Oviposition of Lamprey</i> (<b>6</b>).—The lamprey chooses as spawning +ground a part of the stream with fairly rapid current and where the +bottom is composed of sand with scattered stones. By means of the +suctorial mouth, stones are removed from more or less circular area +so as to form a shallow excavation. The male and female frequently +work together at the task of preparing the nest. When oviposition +is about to take place, the male may be seen to suddenly attach +himself to the dorsal surface of the head of the female which holds +on to one of the stones at the upper margin of the nest. The urogenital +opening of the male, with its specially prominent papilla, is +approximated to that of the female, and with a peculiar quivering +movement the eggs and sperms are emitted synchronously amidst +clouds of sand stirred up by the movements of the tail. The eggs +fertilized thus at the moment of exit are very sticky from their +coating of albumen, and become weighted down by adherent grains +of sand.</p> + +<p><i>Development.</i>—The development of the lamprey is of much +morphological importance from the archaic nature of the creature +and from the fact that the egg is comparatively small (about 1 mm. +in diameter), so that development is not greatly modified by a large +mass of yolk. It has been worked out so far only in the river lamprey +(<b>7</b>). Segmentation is complete and unequal. It, as well as the +process of gastrulation, agrees in its main features with the same +phenomenon in <i>Amia</i>, Dipnoans and Urodele amphibians. The +blastopore persists as the anal opening of the adult. The mesoderm +arises in a manner closely comparable with that which occurs in +<i>Amphioxus</i>, the chief difference being that the mesoderm segments +are solid instead of hollow, except in the anterior head region, +where they are true hollow enterocoelic pouches. The rudiment of +the central nervous system has the form of a solid keel-like ingrowth +of ectoderm along the mid-dorsal line, which only secondarily becomes +hollowed out—just as happens in Teleostean fishes. The young +lamprey, after completing its embryonic development, passes three +or four years, in fact its whole life up to the time of sexual maturity, +in a prolonged larval condition in which its structure shows important +differences from that of the adult. This larval stage of the fresh-water +lamprey of Europe was long supposed to be a separate genus +of Cyclostomes and was called <i>Ammocoetes</i>. The <i>Ammocoetes</i> lives +in the mud and breathes and feeds by means of a current of water +produced by ciliary action, which carries Flagellates and other +microscopic organisms in through the mouth opening. Correlated +with this mode of feeding the buccal cavity is without the teeth +so characteristic of the adult. A number of complicated branched +sensory processes grow into and nearly occlude the cavity, forming +a kind of sieve with only narrow chinks through which the ingoing +current passes. The water passes out by the gill openings, which +in <i>Ammocoetes</i> open direct from pharynx to exterior. Certain +arrangements of the pharyngeal wall of <i>Ammocoetes</i> show a remarkable +resemblance to what is found in <i>Amphioxus</i>. The thyroid, +which in the adult is a complicated ductless gland, has in the young +<i>Ammocoetes</i> the form of a longitudinal groove of the ventral wall of +the pharynx. This groove is lined by columnar cells, some carrying +cilia, others being glandular and secreting sticky slime. These gland +cells are arranged in four longitudinal bands. The thyroid is, in +fact, in this stage in a condition corresponding exactly with the +endostyle of <i>Amphioxus</i>. The agreement extends to function the +secretion, forming sticky threads which entangle food particles. +Anteriorly a pair of peripharyngeal bands pass dorsalwards, one on +each side, to bend back suprapharyngeal bands which are continued +to the hinder end of the pharynx. Here again the resemblance to +what occurs in <i>Amphioxus</i> is very close.</p> + +<p>The <i>Ammocoetes</i> possesses a functional liver with bileduct, while +in the adult river lamprey the alimentary canal is degenerate. +It has no arch elements on its notochord. Its eyes are sunk beneath +the surface and nonfunctional, and they retain to a great extent an +embryonic character (<b>8</b>). There is a rapid process of metamorphosis +from the larval to the adult condition, the details of which are by +no means sufficiently known. After the metamorphosis the now +mature lamprey accomplishes the act of reproduction and then +apparently dies almost immediately. The development of the +Myxinoids is much less well known than that of the lampreys. As +regards the common hagfish (<i>Myxine glutinosa</i>), we are indeed still +in complete ignorance in regard to its developmental history in +spite of persistent efforts to obtain embryological material. It seems +probable that during the breeding period the hagfishes retire into +some particularly inaccessible habitat. Within the last few years, +however, abundant material illustrating the developmental history +of <i>Bdellostoma</i> (<b>9</b>) has been obtained on the Californian coast, and +this when fully worked out will give us a good idea of the general +lines of Myxinoid development. The egg differs greatly from that +of the lampreys. It is—as is that of <i>Myxine</i>—of large size, richly +yolked and of a shortened-up sausage shape. It measures about +22 mm. by 8 mm. Surrounding the egg is a protective capsule of a +yellow horny appearance. At one end a cap-like portion of this +forms a detachable operculum, in the middle of which is a minute +opening, the micropyle. Each end of the capsule is prolonged into +a group of stiff processes with anchor-like expansions at their tips. +Segmentation is, as in other richly yolked eggs, incomplete, confined +to the germinal disk at the opercular pole. The central nervous +system in <i>Bdellostoma</i> develops by the overarching of medullary +folds, not out of a solid keel as is the case with the lampreys.</p> + +<p><i>History in Time.</i>—The softness of the skeletal tissues and the +absence of scales in Cyclostomata provide little opportunity for the +preservation of fossil remains of this group, and no known fossils +can be referred with certainty to the Cyclostomata. The Devonian +<i>Palaeospondylus gunni</i> has been regarded as a Cyclostome by some +authors, but this relationship is at the least doubtful. Other authors +have associated the Ostracoderms, the oldest known vertebrates, +with this group.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">References.</span>—<b>1</b>. D. S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann, <i>Fishes of +North and Middle America</i> (Washington, 1896), part i. p. 8; <b>2</b>. +L. Plate, <i>SB. Ges. Naturf.</i> (Berlin, Jg. 1897), p. 137; <b>3</b>. F. Studnicka +in Oppel’s <i>Lehrbuch der vergleichenden mikroskopischen Anatomie der +Wirbeltiere</i> (Jena, 1905), Teil v. s. i.; <b>4</b>. E. Warren, <i>Q. J. Micr. Sci.</i> +xlv. (1902) p. 631; <b>5</b>. L. Vialleton, <i>Arch. d’anat. micr.</i> T. vi. (1903) +p. 283; <b>6</b>. H. A. Surface in D. S. Jordan’s <i>Fishes</i> (1905), vol. i. +p. 494; <b>7</b>. A. E. Shipley, <i>Q. J. Micr. Sci.</i> xxvii. (1887), W. B. +Scott, <i>Journ. Morphol.</i> i. (1887), C. Kupffer, <i>Arch. mikr. Anat.</i> +xxxv. (1890), A. Goette, <i>Entwick. des Flussneunauges</i> (Hamburg +and Leipzig, 1890); <b>8</b>. C. Kohl, in <i>Bibliotheca zoologica</i>, +Heft 13 (Cassel, 1892); <b>9</b>. Bashford Dean in Kupffer’s <i>Festschrift</i> +(Jena, 1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. G. K.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYCLOSTYLE<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kyklos">κύκλος</span>, a circle, and <span class="grk" title="stylos">στῦλος</span>, a column), +a term used in architecture. A structure composed of a circular +range of columns without a core is cyclostylar; with a core the +range would be peristyle. This is the species of edifice called +by Vitruvius monopteral.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYGNUS<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> (“The Swan”), in astronomy, a constellation of the +northern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +and Aratus (3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and fabled by the Greeks to be +the swan in the form of which Zeus seduced Leda. Ptolemy +catalogued 19 stars, Tycho Brahe 18, and Hevelius 47. In this +constellation β <i>Cygni</i> is a fine coloured double star, consisting +of a yellow star, magnitude 3, and a blue star, magnitude 5½. +The fine double star, μ <i>Cygni</i>, separated by Sir William Herschel +in 1779, has magnitudes 4 and 5; it has a companion, of magnitude +7½, which, however, does not form part of the system. +A double star, <i>61 Cygni</i>, of magnitudes 5.3 and 5.9, was the first +star whose distance was determined; its parallax is 0″.39, and +it is therefore the nearest star in the northern hemisphere with +the exception of σ <i>Centauri</i>. A regular variable, χ <i>Cygni</i>, has +extreme magnitudes of 5 to 13.5, and its period is 406 days. +<i>Nova Cygni</i> is a “new” star discovered by Johann Schmidt +in 1876. There is also an extended nebula in the constellation.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYLINDER<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kylindros">κύλινδρος</span>, from <span class="grk" title="kylindein">κυλίνδειν</span>, to roll). A +cylindrical surface, or briefly a cylinder, is the surface traced +out by a line, named the generatrix, which moves parallel to +itself and always passes through the circumference of a curve, +named the directrix; the name cylinder is also given to the solid +contained between such a surface and two parallel planes which +intersect a generatrix. A “right cylinder” is the solid traced +out by a rectangle which revolves about one of its sides, or the +curved surface of this solid; the surface may also be defined as +the locus of a line which passes through the circumference of a +circle, and is always perpendicular to the plane of the circle. If +the moving line be not perpendicular to the plane of the circle, +but moves parallel to itself, and always passes through the +circumference, it traces an “oblique cylinder.” The “axis” +of a circular cylinder is the line joining the centres of two circular +sections; it is the line through the centre of the directrix parallel +to the generators. The characteristic property of all cylindrical +surfaces is that the tangent planes are parallel to the axis. They +are “developable” surfaces, <i>i.e.</i> they can be applied to a plane +surface without crinkling or tearing (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Surface</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Any section of a cylinder which contains the axis is termed +a “principal section”; in the case of the solids this section is +a rectangle; in the case of the surfaces, two parallel straight lines. +A section of the right cylinder parallel to the base is obviously +a circle; any other section, excepting those limited by two +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page690" id="page690"></a>690</span> +generators, is an ellipse. This last proposition may be stated in +the form:—“The orthogonal projection of a circle is an ellipse”; +and it permits the ready deduction of many properties of the +ellipse from the circle. The section of an oblique cylinder by a +plane perpendicular to the principal section, and inclined to the +axis at the same angle as the base, is named the “subcontrary +section,” and is always a circle; any other section is an ellipse.</p> + +<p>The mensuration of the cylinder was worked out by Archimedes, +who showed that the volume of any cylinder was equal +to the product of the area of the base into the height of the solid, +and that the area of the curved surface was equal to that of a +rectangle having its sides equal to the circumference of the base, +and to the height of the solid. If the base be a circle of radius +r, and the height h, the volume is πr²h and the area of the curved +surface 2πrh. Archimedes also deduced relations between the +sphere (<i>q.v.</i>) and cone (<i>q.v.</i>) and the circumscribing cylinder.</p> + +<p>The name “cylindroid” has been given to two different +surfaces. Thus it is a cylinder having equal and parallel elliptical +bases; <i>i.e.</i> the surface traced out by an ellipse moving parallel +to itself so that every point passes along a straight line, or by a +line moving parallel to itself and always passing through the +circumference of a fixed ellipse. The name was also given by +Arthur Cayley to the conoidal cubic surface which has for its +equation z(x² + y²) = 2mxy; every point on this surface lies on +the line given by the intersection of the planes y = x tan θ, +z = m sin 2θ, for by eliminating θ we obtain the equation to the +surface.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYLLENE<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (mod. <i>Ziria</i>), a mountain in Greece, in the N.E. +of Arcadia (7789 ft.). It was specially sacred to Hermes, who +was born in a cave on the mountain, and had a temple and an +ancient statue on its summit. The name Cyllene belongs also +to an ancient port town in Elis, and, owing to doubtful identification +with this, to a modern port at Glarentza, and also to some +mineral baths a little to the south of it.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYMA<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kyma">κῦμα</span>, wave), in architecture, a moulding of double +curvature, concave at one end, convex at the other. When the +concave part is uppermost, it is called a <i>cyma recta</i>; but if the +convex portion is at the top, it is called a <i>cyma reversa</i>. When +the crowning moulding of an entablature is of the cyma form, +it is called a “cymatium.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYMBALS<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (Fr. <i>cymbales</i>; Ger. <i>Becken</i>; Ital. <i>piatti</i> or <i>cinelli</i>), +a modern instrument of percussion of indefinite musical pitch, +whereas the small ancient cup-shaped cymbals sounded a definite +note. Cymbals consist of two thin round plates of an alloy containing +8 parts of copper to two of tin, each having a handle-strap +set in the little knob surmounting the centre of the plate. +The sound is obtained not by clashing them against each other, +but by rubbing their edges together by a sliding movement. +Sometimes a weird effect is obtained by suspending one of the +cymbals by the strap and letting a drummer execute a roll upon +it as it swings; or by holding a cymbal in the left hand and +striking it with the soft stick of the bass drum, which produces +a sound akin to that of the tam-tam. All gradations of <i>piano</i> +and <i>forte</i> can be obtained on the cymbals. The composer +indicates his intention of letting the cymbals vibrate by “Let +them vibrate,” and the contrary effect by “Damp the sound.” +To stop the vibrations the performer presses the cymbals against +his chest, as soon as he has played a note. The duration of the +vibration is indicated by the <i>value</i> of the note placed upon the +staff; the name signifies nothing, since the pitch of the cymbals +is indefinite. The instrument is played from the same part of +the score as the bass drum, unless otherwise indicated by <i>senza +piatti</i>, or <i>piatti soli</i> if the bass drum is to remain silent. Although +cymbals are not often required they form part of every orchestra; +their chief use is for marking the rhythm and for producing +weird, fantastic effects or adding military colour, and their +shrill notes hold their own against a full orchestra playing +<i>fortissimo</i>. Cymbals are specially suited for suggesting frenzy, +fury or bacchanalian revels, as in the Venus music in Wagner’s +<i>Tannhäuser</i> and Grieg’s <i>Peer Gynt</i> suite. Damping gives +a suggestion of impending evil or tragedy. The <i>timbre</i> of the +ancient cymbals is entirely different, more like that of small +hand-bells or of the notes of the keyed harmonica. They are +not struck full against each other, but by one of their edges, +and the note given out by them is higher in proportion as they +are thicker and smaller. Berlioz in <i>Romeo and Juliet</i> scored +for two pairs of cymbals, modelled on some ancient Pompeian +instruments no larger than the hand (some are no larger than +a crown piece), and tuned to <img style="width:82px; height:54px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img690a.jpg" alt="" /> and <img style="width:86px; height:64px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img690b.jpg" alt="" /></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The origin of the cymbals must be referred to prehistoric times. +The ancient Egyptian cymbals closely resembled our own. The +British Museum possesses two pairs, 5<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> in. in diameter, one of which +was found in the coffin of the mummy of Ankhhapē, a sacred +musician; they are shown in the same case as the mummy, and +have been reproduced by Carl Engel.<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Those used by the Assyrians +were both plate- and cup-shaped. The Greek cymbals were cup- or +bell-shaped, and are to be seen in the hands of fauns and satyrs +innumerable in sculptures and on painted vases. The word cymbal +is derived from <span class="grk" title="kymbê">κύμβη</span> (Lat. <i>cymba</i>), a hollow vessel, and <span class="grk" title="kymbala">κύμβαλα</span> = +small cymbals. During the middle ages the word cymbal was +applied to the <i>Glockenspiel</i>, or peal of small bells, and later to the +dulcimer, perhaps on account of the clear bell-like tone produced by +the hammers striking the wire strings. After the introduction or +invention of the keyed dulcimer or clavichord, and of the spinet, +the word clavicymbal was used in the Romance languages to denote +the varieties of spinet and harpsichord. Ancient cymbals are among +the instruments played by King David and his musicians in the 9th-century +illuminated MS. known as the Bible of Charles the Bald in +the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>The Music of the Most Ancient Nations</i>, fig. 75, p. 227.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYNEGILS<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (d. 643), king of the West Saxons, succeeded his +uncle King Ceolwulf in 611. With his son Cwichelm (d. 636), +he defeated the advancing Britons at Bampton in Oxfordshire +in 614, and Cwichelm sought to arrest the growing power of +the Northumbrian king Eadwine by procuring his assassination; +the attempt, however, failed, and in 626 the West Saxons were +defeated in battle and forced to own Eadwine’s supremacy. +Cynegils’ next struggle was with Penda of Mercia, and here +again he was worsted, the battle being fought in 628 at Cirencester, +and was probably compelled to surrender part of his +kingdom to Mercia. Cynegils was converted to Christianity +through the preaching of Birinus, and was baptized in 635 at +Dorchester in Oxfordshire, where he founded a bishopric. He +was succeeded as king by his son Cenwalh.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYNEWULF<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (d. 785), king of Wessex, succeeded to the throne +in 757 on the deposition of Sigeberht. He was constantly at +war with the Welsh. In 779 Offa of Mercia defeated him and +took Bensington. In 785 he was surprised and killed, with all +his thegns present, at Marten, Wilts (Merantune), by Cyneheard, +brother of the deposed Sigeberht.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Earle and Plummer’s edition of the <i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i>, +755, 779 (Oxford, 1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYNEWULF,<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> the only Old-English vernacular poet, known +by name, of whom any undisputed writings are extant. He is +the author of four poems preserved in two MSS., the <i>Exeter +Book</i> and the <i>Vercelli Book</i>, both of the early 11th century. +An epilogue to each poem contains the runic characters answering +to the letters <i>c</i>, <i>y</i>, <i>n</i> (<i>e</i>), <i>w</i>, <i>u</i>, <i>l</i>, <i>f</i>. The runes are to be read as the +words that served as their names; these words enter into the +metre of the verse, and (except in one poem) are significant in +their context. The poems thus signed are the following. (1) A +meditation on <i>The Ascension</i>, which stands in the <i>Exeter Book</i> +between two similar poems on the Incarnation and the Last +Judgment. The three are commonly known as <i>Cynewulf’s +Christ</i>, but the runic signature attests only the second. (2) A +version of the legend of the martyr <i>St Juliana</i>, also in the +<i>Exeter Book</i>. (3) <i>Elene</i>, in the <i>Vercelli Book</i>, on the story of +the empress Helena and the “Invention of the Cross.” (4) A +short poem on <i>The Fates of the Apostles</i>, in the same MS. The +page containing the signature to this poem was first discovered +by Professor A. S. Napier in 1888, so that the piece is not included +in earlier enumerations of the poet’s signed works.</p> + +<p>In <i>Juliana</i> and <i>Elene</i> the name is spelt Cynewulf; in <i>The +Ascension</i> the form is Cynwulf. In <i>The Fates of the Apostles</i> +the page is defaced, but the spelling Cynwulf is almost certain. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page691" id="page691"></a>691</span> +The absence of the E in <i>The Ascension</i> can hardly be due to a +scribal omission, for the name of this letter (meaning “horse”) +would not suit the context; this, was perhaps the motive for +the choice of the shorter form. The orthography (authenticated +as the poet’s own by the nature of his device) has chronological +significance. If the poems had been written before 740, the +spelling would almost certainly have been Cyniwulf. If it were +safe to judge from the scanty extant evidence, we should conclude +that the form Cynwulf came in about 800; and presumably +the poet would not vary his accustomed signature until the new +form had become common. In <i>Elene</i> Cynewulf speaks of himself +as an old man; and the presence of the runic signature in the +four works suggests that they are not far apart in date. They +may therefore be referred provisionally to the beginning of the +9th century, any lower date being for linguistic and metrical +reasons improbable.</p> + +<p>The MSS. of the poems are in the West-Saxon dialect, with +occasional peculiarities that indicate transcription from Northumbrian +or Mercian. Professor E. Sievers’s arguments for +a Northumbrian original have considerable weight; for the +Mercian theory no linguistic arguments have been adduced, +but it has been advocated on grounds of historical probability +which seem to be of little value.</p> + +<p>Cynewulf’s unquestioned poems show that he was a scholar, +familiar with Latin and with religious literature, and they +display much metrical skill and felicity in the use of traditional +poetic language; but of the higher qualities of poetry they give +little evidence. There are pleasing passages in <i>Elene</i>, but the +clumsy and tasteless narration of the Latin original is faithfully +reproduced, and the added descriptions of battles and voyages +are strings of conventional phrases, with no real imagination. +In <i>The Ascension</i> the genuine religious fervour imparts a higher +tone to the poetry; the piece has real but not extraordinary +merit. Of the other two poems no critic has much to say in +praise. If Cynewulf is to be allowed high poetic rank, it must +be on the ground of his authorship of other works than those +which he has signed. At one time or other nearly the whole +body of extant Old English poetry (including <i>Beowulf</i>) has been +conjecturally assigned to him. Some of the attributed works +show many striking resemblances in style and diction to his +authentic writings. But it is impossible to determine with +certainty how far the similarities may be due to imitation or to +the following of a common tradition.</p> + +<p>Until recently, it was commonly thought that Cynewulf’s +authorship of the Riddles (<i>q.v.</i>) in the <i>Exeter Book</i> was beyond +dispute. The monodramatic lyric <i>Wulf and Eadwacer</i>, imagined +to be the first of these Riddles, was in 1857 interpreted by +Heinrich Leo as a charade on the name Cynewulf. This absurd +fancy was for about thirty years generally accepted as a fact, +but is now abandoned. Some of the Riddles have been shown +by Professor E. Sievers to be older than Cynewulf’s time; that +he may have written some of the rest remains a bare possibility.</p> + +<p>The similarity of tone in the three poems known as the <i>Christ</i> +affords some presumption of common authorship, which the +counter arguments that have been urged seem insufficient to +set aside. Both <i>The Incarnation</i> and <i>The Last Judgment</i> contain +many passages of remarkable power and beauty. It is unlikely +that the author regarded the three as forming one work. The +<i>Christ</i> is followed in the MS. by two poems on <i>Saint Guthlac</i>, +the second of which is generally, and with much probability, +assigned to Cynewulf. The first Guthlac poem is almost universally +believed to be by another hand. Cynewulf’s celebration +of a midland saint is the strongest of the arguments that have +been urged against his Northumbrian origin; but this consideration +is insufficient to outweigh the probability derived from the +linguistic evidence.</p> + +<p>Cynewulf’s reputation can gain little by the attribution to +him of <i>Guthlac</i>, which is far inferior even to <i>Juliana</i>. Very +different would be the effect of the establishment of his much +disputed claim to <i>Andreas</i>, a picturesque version of the legend +of the Apostle Andrew. The poem abounds to an astonishing +extent in “Cynewulfian” phrases, but it is contended that these +are due to imitation. If the author of <i>Andreas</i> imitated <i>Elene</i> +and <i>Juliana</i>, he bettered his model. The question whether +Cynewulf may not have been the imitator has apparently never +been discussed. The poem (so far agreeing with <i>The Fates of +the Apostles</i>) copies the style of the old heroic poetry.</p> + +<p>Cynewulf’s authorship has been asserted by some scholars for +<i>The Dream of the Rood</i>, the noblest example of Old English +religious poetry. But an extract from this poem is carved on the +Ruthwell Cross; and, notwithstanding the arguments of Prof. +A. S. Cook, the language of the inscription seems too early for +Cynewulf’s date. The similarities between the <i>Dream</i> and <i>Elene</i> +are therefore probably due to Cynewulf’s acquaintance with the +older poem.</p> + +<p>The only remaining attribution that deserves notice is that +of the <i>Phoenix</i>. The author of this fine poem was, like Cynewulf, +a scholar, and uses many of his turns of expression, but he was +a man of greater genius than is shown in Cynewulf’s signed +compositions.</p> + +<p>Professor M. Trautmann, following J. Grimm and F. Dietrich, +would identify the poet with Cynewulf, bishop of Lindisfarne, +who died in 783. This speculation conflicts with the chronology +suggested in this article, and is destitute of evidence. Cynewulf +was indeed probably a Northumbrian churchman, but it is +unlikely that there were not many Northumbrian churchmen +bearing this common name; and as the bishop is not recorded +to have written anything, the identification is at best an unsupported +possibility. Professor A. S. Cook has suggested that +our Cynewulf may have been the “Cynulf,” priest of Dunwich, +whose name is among those appended to a decree of the council +of Clofesho in 803, and of whom nothing else is known. This +conjecture suits the probable date of Cynewulf, but otherwise +there is nothing in its favour.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the older literature relating to Cynewulf, see R. Wülker, +<i>Grundriss der angelsächsischen Litteratur</i> (1885). References to the +most important later discussions will be found in M. Trautmann, +<i>Kynewulf, der Bischof und Dichter</i> (1898), and the introductions and +notes to the editions of <i>Cynewulf’s Christ</i>, by I. Gollancz (1892) and +A. S. Cook (1900). For the arguments for Cynewulf’s authorship of +<i>Andreas</i>, see F. Ramhorst, <i>Andreas und Cynewulf</i> (1885).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. Br.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYNICS,<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> a small but influential school of ancient philosophers. +Their name is variously derived from the building in Athens +called Cynosarges, the earliest home of the school, and from the +Greek word for a dog (<span class="grk" title="kyôn">κύων</span>), in contemptuous allusion to the +uncouth and aggressive manners adopted by the members of +the school. Whichever of these explanations is correct, it is +noticeable that the Cynics agreed in taking a dog as their common +badge or symbol (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diogenes</a></span>). From a popular conception +of the intellectual characteristics of the school comes the modern +sense of “cynic,” implying a sneering disposition to disbelieve +in the goodness of human motives and a contemptuous feeling +of superiority.</p> + +<p>As regards the members of the school, the separate articles +on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antisthenes</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crates</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diogenes</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Demetrius</a></span> contain +all biographical information. We are here concerned only to +examine the general principles of the school in its internal and +external relations as forming a definite philosophic unit. The +importance of these principles lies not only in their intrinsic +value as an ethical system, but also in the fact that they form +the link between Socrates and the Stoics, between the essentially +Greek philosophy of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and a system of thought +which has exercised a profound and far-reaching influence on +medieval and modern ethics. From the time of Socrates in +unbroken succession up to the reign of Hadrian, the school +was represented by men of strong individuality. The leading +earlier Cynics were Antisthenes, Diogenes of Sinope, Crates of +Thebes, and Zeno; in the later Roman period, the chief names +are Demetrius (the friend of Seneca), Oenomaus and Demonax. +All these men adhered steadfastly to the principles laid down by +Antisthenes.</p> + +<p>Antisthenes was a pupil of Socrates, from whom he imbibed +the fundamental ethical precept that virtue, not pleasure, is +the end of existence. He was, therefore, in the forefront of that +intellectual revolution in the course of which speculation ceased +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page692" id="page692"></a>692</span> +to move in the realms of the physical<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and focused itself upon +human reason in its application to the practical conduct of life. +“Virtue,” says Socrates, “is knowledge”: in the ultimate +harmony of morality with reason is to be found the only true +existence of man. Antisthenes adopted this principle in its +most literal sense, and proceeded to explain “knowledge” in +the narrowest terms of practical action and decision, excluding +from the conception everything except the problem of individual +will realizing itself in the sphere of ordinary existence. Just +as in logic the inevitable result was the purest nominalism, so in +ethics he was driven to individualism, to the denial of social +and national relations, to the exclusion of scientific study and +of almost all that the Greeks understood by education. This +individualism he and his followers carried to its logical conclusion. +The ordinary pleasures of life were for them not merely negligible +but positively harmful inasmuch as they interrupted the operation +of the will. Wealth, popularity and power tend to dethrone +the authority of reason and to pervert the soul from the natural +to the artificial. Man exists for and in himself alone; his highest +end is self-knowledge and self-realization in conformity with the +dictates of his reason, apart altogether from the state and +society. For this end, disrepute and poverty are advantageous, +in so far as they drive back the man upon himself, increasing +his self-control and purifying his intellect from the dross of the +external. The good man (<i>i.e.</i> the wise man) wants nothing: +like the gods, he is <span class="grk" title="autarkês">αὐταρκής</span> (self-sufficing); “let men gain +wisdom—or buy a rope”; he is a citizen of the world, not of a +particular country (cf. Diogenes Laërtius vi. 11 <span class="grk" title="monên te orthên +politeian einai tên, en kosmô">μόνην τε ὀρθὴν πολιτείαν εἶναι τὴν, ἐν κόσμῳ</span>).</p> + +<p>It is not surprising that the pioneers of such a system were +criticized and ridiculed by their fellows, and this by no means +unjustly. We learn that Diogenes and Crates sought to +force their principles upon their fellows in an obtrusive, +tactless manner. The very essence of their philosophy was the +negation of the graces of social courtesy; it was impossible to +“return to nature” in the midst of a society clothed in the +accumulated artificiality of evolved convention without shocking +the ingrained sensibilities of its members. Nor is it unjust to +infer that the sense of opposition provoked some of the Cynics +to an overweening display of superiority. At the same time, +it is absurd to regard the eccentricities of a few as the characteristics +of the school, still more as a condemnation of the views +which they held.</p> + +<p>In logic Antisthenes was troubled by the problem of the One +and the Many. A nominalist to the core, he held that definition +and predication are either false or tautological. Ideas do not +exist save for the consciousness which thinks them. “A horse,” +said Antisthenes, “I can see, but horsehood I cannot see.” +Definition is merely a circuitous method of stating an identity: +“a tree is a vegetable growth” is logically no more than “a +tree is a tree.”</p> + +<p>Cynicism appears to have had a considerable vogue in Rome +in the 1st and 2nd centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Demetrius (<i>q.v.</i>) and Demonax +are highly eulogized by Seneca and Lucian respectively. It +is probable that these later Cynics adapted themselves somewhat +to the times in which they lived and avoided the crude extravagance +of Diogenes and others. But they undoubtedly maintained +the spirit of Antisthenes unimpaired and held an honourable +place in Roman thought. This very popularity had the effect +of attracting into their ranks charlatans of the worst type. +So that in Rome also Cynicism was partly the butt of the satirist +and partly the ideal of the thinker.</p> + +<p>Disregarding all the accidental excrescences of the doctrine, +Cynicism must be regarded as a most valuable development +and as a real asset in the sum of ethical speculation. With all +its defective psychology, its barren logic, its immature technique, +it emphasized two great and necessary truths, firstly, the absolute +responsibility of the individual as the moral unit, and, secondly, +the autocracy of the will. These two principles are sufficient +ground for our gratitude to these “athletes of righteousness” +(as Epictetus calls them). Furthermore they are profoundly +important as the precursors of Stoicism. The closeness of the +connexion is illustrated by Juvenal’s epigram that a Cynic +differed from a Stoic only by his cloak. Zeno was a pupil of +Crates, from whom he learned the moral worth of self-control +and indifference to sensual indulgence (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stoics</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Finally it is necessary to point out two flaws in the Cynic +philosophy. In the first place, the content of the word “knowledge” +is never properly developed. “Virtue is knowledge”; +knowledge of what? and how is that knowledge related to the +will? These questions were never properly answered by them. +Secondly they fell into the natural error of emphasizing the purely +animal side of the “nature,” which was their ethical criterion. +Avoiding the artificial restraints of civilization, they were prone +to fall back into animalism pure and simple. Many of them +upheld the principle of community of wives (see Diogenes +Laërtius vi. 11); some of them are said to have outraged the +dictates of public decency. It was left to the Stoics to separate +the wheat from the chaff, and to assign to the words “knowledge” +and “nature” a saner and more comprehensive meaning.</p> + +<p>For relation of Cynicism to contemporary thought, compare +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cyrenaics, Megarian School</a></span>. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Asceticism</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. W. Mullach, <i>Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum</i> (Paris, +1867), ii. 261-438; H. Ritter and L. Preller, <i>Hist. phil. Graec. et +Rom.</i> ch. v.; histories of ancient philosophy, and specially Ed. +Zeller, <i>Socrates and the Socratic Schools</i>, Eng. trans., O. J. Reichel +(1868, 2nd ed. 1877); Th. Gomperz, <i>Greek Thinkers</i>, Eng. trans., +vol. ii., G. G. Berry (1905); E. Caird, <i>Evolution of Theology in the +Greek Philosophers</i> (1904), ii. 44 seq., 55 seq., 62 seq.; arts. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stoics</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Socrates</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ionian School of Philosophy</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYNOSURE<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (Lat. <i>cynosura</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="kynosoura">κυνόσουρα</span>, from <span class="grk" title="kynos">κυνός</span>, +genitive of <span class="grk" title="kyôn">κύων</span>, a dog, and <span class="grk" title="oura">οὐρά</span>, tail), the name given by the +Greeks and Romans to the constellation of the Little Bear, Ursa +Minor; the word is applied in English to the pole-star which +appears in that constellation, and hence to something bright +which, like a “guiding-star,” draws all attention to it, as in +Milton’s “cynosure of neighbouring eyes.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:232px; height:409px" src="images/img692.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Partial inflorescence +of <i>Cyperus longus</i> (Galingale), +slightly reduced. 1, Spikelet of +same; 2, flower.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">CYPERACEAE,<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> in botany, a natural order of the monocotyledonous +group of seed-bearing plants. They are grass-like herbs, +sometimes annual, but more often persist by means of an underground +stem from which spring erect solitary or clustered, +generally three-sided aerial stems, with leaves in three rows. +The minute flowers are arranged +in spikelets somewhat as in +grasses, and these again in larger +spike-like or panicled inflorescences. +The flower has in rare +cases a perianth of six scale-like +leaves arranged in two whorls, +and thus conforming to the common +monocotyledonous type of +flower. Generally the perianth is +represented by hairs, bristles or +similar developments, often indefinite +in number; in the two +largest genera, <i>Cyperus</i>, (fig. 1) +and <i>Carex</i> (fig. 2), the flowers +are naked. In a few cases two +whorls of stamens are present, +with three members in each, but +generally only three are present; +the pistil consists of three or two +carpels, united to form an ovary +bearing a corresponding number +of styles and containing one +ovule. The flowers, which are +often unisexual, are wind-pollinated. +The fruit is one-seeded, with a tough, leathery or hard wall. +There are nearly 70 genera containing about 3000 species and +widely distributed throughout the earth, chiefly as marsh-plants. +In the arctic zone they form 10% of the flora; they will flourish in +soils rich in humus which are too acid to support grasses. The large +genus <i>Cyperus</i> contains about 400 species, chiefly in the warmer +parts of the earth; <i>C. Papyrus</i> is the Egyptian Papyrus. <i>Carex</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page693" id="page693"></a>693</span> +the largest genus of the order, the sedges, is widely distributed in +the temperate, alpine and arctic regions of both hemispheres, +and is represented by 60 species in Britain. <i>Carex arenaria</i>, +the sea-bent, grows on sand-dunes and helps to bind the sand +with its long cord-like underground stem which branches +widely. <i>Scirpus lacustris</i> (fig. 3, <i>1</i>) the true bulrush, occurs +in lakes, ditches and marshes; it has a spongy, green, +cylindrical stem, reaching nearly an inch in thickness +and 1 to 8 ft. high, which is usually leafless with a terminal +branched inflorescence. <i>Eriophorum</i> (fig. 3), cotton grass, is represented in Britain by several species in boggy land; they +are small tufted herbs with cottony heads due to the numerous +hair-like bristles which take the place of the perianth and become +much elongated in the fruiting stage.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:685px; height:360px" src="images/img693a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—<i>Carex riparia</i>, the largest British sedge, from 3 to 5 ft. high. 1, Male flower +of <i>Carex</i>; 2, female flower of <i>Carex</i>; 3, seed of <i>Carex</i>, cut lengthwise.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:448px; height:636px" src="images/img693b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Inflorescence of Cotton-grass (<i>Eriophorum polystachion</i>), +about <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> nat. size. 1, Flower of true bulrush (<i>Scirpus lacustris</i>).</td></tr></table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CY-PRÈS<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (A.-Fr. for “so near”), in English law, a principle +adopted by the court of chancery in dealing with trusts for +charitable purposes. When the charitable purpose intended by a +testator cannot be carried into effect, the court will apply the +funds to some other purpose, as near the original as possible +(whence the name). For instance, a testator having left a fund +to be divided into four parts—one-fourth to be used for “the +redemption of British slaves in Turkey and +Barbary,” and the other three-fourths for +various local charities—it was found that +there were no British slaves in Turkey or +Barbary, and as to that part of the gift +therefore the testator’s purpose failed. Instead +of allowing the portion of the fund +devoted to this impossible purpose to lapse +to the next of kin, the court devoted it to +the purposes specified for the rest of the +estate. This doctrine is only applied where +“a general intention of charity is manifest” +in the will, and not where one particular +object only was present to the mind of the +testator. Thus, a testator having left money +to be applied in building a church in a particular +parish, and that having been found to +be impossible, the fund will not be applied +<i>cy-près</i>, but will go to the next of kin.</p> + +<p>In the United States, charitable trusts +have become more frequent as the wealth +of the country has progressed, and are regarded with increasing +favour by the courts. The <i>cy-près</i> doctrine has +been either expressly or virtually applied to uphold them +in several of the states, and in some there has been legislation +in the same direction. In others the doctrine has been +repudiated, <i>e.g.</i> in Michigan, Tennessee, Indiana and Virginia. +For many years the New York courts held that this doctrine +was not in force there, but in 1893 the legislature repealed the +provisions of the revised statutes on which these decisions rested +and restored the ancient law. Statutes passed in Pennsylvania +have established the doctrine there, and dissolved any doubt as to +its being in force in that state.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYPRESS<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (<i>Cupressus</i>), in botany, a genus of fifteen species +belonging to the tribe Cupressineae, natural order Coniferae, +represented by evergreen aromatic trees and shrubs indigenous +to the south of Europe, western Asia, the Himalayas, China, +Japan, north-western and north-eastern America, California +and Mexico. The leaves of the cypresses are scale-like, overlapping +and generally in four rows; the female catkins are roundish, +and fewer than the male; the cones consist of from six to +ten peltate woody scales, which end in a curved point, and open +when the seeds are ripe; the seeds are numerous and winged. +All the species exude resin, but no turpentine.</p> + +<p><i>C. sempervirens</i>, the common cypress, has been well known +throughout the Mediterranean region since classic times; it may +have been introduced from western Asia where it is found wild. +It is a tapering, flame-shaped tree resembling the Lombardy +poplar; its branches are thickly covered with small, imbricated, +shining-green leaves; the male catkins are about 3 lines in length; +the cones are between 1 and 1½ in. in diameter, sessile, and +generally in pairs, and are made up of large angular scales, slightly +convex exteriorly, and with a sharp point in the centre. In +Britain the tree grows to a height of 40 ft., in its native soil +to 70 or 90 ft. It thrives best on a dry, deep, sandy loam, on +airy sheltered sites at no great elevation above the sea. It was +introduced into Great Britain before the middle of the 16th +century. In the climate of the south of England its rate of +growth when young is between 1 and 1½ ft. a year. The seeds +are sown in April, and come up in three or four weeks; the plants +require protection from frost during their first winter.</p> + +<p>The timber of the cypress is hard, close-grained, of a fine +reddish hue, and very durable. Among the ancients it was in +request for poles, rafters, joists, and for the construction of wine-presses, +tables and musical instruments; and on that account +was so valuable that a plantation of cypresses was considered +a sufficient dowry for a daughter. Owing to its durability the +wood was employed for mummy cases, and images of the gods; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page694" id="page694"></a>694</span> +a statue of Jupiter carved out of cypress is stated by Pliny to have +existed 600 years without showing signs of decay. The cypress +doors of the ancient St Peter’s at Rome, when removed by +Eugenius IV., were about 1100 years old, but nevertheless in a +state of perfect preservation. Laws were engraved on cypress by +the ancients, and objects of value were preserved in receptacles +made of it; thus Horace speaks of poems <i>levi servanda cupresso</i>.</p> + +<p>The cypress, which grows no more when once cut down, was +regarded as a symbol of the dead, and perhaps for that reason +was sacred to Pluto; its branches were placed by the Greeks +and Romans on the funeral pyres and in the houses of their +departed friends. Its supposed ill-boding nature is alluded to in +Shakespeare’s <i>Henry VI.</i>, where Suffolk desires for his enemies +“their sweetest shade, a grove of cypress trees.” The cypress +was the tree into which Cyparissus, a beautiful youth beloved +by Apollo, was transformed, that he might grieve to all time +(Ovid, <i>Met.</i> x. 3). In Turkish cemeteries the cypress—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Dark tree, still sad when others’ grief is fled,</p> +<p class="i05">The only constant mourner o’er the dead”—</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">is the most striking feature, the rule being to plant one for each +interment. The tree grows straight, or nearly so, and has a +gloomy and forbidding, but wonderfully stately aspect. With +advancing age its foliage becomes of a dark, almost black hue. +William Gilpin calls the cypress an architectural tree: “No Italian +scene,” says he, “is perfect without its tall spiral form, appearing +as if it were but a part of the picturesquely disposed edifices +which rise from the middle ground against the distant landscape.” +The cypress of Somma, in Lombardy, is believed to have been in +existence in the time of Julius Caesar; it is about 121 ft. in +height, and 23 ft. in circumference. Napoleon, in making the +road over the Simplon, deviated from the straight line in order to +leave it standing. The cypress, as the olive, is found everywhere +in the dry hollows and high eastern slopes of Corfu, of the scenery +of which it is characteristic. As an ornamental tree in Britain +the cypress is useful to break the outline formed by round-headed +low shrubs and trees. The <i>berosh</i>, or <i>beroth</i>, of the Hebrew +Scriptures, translated “fir” in the authorized version, in 1 Kings +v. 8 and vi. 15, 2 Chron. ii. 8 and many other passages, is supposed +to signify the cypress.</p> + +<p>The common or tall variety of <i>C. sempervirens</i> is known as +<i>C. fastigiata</i>; the other variety, <i>C. horizontalis</i>, which is little +planted in England, is distinguished by its horizontally spreading +branches, and its likeness to the cedar. The species <i>C. torulosa</i> +of North India, so called from its twisted bark, attains an altitude +of 150 ft.; its branches are erect or ascending, and grow so as +to form a perfect cone. In the Kulu and Ladakh country the +tree is sacred to the deities of the elements. It has been introduced +into England, but does not thrive where the winter +is severe. The wood, which in Indian temples is burnt as incense, +is yellowish-red, close-grained, tough, hard, readily worked, +durable, and equal in quality to that of the deodar. Another +species, <i>C. lusitanica</i> or <i>glauca</i>, the “cedar of Goa,” is a handsome +tree, 50 ft. in height when full-grown, with spreading +branches drooping at their extremities; it has been much +planted in Portugal, especially in the neighbourhood of Cintra. +Its origin is doubtful. It was well established in Portugal before +the middle of the 17th century, and has since been cultivated +generally in the south of Europe, but is nowhere believed to be +indigenous. The name “cedar of Goa” is misleading, as no +cypress is found wild anywhere near Goa. It was cultivated in +England in the 17th century, and the name <i>C. lusitanica</i> was +given by Philip Miller, the curator of the Chelsea Physick garden, +in 1768, in reference to its supposed Portuguese origin. Experience +has shown this cypress to be too tender for British +climate generally, though good specimens are to be found in the +milder climate of the south and west of England and in Ireland.</p> + +<p>The species <i>G. Lawsoniana</i>, the Port Orford cedar, a native +of south Oregon and north California, where it attains a height +of 100 ft., was introduced into Scotland in 1854; it is much +grown for ornamental purposes in Britain, a large number of +varieties of garden origin being distinguished by differences in +habit and by colour of foliage. Other Californian cypresses +are <i>C. macrocarpa</i>, the Monterey cypress, which is 60 ft. high +when mature, with a habit suggesting that of cedar of Lebanon, +and <i>C. Joveniana</i> and <i>C. Macnabiana</i>, smaller trees generally +from 20 to 30 ft. in height. <i>C. funebris</i> is a native of the north +of China, where it is planted near pagodas. <i>C. nootkaensis</i>, the +Nootka Sound cypress or Alaska cedar, was introduced into Britain +in 1850. It is a hardy species, reaching a height of from 80 to 100 +ft. Several varieties are distinguished by habit and colour of +foliage. <i>C. obtusa</i>, a native of Japan, is a tall tree reaching 100 ft. +in height, and widely planted by the Japanese for its timber, +which is one of the best for interior construction. It is also +cultivated by them as a decorative plant, in many forms, including +dwarf forms not exceeding a foot in height.</p> + +<p>The “deciduous cypress,” “swamp cypress” or “bald +cypress,” <i>Taxodium distichum</i>, is another member of the order +Coniferae (tribe Taxodineae), a native of the southern United +States and Mexico. It is a lofty tree reaching a height of 170 ft. +or more, with a massive trunk 10 to 15 ft. or more in diameter, +growing in or near water or on low-lying land which is subject +to periodical flooding. The lower part of the trunk bears huge +buttresses, each of which ends in a long branching far-spreading +root, from the branches of which spring the peculiar knees which +rise above the level of the water. The knees are of a soft spongy +texture and act as breathing organs, supplying the roots with air, +which they would otherwise be unable to obtain when submerged. +The stout horizontally spreading branches give a cedar-like +appearance; the foliage is light and feathery; the leaves and the +slender shoots which bear them fall in the autumn. The cones, +about the size of a small walnut, bear spirally arranged imbricated +scales which subtend the three-angled winged seeds. +The wood is light, soft, straight-grained and easily worked; +it is very durable in contact with the soil, and is used for +railway-ties, posts, fencing and for construction. The deciduous +cypress was one of the first American trees introduced into +England; it is described by John Parkinson in his <i>Herbal</i> of +1640. It thrives only near water or where the soil is permanently +moist.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYPRIAN, SAINT<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> [<i>Caecilius Cyprianus</i>, called <span class="sc">Thascius</span>] +(<i>c.</i> 200-258), bishop of Carthage, one of the most illustrious in +the early history of the church, and one of the most notable of +its early martyrs, was born about the year 200, probably at +Carthage. He was of patrician family, wealthy, highly educated, +and for some time occupied as a teacher of rhetoric at Carthage. +Of an enthusiastic temperament, accomplished in classical literature, +he seems while a pagan to have courted discussion with +the converts to Christianity. Confident in his own powers, he +entered ardently into what was no doubt the great question +of the time at Carthage as elsewhere. He sought to vanquish, +but was himself vanquished by, the new religious force which +was making such rapid inroads on the decaying paganism of +the Roman empire. Caecilianus (or Caecilius), a presbyter of +Carthage, is supposed to have been the instrument of his conversion, +which seems to have taken place about 246.</p> + +<p>Cyprian carried all his natural enthusiasm and brilliant powers +into his new profession. He devoted his wealth to the relief of +the poor and other pious uses; and so, according to his deacon +Pontius, who wrote a diffuse and vague account of his “life and +passion,” “realized two benefits: the contempt of the world’s +ambition, and the observance of that mercy which God has preferred +to sacrifice.” The result of his charity and activity as a +Christian convert was his unanimous call by the Christian +people to the head of the church in Carthage, at the end of 248 +or beginning of 249. The time was one of fierce persecution +directed against the Christians, and the bishop of Carthage +became a prominent object of attack. During the persecution of +Decius (250-251) Cyprian was exposed to imminent danger, and +was compelled for a time to seek safety in retreat. Under +Gallus, the successor of Decius, the persecution was relaxed, and +Cyprian returned to Carthage. Here he held several councils +for the discussion of the affairs of the church, especially for +grave questions as to the rebaptism of heretics, and the readmission +into the church of the <i>lapsi</i>, or those who had fallen +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page695" id="page695"></a>695</span> +away through fear during the heat of the persecution. Cyprian, +although inspired by lofty notions of the prerogatives of the +church, and inclined to severity of opinion towards heretics, and +especially heretical dissentients from the belief in the divine +authorship of the episcopal order and the unity of Christendom, +was leniently disposed towards those who had temporarily fallen +from the faith. He set himself in opposition to Novatian, a +presbyter of Rome, who advocated their permanent exclusion +from the church; and it was his influence which guided the +tolerant measures of the Carthaginian synods on the subject. +While in this question he went hand in hand with Cornelius, +bishop of Rome, his strict attitude in the matter of baptism +by heretics brought him into serious conflict with the Roman +bishop Stephen. It would almost have come to a rupture, since +both parties held firmly to their standpoint, had not a new +persecution arisen under the emperor Valerian, which threw +all internal quarrels into the background in face of the common +danger. Stephen became a martyr in August 257. Cyprian +was at first banished to Curubis in Africa Proconsularis. But +soon he was recalled, taken into custody, and finally condemned +to death. He was beheaded on the 14th of September 258, the +first African bishop to obtain the martyr’s crown.</p> + +<p>All Cyprian’s literary works were written in connexion with +his episcopal office; almost all his treatises and many of his +letters have the character of pastoral epistles, and their form +occasionally betrays the fact that they were intended as addresses. +These writings bear the mark of a clear mind and a moderate and +gentle spirit. Cyprian had none of that character which makes +the reading of Tertullian, whom he himself called his <i>magister</i>, +so interesting and piquant, but he possessed other qualities which +Tertullian lacked, especially the art of presenting his thoughts +in simple, smooth and clear language, yet in a style which is not +wanting in warmth and persuasive power. Like Tertullian, +and often in imitation of him, Cyprian took certain apologetic, +dogmatic and pastoral themes as subjects of his treatises. By +far the best known of these is the treatise <i>De catholicae ecclesiae +unitate</i>, called forth in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 251 by the schism at Carthage, but +particularly by the Novatian schism at Rome. In this is proclaimed +the doctrine of the one church founded upon the apostle +Peter, whose “tangible bond is her one united episcopate, +an apostleship universal yet only one—the authority of every +bishop perfect in itself and independent, yet not forming with +all the others a mere agglomeration of powers, but being a tenure +upon a totality like that of a shareholder in some joint property.”</p> + +<p>Attention must also be called to the treatise <i>Ad Donatum</i> +(<i>De gratia dei</i>), in which the new life after regeneration with its +moral effects is set forth in a pure and clear light, as contrasted +with the night of heathendom and its moral degradation, which +were known to the author from personal experience. The +numerous <i>Letters</i> of Cyprian are not only an important source +for the history of church life and of ecclesiastical law, on account +of their rich and manifold contents, but in large part they are +important monuments of the literary activity of their author, +since, not infrequently, they are in the form of treatises upon the +topic in question. Of the eighty-two letters in the present +collection, sixty-six were written by Cyprian. In the great +majority of cases the chronology of their composition, as far as +the year is concerned, presents no difficulties; more precise +assignments are mainly conjectural. In the editions of the works +of Cyprian a number of treatises are printed which, certainly or +probably, were not written by him, and have therefore usually +been described as pseudo-Cyprianic. Several of them, <i>e.g.</i> the +treatise on dice (<i>De aleatoribus</i>), have attracted the attention +of scholars, who are never weary of the attempt to determine +the identity of the author, unfortunately hitherto without much +success.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best, though by no means faultless, edition of Cyprian’s works +is that of W. von Hartel in the <i>Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum</i> +(3 vols., Vienna, 1868-1871). There is an English translation in the +<i>Library of the Ante-Nicene Fathers</i>. The most complete monograph +is that by Archbishop E. W. Benson, <i>Cyprian, his Life, his Times, +his Work</i> (London, 1897). See also J. A. Faulkner, <i>Cyprian the +Churchman</i> (Cincinnati and New York, 1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYPRINODONTS.<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> In spite of their name, the small fishes +called Cyprinodonts are in no way related to the Cyprinids, +or carp family, but are near allies of the pike, characterized +by a flat head with protractile mouth beset with cardiform, +villiform, or compressed, bi- or tri-cuspid teeth, generally large +scales, and the absence of a well-developed lateral line. About +two hundred species are known, mostly inhabitants of the fresh +and brackish waters of America; only about thirty are known +from the old world (south Europe, south Asia, China and Japan, +and Africa). Several forms occur in the Oligocene and Miocene +beds of Europe. Many species are ovo-viviparous, and from +their small size and lively behaviour they are much appreciated +as aquarium fishes.</p> + +<p>In many species the sexes are dissimilar, the female being +larger and less brilliantly coloured, with smaller fins; the anal +fin of the male may be modified into an intromittent organ by +means of which internal fertilization takes place, the ova developing +in a sort of uterus. In the remarkable genus <i>Anableps</i>, +from Central and South America, the strongly projecting eyes +are divided by a horizontal band of the conjunctiva into an +upper part adapted for vision in the air, and a lower for vision +in the water, and the pupil is also divided into two parts by a +constriction.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The latest monograph of these fishes is by S. Garman in <i>Mem. Mus. +Comp. Zool.</i> xix. (1895).</p> +</div> + +<p>The <i>Amblyopsidae</i>, which include the remarkable blind cave +fishes of North America (Mammoth cave and others), are nearly +related to the <i>Cyprinodontidae</i>, and like many of them ovo-viviparous. +<i>Chologaster</i>, from the lowland streams and swamps +of the south Atlantic states, has the eyes well developed and +the body is coloured. <i>Amblyopsis</i> and <i>Typhlichthys</i>, which are +evidently derived from <i>Chologaster</i>, or from forms closely related +to it, but living in complete darkness, have the eyes rudimentary +and more or less concealed under the skin, and the body is +colourless.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. W. Putnam, <i>Amer. Nat.</i> (1872), p. 6, and <i>P. Boston Soc.</i> +xvii. (1875), p. 222; and C. H. Eigenmann, <i>Archiv. für Entwickelungsmechanik +der Organismen</i>, viii. (1899), p. 545.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. A. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYPRUS,<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> one of the largest islands in the Mediterranean, +nominally in the dominion of Turkey, but under British administration, +situated in the easternmost basin of that sea, at roughly +equal distance from the coasts of Asia Minor to the north and +of Syria to the east. The headland of Cape Kormakiti in Cyprus +is distant 44 m. from Cape Anamur in Asia Minor, and its north-east +point, Cape St Andrea, is 69 m. from Latakieh in Syria. +It lies between 34° 33′ and 35° 41′ N., and between 32° 20′ and +34° 35′ E., so that it is situated in almost exactly the same +latitude as Crete. Its greatest length is about 141 m., from +Cape Drepano in the west to Cape St Andrea in the north-east, +and its greatest breadth, from Cape Gata in the south to Cape +Kormakiti in the north, reaches 60 m.; while it retains an +average width of from 35 to 50 m. through the greater part of +its extent, but narrows suddenly to less than 10 m. about 34° E., +and from thence sends out a long narrow tongue of land towards +the E.N.E. for a distance of 46 m., terminating in Cape St Andrea. +The coast-line measures 486 m. Cyprus is the largest island in +the Mediterranean after Sicily and Sardinia. In 1885 a trigonometrical +survey and a map on the scale of 1 in. to 1 m. were +made by Captain (afterwards Lord) Kitchener, R.E., who +worked out the area of the island at 3584 sq. m., or a little more +than the area of Norfolk and Suffolk.</p> + +<p><i>Mountains.</i>—Great part of the island is occupied by two +mountain ranges, both of which have a general direction from +west to east. Of these the most extensive, as well as the most +lofty, is that which fills up almost the whole southern portion +of the island, and is generally designated by modern geographers +as Mount Olympus, though that name appears to have been +applied by the ancients only to one particular peak. The highest +summit is known at the present day as Mount Troödos, and +attains an elevation of 6406 ft. It sends down subordinate +ranges or spurs, of considerable altitude, on all sides, one of which +extends to Cape Arnauti (the ancient Acamas), which forms the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page696" id="page696"></a>696</span> +north-west extremity of the island, while others descend on both +sides quite to the northern and southern coasts. On the south-eastern +slope are governmental and military summer quarters. +The main range is continued eastward by the lofty summits +known as Mount Adelphi (5305 ft.), Papoutsa (5124) and Machaira +or Chionia (4674), until it ends in the somewhat isolated peak +called Santa Croce (Stavrovouni or Oros Stavro), the Hill of the +Holy Cross (2260 ft.). This mountain, designated by Strabo +Mount Olympus, is a conspicuous object from Larnaca, from +which it is only 12 m. distant, and is well known from being +frequented as a place of pilgrimage. The northern range of +mountains begins at Cape Kormakiti (the ancient Crommyon) +and is continued from thence in an unbroken ridge to the eastern +extremity of the island, Cape St Andrea, a distance of more than +100 m. It is not known by any collective name; its western +part is called the Kyrenia mountains, while the remainder has +the name of Carpas. It is inferior in elevation to the southern +range, its highest summit (Buffavento) attaining only 3135 ft., +while in the eastern portion the elevation rarely exceeds 2000 ft. +But it is remarkable for its continuous and unbroken character—consisting +throughout of a narrow but rugged and rocky ridge, +descending abruptly to the south into the great plain of Lefkosia, +and to the north to a narrow plain bordering the coast.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:522px; height:386px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img696.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2"><i>The Mesaoria.</i>—Between the two mountain ranges lies a +broad plain, extending across the island from the bay of Famagusta +to that of Morphou on the west, a distance of nearly 60 m., +with a breadth varying from 10 to 20 m. It is known by the name +of the Mesaoria or Messaria, and is watered by a number of +intermittent streams from the mountains on either hand. The +chief streams are the Pedias and the Yalias, which follow roughly +parallel courses eastward. The greater part of the plain is open +and uncultivated, and presents nothing but barren downs; +but corn is grown in considerable quantities in the northern +portions of it, and there is no doubt that the whole is readily +susceptible of cultivation. It is remarkable that Cyprus was +celebrated in antiquity for its forests, which not only clothed the +whole of its mountain ranges, but covered the entire central +plain with a dense mass, so that it was with difficulty that the +land could be cleared for cultivation. At the present day the +whole plain of the Mesaoria is naturally bare and treeless, and +it is only the loftiest and central summits of Mount Olympus +that still retain their covering of pine woods. The disappearance +of the forests (which has in a measure been artificially remedied) +naturally affected the rivers, which are mostly mere torrents, +dry in summer. Even the Pedias (ancient <i>Pediaeus</i>) does not +reach the sea in summer, and its stagnant waters form unhealthy +marshes. In the marshy localities malarial fever occurs but is +rarely (in modern times) of a severe type. The mean annual +temperature in Cyprus is about 69° F. (mean maximum 78°, +and minimum 57°). The mean annual rainfall is about 19 ins. +October to March is the cool, wet season. Earthquakes are not +uncommon.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>—Cyprus lies in the continuation of the folded belt of the +Anti-taurus. The northern coast range is formed by the oldest rocks +in the island, consisting chiefly of limestones and marbles with +occasional masses of igneous rock. These are supposed to be of +Cretaceous age, but no fossils have been found in them. On both +sides the range is flanked by sandstones and shales (the Kythraean +series), supposed to be of Upper Eocene age; and similar rocks +occur around the southern mountain mass. The Oligocene consists +of grey and white marls (known as the Idalian series), which are +distributed all over the island and attain their greatest development +on the south side of the Troödos. All these rocks have been folded, +and take part in the formation of the mountains. The great igneous +masses of Troödos, &c., consisting of diabase, basalt and serpentine, +are of later date. Pliocene and later beds cover the central plain +and occur at intervals along the coast. The Pliocene is of marine +origin, and rests unconformably upon all the older beds, including +the Post-oligocene igneous rocks, thus proving that the final folding +and the last volcanic outbursts were approximately of Miocene age. +The caves of the Kyrenian range contain a Pleistocene mammalian +fauna.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The population of Cyprus in 1901 was 237,022, +an increase of 27,736 since 1891 and of 51,392 since 1881. The +people are mainly Greeks and Turks. About 22% of the +population are Moslems; nearly all the remainder are Christians +of the Orthodox Greek Church. The Moslem religious courts, +presided over by cadis, are strictly confined to jurisdiction in +religious cases affecting the Mahommedan population. The +island is divided into the six districts of Famagusta, Kyrenia, +Larnaca, Limasol, Nicosia and Papho. The chief towns are +Nicosia (pop. 14,752), the capital, in the north central part of +the island, Limasol (8298) and Larnaca (7964) on the south-eastern +coast. The other capitals of districts are Famagusta +on the east coast, Kyrenia on the north, and Ktima, capital of +Papho, on the south-west. Kyrenia, a small port, has a castle +built about the beginning of the 13th century, and notable, +through the troubled history of the island, as never having been +captured.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture, &c.</i>—The most important species of the few +trees that remain in the island are the Aleppo pine, the <i>Pinus +laricio</i>, cypress, cedar, carob, olive and <i>Quercus alnifolia</i>. Recent +additions are the eucalyptus, casuarina, <i>Pinus pinea</i> and +ailanthus. Some protection has been afforded to existing +plantations, and some attempt made to extend their area; but +the progress in both directions is slow. Agriculture is the chief +industry in the island, in spite of various disabilities. The soil +is extremely fertile, and, with a fair rainfall, say 13 in., between +November and April, yields magnificent crops, but the improvements +in agriculture are scarcely satisfactory. The methods and +appliances used are extremely primitive, and inveterate prejudice +debars the average peasant from the use of new implements, +fresh seed, or manure; he generally cares nothing for the rotation +of crops, or for the cleanliness of his land. Modern improvements +and the use of imported machinery have, however, been adopted +by some. A director of agriculture was appointed in 1896, and +leaflets are issued pointing out improvements within the means +of the villager, and how to deal with plant diseases and insect +pests. The products of the soil include grain, fruit, including +carob, olive, mulberry, cotton, vegetables and oil seeds. Vineyards +occupy a considerable area, and the native wines are pure +and strong, but not always palatable. The native practice of +conveying wine in tarred skins was deleterious to its flavour, and +is now for the most part abolished. A company has exploited +and improved the industry. Large sums have been expended on +the destruction of locusts; they are now practically harmless, +but live locusts are diligently collected every year, a reward +being paid by the government for their destruction. Under the +superintendence of an officer lent by the government of Madras, +two great works of irrigation, from the lack of which agriculture +had seriously suffered, were undertaken in 1898 and 1899. +The smaller includes a reservoir at Syncrasi (Famagusta), with +a catchment of 27 sq. m. and a capacity of 70,000,000 cub. ft. +It reclaims 360 acres, and was estimated to irrigate 4320. The +larger scheme includes three large reservoirs in the Mesaoria +to hold up and temporarily store the flood waters of the Pedias +and Yalias rivers. The estimate premised a cost of £50,000, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page697" id="page697"></a>697</span> +irrigation of 42,000 acres, and the reclamation of 10,000. These +works were completed respectively in 1899 and 1901.</p> + +<p>The rearing of live stock is of no little importance. A committee +exists “for the improvement of the breeds of Cyprus +stock”; stallions of Arab blood have been imported, and +prizes are offered for the best donkeys. Cattle, sheep, mules and +donkeys are sent in large numbers to Egypt. Cyprus mules +have found favour in war in the Crimea, India, Uganda, Eritrea +and Egypt. The sea fisheries are not important, with the +exception of the sponge fishery, which is under the protection +of the administration. The manufactures of the island are +insignificant.</p> + +<p><i>Minerals.</i>—Next to its forests, which long supplied the Greek +monarchs of Egypt with timber for their fleets, Cyprus was +celebrated among the ancients for its mineral wealth, especially +for its mines of copper, which were worked from a very early +period, and continued to enjoy such reputation among both +Greeks and Romans that the modern name for the metal is +derived from the term of Aes Cyprium or Cuprium by which +it was known to the latter. According to Strabo the most +valuable mines were worked at a place called Tamasus, in the +centre of the island, on the northern slopes of Mount Olympus, +but their exact site has not been identified. An attempt to work +copper towards the close of the 19th century was a failure, +but some prospecting was subsequently carried on. Besides +copper, according to Strabo, the island produced considerable +quantities of silver; and Pliny records it as producing various +kinds of precious stones, among which he mentions diamonds +and emeralds, but these were doubtless nothing more than rock +crystal and beryl. Salt, which was in ancient times one of the +productions for which the island was noted, is still made in large +quantities, and there are extensive salt works in the neighbourhood +of Larnaca and Limasol, where there are practically +inexhaustible salt lakes. Rock crystal and asbestos are still +found in the district of Paphos. Gypsum is exported unburnt +from the Carpas, and as plaster of Paris from Limasol and +Larnaca. Statuary marble has been found on the slopes of +Buffavento in the northern range. Excellent building stone +exists throughout the island.</p> + +<p><i>Commerce.</i>—A disability against the trade of Cyprus has +been the want of natural harbours, the ports possessing only +open roadsteads; though early in the 20th century the construction +of a satisfactory commercial harbour was undertaken +at Famagusta, and there is a small harbour at Kyrenia. Trade +is carried on principally from the ports already indicated among +the chief towns. The various agricultural products, cattle and +mules, cheese, wines and spirits, silk cocoons and gypsum make +up the bulk of the exports. Barley and wheat, carobs and raisins +may be specially indicated among the agricultural exports. The +annual value of exports and of imports (which are of a general +character) may be set down as about £300,000 each. Good +roads are maintained connecting the more important towns, +and when the harbour at Famagusta was undertaken the construction +of a railway from that port to Nicosia was also put +in hand. The Eastern Telegraph Co. maintains a cable from +Alexandria (Egypt) to Larnaca, and the greater part of the lines +on the island. The Imperial Ottoman Telegraph Co. has also +some lines. The British sovereign is the current gold coin, the +unit of the bronze and silver coinage being the <i>piastre</i> (1<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> penny). +Turkish weights and measures are used. The oke, equalling +2.8 ℔ avoirdupois, and the <i>donum</i>, about ¼ of an acre, are the +chief units.</p> + +<p><i>Constitution and Government.</i>—Under a convention signed at +Constantinople on the 4th of June 1878, Great Britain engaged +to join the sultan of Turkey in defending his Asiatic possessions +(in certain contingencies) against Russia, and the sultan, “in +order to enable England to make necessary provision for executing +her engagement,” consented to assign the island of Cyprus +to be occupied and administered by England. The British flag +was hoisted on the 12th of June, and the conditions of the +occupation were explained in an annex to the convention, dated +the 1st of July. An order in council of the 14th of September, +modified so far as related to legislation by another of the 30th +of November, regulated the government of the island. The +administration was placed in the hands of a high commissioner +with the usual powers of a colonial governor. Executive and +legislative councils were established; and in each of the six +districts into which, for administrative and legal purposes, the +island was divided, a commissioner was appointed to represent +the government. The executive council consists of the high +commissioner, the chief secretary, the king’s advocate, the +senior officer in charge of the troops, and the receiver-general, +with, as “additional” members, two Christians and one Mussulman. +The legislative council consists of six non-elected members, +being office-holders, and twelve elected members, three being +chosen by the Moslems and nine by the non-Moslem inhabitants. +British subjects and foreigners, who have resided five years in +Cyprus, can exercise the franchise as well as Ottoman subjects. +The qualification otherwise is the payment of any of the taxes +classed as Vergi Taxes (see below). The courts in existence +at the time of the occupation were superseded by the following, +constituted by an order in council dated the 30th of November +1882:—(1) a supreme court of criminal and civil appeal; (2) +six assize courts; (3) six district courts; (4) six magistrates’ +courts; and (5) village courts. Actions are divided, according +to the nationality of the defendant, into “Ottoman” and +“Foreign”; in the latter, the president of the court alone +exercises jurisdiction as a rule, so also in criminal cases against +foreigners. The law administered is that contained in the +Ottoman codes, modified by ordinances passed by the legislative +council.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Finance.</i>—The principal sources of revenue are:—</p> + +<p>(1) Vergi taxes, or taxes on house and land property, and trade +profits and incomes (not including salaries); (2) military exemption +tax, payable by Moslems and Christians alike, but not by foreigners, +of 2s. 6d. a head on males between 18 and 60 years of age; (3) tithes. +All tithes have been abolished, except those on cereals, carobs, silk +cocoons, and, in the form of 10% <i>ad valorem</i> export duties, those +on cotton, linseed, aniseed and raisins (all other export duties +and a fishing tax have been abolished); (4) sheep, goat, and pig +tax; (5) an excise on wine, spirits and tobacco; (6) import duties; +(7) stamps, court fees, royalties, licenses, &c.; (8) salt monopoly. +Foreigners are liable to all the above taxes except the military +exemption tax. The annual sum of £92,800, payable to Turkey as +the average excess (according to the years 1873-1878) of revenue over +expenditure, but really appropriated to the interest on the British +guaranteed loan of 1855, is a heavy burden. But if not lightened, +taxation is at least better apportioned than formerly.</p> + +<p><i>Instruction.</i>—A general system of grants in aid of elementary +schools was established in 1882. There are some 300 connected with +the Greek Orthodox Church, and 160 elementary Moslem schools. +Aid is also given to a few Armenian and Maronite schools. Among +other schools are a Moslem high school (maintained entirely by +government), a training college at Nicosia for teachers in the Orthodox +Church schools, Greek high schools at Larnaca and Limasol, an +English school for boys and a girls’ school at Nicosia. By a law of +1895 separate boards of education for Moslem and Greek Christian +schools were established, and in each district there are separate +committees, presided over by the commissioner. An institution +worthy of special notice is the home and farm for lepers near +Nicosia, accommodating over a hundred inmates.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">History and Archaeology down to the Roman +Occupation</p> + +<p>The Stone Age has left but few traces in Cyprus; no sites +have been found and even single implements are very rare. +The “megalithic” monuments of Agia Phaneromeni<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and +Halá Sultán Teké near Larnaca may perhaps be early, like +the Palestinian cromlechs; but the vaulted chamber of Agia +Katrína near Enkomi seems to be Mycenaean or later; and the +perforated monoliths at Ktima seem to belong to oil presses +of uncertain but probably not prehistoric date.</p> + +<p>The Bronze Age, on the other hand, is of peculiar importance +in an area which, like Cyprus, was one of the chief early sources +of copper. Its remains have been carefully studied both on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page698" id="page698"></a>698</span> +settlement sites at Leondári Vounò and Kalopsída, and in tombs +in more than thirty places, notably at Agia Paraskevì, Psemmatisméno, +Alámbra, Episkopì and Enkomi. Throughout this +period, which began probably before 3000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and ended about +1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Cyprus evidently maintained a large population, and +an art and culture distinct from those of Egypt, Syria and +Cilicia. The Cypriote temper, however, lacks originality; at +all periods it has accepted foreign innovations slowly, and +discarded them even more reluctantly. The island owes its +importance, therefore, mainly to its copious supply of a few +raw materials, notably copper and timber. Objects of Cypriote +manufacture are found but rarely on sites abroad; in the later +Bronze Age, however, they occur in Egypt and South Palestine, +and as far afield as Thera (Santorin), Athens and Troy (Hissarlik).</p> + +<p>The Bronze Age culture of Cyprus falls into three main stages. +In the first, the implements are rather of copper than of bronze, +tin being absent or in small quantities (2 to 3%); the types +are common to Syria and Asia Minor as far as the Hellespont, +and resemble also the earliest forms in the Aegean and in central +Europe; the pottery is all hand-made, with a red burnished +surface, gourd-like and often fantastic forms, and simple geometrical +patterns incised; zoomorphic art is very rare, and +imported objects are unknown. In the second stage, implements +of true bronze (9 to 10% tin) become common; painted pottery +of buff clay with dull black geometrical patterns appears alongside +the red-ware; and foreign imports occur, such as Egyptian +blue-glazed beads (XIIth-XIIIth Dynasty, 2500-2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>),<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +and cylindrical Asiatic seals (one of Sargon I., 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).<a name="fa3n" id="fa3n" href="#ft3n"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>In the third stage, Aegean colonists introduced the Mycenaean +(late Minoan) culture and industries; with new types of weapons, +wheel-made pottery, and a naturalistic art which rapidly becomes +conventional; gold and ivory are abundant, and glass and +enamels are known. Extended intercourse with Syria, Palestine +and Egypt brought other types of pottery, jewelry, &c. (especially +scarabs of XVIIIth and XIXth Dynasties, 1600-1200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), +which were freely copied on the spot. There is, however, nothing +in this period which can be ascribed to specifically “Phoenician” +influence; the only traces of writing are in a variety of the +Aegean script. The magnificent tombs from Enkomi and +Episkopì illustrate the wealth and advancement of Cyprus at +this time.<a name="fa4n" id="fa4n" href="#ft4n"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>It is in this third stage that Cyprus first appears in history, +under the name <i>Asi</i>, as a conquest of Tethmosis (Thothmes) +III. of Egypt (XVIIIth Dynasty, <i>c.</i> 1500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>),<a name="fa5n" id="fa5n" href="#ft5n"><span class="sp">5</span></a> yielding tribute +of chariots, horses, copper, blue-stone and other products. It +was still in Egyptian hands under Seti I., and under Rameses +III. a list of Cypriote towns seems to include among others +the names of Salamis, Citium, Soli, Idalium, Cerynia (Kyrenia), +and Curium. Another Egyptian dependency, Alašia, has by +some been identified with Cyprus or a part of it (but may perhaps +be in North Syria). It sent copper, oil, horses and cattle, ivory +and timber; under Amenophis (Amenhotep) III. it exported +timber and imported silver; it included a town Şiķra, traded with +Byblus in North Syria, and was exposed to piratical raids of +<i>Lykki</i> (? Lycians).</p> + +<p>The decline of Egypt under the XXth Dynasty, and the +contemporary fall of the Aegean sea-power, left Cyprus isolated +and defenceless, and the Early Iron Age which succeeds is a +period of obscurity and relapse. Iron, which occurs rarely, and +almost exclusively for ornaments, in a few tombs at Enkomi, +suddenly superseded bronze for tools and weapons, and its introduction +was accompanied, as in the Aegean, by economic, and +probably by political changes, which broke up the high civilization +of the Mycenaean colonies, and reduced them to poverty, +isolation and comparative barbarism. It is significant that the +first iron swords in Cyprus are of a type characteristic of the +lands bordering the Adriatic. Gold and even silver become +rare;<a name="fa6n" id="fa6n" href="#ft6n"><span class="sp">6</span></a> foreign imports almost cease; engraved cylinders and +scarabs are replaced by conical and pyramidal seals like those +of Asia Minor, and dress-pins by brooches (<i>fibulae</i>) like those of +south-eastern Europe. Representative art languishes, except +a few childish terra-cottas; decorative art becomes once more +purely geometrical, but shows only slight affinity with the contemporary +geometrical art of the Aegean.</p> + +<p>Lingering thus in Cyprus (as also in some islands of the Aegean) +Mycenaean traditions came into contact with new oriental +influences from the Syrian coast; and these were felt in Cyprus +somewhat earlier than in the West. But there is at present no +clear proof of Phoenician or other Semitic activity in Cyprus +until the last years of the 8th century.</p> + +<p>No reference to Cyprus has been found in Babylonian or Assyrian +records before the reign of Sargon II. (end of 8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), +and the occasional discovery of Mesopotamian cylinders of early +date in Cyprus is no proof of direct intercourse.<a name="fa7n" id="fa7n" href="#ft7n"><span class="sp">7</span></a> Isaiah (xxiii. 1, +12), writing about this time, describes Kittim (a name derived +from Citium, <i>q.v.</i>) as a port of call for merchantmen homeward +bound for Tyre, and as a shelter for Tyrian refugees; but the +Hebrew geographers of this and the next century classify <i>Kittim</i>, +together with other coast-lands and islands, under the heading +<i>Javan</i>, “Ionian” (<i>q.v.</i>), and consequently reckoned it as predominantly +Greek.</p> + +<p>Sargon’s campaigns in north Syria, Cilicia and south-east +Asia Minor (721-711) provoked first attacks, then an embassy +and submission in 709, from seven kings of <i>Yatnana</i> (the Assyrian +name for Cyprus); and an inscription of Sargon himself, found +at Citium, proves an Assyrian protectorate, and records tribute +of gold, silver and various timbers. These kings probably +represent that “sea-power of Cyprus” which precedes that of +Phoenicia in the Greek “List of Thalassocracies” preserved +by Eusebius. Under Sennacherib’s rule, <i>Yatnana</i> figures (as +in Isaiah) as the refuge of a disloyal Sidonian in 702; but in +668 ten kings of Cypriote cities joined Assur-bani-pal’s expedition +to Egypt; most of them bear recognizable Greek names, +<i>e.g.</i> Pylagoras of Chytroi, Eteandros of Paphos, Onasagoras of +Ledroi. They are gazetted with twelve other “kings of the +Hatti” (S.E. Asia Minor). Citium, the principal Phoenician +state, does not appear by name; but is usually recognized in +the list under its Phoenician title <i>Karṭi-ḥadasti</i>, “new town.”</p> + +<p>Thus before the middle of the 7th century Cyprus reappears +in history divided among at least ten cities, of which some are +certainly Greek, and one at least certainly Phoenician: with +this, Greek tradition agrees.<a name="fa8n" id="fa8n" href="#ft8n"><span class="sp">8</span></a> The Greek colonists traced their +descent, at Curium, from Argos; at Lapathus, from Laconia; +at Paphos, from Arcadia; at Salamis, from the Attic island of +that name; and at Soli, also from Attica. The settlements at +Paphos and Salamis, and probably at Curium, were believed +to date from the period of the Trojan War, <i>i.e.</i> from the 13th +century, and the latter part of the Mycenaean age; the name +of Teucer, the legendary founder of Salamis, probably is a +reminiscence of the piratical Tikkara who harried the Egyptian +coast under Rameses III. (<i>c.</i> 1200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and the discovery of +late Mycenaean settlements on these sites, and also at Lapathus, +suggests that these legends rest upon history. The Greek +dialect of Cyprus points in the same direction; it shows marked +resemblances with that of Arcadia, and forms with it a “South +Achaean” or “South Aeolic” group, related to the “Northern +Aeolic” of Thessaly and other parts of north Greece.<a name="fa9n" id="fa9n" href="#ft9n"><span class="sp">9</span></a> Further +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page699" id="page699"></a>699</span> +evidence of continuity comes from the peculiar Cypriote script, a +syllabary related to the linear scripts of Crete and the south +Aegean, and traceable in Cyprus to the Mycenaean age.<a name="fa10n" id="fa10n" href="#ft10n"><span class="sp">10</span></a> It +remained in regular use until the 4th century; before that +time the Greek alphabet occurs in Cyprus only in a few inscriptions +erected for visitors.<a name="fa11n" id="fa11n" href="#ft11n"><span class="sp">11</span></a> In Citium and Idalium, on the other +hand, a Phoenician dialect and alphabet were in use from +the time of Sargon onward.<a name="fa12n" id="fa12n" href="#ft12n"><span class="sp">12</span></a> Sargon’s inscription at Citium is +cuneiform.<a name="fa13n" id="fa13n" href="#ft13n"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p> + +<p>The culture and art of Cyprus in this Graeco-Phoenician +period are well represented by remains from Citium, Idalium, +Tamassus, Amathus and Curium; the earlier phases are best +represented round Lapathus, Soli, Paphos and Citium; the +later Hellenization, at Amathus and Marion-Arsinoë. Three +distinct foreign influences may be distinguished: they originate +in Egypt, in Assyria, and in the Aegean. The first two predominate +earlier, and gradually recede before the last-named. +Their effects are best seen in sculpture and in metal work, though +it remains doubtful whether the best examples of the latter were +made in Cyprus or on the mainland. Among a great series of +engraved silver bowls,<a name="fa14n" id="fa14n" href="#ft14n"><span class="sp">14</span></a> found mostly in Cyprus, but also as far +off as Nineveh, Olympia, Caere and Praeneste, some examples +show almost unmixed imitation of Egyptian scenes and devices; +in others, Assyrian types are introduced among the Egyptian +in senseless confusion; in others, both traditions are merged +in a mixed art, which betrays a return to naturalism and a new +sense of style, like that of the Idaean bronzes in Crete.<a name="fa15n" id="fa15n" href="#ft15n"><span class="sp">15</span></a> From +its intermediate position between the art of Phoenicia and its +western colonies (so far as this is known) and the earliest Hellenic +art in the Aegean, this style has been called Graeco-Phoenician. +The same sequence of phases is represented in sculpture by the +votive statues from the sanctuaries of Aphrodite at Dali and of +Apollo at Vóni and Frángissa; and by examples from other +sites in the Cesnola collection; in painting by a rare class of +naïvely polychromic vases; and in both by the elaborately +coloured terra-cotta figures from the “Toumba” site at Salamis. +Gem-engraving and jewelry follow similar lines; pottery-painting +for the most part remains geometrical throughout, with crude +survivals of Mycenaean curvilinear forms. Those Aegean influences, +however, which had been predominant in the later +Bronze Age, and had never wholly ceased, revived, as Hellenism +matured and spread, and slowly repelled the mixed Phoenician +orientalism. Imported vases from the Aegean, of the “Dipylon,” +“proto-Corinthian” and “Rhodian” fabrics, occur rarely, +and were imitated by the native potters; and early in the 6th +century appears the specific influence of Ionia, and still more +of Naucratis in the Egyptian delta. For the failure of Assyria +in Egypt in 668-664, and the revival of Egypt as a phil-Hellene +state under the XXVIth Dynasty, admitted strong Graeco-Egyptian +influences in industry and art, and led about 560 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +to the political conquest of Cyprus by Amasis (Ahmosi) II.;<a name="fa16n" id="fa16n" href="#ft16n"><span class="sp">16</span></a> +once again Cypriote timber maintained a foreign sea-power in +the Levant.</p> + +<p>The annexation of Egypt by Cambyses of Persia in 525 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +was preceded by the voluntary surrender of Cyprus, which +formed part of Darius’s “fifth satrapy.”<a name="fa17n" id="fa17n" href="#ft17n"><span class="sp">17</span></a> The Greek cities, +faring ill under Persia, and organized by Onesilaus of Salamis, +joined the Ionic revolt in 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>;<a name="fa18n" id="fa18n" href="#ft18n"><span class="sp">18</span></a> but the Phoenician states, +Citium and Amathus, remained loyal to Persia; the rising +was soon put down; in 480 Cyprus furnished no less than 150 +ships to the fleet of Xerxes;<a name="fa19n" id="fa19n" href="#ft19n"><span class="sp">19</span></a> and in spite of the repeated +attempts of the Delian League to “liberate” the island, it +remained subject to Persia during the 5th century.<a name="fa20n" id="fa20n" href="#ft20n"><span class="sp">20</span></a> The occasion +of the siege of Idalium by Persians (which is commemorated +in an important Cypriote inscription) is unknown.<a name="fa21n" id="fa21n" href="#ft21n"><span class="sp">21</span></a> Throughout +this period, however, Athens and other Greek states maintained +a brisk trade in copper, sending vases and other manufactures +in return, and bringing Cyprus at last into full contact with +Hellenism. But the Greek cities retained monarchical government +throughout, and both the domestic art and the principal +religious cults remained almost unaltered. The coins of the +Greek dynasts and autonomous towns are struck on a variable +standard with a stater of 170 to 180 grs.<a name="fa22n" id="fa22n" href="#ft22n"><span class="sp">22</span></a> The principal Greek +cities were now Salamis, Curium, Paphos, Marion, Soli, Kyrenia +and Khytri. Phoenicians held Citium and Amathus on the +south coast between Salamis and Curium, also Tamassus and +Idalium in the interior; but the last named was little more +than a sanctuary town, like Paphos. At the end of the 5th +century a fresh Salaminian League was formed by Evagoras +(<i>q.v.</i>), who became king in 410, aided the Athenian Conon +after the fall of Athens in 404, and revolted openly from Persia +in 386, after the peace of Antalcidas.<a name="fa23n" id="fa23n" href="#ft23n"><span class="sp">23</span></a> Athens again sent help, +but as before the Phoenician states supported Persia; the +Greeks were divided by feuds, and in 380 the attempt failed; +Evagoras was assassinated in 374, and his son Nicocles died soon +after. After the victory of Alexander the Great at Issus in 333 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> all the states of Cyprus welcomed him, and sent timber and +ships for his siege of Tyre in 332.</p> + +<p>After Alexander’s death in 323 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Cyprus, coveted still for +its copper and timber, passed, after several rapid changes, to +Ptolemy I., king of Egypt. Then in 306 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Demetrius Poliorcetes +of Macedon overran the whole island, besieged Salamis, +and utterly defeated there the Egyptian fleet. Ptolemy, however, +recovered it in 295 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Under Ptolemaic rule Cyprus has little +history. Usually it was governed by a viceroy of the royal line, +but it gained a brief independence under Ptolemy Lathyrus +(107-89 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and under a brother of Ptolemy Auletes in 58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +The great sanctuaries of Paphos and Idalium, and the public +buildings of Salamis, which were wholly remodelled in this +period, have produced but few works of art; the sculpture +from local shrines at Vóni and Vitsáda, and the frescoed tombstones +from Amathus, only show how incapable the Cypriotes +still were of utilizing Hellenistic models; a rare and beautiful +class of terra-cottas like those of Myrina may be of Cypriote +fabric, but their style is wholly of the Aegean. It is in this +period that we first hear of Jewish settlements,<a name="fa24n" id="fa24n" href="#ft24n"><span class="sp">24</span></a> which later +become very populous.</p> + +<p>In 58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Rome, which had made large unsecured loans to +Ptolemy Auletes, sent M. Porcius Cato to annex the island, +nominally because its king had connived at piracy, really because +its revenues and the treasures of Paphos were coveted to finance +a corn law of P. Clodius.<a name="fa25n" id="fa25n" href="#ft25n"><span class="sp">25</span></a> Under Rome Cyprus was at first +appended to the province of Cilicia; after Actium (31 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) it +became a separate province, which remained in the hands of +Augustus and was governed by a <i>legatus Caesaris pro praetore</i> +as long as danger was feared from the East.<a name="fa26n" id="fa26n" href="#ft26n"><span class="sp">26</span></a> No monuments +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page700" id="page700"></a>700</span> +remain of this period. In 22 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, however, it was transferred to +the senate,<a name="fa27n" id="fa27n" href="#ft27n"><span class="sp">27</span></a> so that Sergius Paulus, who was governor in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 46, +is rightly called <span class="grk" title="anthypatos">ἀνθύπατος</span>(proconsul).<a name="fa28n" id="fa28n" href="#ft28n"><span class="sp">28</span></a> Of Paulus no coins +are known, but an inscription exists.<a name="fa29n" id="fa29n" href="#ft29n"><span class="sp">29</span></a> Other proconsuls are +Julius Cordus and L. Annius Bassus who succeeded him in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +52.<a name="fa30n" id="fa30n" href="#ft30n"><span class="sp">30</span></a> The copper mines, which were still of great importance, +were farmed at one time by Herod the Great.<a name="fa31n" id="fa31n" href="#ft31n"><span class="sp">31</span></a> The persecution +of Christians on the mainland after the death of Stephen drove +converts as far as Cyprus; and soon after converted Cypriote +Jews, such as Mnason (an “original convert” ) and Joses the +Levite (better known as Barnabas), were preaching in Antioch. +The latter revisited Cyprus twice, first with Paul on his “first +journey” in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 46, and later with Mark.<a name="fa32n" id="fa32n" href="#ft32n"><span class="sp">32</span></a> In 116-117 the +Jews of Cyprus, with those of Egypt and Cyrene, revolted, +massacred 240,000 persons, and destroyed a large part of Salamis. +Hadrian, afterwards emperor, suppressed them, and expelled +all Jews from Cyprus.</p> + +<p>For the culture of the Roman period there is abundant evidence +from Salamis and Paphos, and from tombs everywhere, for the +glass vessels which almost wholly supersede pottery are much +sought for their (quite accidental) iridescence; not much else +is found that is either characteristic or noteworthy; and little +attention has been paid to the sequence of style.</p> + +<p>The Christian church of Cyprus was divided into thirteen +bishoprics. It was made autonomous in the 5th century, in +recognition of the supposed discovery of the original of St +Matthew’s Gospel in a “tomb of Barnabas” which is still shown +at Salamis. The patriarch has therefore the title <span class="grk" title="makariôtatos">μακαριώτατος</span> +and the right to sign his name in red ink. A council of Cyprus, +summoned by Theophilus of Alexandria in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 401, prohibited +the reading of the works of Origen (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cyprus, Church of</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Of the Byzantine period little remains but the ruins of the +castles of St Hilarion, Buffavento and Kantára; and a magnificent +series of gold ornaments and silver plate, found near Kyrenia +in 1883 and 1897 respectively. Christian tombs usually contain +nothing of value.</p> + +<p>The Frank conquest is represented by the “Crusaders’ Tower” +at Kolossi, and the church of St Nicholas at Nicosia; and, +later, by masterpieces of a French Gothic style, such as +the church (mosque) of St Sophia, and other churches at +Nicosia; the cathedral (mosque) and others at Famagusta (<i>q.v.</i>), +and the monastery at Bella Pais; as well as by domestic +architecture at Nicosia; and by forts at Kyrenia, Limasol and +elsewhere.</p> + +<p>The Turks and British have added little, and destroyed much, +converting churches into mosques and grain-stores, and quarrying +walls and buildings at Famagusta.</p> + +<p><i>History of Excavation.</i>—Practically all the archaeological +discoveries above detailed have been made since 1877. A few +chance finds of vases, inscriptions and coins; of a hoard of +silver bowls at Dali (anc. <i>Idalium</i>)<a name="fa33n" id="fa33n" href="#ft33n"><span class="sp">33</span></a> in 1851; and of a bronze +tablet with Phoenician and Cypriote bilingual inscriptions,<a name="fa34n" id="fa34n" href="#ft34n"><span class="sp">34</span></a> +also at Dali, and about the same time, had raised questions of +great interest as to the art and the language of the ancient +inhabitants. T. B. Sandwith, British consul 1865-1869, had +laid the foundations of a sound knowledge of Cypriote pottery;<a name="fa35n" id="fa35n" href="#ft35n"><span class="sp">35</span></a> +his successor R. H. Lang (1870-1872) had excavated a sanctuary +of Aphrodite at Dali;<a name="fa36n" id="fa36n" href="#ft36n"><span class="sp">36</span></a> and at the time of the publication of the +9th ed. of the <i>Ency. Brit.</i>,<a name="fa37n" id="fa37n" href="#ft37n"><span class="sp">37</span></a> General Louis P. di Cesnola (<i>q.v.</i>), +American consul, was already exploring ancient sites, and +opening tombs, in all parts of the island, though his results were +not published till 1877.<a name="fa38n" id="fa38n" href="#ft38n"><span class="sp">38</span></a> But though his vast collection, now +in the Metropolitan Museum of New York, remains the largest +series of Cypriote antiquities in the world, the accounts which +have been given of its origin are so inadequate, and have provoked +so much controversy,<a name="fa39n" id="fa39n" href="#ft39n"><span class="sp">39</span></a> that its scientific value is small, and a +large part of subsequent excavation has necessarily been directed +to solving the problems suggested by its practically isolated +specimens. From 1876 to 1878 Major Alexander P. di Cesnola +continued his brother’s work, but the large collection which he +exhibited in London in 1880 was dispersed soon afterwards.<a name="fa40n" id="fa40n" href="#ft40n"><span class="sp">40</span></a></p> + +<p>On the British occupation of Cyprus in 1878, the Ottoman +law of 1874 in regard to antiquities was retained in force. Excavation +is permitted under government supervision, and the +finds are apportioned in thirds, between the excavator, the +landowner (who is usually bought out by the former), and the +government. The government thirds lie neglected in a “Cyprus +Museum” maintained at Nicosia by voluntary subscription. +There is no staff, and no effective supervision of ancient sites or +monuments. A catalogue of the collections was published by +the Oxford University Press in 1899.<a name="fa41n" id="fa41n" href="#ft41n"><span class="sp">41</span></a></p> + +<p>Since 1878 more than seventy distinct excavations have +been made in Cyprus, of which the following are the most important. +In 1879 the British government used the acropolis of +<i>Citium</i> (Larnaca) to fill up the ancient harbour; and from the +destruction a few Phoenician inscriptions and a proto-Ionic +capital were saved. In 1882 tombs were opened by G. Hake +at <i>Salamis</i> and <i>Curium</i> for the South Kensington Museum, but +no scientific record was made. In 1883 the Cyprus Museum +was founded by private enterprise, and on its behalf Max +Ohnefalsch-Richter, who had already made trial diggings for +Sir Charles Newton and the British Museum, excavated sanctuaries +at Vóni and Kythréa (<i>Chytri</i>), and opened tombs on some +other sites.<a name="fa42n" id="fa42n" href="#ft42n"><span class="sp">42</span></a></p> + +<p>In 1885 Dr F. Dümmler opened tombs at Dali, Alámbra +and elsewhere, and laid the foundations of knowledge of the +Bronze Age and Early Iron Age;<a name="fa43n" id="fa43n" href="#ft43n"><span class="sp">43</span></a> and Richter, on behalf of +officials and private individuals, excavated parts of Frángissa +(<i>Tamassus</i>), Episkopì and Dali.<a name="fa44n" id="fa44n" href="#ft44n"><span class="sp">44</span></a></p> + +<p>In the same year, 1885, and in 1886, a syndicate opened many +tombs at Póli-tis-Khrýsochou (<i>Marium</i>, <i>Arsinoë</i>), and sold the +contents by auction in Paris. From Richter’s notes of this +excavation, Dr P. Herrmann compiled the first scientific account +of Graeco-Phoenician and Hellenistic Cyprus.<a name="fa45n" id="fa45n" href="#ft45n"><span class="sp">45</span></a> In 1886 also +M. le vicomte E. de Castillon de St Victor opened rich Graeco-Phoenician +tombs at Episkopì, the contents of which are in the +Louvre.<a name="fa46n" id="fa46n" href="#ft46n"><span class="sp">46</span></a></p> + +<p>The successes of 1885-1886 led to the foundation of the Cyprus +Exploration Fund, on behalf of which (1) in 1888 the sanctuary +of Aphrodite at <i>Paphos</i> (Kouklia) was excavated by Messrs +E. Gardner, M. R. James, D. G. Hogarth and R. Elsey Smith;<a name="fa47n" id="fa47n" href="#ft47n"><span class="sp">47</span></a> +(2) in 1889-1890 more tombs were opened at Póli by Messrs +J. A. R. Munro and H. A. Tubbs;<a name="fa48n" id="fa48n" href="#ft48n"><span class="sp">48</span></a> (3) in 1890-1891 extensive +trials were made at <i>Salamis</i>, by the same;<a name="fa49n" id="fa49n" href="#ft49n"><span class="sp">49</span></a> (4) minor sites were +examined at Leondári Vounò (1888),<a name="fa50n" id="fa50n" href="#ft50n"><span class="sp">50</span></a> Amargetti (1888),<a name="fa51n" id="fa51n" href="#ft51n"><span class="sp">51</span></a> and +Limniti (1889);<a name="fa52n" id="fa52n" href="#ft52n"><span class="sp">52</span></a> (5) in 1888 Hogarth made a surface-survey +of the Karpass promontory;<a name="fa53n" id="fa53n" href="#ft53n"><span class="sp">53</span></a> and finally, (6) in 1894 the balance +was expended by J. L. Myres in a series of trials, to settle special +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page701" id="page701"></a>701</span> +points, at Agia Paraskevì, Kalopsída and Larnaca.<a name="fa54n" id="fa54n" href="#ft54n"><span class="sp">54</span></a> In 1894 +also Dr Richter excavated round <i>Idalium</i> and <i>Tamassus</i> for the +Prussian government: the results, unpublished up to 1902, are +in the Berlin Museum.<a name="fa55n" id="fa55n" href="#ft55n"><span class="sp">55</span></a> Finally, a legacy from Miss Emma +T. Turner enabled the British Museum to open numerous tombs, +by contract, of the Graeco-Phoenician age, in 1894, at Palaeò-Lemessò +(<i>Amathus</i>); and of the Mycenaean age, in 1894-1895 +at Episkopì, in 1895-1896 at Enkomi (near <i>Salamis</i>), and in +1897-1899 on small sites between Larnaca and Limasol.<a name="fa56n" id="fa56n" href="#ft56n"><span class="sp">56</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For ancient Oriental references to Cyprus see E. Oberhummer, +<i>Die Insel Cypern</i>, i. (Munich, 1903); for classical references, W. H. +Engel, <i>Kypros</i> (2 vols., Berlin, 1841); for culture and art, G. Perrot +and C. Chipiez, <i>Histoire de l’art dans l’antiquité</i>, vol. iii. “Phénicie +et Cypre” (Paris, 1885); L. P. di Cesnola, <i>A Descriptive Atlas of the +Cesnola Collection of Cypr. Antiquities in the Metropolitan Museum of +Art, New York</i> (3 vols., Boston, U.S.A., 1884-1886); M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, +<i>Kypros, the Bible and Homer</i> (2 vols., London and Berlin, +1893); J. L. Myres and M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, <i>Cyprus Museum +Catalogue</i> (Oxford, 1899). The principal publications on special +topics are given in the footnotes. For Cypriote coins see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>. +See further the general bibliography below.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. L. M.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Modern History</p> + +<p>After the division of the Roman empire Cyprus naturally +passed, with all the neighbouring countries, into the hands of +the Eastern or Byzantine emperors, to whom it continued +subject, with brief intervals, for more than seven centuries. +Until 644 the island was exceedingly prosperous, but in that +year began the period of Arab invasions, which continued +intermittently until 975. At the outset the Arabs under the +caliph Othman made themselves masters of the island, and +destroyed the city of Salamis, which until that time had continued +to be the capital. The island was recovered by the +Greek emperors and, though again conquered by the Arabs in +the reign of Harun al-Rashid (802), it was finally restored to +the Byzantine empire under Nicephorus Phocas. Its princes +became practically independent, and tyrannized the island, +until in 1191 Isaac Comnenus provoked the wrath of Richard I., +king of England, by wantonly ill-treating his crusaders. He +thereupon wrested the island from Isaac, whom he took captive. +He then sold Cyprus to the Knights Templars, who presently +resold it to Guy de Lusignan, titular king of Jerusalem.</p> + +<p>Guy ruled from 1192 till his death in 1194; his brother +Amaury took the title of king, and from this time Cyprus was +governed for nearly three centuries by a succession of kings of +the same dynasty, who introduced into the island the feudal +system and other institutions of western Europe. During the +later part of this period, indeed, the Genoese made themselves +masters of Famagusta—which had risen in place of Salamis +to be the chief commercial city in the island—and retained +possession of it for a considerable time (1376-1464); but it was +recovered by King James II., and the whole island was reunited +under his rule. His marriage with Caterina Cornaro, a Venetian +lady of rank, was designed to secure the support of the powerful +republic of Venice, but had the effect after a few years, in consequence +of his own death and that of his son James III., of +transferring the sovereignty of the island to his new allies. +Caterina, feeling herself unable to contend alone with the increasing +power of the Turks, was induced to abdicate the sovereign +power in favour of the Venetian republic, which at once entered +into full possession of the island (1489).</p> + +<p>The Venetians retained their acquisition for eighty-two years, +notwithstanding the neighbourhood of the Turks. Cyprus was +now harshly governed by a lieutenant, and the condition of +the natives, who had been much oppressed under the Lusignan +dynasty, became worse. In 1570 the Turks, under Selim II., +made a serious attempt to conquer the island, in which they +landed an army of 60,000 men. The greater part of the island +was reduced with little difficulty; Nicosia, the capital, was +taken after a siege of 45 days, and 20,000 of its inhabitants +put to the sword. Famagusta alone made a gallant and protracted +resistance, and did not capitulate till after a siege of +nearly a year’s duration (August 1571). The terms of the capitulation +were shamefully violated by the Turks, who put to death +the governor Marcantonio Bragadino with cruel torments. +From that time Cyprus was under Turkish administration until +the agreement with Great Britain in 1878. Its history during +that period is almost a blank. A serious insurrection broke out +in 1764, but was speedily suppressed; and a few similar incidents +are the only evidence of the Turkish oppression of the Christian +population of the island, and the consequent stagnation of its +trade.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—<i>An Attempt at a Bibliography of Cyprus</i>, by C. D. +Cobham (4th ed., Nicosia, 1900), registers over 700 works which +deal with Cyprus. <i>A Handbook of Cyprus</i>, by Sir J. T. Hutchinson +and C. D. Cobham (London), treats the island briefly from every +standpoint. See also E. Oberhummer, <i>Die Insel Cypern</i> (Munich, +1903 et seq.), a comprehensive work. The most interesting travels +may be found under the names of Felix Faber, <i>Evagatorium</i> (Stuttgart, +1843); de Villamont, Voyages (Arras, 1598); van Kootwyck, +<i>Cotovici itinerarium</i> (Antwerp, 1619); R. Pococke, <i>Description of +the East</i> (London, 1743); A. Drummond, <i>Travels</i> (London, 1754); +E. D. Clarke, <i>Travels</i> (London, 1812); Sir S. Baker, <i>Cyprus in 1879</i> +(London, 1879); W. H. Mallock, <i>In an Enchanted Island</i> (London, +1879). The geology of the island has been handled by A. Gaudry, +<i>Géologie de l’île de Chypre</i> (Paris, 1862); C. V. Bellamy, <i>Notes on the +Geology of Cyprus, to accompany a Geological Map of Cyprus</i> (London, +1905); C. V. Bellamy and A. J. Jukes-Brown, <i>Geology of Cyprus</i> +(Plymouth, 1905). Its natural history by F. Unger and T. Kotschy, +<i>Die Insel Cypern</i> (Wien, 1865). Numismatics by the Duc de +Luynes, <i>Numismatique et inscriptions cypriotes</i> (Paris, 1852); +R. H. Lang, <i>Numism. Chronicle</i>, vol. xi. (1871); J. P. Six, <i>Rev. num.</i> +pp. 249-374 (Paris, 1883); and E. Babelon, <i>Monnaies grecques</i> +(Paris, 1893). The coins of medieval date have been described by +P. Lambros, <i>Monnaies inédites</i> (Athens, 1876); and G. Schlumberger, +<i>Num. de l’orient latin</i> (Paris, 1878). Inscriptions in the Cypriote +character have been collected by M. Schmidt, <i>Sammlung</i> (Jena, +1876); and W. Deecke, <i>Die griechisch-kyprischen Inschriften</i> +(Göttingen, 1883); in Phoenician in the C.I.P. (Paris, 1881). +J. Meursius, <i>Cyprus</i> (Amsterdam, 1675), marshals the classical +authorities; and W. Engel, <i>Kypros</i> (Berlin, 1841), gives a good +summary of the ancient history of the island. For the Phoenician +element, see F. Movers, <i>Die Phönizier</i> (Bonn and Berlin, 1841-1856). +L. Comte de Mas Latrie published between 1852 and 1861 one +volume of <i>History</i> (1191-1291), and two of most precious documents +in illustration of the reigns of the Lusignan kings. Fra Stefano +Lusignano, <i>Chorograffia di Cipro</i> (Bologna, 1573), and Bp. Stubbs, +<i>Two Lectures</i> (Oxford, 1878), are useful for the same period; and +perhaps a score of contemporary pamphlets—the best of them by +N. Martinengo, <i>Relatione di tutto il successo di Famagosta</i> (Venezia, +1572), and A. Calepio (in Lusignan’s <i>Chorograffia</i>)—preserve details +of the famous sieges of Nicosia and Famagusta. G. Mariti, <i>Viaggi</i> +(Lucca, 1769; Eng. trans. C. D. Cobham, 2nd ed., 1909), and +Cyprianos, <i>History</i> (Venice, 1768), are the best authorities of Cyprus +under Turkish rule. Medieval tombs and their inscriptions are +recorded and illustrated in T. J. Chamberlayne, <i>Lacrimae nicossienses</i> +(Paris, 1894); and C. Enlart’s volumes, <i>L’Art gothique et la Renaissance +en Chypre</i> (Paris, 1899), deal with medieval architecture. +For Cypriote pottery in Athens and Constantinople, see G. Nicole, +<i>Bulletin de l’Institut Genevois</i>, xxxvii.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, <i>Arch. Zeitung</i> (1881), p. 311, pl. xviii. +The principal publications respecting this and all sites and phases +of culture mentioned in this section are collected in Myres and +Ohnefalsch-Richter, <i>Cyprus Museum Catalogue</i> (Oxford, 1899), pp. +1-35.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Myres, <i>Journ. Hellenic Studies</i>, xvii. p. 146.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3n" id="ft3n" href="#fa3n"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Sayce, <i>Trans. Soc. Bibl. Arch.</i> v. pp. 441-444. The exact +provenance of these cylinders is not known, but there is every reason +to believe that they were found in Cyprus.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4n" id="ft4n" href="#fa4n"><span class="fn">4</span></a> British Museum, <i>Excavations in Cyprus</i> (London, 1900). The +official publication stands alone in referring these tombs to the +Hellenic period (800-600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5n" id="ft5n" href="#fa5n"><span class="fn">5</span></a> E. Oberhummer, <i>Die Insel Cypern</i> (Munich, 1903), i. pp. 1-3 +(all the Egyptian evidence).</p> + +<p><a name="ft6n" id="ft6n" href="#fa6n"><span class="fn">6</span></a> A. J. Evans, <i>Journ. Anthrop. Inst.</i> xxx. p. 199 ff.; J. Naue, +<i>Die vorrömischen Schwerter</i> (Munich, 1903), p. 25.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7n" id="ft7n" href="#fa7n"><span class="fn">7</span></a> E. Oberhummer, <i>l.c.</i> p. 5 ff. (all the Assyrian and biblical +evidence).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8n" id="ft8n" href="#fa8n"><span class="fn">8</span></a> W. H. Engel, <i>Kypros</i> (Berlin, 1841) (all the Greek traditions).</p> + +<p><a name="ft9n" id="ft9n" href="#fa9n"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Moriz Schmidt, <i>Z. f. vergl. Sprachw.</i> (1860), p. 290 ff., 361 ff.; +H. W. Smith, <i>Trans. Amer. Philol. Assoc.</i> xviii. (1887); R. Meister, +<i>Zum eleischen, arkadischen u. kyprischen Dialekte</i> (Leipzig, 1890); +O. Hoffmann, <i>Die griechischen Dialekte</i>, i. (Göttingen, 1891); C. +D. Cobham, <i>Bibliography of Cyprus</i>, pp. 40-45.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10n" id="ft10n" href="#fa10n"><span class="fn">10</span></a> G. Smith, <i>Tr. Soc. Bibl. Arch.</i> i. 129 ff.; Moritz Schmidt, +<i>Monatsb. k. Ak. Wiss.</i> (Berlin, 1874), pp. 614-615; <i>Sammlung kypr. +Inschriften</i> (Jena, 1876); W. Deecke, <i>Ursprung der kypr. Sylbenschrift</i> +(Strassburg, 1877); cf. Deecke-Collitz, <i>Samml. d. gr. Dialektinschriften</i>, +i. (Göttingen, 1884); cf. C. D. Cobham, <i>l.c.</i> On its +Aegean origin, A. J. Evans, “Cretan Pictographs” (1895), <i>Journ. +Hell. Studies</i>, xiv., cf. xvii.; British Museum, <i>Exc. in Cypr.</i> (London, +1900), p. 27.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11n" id="ft11n" href="#fa11n"><span class="fn">11</span></a> British Museum, <i>Exc. in Cypr.</i> (London, 1900), p. 95 (Ionic +inscriptions of 5th century from Amathus).</p> + +<p><a name="ft12n" id="ft12n" href="#fa12n"><span class="fn">12</span></a> M. de Voguë, <i>Mélanges d’archéologie orientale</i> (Paris, 1869); +J. Euting, <i>Sitzb. k. preuss. Ak. Wiss.</i> (1887), pp. 115 ff.; Ph. Berger, +<i>C. R. Acad. Inscr.</i> (1887), pp. 155 ff., 187 ff., 203 ff. Cf. <i>Corpus Inscr. +Semit.</i> (Paris, 1881), ii. 35 ff.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13n" id="ft13n" href="#fa13n"><span class="fn">13</span></a> E. Schrader, <i>Abh. d. k. preuss. Ak. Wiss.</i> (1881).</p> + +<p><a name="ft14n" id="ft14n" href="#fa14n"><span class="fn">14</span></a> G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, <i>Histoire de l’art dans l’antiquité</i>, iii. +(Paris, 1885), interpret these and most other Cypriote materials +without reserve as “Phoenician.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft15n" id="ft15n" href="#fa15n"><span class="fn">15</span></a> F. Halbherr and P. Orsi, <i>Antichità dell’ antro di Zeus Ideo in +Creta</i> (Rome, 1888). Cf. H. Brunn, <i>Griechische Kunstgeschichte</i> +(Munich, 1893), i. 90 ff.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16n" id="ft16n" href="#fa16n"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Herod. ii. 182; see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>History</i> (Dyn. XXVI.).</p> + +<p><a name="ft17n" id="ft17n" href="#fa17n"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Herod. iii. 19. 91; see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persia</a></span>: <i>History</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18n" id="ft18n" href="#fa18n"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Herod. v. 108, 113, 115.</p> + +<p><a name="ft19n" id="ft19n" href="#fa19n"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Herod. vii. 90.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20n" id="ft20n" href="#fa20n"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Thuc. i. 94, 112.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21n" id="ft21n" href="#fa21n"><span class="fn">21</span></a> M. Schmidt, <i>Die Inschrift von Idalion</i> (Jena, 1874).</p> + +<p><a name="ft22n" id="ft22n" href="#fa22n"><span class="fn">22</span></a> G. F. Hill, <i>Brit. Mus. Cat. Coins of Cyprus</i> (London, 1904). +Earlier literature in Cobham, <i>l.c.</i> p. 39.</p> + +<p><a name="ft23n" id="ft23n" href="#fa23n"><span class="fn">23</span></a> H. F. Talbot, <i>Tr. Soc. Bibl. Arch.</i> v. 447 ff. (translation). +For Evagoras and the place of Cyprus in later Greek history, see +G. Grote, <i>History of Greece</i> (Index, <i>s.v.</i>), and W. H. Engel, <i>Kypros</i> +(Berlin, 1841).</p> + +<p><a name="ft24n" id="ft24n" href="#fa24n"><span class="fn">24</span></a> 1 Macc. xv. 23.</p> + +<p><a name="ft25n" id="ft25n" href="#fa25n"><span class="fn">25</span></a> Livy, <i>Epit.</i> 104; Cic. <i>pro Sestio</i>, 26, 57.</p> + +<p><a name="ft26n" id="ft26n" href="#fa26n"><span class="fn">26</span></a> Dio Cass. liii. 12; Strabo 683, 840.</p> + +<p><a name="ft27n" id="ft27n" href="#fa27n"><span class="fn">27</span></a> Dio Cass. liv. 4; Strabo 685.</p> + +<p><a name="ft28n" id="ft28n" href="#fa28n"><span class="fn">28</span></a> Acts xiii. 7.</p> + +<p><a name="ft29n" id="ft29n" href="#fa29n"><span class="fn">29</span></a> D. G. Hogarth, <i>Devia Cypria</i>, pp. 114 ff. and app.</p> + +<p><a name="ft30n" id="ft30n" href="#fa30n"><span class="fn">30</span></a> <i>Corp. Inscr. Lat.</i> 2631-2632.</p> + +<p><a name="ft31n" id="ft31n" href="#fa31n"><span class="fn">31</span></a> Jos. <i>Ant.</i> 16. 4, 5; 19. 26, 28.</p> + +<p><a name="ft32n" id="ft32n" href="#fa32n"><span class="fn">32</span></a> Acts iv. 36, xi. 19, 20, xiii. 4-13, xv. 39, xxi. 16.</p> + +<p><a name="ft33n" id="ft33n" href="#fa33n"><span class="fn">33</span></a> De Longpérier, <i>Athenæum français</i> (1853), pp. 413 ff.; <i>Musée +Napoléon</i>, pls. x. xi.</p> + +<p><a name="ft34n" id="ft34n" href="#fa34n"><span class="fn">34</span></a> De Luynes, <i>Numismatique et inscriptions chypriotes</i> (1852).</p> + +<p><a name="ft35n" id="ft35n" href="#fa35n"><span class="fn">35</span></a> <i>Archaeologia</i>, xlv. (1877), pp. 127-142.</p> + +<p><a name="ft36n" id="ft36n" href="#fa36n"><span class="fn">36</span></a> <i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Literature</i>, 2nd ser. xi. (1878), pp. 30 ff.</p> + +<p><a name="ft37n" id="ft37n" href="#fa37n"><span class="fn">37</span></a> Article “Cyprus” <i>ad. fin.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft38n" id="ft38n" href="#fa38n"><span class="fn">38</span></a> <i>Cyprus: its Cities, Tombs and Temples</i> (London, 1877).</p> + +<p><a name="ft39n" id="ft39n" href="#fa39n"><span class="fn">39</span></a> See Cobham, <i>An Attempt at a Bibliography of Cyprus</i> (4th ed., +Nicosia, 1900), Appendix, “Cesnola Controversy,” p. 54.</p> + +<p><a name="ft40n" id="ft40n" href="#fa40n"><span class="fn">40</span></a> <i>The Lawrence-Cesnola Collection</i> (London, 1881); <i>Salaminia</i>, +<i>id.</i> 1882.</p> + +<p><a name="ft41n" id="ft41n" href="#fa41n"><span class="fn">41</span></a> Myres and Ohnefalsch-Richter, <i>A Catalogue of the Cyprus +Museum, with a Chronicle of Excavations since the British Occupation, +and Introductory Notes on Cypriote Archaeology</i> (Oxford, 1899).</p> + +<p><a name="ft42n" id="ft42n" href="#fa42n"><span class="fn">42</span></a> <i>Mitt. d. arch. Inst.</i> ii. (Athens, 1881).</p> + +<p><a name="ft43n" id="ft43n" href="#fa43n"><span class="fn">43</span></a> <i>Mitt. d. arch. Inst.</i> vi. (Athens, 1886); <i>Bemerkungen z. ält +Kunsthandwerk</i>, &c., ii. “Der kypr. geometrische Stil” (Halle, +1888).</p> + +<p><a name="ft44n" id="ft44n" href="#fa44n"><span class="fn">44</span></a> Summarized in <i>Cyprus, the Bible and Homer</i> (London and Berlin, +1893).</p> + +<p><a name="ft45n" id="ft45n" href="#fa45n"><span class="fn">45</span></a> <i>Das Gräberfeld von Marion</i> (Berlin, 1888).</p> + +<p><a name="ft46n" id="ft46n" href="#fa46n"><span class="fn">46</span></a> <i>Archives des missions scientifiques</i>, xvii. (Paris, 1891).</p> + +<p><a name="ft47n" id="ft47n" href="#fa47n"><span class="fn">47</span></a> <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, ix. (London, 1888).</p> + +<p><a name="ft48n" id="ft48n" href="#fa48n"><span class="fn">48</span></a> <i>Id.</i> xi. (1890); xii. (1891).</p> + +<p><a name="ft49n" id="ft49n" href="#fa49n"><span class="fn">49</span></a> <i>Id.</i> xii. (1891).</p> + +<p><a name="ft50n" id="ft50n" href="#fa50n"><span class="fn">50</span></a> <i>Id.</i> ix. (1888).</p> + +<p><a name="ft51n" id="ft51n" href="#fa51n"><span class="fn">51</span></a> <i>Id.</i> ix. (1888).</p> + +<p><a name="ft52n" id="ft52n" href="#fa52n"><span class="fn">52</span></a> <i>Id.</i> xi. (1890).</p> + +<p><a name="ft53n" id="ft53n" href="#fa53n"><span class="fn">53</span></a> <i>Devia Cypria</i> (Oxford, 1889).</p> + +<p><a name="ft54n" id="ft54n" href="#fa54n"><span class="fn">54</span></a> <i>J.H.S.</i> xvii. (1897).</p> + +<p><a name="ft55n" id="ft55n" href="#fa55n"><span class="fn">55</span></a> Summarized in <i>Cyprus Museum Catalogue</i> (Oxford, 1899).</p> + +<p><a name="ft56n" id="ft56n" href="#fa56n"><span class="fn">56</span></a> <i>Excavations in Cyprus</i> (London, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYPRUS, CHURCH OF.<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> The Church of Cyprus is in communion +and in doctrinal agreement with the other Orthodox +Churches of the East (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Orthodox Eastern Church</a></span>), but is +independent and subject to no patriarch. This position it has +always claimed (see, however, W. Bright, <i>Notes on the Canons</i>, +on Ephesus 8). At any rate, its independence “by ancient +custom” was recognized, as against the claims of the patriarch +of Antioch, by the council of Ephesus, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 431, by an edict +of the emperor Zeno (to whom the church had sent a cogent +argument on its own behalf, the alleged body of its reputed +founder St Barnabas, then just discovered at Salamis), and by +the Trullan Council in 692. Attempts have been made subsequently +by the patriarchs of Antioch to claim authority over it, +the last as recently as 1600; but they came to nothing. And +excepting for the period during which Cyprus was in the hands +of the Lusignans and the Venetian Republic (1193-1571), the +Church has never lost its independence. It receives the holy +ointment (<span class="grk" title="myron">μῦρον</span>) from without, till 1860 from Antioch and +subsequently from Constantinople, but this is a matter of courtesy +and not of right. Of old there were some twenty sees in the +island. The bishop of the capital, Salamis or Constantia, was +constituted metropolitan by Zeno, with the title “archbishop +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page702" id="page702"></a>702</span> +of all Cyprus,” enlarged subsequently into “archbishop of +Justiniana Nova and of all Cyprus,” after an enforced expatriation +to Justinianopolis in 688. Zeno also gave him the unique +privileges of wearing and signing his name in the imperial purple, +&c., which are still preserved. A Latin hierarchy was set up +in 1196 (an archbishop at Nicosia with suffragans at Limasol, +Paphos and Famagusta), and the Greek bishops were made +to minister to their flocks in subjection to it. The sees were +forcibly reduced to four, the archbishopric was ostensibly +abolished, and the bishops were compelled to do homage and +swear fealty to the Latin Church. This bondage ceased at the +conquest of the island by the Turks: the Latin hierarchy +disappeared (the cathedral at Nicosia is now used as a mosque), +and the native church emerged into comparative freedom. +In 1821, it is true, all the bishops and many of their flock were +put to death by way of discouraging sympathies with the Greeks; +but successors were soon consecrated, by bishops sent from +Antioch at the request of the patriarch of Constantinople, and +on the whole the Church has prospered. The bishops-elect +required the <i>berat</i> of the sultan; but having received this, they +enjoyed no little civil importance. Since 1878 the <i>berat</i> has not +been given, and the bishops are less influential. The suppressed +sees have never been restored, but the four which survive (now +known as Nicosia, Paphos, Kition and Kyrenia) are of metropolitan +rank, so that the archbishop, whose headquarters, first +at Salamis, then at Famagusta, are now at Nicosia, is a primate +amongst metropolitans. There are several monasteries dating +from the 11th century and onwards; also an archiepiscopal +school at Nicosia, founded in 1812 and raised to the status of a +“gymnasion” in 1893; and a high school for girls.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Ph. Georgiou, <span class="grk" title="Eidêseis Historikai peri tês Ekklêsias +tês Kyprou">Εἰδήσεις Ἱστορικαὶ περὶ τῆς Ἐκκλησίας τῆς Κύπρου</span> (Athens, 1875); K. Kouriokurineos (Archbishop of +Cyprus), <span class="grk" title="Historia chronologikê tês nêsou Kyprou">Ἱστορία χρονολογικὴ τῆς νήσου Κύπρου</span> (Venice, 1788); de +Mas Latrie, <i>Histoire de l’île de Chypre sous les princes de la maison +de Lusignan</i> (Paris, 1852 f.); H. T. F. Duckworth, <i>The Church of +Cyprus</i>(London, 1900); J. Hackett, <i>History of the Orthodox Church of +Cyprus</i> (1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. E. Co.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYPSELUS,<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> tyrant of Corinth (<i>c.</i> 657-627 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), was the son +of Aeëtion and Labda, daughter of Amphion, a member of the +ruling family, the Bacchiadae. He is said to have derived his +name from the fact that when the Bacchiadae, warned that he +would prove their ruin, sent emissaries to kill him in his cradle, +his mother saved him by concealing him in a chest (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kypselê">κυψέλη</span>). +The story was, of course, a subsequent invention. When he +was grown up, Cypselus, encouraged by an oracle, drove out the +Bacchiadae, and made himself master of Corinth. It is stated +that he first ingratiated himself with the people by his liberal +conduct when Polemarch, in which capacity he had to exact +the fines imposed by the law. In the words of Aristotle he +made his way through demagogy to tyranny. Herodotus, in +the spirit of 5th-century Greeks, which conventionally regarded +the tyrants as selfish despots, says he ruled harshly, but he is +generally represented as mild, beneficent and so popular as to +be able to dispense with a bodyguard, the usual attribute of a +tyrannis. He pursued an energetic commercial and colonial +policy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Corinth</a></span>), and thus laid the foundations of Corinthian +prosperity. He may well be compared with the Athenian Peisistratus +in these respects. He laid out the large sums thus derived +on the construction of buildings and works of art. At the same +time he wisely strove to gain the goodwill of the powerful priesthoods +of the great sanctuaries of Delphi and Olympia. At +Delphi he built a treasure-house for Corinthian votive offerings; +at Olympia he dedicated a colossal statue of Zeus and the famous +“chest of Cypselus,” supposed to be identical with the chest +of the legend, of which Pausanias (v. 17-19) has given an elaborate +description. It was of cedar-wood, gold and ivory, and on it +were represented the chief incidents in Greek (especially Corinthian) +mythology and legend. Cypselus was succeeded by his +son Periander.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Corinth</a></span>: <i>History</i>; histories of Greece; Herodotus v. 92; +Aristotle, <i>Politics</i>, 1310b, 1315b; P. Knapp, <i>Die Kypseliden und die +Kypseloslade</i> (Tübingen, 1888); L. Preller, <i>Ausgewahlte Aufsatze</i> +(1864); H. Stuart Jones, in <i>Journ. Hell. Stud.</i> (1894), 30 foll.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYRANO DE BERGERAC, SAVINIEN<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (1620-1655), French +romance-writer and dramatist, son of Abel de Cyrano, seigneur +de Mauvières et de Bergerac, was born in Paris on the 6th of +March 1619-1620. He received his first education from a +country priest, and had for a fellow pupil his friend and future +biographer, Henri Lebret. He then proceeded to Paris to the +collège de Beauvais, where he had for master Jean Grangier, +whom he afterwards ridiculed in his comedy <i>Le Pédant joué</i> +(1654). At the age of nineteen he entered a corps of the guards, +serving in the campaigns of 1639 and 1640, and began the +series of exploits that were to make of him a veritable hero of +romance. The story of his adventure single-handed against a +hundred enemies is vouched for by Lebret as the simple truth. +After two years of this life Cyrano left the service and returned +to Paris to pursue literature, producing tragedies cast in the +orthodox classical mode. He was, however, as a pupil of Gassendi, +suspected of thinking too freely, and in the <i>Mort d’Agrippine</i> +(1654) his enemies even found blasphemy. The most interesting +section of his work is that which embraces the two romances +<i>L’Histoire comique des états du soleil</i> (1662) and <i>L’Histoire +comique des états de la lune</i> (1656?). Cyrano’s ingenious mixture +of science and romance has furnished a model for many subsequent +writers, among them Swift and E. A. Poe. It is impossible +to determine whether he adopted his fanciful style in the hope +of safely conveying ideas that might be regarded as unorthodox, +or whether he simply found in romance writing a relaxation from +the serious study of physics. Cyrano spent a stormy existence +in Paris and was involved in many duels, and in quarrels with the +comedian Montfleury, with Scarron and others. He entered +the household of the duc d’Arpajon as secretary in 1653. In +the next year he was injured by the fall of a piece of timber, +as he entered his patron’s house. Arpajon, perhaps alarmed +by his reputation as a free-thinker, desired him to leave, and he +found refuge with friends in Paris. During the illness which +followed his accident, he is said to have been reconciled with +the Church, and he died in September 1655.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>M. Edmond Rostand’s romantic play of <i>Cyrano de Bergerac</i> (1897) +revived interest in the author of the <i>Histoires comiques</i>. A modern +edition of his <i>Œuvres</i> (2 vols.), by P. L. Jacob (Paul Lacroix), +appeared in 1858, with the preface by H. Lebret originally prefixed +to the <i>Histoire comique des états de la lune</i> (1656?). For an interesting +analysis of the romances see Garnet Smith in the <i>Cornhill</i> for July +1898. See also P.A. Brun, <i>Savinien de Cyrano Bergerac</i> (1894). +Other studies of Cyrano are those of Charles Nodier (1841), F. +Merilhon (Périgueux, 1856), Fourgeaud-Lagrèze (in <i>Le Périgord +littéraire</i>, 1875) and of Théophile Gautier, in his <i>Grotesques</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYRENAICA,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> in ancient geography, a district of the N. +African coast, lying between the Syrtis Major and Marmarica, +the western limit being Arae Philaenorum, and the eastern a +vague line drawn inland from the head of the gulf of Platea +(Bomba). On the south the limit was undefined, but understood +to be the margin of the desert, some distance north of the oasis +of Augila (Aujila). The northern half of this district, which +alone was fertile, was known as Pentapolis from its possession +of five considerable cities (1) Hesperides-Berenice (Bengazi), +(2) Barca (Merj), (3) Cyrene (Ain Shahat-Grenna), (4) Apollonia +(Marsa Susa), (5) Teucheira-Arsinoë (Tocra). In later times +two more towns rose to importance, Ptolemais (Tolmeita) and +Darnis-Zarine (Derna). These all lay on the coast, with the +exception of Barca and Cyrene, which were situated on the highland +now called Jebel Akhdar, a few miles inland. Cyrene was +the first city to arise, being founded among Libyan barbarians +by Aristotle of Thera (later called Battus) in the middle of the +7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cyrene</a></span>). For about 500 years this district +enjoyed great prosperity, owing partly to its natural products, +but more to its trade with interior Africa.</p> + +<p>Under the Ptolemies, the inland cities declined in comparison +with the maritime ones, and the Cyrenaica began to feel the +commercial competition of Egypt and Carthage, whence easier +roads lead into the continent. After all N. Africa had passed +to Rome, and Cyrenaica itself, bequeathed by Apion, the last +Ptolemaic sovereign, was become (in combination with Crete) +a Roman province (after 96 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), this competition told more +severely than ever, and the Greek colonists, grown weaker, found +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page703" id="page703"></a>703</span> +themselves less able to hold their own against the Libyan population. +A great revolt of the Jewish settlers in the time of Trajan +settled the fate of Cyrene and Barca; the former is mentioned by +Ammianus Marcellinus in the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> as “urbs deserta,” +and Synesius, a native, describes it in the following century +as a vast ruin at the mercy of the nomads. Long before this +its most famous article of export, the <i>silphium</i> plant, a representation +of which was the chief coin-type of Cyrene, had come +to an end. This plant, credited with wonderful medicinal and +aromatic properties, has not been certainly identified with any +existing species. The similar <i>Thapsia garganica</i> (Arab. <i>drias</i>), +which now grows freely in Cyrenaica, though it has medicinal +properties, has not those ascribed to silphium. Henceforward +till the Arab invasion (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 641) Apollonia was the chief city, +with Berenice and Ptolemais next in order. After the conquest +by Amr ibn el-’Asi, inland Cyrenaica regained some importance, +lying as it did on the direct route between Alexandria and +Kairawan, and Barca became its chief place. But with the +substitution of Ottoman for Arab empire, resulting in the virtual +independence of both Egypt and Tripoli, the district lying +between them relapsed to anarchy. This state of things continued +even after Mahmud II. had resumed direct control over +Tripoli (1835), and in the middle of the 19th century Cyrenaica +was still so free of the Turks that Sheik Ali bin-Senussi chose +it as the headquarters of his nascent dervish order. All over +the district were built Senussi convents (<i>zawia</i>), which still +exist and have much influence, although the headquarters of +the order were withdrawn about the year 1855 to Jarabub, +and in 1895 to Kufra, still farther into the heart of Africa. In +1875 the district, till then a sanjak of the vilayet of Tripoli, +was made to depend directly on the Ministry of the Interior at +Constantinople; and the Senussites soon ceased to be <i>de facto</i> +rulers of Cyrenaica. Their preserves have now been still further +encroached upon by a number of Cretan Moslem refugees (1901-1902). +This is not the first effort made by Turkey to colonize +Cyrenaica. In 1869 Ali Riza Pasha of Tripoli tried to induce +settlers to go to Bomba and Tobruk; and in 1888 an abortive +effort was made to introduce Kurds. To protect the Cretans +the Ottoman government has extended the civil administration +and created several small garrisoned posts. The district is +accordingly safer for Europeans than it was; but these still +find themselves ill received. The Ottoman officials discourage +travel in the interior, partly from fear of the Senussites, partly +from suspicions, excited by the lively interest manifested by +Italy in Cyrenaica.</p> + +<p>At the present day we understand by Cyrenaica a somewhat +larger district than of old, and include ancient Marmarica up +to the head of the gulf of Sollum (Catabathmus Magnus). The +whole area is about 30,000 sq. m., and has some 250,000 inhabitants, +inclusive of nomads. Projecting like a bastion into +the Mediterranean at a very central point, Cyrenaica seems +intended to play a commercial part; but it does not do so to +any extent because of (1) lack of natural harbours, Bengazi +and Derna having only open and dangerous roads (this is partly +due to coastal subsidence; ancient ports have sunk); (2) the +difficulty of the desert routes behind it, wells being singularly +deficient in this part of the Sahara. The ivory and feather +caravans from Wadai and Borku have latterly deserted it +altogether. Consequently Cyrenaica is still in a very backward +and barbarous state and largely given up to nomad Arabs. +There are only two towns, Bengazi and Derna, and not half a +dozen settlements beside, worthy to be called villages. In +many districts the Senussi convents supply the only settled +element, and the local Bedouins largely belong to the Order. +There are no roads in the province, and very little internal communication +and trade; but a wireless telegraphic system has +been installed in communication with Rhodes: and there is a +landline from Bengazi to Tripoli.</p> + +<p>Geologically and structurally Cyrenaica is a mass of Miocene +limestone tilted up steeply from the Mediterranean and falling +inland by a gentle descent to sea-level again at the line of depression, +which runs from the gulf of Sidra through Aujila to Siwa. +This mass is divided into two blocks, the higher being the +western Jebel Akhdar, on which Cyrene was built (about 1800 +ft.): the lower, the eastern Jebel el-Akabah, the ancient Marmaric +highlands (700 ft.). There is no continuous littoral plain, +the longest strip running from the recess of the Syrtis round +past Bengazi to Tolmeita. Thereafter, except for deltaic patches +at Marsa Susa and Derna, the shore is all precipitous. Jebel +Akhdar, being without “faults,” has no deep internal valleys, +and presents the appearance of downs: but its seaward face is +very deeply eroded, and deep circular sinkings (swallow-holes) +are common. There is much forest on its northward slopes, +and good red earth on the higher parts, which bears abundant +crops of barley, much desired by European maltsters. Plenty +of springs issue on the highlands, and wide expanses of grassy +country dotted with trees like an English park are met with. +Here the Bedouins (mostly Beni Hassa) pasture flocks and +herds, amounting to several million head. The climate is +temperate and the rainfall usually adequate, but one year in +five is expected to be droughty. The southward slopes fall +through ever-thinning pasture lands to sheer desert about 80 m. +inland. Jebel el-Akabah is much more barren than Jebel +Akhdar, and the desert comes right down to the sea in Marmarica, +whose few inhabitants are more concerned with salt-collecting +and sponge fishing than with agriculture. They have, however, +the only good ports on the whole coast, Bomba and Tobruk. +Much might be made of Cyrenaica by judicious colonization. +All kinds of trees grow well, from the date palm to the oak; +and there are over 200,000 wild olives in the country. The +conditions in general are very like those of central Italy, and +there is ample room for new settlers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—(1) <b>Ancient Cyrenaica:</b> J. P. Thrige, <i>Historia +Cyrenes</i> (1819); C. Ritter, <i>Erdkunde</i>, i. (1822); A. F. Gottschick, +<i>Gesch. der Grundung und Blute des hell. Staates in Kyrenaika</i> (1858).</p> + +<p>(2) <b>Modern Cyrenaica:</b> Paul Lucas, <i>Voyage</i> (1712); T. Shaw, +<i>Travels and Observations</i> (1738); J. Bruce, <i>Travels</i> (1790); P. della +Cella, <i>Viaggio da Tripoli</i>, &c. (1819); G. F. Lyon, <i>Narrative of +Travels</i> (1821); A. Cervelli, in <i>Recueil de voyages</i>, pub. by Soc. de +Géog., ii. (1825); J. R. Pacho, <i>Relation d’un voyage</i> (1827); F. W. +Beechey, <i>Proceedings of Expedition to explore N. Coast of Africa</i> +(1828); H. Barth, <i>Wanderungen</i>, &c. (1849); V. de Bourville, +<i>Rapport</i> (1850); J. Hamilton, <i>Wanderings in N. Africa</i> (1856); +R. M. Smith and E. A. Porcher, <i>Hist. of Discoveries</i> (1864); G. +Rohlfs, <i>Von Tripoli nach Alexandrien</i> (1871); G. Haimann, <i>La +Cirenaica</i> (1882); M. Camperio, <i>Una Gita in Cirenaica</i> (1881); +H. Duveyrier, “La Confr. musulmane de Sidi Moh. Ben Ali es-Senousi” +(<i>Bull. soc. géog.</i>, 1884); H. W. Blundell in <i>Geog. Journ.</i> v. +(1895) and <i>Annual Brit. Sch. at Athens</i>, ii. (1895); D. G. Hogarth in +<i>Monthly Review</i> (Jan. 1904); G. Hildebrand, <i>Cyrenaïka</i>, &c. (1904); +G. de Martino, <i>Cirene e Cartagine</i> (1908).</p> + +<p>(3) <b>Maps:</b> The best are that by P. Carlo, to illustrate Camperio +and Haimann’s Report, in Petermann’s <i>Mitth.</i> (1881); and Sheet +No. 2 of <i>Carte de l’Afrique</i> (Service géog. de l’armée, 1892).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYRENAICS,<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> a Greek school of philosophy, so called from +Cyrene, the birthplace of the founder, Aristippus (<i>q.v.</i>). It was +one of the two earliest Socratic schools, and emphasized one +side only of the Socratic teaching (cf. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cynics</a></span>). Socrates, +although he held that virtue was the only human good, admitted +to a certain extent the importance of its utilitarian side, making +happiness at least a subsidiary end of moral action (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethics</a></span>). +Aristippus and his followers seized upon this, and made it the +prime factor in existence, denying to virtue any intrinsic value. +Logic and physical science they held to be useless, for all knowledge +is immediate sensation (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Protagoras</a></span>). These sensations +are motions (<span class="grk" title="kinêseis">κινήσεις</span>) which (1) are purely subjective, and (2) +are painful, indifferent or pleasant, according as they are +violent, tranquil or gentle. Further they are entirely individual, +and can in no way be described as constituting absolute objective +knowledge. Feeling, therefore, is the only possible criterion +alike of knowledge and of conduct. “Our modes of being +affected (<span class="grk" title="pathê">πάθη</span>) alone are knowable.” Thus Cyrenaicism goes +beyond the critical scepticism of the Sophists and deduces a +single, universal aim for all men, namely pleasure. Furthermore, +all feeling is momentary and homogeneous. It follows (1) that +past and future pleasure have no real existence for us, and (2) +that among present pleasures there is no distinction of kind, but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page704" id="page704"></a>704</span> +only of intensity. Socrates had spoken of the higher pleasures +of the intellect; the Cyrenaics denied the validity of this distinction +and said that bodily pleasures as being more simple and +more intense are to be preferred. Momentary pleasure (<span class="grk" title="monochronos hêdonê">μονόχρονος ἡδόνη</span>), +preferably of a carnal kind, is the only good for +man. Yet Aristippus was compelled to admit that some actions +which give immediate pleasure entail more than their equivalent +of pain. This fact was to him the basis of the conventional +distinction of right and wrong, and in this sense he held that +regard should be paid to law and custom. It is of the utmost +importance that this development of Cyrenaic hedonism should +be fully realized. To overlook the Cyrenaic recognition of +social obligation and the hedonistic value of altruistic emotion +is a very common expedient of those who are opposed to all +hedonistic theories of life. Like many of the leading modern +utilitarians, they combined with their psychological distrust +of popular judgments of right and wrong, and their firm conviction +that all such distinctions are based solely on law and convention, +the equally unwavering principle that the wise man +who would pursue pleasure logically must abstain from that +which is usually denominated “wrong” or “unjust.” This +idea, which occupies a prominent position in systems like those +of Bentham, Volney, and even Paley, was evidently of prime +importance at all events to the later Cyrenaics.</p> + +<p>Developing from this is a new point of practical importance +to the hedonism of the Cyrenaics. Aristippus, both in theory +and in practice, insisted that true pleasure belongs only to him +who is self-controlled and master of himself. The truly happy +man must have <span class="grk" title="phronêsis">φρόνησις</span> (prudence), which alone can save +him from falling a prey to mere passion. Thus, in the end, +Aristippus, the founder of the purest hedonism in the history +of thought, comes very near not only to the Cynics, but to the +more cultured hedonism of Epicurus and modern thinkers. +Theodorus, held even more strongly that passing pleasure may +be a delusion, and that permanent tranquillity is a truer end of +conduct. Hegesias denied the possibility of real pleasure and +advocated suicide as ensuring at least the absence of pain. +Anniceris, in whose thought the school reached its highest +perfection, declared that true pleasure consists sometimes in +self-sacrifice and that sympathy in enjoyment is a real source +of happiness. Other members of the school were Arete, wife +of Aristippus, Aristippus the younger (her son), Bio and +Euhemerus.</p> + +<p>The Cyrenaic ideal was, of course, utterly alien to Christianity, +and, in general, subsequent thinkers found it an ideal of hopeless +pessimism. Yet in modern times it has found expression in +many ethical and literary works, and it is common also in other +ancient non-Hellenic literature. There are quatrains in the +<i>Rubáiyát</i> of Omar Khayyám and pessimistic verses in Ecclesiastes +which might have been uttered by Aristippus. (“Then I commended +mirth, because a man hath no better thing than to eat and +to drink and to be merry; for that shall abide with him of his +labour the days of his life which God giveth him under the sun”). +So in Byron and Heine, and, in a sense, in Walter Pater (<i>Marius +the Epicurean</i>), there is the same tendency to seek relief from +the intellectual <i>cul-de-sac</i> in frankly aesthetic satisfaction. Thus +Cyrenaicism did not entirely vanish with its absorption in +Epicureanism.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hedonism</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Epicurus</a></span>; histories of philosophy by Zeller, +Windelband, Ueberweg; H. Sidgwick, <i>Methods of Ethics</i> and +<i>Outlines of the History of Ethics</i>; J. Watson, <i>Hedonistic Theories</i> +(1895); James Seth, Ethical Principles, c. i. (A), (1898); A. Wendt, +<i>De philosophia Cyrenaica</i> (1841); H. von Stein, <i>De philosophia +Cyrenaica</i> (1855); T. Gomperz, <i>Greek Thinkers</i> (Eng. trans., vol. ii. +bk. iv., <i>ad fin.</i>, 1905); Beare, <i>Greek Theories of Elementary Cognition</i>; +G. van Lyng, <i>Om den Kyrenaiske skole</i> (Christiania, 1868); and +general ethical text-books.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYRENE<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> [mod. <i>Ain Shahat-Grenna</i>], the original capital of +ancient Cyrenaica (<i>q.v.</i>) and one of the greatest of Greek colonies. +The Theraean story of its foundation, as told by Herodotus, +runs thus. Battus (whose true Greek name seems to have been +Aristoteles), a native of Thera (Santorin), itself a Laconian +colony, was bidden by the Delphic oracle, if he wished to put +an end to domestic dissensions, to lead a portion of the citizens +to Libya and build a city in a “place between waters.” (For +other stories see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Battus</a></span>.) By this he understood an island, +and therefore established his followers on the barren islet of +Platea in the gulf of Bomba. The colony being unsuccessful +made further application to the oracle and was bidden to transfer +itself to the mainland. The Libyan barbarians reported that a +fertile and well-watered district lay to the west and were induced +to act as guides. They brought the Greeks through forests to +high ground from various points of which issued springs, and +Battus, recognizing “a place between waters,” began to build. +This was in the middle of the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>The result was Cyrene, so called (it was said) from a local +nymph, who has been shown by Studniczka to have been a +Nature goddess, like the Greek Artemis. The point first occupied +was probably the hill above the “Apollo” fountain on the west; +and there was erected the fortress-palace of the Battiadae, +who continued to rule the colony for eight generations. The +neighbouring Libyans were conciliated and given a position +similar to that of Laconian <i>perioeci</i>, and intermarriage between +them and Greeks became so frequent that the colony rapidly +assumed a somewhat hybrid character, and while being one of +the centres of Hellenic culture, showed barbarian characteristics +of violence and luxury. Battus I. reigned <i>c.</i> 630 to 590 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +and was succeeded by his son Arcesilaus (<i>c.</i> 590-574) of whom +nothing is known. The kings henceforth bore alternately the +names Battus and Arcesilaus, of which the first is said to be +simply the native Libyan word for “king”: the latter is, of +course, Greek. This fact suggests that some compromise with +the natives had been come to, resulting, perhaps, in an alternation +of the supreme office. Under Battus II. (570 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>?) a fresh +band of settlers was invited from Greece, and the colony tended +to become henceforth more maritime and democratic. Its +port, Apollonia (Marsa Susa), now rose to importance: and a +second (winter) port was created at Naustathmos (Marsa Hilal) +about 15 m. E. behind a sheltering cape. Fine roads were cut +through the rock connecting these harbours with the capital. +Trouble followed, however, with the Libyans, who saw themselves +robbed in favour of the new settlers, and they called in +Egyptian help; but the force sent by Apries was defeated +near the spring Theste, and presently Amasis of Egypt made +peace and took a Battiad princess to wife. Under Arcesilaus II. +(<i>c.</i> 560-550) domestic dissensions and Libyan revolt led to the +founding of a rival inland city, Barca, and a severe defeat and +massacre. These misfortunes, coupled with the fact that Battus +III. was thought to have disgraced the house by his lameness, +prompted the Cyrenaeans to send to Delphi for more advice, and +as a result Demonax of Mantinea arrived as arbitrator and +framed a constitution limiting the monarchy and dividing the +citizens tribally according to the date of their settlement and +their place of origin. Further attempts of the Battiadae (<i>e.g.</i> +of Pheretima, wife of Battus III., and Arcesilaus his son) to +annul this constitution, and bitter family dissensions, brought +about a Persian invasion and finally the extinction of the dynasty +about 450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> A republic of more or less Spartan type succeeded, +but it was often interrupted by tyrannies; and having made +submission by embassy to Alexander in 331, Cyrene passed +under Ptolemaic domination ten years later. From this epoch +dates a decline which was due to economic causes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cyrenaica</a></span>) +and to the Ptolemaic policy of favouring easily controlled +harbour-towns rather than an inland place like Cyrene, whose +ancient factions still continued to give trouble under the earlier +Ptolemies. Apollonia and Berenice gradually superseded Cyrene +and Barca respectively, being more in touch with Greece and +less exposed to the hostile nomad Libyans, who increased in +boldness and power: but Cyrene continued to be a great city +after it had passed to Rome (96 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and up to the reign of +Trajan, when a Jewish revolt and the repressive measures taken +by the imperial government dealt it an irreparable blow. Ere +Christianity became the religion of the empire, it was largely +a ruin, and henceforward to the epoch of Arab conquest (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> +641) its Greek life gradually deserted it for Apollonia. At its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page705" id="page705"></a>705</span> +acme Cyrene is said to have had over 100,000 inhabitants. It +was noted among the ancients for its intellectual life. Its +medical school was famous, and it numbered among its celebrities +Callimachus the poet, Carneades, the founder of the New Academy +at Athens, Aristippus, a pupil of Socrates and the founder of the +so-called Cyrenaics (<i>q.v.</i>), Eratosthenes the polyhistor, and +Synesius, one of the most elegant of the ancient Christian writers.</p> + +<p>The first account of the site in modern times seems to be +that of M. le Maire, who was French consul at Tripoli from +1703 to 1708, and twice visited Cyrene. Paul Lucas was there +in 1710, and again in 1723, and Dr Thomas Shaw in 1738; an +Italian, Dr A. Cervelli, who was there in 1812, furnished some +information to the Société de Géographie of Paris; and P. +Della Cella published an account of his visit, made in 1817. +In 1821-1822 important explorations were made by Lieutenant +F. W. Beechey, R.N.; and he was almost immediately followed +by a French artist, M. J. R. Pacho, whose pencil preserved a +number of interesting monuments that have since disappeared. +L. Delaporte, French consul at Tangier, and Vattier de Bourville +come next in order of time. H. Barth, the famous African +traveller, published an account of his investigations in his +<i>Wanderungen durch die Küstenländer des Mittelmeers</i>, 1849, +and James Hamilton, who was there in 1851, described the place +in his <i>Wanderings in N. Africa</i>. In 1861 excavations were made +on behalf of the British Museum by Lieuts. R. Murdoch Smith, +R.E., and E. A. Porcher, R.N., the results of which are detailed +in their valuable <i>Discoveries in Cyrene</i> (London, 1864). Since +that date, owing to the increase of Senussi influence, and the +consequent fears of the Ottoman authorities, the site has been +very seldom visited. The Italians, M. Camperio and G. Haimann, +leading commercial missions, were there in the eighties, and Mr +H. W. Blundell succeeded with a special <i>firman</i> and a strong +escort in reaching the place in 1895, but had trouble with the +local Senussi Arabs. The prohibition of travel became thereafter +more stringent, and it has only been overcome by a party from +Mr A. V. Armour’s yacht “Utowana,” which marched up from +Marsa Susa in April 1904, and stayed one night. They found +some fifty families of Cretan refugees established at Ain Shahat +and a <i>mudir</i> with a small guard on the spot: but no inhabited +houses, except the Senussi convent and the <i>mudiria</i>. Cretans +and Arabs live in the ancient rock-tombs. An Italian senator, +Chev. G. de Martino, with two Italian residents at Derna, passed +through the place in 1907, and found it in Bedouin hands.</p> + +<p>The site lies on the crest of the highland of Jebel Akhdar +(about 1800 ft.) and 10 m. from the sea. The ground slopes +very gradually south, and being entirely denuded of trees, +makes good corn land. The northward slope falls more steeply +in a succession of shelves, covered here and there with forest. +Ravines surround the site on three sides, and there are at least +four springs in its area, of which one, having great volume, +has been at all times the attraction and focus of the place. +This is the so-called “Fount of Apollo,” which issues from a +tunnel artificially enlarged, and once faced with a portico. +The acropolis was immediately above this on the W., and the +main entrance of the city, through which came the sacred processions, +passed it. The remains of Cyrene itself are enclosed +by a wall having a circuit of about 4 m., of which little remains +but the foundations and fragments of two towers; but tombs +and isolated structures extend far outside this area. The local +Arabs say it takes them six camel-hours to go from one end to +the other of the ruins, which they call generally “<i>Grenna</i>” +(<i>i.e.</i> Kyrenna). Within the city itself not very much is now +to be seen. Below the Apollo fountain on the N. lie a great +theatre and the substructures of the main temple of Apollo, +both included now in the Senussi convent garden. Above the +fountain and by the main road is a smaller theatre. On the +E., upon the crown of the plateau, are the sites on which Smith +and Porcher placed temples of Bacchus, Venus and Augustus, +but they are marked only by rubbish heaps. Remains of a +large Byzantine church and a much ruined stadium lie to S.E. +On the S. are immense covered tanks of Roman date, with remains +of the aqueducts which supplied them. On the W. a fine +fragment of a tower, the fortifications of the acropolis, and a +pedestal sculptured on four sides in good 3rd century style, are +the only things worth seeing. The Cretan occupation is fast +obliterating other traces. The great spectacle, however, which +distinguishes the site of Cyrene, is provided by its cemeteries, +which for extent, variety and preservation are unparalleled +in the classic lands. There is one along each of the approaches +to the main gates, but the largest and most splendid lies by the +Apollonian road which winds by easy curves up the northern +buttresses of the plateau. Here the sepulchres rise in tiers one +above the other along fully a mile of the way. The most important +have pillared façades, Doric, Ionic, and even a hybrid +mixture of both orders. Within, they open out either into +large halls, leading one out of another with graves in recesses +and pits in the floor; or into rock corridors lined with <i>loculi</i>, +disposed one above another like pigeon holes. Most of the wall +paintings, seen by Beechey and Pacho, have perished or become +black with the smoke of troglodytes’ fires; but one tomb below +the road at about the middle of the cemetery still retains its +decoration comparatively fresh, and seems to be that specially +described by Smith and Porcher. The scenes are agonistic, +<i>i.e.</i> represent funeral games, in which both white and black +persons take part, the latter doubtless Libyan <i>perioeci</i>: but all +wear Greek garments. Several tombs are inscribed and on some +external paintings are still faintly visible. The commonest +type of grave is a simple pit covered by a gabled lid. These +occur by hundreds. But not all the sepulchres are rock-cut: +altar tombs and other forms of <i>heroa</i> are found built upon +plinths of rock. All visible tombs have long ago been violated, +but it is probable that there are others still virgin under the +<i>talus</i> of the hill side. To discover these and determine the +topography of the city, excavation is urgently needed.</p> + +<p>Many historical and artistic questions concerning Cyrene +remain unsettled, but since the discoveries made in Laconia in +1908, the much disputed “Cyrenaic ware” has been ascribed +to Sparta. A good deal of Cyrenaic sculpture, all of comparatively +late date, was sent to the British Museum by Smith and +Porcher. Nothing has yet been found on the site belonging to +the great age of the city’s independence, the fine vases sent to +the British Museum in 1864, by Mr G. Dennis, having been +discovered not there, but near Berenice (Bengazi). The latter +site, with Ptolemais and Apollonia, has supplied most of the +antiquities found latterly in Cyrenaica.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See authorities for <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cyrenaica</a></span>, and F. Studniczka, <i>Kyrene, eine +alt-griechische Göttin</i> (1890).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYRIL<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 315-386), bishop of Jerusalem, where he was probably +born, was ordained a presbyter in 345, and had the instruction +of the catechumens entrusted to him. In 350 he was elevated +to the see of Jerusalem, and became deeply involved in the +dogmatic controversies of his time. His metropolitan, Acacius +of Caesarea, inclined to Arianism, while Cyril strongly espoused +the Nicene creed and was, in consequence, deposed for a time. +On the death of the emperor Constantine he was restored; but +on the accession of Valens, an Arian emperor, he had once +more to resign his post till the accession of Theodosius permitted +him to return finally in peace in 379. He attended the second +oecumenical council held at Constantinople in 381, where he was +received with grateful acclamations for his sufferings in defence +of orthodoxy. Cyril was even more conspicuous as a pastor than +as a controversialist, and this is seen in his one important work—his +twenty-three addresses to catechumens delivered in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 348. +The first eighteen of these were meant for candidates for baptism; +they deal with general topics like repentance and faith, and +then expound in detail the baptismal creed of the Jerusalem +church. The remaining five addresses were spoken to the +newly-baptized in Easter week and explain the mysteries and +ritual of baptism, confirmation and the Eucharist. These +lectures are said to be “the first example of a popular compend +of religion,” and are particularly interesting for the insight +which they give us both into the creed-forms of the early church +and the various ceremonies of initiation constituting baptism +in the 4th century. The evidence which Cyril supplies as to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page706" id="page706"></a>706</span> +Jerusalem use is supplemented by the <i>S. Silviae peregrinatio</i>, +dating from about a generation later. Other tracts and homilies +have been ascribed to Cyril of Jerusalem, but they are of doubtful +genuineness.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Editions.</span>—A. A. Touttée (Paris, 1720); W. C. Reischl and J. +Rupp (Munich, 1848-1860); Migne, <i>Patrol. Graeca.</i> xxxiii. Translation: +<i>Catecheses</i> (“Oxford Library of Fathers,” vol. ii.). See +Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyk.</i> (Förster); Delacroix, <i>St C. de Jérus., +sa vie et ses œuvres</i> (Paris, 1865).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYRIL<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (376-444), bishop of Alexandria, a more distinguished +father of the church than his namesake of Jerusalem, was born +in 376, and died in 444. Becoming patriarch of Alexandria +about 412, he soon made himself known by the violence of his +zeal against Jews, pagans and heretics or supposed heretics +alike. He had hardly entered upon his office when he closed +all the churches of the Novatians and seized their ecclesiastical +effects. He assailed the Jewish synagogues with an armed +force, drove the Jews in thousands from the city, and exposed +their houses and property to pillage. The prefect of Egypt, +Orestes, who endeavoured to withstand his furious zeal, was in +turn denounced himself, and had difficulty in maintaining his +ground against the fury of the Christian multitude. It was +during one of the violent commotions kindled by the strifes +of these parties in Alexandria that the illustrious Hypatia, +famed for her beauty and her eloquent advocacy of the Neo-Platonic +philosophy in opposition to Christianity, was murdered. +Her murder has been attributed to the direct instigation of the +patriarch himself; but this charge is held to be baseless by others, +although there can be no doubt that “the perpetrators were +officers of his church,” and undoubtedly drew encouragement +from his own violent proceedings. Hypatia was a friend of +Orestes, and the hostility that existed betwixt the prefect and +the patriarch overflowed towards her, and undoubtedly led to her +destruction.</p> + +<p>But Cyril’s violence was not merely confined to those who +might be considered enemies of the church. He inherited from +Theophilus, his uncle and predecessor in the see of Alexandria, +a strong aversion to John Chrysostom, the noble bishop of +Constantinople, and even after his death opposed for a time +all attempts to remove the unjust sentence of condemnation +which had been passed upon him. Afterwards he so far yielded +to remonstrances as to allow the name of Chrysostom to appear +in the list of distinguished martyrs and bishops mentioned in +the prayers of his church. These names were inserted in what +were called “diptychs” (<span class="grk" title="diptycha nekrôn">δίπτυχα νεκρῶν</span>), or two-leaved tablets +preserved in the churches—a usage which the Greek Church +has continued to this day.</p> + +<p>Cyril thus represents—though he differs largely from his +predecessors—the tendencies dominant at Alexandria in the +5th century, and their antagonism to the Antiochene school. +The story of his opposition to Nestorius at the council of Ephesus +in 431 is told elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nestorius</a></span>). He himself incurred +the charge of heresy from the oriental bishops. Satisfied, +however, with the deprivation and exile of his opponent, he +returned to Alexandria in triumph as the great champion of +the faith, and thence continued, by the “unscrupulous use of +all the means at his command,” the theological strife for years. +He was a bitter opponent of the great Antiochene expositor and +apologist Theodoret.</p> + +<p>Altogether Cyril presents a character not only unamiable, +but singularly deficient in the graces of the Christian life. His +style of writing is as objectionable as his character and spirit. +Yet he takes high rank as a dogmatic theologian, and those who +seek precise and rigid definitions of orthodox belief conjoined +with tenacity of conviction find him indispensable. In addition +to his <i>Twelve Anathematisms</i> and the defence of the same, he +wrote five other books against Nestorius, <i>Thesaurus</i>—a treatise +in dialogue form on the Trinity, a book <i>On the Right Way</i> and +another <i>On the Incarnation</i>. In other fields—mystical, exegetical +and apologetical—he was equally prolific and forceful. He wrote +a tract “On worshipping in spirit and in truth” to defend a +spiritual interpretation of the Mosaic law, several commentaries, +festival-orations, and a reply to the emperor Julian’s attack +on the church. His letters are valuable sources to the student +of the Nestorian controversy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—The collected edition of J. Aubert (Paris, 1638) +formed the basis of Migne’s reprint in vols. 68-77 of the <i>Patr. +Graec.</i> Many of the writings have been edited separately (see +bibliography in Herzog-Hauck). For an account of his career and +position in the history of dogma, see A. Harnack, vols. iii. and iv. +<i>passim</i>; O. Bardenhewer’s <i>Patrologie</i> (Freiburg, 1894), pp. 335-343; +R. L. Ottley’s <i>Doctrine of the Incarnation</i>, ii. 80 ff.; A. Largent’s +<i>Études d’hist. ecclés.; St Cyrille d’Alexandrie et le concile d’Éphèse</i> +(Paris, 1892). See also Charles Kingsley’s romance <i>Hypatia</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYRIL<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> (827-869), apostle of the Slavs, amongst whom he +worked in conjunction with his elder brother Methodius (<i>q.v.</i>). +Tradition says that while in the Khazar country (where he +combated Jewish and Mahommedan influence) he found at +Kherson the remains of Clement of Rome, which he bore with +him wherever he went, finally depositing them at Rome in 867. +His name is associated with the invention of the modified +(Cyrillic) form of the Greek alphabet, which largely superseded +the ancient Slavonic characters.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYRILLIC,<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> the alphabet used by the Orthodox Slavs. It +is modelled on the Greek Liturgical Uncial of the 9th century, +and its invention is traditionally, though in all probability +wrongly, ascribed to the Greek missionary Cyril (d. 869). For +an account of its origin and development, with a table of its +letters, see Slavs.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYRILLUS,<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> Greek jurist of the 5th century, was professor +in the ancient law college of Berytus, and one of the founders +of the oecumenical school of jurists (<span class="grk" title="tês oikoumenês didaskaloi">τῆς οἰκουμένης διδάσκαλοι</span>) +which preceded the succession of Anastasius to the Eastern +empire (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 491), and paved the way for Justinian’s legislation. +His reputation as a teacher of law was very great; and from +the fragments of his works which have been preserved it may +be inferred that his merit as a teacher consisted in his going +direct to the ancient sources of law, and in interpreting the best +writers, such as the commentary of Ulpian on the edict and the +Responsa Papiniani. He wrote a treatise on definitions (<span class="grk" title="hupomnêma +tôn dephinitôn">ὑπόμνημα τῶν δεφινίτων</span>), in which, according to a statement of his contemporary +Patricius, the subject of contracts was treated with +superior precision and great method, and which has supplied +the materials for many important scholia appended to the first +and second titles of the eleventh book of the Basilica. He is +generally styled “the great,” to distinguish him from a more +modern jurist of the same name, who lived after the reign of +Justinian, and who compiled an epitome of the Digest.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYRTO-STYLE<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kyrtos">κυρτός</span>, convex, and <span class="grk" title="stylos">στῦλος</span>, column), +in architecture, a circular projecting portico with columns; +like those of the transept entrances of St Paul’s cathedral and +the western entrance of St Mary-le-Strand, London.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYRUS<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Kyros">Κῦρος</span>; Pers. <i>Kuru-sh</i>; Babyl. <i>Kurash</i>; Hebr. +<i>Kōresh</i>), the Latinized form of a Persian name borne by two +prominent members of the Achaemenid house.</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">Cyrus the Great</span>, the founder of the Persian empire, +was the son of Cambyses I. His family belonged to the clan of +the Achaemenidae—in the inscription on the pillars and columns +of the palace of Pasargadae (Murghab) he says: “I am Cyrus +the king, the Achaemenid”—the principal clan (<span class="grk" title="phrêtrê">φρήτρη</span>) of the +Persian tribe of the Pasargadae (<i>q.v.</i>). But in his proclamation +to the Babylonians (V.R. 35; Sir H. Rawlinson, <i>Journal of the +R. Asiat. Soc.</i>, n.s., xii., 1880; Schrader, <i>Keilinschriftliche +Bibliothek</i>, iii. 2, 120 ff.; Hagen, in Delitzsch and Haupt, +<i>Beiträge zur Assyriologie</i>, ii., 1894, where the chronicle of +Nabonidus is also published anew with a much improved translation) +he calls his ancestors, Teispes, Cyrus I. and Cambyses I., +“kings of Anshan,” and the same title is given to him in the +inscriptions and in the chronicle of Nabonidus of Babylon +before his victory over Astyages. Anshan is a district of Elam +or Susiana, the exact position of which is still subject to much +discussion. As we know from Jeremiah xlix. 34 ff. (cf. Ezekiel +xxxii. 24 ff.) that the Elamites suffered a heavy defeat in 596 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +it is very probable that the Pasargadian dynast Teispes conquered +Anshan in this year. Modern authors have often supposed +that Cyrus and his ancestors were in reality Elamites; but this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page707" id="page707"></a>707</span> +is contrary to all tradition, and there can be no doubt that +Cyrus was a genuine Persian and a true believer in the Zoroastrian +religion. In Herodotus vii. 11 the genealogy of Cyrus is given +in exactly the same way as in the proclamation of Cyrus himself; +Teispes is called here the son of the eponym Achaemenes.</p> + +<p>The Pasargadian kings of Anshan were vassals of the Median +empire. Their kingdom cannot have been of large extent, as +Nabonidus in a contemporary inscription (Cylinder from Abu +Habba, VR. 64, Schrader, <i>Keilinschriftl. Bibliothek</i>, iii. 2, 96), +where he mentions his rebellion against Astyages, calls Cyrus +“king of Anshan, his (<i>i.e.</i> Astyages’) small servant (vassal).” +From this inscription we learn that the rebellion of Cyrus (who +seems to have become king in 558 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, as Herod. i. 214 gives +him a reign of 29 years) began in 553 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and from the annals +that in 550 Astyages marched against Cyrus, but was defeated; +his troops revolted against him, he was taken prisoner, and +Cyrus occupied and plundered Ecbatana. The relation of +Ctesias (preserved by Nic. Dam. fr. 66; Anaximenes of Lampsacus +in Steph. Byz. s.v. <span class="grk" title="Pasargadai">Πασαργάδαι</span>, Strabo xv. p. 729; Polyaen. +vii. 6. 1, 9, 45. 2) that Cyrus was three times beaten by Astyages +and that the decisive battle took place in the mountains of +Pasargadae, is certainly in the main historical although +Herodotus (i. 127 ff.) only mentions the treason of the Median +general Harpagus and the defeat and captivity of Astyages. +In the rebellion the Persian tribes of the Maraphians and Maspians +joined the Pasargadae (Herod. i. 125), while the other tribes +appear not to have acknowledged Cyrus till after his victory +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persis</a></span>). From then he calls himself “king of the Persians.”</p> + +<p>The history of Cyrus very soon became involved and quite +overgrown with legends. Herodotus (i. 95) tells us that he +knew four different traditions about him. One makes him the +son of Mandane, a daughter of Astyages (originally evidently +by a god), who is exposed in the mountains by his grandfather +on account of an oracle, but suckled by a dog (a sacred animal +of the Iranians) and educated by a shepherd; <i>i.e.</i> the myth +which we know from the stories of Oedipus, Perseus, Telephus, +Pelias and Neleus, Romulus, Sargon of Agade, Moses, the Indian +hero Krishna, and many others, has been transferred to the +founder of the Persian empire. At the same time, the rule of +Cyrus and the Persians is legitimated by his family connexion +with Astyages. This account is partly preserved in Justin i. 4. +10 (probably from Charon of Lampsacus) and in Aelian, <i>Var. +Hist.</i> xiv. 42, and alluded to by Herodotus i. 95 and 122. The +second account, which Herodotus follows, is a rationalized +version of the first, where the dog is changed into a woman (the +wife of the shepherd) named Spako (bitch). In the later part +of his story Herodotus is dependent on the family traditions +of Harpagus, whose treason is justified by the cruelty with which +Astyages had treated him (the story of Atreus and Thyestes is +transferred to them). Harpagus afterwards stood in high +favour with Cyrus, and commanded the army which subdued +the coasts of Asia Minor; his family seems to have been settled +in Lycia. In a third version, preserved from Ctesias in Nicolaus +Damasc. p. 66 (cf. Dinon <i>ap.</i> Athen. xiv. 633 C), Cyrus is the son +of a poor Mardian bandit Atradates (the Mardians are a nomadic +Persian tribe, Herod. i. 125), who comes as a voluntary slave to +the court of Astyages, and finds favour with the king. A +Chaldaean sage prophesies to him his future greatness, and +another Persian slave, Oebares, becomes his associate. He +flies to Persia, evades the pursuers whom Astyages sends after +him, and begins the rebellion. After the victory Oebares kills +Astyages against the will of Cyrus, and afterwards kills himself +to evade the wrath of Cyrus. Parts of this story are preserved +also in Strabo xv. p. 729, and Justin i. 6. 1-3; 7. 1; cf. Ctesias <i>ap.</i> +Photium 2-7; many traces of it were afterwards transferred +to the story of Ardashir I. (<i>q.v.</i>), the founder of the Sassanid +empire. With this version Ctesias and Nicolaus have connected +another, in which Cyrus is the son of a Persian shepherd who +lives at Pasargadae, and fights the decisive battle at this place. +The didactic novel of Xenophon, the <i>Cyropaedia</i>, is a free invention +adapted to the purposes of the author, based upon the +account of Herodotus and occasionally influenced by Ctesias, +without any independent traditional element. The account +of Aeschylus, <i>Pers.</i> 765 ff., is a mixture of Greek traditions with +a few oriental elements; here the first king is Medos (the Median +empire); his nameless son is succeeded by Cyrus, a blessed +ruler, beloved by the gods, who gave peace to all his friends and +conquered Lydia, Phrygia, Ionia. Then comes his nameless +son, then Mardos (<i>i.e.</i> Smerdis, to whom the name of the Mardians +is transferred) who is killed by Artaphrenes (<i>i.e.</i> Artaphernes, +Herod. iii. 78, one of the associates of Darius), then Maraphis +(eponym of the Maraphian tribe), then another Artaphrenes, +then Darius.</p> + +<p>The principal events of the later history of Cyrus are in the +main correctly stated by Herodotus, although his account +contains many legendary traditions. The short excerpt from +Ctesias, which Photius has preserved, contains useful information, +although we must always mistrust him. Of great value are a +short notice in the fragments of Berossus and another in the Old +Testament. The original sources are very scanty, besides the +cylinder containing his proclamation to the Babylonians we +possess only a great many dated private documents from Babylon. +These serve to fix the chronology, which is here as everywhere +quite in accordance with the dates of the canon of +Ptolemy.</p> + +<p>Soon after the conquest of the Median empire, Cyrus was +attacked by a coalition of the other powers of the East, Babylon, +Egypt and Lydia, joined by Sparta, the greatest military power +of Greece. In the spring of 546 Croesus of Lydia began the attack +and advanced into Cappadocia, while the other powers were +still gathering their troops. But Cyrus anticipated them; he +defeated Croesus and followed him to his capital. In the autumn +of 546 Sardis was taken and the Lydian kingdom became a +province of the Persians. The famous story of Herodotus, that +the conqueror condemned Croesus to the stake, from which he +was saved by the intervention of the gods, is quite inconsistent +with the Persian religion (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Croesus</a></span>).</p> + +<p>During the next years the Persian army under Harpagus +suppressed a rebellion of the Lydians under Pactyas, and subjugated +the Ionian cities, the Carians and the Lycians (when +the town Xanthus resisted to the utmost). The king of Cilicia +(Syennesis) voluntarily acknowledged the Persian supremacy. +Why the war with Babylon, which had become inevitable, was +delayed until 539, we do not know. Here too Cyrus in a single +campaign destroyed a mighty state. The army of Nabonidus +was defeated; Babylon itself attempted no resistance, but +surrendered on the 16th Tishri (10th of October) 539, to the +Persian general Gobryas (<i>Gaubaruva</i>, see the chronicle of the +reign of Nabonidus; the name Gobryas is preserved also by +Xenophon, <i>Cyrop.</i> vii. 4. 24); it is possible that the Chaldaean +priests, who were hostile to Nabonidus, betrayed the town. +In a proclamation issued after his victory Cyrus guarantees +life and property to all the inhabitants and designates himself +as the favourite of Marduk, the great local god (Bel, Bel-Merodak) +of Babel. It is very odd that modern authors have considered +this proclamation as inconsistent with the Zoroastrian +creed.</p> + +<p>From the beginning of 538 Cyrus dates his years as “king +of Babylon and king of the countries” (<i>i.e.</i> of the world). With +the capital, the Babylonian provinces in Syria fell to the Persians; +in 538 Cyrus granted to the Jews, whom Nebuchadrezzar had +transported to Babylonia, the return to Palestine and the +rebuilding of Jerusalem and its temple (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>, § 19). It is +probable that Cyrus had fought more than one war against the +peoples of eastern Iran; according to Ctesias he had, before the +war with Croesus, defeated the Bactrians and the Sacae (in +Ferghana; their king Amorges is the eponym of the Amyrgian +Sacae, Herod. vii. 64, called by Darius <i>Haumavarkā</i>); and the +historians of Alexander mention a march through Gedrosia, +where he lost his whole army but seven men (Arrian vi. 24. 2; +Strabo xv. 722), a tribe Ariaspae on the Etymandros (in Sijistan), +who, on account of the support which they gave him against +the Scythians, were called Euergetae (Arrian iii. 27. 4; Diod. +xvii. 81; Curt. vii. 3. 1), and a town Cyropolis, founded by him +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page708" id="page708"></a>708</span> +on the Jaxartes (Arrian iv. 2. 3; Curt. vii. 6. 16; Strabo xi. +517, called Cyreskhata by Ptolem. vi. 12. 5). In 530, having +appointed his son Cambyses king of Babel, he set out for a new +expedition against the East. In this war he was killed (Herod.) +or mortally wounded (Ctesias). According to Herodotus he +attacked the Massagetae beyond the Jaxartes; according to +Ctesias, the Derbices, a very barbarous tribe (cf. Strabo xi. 520; +Aelian, <i>Var. Hist.</i> iv. 1) on the border of the Caspian, near the +Hyrcanians (Strabo xi. 514; Steph. Byz.; Curt. vii. 2. 7; +Dion. Perieg. 734 ff.; Pomp. Mela iii. 5), or on the Oxus (Plin. +vi. 48; Ptolem. vi. 10. 2; <i>Tab. Peuting.</i>). Berossus (<i>ap.</i> Euseb. +<i>Chron.</i> i. 29) simply says that he fell against the Dahae, <i>i.e.</i> the +nomads of the Turanian desert. His death occurred in 528 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +as we have a Babylonian tablet from the Adar of the tenth year +of Cyrus, <i>i.e.</i> February 528; for in Babylon the first year of +Cyrus began in the spring of 538.</p> + +<p>In his native district Cyrus had built a city with a palace, +called after his tribe Pasargadae (now Murghab), and here he +was buried (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pasargadae</a></span>). In a short time he, the petty +prince of an almost unknown tribe, had founded a mighty +empire, which extended from the Indus and Jaxartes to the +Aegaean and the borders of Egypt. This result shows that Cyrus +must have been a great warrior and statesman. Nor is his +character without nobility. He excels in the humanity with +which he treated the vanquished. He destroyed no town nor +did he put the captive kings to death; in Babylonia he behaved +like a constitutional monarch; by the Persians his memory +was cherished as “the father of the people” (Herod. iii. 89), +and the Greek tradition preserved by Aeschylus (cf. above) +shows that his greatness was acknowledged also by his enemies. +He therefore deserves the homage which Xenophon paid to him +in choosing him as hero for his didactic novel.</p> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Cyrus the Younger</span>, son of Darius II. and Parysatis, +was born after the accession of his father in 424. When, after +the victories of Alcibiades, Darius II. decided to continue the +war against Athens and give strong support to the Spartans, +he sent in 408 the young prince into Asia Minor, as satrap of +Lydia and Phrygia Major with Cappadocia, and commander +of the Persian troops, “which gather into the field of Castolos” +(Xen. <i>Hell.</i> i. 4. 3; <i>Anab.</i> i. 9. 7), <i>i.e.</i> of the army of the district +of Asia Minor. He gave strenuous support to the Spartans; +evidently he had already then formed the design, in which he +was supported by his mother, of gaining the throne for himself +after the death of his father; he pretended to have stronger +claims to it than his elder brother Artaxerxes, who was not born +in the purple. For this plan he hoped to gain the assistance of +Sparta. In the Spartan general Lysander he found a man who +was willing to help him, as Lysander himself hoped to become +absolute ruler of Greece by the aid of the Persian prince. So +Cyrus put all his means at the disposal of Lysander in the Peloponnesian +War, but denied them to his successor Callicratidas; by +exerting his influence in Sparta, he brought it about that after +the battle of Arginusae Lysander was sent out a second time +as the real commander (though under a nominal chief) of the +Spartan fleet in 405 (Xen. <i>Hell.</i> ii. 1. 14). At the same time +Darius fell ill and called his son to his deathbed; Cyrus handed +over all his treasures to Lysander and went to Susa. After the +accession of Artaxerxes II. in 404, Tissaphernes denounced the +plans of Cyrus against his brother (cf. Plut. <i>Artax.</i> 3); but by +the intercession of Parysatis he was pardoned and sent back +to his satrapy. Meanwhile Lysander had gained the battle of +Aegospotami and Sparta was supreme in the Greek world. +Cyrus managed very cleverly to gather a large army by beginning +a quarrel with Tissaphernes, satrap of Caria, about the Ionian +towns; he also pretended to prepare an expedition against the +Pisidians, a mountainous tribe in the Taurus, which was never +obedient to the Empire. Although the dominant position of +Lysander had been broken in 403 by King Pausanias, the Spartan +government gave him all the support which was possible without +going into open war against the king; it caused a partisan of +Lysander, Clearchus, condemned to death on account of atrocious +crimes which he had committed as governor of Byzantium, +to gather an army of mercenaries on the Thracian Chersonesus, +and in Thessaly Menon of Pharsalus, head of a party which +was connected with Sparta, collected another army.</p> + +<p>In the spring of 401 Cyrus united all his forces and advanced +from Sardis, without announcing the object of his expedition. +By dexterous management and large promises he overcame +the scruples of the Greek troops against the length and danger +of the war; a Spartan fleet of thirty-five triremes sent to Cilicia +opened the passes of the Amanus into Syria and conveyed to +him a Spartan detachment of 700 men under Cheirisophus. +The king had only been warned at the last moment by Tissaphernes +and gathered an army in all haste; Cyrus advanced +into Babylonia, before he met with an enemy. Here ensued, +in October 401, the battle of Cunaxa. Cyrus had 10,400 Greek +hoplites and 2500 peltasts, and besides an Asiatic army under +the command of Ariaeus, for which Xenophon gives the absurd +number of 100,000 men; the army of Artaxerxes he puts down +at 900,000. These numbers only show that he, although an +eyewitness, has no idea of large numbers; in reality the army +of Cyrus may at the very utmost have consisted of 30,000, that +of Artaxerxes of 40,000 men. Cyrus saw that the decision +depended on the fate of the king; he therefore wanted Clearchus, +the commander of the Greeks, to take the centre against +Artaxerxes. But Clearchus, a tactician of the old school, disobeyed. +The left wing of the Persians under Tissaphernes +avoided a serious conflict with the Greeks; Cyrus in the centre +threw himself upon Artaxerxes, but was slain in a desperate +struggle. Afterwards Artaxerxes pretended to have killed the +rebel himself, with the result that Parysatis took cruel vengeance +upon the slayer of her favourite son. The Persian troops dared +not attack the Greeks, but decoyed them into the interior, +beyond the Tigris, and tried to annihilate them by treachery. +But after their commanders had been taken prisoners the Greeks +forced their way to the Black Sea. By this achievement they +had demonstrated the internal weakness of the Persian empire +and the absolute superiority of the Greek arms.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The history of Cyrus and of the retreat of the Greeks is told by +Xenophon in his <i>Anabasis</i> (where he tries to veil the actual participation +of the Spartans). Another account, probably from Sophaenetus +of Stymphalus, was used by Ephorus, and is preserved in Diodor. +xiv. 19 ff. Further information is contained in the excerpts from +Ctesias by Photius; cf. also Plutarch’s life of Artaxerxes. The +character of Cyrus is highly praised by the ancients, especially by +Xenophon (cf. also his <i>Oeconomics</i>, c. iv.); and certainly he was +much superior to his weak brother in energy and as a general and +statesman. If he had ascended the throne he might have regenerated +the empire for a while, whereas it utterly decayed under the rule of +Artaxerxes II. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persia</a></span>: <i>Ancient History</i>.)</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(Ed. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYSTOFLAGELLATA<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (so named by E. Haeckel), a group +of Mastigophorous Protozoa, distinguished from Flagellata by +their large size (0.15-1.5 mm.), and their branched endoplasm, +recalling that of <i>Trachelius</i> among Infusoria, within a firm +ectosarc bounded by a strong cuticle. Nutrition is holozoic, +a deep groove leading down to a mouth and pharynx. A long +fine flagellum arises from the pharynx in <i>Noctiluca</i> (E. Suriray) +<i>Leptodiscus</i> and (R. Hertwig); and in the former genus, a +second flagellum, thick, long and transversely striated, rises +farther out, in the groove; this was likened by E. R. Lankester +to a proboscis, whence his name of Rhynchoflagellata, which +we discard as unnecessary and posterior to Haeckel’s. <i>Noctiluca</i> +has thus the form of an apple with a long stalk. <i>Leptodiscus</i> +(R. Hertwig) has the form of a medusa without a proboscis—it +is menisciform with the thin contractile margin produced +inwards like a velum on the concave side, while the mouth is on +the convex surface and the single flagellum springs from a blind +tube on the same surface. <i>Craspedotella</i> (C. A. Kofoid), the +third genus, is still more medusiform, with a broad velum, and +the mouth in a convex central protrusion of the roof of the bell; +and a thick flagellum springs from a blind tube on the convex +surface. All three genera are pelagic and phosphorescent, +this property being seated in the ectoplasm; <i>Noctiluca miliaris</i> +is indeed the chief source of the phosphorescence of our summer +seas. O. Bütschli, like other writers, regards the Cystoflagellates +as closely allied to the Dinoflagellates, the small flagellum +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page709" id="page709"></a>709</span> +corresponding to the longitudinal, the large flagellum to the +transverse flagellum of that group.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:488px; height:604px" src="images/img709.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">After E. Ray Lankester, <i>Ency. Brit.</i>, 9th ed.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Cystoflagellate Protozoa.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>1 and 2, Young stages of <i>Noctiluca miliaris</i>.</p> +<div class="list"> +<p><i>a</i>, the big flagellum; the unlettered filament becomes the oral flagellum of the adult.</p> +<p><i>n</i>, nucleus.</p> +<p><i>s</i>, the so-called spine (superficial ridge of the adult).</p> +</div> + +<p>3 and 4, Two stages in the fission of <i>Noctiluca miliaris</i>, Suriray.</p> +<div class="list"> +<p><i>n</i>, nucleus.</p> +<p><i>N</i>, food-particles.</p> +<p><i>t</i>, muscular flagellum.</p> +</div> + +<p>5. <i>Noctiluca miliaris</i>, viewed from the aboral side (after + Allman, <i>Quart. Jour. Mic. Sci.</i>, 1872).</p> +<div class="list"> +<p><i>a</i>, entrance to atrium or flagellar fossa (= longitudinal groove of Dinoflagellata).</p> +<p><i>c</i>, superficial ridge.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, big flagellum (= flagellum of transverse groove of Dinoflagellata).</p> +<p><i>h</i>, nucleus.</p> +</div></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>6. <i>Noctiluca miliaris</i>, acted upon by iodine solution, showing + the protoplasm shrunk away from the structureless pellicle.</p> +<div class="list"> +<p><i>a</i> = entrance to atrium.</p> +</div> + +<p>7. Lateral view of <i>Noctiluca miliaris</i>.</p> +<div class="list"> +<p><i>a</i>, entrance to atrium.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, atrium.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, superficial ridge.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, big flagellum.</p> +<p><i>e</i> = mouth and gullet, in which is seen Krohn’s oral flagellum (= the + chief flagellum, or flagellum of the longitudinal groove of Dinoflagellata).</p> +<p><i>f</i>, broad process of protoplasm extending from the superficial ridge <i>c</i> + to the central protoplasm.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, duplicature of pellicle in connexion with superficial ridge.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, nucleus.</p> +</div></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The reproduction of <i>Noctiluca</i> has been fairly made out; +in the adult state it divides by fission down the oral groove; +as a preliminary the external differentiations disappear, and the +nucleus divides by modified mitosis; then the external organs +are regenerated. Under circumstances not well made out, +conjugation between two adults takes place by their fusion +commencing at the oral region; flagella and pharynx disappear +and the nuclei fuse, while the cytoplasts condense into a sphere. +The nucleus undergoes broad division, the young nuclei pass +to the surface, which becomes imperfectly divided by grooves +into as many rounded prominences as there are nuclei (up to +128 or 256); and these become constricted off from the residual +useless cytoplasm as zoospores with two unequal flagella, which +were at first regarded as Dinoflagellates, of which they have +the form (figs. 5, 6). The metamorphosis of these has not yet +been observed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—E. Suriray, <i>Magazin de zoologie</i>, 1836; G. J. +Allman, <i>Quarterly Journal of Microscopic Science</i>, n.s. xii., 1872; +L. Cienkowsky, “Zoospore formation in Noctiluca,” <i>Archiv f. mikroskopische +Anatomie</i>, vii., 1871; R. Hertwig, “Leptodiscus,” <i>Jenaische +Zeitschrift</i>, xi., 1877; C. Ischikawa, <i>Journal of the College of Science</i> +(Tokyo, 1894), xii., 1899; F. Doflein, “Conjugation of Noctiluca,” +<i>Zoologische Jahrbücher, Anatomie</i>, xiv., 1900; C. A. Kofoid, “Craspedotella,” +in <i>Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard</i>, xlvi., 1905; O. Bütschli, +“Mastigophora,” in <i>Protozoa</i> (<i>Braun’s Thierreich</i>, vol. i., <i>Protozoa</i>) +(1883-1887).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. Ha.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYSTOLITH<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kystis">κύστις</span>, cavity, and <span class="grk" title="lithos">λίθος</span>, stone), a botanical +term for the inorganic concretions, usually of calcium carbonate, +formed in a cellulose matrix in special cells, generally in the +leaf of plants of certain families, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Ficus elastica</i>, the +india-rubber +plant.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYTHERA<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (mod. <i>Cerigo</i>, but still officially known as Cythera), +one of the Ionian islands, situated not less than 150 m. from +Zante, but only about 8 m. from Cape Malea on the southern +coast of Greece. Its length from N. to S. is nearly 20 m., and +its greatest breadth about 12; its area is 114 sq. m. The surface +is rocky and broken, but streams abound, and there are various +parts of considerable fertility. Two caves, of imposing dimensions, +and adorned with stalactites of great beauty, are the most +notable among its natural peculiarities; one is situated at the +seaward end of the glen of the Mylopotamus, and the other, +named Santa Sophia, about two hours’ ride from Capsali +(Kapsali). Less of the ground is cultivated and more of it is in +pasture land than in any other of the seven islands. Some wine +and corn are produced, and the quality of the olive oil is good. +The honey is still highly prized, as it was in remote antiquity; +and a considerable quantity of cheese is manufactured from the +milk of the goat. Salt, flax, cotton and currants are also +mentioned among the produce. The people are industrious, +and many of them seek employment as labourers in the Morea +and Asia Minor. Owing to emigration, the population appears +to be steadily diminishing, and is now only about 6000, or less +than half what it was in 1857. Unfortunately the island has +hardly a regular harbour on any part of the coast; from its +situation at the meeting, as it were, of seas, the currents in the +neighbourhood are strong, and storms are very frequent. The +best anchorage is at San Nicolo, at the middle of the eastern +side of the island. The principal village is Capsali, a place of +about 1500 inhabitants, at the southern extremity, with a bishop, +and several convents and churches; the lesser hamlets are +Modari, Potamo and San Nicolo.</p> + +<p>There are comparatively few traces of antiquity, and the +identification of the ancient cities has been disputed. The +capital, which bore the same name as the island, was at Paleo-Kastro, +about 3 m. from the present port of Avlemona. In the +church of St Kosmas are preserved some of the archaic Doric +columns of the famous temple of Aphrodite of Cythera, whose +worship had been introduced from Syria, and ultimately spread +over Greece. According to the accepted story, it was here that +the goddess first landed when she emerged from the sea. At a +very early date Cythera was the seat of a Phoenician settlement, +established in connexion with the purple fishery of the neighbouring +coast; it is said that it was therefore called Porphyris +(cf. Pliny iv. 18, 19). For a time dependent on Argos, it became +afterwards an important possession of the Spartans, who annually +despatched a governor named the Cytherodices. In the Peloponnesian +war, Nicias occupied the island, but in 421 it was +recovered by Sparta. Its modern history has been very much +the same as that of the other Ionian islands; but it was subject +to Venice for a much shorter period—from 1717 to 1797.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the works referred to under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cephalonia</a></span>, and also Weil, in +<i>Mittheil. d. deutsch. Inst. zu Athen</i> (1880), pp. 224-243.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYTISINE<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> (<i>Ulexin</i>, <i>Sophorin</i>), C<span class="su">11</span>H<span class="su">14</span>N<span class="su">2</span>O, an alkaloid discovered +in 1818 by J. B. Chevreul in the seeds of laburnum +(<i>Cytisus Laburnum</i>) and isolated by A. Husemann and W. +Marmé in 1865 (<i>Zeit. f. Chemie</i>, 1865, i. p. 161). It is also found +in the seeds of furze (<i>Ulex europaeus</i>), <i>Sophora tormentosa</i>, and +<i>Euchresta horsfieldii</i>. It is extracted from the seeds by an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page710" id="page710"></a>710</span> +alcoholic solution of acetic acid, and forms large crystals which +melt at 153° C., and are easily soluble in water, alcohol and +chloroform. It is a secondary and tertiary di-acid base, and is +strongly alkaline in its reaction. Hydrogen peroxide oxidizes +it to oxycytisine, C<span class="su">11</span>H<span class="su">14</span>N<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, chromic acid to an acid, C<span class="su">11</span>H<span class="su">9</span>NO<span class="su">3</span>, +and potassium permanganate to oxalic acid and ammonia. It +acts as a violent poison.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See further, P. C. Plugge, <i>Arch. der Pharm.</i> (1891), 229, p. 48 et +seq.; A. Partheil, <i>Ber.</i> (1890), 23, p. 3201, <i>Arch. der Pharm.</i> (1892), +230, p. 448; M. Freund and A. Friedmann, <i>Ber.</i> (1901), 34, p. 615; +and J, Herzig and H. Meyer, <i>Monats. f. Chem.</i> (1897), 18, p. 379.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYTOLOGY<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> (from <span class="grk" title="kytos">κύτος</span>, a hollow vessel, and <span class="grk" title="logos">λόγος</span>, science), +the scientific study of the “cells” or living units of protoplasm +(<i>q.v.</i>), of which plants and animals are composed. All the higher, +and the great majority of the lower, plants and animals are +composed of a vast number of these vital units or “cells.” In +the case of many microscopic forms, however, the entire organism, +plant or animal, consists throughout life of a single cell. Familiar +examples of these “unicellular” forms are Bacteria and Diatoms +among the plants, and Foraminifera and Infusoria among the +animals. In all cases, however, whether the cell-unit lives freely +as a unicellular organism or forms an integral part of a multicellular +individual, it exhibits in itself all the phenomena characteristic +of living things. Each cell assimilates food material, +whether this is obtained by its own activity, as in the majority +of the protozoa, or is brought, as it were, to its own door by the +blood stream, as in the higher Metazoa, and builds this food +material into its own substance, a process accompanied by +respiration and excretion and resulting in growth. Each cell +exhibits in greater or less degree “irritability,” or the power of +responding to stimuli; and finally each cell, at some time in its +life, is capable of reproduction. It is evident therefore that in +the multicellular forms all the complex manifestations of life +are but the outcome of the co-ordinated activities of the constituent +cells. The latter are indeed, as Virchow has termed +them, “vital units.” It is therefore in these vital units that the +explanation of vital phenomena must be sought (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Physiology</a></span>). +As Verworn<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> said, “It is to the cell that the study of +every bodily function sooner or later drives us. In the muscle +cell lies the problem of the heart beat and that of muscular +contraction; in the gland cell reside the causes of secretion; +in the epithelial cell, in the white blood corpuscle, lies the problem +of the absorption of food, and the secrets of the mind are hidden +in the ganglion cell.” So also the problems of development and +inheritance have shown themselves to be cell problems, while +the study of disease has produced a “cellular pathology.” +The most important problems awaiting solution in biology are +cell problems.</p> + +<p><i>Historical.</i>—The cell-theory ranks with the evolution theory +in the far-reaching influence it has exerted on the growth of +modern biology; and although almost entirely a product of +the 19th century, the history of its development gives place, in +point of interest, to that of no other general conception. The +cell-theory—in a form, however, very different from that in +which we now know it—was originally suggested by the study +of plant structure; and the first steps to the formulation, many +years later, of a definite cell-theory, were made as early as the +later part of the 17th century by Robert Hooke, Marcello +Malpighi and Nehemiah Grew. Hooke (1665) noted and described +the vesicular nature of cork and similar vegetable substances, +and designated the cavities by the term “cells.” A few years +later Malpighi (1674) and Grew (1682), still of course working +with the low power lenses alone available at that time, gave a +more detailed description of the finer structure of plant tissue. +They showed that it consisted in part of little cell-like cavities, +provided with firm cell-walls and filled with fluid, and in part +of long tube-like vessels. A long time passed before the next +important step forward was made by C. L. Treviranus,<a name="fa2o" id="fa2o" href="#ft2o"><span class="sp">2</span></a> who, +working on the growing parts of young plants, showed that the +tubes and vessels of Malpighi and Grew arose from cells by the +latter becoming elongated and attached end to end, the intervening +walls breaking down; a conclusion afterwards confirmed +by Hugo von Mohl (1830). It was not, however, until the +appearance of Matthias Jakob Schleiden’s paper <i>Beiträge zur +Phytogenesis</i> (1838) that we have a really comprehensive treatment +of the cell, and the formulation of a definite cell-theory +for plants. It is to the wealth of correlated observations and +to the philosophic breadth of the conclusions in this paper that +the subsequent rapid progress in cytology is undoubtedly to be +attributed. Schleiden in this paper attempted to solve the +problem of the mode of origin of cells. The nucleus (<i>vide infra</i>) +of the cell had already been discovered by Robert Brown (1831), +who, however, failed to realize its importance. Schleiden +utilized Brown’s discovery, and although his theory of phytogenesis +is based on erroneous observations, yet the great importance +which he rightly attached to the nucleus as a cell-structure +made it possible to extend the cell-theory to animal tissues also. +We may indeed date the birth of animal cytology from Schleiden’s +short but epoch-making paper. Comparisons between plant +and animal tissues had already been made by several workers, +among others by Johannes Müller (1835), and by F. G. J. Henle +and J. E. Purkinje (1837). But the first real step to a comprehensive +cell-theory to include animal tissues was made by +Theodor Schwann. This author, stimulated by Schleiden’s +work, published in 1830 a series of <i>Mikroskopische Untersuchungen +über die Übereinstimmung in der Structur und dem Wachstum der +Tiere und Pflanzen</i>. This epoch-making work ranks with +that of Schleiden in its stimulating influence on biological +research, and in spite of the greater technical difficulties in the +way, raised animal cytology at one blow to the position already, +and so laboriously, acquired by plant cytology. In the animal +cell it is the nucleus and not the cell-wall that is most conspicuous, +and it is largely to the importance which Schwann, +following the example of Schleiden, attached to this structure +as a cell constituent, that the success and far-reaching influence of +his work is due. Another feature determining the success of +Schwann’s work was his selection of embryonic tissue as material +for investigation. He showed that in the embryo the cells all +closely resemble one another, only becoming later converted +into the tissue elements—nerve cells, muscle cells and so forth—as +development proceeded; just as a similar mode of investigation +had enabled Treviranus to trace the origin from typical cells +of the vascular tissue in plants more than 30 years previously. +And just as Treviranus showed that there was a union of cells +to form the vessels in plants, so Schwann now showed that a union +of cells frequently occurred in the formation of animal tissues.</p> + +<p>So great was the stimulus given to cytological research by +the work of Schleiden and Schwann that these authors are often +referred to as the founders of the cell-theory. Their theory, +however, differed very greatly from that of the present time. +Not only did they suppose new cells to arise by a sort of “crystallization” +from a formative “mother liquor” or “cytoblastema” +(<i>vide infra</i>), but they both defined the cell as a “vesicle” provided +with a firm cell-wall and with fluid contents. The cell-wall was +regarded as the essential cell-structure, which by its own peculiar +properties controlled the cell-processes. The work of Schleiden +and Schwann marks the close of the first period in the history +of the cell-theory—the period dominated by the cell-wall. The +subsequent history is marked by the gradual recognition of the +importance of the cell-contents. Schleiden had noticed in the +plant cell a finely granular substance which he termed “plant +slime” (<i>Pflanzenschleim</i>). In 1846 Hugo von Mohl applied to +this substance the term “protoplasm”; a term already used +by Purkinje six years previously for the formative substance of +young animal embryos. Mohl showed that the young plant cell +was at first completely filled by the protoplasm, and that only +later, by the gradual accumulation of vacuoles in the interior, +did this substance come to form a thin layer on the inner surface +of the cell-wall. Mohl also described the spontaneous movement +of the protoplasm, a phenomenon already noted by Schleiden +for his plant slime, and originally discovered by Bonaventura +Corti in 1772 for the cells of <i>Chara</i>, and rediscovered in 1807 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page711" id="page711"></a>711</span> +by Treviranus. Not only was attention thus gradually directed +to the importance of the cell-contents, but observations were not +lacking, even in the plant kingdom, tending to weaken the +importance hitherto attached to the cell-wall. Among these may +be mentioned Cohn’s observation that in the reproduction of +Algal forms the protoplasm contracts away from the cell-wall +and escapes as a naked “swarm spore.” Similarly in the animal +kingdom instances began to be noted in which no membrane +appeared to be present (Kolliker, 1845; Bischoff, 1842), and for +some time it was hotly debated whether these structures could +be regarded as true cells. As a result of the resemblance between +the streaming movements in these apparently naked cells (<i>e.g.</i> +lymphocytes) and those seen in plant cells, R. Remak was led +(1852-1853) to apply Mohl’s term “protoplasm” to the substance +of these animal cells also. Similarly Max Schultze (1863) +and H. A. de Bary (1859), as a result of the study of unicellular +animals, came to the conclusion that the substance of these +organisms, originally termed “Sarcode” by F. Dujardin, was +identical with that of the plant and animal cell. Numerous +workers now began to realize the subordinate position of the +cell-wall (<i>e.g.</i> Nägeli, Alexander Braun, Leydig, Kolliker, Cohn, +de Bary, &c.), but it is to Max Schultze above all that the credit +is due for having laid the foundation of the modern conception +of the cell—a conception often referred to as the <i>proto-plasmic-theory</i> +in opposition to the <i>cell</i>-theory of Schleiden and +Schwann. Max Schultze showed that one and the same +substance, protoplasm, occurred in unicellular forms and in the +higher plants and animals; that in plants this substance, +though usually enclosed <i>within</i> a cell membrane, was sometimes +naked (<i>e.g.</i> swarm spores), while in many animal tissues and +in many of the unicellular forms the cell-membrane was always +absent. He therefore concluded that in all cases the cell-membrane +was unessential, and he redefined the “cell” of Schleiden +and Schwann as “a small mass of protoplasm endowed with the +attributes of life” (1861). In the same year the physiologist +Brücke maintained that the complexity of vital phenomena +necessitated the assumption for the cell-protoplasm itself of a +complex structure, only invisible because of the limitations of our +methods of observation. The cell in fact was to be regarded as +being itself an “elementary organism.” By this time too it was +realized that the formation of cells <i>de novo</i>, postulated by +Schleiden’s theory of “phytogenesis,” did not occur. Cells +only arose by the division of pre-existing cells,—as Virchow +neatly expressed it in his since famous aphorism, <i>omnis cellula +e cellula</i>. It was, however, many years before the details of +this “cell-division” were laid bare (see <i>Cell-Division</i> below).</p> + +<p><i>General Morphology of the Cell.</i>—In its simplest form the cell +is a more or less spherical mass of viscid, translucent and granular +protoplasm. In addition to the living protoplasm there is +present in the cell food-material in various stages of assimilation, +which usually presents the appearance of fine granules or +spherules suspended in the more or less alveolar or reticular +mesh-work of the living protoplasm. In addition there may +be more or less obvious accumulations of waste material, pigment, +oil drops, &c.—products of the cell’s metabolic activity. +All these relatively passive inclusions<a name="fa3o" id="fa3o" href="#ft3o"><span class="sp">3</span></a> are distinguished from +the living protoplasm by the term “metaplasm” (Hanstein), +or “paraplasm” (Kupffer), although in practice no very sharp +distinction can be drawn between them. The cell is frequently, +but by no means always, bounded by a cell-wall of greater or less +thickness. In plants this cell-wall consists of cellulose, a substance +closely allied to starch; in animals only very rarely is +this the case. Usually the cell-wall, when this is present, is a +product of the cell’s secretive activity; sometimes, however, +it appears to be formed by an actual conversion of the surface +layer of the protoplasm, and retains the power of growth by +“intussusception” like the rest of the protoplasm. Even when +a limiting membrane is present, however, evidence is steadily +accumulating to show that the cell is not an isolated physiological +unit, but that, in the vast majority of cases, there is a protoplasmic +continuity between the cells of the organism. This +continuity, which is effected by fine protoplasmic threads +(“cell-bridges”) piercing the cell-wall and bridging the intercellular +spaces when these are present, is to be regarded as the +morphological expression of the physiological interdependence +of the various—often widely separated—tissues of the body.<a name="fa4o" id="fa4o" href="#ft4o"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +It is probable that it is the specialization of this primitive +condition which has produced the cell-elements of the nervous +system. In many cases the cell-connexions are so extensive as +to obliterate cell-boundaries. A good example of such a “syncytial” +tissue is provided by the heart muscle of Vertebrates +and the intestinal musculature of Insects (Webber).<a name="fa5o" id="fa5o" href="#ft5o"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p> + +<p>In all multicellular, and in the great majority of unicellular, +organisms the protoplasm of the cell-unit is differentiated into +two very distinct regions,—a more or less central region, the +<i>nucleus</i>, and a peripheral region (usually much more extensive), +the cell-body or <i>cytoplasm</i>. This universal morphological +differentiation of the cell-protoplasm is accompanied by +corresponding chemical differences, and is the expression of a +physiological division of labour of fundamental importance. +In some of the simpler unicellular organisms, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Tetramitus</i>, +the differentiated protoplasm is not segregated. Such forms +are said to have a “distributed” nucleus, and among the +Protozoa correspond to Haeckel’s “Protista.” It is probable +that among plants the Bacteria and Cyanophyceae have a +similar distributed nucleus. In all the higher forms, however, +the segregation is well marked, and a “nuclear membrane” +separates the substance of the nucleus, or “karyoplasm”<a name="fa6o" id="fa6o" href="#ft6o"><span class="sp">6</span></a> +from the surrounding “cytoplasm.” Within the nuclear +membrane the karyoplasm is differentiated into two very +distinct portions, a clear fluid portion, the “karyolymph,” and +a firmer portion in the form of a coarser or finer “nuclear +reticulum.” This latter is again composed of two parts, the +“linin reticulum,”<a name="fa7o" id="fa7o" href="#ft7o"><span class="sp">7</span></a> and, embedded in the latter and often +irregularly aggregated at its nodal points, a granular substance, +the “chromatin,”<a name="fa8o" id="fa8o" href="#ft8o"><span class="sp">8</span></a> the latter being the essential constituent +of the nucleus. In addition to the chromatin there may be +present in the nucleus one or more, usually spherical, and as yet +somewhat enigmatical bodies, the “nucleoli.” In addition to +the nucleus and cytoplasm, a third body, the “centrosome,” +has often been considered as a constant cell-structure. It is +a minute granule, usually lying in the cytoplasm not far from +the nucleus, and plays an important part in cell-division and +fertilization (see below).</p> + +<p><i>Cell-differentiation.</i>—Both among unicellular and multicellular +individuals the cell assumes the most varied forms and +performs the most diverse functions. In all cases, however, +whether we examine the free-living shapeless and slowly creeping +<i>Amoeba</i>, or the striped muscle cell or spermatozoon of the +Metazoa (fig. 1, <i>b</i> and <i>c</i>), the constant recurrence of cytoplasm +and nucleus show that we have to deal in each case with a cell. +The variation in the form and structure of the cell is an expression +of that universal economic law of nature, “division of labour,” +with its almost invariable accompanying “morphological +differentiation”; the earliest and most fundamental example +being in the differentiation of the cell-protoplasm into cytoplasm +and nucleus. In multicellular individuals the division of labour +to which the structural complexity of the organism is due is +between the individual cell-units, some cells developing one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page712" id="page712"></a>712</span> +aspect, some another, of their vital attributes. Thus one cell +specializes in, say, secretion, another in contractility, another +in receiving and carrying stimuli, and so forth, so that we have +the gland cell, the muscle cell, and the nerve cell, each appropriately +grouped with its fellows to constitute the particular tissue +or organ—gland, muscle or brain—which has for its function +that of its constituent cells. In unicellular animals we also +find division of labour and its accompanying morphological +differentiation, but here there is no subdivision of the protoplasm +of the organism into the semi-autonomous units which so greatly +facilitate division of labour in the Metazoa; instead, division +of labour must be between different regions of protoplasm in +the single cell. The sharply defined character of this regional +differentiation in the Protozoa, and the surprising structural +complexity it may produce, sufficiently clearly show that although +multicellular structure has greatly facilitated regional differentiation +in the Metazoa, it is by no means essential to this process +(see below, <i>Present Position of the Cell-theory</i>).</p> + +<p>It is not within the scope of this article to attempt a comprehensive +review of the variety in structural complexity to which +this division of labour among the cells of the Metazoan and the +regional differentiation of the cell-bodies of the Protozoa has +given rise. Some indication of the wealth of variety may be +best given by taking a general survey of cell-modifications, +grouped according to the cell-attributes the expression of which +they facilitate.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:455px; height:198px" src="images/img712a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>a</i> and <i>b</i> from Schäfer’s <i>Essentials of Histology</i>, by permission of Longmans, Green & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Types of Cells. <i>a</i>, Fat-cell enclosing a huge fat-globule. +<i>b</i>, Part of a Mammalian “striated” muscle-cell (diagrammatic). +<i>c</i>, Spermatozoa of mouse and bird.</td></tr></table> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Structural Complexity facilitating Movement.</i>—One of +the most striking, and hence earliest described, of the fundamental +attributes of protoplasm is its power of spontaneous +movement. This is seen in the walled cell of plant tissue and in +the naked cell-body of <i>Amoeba</i>. In the latter case the streaming +movements of the naked protoplasm are accompanied by the +formation of “pseudopodia,” and result in the highly characteristic +“amoeboid” creeping movement of this and similar +organisms (<i>e.g.</i> lymph corpuscles of the blood).<a name="fa9o" id="fa9o" href="#ft9o"><span class="sp">9</span></a> In these +examples the whole protoplasm participates in the movement,—there +has been no division of labour, and there is, therefore, no +visible morphological differentiation. In many cells, movement +(either of the entire body or of the surrounding medium) is by +means of slender whip-like processes of the protoplasm flagella +or cilia. These represent modified pseudopodia, and in the +formation of the motile gametes of some of the lower forms, +<i>e.g.</i> Myxomycetes (de Bary, 1859), Rhizopods (R. Hertwig, 1874), +&c., the actual conversion of a pseudopodium into a flagellum +can be witnessed. These vibratile processes may be either one +or few in number, and are then large in size and move independently +of one another; or they may be very numerous, covering +the free surface of the cell (fig. 2, <i>a</i>); they are then very small +and move strictly in unison. In the former case they are termed +“flagella,” in the latter “cilia.” In some cases the flagellum +is accompanied by an undulating membrane (<i>e.g.</i> Trypanosoma +among the protozoa and in many spermatozoa), and it may be +situated either at the front end (Euglena) or hind end (spermatozoa) +of the body during motion. The cilia may form a +uniform coating to the free surface of the cell, as in ciliated +epithelium (fig. 2, <i>a</i>) and many infusoria, or the cilia may be +variously modified and restricted to special regions of the body, +<i>e.g.</i> the “undulating membrane” of the peristomial region +in many infusoria, the swimming combs of the Ctenophora (<i>q.v.</i>), +and the flame cells of the Platyelmia (<i>q.v.</i>). In one group of +infusoria (Hypotricha), the cilia, “cirri,” have attained a high +degree of differentiation, and reach a considerable size. Both +cilia and flagella spring directly from the cell-protoplasm, piercing +the cell-membrane, when this is present. At the point where +they become continuous with the cell-body there is usually a +deeply staining “basal granule.” In some cases the flagella +are in direct connexion with the centrosome (see below, <i>Cell-division</i>), +<i>e.g.</i> Trypanosoma and spermatozoa, in some cases even +while the centrosome is functioning in mitosis (<i>e.g.</i> insect +spermatogenesis, Henneguy<a name="fa10o" id="fa10o" href="#ft10o"><span class="sp">10</span></a> and Meves<a name="fa11o" id="fa11o" href="#ft11o"><span class="sp">11</span></a> (fig. 3).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:473px; height:441px" src="images/img712b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From A. Gurwitsch, <i>Morphologie und Biologie der Zelle</i>, by permission of Gustav +Fischer.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Types of Cells. <i>a</i>, Ciliated epithelial cells. (After +Heidenhain.) <i>b</i>, Mucus-secreting “goblet”-cells. (After Gurwitsch.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:474px; height:178px" src="images/img712c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From O. Hertwig, <i>Allgemeine Biologie</i>, by permission of Gustav Fischer.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Spermatocytes of <i>Bombyx mori</i>, showing the precocious +appearance of the spermatozoon flagellum and its relation to the +centrosome. (After Henneguy.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the ability of <i>Amoeba</i> to contract into a spherical mass, and +in the presence in its protoplasm of the contractile vacuole, +we see another type of spontaneous movement—contractility—of +the protoplasm. In the “musculo-epithelial” cells of <i>Hydra</i>, +the elongated basal portion of the cell alone possesses this +contractility. In the higher Metazoa the whole cell—muscle +cell—is specialized for contractility, and shows, as a result of +its specialization, a distinct fibrillation. This fibrillation is +foreshadowed in the contractile regions of many Protozoa, <i>e.g.</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page713" id="page713"></a>713</span> +in the cirri of hypotrichous Infusoria, the tentacle of <i>Noctiluca</i>, +and the myophane layer of Gregarines. In the quickly contracting +muscle cell of Vertebrates and insects, further specialization +has produced a structure of considerable complexity (fig. 1, <i>b</i>). +Here also the cell is fibrillated, but the fibrillae (sarcostyles) +are much more distinct, and are segmented in a manner which +gives to the entire cell a “cross striated” appearance. Since +quick movement is usually (but not always) associated with +voluntary control, these striated muscle cells are often termed +“voluntary” muscle fibres. The great increase in length of +these cells is accompanied by the fragmentation of the originally +single nucleus.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Cell-modification in Relation to Secretion.</i>—Just as the +complex movements considered above were the result of a +great development of the power of spontaneous movement +possessed by all protoplasm, so cell-secretion is the result of a +development of the metabolic processes underlying all vital +phenomena. But whereas specialization of the protoplasm +for movement resulted in a very obvious morphological complexity, +specialization for secretion results in molecular complexity, +and only rarely and indirectly results in morphological +differentiation. Usually indeed the specialization is only +rendered evident by the appearance of the formed secretion, +<i>e.g.</i> mucus-secreting epithelial cells (fig. 2, <i>b</i>), the ovarian ovum +and the fat cell (fig. 1, <i>a</i>). In some cases a distinct fibrillation +of the cytoplasm accompanies or precedes the appearance of +the cell-secretion (Mathews, pancreas cell of Amphibia). In +many cases the internal secretion is no mere accumulation, +<i>e.g.</i> the internal skeleton of the Radiolaria, and the nematocysts +of the Coelentera. Frequently in animal tissues the cell-secretions +are accumulated in the intercellular spaces, and result in the +formation of the various “connective tissues,” all of which are +characterized by the immense amount of intercellular substance, +<i>e.g.</i> fibrous tissue, cartilage and bone. Cell-modifications +facilitating the general metabolism, but not necessarily indicating +specialized secretion, also occur, <i>e.g.</i> the “gullet” of many +Protozoa, the suctorial tubules of the Acinetaria, and the “nutritive +processes” of the ovarian ova in many Lepidoptera. Mention +may be made here of the network or canal system of the +cytoplasm, described for many cells by Golgi, Holgren and +others. An enigmatical structure, the “yolk-nucleus” of many +ova, has been frequently regarded as a structure of considerable +metabolic importance, <i>e.g.</i> Bambeke (1898) for <i>Pholcus</i>.<a name="fa12o" id="fa12o" href="#ft12o"><span class="sp">12</span></a></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:475px; height:243px" src="images/img713a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Types of Nuclei.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="f80">From Prof. E. B. Wilson’s The Cell in <i>Development and Inheritance</i>, by permission +of the author and of the Macmillan Co., New York.</p> + +<p><i>a</i>, Permanent spireme-nuclei in cells from the intestinal epithelium +of a dipterous larva, <i>Ptychoptera</i>. (After van Gehuchten.)<br /></p> + +<p class="f80">From Korschelt and Heider, <i>Lehrbuch der verg. Entwicklungsgeschichte der +wirbellosen Tiere</i>, by permission of Gustav Fischer.</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, Branched nucleus of the “nutritive” cell, from a portion of an +ovarial tube of <i>Forficula auricularia</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2">Striking modifications resulting from specialization in secretion +are frequently presented by the nucleus. In many secreting +cells this structure is extensively branched, <i>e.g.</i> many gland +cells and ovarian nutritive cells of insects (fig. 4, <i>b</i>). In some +cases the nucleus of the gland cell contains a persistent spireme +thread (fig. 4, <i>a</i>); while almost all actively secreting cells +are characterized by the possession of large or numerous +nucleoli.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:508px; height:574px" src="images/img713b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Schäfer’s <i>Essentials of Histology</i>, by permission of Longmans, Green & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Nervous and Sensory Cells.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A and B, Ganglion cells from the cerebral cortex; in A the only +slightly branched axon may extend the whole length of the spinal +cord. (After Schäfer.)</p> + +<p>C, Body of a ganglion-cell showing “Nissl’s granules.”</p> + +<p>D, Sensory cells from olfactory epithelium. (After Schultze.)</p> + +<p>E, Diagrammatic representation of the sensory epithelium of +retina (rod and cone layer). (After Schwalbe.)</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2">(<i>c</i>) <i>Specialization for the Reception and Conduction of Stimuli.</i>—One +of the most striking of the fundamental attributes of living +protoplasm is its “irritability,” that is to say, its power of +responding to external impressions, “stimuli,” by movement, +which, both in kind and intensity, is wholly independent of the +amount of energy expended by the stimulus. The stimulus +conveyed by the nerve fibre to the muscle is out of all proportion +to the amount of work it may cause the muscle to do. Although +protoplasmic irritability is thus incapable of a simple mechanical +explanation, science has rejected the assumption of a special +“vital force,” and interprets protoplasmic response as being +a long series of chemico-physical changes,<a name="fa13o" id="fa13o" href="#ft13o"><span class="sp">13</span></a> initiated, but only +initiated, by the original stimulus; the latter thus standing in +the same relation to the response it produces as the pull on the +trigger to the propulsion of the rifle bullet. The function of +receiving stimuli from the outer world, originally possessed to +a greater or less extent by all cells, has, in the Metazoa, been +relegated to one class of cells, the sensory cells<a name="fa14o" id="fa14o" href="#ft14o"><span class="sp">14</span></a> (fig. 5, D and E). +Another class of cells—the “ganglion cells” or “neurones” +(fig. 5, A and B), are concerned with the conduction of the +stimuli so received. The contractile elements in the Metazoa +are thus dependent for their stimuli on the nervous elements—the +sensory cells and neurones.</p> + +<p><i>Origin of Cells.</i>—In the preceding sections we have considered +the structure of the cell in relation to the fundamental attributes +of cell-metabolism, irritability, and movement. We have now +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page714" id="page714"></a>714</span> +to consider the cell in relation to yet another vital attribute, that +of reproduction. Just as we now know that the phenomena +of assimilation, respiration, excretion, response, movement and +so forth, characteristic of living things, are but the co-ordinated +expressions of the corresponding activities of the constituent +cells, so we now know that the reproduction of the organism is, +in its ultimate analysis, a cell-process. Our knowledge of the +essential fact that cells only arise by the division of pre-existing +cells, now a fundamental axiom of biology, and of the details +of this process, have been acquired during recent years by the +strenuous efforts of numerous workers.<a name="fa15o" id="fa15o" href="#ft15o"><span class="sp">15</span></a> Matthias Jakob +Schleiden (1838) supposed that in plants the new cell arose from +the parent cell by a sort of “crystallizing” process from the cell +fluid or “cytoblastema”; the nucleolus appearing first, then +the nucleus, and finally the cell-body. Theodor Schwann (1839) +extended Schleiden’s theory to animal tissues, with this yet +greater error, that new cells might arise, not only within the +mother cell as Schleiden had supposed, but also in the intercellular +substance so common in animal tissues (to which he also +gave the term “cytoblastema”). By 1846, however, the +botanists, thanks mainly to the efforts of Hugo von Mohl +and Nägeli, recognized as a general law that cells only arise by +the division of a pre-existing cell. But it was long before the +universal application of this law was recognized by zoologists; +the delay being largely due to pathological phenomena. The work +of Kölliker (1844-1845), Karl Bogislaus Reichert (1841-1847), +and Remak (1852-1855), however, finally enabled Virchow in +1858 to maintain the law of the genetic continuity of cells in the +since famous aphorism <i>omnis cellula e cellula</i>. At this time, +however, nothing was known of the details of cell-division,—one +school (Reichert, L. Auerbach, and the majority of the +botanists) maintaining that the nucleus disappeared prior to +cell-division, the other school (von Baer, Remak, Leydig, +Haeckel, &c.) maintaining that it took a leading part in the +process. It is not until the appearance of Anton Schneider’s +work in 1873, followed by those of Fol, Auerbach, Strasburger +and many others, that we begin to gain an insight into the +process. In 1882 W. Flemming was able to extend Virchow’s +aphorism to the nucleus also: <i>omnis nucleus e nucleo</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Outline of Cell-division.</i>—There are two very distinct methods +of cell-division. The more general and also more complicated +method is accompanied by the formation of a complex fibrillar +mechanism, and was on this account termed “mitosis” (<span class="grk" title="mitos">μίτος</span>, +a thread) by W. Flemming (1882), and “karyokinesis” (<span class="grk" title="karyon">κάρυον</span>, +nut, nucleus, and <span class="grk" title="kinêsis">κίνησις</span>, change, movement) by W. Schleicher +(1878). The other method, “amitosis,” or direct division, is +unaccompanied by any visible mechanism and is of relatively +exceptional occurrence. In the more usual method of cell-division, +or “mitosis,” we can distinguish two distinct but +parallel processes, the one undergone by the chromatin and +resulting in the “chromatic figure,” the other usually only +concerning the cytoplasm and resulting in the “achromatic +figure.”<a name="fa16o" id="fa16o" href="#ft16o"><span class="sp">16</span></a></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:457px; height:560px" src="images/img714a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>a</i>, <i>b</i> and <i>c</i> from Prof. E. B. Wilson’s <i>The Cell in Development and Inheritance</i>, by +permission of the author and the Macmillan Co., New York; <i>d</i> from A. Gurwitsch, +<i>Morphologie u. Biologie der Zelle</i>, by permission of Gustav Fischer.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Diagram of Nuclear Division. <i>a</i>, Spireme stage; <i>b</i>, +Spindle formed; <i>c</i>, Spindle complete; equatorial plate formed; +d, Division completed.</td></tr></table> + +<p>We will consider the chromatin changes first. The chromatin +granules lose their scattered arrangement on the nuclear +reticulum, and become instead arranged in a linear series to +form a coiled and deeply staining “spireme thread”<a name="fa17o" id="fa17o" href="#ft17o"><span class="sp">17</span></a> (fig. 6, <i>a</i>). +As the thread contracts, its granular origin becomes less evident, +and at the same time the coils become fewer in number; the +“close” spireme of earlier stages becomes the “loose” spireme +of later stages. As the spireme thread contracts, it segments +into a number of short, and usually <b>U</b>-shaped, segments—the +“chromosomes” (Waldeyer, 1888). The number of these +chromosomes is always constant for the cells of any given species +of plant or animal, but varies greatly in number in different +species. Thus in the parasitic worm <i>Ascaris megalocephala</i>, +var. <i>univalens</i>, there are only two. In the crustacean <i>Artemia</i> +Bauer found 168, while in the amphibian <i>Salamandra maculata</i>, +as also in the lily, the number is 24. While these changes have +been proceeding in the nucleus, changes in the cytoplasm have +resulted in the formation of the achromatic figure. These +cytoplasmic changes are initiated by the division into two of a +minute body, the “centrosome,” originally discovered by P. J. +van Beneden in 1883,<a name="fa18o" id="fa18o" href="#ft18o"><span class="sp">18</span></a> and usually lying not far from the +nucleus (fig. 6, <i>a</i>). The daughter centrosomes separate from +one another, travelling to opposite poles of the nucleus. At +the same time radiations extend out into the cytoplasm from +the centrosomes, and, as the nuclear membrane disappears, +invade the nuclear area (fig. 7, <i>a</i>). Some of the fibrillae in the +latter region become attached to the chromosomes and are +termed “mantle fibres”; others become continuous from one +centrosome to the other and constitute the “spindle fibres.” +The remaining radiations at the two poles of the spindle are the +“astral rays.” (The details of the formation of the achromatic +figure vary considerably, some indication of this is given in the +next section in connexion with the question of the origin of the +mitotic mechanism.) The chromosomes now arrange themselves +in the “equatorial plate” of the spindle and each splits longitudinally +into two<a name="fa19o" id="fa19o" href="#ft19o"><span class="sp">19</span></a> (fig. 6, <i>b</i> and <i>c</i>). The sister chromosomes +now pass to opposite poles of the spindle (fig. 6, <i>d</i>), and there, +returning to the “resting” condition, constitute the daughter +nuclei. Division of the cell follows, usually, in animals, by +simple constriction. Both Theodor Boveri and van Beneden, +in their papers of 1887, regarded the centrosome as initiating, +not only the division of the cell-body but that of the chromatin +also; Beneden even suggested that the pull of the mantle fibres +caused the division of the chromatin in the equatorial plate. +W. Pfitzner in 1882 was the first to show that the splitting of the +chromosomes in the equatorial plate was only the reappearance +of a split in the spireme thread and was due to a corresponding +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page715" id="page715"></a>715</span> +division into two of each of the chromatin granules. In the +spermatogenic cells of <i>Ascaris</i>, A. Brauer has shown that the +chromatin granules divide while still scattered over the nuclear +reticulum and before either the formation of a spireme thread +or the division of the centrosome. In many other cases the +reverse of this condition occurs, the centrosome dividing long +before there is any indication of division in the nucleus (<i>e.g.</i> +salamander spermatogenic cells, Meves, &c.). We must therefore, +with Boveri and Brauer, regard the division of the chromatin +in mitosis as a distinct reproductive act on the part of the +chromatin granules, the chromosomes being merely aggregates +(temporary or permanent, <i>vide infra</i>) of these self-propagating +units.</p> + +<p>For convenience of description it is usual to recognize four +periods in mitosis: (i.) Prophase, (ii.) Metaphase, (iii.) Anaphase, +and (iv.) Telophase (Strasburger, 1884). The prophase covers +all changes up to the completion of the mitotic figure. The +metaphase is the parting of the sister chromosomes in the +equatorial plate; their passage to opposite poles of the spindle +constitutes the anaphase; and their reconstruction to form +the resting daughter nuclei, the telophase.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:472px; height:243px" src="images/img715.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Centrosomes.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Prof. E. B. Wilson’s <i>The Cell in Development and Inheritance</i>, by permission +of the author and of The Macmillan Co., New York.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><i>a</i>, Leucocyte from a Salamander, showing permanent aster and +centrosome.<br /><br /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From A. Gurwitsch, <i>Morphologie u. Biologie der Zelle</i>, by permission of Gustav +Fischer.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><i>b</i>, Sperm-mother cell of <i>Salamandra maculata</i>, showing Hermann’s +“central spindle.”</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>The Achromatic Figure.</i>—The mode of origin of the achromatic +figure varies greatly. In some cases a distinct and continuous +spindle, the “central spindle” of F. Hermann, is visible +from the very first separation of the daughter centrosomes +(<i>e.g.</i> salamander spermatogenic cell)<a name="fa20o" id="fa20o" href="#ft20o"><span class="sp">20</span></a> (fig. 7, <i>b</i>). In other +cases the rays only invade the nuclear area and become continuous +in the equatorial plane after the centrosomes have +assumed their definitive positions at the two poles of the nucleus, +and may even appear to indent the disappearing nuclear membrane +as they invade the nuclear area.<a name="fa21o" id="fa21o" href="#ft21o"><span class="sp">21</span></a> In the salamander +testis cell (fig. 7, <i>b</i>), and in many other cases, the whole of the +achromatic figure is obviously of cytoplasmic origin. In many +cases, however, it equally obviously arises within the nucleus,<a name="fa22o" id="fa22o" href="#ft22o"><span class="sp">22</span></a> +while in yet other cases<a name="fa23o" id="fa23o" href="#ft23o"><span class="sp">23</span></a> the spindle fibres are of mixed origin. +The question, therefore, of the cytoplasmic or nuclear origin of +the achromatic figure, at one time regarded as of considerable +importance, is wholly immaterial. Various elaborate theories +have been propounded to explain the mechanism of the mitotic +figure. H. Fol (1873) regarded the centrosomes as centres of +attractive forces, and compared the mitotic figure to the lines +of force in the magnetic field, a comparison made by numerous +subsequent workers. E. Klein’s hypotheses of two opposing +systems of contractile fibrillae, elaborated by van Beneden +(1883, 1887) and accepted by Boveri (1888), was still further +extended by R. Heidenhain in relation to the leucocytes of the +salamander, in which there is a permanent centrosome and +astral rays to which the contractile movements of the cell appear +to be due<a name="fa24o" id="fa24o" href="#ft24o"><span class="sp">24</span></a> (fig. 7, a). Hermann on the other hand confined the +contractility to the astral and mantle fibres; while L. Druner +regarded the spindle as exerting a pushing force, for not only +do the interzonal spindle fibres elongate during the anaphase, +but they were often at this period contorted, while on the other +hand astral rays may be entirely absent (<i>e.g.</i> Infusoria), and in +some cases the spindle pole may be caused to project at the +surface of the cell. The futility of these attempted mechanical +explanations of mitosis is sufficiently clearly shown, not only by +the contradictory nature of the explanations themselves, but +by the fact that, in amitosis, nuclear and cytoplasmic division +occur without any fibrillar mechanism whatever.</p> + +<p><i>Centrosome.</i><a name="fa25o" id="fa25o" href="#ft25o"><span class="sp">25</span></a>—This minute body was first detected at the +spindle poles by Flemming in 1875, and independently by P. J. +van Beneden in 1876. The important part played by the +centrosome in fertilization,<a name="fa26o" id="fa26o" href="#ft26o"><span class="sp">26</span></a> first described by van Beneden +and Theodor Boveri in their papers of 1887-1888, together with +the behaviour of this structure in mitosis, led these authors +to regard the centrosome not only as the dynamic centre of the +cell but as a permanent cell-organ, which, like the nucleus, +passed by division from one cell-generation to the next. This +conclusion appeared to receive considerable support from the +recognition of the centrosome in various kinds of resting cells,<a name="fa27o" id="fa27o" href="#ft27o"><span class="sp">27</span></a> +and especially from the relation this structure frequently shows +to the locomotor apparatus of the cell (<i>e.g.</i> its position in the +centre of the radiating fibrillae in the contractile lymph and +pigment cells, and its relation to the vibratile flagellum in +spermatozoa and some protozoa, <i>e.g.</i> Trypanosoma).<a name="fa28o" id="fa28o" href="#ft28o"><span class="sp">28</span></a> In +almost all cases the centrosome of the resting cell, when this +can be detected, lies in the cytoplasm, and is often already +divided in preparation for the next mitotic division (<i>e.g.</i> spermatogenic +cells of the salamander; Meves). In some cases, however, +it resides in, or arises from, the nucleus (Brauer; spermatogenesis +of <i>Ascaris</i>, var. <i>univalens</i>). This indifferent nuclear or cytoplasmic +position for the centrosome is paralleled by the attraction +sphere or homologue of the centrosome in many Protozoa. +Thus in many forms, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Euglena</i> (Keuten), it lies within the +nucleus, while in other forms, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Noctiluca</i> (Ishikawa, 1894, +1898; Calkins, 1898) and <i>Paramoeba</i> (F. Schaudinn, 1896), it +lies in the cytoplasm, while in <i>Tetramitus</i> it coexists with a +“distributed” nucleus. In the Heliozoa conditions are exceptionally +interesting; not only is the centrosome—here resembling +in appearance that of the higher forms—permanently visible +and extranuclear, lying at the centre of the radiations characteristic +of these forms, but there is the strongest possible evidence +for its formation <i>de novo</i>. For Schaudinn has shown in <i>Acanthocystis</i> +that, in the formation of the swarm spores, the nucleus +divides amitotically, the centrosome remaining visible and +unchanged at the centre of the radiating processes. Yet a +centrosome appears later in the nucleus of the swarm spores +and migrates into the cytoplasm. The experiments of T. H. +Morgan and E. B. Wilson, in which numerous centrosomes and +asters (“cytasters”) are caused to appear in unfertilized sea-urchin +eggs by a brief immersion in a 13% solution of magnesium +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page716" id="page716"></a>716</span> +chloride in sea-water,<a name="fa29o" id="fa29o" href="#ft29o"><span class="sp">29</span></a> as also the possibility in many cases that +even in normal fertilization the cleavage centrosomes may arise +<i>de novo</i>,<a name="fa30o" id="fa30o" href="#ft30o"><span class="sp">30</span></a> make it no longer possible to regard the centrosome as +a permanent cell-structure.</p> + +<p><i>Significance of Mitosis.</i>—Whatever may be the nature of +the chemico-physical changes occurring during cell-division, +of which the achromatic spindle and astral rays are the visible +expression, it is certain that the whole of this complicated +process has for its function, not the division of the chromatin, +for that has already occurred on the spireme thread or even +earlier, but the distribution of the divided chromatin granules +to the two daughter nuclei. It is indeed usually assumed that +the mitotic mechanism is not merely for the distribution, but for +the <i>equal</i> distribution, of the sister granules to the two daughter +nuclei. The conspicuous part the chromatin is seen to play in +the whole mechanism of heredity—in maturation, fertilization +and development—indicating as it does that the chromatin +is the chief, if not the only, bearer of the specific qualities of +the organism, sufficiently clearly emphasizes the importance of +the equal distribution of this substance between the daughter +cells at successive cell-divisions. There are, however, serious +objections to the interpretation of mitosis as an adaptation to +ensure this equal distribution of the chromatin. Not only does +the occurrence of amitosis show that the mitotic mechanism is not +essential for either nuclear or cytoplasmic division, but direct +division may occur<a name="fa31o" id="fa31o" href="#ft31o"><span class="sp">31</span></a> in the life-history of the germ cells, the +very point at which it should not occur had mitosis the significance +usually attached to it. On the other hand, the most +elaborate mitosis occurs in cell-tissues (<i>e.g.</i> skin of salamander +larva) which can take no possible share in the reproduction +of the species. Moreover, we have no reason for supposing that +the division of the chromatin in amitosis is not as meristic, and +its subsequent distribution as equal, as is so visibly the case +in mitosis.<a name="fa32o" id="fa32o" href="#ft32o"><span class="sp">32</span></a> It is necessary, therefore, to seek for some other +explanation of the elaborate mechanism of mitosis than that +which assumes it necessary for the equal distribution of the +divided chromatin granules. The present writer believes the +true explanation to be found in that great economic law of +nature, “division of labour.” The same economy which, +working under the control of natural selection, has produced +the complexly differentiated tissues of the higher metazoa, +which has led to the sexual differentiation between the conjugating +gametes and thus to the sexual differentiation of the +parents, has resulted in the production of mitosis. Only here +the economy finds expression in division of labour, not in space, +but in time. The work of the self-propagating chromatin +granules is so ordered that periods of undisturbed metabolic +activity alternate with periods of reproductive activity. The +brief space of time occupied by the latter process has necessitated +a more elaborate specialization of the forces—whatever their +nature—controlling cell-division; a specialization which has +resulted, just as a similar specialization in so many other cases +has resulted, in a visible differentiation of the cell-protoplasm. +This explanation is in harmony with the occurrence of typical +mitosis in active tissue cells on the one hand, and of amitosis +in the relatively quiescent primary germ cells on the other.</p> + +<p><i>Individuality of the Chromosomes.</i>—The most striking feature +in the behaviour of the chromatin in mitosis is its resolution, +at each division, into a—for any particular species—constant +number of chromosomes. This constant recurrence of the +specific number of chromosomes at every cell-division is capable +of explanation in two radically different ways. One explanation +assumes for the organism a specific peculiarity determining the +segmentation of the spireme thread into a definite number of +segments (Delage, 1899 and 1901).<a name="fa33o" id="fa33o" href="#ft33o"><span class="sp">33</span></a> The other regards chromosomes +as independent units of the cell, retaining their identity +between successive cell-divisions. The latter “Individualitäts +Hypothese” was originally put forward by Theodor Boveri in +1887 as a result of C. Rabl’s observation (1885) that in epidermal +cells of the salamander larva the chromosomes reappear in the +mitosis of the daughter cells with the same arrangement as +they possessed in the prophase of the mother cell—the angles +of the <b>U</b>-shaped chromosomes being all directed towards one +pole (Rabl’s “Poleseite”) of the nucleus. In the formation of +the “resting” nucleus, the chromatin, becoming metabolically +active, flows out on to the linin reticulum, all trace of the chromosomes +being for the time lost. In <i>Ascaris</i>, Boveri (1888) obtained +similar but still more striking results. The thickened ends of +the four elongated chromosomes cause projections on the nuclear +surface throughout the resting period, and the ends of the +reappearing chromosomes always coincided with these protuberances; +cf. also Sutton (1902) on locust spermatagonia. Moreover, +the arrangement of the chromosomes must follow one of three +well-marked groupings, and this is determined for each individual +in the cleavage spindle of the egg and maintained throughout +later development (fig. 8).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:472px; height:124px" src="images/img716.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Boveri’s <i>Ergebnisse ü. d. Konstitution der chromatischen Substanz des +Zellkerns</i>, by permission of Gustav Fischer.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—Preparation for Mitosis. <i>a</i>, Nucleus of “½ blastomere” +of <i>Ascaris megalocephala bivalens</i> in resting condition; <i>b</i> and <i>c</i>, +nuclei from sister ½ blastomeres in preparation for mitosis.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the same worm (var. <i>univalens</i>) Boveri (1888 and 1899) +found that occasional abnormalities in maturation resulted in +the suppression of the first polar body and the inclusion of its +chromosomes in the second maturation spindle; the egg-nucleus +at the time of fertilization thus having two chromosomes instead +of one, while the spermatozoon nucleus has only one. Three +chromosomes instead of two reappear in subsequent divisions. +Boveri’s “Individualitäts Hypothese” received striking support +from the work of Herla (1893), L. R. Zoja (1895) and O. zur +Strassen (1898). Herla and Zoja showed that if the egg of <i>Ascaris +megalocephala</i> (var. <i>bivalens</i>), which possesses two chromosomes, +be fertilized with the spermatozoon of var. <i>univalens</i>, in which +the germ cell has only one chromosome and that smaller than +either of the two in the other variety, three chromosomes +reappear, two large and one small, in the cleavage divisions of +the resulting hybrid embryo. Zur Strassen’s observations on the +giant embryos of <i>Ascaris</i> also support Boveri’s theory. These +embryos arise by the fusion of eggs, either before or after fertilization. +The number of chromosomes in the subsequent cleavage-figures +is proportional to the number of nuclei that have fused +together. Similar results are given by Boveri’s (1893-1895) +and T. H. Morgan’s (1895) experiments on the fertilization of +enucleated sea-urchin egg-fragments; all the nuclei of the +resulting embryo having only half the number of chromosomes +characteristic of the species (<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Echinus</i> 9 instead of 18). +All the above facts point to the conclusion that, as Boveri +expressed it in his <i>Grundgesetz der Zahlenkonstanz</i> (1888), +“the number of chromosomes arising from a resting nucleus +is solely dependent on the number which originally entered into +its composition.”<a name="fa34o" id="fa34o" href="#ft34o"><span class="sp">34</span></a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page717" id="page717"></a>717</span></p> + +<p><i>Boveri’s Law of Proportional Nuclear Growth.</i>—The chromatin +in the nucleus is exactly halved at every cell-division. As the +bulk of the chromatin remains constant from one cell-generation +to another, it must double its bulk between successive divisions. +That this proportional growth of the chromatin is dependent +solely on the chromatin mass, and not on that of the cell, is very +clearly indicated by cases where the normal chromatin mass +has been artificially increased or reduced,<a name="fa35o" id="fa35o" href="#ft35o"><span class="sp">35</span></a> the chromatin in +either case doubling its bulk between successive cell-divisions, +and neither the mass of the chromatin nor the number of the +chromosomes undergoing any readjustment. By double or +partial fertilization, different regions in the same embryo may +show nuclei of different sizes (Boveri). We must therefore +distinguish in the cell between “young” and “adult” chromatin. +In other words the chromatin must be regarded as being +composed of individual units, each with a definite constant +structure and maximum growth (Boveri, 1904). This conclusion +is strongly suggested, not only by the evidence in favour of the +individuality of the chromosomes considered above, but also by +the independent reproductive activity of the chromatin granules +in the prophase of mitosis.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:529px; height:250px" src="images/img717.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Boveri’s <i>Ergebnisse ü. d. Konstitution der chromatischen Substanz des +Zellkerns</i>, by permission of Gustav Fischer.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—Preparation for Mitosis. <i>a</i>, Spermatogonium of <i>Brachystola +magna</i> with resting nucleus; <i>b</i>, Same with prophase for mitosis. +(After Sutton.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Differentiation among the Chromosomes.</i>—If we grant the +assumption of a persistent individuality for the chromosomes, +then it becomes possible to consider whether in one and the same +nucleus these structures may not take varying parts in controlling +the cell’s activity in development and in inheritance. Such a +differentiation among the chromosomes would be due to independent +ancestry rather than to the economy resulting from +a division of labour; nevertheless a division of labour of a sort +would be the result of this gradual divergence of the chromosomes +from one another, and we might therefore expect that, in +some cases at least, a <i>morphological</i> would accompany the +<i>physiological</i> differentiation. Examples of such a morphological +differentiation do indeed occur in the “accessory” chromosomes +first described by H. Henking (1891) for the spermatogonia of +<i>Pyrrhocoris</i>, and since described for numerous other insects, +Arachnids and Myriapods. W. Sutton’s work on the spermatogenesis +of <i>Brachystola magna</i> is of especial interest in this connexion. +Not only does the “accessory chromosome” in this +insect form a resting nucleus independent, and obviously physiologically +differentiated from that formed from the remaining +chromosomes (fig. 9, <i>a</i>), but the latter are themselves +differentiated by size, there being one pair of chromosomes of +each size (fig. 9, <i>b</i>), a point of considerable interest when we +remember that half the chromosomes in each cell are necessarily +derived from each parent.<a name="fa36o" id="fa36o" href="#ft36o"><span class="sp">36</span></a></p> + +<p>Although this morphological differentiation among the +chromosomes is undoubtedly to be regarded as indicating a +corresponding physiological differentiation, it by no means +follows that the latter need always, or even generally, be accompanied +by the former. Since, however, the specific characters +of the organism must be due to the combined activity of <i>all</i> +the chromosomes, any physiological differentiation among the +latter should result in abnormal development if the full complement +of chromosomes be not present.<a name="fa37o" id="fa37o" href="#ft37o"><span class="sp">37</span></a> Boveri,<a name="fa38o" id="fa38o" href="#ft38o"><span class="sp">38</span></a> utilizing +Herbst’s method<a name="fa39o" id="fa39o" href="#ft39o"><span class="sp">39</span></a> for separating echinoderm blastomeres, has +interpreted in this manner the abnormal development which +H. Driesch<a name="fa40o" id="fa40o" href="#ft40o"><span class="sp">40</span></a> found almost invariably to follow the double +fertilization of the sea-urchin egg. In such eggs the first cleavage +spindle is four-poled. The chromosomes are half again as +numerous as in normally fertilized eggs (54 instead of 36), but +each is only divided once, so that in the distribution of the +resulting 108 chromosomes the four daughter nuclei receive +each only 27 instead of 36 (assuming the distribution to be fairly +equal, which is by no means usually the case in four-poled +mitosis). Driesch had already (1900) shown that any one of +the first four blastomeres of a normally fertilized egg will, if +isolated, develop normally. Boveri found that in the case of +the doubly fertilized egg the isolated “¼” blastomeres develop +very variously, a variability only to be accounted for by their +varying chromosome equipment. Occasionally a three-poled +instead of a four-poled figure resulted from double fertilization. +In such cases Driesch found, as we should expect from Boveri’s +interpretation, that the percentage of approximately normal +larvae was considerably greater; for not only would the chances +of an equal distribution of the chromosomes be much greater, +but the number received by each of the three daughter cells +would approximate to, or even equal, the normal.</p> + +<p><i>Reduction.</i>—In all the Metazoa the prevailing, and in the +higher forms the only, method of reproduction is by the union +(conjugation) of two “sexually” differentiated germ-cells or +“gametes”; a small motile “microgamete” or spermatozoon +and a large yolk-laden “macrogamete” or ovum (see Reproduction). +This differentiation between the germ-cells is another +example of the advantages of division of labour; for while the +onus of bringing about the union of the germ-cells is thrown +entirely on the spermatozoon, the egg devotes itself to the +accumulation of food-material (yolk) for the subsequent use +of the developing embryo. Far more yolk is thus secreted than +would be possible by the combined efforts of both the germ-cells +had each of these at the same time to preserve its motility. The +fundamental physiological difference which this division of +labour has produced in the germ-cells is reflected on to the +general metabolism of the parents and underlies the sexual +differentiation of the latter.<a name="fa41o" id="fa41o" href="#ft41o"><span class="sp">41</span></a> Beyond this, however, sexual +differentiation does not go. The two germ nuclei which enter into +the formation of the first mitotic figure of the developing egg +are not only physiologically equivalent, but, at the time of their +union in the egg, are usually morphologically identical.<a name="fa42o" id="fa42o" href="#ft42o"><span class="sp">42</span></a> The +essence of fertilization is, therefore, the union of two germ nuclei +only differing from one another in that they are derived from +separate individuals.<a name="fa43o" id="fa43o" href="#ft43o"><span class="sp">43</span></a> Since the number of chromosomes +appearing in mitosis is solely dependent on the number which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page718" id="page718"></a>718</span> +originally entered into the composition of the nucleus (Boveri’s +Law of Chromosome-Constancy), it follows that, in the mitotic +figures of the developing embryo, the chromosomes will be half +maternal, half paternal in origin;<a name="fa44o" id="fa44o" href="#ft44o"><span class="sp">44</span></a> the germ nuclei thus +necessarily possessing only half the number of chromosomes +characteristic of the ordinary tissue cells of species, <i>i.e.</i> the +somatic number.<a name="fa45o" id="fa45o" href="#ft45o"><span class="sp">45</span></a> The manner in which this “reduction” in +the number of chromosomes in the germ-cells is brought about, +and the significance to be attached to the process, constitute +the most hotly debated questions in cytology. In all the metazoa +the phenomenon of reduction is associated with the two last and, +usually, rapidly succeeding “maturation” divisions by which +the definitive germ-cells—ova or spermatozoa—are produced.<a name="fa46o" id="fa46o" href="#ft46o"><span class="sp">46</span></a></p> + +<p>Assuming the persistent individuality of the chromosomes, +then there are only three conceivable methods by which this +numerical reduction can be brought about (Boveri, 1904, p. 60). +(1) One-half the chromosomes degenerate. (2) The chromosomes +are distributed entire, half to one daughter cell, half to the other +(reducing division of Weismann, 1887). (3) The chromosomes +fuse in pairs (<i>Conjugation of the Chromosomes</i>, Boveri, 1892). +The first possibility—that of an actual degeneration of a part of +the chromatin originally suggested by van Beneden and adopted +by August Weismann, Boveri and others, has been long +abandoned, and a steadily increasing bulk of evidence is tending +to prove the general, if not universal, occurrence of the second +method—the distribution between the daughter cells of undivided +chromosomes. The occurrence of such a “reducing +division” was postulated on theoretical grounds by Weismann +(1887)<a name="fa47o" id="fa47o" href="#ft47o"><span class="sp">47</span></a> and by Boveri (1888); by the former as a result of his +adoption of de Vries’s hypothesis of self-propagating and qualitatively +varying units for the chromatin; by the latter in relation +to his theory of chromosome individuality. The actual occurrence +of this reducing division was first demonstrated by Henking +(1891) for <i>Pyrrhocoris</i>, and afterwards by Häcker, vom Rath +and many others, but especially by Rückert (1894) for <i>Cyclops</i> +(fig. 10). In this latter type the chromatin of the oocyte, as +this prepares for the first maturation division, resolves itself +into 12 (instead of 24) longitudinally split chromosomes (fig. 10, <i>a</i>). +As these continue to thicken and contract a transverse fission +appears (fig. 10, <i>c</i>). This is to be regarded as a belated segmentation +of the spireme thread, and shows that the reduction so far +is only a “pseudo-reduction” (Rückert), the chromosomes +being really all present but temporally united in pairs, <i>i.e.</i> +“bivalent” (Häcker). A striking confirmation of this interpretation +is provided by Korschelt’s description of reduction +in the annelid <i>Ophryotrocha</i>. In this type the full somatic number +of split chromosomes (here only four) appears, and these +secondarily associate end to end in pairs, thus forming split +“diads” (<i>i.e.</i> tetrads), in every way similar to those described +by Rückert for <i>Cyclops</i>. In the latter type, at the first maturation +division, the sister diads are separated from one another, +an “equating” division thus taking place. At the second +division the diads are resolved into their constituent parts, and +the “univalent” chromosomes are distributed to the daughter +cells (reducing division). A similar process has since been +described for numerous other types (<i>e.g.</i> various arthropods, +Häcker, 1895-1898; vom Rath, 1895; and by Sutton for +<i>Brachystola</i>, 1902-1903). In <i>Ophryotrocha</i>, as in <i>Pyrrhocoris</i> +(Henking), <i>Anasa</i> (Paulmeir), <i>Peripatus</i> (Montgomery), &c., +reduction occurs at the first maturation division (“pre-reduction” +of Korschelt and Heider, 1900), instead of at the second division +(post-reduction) as in most Copepods and Orthoptera. In +many cases the tetrads (<i>i.e.</i> split chromosomes associated in +pairs) have the form of rings, the genesis of which was first +clearly determined by vom Rath (1892) in the mole cricket +<i>Gryllotalpa</i> (fig. 11). In this form the sister diads remain united +by their ends but widely separate in the middle (fig. 11, <i>b</i>). As +in <i>Cyclops</i>, the belated transverse segmentation appears as the +condensation of the chromatin proceeds (fig. 11, <i>d</i>), but the +symmetrical tetrads which this process here produces make +it impossible to determine at which of the two divisions reduction +is effected. An essentially similar ring formation occurs in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page719" id="page719"></a>719</span> +<i>Enchaeta</i> and <i>Calanus</i> (vom Rath), and in the Copepods <i>Heterocope</i> +and Diaptomus (Rückert), and in other types.<a name="fa48o" id="fa48o" href="#ft48o"><span class="sp">48</span></a></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:485px; height:390px" src="images/img718a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Korschelt and Heider’s <i>Lehrbuch d. vergl. Entwicklungsgeschichte d. +wirbellosen Tiere</i>, by permission of Gustav Fischer.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—Maturation Divisions. <i>a-d</i>, Formation of the tetrads in +<i>Cyclops</i>. (After Rückert.) <i>e</i>, 1st maturation division; separation +of the bivalent sister chromosomes. <i>f</i>, 2nd maturation division; +distribution of the univalent chromosomes.<br /><br /></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:478px; height:425px" src="images/img718b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Prof. E. B. Wilson’s <i>The Cell in Development and Inheritance</i>, by permission +of the author and of the Macmillan Co., N. Y.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—Maturation Divisions. Origin of the tetrads by ring +formation in the spermatogenesis of the mole-cricket (<i>Gryllotalpa</i>) +(vom Rath). <i>a</i>, Primary spermatocyte with six split, bivalent +chromosomes. <i>b</i> and <i>c</i>, Split has opened out. <i>d</i>, Concentration of +the chromatin has made visible the belated transverse division. +<i>e</i> and <i>f</i>, Grouping of the completed tetrads in the equatorial plate +of the first maturation division.<br /><br /></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:453px; height:166px" src="images/img719.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From O. Hertwig, <i>Allgemeine Biologie</i>, by permission of Gustav Fischer.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>—Heterotypical Mitosis. (Schematic, after Flemming.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>All the above cases, in which the reduction is effected by +the distribution of entire chromosomes at one or other of the +maturation divisions, may be grouped together as “pseudomitotic” +(Häcker, and Korschelt & Heider). In sharp +contrast to the pseudomitotic method is the “Eumitotic” +method, in which the chromosomes are longitudinally divided +at both divisions. Such a method not only robs the process of +any “reducing” value in Weismann’s sense, but is in serious +conflict with the chromosome-individuality hypothesis. Nevertheless +it is in this sense that Boveri (1881) and van Beneden +(1883-1887) described the maturation of the egg, and at a later +period Brauer (1893) that of the spermatozoon, in <i>Ascaris</i>. In +each case the tetrads are formed by the double longitudinal +splitting of the chromosomes, the latter appearing in the prophase +in the reduced number. Not only was the eumitotic method +of <i>Ascaris</i> the first method to be described, but the descriptions +are fully equal in point of clearness to that of Hertwig for the +pseudomitotic maturation of <i>Cyclops</i>.<a name="fa49o" id="fa49o" href="#ft49o"><span class="sp">49</span></a> A similar eumitotic +maturation has been described for other types also, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Sagitta</i> +and the Heteropods, but nowhere more frequently than in the +Vertebrates among animals and the Phanerogams among plants. +In these two latter groups the chromosomes of the reducing +division only rarely have a ring form comparable to that seen +in <i>Gryllotalpa</i>, &c. When such rings do occur their genesis is very +obscure, and at no time do they present the appearance of +“tetrads.” It is the characteristic appearance these looped +chromosomes give to the first maturation division in many +Vertebrates, and especially in the Amphibia (fig. 12), that +originally led Flemming (1887) to term this type of mitosis +“heterotypical”; the second division, lacking this peculiar +appearance, being distinguished as “homotypical.” Until +quite recently these looped chromosomes of the heterotypical +mitosis of Vertebrates (and plants) were described as arising +by the opening out of longitudinally split chromosomes, exactly +as this occurs in the early prophase of the maturation divisions +in such types as <i>Gryllotalpa</i>, <i>Diaptomus</i>, &c. In the heterotype +mitosis, however, no transverse segmentation appears, and the +halves of the rings, as they separate in the first division, show +an obvious longitudinal split in preparation for the second +division.<a name="fa50o" id="fa50o" href="#ft50o"><span class="sp">50</span></a> Both divisions were thus interpreted as equating +divisions.<a name="fa51o" id="fa51o" href="#ft51o"><span class="sp">51</span></a> The more recent works of Farmer and Moore (1903-1905), +Montgomery (1903, Amphibia), and (for plants) Strasburger +(1903-1904) have shown, however, that even for the +higher plants and animals, a reducing division in Weismann’s +sense occurs in an essentially similar manner to that so convincingly +described by Rückert, vom Rath and others, for +Invertebrate types. For the chromosomes of the heterotype +mitosis arise by the looping round, not opening out, of the +bivalent chromosomes. The first division is thus a reducing +division, while the split appearing in the anaphase of the heterotype +and presumably reappearing in the prophase of the homotype +is the original split of the spireme thread.</p> + +<p>The widespread, if not universal, formation of tetrads, <i>i.e.</i> +the temporary union in pairs of split chromosomes, in reduction, +and the relation this latter process always bears to <i>two</i> rapidly +succeeding maturation divisions—those completing the gametogenic +cycle in animals and terminating the sporophytic generation +in plants,—has received a suggestive explanation at the hands +of Boveri (1904). The growth of the chromatin is an indispensable +prelude to its reproduction (Boveri’s Law of Proportional +Growth). The chromatin is therefore incapable of undergoing +reproductive fission in two successive mitotic divisions when +these are not separated by a resting (<i>i.e.</i> growth) period. In +addition to this, the “bipolar” condition of the adult chromosomes, +which determines its mode of attachment to mantle +fibres from <i>both</i> poles of the spindle, is not possessed by the +unripe chromatin. The undivided, <i>i.e.</i> unripe, chromosomes are +therefore incapable of utilizing the mitotic mechanism for +such a transverse fission as Weismann originally postulated. +The difficulty is, however, at once overcome if the unripe chromosomes +are associated in pairs in the equatorial plate, for the +bivalent chromosomes so produced are bipolar just as are the +adult (<i>i.e.</i> split) chromosomes in the ordinary and homotype +mitosis.<a name="fa52o" id="fa52o" href="#ft52o"><span class="sp">52</span></a></p> + +<p><i>Synopsis</i> (<span class="grk" title="synaptein">συνάπτειν</span>, to fuse together).—During the prophase +of the reducing or heterotype divisions the whole of the chromatin +becomes temporarily massed together at one pole of the nucleus +(Moore, 1896, for Elasmobranchs). Montgomery (1901) has +suggested that this is to facilitate the temporary union in pairs, +or “conjugation” of homologous paternal and maternal chromosomes. +In <i>Ascaris megalocephala</i> var. <i>univalens</i>, where the +somatic number is only two, the association must necessarily +be between homologous chromosomes. The assumption that this +“selective pairing” of equivalent chromosomes is universal +is supported by the behaviour of the “Heterochromosomes” +(Montgomery) of the Hemiptera. These chromosomes, distinguished +by their size, are paired before, and single after, the +“pseudo-reduction” has taken place. Even more convincing +is Sutton’s account of reduction in <i>Brachystola</i> already referred +to.<a name="fa53o" id="fa53o" href="#ft53o"><span class="sp">53</span></a> Boveri (1904) has suggested that this temporary association +of the chromosomes—presumably facilitated by the synapsis—has +a much deeper meaning than to ensure their correct distribution +between the daughter nuclei in the heterotype mitosis; +the associated chromosomes exchanging material in a manner +analogous to conjugation in <i>Paramoecium</i>.<a name="fa54o" id="fa54o" href="#ft54o"><span class="sp">54</span></a></p> + +<p><i>Present Position of the Cell-theory.</i>—Since the time of +Schleiden and Schwann a wealth of evidence has accumulated +in support of the “cell-theory”—the theory which regards the +cell as the unit of organic structure. “The organism consists +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page720" id="page720"></a>720</span> +morphologically, of cells, and subsists, physiologically, by means +of the ‘reciprocal action’ of the cells,”—this was the cell standpoint +of Schleiden and Schwann, and it is no exaggeration to say +that this same conception has dominated the cell-theory almost +to the present day.<a name="fa55o" id="fa55o" href="#ft55o"><span class="sp">55</span></a> The frequently striking correlation between +cell-division and cell-differentiation in development has caused +this process to be regarded as dependent on cell-division, while +a wholly exaggerated importance has been attached to the +distinction between “unicellular” and “multicellular” organisms—between +“intercellular” and “intracellular” organs. +The influence of the “cells” upon one another, the subordination +of the cell’s growth, division and differentiation, to the requirements +of the whole organism—seen in normal growth, but +nowhere more strikingly than in development and regeneration,—is, +however, very difficult of explanation in terms of the cell-theory +as this was, until quite recently, generally understood. +The very elaborate regional differentiation of the protoplasm +often seen in the Protozoa sufficiently indicate that multicellular +structure is no essential condition for complex regional +differentiation. That the regional differentiation of the protoplasm +in the Metazoa should usually correspond with cell-limits +is scarcely surprising. Nor is it to be wondered at that, with so +convenient a mechanism for segregation to hand as cell-division, +the progressive differentiation seen during development should +often appear to go hand in hand with this process. In recent +years, however, evidence has been steadily accumulating to show +that this association between cell-division and regional differentiation +of the protoplasm in development is a casual one—as +casual, and as natural, as the correspondence between cell +limits and regional differentiation in the formed tissues. The +fact that the regional differentiation may be foreshadowed in the +egg before cleavage begins,<a name="fa56o" id="fa56o" href="#ft56o"><span class="sp">56</span></a>—that as Driesch has shown, the +mode of cleavage may be artificially altered without affecting +the ultimate organization of the embryo,—and many other +similar observations, tend to emphasize the importance of the +“organism” standpoint (C. O. Whitman, 1903, p. 642) in +contradistinction to the widely prevalent “cell” standpoint. +The occurrence of syncytial organs and organisms, and the +increasing frequency with which protoplasmic continuity is +being demonstrated between all kinds of cells, are facts tending +in the same direction. In the plant kingdom the growth of the +<i>mass</i> has been recognized as the primary factor in development;<a name="fa57o" id="fa57o" href="#ft57o"><span class="sp">57</span></a> +<i>die Pflanze bildet Zellen, nicht die Zelle bildet Pflanzen</i> (de Bary). +For the animal kingdom this “Inadequacy of the Cell-Theory +of Development” has been maintained amongst others by +Whitman,<a name="fa58o" id="fa58o" href="#ft58o"><span class="sp">58</span></a> and by Adam Sedgwick.<a name="fa59o" id="fa59o" href="#ft59o"><span class="sp">59</span></a> The latter author, +mainly as the result of work on the development of <i>Peripatus</i> +and of Elasmobranch embryos, regards the developing embryo +as a continuous protoplasmic reticulum, for the nuclei of which +the limiting epithelial layers constitute as it were a breeding +ground. Differentiation is a regional specialization of this +nucleated meshwork, and is not to be regarded as the result of +the proliferation and subsequent specialization of cells predestined +by cleavage for this end.</p> + +<p>It is possible to suggest a mechanico-physical explanation of +multicellular structure which will deprive the cell of much of its +assumed significance as a unit of organization. The fact that +surface area becomes relatively less extensive as bulk increases +would alone set a limit to the size of “unicellular” organisms; +for not only is there a constant reaction between nucleus and +cytoplasm through the nuclear membrane, but the surface of +the cell serves both for the intake of food and the elimination of +waste material. In addition to the limit thus imposed upon the +cytoplasmic area which can be effectually controlled by the +nucleus, and the necessity for a minimum surface area to the +protoplasmic mass, the advantages of the more or less complete +subdivision of the living substance into—as far as their metabolism +is concerned—semi-autonomous units, is indicated by +the mechanical support derived from the specialized cell walls +and turgescent cells of the plant, and the intercellular secretions +of the animal tissues. It is more than possible that these two +conditions—<i>i.e.</i> surface area for diffusion, and mechanical +support—are alone responsible for the <i>origin</i> of multicellular +structure, and that the sharply defined character this now so +generally possesses has been secondarily acquired as a result +of the facilities it undoubtedly offers for regional specialization +in the protoplasmic mass.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The special literature of cytology has grown to +large dimensions. The following are the more important text-books +and papers of general interest: E. B. Wilson, <i>The Cell in +Development and Inheritance</i> (2nd ed., 1900); A. Gurwitsch, +<i>Morphologie und Biologie der Zelle</i> (Jena, 1904); O. Hertwig, <i>Allgemeine +Biologie</i> (Jena, 1906); Korschelt and Heider, <i>Lehrbuch der +vergl. Entwicklungsgeschichte der wirbellosen Tiere</i>, Allgem. Teil, +“The Germ Cells and Experimental Embryology” (Jena, 1903); +Whitman, “The Inadequacy of the Cell Theory of Development,” +<i>Journ. Morph.</i> viii., 1893; Adam Sedgwick, “On the Inadequacy +of the Cellular Theory of Development,” <i>Quart. Journ. Micro. +Science</i>, xxxvii.; G. C. Bourne, “A Criticism of the Cell Theory” +(an answer to Sedgwick’s paper), <i>Quart. Journ. Micro. Science</i>, +xxxviii.; Th. Boveri, “Befruchtung,” <i>Merkel-Bonnets Ergebnisse +der Anat. u. Entwicklungsgesch.</i> Bd. i. (1892), <i>Das Problem der +Befruchtung</i> (Jena, 1902), <i>Ergebnisse über die Konstitution der +chromatischen Substanz des Zellkerns</i> (Jena, 1904); J. Rückert, “Die +Chromatinreduktion bei der Reifung der Sexualzellen,” <i>Merkel-Bonnets +Ergebnisse</i>, Bd. iii. (1894); V. Häcker, “Die Reifungserscheinungen,” +<i>Ergebn. Anat. u. Entwicklungsgesch.</i> Bd. viii. (1898); +F. Meves, “Zellteilung,” <i>Merkel-Bonnets Ergebnisse</i>, Bd. viii. (1898, +1899); W. Waldeyer, “Die Geschlechtszellen,” in O. Hertwig’s +<i>Handbuch der vergleich. u. experiment. Entwicklungslehre d. Wirbeltiere</i> +(1901, 1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. C. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Allgemeine Physiologie</i>, p. 53 (1895).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2o" id="ft2o" href="#fa2o"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Vom inwendigen Bau der Gewachse</i> (1806).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3o" id="ft3o" href="#fa3o"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The Chromoplastids of the vegetable cell come under a different +category of cell-inclusions; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Cytology</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4o" id="ft4o" href="#fa4o"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Cf. Pfeffer’s classical experiments on the physiological significance +of cell-continuity in plant tissues (<i>Über den Einfluss des Zellkerns +auf die Bildung der Zellhaut</i>, 1896). The recent work in physiology +on the influence substances secreted by certain tissues and circulating +in the blood-stream exert upon other and widely different tissues, +should not be lost sight of in this connexion.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5o" id="ft5o" href="#fa5o"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The influence this protoplasmic continuity may have upon our +conception of the cell as a unit of organization is referred to below +(<i>Present Position of the Cell-theory</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft6o" id="ft6o" href="#fa6o"><span class="fn">6</span></a> A term (from <span class="grk" title="karyon">κάρυον</span>, kernel) suggested by Flemming to replace +Strasburger’s hybrid term “nucleoplasm” (1882). The earlier +workers, <i>e.g.</i> Leydig, Schultze, Brücke, de Bary, &c., restricted the +term protoplasm to the cell-body—the “Cytoplasm” of Strasburger, +an example still followed by O. Hertwig.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7o" id="ft7o" href="#fa7o"><span class="fn">7</span></a> From <i>linum</i>, a thread, Schwarz, 1887.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8o" id="ft8o" href="#fa8o"><span class="fn">8</span></a> From <span class="grk" title="chrôma">χρῶμα</span>, colour, Flemming, 1879.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9o" id="ft9o" href="#fa9o"><span class="fn">9</span></a> The formation of pseudopodia and accompanying changes in +form of <i>Amoeba</i> were observed as early as 1755 by Raesel von +Rosenhof, who named it on this account the “little Proteus.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft10o" id="ft10o" href="#fa10o"><span class="fn">10</span></a> “Sur les rapports des cils vibratiles avec les centrosomes,” +<i>Archives d’anatomie microscopique</i> (1898).</p> + +<p><a name="ft11o" id="ft11o" href="#fa11o"><span class="fn">11</span></a> “Über Zentralkörper in männlichen Geschlechtszellen von +Schmetterlingen” (Anat. Anz. Bd. xiv., 1897). Cf. also the papers +of Lenhossek (<i>Über Flimmerzellen</i>, 1898), Karl Peter (<i>Das Zentrum +für die Flimm- und Giesselbewegung</i>, 1899) and Verworn (<i>Studien zur +Physiologie der Flimmerbewegung</i>, 1899).</p> + +<p><a name="ft12o" id="ft12o" href="#fa12o"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Cf., however, the present writer’s interpretation of this structure +in the oocyte of <i>Antedon</i>. <i>Phil. Trans. Royal Soc.</i> (1906), B. 249.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13o" id="ft13o" href="#fa13o"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Claude Bernard expressed the same conclusion in 1885. Rejecting +both the view that vital phenomena were identical with chemico-physical +phenomena, and that which regarded them as totally +distinct, he suggested a third point of view: “l’élément ultime du +phénomène est physique; l’arrangement est vital.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft14o" id="ft14o" href="#fa14o"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Many forms of response to stimulus involve no visible specialization, +<i>e.g.</i> positive and negative heliotropism, chemiotropism, geotropism, +&c., seen more especially in plants, but occurring also in the +animal kingdom.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15o" id="ft15o" href="#fa15o"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Prominent among these are: Schleiden (1873), Fol (1873-1877), +Auerbach (1874), Bütschli (1876), Strasburger (1875-1888), O. +Hertwig (1875-1890), R. Hertwig (1875-1877); Flemming (1879-1891), +van Beneden (1883-1887), Rabl (1889), Boveri (1887-1903).</p> + +<p><a name="ft16o" id="ft16o" href="#fa16o"><span class="fn">16</span></a> This distinction between the chromatic and achromatic portions +of the mitotic figure is due to Flemming.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17o" id="ft17o" href="#fa17o"><span class="fn">17</span></a> The genesis of the spireme thread was first described by E. G. +Balbiani in 1876.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18o" id="ft18o" href="#fa18o"><span class="fn">18</span></a> “Recherches sur la maturation de l’œuf, la fécondation et la +division cellulaire” (<i>Archives de biologie</i>, vol. iv.).</p> + +<p><a name="ft19o" id="ft19o" href="#fa19o"><span class="fn">19</span></a> First discovered by Flemming in 1879 and confirmed by Retzius +in 1881.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20o" id="ft20o" href="#fa20o"><span class="fn">20</span></a> The discovery by Hermann of the central spindle first clearly +showed that two kinds of fibres must be recognized in the mitotic +figure. Those of the central spindle correspond to the continuous +spindle fibres of Flemming (1891) and Strasburger (1884), and the +mantle fibres, <i>i.e.</i> half-spindle or <i>Polstrahlen</i>, of van Beneden (1887) +and Boveri (1889-1890).</p> + +<p><a name="ft21o" id="ft21o" href="#fa21o"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Planter, Watasé, Griffen and others.</p> + +<p><a name="ft22o" id="ft22o" href="#fa22o"><span class="fn">22</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> <i>Euglypha</i> (Schewiakoff, 1888), Infusoria (R. Hertwig, 1898). +So also Korschelt for <i>Ophryotrocha</i>, and many other cases.</p> + +<p><a name="ft23o" id="ft23o" href="#fa23o"><span class="fn">23</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> Bauer, spermatogenic cells of <i>Ascaris univalens</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft24o" id="ft24o" href="#fa24o"><span class="fn">24</span></a> Cf. also Watasé, Solger and Zimmermann.</p> + +<p><a name="ft25o" id="ft25o" href="#fa25o"><span class="fn">25</span></a> This term is due to Boveri (<i>Zellenstudien</i>, ii., 1888, p. 68; <i>Jen. +Zeit.</i> xxii.), but it was intended by him to include the region of +modified cytoplasm or “centrosphere” often enclosing the centrosome +proper, <i>i.e.</i> “centriole” of Boveri.</p> + +<p><a name="ft26o" id="ft26o" href="#fa26o"><span class="fn">26</span></a> For outline of fertilization see article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Reproduction</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft27o" id="ft27o" href="#fa27o"><span class="fn">27</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> lymph and various epithelial and connective tissue cells of +salamander larva (Flemming, 1891; Heidenhain, 1892); pigment +cells of fishes (Solger, 1891); red blood corpuscles (Heidenhain, +Eisen, 1897); and numerous other cases.</p> + +<p><a name="ft28o" id="ft28o" href="#fa28o"><span class="fn">28</span></a> For an interesting development of this subject see Watasé (1894). +This author not only identifies the centrosome with the structures +seen in lymph cells, &c., but compares it to the basal granules of +ciliated cells and to the varicose swellings on the sarcostyles of striped +muscle cells!</p> + +<p><a name="ft29o" id="ft29o" href="#fa29o"><span class="fn">29</span></a> The force of this evidence is admitted by Boveri himself. Meves, +however, maintains the possibility that the numerous centrosomes +appearing in the egg arise by the rapid fragmentation of a centrosome +already present.</p> + +<p><a name="ft30o" id="ft30o" href="#fa30o"><span class="fn">30</span></a> Cf. especially the behaviour of the centrosomes in the fertilization +of the egg of <i>Pleurophyllidia</i> (MacFarland, 1897) and that of +<i>Cerebratulus</i> (Coe, 1901). Not only may the sperm centrosomes +totally disappear before reaching the egg-nucleus, but in the latter +type the definitive centrosomes appear while the last traces of the +sperm asters are still visible.</p> + +<p><a name="ft31o" id="ft31o" href="#fa31o"><span class="fn">31</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> Meves; Spermatagonia of Salamandra.</p> + +<p><a name="ft32o" id="ft32o" href="#fa32o"><span class="fn">32</span></a> Cf. especially the artificial production of amitosis in <i>Spirogyra</i>; +W. Pfeffer, 1899.</p> + +<p><a name="ft33o" id="ft33o" href="#fa33o"><span class="fn">33</span></a> Cf. Boveri, 1904, p. 13. (For Boveri’s criticism of Delage’s +views, cf. Boveri, 1901 and 1902.)</p> + +<p><a name="ft34o" id="ft34o" href="#fa34o"><span class="fn">34</span></a> It should, however, be noted that the assumption that a particular +group of characters remains always associated in a particular +chromosome is one that is very difficult to reconcile with the mode +of inheritance of Mendelian pairs of characters in the case of organisms +with a relatively small chromosome number.</p> + +<p><a name="ft35o" id="ft35o" href="#fa35o"><span class="fn">35</span></a> Boveri (1902), “Fertilization of enucleated <i>Echinus</i>-egg fragments,” +and M. Boveri (1903); by shaking the egg shortly after +fertilization the sperm centrosome is prevented from dividing, and +a monaster instead of a diaster results, the divided chromosomes +remaining in the one nucleus.</p> + +<p><a name="ft36o" id="ft36o" href="#fa36o"><span class="fn">36</span></a> Cf. especially in this connexion Häcker’s paper <i>Über die Schicksale +der elterlichen und grosselterlichen Kernanteile</i> (1902).</p> + +<p><a name="ft37o" id="ft37o" href="#fa37o"><span class="fn">37</span></a> Each nucleus contains a duplicate set of chromosomes, the one +of maternal, the other of paternal origin, and either of these sets +alone suffices for development. This is clearly shown by the experiments +of Loeb (1899) and Wilson (1901) on the artificial parthenogenesis +of the sea-urchin egg; and those of O. Hertwig (1889 and +1895), Delage (1899) and Winkler (1901), on the fertilization of +enucleated Echinoderm eggs (<i>Merogony</i>, Delage). The fact that in +some forms, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Ascaris megalocephala</i> var. <i>univalens</i>, only one +chromosome is derived from each parent, originally led Boveri to +conclude that <i>all</i> chromosomes must necessarily be physiologically +equivalent.</p> + +<p><a name="ft38o" id="ft38o" href="#fa38o"><span class="fn">38</span></a> <i>Über mehrpolige Mitosen als Mittel zur Analyse des Zellkerns</i> +(1902).</p> + +<p><a name="ft39o" id="ft39o" href="#fa39o"><span class="fn">39</span></a> <i>Über das Auseinandergehen von Furchungs- und Gewebezellen in +kalkfreien Medium</i> (1900).</p> + +<p><a name="ft40o" id="ft40o" href="#fa40o"><span class="fn">40</span></a> “Entwicklungsmechanische Studien V.” (<i>Zeit. für wiss. Zool.</i>, +Bd. lv., 1892).</p> + +<p><a name="ft41o" id="ft41o" href="#fa41o"><span class="fn">41</span></a> See Geddes and Thomson, <i>Sex</i>, esp. pp. 127, 137 and 139.</p> + +<p><a name="ft42o" id="ft42o" href="#fa42o"><span class="fn">42</span></a> The equivalence of the germ nuclei in development is shown by +the experiments on the fertilization of enucleated eggs and artificial +parthenogenesis already referred to.</p> + +<p><a name="ft43o" id="ft43o" href="#fa43o"><span class="fn">43</span></a> O. Hertwig, 1873; but esp. van Beneden, 1883.</p> + +<p><a name="ft44o" id="ft44o" href="#fa44o"><span class="fn">44</span></a> Häcker, “Über die Selbstständigkeit der väterlichen und +mütterlichen Kernbestandteile,” <i>Arch. f. mikr. Anat.</i> Bd. xlvi. (1896).</p> + +<p><a name="ft45o" id="ft45o" href="#fa45o"><span class="fn">45</span></a> First discovered by van Beneden (1883, 1887) for the egg of +<i>Ascaris</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft46o" id="ft46o" href="#fa46o"><span class="fn">46</span></a> In the case of the egg the whole of the yolk stored by the +“oocyte” (cell-generation immediately preceding the maturation +divisions) is handed on to only one of the four resulting cells—an +obvious economy. The three yolkless cells are necessarily functionless—abortive +ova—and are known as the “polar bodies” (Hertwig). +In spermatogenesis the maturation divisions, though bearing the +same relation to reduction as in oogenesis (Platner, 1889; O. Hertwig, +1890), give rise to four functional germ-cells. The explanation of +sexual differentiation given above, and that of polar body formation +given here, render it needless to do more than mention the theories +of Mimot (1877), van Beneden (1883) and others, by which “maturation” +was regarded as removing the “male” element from the +otherwise “hermaphrodite” egg.</p> + +<p><a name="ft47o" id="ft47o" href="#fa47o"><span class="fn">47</span></a> Weismann postulated a transverse division of the chromosomes, +not a distribution of entire chromosomes; but the result as far as +the reduction in the number of hereditary qualities goes is the same. +The inability of the mitotic mechanism to effect the transverse +division of unsplit chromosomes is pointed out by Boveri (1904).</p> + +<p><a name="ft48o" id="ft48o" href="#fa48o"><span class="fn">48</span></a> For an exhaustive account of reduction in Invertebrates see +Korschelt and Heider, <i>Entwicklungsgeschichte</i>, Allgem. Teil ii. +(Jena, 1903).</p> + +<p><a name="ft49o" id="ft49o" href="#fa49o"><span class="fn">49</span></a> Nevertheless the possibility of a pseudomitotic interpretation of +maturation in <i>Ascaris</i> also has been maintained by O. Hertwig +(1890), p. 277, Carnoy and Boveri (1904).</p> + +<p><a name="ft50o" id="ft50o" href="#fa50o"><span class="fn">50</span></a> The partial or even complete reconstruction of the nucleus +between the heterotype and homotype division in Vertebrates makes +it difficult to determine the identity of the split seen in the anaphase +of the heterotype with that reappearing in the prophase of the +homotype.</p> + +<p><a name="ft51o" id="ft51o" href="#fa51o"><span class="fn">51</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> Moore, 1895 (<i>Scyllium</i>); Flemming, 1897; Carnoy and +Lebrun, 1899 (<i>Amphibia</i>); McGregor, 1899; Lenhossek, 1898 +(mammals), and many others. So also for plants: Strasburger +and Mottier, 1897; Dixon, 1896; Sargant, 1896-1897; Farmer and +Moore, 1895; Gregoire, 1899; Guignard, 1899, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft52o" id="ft52o" href="#fa52o"><span class="fn">52</span></a> H. Henking (1899), T. Montgomery (1898) and F. C. Paulmeir +(1899) describe the diverging bivalent halves of the tetrad as being +united each by <i>two</i> fibres with the corresponding spindle pole. At +the next division, at which the diad is resolved into its constituent +univalent chromosomes, the daughter chromosomes are attached to +the spindle pole each by only one fibre; the two fibres now passing +to opposite poles of the spindle being the same fibres which, in the +preceding mitosis, were attached to one and the same pole.</p> + +<p><a name="ft53o" id="ft53o" href="#fa53o"><span class="fn">53</span></a> Reference may be here made to Rosenberg’s description (1904) +of the heterotype mitosis in <i>Drosera</i> hybrids. In the one parent +(<i>D. rotundifolia</i>) the somatic number is 20, in the other (<i>D. longifolia</i>) +10; while the hybrid itself has a somatic number of 30. The +reduced number in the hybrid, however, is not 15 but 20. Of these +10 are large and 10 small, the latter presumably representing the +supernumerary, and hence unpaired, chromosomes of the <i>D. rotundifolia</i> +parent.</p> + +<p><a name="ft54o" id="ft54o" href="#fa54o"><span class="fn">54</span></a> In their 1905 paper J. B. Farmer and J. E. S. Moore describe +two successive synaptic stages (<i>e.g.</i> Elasmobranchs), the first during +the contraction of the spireme thread, the second during the looping +up of the bivalent segments. (In this paper the authors suggest the +term “Meiosis” or “Meiotic phase” for the nuclear changes +accompanying the two maturation divisions in plants and animals +(<span class="grk" title="meiôsis">μείωσις</span>, reduction).</p> + +<p><a name="ft55o" id="ft55o" href="#fa55o"><span class="fn">55</span></a> Whitman, <i>Jour. Morph.</i>, 1903.</p> + +<p><a name="ft56o" id="ft56o" href="#fa56o"><span class="fn">56</span></a> This “Precocious segregation” (Lankester, 1877) is well seen +in the eggs of many Ctenophorae, Annelids, Gastropods and Nematodes. +See the papers by Lillie (1901), Conklin (1902), &c., and +especially Wilson on “Dentalium,” <i>Journ. of Exp. Zool.</i>, No. 1, 1904.</p> + +<p><a name="ft57o" id="ft57o" href="#fa57o"><span class="fn">57</span></a> Hofmeister, de Bary, Sachs, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft58o" id="ft58o" href="#fa58o"><span class="fn">58</span></a> <i>Loc. cit.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft59o" id="ft59o" href="#fa59o"><span class="fn">59</span></a> <i>Quart. Journ. Micro. Science</i>, 1894, vol. xxxvii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYZICENUS,<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> the architectural term given by Vitruvius to +the large hall, used by the Greeks, which faced the north, with +a prospect towards the gardens; the windows of this hall +opened down to the ground, so that the green verdure could be +seen by those lying on the couches.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CYZICUS,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> an ancient town of Mysia in Asia Minor, situated +on the shoreward side of the present peninsula of Kapu-Dagh +(Arctonnesus), which is said to have been originally an island +in the Sea of Marmora, and to have been artificially connected +with the mainland in historic times. It was, according to tradition, +occupied by Thessalian settlers at the coming of the +Argonauts, and in 756 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the town was founded by Greeks +from Miletus. Owing to its advantageous position it speedily +acquired commercial importance, and the gold <i>staters</i> of Cyzicus +were a staple currency in the ancient world till they were superseded +by those of Philip of Macedon. During the Peloponnesian +War (431-404 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) Cyzicus was subject to the Athenians and +Lacedaemonians alternately, and at the peace of Antalcidas +(387 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), like the other Greek cities in Asia, it was made over +to Persia. The history of the town in Hellenistic times is closely +connected with that of the dynasts of Pergamum, with whose +extinction it came into direct relations with Rome. Cyzicus +was held for the Romans against Mithradates in 74 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> till the +siege was raised by Lucullus: the loyalty of the city was rewarded +by an extension of territory and other privileges. Still a +nourishing centre in Imperial times, the place appears to have +been ruined by a series of earthquakes—the last in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1063—and +the population was transferred to Artaki at least as early +as the 13th century, when the peninsula was occupied by the +Crusaders. The site is now known as Bal-Kiz (<span class="grk" title="Palaia Kuzikos">Παλαία Κύζικος</span>?) +and entirely uninhabited, though under cultivation. The +principal extant ruins are:—the walls, which are traceable for +nearly their whole extent, a picturesque amphitheatre intersected +by a stream, and the substructures of the temple of Hadrian. +Of this magnificent building, sometimes ranked among the seven +wonders of the ancient world, thirty-one immense columns still +stood erect in 1444. These have since been carried away piecemeal +for building purposes by the Turks.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Marquardt, <i>Cyzicus</i> (Berlin, 1830); G. Perrot, <i>Exploration +de la Galatie</i> (Paris, 1862); F. W. Hasluck and A. E. Henderson in +<i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i> (1904), 135-143.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. W. Ha.)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page721" id="page721"></a>721</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CZARNIECKI, STEPHEN<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> (1590-1665), Polish general, learnt +the science of war under Stanislaw Koniecpolski in the Prussian +campaigns against Gustavus Adolphus (1626-1629), and under +Wladislaus IV. in the Muscovite campaign of 1633. On the 15th +of April 1648 he was one of the many noble Polish prisoners who +fell into the hands of Chmielnicki at the battle of “Yellow +Waters,” and was sent in chains to the Crimea, whence he was +ransomed in 1649. He took an active part in all the subsequent +wars with the Cossacks and received more disfiguring wounds +than any other commander. When Charles X. of Sweden invaded +Poland in 1655, Czarniecki distinguished himself by his +heroic defence of Cracow, which he only surrendered under the +most honourable conditions. His energy and ability as a leader +of guerillas hampered Charles X. at every step, and though +frequently worsted he from time to time inflicted serious defeats +upon the Swedes, notably at Jaroslaw and at Kozienice in 1656. +Under his direction the popular rising against the invader ultimately +proved triumphant. It was he who brought King John +Casimir back from exile and enabled him to regain his lost +kingdom. It was against his advice that the great battle of +Warsaw was fought, and his subsequent strategy neutralized +the ill effects of that national disaster. On the retirement of +the Swedes from Cracow and Warsaw, and the conclusion of the +treaty of Copenhagen with the Danes, he commanded the army +corps sent to drive the troops of Charles X. out of Jutland and +greatly contributed to the ultimate success of the Allies. On +the conclusion of the Peace of Oliva, which adjusted the long +outstanding differences between Poland and Sweden, Czarniecki +was transferred to the eastern frontier where the war with +Muscovy was still raging. In the campaign of 1660 he won the +victories of Polonka and Lachowicza and penetrated to the heart +of the enemy’s country. The diet of 1661 publicly thanked him +for his services; the king heaped honours and riches upon him, +and in 1665 he was appointed acting commander-in-chief of +Poland, but died a few days after receiving this supreme +distinction. By his wife Sophia Kobierzycka he left two +daughters. Czarniecki is rightly regarded as one of the most +famous of heroic Poland’s great captains, and to him belongs +the chief merit of extricating her from the difficulties which +threatened to overwhelm her during the disastrous reign of +John Casimir. Czarniecki raised partisan-warfare to the dignity +of a science, and by his ubiquity and tenacity demoralized and +exhausted the regular armies to which he was generally opposed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Ludwik Jenike, <i>Stephen Czarniecki</i> (Pol.) (Warsaw, 1891); +Michal Dymitr Krajewski, <i>History of Stephen Czarniecki</i> (Pol.), +(Cracow, 1859).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CZARTORYSKI, ADAM GEORGE,<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> <span class="sc">Prince</span> (1770-1861), +Polish statesman, was the son of Prince Adam Casimir Czartoryski +and Isabella Fleming. After a careful education at home by +eminent specialists, mostly Frenchmen,<a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> he first went abroad +in 1786. At Gotha he heard Goethe read his <i>Iphigenie auf +Tauris</i>, and made the acquaintance of the dignified Herder and +“fat little Wieland.” In 1789 he visited England with his +mother, and was present at the trial of Warren Hastings. On a +second visit in 1793 he made many acquaintances among the +English aristocracy and studied the English constitution. In +the interval between these visits he fought for his country +during the war of the second partition, and would subsequently +have served under Kosciuszko also had he not been arrested on +his way to Poland at Brussels by the Austrian government. +After the third partition the estates of the Czartoryskis were +confiscated, and in May 1795 Adam and his younger brother +Constantine were summoned to St Petersburg; later in the year +they were commanded to enter the Russian service, Adam +becoming an officer in the horse, and Constantine in the foot +guards. Catherine was so favourably impressed by the youths +that she restored them part of their estates, and in the beginning +of 1796 made them gentlemen in waiting. Adam had already +met the grand duke Alexander at a ball at the princess Golitsuin’s, +and the youths at once conceived a strong “intellectual friendship” +for each other. On the accession of the emperor Paul, +Czartoryski was appointed adjutant to Alexander, now Cesarevich, +and was permitted to revisit his Polish estates for three months. +At this time the tone of the Russian court was extremely liberal, +humanitarian enthusiasts like Peter Volkonsky and Nikolai +Novosiltsov possessing great influence.</p> + +<p>Throughout the reign of Paul, Czartoryski was in high favour +and on terms of the closest intimacy with the emperor, who in +December 1798 appointed him ambassador to the court of +Sardinia. On reaching Italy Czartoryski found that the monarch +to whom he was accredited was a king without a kingdom, so +that the outcome of his first diplomatic mission was a pleasant +tour through Italy to Naples, the acquisition of the Italian +language, and a careful exploration of the antiquities of Rome. +In the spring of 1801 the new emperor Alexander summoned his +friend back to St Petersburg. Czartoryski found the tsar still +suffering from remorse at his father’s assassination, and incapable +of doing anything but talk religion and politics to a small circle +of private friends. To all remonstrances he only replied “There’s +plenty of time.” The senate did most of the current business; +Peter Vasilevich Zavadovsky, a pupil of the Jesuits, was minister +of education. Alexander appointed Czartoryski curator of the +academy of Vilna (April 3, 1803) that he might give full play +to his advanced ideas. He was unable, however, to give much +attention to education, for from the beginning of 1804, as +adjunct of foreign affairs, he had the practical control of Russian +diplomacy. His first act was to protest energetically against +the murder of the due d’Enghien (March 20, 1804), and insist +on an immediate rupture with France. On the 7th of June the +French minister Hédouville quitted St Petersburg; and on the +11th of August a note dictated by Czartoryski to Alexander +was sent to the Russian minister in London, urging the formation +of an anti-French coalition. It was Czartoryski also who framed +the Convention of the 6th of November 1804, whereby Russia +agreed to put 115,000 and Austria 235,000 men in the field +against Napoleon. Finally, on the 11th of April 1805 he signed +an offensive-defensive alliance with England. But his most +striking ministerial act was a memorial written in 1805, but +otherwise undated, which aimed at transforming the whole map +of Europe. In brief it amounted to this. Austria and Prussia +were to divide Germany between them. Russia was to acquire +the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora, the Bosphorus with +Constantinople, and Corfu. Austria was to have Bosnia, +Wallachia and Ragusa. Montenegro, enlarged by Mostar and +the Ionian Islands, was to form a separate state. England and +Russia together were to maintain the equilibrium of the world. +In return for their acquisitions in Germany, Austria and Prussia +were to consent to the erection of an autonomous Polish state +extending from Danzig to the sources of the Vistula, under the +protection of Russia. Fantastic as it was in some particulars, +this project was partly realized<a name="fa2p" id="fa2p" href="#ft2p"><span class="sp">2</span></a> in more recent times, and it +presented the best guarantee for the independent existence of +Poland which had never been able to govern itself. But in +the meantime Austria had come to an understanding with +England as to subsidies, and war had begun.</p> + +<p>In 1805 Czartoryski accompanied Alexander both to Berlin +and Olmütz as chief minister. He regarded the Berlin visit as a +blunder, chiefly owing to his profound distrust of Prussia; +but Alexander ignored his representations, and in February +1807 he lost favour and was superseded by Andrei Eberhard +Budberg. But though no longer a minister Czartoryski continued +to enjoy Alexander’s confidence in private, and in 1810 the +emperor candidly admitted to Czartoryski that his policy in +1805 had been erroneous and he had not made a proper use of his +opportunities. The same year Czartoryski quitted St Petersburg +for ever; but the personal relations between him and Alexander +were never better. The friends met again at Kalisch shortly +before the signature of the Russo-Prussian alliance of the +20th of February 1813, and Czartoryski was in the emperor’s +suite at Paris in 1814, and rendered his sovereign material +services at the congress of Vienna.</p> + +<p>On the erection of the congressional kingdom of Poland +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page722" id="page722"></a>722</span> +every one thought that Czartoryski, who more than any other +man had prepared the way for it, would be its first governor-general, +but he was content with the title of senator-palatine +and a share in the administration. In 1817 the prince married +Anna Sapiezanko, the wedding leading to a duel with his rival +Pac. On the death of his father in 1823 he retired to his ancestral +castle at Pulawy; but the Revolution of 1830 brought him back +to public life. As president of the provisional government he +summoned (Dec. 18th, 1830) the Diet of 1831, and after the +termination of Chlopicki’s dictatorship was elected chief of +the supreme council by 121 out of 138 votes (January 30th). +On the 16th of September his disapproval of the popular excesses +at Warsaw caused him to quit the government after sacrificing +half his fortune to the national cause; but it must be admitted +that throughout the insurrection he did not act up to his great +reputation. Yet the energy of the sexagenarian statesman was +wonderful. On the 23rd of August he joined Girolano +Ramorino’s army-corps as a volunteer, and subsequently formed +a confederation of the three southern provinces of Kalisch, +Sandomir and Cracow. At the end of the war he emigrated to +France, where he resided during the last thirty years of his life. +He died at his country residence at Montfermeil, near Meaux, +on the 15th of July 1861. He left two sons, Witold (1824-1865), +and Wladyslaus (1828-1894), and a daughter Isabella, +who married Jan Dzialynski in 1857. The principal works of +Czartoryski are <i>Essai sur la diplomatie</i> (Marseilles, 1830); +<i>Life of J. U. Niemcewiez</i> (Pol). (Paris, 1860); <i>Alexander I. et +Czartoryski: correspondance ... et conversations</i> (1801-1823) +(Paris, 1865); <i>Mémoires et correspondance avec Alex. I.</i>, with +preface by C. de Mazade, 2 vols. (Paris, 1887); an English +translation <i>Memoirs of Czartoryski, &c.</i>, edited by A. Gielguch, +with documents relating to his negotiations with Pitt, and +conversations with Palmerston in 1832 (2 vols., London, 1888).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Bronislaw Zaleski, <i>Life of Adam Czartoryski</i> (Pol.) (Paris, +1881); Lubomir Gadon, <i>Prince Adam Czartoryski</i> (Pol.) (Cracow, +1892); Ludovik Debicki, <i>Pulawy</i>, vol. iv.; Lubomir Gadon, <i>Prince +Adam Czartoryski during the Insurrection of November</i> (Pol.) (Cracow, +1900).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Among them was the famous democrat Dupont de Nemours.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2p" id="ft2p" href="#fa2p"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> Austria obtained Bosnia, and Montenegro has been enlarged.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CZARTORYSKI, FRYDERYK MICHAL,<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> <span class="sc">Prince</span> (1696-1775), +Polish statesman, was born in 1696. Of small means and no +position, he owed his elevation in the world to extraordinary +ability, directed by an energetic but patriotic ambition. After +a careful education on the best French models, which he completed +at Paris, Florence and Rome, he attached himself to the +court of Dresden, and through the influence of Count Fleming, +the leading minister there, obtained the vice-chancellorship of +Lithuania and many other dignities. Czartoryski was one of the +many Polish nobles who, when Augustus II. was seriously ill +at Bialyvostok in 1727, signed the secret declaration guaranteeing +the Polish succession to his son; but this did not prevent him +from repudiating his obligations when Stanislaus Leszczynski +was placed upon the throne by the influence of France in 1733. +When Stanislaus abdicated in 1735 Czartoryski voted for +Augustus III. (of Saxony), who gladly employed him and his +family to counteract the influence of the irreconcilable Potokis. +For the next forty years Czartoryski was certainly the leading +Polish statesman. In foreign affairs he was the first to favour +an alliance with Russia, Austria and England, as opposed to +France and Prussia—a system difficult to sustain and not always +beneficial to Poland or Saxony. In Poland Czartoryski was at +the head of the party of reform. His palace was the place where +the most promising young gentlemen of the day were educated +and sent abroad that they might return as his coadjutors in the +great work. His plan aimed at the restoration of the royal +prerogative and the abolition of the <i>liberum veto</i>, an abuse that +made any durable improvement impossible. These patriotic +endeavours made the Czartoryskis very unpopular with the +ignorant <i>szlachta</i>, but for many years they had the firm and +constant support of the Saxon court, especially after Brühl +succeeded Fleming.</p> + +<p>Czartoryski reached the height of his power in 1752 when he +was entrusted with the great seal of Lithuania; but after that +date the influence of his rival Mniszek began to prevail at Dresden, +whereupon Czartoryski sought a reconciliation with his political +opponents at home and foreign support both in England and +Russia. In 1755 he sent his nephew Stanislaus Poniatowski +to St Petersburg as Saxon minister, a mission which failed +completely. Czartoryski’s philo-Russian policy had by this +time estranged Brühl, but he frustrated all the plans of the +Saxon court by dissolving the diets of 1760, 1761 and 1762. +In 1763 he went a step farther and proposed the dethronement +of Augustus III., who died the same year. During the ensuing +interregnum the prince chancellor laboured night and day at +the convocation diet of 1764 to reform the constitution, and it +was with displeasure that he saw his incompetent nephew +Stanislaus finally elected king in 1765. But though disgusted +with the weakness of the king and obliged to abandon at last all +hope of the amelioration of his country, Czartoryski continued +to hold office till the last; and as chancellor of Lithuania he +sealed all the partition treaties. He died in the full possession +of his faculties and was considered by the Russian minister +Repnin “the soundest head in the kingdom.” It is a mistake, +however, to regard Czartoryski as the sole reforming statesman +of his day, and despite his great services there were occasions +when the partisan in him got the better of the statesman. His +foreign policy, moreover, was very vacillating, and he changed +his “system” more frequently perhaps than any contemporary +diplomatist. But when all is said he must remain one of the +noblest names in Polish history.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Correspondence</i> of Czartoryski in the Collections of the +Russian Historical Society, vols. 7, 10, 13, 48, 51, 67 (St Petersburg, +1890, &c.); Wladyslaw Tadeusz Kisielewski, <i>Reforms of the Czartorysccy</i> +(Pol.) (Sambor, 1880); Adalbert Roepell, <i>Polen um die +Mitte des XVIII. Jahrhunderts</i> (Gotha, 1876); Jacques Victor +Albert de Broglie, <i>Le Secret du roi</i> (Paris, 1878); Antoni Waliszewki, +<i>The Potoccy and the Czartorysccy</i> (Pol.); Carl Heinrich Heyking, <i>Aus +Polens und Kurlands letzten Tagen</i> (Berlin, 1897); Ludwik Denbicki, +<i>Pulawy</i> (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1887-1888).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CZECH<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> (in Bohemian, <i>Čech</i>), a name which signifies an +inhabitant of Čechy, the native designation of Bohemia. The +Czechs belong to the Slavic race, and according to the usually +accepted division they form, together with the Poles and the +almost extinct Lusatians, the group of the Western Slavs. +Speaking generally, it can be said that the Czechs inhabit a large +part of Bohemia, a yet larger part of Moravia, parts of Silesia—both +Austrian and Prussian—and extensive districts in northern +Hungary. In the 19th century the Czechs of Hungary—much +to their own detriment—developed a written language that differs +slightly from that used in Bohemia, but as regards their race they +are identical with the Bohemians and Moravians. Beyond the +borders of this continuous territory there are many Czechs in +Lower Austria. Vienna in particular has a large and increasing +Czech population. There are also numerous Czechs in Russia, +particularly Volhynia, in the United States—where a large number +of newspapers and periodicals are published in the Czech +language—and in London. Though the statistics are very +uncertain and untrustworthy, it can be stated that the Czechs +number about eight millions.</p> + +<p>The period at which the Czechs settled in Bohemia is very +uncertain; all theories, indeed, with regard to the advent of the +Slavs in northern and eastern Europe are merely conjectural. +It was formerly generally accepted as a fact that all Bohemia +was originally inhabited by Celtic tribes, who were succeeded +by the Germanic Marcomanni, and later by the Slavic Czechs. +According to a very ancient tradition reproduced in the book of +Cosmas, the earliest Bohemian chronicler, the Czechs arrived in +Bohemia led by their eponymous chief Čechus, and first settled +on the Řip Hill (Georgberg) near Roudnice. It is a strange proof +of the intense obscurity of the earliest Bohemian history that +Cosmas, writing at the beginning of the 12th century, is already +unaware of the existence of pre-Slavic inhabitants of Bohemia. +It is historically certain that the Czechs inhabited parts of +Bohemia as early as the 6th century. In the absence of all +historical evidence, modern Czech scholars have endeavoured +by other means to throw some light on the earliest period of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page723" id="page723"></a>723</span> +Czechs. By craniological studies and a thorough examination +of the fields where the dead were burnt (in Czech <i>žárove pole</i>), +still found in some parts of Bohemia, they have arrived at the +conclusion that parts of the country were inhabited by Czechs, +or at least by Slavs, long before the Christian era, perhaps about +the year 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>It is certain that the Slavs at the time when they first appeared +in history had a common language, known as the ancient Slavic +(<i>praslovanský</i>) language. When in the course of time the Slavs +occupied various countries, which were often widely apart, +different dialects arose among them, many of which were +influenced by the language of the neighbouring non-Slavic +populations. Thus the Czech language from an early period +absorbed many German words. It is probable that the development +of the Czech language as an independent one, was very +gradual. Existent documents, such as the hymn to St Wenceslas, +which belongs to the second half of the 10th century, are written +partly in old-Slavic, partly in Czech. When the Slavs first +occupied Bohemia, they were probably divided into several +tribes, of which the Czechs, who inhabited Prague and the +country surrounding it, were the most powerful. It is probable +that these smaller tribes were only gradually subdued by the +Czechs and that some of them had previously to their absorption +adopted special dialects. The Netolice, Lučane, Pšovane, +Sedlčane appear to have been among the more important tribes +who were forced to acknowledge the supremacy of the Czechs, +and it may be conjectured that their language for a time differed +slightly from that of their conquerors. The Czech language has, +like all Slavic ones, a strong tendency to develop dialects; +this was the case at the time of its first appearance as an independent +language, and has to a certain extent continued up to +the present day. The dialects of Moravia and the northern +districts of Hungary still show variations from the generally +accepted forms of the Czech language, though since the foundation +of the Czech university of Prague this—at least among the +educated classes—is no longer true to the same extent as it +formerly was. The Czech language at the time of its formation +naturally remained closest to those other Slav-speaking countries +which were geographically its neighbours, the Poles and the +Lusatians, and it may be said that this is still the case. The +Czech language at the time when in the 12th and 13th centuries +it first appears as a separate and distinct one, differed considerably +from that of the present day. Ancient Czech had several +diphthongs, such as: <i>ia</i>, <i>ie</i>, <i>iu</i>, <i>uo</i> and <i>au</i>, that are unknown to +the present language. The letter “<i>l</i>” had a threefold sound, +and besides the letters <i>b</i>, <i>p</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>v</i>, the softer forms <i>b</i>′, <i>p</i>′, <i>m</i>′, <i>v</i>′, +were also in existence. The letter <i>g</i> (as in other Slavic languages) +was often used where modern Czechs employ the letter <i>h</i>. +Ancient Bohemian had three numbers, the singular, plural and +dual; of the dual only scant vestiges remain in modern Czech.</p> + +<p>Once it had obtained its independence, the Czech language +developed rapidly, and the philosophical and theological writings +of Thomas of Štitný (1331-1401) proved that it could already +be used even for dealing with the most abstract subjects, though +Štitný was blamed by the monks for not writing in Latin, as +was then customary. The Czech language is greatly indebted +also to John Hus, whose best and most original works were +written in the language of his country. Hus showed great +interest in the orthography and grammar of his language, and +has devoted an interesting treatise entitled “<i>Orthographia +bohemica</i>” to it. As already mentioned, the Czech language +had sprung from diverse dialects, and Hus endeavoured to +establish uniformity. To the Bohemian reformer is also due +the system of so-called diacritic marks—such as <i>č</i>, <i>ů</i>, <i>ý</i>—which +with some modifications are still in use.<a name="fa1q" id="fa1q" href="#ft1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The Latin characters +which were in the earliest times, as again at the present day, +used when writing Czech, are quite unable to reproduce some +sounds peculiar to Slavic languages. This was remedied by the +introduction of these marks, and Hus’s system of orthography +became known as the diacritic one. The Bohemian reformer, +zealous for the purity of the language of his country, often in his +sermons inveighed quaintly and vehemently against those who +defiled the Czech language by introducing numerous “Germanisms.” +A century later the Czech language was largely indebted +to the then recently founded community of the Bohemian (or +as they were also often called, Moravian) brethren. A member +of the community, Brother John Blakoslav, wrote in 1571 a +<i>Grammatika Česká</i>, that still has considerable philological interest. +It contains a full account of the construction of the Czech +language, based on Latin grammar, with which the writer was +thoroughly acquainted. Divines belonging to the same community +also at the end of the 16th century published at Kralice +in Moravia a complete Czech version of the Old and New Testaments. +Together with the <i>Labyrint Světa</i> (Labyrinth of the +World) of Komensky (Comenius), who was also a member of +the brotherhood, it can be considered a model of the Czech +language in the period immediately preceding its downfall.</p> + +<p>The Czechs have always enthusiastically upheld the language +of their country. In ancient Czech, indeed, the same word +<i>jazyk</i> denotes both “nation” and “language.” As late as in +1608 a decree of the estates of Bohemia declared that Czech was +the only official and recognized state-language, and that all who +wished to acquire citizenship in the country should be obliged +to acquire the knowledge of it. While all patriots thus supported +the national language, it was greatly disliked by the absolutists +who were opposed to the ancient free constitution of Bohemia, +as well as by all who favoured the Church of Rome. The overthrow +of Bohemian independence at the battle of the White +Mountain (1620) was therefore shortly followed by the decline +of the Czech language. All Czech writings which could be found +were destroyed by the Austrian authorities as being tainted with +heresy, while no new books written in Czech appeared, except +occasional prayer-books and almanacs. For these scanty +writings the German so-called “Schwabach” characters were +used, and this custom only ceased in the middle of the 19th +century. The Czech language, for some time entirely excluded +from the schools, all but ceased to be written, and its revival +at the beginning of the 19th century was almost a resurrection.</p> + +<p>The first originator of the movement, Joseph Dobrovský or +Doubravský (1753-1829) seems himself, at least at the beginning +of his life, to have considered it impossible that Czech should +again become a widely-spoken language, and one whose literature +could successfully compete with that of larger countries. Yet +it was the works of this “patriarch of Slavic philology” which +first drew the public attention to the half-forgotten Czech +language. Dobrovský’s work was afterwards continued by +Kolar, Jungmann, Palacký, Šafařek, and many others, and Czech +literature has, both as regards its value and its extension, +reached a height that in the middle of the 19th century would +have appeared incredible.</p> + +<p>Though met by constant opposition on the part of the Austrian +authorities, the Czechs have succeeded in re-establishing the +use of their language in many of the lower and middle schools of +Bohemia and Moravia, and the foundation of a Czech university +at Prague (1882-1884) has of course contributed very largely +to the ever-increasing expansion of the Czech language. The +national language has at all times appeared to the Bohemians +as the palladium of their nationality and independence, and the +movement in favour of the revival of the Czech language +necessarily became a political one, as soon as circumstances +permitted. The friends of the national language at the beginning +of the 19th century were generally known as the <i>vlastenci</i> +(patriots), but when in 1848 representatives of many parts of +Austria met at Vienna, the deputies of Bohemia—with the +exception of the Germans—formed what was called the national +or Czech party. Parliamentary government did not at that +period long survive, and at the end of the year 1851 absolutism +had been re-established. In 1860 a new attempt to establish +constitutional government in Austria was made, and representatives +of the Czech party appeared at the provincial diet +of Prague and the central parliament at Vienna. The Czech +party endeavoured to obtain the re-establishment of the ancient +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page724" id="page724"></a>724</span> +Bohemian constitution, but, allied as they were with a large +part of the Bohemian nobility, it was their policy to maintain +a somewhat conservative attitude. After having absented +themselves for a considerable time from the parliament of +Vienna, the legality of which they denied, the Czech deputies +reappeared in Vienna in 1879, and, together with the representatives +of the Bohemian nobility, formed there what was +known as the Česky Klub.</p> + +<p>While the Czechs for a time continued united at Vienna, a +schism among them had some time previously occurred at +Prague. Dissatisfied with the policy of the Czechs, a new party +had been formed in Bohemia which affected more advanced +views and became known as the “Young Czech” party. The +more conservative Czechs were henceforth known as the “Old +Czechs.” The “Young Czechs,” when the party first became +independent in 1872, had thirty-five representatives in the diet +of Prague, but at the elections of 1874 their number was reduced +to seven. They continued, however, to gain in strength, and +obtained for a long time a large majority in the diet, while the +Old Czech party for a considerable period almost disappeared. +In Vienna also the Old Czech party gradually lost ground. Its +leader Dr Rieger, indeed, obtained for the Czechs certain concessions +which, underrated at the time, have since proved by no +means valueless. The decision of the Old Czech party to take +part at a conference in Vienna under the presidency of Count +Taafe—then Austrian prime-minister—which was to settle the +national differences in Bohemia, caused its complete downfall. +The proposals of the Vienna conference were rejected with +indignation, and the Old Czechs, having become very unpopular, +for a time ceased to contest the elections for the legislative +assemblies of Prague and Vienna. The victorious Young Czechs, +however, soon proved themselves very unskilful politicians. +After very unsuccessfully assuming for a short time an attitude +of intransigeant opposition, they soon became subservient to +the government of Vienna to an extent which the Old Czechs +had never ventured. Dr Kramář, in particular, as leader of +the Young Czech party, supported the foreign policy of Austria +even when its tendency was most hostile to the interests of +Bohemia. The Vienna government has, in recent years, as +regards internal affairs, also adopted a policy very unfavourable +to the Czech race. Even the continuance of some of the concessions +formerly obtained by the Old Czechs has become doubtful. +At the elections to the diet of Prague which took place in +March 1908, the Young Czechs lost many seats to the Old +Czechs, while the Agrarians, Clericals and Radicals were also +successful.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Dobrovský, <i>Geschichte der böhmischen Sprache</i> (1818), and +<i>Lehrgebäude der böhmischen Sprache</i> (1819); J. Blahoslav, <i>Grammatika +Česká</i>, printed from MS. (1867); Lippert, <i>Social-Geschichte +Böhmens</i> (1896); Gebauer, <i>Slovník Staročesky</i> (Dictionary of the +ancient Czech language, 1903); I. Herzer, <i>Böhmisch-deutsches +Wörterbuch</i> (Prague, 1901, &c.); Coufal and Zába, <i>Slovník Česko-latinský +a Latinsko-český</i> (Prague, 1904, &c.), and <i>Historicka Uluonice +Jazyka českéha</i> (Historical grammar of the Czech language, 1904); +Morfill, <i>Grammar of the Bohemian or Čech Language</i> (1899); Bourlier, +<i>Les Tchèques</i> (1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1q" id="ft1q" href="#fa1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the pronunciation of these see the footnote at the beginning +of the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bohemia</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CZENSTOCHOWA,<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Chenstokhov</span>, a town of Russian +Poland, in the government of Piotrkow, on the left bank of the +Warta (Warthe), 143 m. S.W. of Warsaw, on the railway between +that city and Cracow. Pop. (1900) 53,650. Here is a celebrated +monastery crowning the steep eminence called Yaznagora or +Klarenberg. It was founded by King Vladislaus of the house of +Jagiello and was at one time fabulously wealthy. In 1430 it +was attacked and plundered by the Hussites; in 1655, and again +in 1705, it bravely resisted the Swedes; but in 1772 it was forced +to capitulate to the Russians, and in 1793 to the Prussians. +The fortifications, which had been built from 1500 onwards, +were razed in 1813. This monastery, which is occupied by +monks of the order of Paul the Hermit, contains over the altar +in its church a painted image of the Virgin, traditionally believed +to have been painted by St Luke, and visited annually by +throngs (400,000) of pilgrims from all over Russia, eastern +Prussia and other neighbouring regions. The inhabitants of +the town manufacture cotton, cloth and paper, and do a lively +business in rosaries, images, scapularies and so forth.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CZERNOWITZ<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> (Rum. <i>Cernautzi</i>), the capital of the Austrian +duchy of Bukovina, 420 m. E. of Vienna and 164 m. S.E. of +Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1900) 69,619. It is picturesquely +situated on a height above the right bank of the river Pruth, +which is crossed here by two bridges, of which one is a railway +bridge. Czernowitz is a clean, pleasant town of recent date, +and is the seat of the Greek Orthodox archbishop or metropolitan +of Bukovina. The principal buildings include the Greek +Orthodox cathedral, finished in 1864 after the model of the +church of St Isaac at St Petersburg; the Armenian church, in +a mixed Gothic and Renaissance style, consecrated in 1875; +a handsome new Jesuit church, and a new synagogue in Moorish +style, built in 1877. The most conspicuous building of the town +is the Episcopal palace, in Byzantine style, built in 1864-1875, +which is adorned with a high tower and possesses a magnificent +reception hall. In one of the public squares stands the Austrian +monument, executed by Pekary and erected in 1875 to commemorate +the centenary of Austria’s possession of Bukovina. +It consists of a marble statue of Austria erected on a pedestal +of green Carpathian sandstone. The Francis Joseph University, +also opened in 1875, had 50 lecturers and over 500 students in +1901. The language of instruction is German, and it possesses +three faculties: theology, law and philosophy. The industry is +not very developed and consists chiefly in corn-milling and +brewing. An active trade is carried on in agricultural produce, +wood, wool, cattle and spirits. Czernowitz has a mixed population, +which consists of Germans, Ruthenians, Rumanians, Poles, +Jews, Armenians and Gypsies. The town presents, therefore, +a cosmopolitan and on market days a very varied appearance, +when side by side with people turned out in the latest fashions +from Paris or Vienna, we meet peasants of various nationalities, +attired in their national costume, intermingled with very scantily-clad +Gypsies.</p> + +<p>On the opposite bank of the Pruth, at a very little distance to +the N., is situated the town of Sadagora (pop. 4512, mostly Jews), +where a famous cattle fair takes place every year.</p> + +<p>Czernowitz was at the time of the Austrian occupation (1775) +an unimportant village. It was created a town in 1786, and at the +beginning of the 19th century it numbered only 5000 inhabitants.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CZERNY, KARL<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> (1791-1857), Austrian pianist and composer, +was born at Vienna on the 21st of February 1791. His father, +who was a teacher of the piano, trained him for that instrument +from an early age with such success that he performed in public +at the age of nine, and commenced his own career as a teacher +at fourteen. He was brought under the notice of Beethoven, +and was his pupil in the sense in which the great master had +pupils. It is perhaps his greatest claim to distinction as a +performer that he was selected to be the first to play Beethoven’s +celebrated Emperor concerto in public. He soon became the +most popular teacher of his instrument in a capital which +abounded in pianists of the first rank. Among his pupils he +numbered Liszt, Theodor Döhler (1814-1843) and many others +who afterwards became famous. As a composer he was prolific +to an astonishing degree, considering the other demands on his +time. His works, which included every class of composition, +numbered 849 at the time of his death. Comparatively few of +them possess high merit, and none is the production of genius. +He had considerable skill in devising variations for the piano +of the display type, and in this and other ways helped to develop +the executive power which in the modern school of pianoforte +playing seems to have reached the limits of the possible. His +various books of exercises, elementary and advanced, of which +the best known are the <i>Études de la vélocité</i>, have probably had +a wider circulation than any other works of their class. To +the theory of music he contributed a translation of Reicha’s +<i>Traité de composition</i>, and a work entitled <i>Umriss der ganzen +Musikgeschichte</i>. Czerny died on the 15th of July 1857 at +Vienna. Having no family, he left his fortune, which was +considerable, to the Vienna Conservatorium and various benevolent +institutions.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page725" id="page725"></a>725</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold f200">D<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span>   The fourth letter in the English alphabet occupies the +same position in the Latin, Greek and Phoenician +alphabets, which represent the preceding stages in its +history. The Phoenician name <i>Daleth</i> is represented +by the Greek <i>Delta</i>. In form D has varied throughout its career +comparatively little. In the earliest Phoenician it is <img style="width:27px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img725a.jpg" alt="" /> with +slight variations; in most Greek dialects <img style="width:14px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img725b.jpg" alt="" /> which has been +adopted as the Greek literary form, but in others as <i>e.g.</i> the +earliest Attic <img style="width:20px; height:21px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img725c.jpg" alt="" /> or <img style="width:22px; height:27px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img725d.jpg" alt="" />. The form with the rounded back, which +has passed from Latin into the languages of western Europe, +was borrowed from the Greeks of S.W. Italy, but is widely +spread also amongst the peoples of the Peloponnese and of +northern Greece. It arises from a form like <img style="width:19px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img725e.jpg" alt="" /> when the sides +which meet to the right are written or engraved at one stroke. +From a very early period one side of the triangle was often +prolonged, thus producing a form <img style="width:15px; height:26px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img725f.jpg" alt="" /> which is characteristic of +Aramaic from 800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In Greek this was avoided because of +the likelihood of its confusion with <img style="width:12px; height:21px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img725g.jpg" alt="" />, the oldest form of the +symbol for <i>r</i>, but in the alphabets of Italy—which were borrowed +from Etruscan—this confusion actually takes place. Etruscan +had no sound corresponding to the symbol D (in inscriptions +written from right to left, <img style="width:15px; height:16px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img725h.jpg" alt="" />), and hence used it as a by-form +for <img style="width:12px; height:21px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img725g.jpg" alt="" />, the symbol for <i>r</i>. The Oscans and Umbrians took it over +in this value, but having the sound d they used for it the symbol +for <i>r</i> (<img style="width:12px; height:21px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img725g.jpg" alt="" /> in Umbrian, <img style="width:15px; height:20px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img725i.jpg" alt="" /> in Oscan).</p> + +<p>The sound which D represents is the voiced dental corresponding +to the unvoiced <i>t</i>. The English <i>d</i>, however, is not a true +dental, but is really pronounced by placing the tongue against +the sockets of the teeth, not the teeth themselves. It thus +differs from the <i>d</i> of French and German, and in phonetic terminology +is called an alveolar. In the languages of India where +both true dentals and alveolars are found, the English <i>d</i> is +represented by the alveolar symbol (transliterated <i>ḍ</i>). Etymologically +in genuine English words <i>d</i> represents in most cases +<i>dh</i> of the original Indo-European language, but in some cases +an original <i>t</i>. In many languages <i>d</i> develops an aspirate after it, +and this <i>dh</i> becomes then a voiced spirant (ð), the initial sound +of <i>there</i> and <i>that</i>. This has occurred widely in Semitic, and is +found also in languages like modern Greek, where δ, except after +ν, is always spirant, <span class="grk" title="dén">δέν</span> (= <i>not</i>) being pronounced like English +<i>then</i>. As the mouth position for <i>l</i> differs from that for <i>d</i> only by +the breath being allowed to escape past one or both sides of +the tongue, confusion has arisen in many languages between +<i>d</i> and <i>l</i>, the best-known being cases like the Latin <i>lacrima</i> as +compared with the Greek <span class="grk" title="dák-ry">δάκ-ρυ</span>. The English <i>tear</i> and the +forms of other languages show that <i>d</i> and not <i>l</i> is the more +original sound. Between vowels in the ancient Umbrian <i>d</i> +passed into a sound which was transliterated in the Latin +alphabet by <i>rs</i>; this was probably a sibilant <i>r</i>, like the Bohemian +<i>ř</i>. In many languages it is unvoiced at the end of words, thus +becoming almost or altogether identical with <i>t</i>. As an abbreviation +it is used in Latin for the <i>praenomen</i> Decimus, and under +the empire for the title <i>Divus</i> of certain deceased emperors. +As a Roman numeral (= 500) it is only the half of the old symbol +<img style="width:17px; height:17px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img725j.jpg" alt="" /> (= 1000); this was itself the old form of the Greek φ, which +was useless in Latin as that language had no sound identical +with the Greek φ.</p> +<div class="author">(P. Gi.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DACCA,<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> a city of British India, giving its name to a district +and division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It was made the +capital of that province on its creation in October 1905. The +city is 254 m. N.E. by E. of Calcutta, on an old channel of the +Ganges. Railway station, 10 m. from the terminus of the river +steamers at Narayanganj. The area is about 8 sq. m. The +population in 1901 was 90,542. The ruins of the English factory, +St Thomas’s church, and the houses of the European residents +lie along the river banks. Of the old fort erected by Islam +Khan, who in 1608 was appointed nawab of Bengal, and removed +his capital from Rajmahal to Dacca, no vestige remains; but +the jail is built on a portion of its site. The principal Mahommedan +public buildings, erected by subsequent governors and +now in ruins, are the Katra and the Lal-bagh palace—the +former built by Sultan Mahommed Shuja in 1645, in front of the +<i>chauk</i> or market place. Its extensive front faced the river, +and had a lofty central gateway, flanked by smaller entrances, +and by two octagonal towers rising to some height above the +body of the building. The Lal-bagh palace was commenced by +Azam Shah, the third son of the emperor Aurangzeb. It originally +stood close to the Buriganga river; but the channel has +shifted its course, and there is now an intervening space covered +with trees between it and the river. The walls on the western +side, and the terrace and battlement towards the river, are of a +considerable height, and present a commanding aspect from the +water. These outworks, with a few gateways, the audience hall +and the baths, were the only parts of the building that survived +in 1840. Since then their dilapidation has rapidly advanced; +but even in ruin they show the extensive and magnificent scale +on which this princely residence was originally designed. It +appears never to have been completed; and when Jean Baptiste +Tavernier visited Dacca (<i>c.</i> 1666), the nawab was residing in a +temporary wooden building in its court. The English factory +was built about that year. The central part of the old factory +continued to be used as a court-house till the 19th century, but +owing to its ruinous state it was pulled down in 1829 or 1830; +in 1840 the only portion that remained was the outward wall. +The French and Dutch factories were taken possession of by +the English in the years 1778 and 1781 respectively. In the +mutiny of 1857 two companies of the 73rd Native Infantry +which were stationed in the town joined in the revolt, but were +overpowered by a small European force and dispersed. The +city still shows some signs of its former magnificence. The +famous manufacture of fine muslins is almost extinct, but the +carving of shells, carried on from ancient times, is an important +industry in the city. There are a Government college, a collegiate +school and an unaided Hindu college. There is a large settlement +of mixed Portuguese descent, known as Feringhis. Many of the +public buildings, including the college, suffered severely from the +earthquake of the 12th of June 1897; and great damage was +done by tornadoes in April of 1888 and 1902.</p> + +<p>The district of Dacca comprises an area of 2782 sq. m. In +1901 the population was 2,649,522, showing an increase of 11% +in the decade. The district consists of a vast level plain, divided +into two sections by the Dhaleswari river. The northern part, +again intersected by the Lakshmia river, contains the city of +Dacca, and as a rule lies well above flood-level.</p> + +<p>Dacca is watered by a network of rivers and streams, ten of +which are navigable throughout the year by native cargo boats +of four tons burthen. Among them are the Meghna, the Ganges +or Padma, the Lakshmia, a branch of the Brahmaputra, the +Jamuna, or main stream of the Brahmaputra, the Mendi-Khali, +a large branch of the Meghna, the Dhaleswari, an offshoot of the +Jamuna, the Ghazi-khali and the Buriganga. The soil is composed +of red ferruginous <i>kankar</i>, with a stratum of clay in the +more elevated parts, covered by a thin layer of vegetable mould, +or by recent alluvial deposits. The scenery along the Lakshmia +is very beautiful, the banks being high and wooded. About 20 m. +north of Dacca city, small ridges are met with in the Madhupur +jungle, stretching into Mymensingh district. These hills, however, +are mere mounds of from 20 to 40 ft. high, composed of +red soil containing a considerable quantity of iron ore; and the +whole tract is for the most part unproductive. Towards the +city the red soil is intersected by creeks and morasses, whose +margins yield crops of rice, mustard and <i>til</i> seed; while to the +east of the town, a broad, alluvial, well-cultivated plain reaches +as far as the junction of the Dhaleswari and Lakshmia rivers. +The country lying to the south of the Dhaleswari is the most +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page726" id="page726"></a>726</span> +fertile part of the district. It consists entirely of rich alluvial +soil, annually inundated to a depth varying from 2 to 14 ft. of +water. The villages are built on artificial mounds of earth, so +as to raise them above the flood-level.</p> + +<p>The wild animals found in the district comprise a few tigers, +leopards and wild elephants, deer, wild pig, porcupines, jackals, +foxes, hares, otters, &c. The green monkey is very common; +porpoises abound in the large rivers. The manufactures consist +of weaving, embroidery, gold and silver work, shell-carving and +pottery. The weaving industry and the manufacture of fine +Dacca muslins have greatly fallen off, owing to the competition +of European piece goods. Forty different kinds of cloth were +formerly manufactured in this district, the bulk of which during +many years was made from English twist, country thread being +used only for the finest muslins. It is said that, in the time of +the emperor Jahangir, a piece of muslin, 15 ft. by 3, could be +manufactured, weighing only 900 grains, its value being £40. +In 1840 the finest cloth that could be made of the above dimensions +weighed about 1600 grains, and was worth £10. Since then +the manufacture has still further decayed, and the finer kinds are +not now made at all except to order. The district is traversed +by a line of the Eastern Bengal railway, but most of the traffic +is still conducted by water. It is a centre of the jute trade.</p> + +<p>The division of Dacca occupies the delta of the Brahmaputra, +where it joins the main stream of the Ganges. It consists of the +four districts of Dacca, Mymensingh, Faridpur and Backergunge. +Its area is 15,837 sq. m. Its population in 1901 was 10,793,988.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DACE,<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> <span class="sc">Dare</span>, or <span class="sc">Dart</span> (<i>Leuciscus vulgaris</i>, or <i>L. dobula</i>), a +fresh-water fish belonging to the family <i>Cyprinidae</i>. It is an +inhabitant of the rivers and streams of Europe north of the +Alps, but it is most abundant in those of France and Germany. +It prefers clear streams flowing over a gravelly bottom, and +deep, still water, keeping close to the bottom in winter but +disporting itself near the surface in the sunshine of summer. +It is preyed upon by the larger predaceous fishes of fresh waters, +and owing to its silvery appearance is a favourite bait in pike-fishing. +The dace is a lively, active fish, of gregarious habits, +and exceedingly prolific, depositing its eggs in May and June +at the roots of aquatic plants or in the gravelly beds of the +streams it frequents. Its flesh is wholesome, but is not held in +much estimation. In appearance it closely resembles the roach, +usually attaining a length of 8 or 9 in., with the head and back +of a dusky blue colour and the sides of a shining silvery aspect, +with numerous dark lines running along the course of the scales. +The ventral and anal fins are white, tinged with pale red; and +the dorsal, pectoral and caudal tipped with black. The dace +feeds on worms, insects, insect-larvae, and also on vegetable +matter. It is abundant in many of the streams of the south of +England, but is unknown in Scotland and Ireland. In America +the name of dace is also applied to members of other genera of +the family; the “horned dace” (<i>Semnotilus atromaculatus</i>) is a +well-known variety.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DACH, SIMON<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> (1605-1659), German lyrical poet, was born +at Memel in East Prussia on the 29th of July 1605. Although +brought up in humble circumstances, he received a careful +education in the classical schools of Königsberg, Wittenberg +and Magdeburg, and entered the university of Königsberg in +1626 as a student of theology and philosophy. After taking his +degree, he was appointed in 1633 <i>Kollaborator</i> (teacher) and in +1636 co-rector of the Domschule (cathedral school) in that city. +In 1639 he received the chair of poetry at the university of +Königsberg, which he occupied until his death on the 15th of +April 1659. In Königsberg he entered into close relations with +Heinrich Albert (1604-1651), Robert Roberthin (1600-1648) +and Sibylla Schwarz (1621-1638), and with them formed the +so-called <i>Königsberger Dictergruppe</i>. He sang the praises of the +house of the electors of Brandenburg in a collection of poems +entitled <i>Kurbrandenburgische Rose, Adler, Löwe und Scepter</i> +(1661), and also produced many occasional poems, several of +which became popular; the most famous of them is <i>Anke von +Tharaw öss, de my geföllt</i> (rendered by Herder into modern +German as <i>Ännchen von Tharau</i>), composed in 1637 in honour +of the marriage of a friend. Among his hymns, many of which +are of great beauty, are the following: <i>Ich bin ja, Herr, in deiner +Macht</i>, <i>Ich bin bei Gott in Gnaden durch Christi Blut und Tod</i>, +and <i>O, wie selig seid ihr boch, ihr Frommen</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editions of Dach’s poems have been published by W. Müller +(1823), by H. Österley (for the Stuttgart <i>Literarischer Verein</i>, 1876); +also selections by the same editor (1876), and in Kürschner’s +<i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i> (1883). See especially the introductions +to Österley’s editions; also H. Stiehler, <i>Simon Dach, sein Leben +und seine ausgewählte Dichtungen</i> (1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DACIA,<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> in ancient geography, the land of the Daci, a large +district of central Europe, bounded on the N. by the Carpathians, +on the S. by the Danube, on the W. by the Pathissus (Theiss), +on the E. by the Tyras (Dniester), thus corresponding in the main +to the modern Rumania and Transylvania. Towards the west +it may originally have extended as far as the Danube where it +runs from north to south at Waitzen (Vacz), while on the other +hand Ptolemy puts its eastern boundary as far back as the +Hierasus (Sereth). The inhabitants of this district were a +Thracian stock, originally called <span class="grk" title="Daoi">Δᾶοι</span>, a name which after +the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> gave place to <span class="grk" title="Dakoi">Δακοί</span>. Of the other +Thracian tribes the Getae (<i>q.v.</i>) were most akin to them in +language and manners; by the Greeks the Dacians were usually +called Getae, by the Romans Daci. <span class="grk" title="Daos">Δᾶος</span> and <span class="grk" title="Geta">Γέτα</span> (Davus, +Geta) were common as names of slaves in Attic comedy and in +the adaptations of Plautus and Terence.</p> + +<p>The Dacians had attained a considerable degree of civilization +when they first became known to the Romans. They believed +in the immortality of the soul, and regarded death as merely +a change of country (<span class="grk" title="metoikizesthai">μετοικίζεσθαι</span>). Their chief priest held +a prominent position as the representative of the deity upon +earth; he was the king’s chief adviser and his decisions were +accepted as final. They were divided into two classes—an +aristocracy and a proletariate. The first alone had the right to +cover their heads and wore a felt hat (hence <i>tarabostesei</i> = <span class="grk" title="pilophoroi">πιλοφόροι</span>, +<i>pileati</i>); they formed a privileged class, and were +the predecessors of the Rumanian boyars. The second class, +who comprised the rank and file of the army, the peasants and +artisans, wore their hair long (<span class="grk" title="komêtai">κομηταί</span>, <i>capillati</i>). They dwelt +in wooden huts surrounded by palisades, but in later times, +aided by Roman architects, built walled strongholds and conical +stone towers. Their chief occupations were agriculture and +cattle breeding; horses were mainly used as draught animals. +They also worked the gold and silver mines of Transylvania, +and carried on a considerable outside trade, as is shown by the +number of foreign coins found in the country.</p> + +<p>A kingdom of Dacia was in existence at least as early as the +beginning of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> under a king Oroles. Conflicts +with the Bastarnae and the Romans (112-109, 74), against +whom they had assisted the Scordisci and Dardani, had greatly +weakened the resources of the Dacians. Under Burbista (Boerebista), +a contemporary of Caesar, who thoroughly reorganized +the army and raised the moral standard of the people, the limits +of the kingdom were extended; the Bastarnae and Boii were +conquered, and even Greek towns (Olbia, Apollonia) on the +Euxine fell into his hands. Indeed the Dacians appeared so +formidable that Caesar contemplated an expedition against +them, which was prevented by his death. About the same +time Burbista was murdered, and the kingdom was divided into +four (or five) parts under separate rulers. One of these was +Cotiso, whose daughter Augustus is said to have desired to marry +and to whom he betrothed his own five-year-old daughter Julia. +He is well known from the line in Horace (“Occidit Daci Cotisonis +agmen,” <i>Odes</i>, iii. 8. 18), which, as the ode was written +on the 1st of March 29, probably refers to the campaign of Marcus +Crassus (30-28), not to that of Cornelius Lentulus, who was not +consul till 18. The Dacians are often mentioned under Augustus, +according to whom they were compelled to recognize the Roman +supremacy. But they were by no means subdued, and in later +times seized every opportunity of crossing the frozen Danube +and ravaging the province of Moesia. From <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 85 to 89 the +Dacians were engaged in two wars with the Romans, under Duras +or Diurpaneus, and the great Decebalus, who ruled from 86-87 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page727" id="page727"></a>727</span> +to 107. After two severe reverses, the Romans, under Tettius +Julianus, gained a signal advantage, but were obliged to make +peace owing to the defeat of Domitian by the Marcomanni. +Decebalus restored the arms he had taken and some of the +prisoners and received the crown from Domitian’s hands, +an apparent acknowledgment of Roman suzerainty. But the +Dacians were really left independent, as is shown by the fact that +Domitian agreed to purchase immunity from further Dacian inroads +by the payment of an annual tribute.</p> + +<p>To put an end to this disgraceful arrangement, Trajan resolved +to crush the Dacians once and for all. The result of his first +campaign (101-102) was the occupation of the Dacian capital +Sarmizegethusa (Várhely) and the surrounding country; of the +second (105-107), the suicide of Decebalus, the conquest of +the whole kingdom and its conversion into a Roman province. +The history of the war is given in Dio Cassius, but the best +commentary upon it is the famous column of Trajan. According +to Marquardt, the boundaries of the province were the Tibiscus +(Temes) on the W., the Carpathians on the N., the Tyras on the +E., and the Danube on the S., but Brandis (in Pauly-Wissowa’s +<i>Realencyclopädie</i>) maintains that it did not extend farther +eastwards than the river Olt (Aluta)—the country beyond +belonging to lower Moesia—and not so far as the Theiss westwards, +being thus limited to Transylvania and Little Walachia. +It was under a governor of praetorian rank, and the legio xiii. +<i>gemina</i> with numerous auxiliaries had their fixed quarters in +the province. To make up for the ravages caused by the recent +wars colonists were imported to cultivate the land and work +the mines, and the old inhabitants gradually returned. Forts +were built as a protection against the incursions of the surrounding +barbarians, and three great military roads were constructed +to unite the chief towns, while a fourth, named after Trajan, +traversed the Carpathians and entered Transylvania by the +Roteturm pass. The two chief towns were Sarmizegethusa +(afterwards Ulpia Trajana) and Apulum (Karlsburg). With the +religion the Dacians also adopted the language of the conquerors, +and modern Rumanian is full of Latin words easily recognizable.</p> + +<p>In 129, under Hadrian, Dacia was divided into Dacia <i>Superior</i> +and <i>Inferior</i>, the former comprising Transylvania, the latter +Little Walachia, with procurators, probably both under the +same praetorian legate (according to Brandis, the procurator +of Dacia <i>inferior</i> was independent, but see A. Domaszewski +in <i>Rheinisches Museum</i>, xlviii., 1893). Marcus Aurelius redivided +it into three (<i>tres Daciae</i>): Porolissensis, from the chief +town Porolissum (near Mojrad), Apulensis from Apulum and +Maluensis (site unknown). The <i>tres Daciae</i> formed a commune +in so far that they had a common capital, Sarmizegethusa, and +a common diet, which discussed provincial affairs, formulated +complaints and adjusted the incidence of taxation; but in +other respects they were practically independent provinces, +each under an ordinary procurator, subordinate to a governor +of consular rank.</p> + +<p>The Roman hold on the country was, however, still precarious. +Indeed it is said that Hadrian, conscious of the difficulty +of retaining it, had contemplated its abandonment and was +only deterred by consideration for the safety of the numerous +Roman settlers. Under Gallienus (256), the Goths crossed the +Carpathians and drove the Romans from Dacia, with the exception +of a few fortified places between the Temes and the Danube. +No details of the event are recorded, and the chief argument +in support of the statement in Ruf(i)us Festus that “under the +Emperor Gallienus Dacia was lost” is the sudden cessation of +Roman inscriptions and coins in the country after 256. Aurelian +(270-275) withdrew the troops altogether and settled the Roman +colonists on the south of the Danube, in Moesia, where he created +the province Dacia Aureliani. This was subsequently divided +into Dacia Ripensis on the Danube, with capital Ratiaria (Arcar +in Bosnia), and Dacia Mediterranea, with capital Sardica (Sofia, +the capital of Bulgaria), the latter again being subdivided into +Dardania and Dacia Mediterranea.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. D. F. Neigebaur, <i>Dacien aus den Überresten des klassischen +Alterthums</i>. (Kronstadt, 1851); C. Gooss, <i>Studien zur Geographie und +Geschichte des trajanischen Daciens</i> (Hermannstadt, 1874); E. R. +Rösler, <i>Dacier und Romanen</i> (Vienna, 1866), and <i>Romänische Studien</i> +(Leipzig, 1871); J. Jung, <i>Römer und Romanen in den Donauländern</i> +(Innsbruck, 1877), <i>Die römanischen Landschaften des römischen +Reiches</i> (1881), and <i>Fasten der Provinz Dacien</i> (1894); W. Tomaschek, +“Die alten Thraker,” in <i>Sitzungsberichte der k. Akad. der +Wissenschaften</i>, cxxviii. (Vienna, 1893); J. Marquardt, <i>Römische +Staatsverwaltung</i>, i. (1881), p. 308; T. Mommsen in <i>Corpus Inscriptionum +Latinarum</i>, iii. 160, and <i>Provinces of Roman Empire</i> +(Eng. trans., 1886); C. G. Brandis in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, +iv. pt. 2 (1901); W. Miller, <i>The Balkans</i> in “The Story of the +Nations,” vol. 44; on the boundaries of the Roman province of +Dacia, see T. Hodgkin and F. Haverfield in <i>English Historical +Review</i>, ii. 100, 734. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vlachs</a></span>.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DACIER, ANDRÉ<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> (1651-1722), French classical scholar, was +born at Castres in upper Languedoc, on the 6th of April 1651. +His father, a Protestant advocate, sent him first to the academy +of Puy Laurens, and afterwards to Saumur to study under +Tanneguy Lefèvre. On the death of Lefèvre in 1672, Dacier removed +to Paris, and was appointed one of the editors of the +Delphin series of the classics. In 1683 he married Anne Lefèvre, +the daughter of his old tutor (see below). In 1695 he was elected +member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and also of the French +Academy; not long after, as payment for his share in the +“medallic” history of the king’s reign, he was appointed keeper +of the library of the Louvre. He died two years after his wife, +on the 18th of September 1722. The most important of his +works were his editions of Pompeius Festus and Verrius Flaccus, +and his translations of Horace (with notes), Aristotle’s <i>Poetics</i>, +the <i>Electra</i> and <i>Oedipus Coloneus</i> of Sophocles, Epictetus, +Hippocrates and Plutarch’s <i>Lives</i>.</p> + +<p>His wife, <span class="sc">Anne Lefèvre</span> (1654-1720), French scholar and +translator from the classics, was born at Saumur, probably in +March 1654. On her father’s death in 1672 she removed to +Paris, carrying with her part of an edition of Callimachus, +which she afterwards published. This was so well received that +she was engaged as one of the editors of the Delphin series of +classical authors, in which she edited Florus, Dictys Cretensis, +Aurelius Victor and Eutropius. In 1681 appeared her prose +version of Anacreon and Sappho, and in the next few years she +published prose versions of Terence and some of the plays of +Plautus and Aristophanes. In 1684 she and her husband +retired to Castres, with the object of devoting themselves to +theological studies. In 1685 the result was announced in the +conversion to Roman Catholicism of both M. and Mme Dacier, +who were rewarded with a pension by the king. In 1699 appeared +the prose translation of the <i>Iliad</i> (followed nine years later by a +similar translation of the <i>Odyssey</i>), which gained for her the +position she occupies in French literature. The appearance of +this version, which made Homer known for the first time to +many French men of letters, and among others to A. Houdart +de la Motte, gave rise to a famous literary controversy. In 1714 +la Motte published a poetical version of the <i>Iliad</i>, abridged and +altered to suit his own taste, together with a <i>Discours sur Homère</i>, +stating the reasons why Homer failed to satisfy his critical taste. +Mme Dacier replied in the same year in her work, <i>Des causes de +la corruption du goût</i>. La Motte carried on the discussion with +light gaiety and badinage, and had the happiness of seeing his +views supported by the abbé Jean Terrasson, who in 1715 +produced two volumes entitled <i>Dissertation critique sur l’Iliade</i>, +in which he maintained that science and philosophy, and especially +the science and philosophy of Descartes, had so developed +the human mind that the poets of the 18th century were immeasurably +superior to those of ancient Greece. In the same +year Père C. Buffier published <i>Homère en arbitrage</i>, in which he +concluded that both parties were really agreed on the essential +point—that Homer was one of the greatest geniuses the world +had seen, and that, as a whole, no other poem could be preferred +to his; and, soon after (on the 5th of April 1716), in the house +of M. de Valincourt, Mme Dacier and la Motte met at supper, +and drank together to the health of Homer. Nothing of importance +marks the rest of Mme Dacier’s life. She died at the +Louvre, on the 17th of August 1720.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. A. Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vol ix.; J. F. Bodin, +<i>Recherches historiques sur la ville de Saumur</i> (1812-1814); P. J. +Burette, <i>Éloge de Mme Dacier</i> (1721); <i>Mémoires de Mme de Staël</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page728" id="page728"></a>728</span> +(1755); E. Egger, <i>L’Hellénisme en France</i>, ii. (1869); <i>Mémoires +de Saint-Simon</i>, iii.; R. Rigault, <i>Histoire de la querelle des anciens +et des modernes</i> (1856).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DACITE<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> (from Dacia, mod. Transylvania), in petrology, volcanic +rocks which may be considered a quartz-bearing variety +of andesite. Like the latter they consist for the most part of +plagioclase felspar with biotite, hornblende, augite or enstatite, +and have generally a porphyritic structure, but they contain also +quartz as rounded, corroded phenocrysts, or as an element of +the ground-mass. Their felspar ranges from oligoclase to +andesite and labradorite, and is often very zonal; sanidine +occurs also in some dacites, and when abundant gives rise to +rocks which form transitions to the rhyolites. The biotite is +brown; the hornblende brown or greenish brown; the augite +usually green. The ground-mass of these rocks is often micro-crystalline, +with a web of minute felspars mixed with interstitial +grains of quartz; but in many dacites it is largely vitreous, +while in others it is felsitic or cryptocrystalline. In the hand +specimen many of the hornblende and biotite dacites are grey +or pale brown and yellow rocks with white felspars, and black +crystals of biotite and hornblende. Other dacites, especially +augite- and enstatite-dacites, are darker coloured. The rocks +of this group occur in Hungary, Almería (Spain), Argyllshire +and other parts of Scotland, New Zealand, the Andes, Martinique, +Nevada and other districts of western North America, Greece, +&c. They are mostly associated with andesites and trachytes, +and form lava flows, dikes, and in some cases massive intrusions +in the centres of old volcanoes. Among continental petrographers +the older dacites (Carboniferous, &c.) are often known +as “porphyrites.”</p> +<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DACOIT,<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> a term used in India for a robber belonging to an +armed gang. The word is derived from the Hindustani <i>dakait</i>, +and being current in Bengal got into the Indian penal code. +By law, to constitute <i>dacoity</i>, there must be five or more in the +gang committing the crime. In the time of the Thugs (<i>q.v.</i>) a +special police department was created in India to deal with +thuggy and dacoity (<i>thagi</i> and <i>dakaiti</i>), which exists down to the +present day. In Burma also the word dacoit came to be applied +in a special sense to the armed gangs, which maintained a state +of guerilla warfare for several years after the defeat of the king +and his army. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Burmese Wars</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DA COSTA, ISAAK<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (1798-1860), Dutch poet and theologian, +was born at Amsterdam on the 14th of January 1798. His +father was a Jew of Portuguese descent, and claimed kindred +with the celebrated Uriel D’Acosta. An early acquaintance +with Bilderdijk had a strong influence over the boy both in +poetry and in theology. He studied at Amsterdam, and afterwards +at Leiden, where he took his doctor’s degree in law in +1818, and in literature in 1821. In 1814 he wrote <i>De Verlossing +van Nederland</i>, a patriotic poem, which placed him in line with +the contemporary national romantic poets in Germany and in +France. His <i>Poëzy</i> (2 vols., 1821-1822) revealed his emancipation +from the Bilderdijk tradition, and the oriental colouring of +his poems, his hymn to Lamartine, and his translation of part of +Byron’s <i>Cain</i>, establish his claim to be considered as the earliest +of the Dutch romantic poets. In 1822 he became a convert to +Christianity, and immediately afterwards asserted himself as a +champion of orthodoxy and an assailant of latitudinarianism in +his <i>Bezwaren tegen den Geest der Eeuw</i> (1823). He took a lively +interest in missions to the Jews, and towards the close of his +life was a director of the seminary established in Amsterdam in +connexion with the mission of the Free Church of Scotland. He +died at Amsterdam on the 28th of April 1860. Da Costa ranked +first among the poets of Holland after the death of Bilderdijk. +His principal poetical works were: <i>Alphonsus I.</i> (1818), a +tragedy; <i>Poëzy</i> (Leiden, 1821); <i>God metons</i> (1826); <i>Festliedern</i> +(1828); <i>Vijf-en-twintig jaren</i> (1840); <i>Hagar</i> (1852); <i>De Slag +bij Nieupoort</i> (1857). He also translated <i>The Persians</i> (1816) +and the <i>Prometheus</i> (1818) of Aeschylus, and edited the poetical +works of Bilderdijk in sixteen volumes, the last volume being an +account of the poet. He was the author of a number of theological +works, chiefly in connexion with the criticism of the gospels.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His complete poetical works were edited by J. P. Hasebroek +(3 vols., Haarlem, 1861-1862). See G. Groen van Prinsterer, <i>Brieven +van, Mr I. da Costa, 1830-1849</i> (1872), and J. ten Brink, <i>Geschiedenis +der Noord-Nederlandsche Letteren in de XIX<span class="sp">e</span> Eeuw</i> (vol. i., +1888), which contains a complete bibliography of his works.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DACTYL<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="daktylos">δάκτυλος</span>, a finger), in prosody, a long +syllable followed by two short (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Verse</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAEDALUS,<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> a mythical Greek architect and sculptor, who +figures largely in the early legends of Crete and of Athens. He +was said to have built the labyrinth for Minos, to have made +a wooden cow for Pasiphaë and to have fashioned a bronze +man who repelled the Argonauts. Falling under the displeasure +of Minos, he fashioned wings for himself and his son Icarus, and +escaped to Sicily. These legends seem primarily to belong to +Crete; and the Athenian element in them which connected +Daedalus with the royal house of Erechtheus is a later fabrication. +To Daedalus the Greeks of the historic age were in the +habit of attributing buildings, and statues the origin of which +was lost in the past, and which had no inscription belonging to +them. In a later verse in the <i>Iliad</i> (date, 7th or 6th century), +Daedalus is mentioned as the maker of a dancing-place for +Ariadne in Crete; and such a dancing-place has been discovered +by A. J. Evans, in the Minoan palace of Cnossus. Diodorus +Siculus says that he executed various works in Sicily for King +Cocalus. In many cities of Greece there were rude wooden +statues, said to be by him. Later critics, judging from their +own notions of the natural course of development in art, +ascribed to Daedalus such improvements as separating the legs +of statues and opening their eyes. In fact the name Daedalus is +a mere symbol, standing for a particular phase of early Greek +art, when wood was the chief material, and other substances +were let into it for variety.</p> + +<p>This Daedalus must not be confused with Daedalus of Sicyon, +a great sculptor of the early part of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, none of +whose works is extant.</p> +<div class="author">(P. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAFFODIL,<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span> the common name of a group of plants of the +genus <i>Narcissus</i>, and natural order Amaryllidaceae. (See generally +under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Narcissus</a></span>.) The common daffodil, <i>N. Pseudo-narcissus</i>, +is common in woods and thickets in most parts of the N. of +Europe, but is rare in Scotland. Its leaves are five or six in +number, are about a foot in length and an inch in breadth, and +have a blunt keel and flat edges. The stem is about 18 in. long, +and the spathe single-flowered. The flowers are large, yellow, +scented and a little drooping, with a corolla deeply cleft into +six lobes, and a central bell-shaped nectary, which is crisped at +the margin. They appear early in the year, or, as Shakespeare +says, “come before the swallow dares, and take the winds of +March with beauty.” The stamens are shorter than the cup, +the anthers oblong and converging; the ovary is globose, and +has three furrows; the seeds are roundish and black. Many +new varieties of the flower have recently been cultivated in +gardens. The bulbs are large and orbicular, and have a blackish +coat; they, as well as the flowers, are reputed to be emetic in +properties. The Peruvian daffodil and the sea daffodil are +species of the genus <i>Ismene</i>. (For derivation see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Asphodel</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAFYDD AB GWILYM<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1340-<i>c.</i> 1400), son of Gwilym Gam +and Ardudful Fychan, greatest of the medieval Welsh poets, +was born at Bro Gynin, Cardiganshire, about the year 1340. +Educated by a scholarly uncle, Llewelyn ab Gwilym Fychan +of Emlyn, he became steward to his kinsman, Ivor Hael of +Maesaleg, Monmouthshire, who also appointed him instructor +to his daughter. The latter arrangement leading to an attachment +between tutor and pupil, the girl was banished to a convent +in Anglesey, whither the poet followed her, taking service in an +adjacent monastery, but on returning to Maesaleg he was permitted +to retain his stewardship. He was elected chief bard +of Glamorgan and became household bard to Ivor Hael. At +Rhosyr in North Wales he met Morfudd Lawgam, to whom he +addressed 147 amatory odes. In consequence of attempting +to elope with this lady, Dafydd ab Gwilym, being unable to pay +the fine demanded by her husband, was imprisoned. Liberated +by the goodwill of his friends, he went back to Maesaleg, and +after the death of his patron, retired to his birthplace, Bro Gynin. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page729" id="page729"></a>729</span> +Tradition states that he was a man of noble appearance, and +his poems bear evidence of high mental culture. He was acquainted +with the works of Homer, Virgil, Ovid and Horace, +and was also a student of Italian literature. Especially remarkable +as a poet of nature in an age when more warlike themes +were chosen by his contemporaries, his poems entitled “The +Lark,” “The Wind” and “The Mist” are amongst his finest +efforts. He has been called the Petrarch, the Ovid, and (by +George Borrow) the Horace of Wales. His poems were almost +all written in the <i>cywydd</i> form: a short ode not divided into +stanzas, each line having the same number of syllables. The +poet died about the year 1400, and according to tradition was +buried in the graveyard of the monastery of Strata Florida, in +Cardiganshire.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Celt</a></span>; <i>Celtic Literature</i>, iv. Welsh.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAGGER,<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span> a hand weapon with a short blade. The derivation +is obscure (cf. Fr. <i>dague</i> and Ger. <i>Degen</i>), but the word is related +to <i>dag</i>, a long pointed jag such as would be made in deeply nicking +the edge of a garment. The war knife in various forms and under +many names has of course been in use in all ages and amongst +all races. But the dagger as generally understood was not a +short sword, but a special stabbing weapon which could be used +along with the sword. The distinction is often difficult to establish +in a given case owing to the variations in the length of the +weapon. The principal medieval dagger was the <i>miséricorde</i>, +which from the end of the 12th century was used, in all countries +in which chivalry flourished, to penetrate the joints of the +armour of an unhorsed adversary (hence Ger. <i>Panzerbrecher</i>, +armour-breaker). It was so called either because the threat +of it caused the vanquished to surrender “at mercy,” or from +its use in giving what was called the <i>coup de grâce</i>. From about +1330 till the end of the succeeding century, in many knightly +effigies it is often represented as attached on the right side by +a cord or a chain to the sword-belt. This weapon and its sheath +were often elaborately adorned. It was customary to secure +it from accidental loss by a guard-chain fastened to the breast-armour. +Occasionally the miséricorde was fixed to the body-armour +by a staple; or, more rarely, it was connected with a +<i>gypcière</i> or pouch. The miséricorde may be called a poniard. +The distinction between the dagger and the poniard is arbitrary, +and in ordinary language the latter is taken as being the shorter +and as having less resemblance to a short sword or cutlass. A +weapon, with a longer blade than the miséricorde, was habitually +worn by civilians, including judges, during the middle ages; +such weapons bore the name of <i>anlace</i> (from <i>annulus</i>, as it was +fastened by a ring), <i>basilarde</i> or <i>langue de bœuf</i>, the last from +the broad ox-tongue shape of the blade. This had often a small +knife fixed on the scabbard, like a Highland officer’s dirk of the +present day. By nobles and knights the dagger or poniard +was worn when they had exchanged their armour for the costume +of peace. It is recorded besides that when they appeared at +a tournament and on some other occasions, ladies at that time +wore daggers depending, with their gypcieres, from their girdles. +Thus, writing of the year 1348, Knighton speaks of certain ladies +who were present at jousts as “habentes cultellos, quos <i>daggerios</i> +vulgariter dicunt, in powchiis desuper impositis.” A longer and +heavier dagger with a broad blade (Italian) is called <i>cinquedea</i>. +The Scottish “dirk” was a long dagger, and survives in name +in the dirk worn by midshipmen of the royal navy, and in fact +in that worn by officers of Highland regiments. In the 15th +and 16th centuries the infantry soldiers (Swiss or <i>landsknecht</i>) +carried a heavy poniard or dagger. This and the earlier Spanish +dagger with a thumb-ring were distinctively the weapons of +professional soldiers. The rise of duelling produced another +type, called the <i>main gauche</i>, which was a parrying weapon +and often had a toothed edge on which the adversary’s sword was +caught and broken. One form of this dagger had a blade which +expanded into a triple fork on pressing a spring; this served +the same purpose. The satellites of the <i>Vehmgericht</i> had a +similar weapon, in order, it is suggested, that their acts should +be done in the name of the Trinity. The smaller poniards are +generally called “stilettos.” Much ingenuity and skill have been +lavished on the adornment of daggers, and in rendering the +blades more capable of inflicting severe wounds. Daggers also +were sometimes made to poison as well as to wound. Of oriental +daggers may be mentioned the Malay “crease” or “kris,” which +has a long waxed blade; the Gurkha “kukri,” a short curved +knife, broadest and heaviest towards the point; and the Hindu +“khuttar,” which has a flat triangular-shaped blade, and a hilt +of H-shape, the cross-bar forming the grip and the sides the guard.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAGHESTAN,<a name="ar232" id="ar232"></a></span> a province of Russia, Transcaucasia, occupying +the triangular space between the Andi ridge, the south-east +division of the main Caucasus range, and the Caspian Sea. It +has the province of Terek on the N.W., the government of Tiflis +on the S.W., and that of Baku on the S.E. With the exception +of a narrow strip along the sea-coast and a small district in the +N., it is entirely mountainous. Area, 11,332 sq. m. The snow-clad +Andi ridge, belonging to the system of transverse upheavals +which cross the Caucasus, branches off the latter at Borbalo +Peak (10,175 ft.), and reaches its highest altitudes in Tebulos-mta +(14,775 ft.) and Diklos-mta (13,740 ft.). It is encircled on +the N. by a lower outer ridge, the Karadagh, through which the +rivers cut their way. This ridge is thickly clothed with forests, +chiefly beech. The Boz-dagh and another ridge run between +the four Koisu rivers, the head-streams of the Sulak, which flows +into the Caspian. The next most important stream, out of the +great number which course down the flanks of the Caucasus and +terminate in the Caspian, is the Samur. The most notable feature +of the province is, however, according to O. W. H. Abich (<i>Sur la +structure et la géologie du Daghestan</i>, 1862), the successive folds +of Jurassic limestones and slates, all nearly parallel to the +Caucasus, which form lofty, narrow plateaus. Many of the +peaks upon them rise higher than 12,000 ft., and the passes lie +at altitudes of 11,000 ft. in the interior and 9000 ft. towards +the Caspian. Towards the Caspian, especially between Petrovsk +and the river Sulak, the Cretaceous system is well represented, +and upon its rocks rest marls, shales, and sandstones of the +Eocene period. The country is altogether difficult of access, +and only one military route leads up from the river Terek, while +every one of the eleven passes known across the Caucasus is a +mere bridle-path. The climate is severe on the plateaus, hot +towards the Caspian, and dry everywhere. The average temperatures +are—year 51°, January 26°, July 73° at Temir-khan-shura +(42° 49′ N.; alt. 1510 ft.). The annual rainfall varies +from 17 to 21 in. The population, estimated at 605,100 in 1906, +numbered 587,326 in 1897, of whom only 5000 were Russians. +They consist chiefly of mountaineers known as Lesghians (<i>i.e.</i> +158,550 Avars, 121,375 Darghis, 94,506 Kurins), a race closely +akin to the Circassians, intermingled towards the Caspian Sea +with Tatars and Georgians. There are also sprinklings of Jews +and Persians. The highlands of Daghestan were for many years +the stronghold of the Circassians in their struggle against Russia, +especially under the leadership of Shamyl, whose last stand was +made on the steep mountain fastness of Gunib, 74 m. S. of Temir-khan-shura, +in 1859. The difficulty of communication between +the valleys has resulted in the growth of a great number of +dialects. Avarian is a sort of inter-tribal tongue, while Lakh or +Kazi-kumukh, Kurin, Darghi-kaitakh, Andi, and Tabasaran are +some of the more important dialects, each subdivided into sub-dialects. +The mountaineers breed some cattle and sheep, and +cultivate small fields on the mountain-sides. In the littoral +districts excellent crops of cereals, cotton, fruit, wine and tobacco +are obtained with the aid of irrigation. Silkworms are bred. +The mountaineers excel also in a variety of petty trades. Sulphur, +salt and copper are the most important of the minerals. A railway +line to connect the North Caucasian line (Rostov to Petrovsk) +with the Transcaucasian line (Batum to Baku) has been built +along the Caspian shore from Petrovsk, through the “gate” or +pass of Derbent, to Baku. The province is divided into nine +districts—Temir-khan-shura, Avar, Andi, Gunib, Dargo, Kazi-kumukh, +Kaitago-Tabasaran, Kurin, and Samur. The only +towns are Temir-khan-shura (pop. 9208 in 1897), the capital of +the government, Derbent (14,821) and Petrovsk (9806), the last +two both on the Caspian.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page730" id="page730"></a>730</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Radde, “Aus den Daghestanischen Hochalpen,” in <i>Petermanns +Mitteilungen</i>, Erganzungsheft, No. 85, 1887, and, with E. +König, “Der Nordfuss des Daghestan,” in <i>Petermanns Mitteil.</i>, +Erganzungsheft, No. 117, 1895.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAGO,<a name="ar233" id="ar233"></a></span> a name given somewhat contemptuously to Spanish, +Portuguese and Italian sailors, as “Dutchman” is similarly +applied to Germans and Scandinavians as well as to natives of +Holland. In America the word is generally confined to the +poorer class of Italian immigrants. In the South Wales mining +districts the casual labourers, who are only engaged when work +is plentiful, are so called. The word is apparently a corruption +of the common Spanish and Portuguese Christian name “Diego.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAGOBERT I.<a name="ar234" id="ar234"></a></span> (d. 639), king of the Franks, was the son of +Clotaire II. In 623 his father established him as king of the +region east of the Ardennes, and in 626 revived for him the +ancient kingdom of Austrasia, <i>minus</i> Aquitaine and Provence. +As Dagobert was yet but a child, he was placed under the +authority of the mayor of the palace, Pippin, and Arnulf, +bishop of Metz. At the death of Clotaire II. in 629, Dagobert +wished to re-establish unity in the Frankish realm, and in 629 +and 630 made expeditions into Neustria and Burgundy, where +he succeeded in securing the recognition of his authority. In +Aquitaine he gave his brother Charibert the administration of +the counties of Toulouse, Cahors, Agen, Périgueux, and Saintes; +but at Charibert’s death in 632 Dagobert became sole ruler of the +whole of the Frankish territories south of the Loire. Under him +the Merovingian monarchy attained its culminating point. He +restored to the royal domain the lands that had been usurped by +the great nobles and by the church; he maintained at Paris a +luxurious, though, from the example he himself set, a disorderly +court; he was a patron of the arts, and delighted in the exquisite +craftsmanship of his treasurer, the goldsmith St Eloi. His +authority was recognized through the length and breadth of the +realm. The duke of the Basques came to his court to swear +fidelity, and at his <i>villa</i> at Clichy the chief of the Bretons of +Domnoné promised obedience. He intervened in the affairs of +the Visigoths of Spain and the Lombards of Italy, and was heard +with deference. Indeed, as a sovereign, Dagobert was reckoned +superior to the other barbarian kings. He entered into relations +with the eastern empire, and swore a “perpetual peace” with the +emperor Heraclius; and it is probable that the two sovereigns +took common measures against the Slav and Bulgarian tribes, +which ravaged in turn the Byzantine state and the German +territories subject to the Franks. Dagobert protected the +church and placed illustrious prelates at the head of the bishoprics—Eloi +(Eligius) at Noyon, Ouen (Audoenus) at Rouen, and +Didier (Desiderius) at Cahors. His reign is also marked by the +creation of numerous monasteries and by renewed missionary +activity in Flanders and among the Basques. He died on the +19th of January 639, and was buried at St Denis. After his death +the Frankish monarchy was again divided. In 634 he had been +obliged to give the Austrasians a special king in the person of +his eldest son Sigebert, and at the birth of a second son, Clovis, +in 635, the Neustrians had immediately claimed him as king. +Thus the unification of the realm, which Dagobert had re-established +with so much pains, was annulled.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Chronicon</i> of Fredegarius; “<i>Gesta Dagoberti I. regis Francorum</i>” +in <i>Mon. Germ. hist. Script. rer. Meroving.</i> vol. ii. edited by +B. Krusch; J. H. Albers, <i>Konig Dagobert in Gesch., Legende, und +Sage</i> (2nd ed., Kaiserslautern, 1884); E. Vacandard, <i>Vie de Saint +Ouen, évêque de Rouen</i> (Paris, 1901); and H. E. Bonnell, <i>Die Anfange +des karoling. Hauses</i> (Berlin, 1866).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. Pf.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAGON,<a name="ar235" id="ar235"></a></span> a god of the Philistines who had temples at Ashdod +(1 Sam. v. 1), and Gaza (Judg. xvi. 21, 23); the former was +destroyed by Jonathan, the brother of Judas the Maccabee +(1 Macc. x. 84; 148 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). But Dagon was more than a mere +local deity; there was a place called Beth-Dagon in Judah +(Josh. xv. 41), another on the borders of Asher (<i>ib.</i> xix. 27), and +a third underlies the modern Bēt Dejān, south-east of Nāblus. +Dagon was in all probability an old Canaanite deity; it appears +in the name of the Canaanite Dagantakala as early as the 15th +century, and is possibly to be identified with the Babylonian god +Dagan. Little is known of his cult (Judg. xvi. 23 seq.), although +as the male counterpart of Ashtoreth (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Astarte</a></span>) his worship +would scarcely differ from that of the Baalim (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Baal</a></span>). The +name Dāgōn seems to come from <i>dāg</i> “fish,” and that his idol +was half-man half-fish is possible from the ichthyomorphic +representations found upon coins of Ascalon and Arvad, and +from the fact that Berossus speaks of an Assyrian merman-god.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The true meaning of the name is doubtful. In 1 Sam. v. 4, Thenius +and Wellhausen, followed by Robertson Smith and others, read +“only his fish-part (<i>dāgō</i>) was left to him”; against this, see the +comm. of H. P. Smith and Budde. The identification of Dagon +with the Babylonian Dagan is doubted by G. F. Moore (<i>Encyc. Bib.</i>, +col. 985), and that of the latter with Odacon and Ea-Oannes is +questionable. Philo Byblius (Müller, <i>Fr. Hist. Graec.</i> iii. 567 seq.) +makes Dagon the inventor of corn and the plough, whence he was +called <span class="grk" title="Zeus Harotrios">Ζεὺς Ἀρότριος</span>. This points to a natural though possibly late +etymology from the Hebrew and Phœnician <i>dagan</i> “corn.” It is +not improbable that, at least in later times, Dagon had in place of, or +in addition to, his old character, that of the god who presided over +agriculture; for in the last days of paganism, as we learn from +Marcus Diaconus in the <i>Life of Porphyry of Gaza</i> (§ 19), the great +god of Gaza, now known as Marna (our Lord), was regarded as the +god of rains and invoked against famine. That Marna was lineally +descended from Dagon is probable in every way, and it is therefore +interesting to note that he gave oracles, that he had a circular temple, +where he was sometimes worshipped by human sacrifices, that there +were wells in the sacred circuit, and that there was also a place +of adoration to him situated, as was usual, outside the town. +Certain “marmora” in the temple, which might not be approached, +especially by women, may perhaps be connected with the threshold +which the priests of Dagon would not touch with their feet (1 Sam. +v. 5, Zeph. i. 9). See further, the comm. on the Old Testament +passages, Moore (<i>loc. cit.</i>), and Lagrange, <i>Relig. sémit.</i> p. 131 seq.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAGUERRE, LOUIS JACQUES MANDÉ<a name="ar236" id="ar236"></a></span> (1789-1851), French, +painter and physicist, inventor of the daguerreotype, was born at +Cormeilles, in the department of Seine-et-Oise, and died on the +12th of July 1851 at Petit-Brie-sur-Marne, near Paris. He was +at first occupied as an inland revenue officer, but soon took to +scene-painting for the opera. He assisted Pierre Prévost (1764-1823) +in the execution of panoramic views of Rome, Naples, +London, Jerusalem, and Athens, and subsequently (July 11, +1822), in conjunction with Bouton, he opened at Paris the +Diorama (<span class="grk" title="dis">δίς</span>, double; <span class="grk" title="horama">ὅραμα</span>, view), an exhibition of pictorial +views, the effect of which was heightened by changes in the light +thrown upon them. An establishment similar to that at Paris +was opened by Daguerre in Regent’s Park, London. On the 3rd +of March 1839 the Diorama, together with the work on which +Daguerre was then engaged, was destroyed by fire. This reverse +of fortune was soon, however, more than compensated for by +the distinction he achieved as the inventor of the daguerreotype +photographic process. J. Nicéphore Niepce, who since 1814 +had been seeking a means of obtaining permanent pictures by +the action of sunlight, learned in 1826 that Daguerre was similarly +occupied. In 1829 he communicated to Daguerre particulars of +his method of fixing the images produced in the camera lucida by +making use of metallic plates coated with a composition of +asphalt and oil of lavender; this, where acted on by the light, +remained undissolved when the plate was plunged into a mixture +of petroleum and oil of lavender, and the development of the +image was effected by the action of acids and other chemical +reagents on the exposed surface of the plate. The two investigators +laboured together in the production of their “heliographic +pictures” from 1829 until the death of Niepce in 1833. Daguerre, +continuing his experiments, discovered eventually the process +connected with his name. This, as he described it, consists of +five operations:—the polishing of the silver plate; the coating of +the plate with iodide of silver by submitting it for about 20 +minutes to the action of iodine vapour; the projection of the +image of the object upon the golden-coloured iodized surface, +the development of the latent image by means of the vapour of +mercury; and, lastly, the fixing of the picture by immersing +the plate in a solution of sodium “hyposulphite” (sodium +thiosulphate). On the 9th of January 1839, at a meeting of the +Academy of Sciences, Arago dwelt on the importance of the +discovery of the daguerreotype; and, in consequence of the +representations made by him and Gay Lussac to the French +government, Daguerre was on the 15th of June appointed an +officer of the Legion of Honour. On the same day a bill was +presented to the chambers, according to the provisions of which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page731" id="page731"></a>731</span> +Daguerre and the heir of Niepce were to receive annuities of +6000 and 4000 francs respectively, on the condition that their +process should be made known to the Academy. The bill having +been approved at the meetings of the two chambers on the 9th +of July and on the 2nd of August, Daguerre’s process, together +with his system of transparent and opaque painting, was published +by the government, and soon became generally known +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Photography</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Daguerre’s <i>Historique et description des procédés du daguerréotype +et du diorama</i> (Paris, 1839) passed through several editions, and +was translated into English. Besides this he wrote an octavo work, +entitled <i>Nouveau moyen de préparer la couche sensible des plaques +destinées à recevoir les images photographiques</i> (Paris, 1844).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 7, Slice 8, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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