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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:11:24 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:11:24 -0700 |
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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 7, Slice 10 + "David, St" to "Demidov" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 15, 2012 [EBook #38892] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 7 SL 10 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME VII SLICE X<br /><br /> +David, St to Demidov</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">DAVID, ST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">DEERFIELD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">DAVID I.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">DEER PARK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">DAVID II.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">DEFAMATION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">DAVID</a> (Welsh princes)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">DEFAULT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">DAVID, FÉLICIEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">DEFEASANCE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">DAVID, GERARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">DEFENCE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">DAVID, JACQUES LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">DEFENDANT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">DAVID, PIERRE JEAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">DEFENDER OF THE FAITH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">DAVIDISTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">DEFERENT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">DAVIDSON, ANDREW BRUCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">DEFFAND, MARIE ANNE DE VICHY-CHAMROND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">DAVIDSON, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">DEFIANCE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">DAVIDSON, RANDALL THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">DEFILE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">DAVIDSON, SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">DEFINITION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">DAVIDSON, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">DEFOE, DANIEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">DAVIES, DAVID CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">DEGAS, HILAIRE GERMAIN EDGARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">DAVIES, SIR JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">DE GEER, LOUIS GERHARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">DAVIES, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">DEGGENDORF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">DAVIES, SIR LOUIS HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">DE HAAS, MAURITZ FREDERICK HENDRICK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">DAVIES, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">DEHRA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">DAVILA, ENRICO CATERINO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">DEHRA DUN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">DAVIS, ANDREW JACKSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">DEIOCES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">DAVIS, CHARLES HOWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">DEÏOTARUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">DAVIS, CUSHMAN KELLOGG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">DEIR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">DAVIS, HENRY WILLIAM BANKS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">DEIRA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">DAVIS, HENRY WINTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">DEISM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">DAVIS, JEFFERSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">DEISTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">DAVIS, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">DÉJAZET, PAULINE VIRGINIE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">DAVIS, THOMAS OSBORNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">DE KALB</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">DAVISON, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">DE KEYSER, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">DAVIS STRAIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">DEKKER, EDWARD DOUWES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">DAVITT, MICHAEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">DEKKER, JEREMIAS DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">DAVOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">DEKKER, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">DAVOUT, LOUIS NICOLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">DE LA BECHE, SIR HENRY THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">DAVY, SIR HUMPHRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">DELABORDE, HENRI FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">DAWARI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">DELACROIX, FERDINAND VICTOR EUGÈNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">DAWES, HENRY LAURENS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">DE LA GARDIE, MAGNUS GABRIEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">DAWES, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">DELAGOA BAY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">DAWISON, BOGUMIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">DELAMBRE, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">DAWKINS, WILLIAM BOYD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">DELAMERE, GEORGE BOOTH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">DAWLISH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">DE LAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">DAWN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">DELANE, JOHN THADEUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">DAWSON, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">DELANY, MARY GRANVILLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">DAWSON, SIR JOHN WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">DE LA REY, JACOBUS HERCULES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">DAWSON CITY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">DE LA RIVE, AUGUSTE ARTHUR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">DAX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">DELAROCHE, HIPPOLYTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">DAY, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162a">DELARUE, GERVAIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">DAY, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">DE LA RUE, WARREN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">DAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">DELATOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">DAYLESFORD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">DELAUNAY, ELIE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">DAYTON</a> (Kentucky, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">DELAUNAY, LOUIS ARSÈNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">DAYTON</a> (Ohio, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">DELAVIGNE, JEAN FRANÇOIS CASIMIR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">DEACON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">DELAWARE</a> (state of the U.S.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">DEACONESS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">DELAWARE</a> (city)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">DEAD SEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">DELAWARE INDIANS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">DEADWOOD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">DELAWARE RIVER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">DEAF AND DUMB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">DELAWARE WATER-GAP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">DEÁK, FRANCIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">DE LA WARR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">DEAL</a> (municipal borough)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">DELBRÜCK, HANS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">DEAL</a> (part or portion)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">DELBRÜCK, MARTIN FRIEDRICH RUDOLF VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">DEAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">DELCASSÉ, THÉOPHILE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">DEAN, FOREST OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">DEL CREDERE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">DEANE, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">DELESCLUZE, LOUIS CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">DEANE, SILAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">DELESSE, ACHILLE ERNEST OSCAR JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">DEATH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">DELESSERT, JULES PAUL BENJAMIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">DEATH-WARNING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">DELFICO, MELCHIORRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">DEATH-WATCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">DELFT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">DE BARY, HEINRICH ANTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">DELHI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">DEBENTURES and DEBENTURE STOCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">DELIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">DEBORAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">DELIAN LEAGUE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">DEBRECZEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">DELIBES, CLÉMENT PHILIBERT LÉO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">DEBT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">DELILAH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">DEBUSSY, CLAUDE ACHILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">DELILLE, JACQUES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">DECADE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">DELIRIUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">DECAEN, CHARLES MATHIEU ISIDORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">DELISLE, JOSEPH NICOLAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">DECALOGUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">DELISLE, LÉOPOLD VICTOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">DE CAMP, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">DELITZSCH, FRANZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">DECAMPS, ALEXANDRE GABRIEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">DELITZSCH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">DECAPOLIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">DELIUS, NIKOLAUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">DECASTYLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">DELLA BELLA, STEFANO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">DECATUR, STEPHEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">DELLA CASA, GIOVANNI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">DECATUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">DELLA COLLE, RAFFAELLINO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">DECAZES, ÉLIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">DELLA GHERARDESCA, UGOLINO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">DECAZEVILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">DELLA PORTA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">DECCAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">DELLA QUERCIA, JACOPO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">DECELEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">DELLA ROBBIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">DECEMBER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">DELMEDIGO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">DECEMVIRI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">DELMENHORST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">DECHEN, ERNST HEINRICH KARL VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">DELOLME, JEAN LOUIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">DECIDUOUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">DELONEY, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">DECIMAL COINAGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">DE LONG, GEORGE WASHINGTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">DECIUS, GAIUS MESSIUS QUINTUS TRAJANUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">DELORME, MARION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">DECIZE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">DE L’ORME, PHILIBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">DECKER, SIR MATTHEW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">DELOS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">DECKER, PIERRE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">DE LOUTHERBOURG, PHILIP JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">DECLARATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">DELPHI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">DECLARATION OF PARIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">DELPHINIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">DECLARATOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">DELPHINUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">DECLINATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">DELTA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">DECOLOURIZING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">DELUC, JEAN ANDRÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">DECORATED PERIOD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">DELUGE, THE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">DE COSTA, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">DELYANNI, THEODOROS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">DE COSTER, CHARLES THÉODORE HENRI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">DEMADES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">DECOY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">DEMAGOGUE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">DECREE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">DEMANTOID</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">DECRETALS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">DEMARATUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">DECURIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">DEMERARA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">DÉDÉAGATCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">DEMESNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">DEDHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">DEMETER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">DEDICATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">DEMETRIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">DE DONIS CONDITIONALIBUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">DEMETRIUS</a> (king of Bactria)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">DEDUCTION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">DEMETRIUS</a> (kings of Macedonia)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">DEE, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">DEMETRIUS</a> (kings of Syria)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">DEE</a> (river of Wales)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">DEMETRIUS</a> (Greek sculptor)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">DEE</a> (river of Scotland)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">DEMETRIUS</a> (Cynic philosopher)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">DEED</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">DEMETRIUS DONSKOI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">DEEMS, CHARLES (ALEXANDER) FORCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">DEMETRIUS PHALEREUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">DEER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">DEMETRIUS, PSEUDO-</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar234">DEMIDOV</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page859" id="page859"></a>859</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">DAVID, ST<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (<i>Dewi, Sant</i>), the national and tutelar saint of +Wales, whose annual festival, known as “St David’s Day,” falls +on the 1st of March. Few historical facts are known regarding +the saint’s life and actions, and the dates both of his birth and +death are purely conjectural, although there is reason to suppose +he was born about the year 500 and died at a great age towards +the close of the 6th century. According to his various biographers +he was the son of Sandde, a prince of the line of Cunedda, his +mother being Non, who ranks as a Cymric saint. He seems to +have taken a prominent part in the celebrated synod of +Llanddewi-Brefi (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cardiganshire</a></span>), and to have presided +at the so-called “Synod of Victory,” held some years later at +Caerleon-on-Usk. At some date unknown, St David, as <i>penescoli</i> +or primate of South Wales, moved the seat of ecclesiastical +government from Caerleon to the remote headland of Mynyw, +or Menevia, which has ever since, under the name of St David’s +(<i>Ty-Dewi</i>), remained the cathedral city of the western see. St +David founded numerous churches throughout all parts of South +Wales, of which fifty-three still recall his name, but apparently +he never penetrated farther north than the region of Powys, +although he seems to have visited Cornwall. With the passing +of time the saint’s fame increased, and his shrine at St David’s +became a notable place of pilgrimage, so that by the time of the +Norman conquest his importance and sanctity were fully recognized, +and at Henry I.’s request he was formally canonized by +Pope Calixtus II. about 1120.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Of the many biographies of St David, the earliest known is that of +Rhyddmarch, or Ricemarchus (<i>c.</i> 1090), one of the last British +bishops of St David’s, from whose work Giraldus Cambrensis (<i>q.v.</i>) +chiefly compiled his extravagant life of the saint.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVID I.<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1084-1153), king of Scotland, the youngest son +of Malcolm Canmore and (Saint) Margaret, sister of Edgar +Ætheling, was born in 1084. He married in 1113 Matilda, +daughter and heiress of Waltheof, earl of Northumbria, and thus +became possessed of the earldom of Huntingdon. On the death +of Edgar, king of Scotland, in 1107, the territories of the Scottish +crown were divided in accordance with the terms of his will +between his two brothers, Alexander and David. Alexander, +together with the crown, received Scotland north of the Forth +and Clyde, David the southern district with the title of earl of +Cumbria. The death of Alexander I. in 1124 gave David possession +of the whole. In 1127, in the character of an English baron, +he swore fealty to Matilda as heiress to her father Henry I., and +when the usurper Stephen ousted her in 1135 David vindicated +her cause in arms and invaded England. But Stephen marched +north with a great army, whereupon David made peace. The +peace, however, was not kept. After threatening an invasion in +1137, David marched into England in 1138, but sustained a +crushing defeat on Cutton Moor in the engagement known as +the battle of the Standard. He returned to Carlisle, and soon +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page860" id="page860"></a>860</span> +afterwards concluded peace. In 1141 he joined Matilda in London +and accompanied her to Winchester, but after a narrow escape +from capture he returned to Scotland. Henceforth he remained +in his own kingdom and devoted himself to its political and +ecclesiastical reorganization. A devoted son of the church, he +founded five bishoprics and many monasteries. In secular +politics he energetically forwarded the process of feudalization +which had been initiated by his immediate predecessors. He died +at Carlisle on the 24th of May 1153.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVID II.<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1324-1371), king of Scotland, son of King Robert +the Bruce by his second wife, Elizabeth de Burgh (d. 1327), was +born at Dunfermline on the 5th of March 1324. In accordance +with the terms of the treaty of Northampton he was married in +July 1328 to Joanna (d. 1362), daughter of the English king, +Edward II., and became king of Scotland on his father’s death in +June 1329, being crowned at Scone in November 1331. Owing to +the victory of Edward III. of England and his protégé, Edward +Baliol, at Halidon Hill in July 1333, David and his queen were +sent for safety into France, reaching Boulogne in May 1334, and +being received very graciously by the French king, Philip VI. +Little is known about the life of the Scottish king in France, +except that Château Gaillard was given to him for a residence, +and that he was present at the bloodless meeting of the English +and French armies at Vironfosse in October 1339. Meanwhile +his representatives had obtained the upper hand in Scotland, and +David was thus enabled to return to his kingdom in June 1341, +when he took the reins of government into his own hands. In +1346 he invaded England in the interests of France, but was +defeated and taken prisoner at the battle of Neville’s Cross in +October of this year, and remained in England for eleven years, +living principally in London and at Odiham in Hampshire. His +imprisonment was not a rigorous one, and negotiations for his +release were soon begun. Eventually, in October 1357, after +several interruptions, a treaty was signed at Berwick by which +the Scottish estates undertook to pay 100,000 marks as a ransom +for their king. David, who had probably recognized Edward III. +as his feudal superior, returned at once to Scotland; but owing +to the poverty of the kingdom it was found impossible to raise the +ransom. A few instalments were paid, but the king sought to +get rid of the liability by offering to make Edward III., or one of +his sons, his successor in Scotland. In 1364 the Scottish parliament +indignantly rejected a proposal to make Lionel, duke of +Clarence, the next king; but David treated secretly with Edward +III. over this matter, after he had suppressed a rising of some of +his unruly nobles. The king died in Edinburgh Castle on the +22nd of February 1371. His second wife was Margaret, widow of +Sir John Logie, whom he divorced in 1369; but he left no +children, and was succeeded by his nephew, Robert II. David +was a weak and incapable ruler, without a spark of his father’s +patriotic spirit.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Andrew of Wyntoun, <i>The orygynale cronykil of Scotland</i>, +edited by D. Laing (Edinburgh, 1872-1879); John of Fordun, +<i>Chronica gentis Scotorum</i>, edited by W. F. Skene (Edinburgh, 1871-1872); +J. H. Burton, <i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1905); +and A. Lang, <i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. i. (Edinburgh, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVID,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> the name of three Welsh princes.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">David I.</span> (d. 1203), a son of Prince Owen Gwynedd (d. 1169), +came into prominence as a leader of the Welsh during the +expedition of Henry II. in 1157. In 1170 he became lord of +Gwynedd (<i>i.e.</i> the district around Snowdon), but some regarded +him as a bastard, and Gwynedd was also claimed by other +members of his family. After fighting with varying fortunes he +sought an ally in the English king, whom he supported during +the baronial rising in 1173; then after this event he married +Henry’s half-sister Emma. But his enemies increased in power, +and about 1194 he was driven from Wales by the partisans of his +half-brother Llewelyn ab Iorwerth. The chronicler Benedictus +Abbas calls David <i>rex</i>, and Rhuddlan castle was probably the +centre of his vague authority.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">David II.</span> (<i>c.</i> 1208-1246) was a son of the great Welsh prince, +Llewelyn ab Iorwerth, and through his mother Joanna was a +grandson of King John. He married an English lady, Isabella +de Braose, and, having been recognized as his father’s heir both +by Henry III. and by the Welsh lords, he had to face the hostility +of his half-brother Gruffydd, whom he seized and imprisoned +in 1239. When Llewelyn died in April 1240, David, who had +already taken some part in the duties of government, was acknowledged +as a prince of North Wales, doing homage to Henry III. at +Gloucester. However, he was soon at variance with the English +king, who appears to have espoused the cause of the captive +Gruffydd. Henry’s Welsh campaign in 1241 was bloodless but +decisive. Gruffydd was surrendered to him; David went to +London and made a full submission, but two or three years later +he was warring against some English barons on the borders. +To check the English king he opened negotiations with Innocent +IV., doubtless hoping that the pope would recognize Wales as an +independent state, but here, as on the field of battle, Henry III. +was too strong for him. Just after Henry’s second campaign in +Wales the prince died in March 1246.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">David III.</span> (d. 1283) was a son of Gruffydd and thus a nephew +of David II. His life was mainly spent in fighting against his +brother, the reigning prince, Llewelyn ab Gruffydd. His first +revolt took place in 1254 or 1255, and after a second about eight +years later he took refuge in England, returning to Wales when +Henry III. made peace with Llewelyn in 1267. Then about 1274 +the same process was repeated. David attended Edward I. +during the Welsh expedition of 1277, receiving from the English +king lands in North Wales; but in 1282 he made peace with +Llewelyn and suddenly attacked the English garrisons, a proceeding +which led to Edward’s final conquest of Wales. After +Llewelyn’s death in December 1282 David maintained the last +struggle of the Welsh for independence. All his efforts, however, +were vain; in June 1283 he was betrayed to Edward, was tried +by a special court and sentenced to death, and was executed with +great barbarity at Shrewsbury in October 1283. As the last +native prince of Wales, David’s praises have been sung by the +Welsh bards, but his character was not attractive, and a Welsh +historian says “his life was the bane of Wales.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVID, FÉLICIEN<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1810-1876), French composer, was born +on the 13th of April 1810 at Cadenet, in the department of +Vaucluse. As a child he showed unusual musical precocity, and +being early left an orphan he was admitted into the choir of Saint +Sauveur at Aix. He was for a time employed in an attorney’s +office, but quitted his service to become <i>chef d’orchestre</i> in the +theatre at Aix, and chapel-master at Saint Sauveur. Then he +went to Paris, being provided with £100 a year by a rich uncle. +After having studied for a while at the Paris Conservatoire, he +joined the sect of Saint Simonians, and in 1833 travelled in the +East in order to preach the new doctrine. After three years’ +absence, during which Constantinople and Smyrna were visited +and some time was spent in Egypt, he returned to France and +published a collection of <i>Oriental Melodies</i>. For several years he +worked in retirement, and wrote two symphonies, some chamber +music and songs. On the 8th of December 1844 he suddenly +leapt into fame through the extraordinary success obtained by his +symphonic ode <i>Le Désert</i>, which was produced at the Conservatoire. +In this work David had struck out a new line. He had attempted +in simple strains to evoke the majestic stillness of the desert. +Notwithstanding its title of “symphonic ode,” <i>Le Désert</i> has little +in common with the symphonic style. What distinguishes it is a +certain naïveté of expression and an effective oriental colouring. +In this last respect David may be looked upon as the precursor of +a whole army of composers. His succeeding works, <i>Moïse au +Sinai</i> (1846), <i>Christophe Colomb</i> (1847), <i>L’Éden</i> (1848), scarcely +bore out the promise shown in <i>Le Désert</i>, although the second of +these compositions was successful at the time of its production. +David now turned his attention to the theatre, and produced +the following operas in succession: <i>La Perle du Brésil</i> (1851), +<i>Herculanum</i> (1859), <i>Lalla-Roukh</i> (1862), <i>Le Saphir</i> (1865). Of +these, <i>Lalla-Roukh</i> is the one which has obtained the greatest +success. In 1868 he gained the award of the French Institute for +the biennial prize given by the emperor; and in 1869 he was +made librarian at the Conservatoire instead of Berlioz, whom +subsequently he succeeded as a member of the Institute. He died +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page861" id="page861"></a>861</span> +at Saint-Germain-en-Laye on the 29th of August 1876. If David +can scarcely be placed in the first rank of French composers, he +nevertheless deserves the consideration due to a sincere artist, +who was undoubtedly inspired by lofty ideals. At a time when +the works of Berlioz were still unappreciated by the majority +of people, David succeeded in making the public take interest in +music of a picturesque and descriptive kind. Thus he may be +considered as one of the pioneers of modern French musical art.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVID, GERARD<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Gheeraert Davit</span>], (?-1523), Netherlands +painter, born at Oudewater in Holland between 1450 and +1460, was the last great master of the Bruges school. He was +only rescued from complete oblivion in 1860-1863 by Mr W. J. H. +Weale, whose researches in the archives of Bruges brought to the +light the main facts of the master’s life. We have now documentary +evidence that David came to Bruges in 1483, presumably +from Haarlem, where he had formed his early style under the +tuition of Ouwater; that he joined the gild of St Luke at Bruges +in 1484 and became dean of the gild in 1501; that he married in +1496 Cornelia Cnoop, daughter of the dean of the Goldsmiths’ +gild; became one of the leading citizens of the town; died on the +13th of August 1523; and was buried in the Church of Our Lady +at Bruges. In his early work he had followed the Haarlem +tradition as represented by Dirck Bouts, Ouwater and Geertgen +of Haarlem, but already gave evidence of his superior power as +colourist. To this early period belong the “St John” of the +Kaufmann collection in Berlin, and Mr Salting’s “St Jerome.” +In Bruges he applied himself to the study and the copying of the +masterpieces by the Van Eycks, Van der Weyden, and Van der +Goes, and came under the direct influence of the master whom +he followed most closely, Hans Memlinc. From him he acquired +the soulful intensity of expression, the increased realism in the +rendering of the human form and the orderly architectonic +arrangement of the figures. Yet another master was to influence +him later in life when, in 1515, he visited Antwerp and became +impressed with the life and movement of Quentin Matsys, who +had introduced a more intimate and more human conception of +sacred themes. David’s “Pietà” in the National Gallery, and +the “Descent from the Cross,” in the Cavallo collection, Paris +(Guildhall, 1906), were painted under this influence and are +remarkable for their dramatic movement. But the works on +which David’s fame will ever rest most securely are the great +altar-pieces executed by him before his visit to Antwerp—the +“Marriage of St Catherine,” at the National Gallery; +the triptych of the “Madonna Enthroned and Saints” of the +Brignole-Sale collection in Genoa; the “Annunciation” of +the Sigmaringen collection; and, above all, the “Madonna with +Angels and Saints” which he painted gratuitously for the +Carmelite Nuns of Sion at Bruges, and which is now in the Rouen +museum. Only a few of his works have remained in Bruges—“The +Judgment of Cambyses,” “The Flaying of Sisamnes” +and the “Baptism of Christ” in the Town museum, and the +“Transfiguration” in the Church of Our Lady. The rest were +scattered all over the world, and to this may be due the oblivion +into which his very name had fallen—partly to this, and partly +to the fact that with all the beauty and soulfulness of his work +he had no new page to add to the history of the progressive +development of art, and even in his best work only gave new +variations of the tunes sung by his great precursors and contemporaries. +That he is worthy to rank among the masters was only +revealed to the world when a considerable number of his paintings +were assembled at Bruges on the occasion of the exhibition of +early Flemish masters in 1902. At the time of his death the glory +of Bruges, and also of the Bruges school, was on the wane, +and Antwerp had taken the leadership in art as in political +and commercial importance. Of David’s pupils in Bruges, only +Isenbrandt, A. Cornelis and Ambrosius Benson achieved importance. +Among other Flemish painters Joachim Patinir and +Mabuse were to some degree influenced by him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Eberhard Freiherr von Bodenhausen published in 1905 a very +comprehensive monograph on <i>Gerard David and his School</i> (Munich, +F. Bruckmann), together with a <i>catalogue raisonné</i> of his works, +which, after careful sifting, are reduced to the number of +forty-three.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. G. K.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVID, JACQUES LOUIS<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1748-1825), French painter, was +born in Paris on the 30th of April 1748. His father was killed in +a duel, when the boy was but nine years old. His education was +begun at the Collège des Quatre Nations, where he obtained a +smattering of the classics; but, his artistic talent being already +obvious, he was soon placed by his guardian in the studio of +François Boucher. Boucher speedily realized that his own +erotic style did not suit the lad’s genius, and recommended him +to J. M. Vien, the pioneer of the classical reaction in painting. +Under him David studied for some years, and, after several +attempts to win the <i>prix de Rome</i>, at last succeeded in 1775, with +his “Loves of Antiochus and Stratonice.” Vien, who had just +been appointed director of the French Academy at Rome, +carried the youth with him to that city. The classical reaction +was now in full tide; Winckelmann was writing, Raphael Mengs +painting; and the treasures of the Vatican galleries helped to +confirm David in a taste already moulded by so many kindred +influences. This severely classical spirit inspired his first +important painting, “<i>Date obolum Belisario</i>,” exhibited at Paris +in 1780. The picture exactly suited the temper of the times, and +was an immense success. It was followed by others, painted on +the same principles, but with greater perfection of art: “The +Grief of Andromache” (1783), “The Oath of the Horatii” +(Salon, 1785), “The Death of Socrates,” “Love of Paris and +Helen” (1788), “Brutus” (1789). In the French drama an +unimaginative imitation of ancient models had long prevailed; +even in art Poussin and Le Sueur were successful by expressing +a bias in the same direction; and in the first years of the revolutionary +movement the fashion of imitating the ancients even in +dress and manners went to the most extravagant length. At this +very time David returned to Paris; he was now painter to the +king, Louis XVI., who had been the purchaser of his principal +works, and his popularity was soon immense. At the outbreak +of the Revolution in 1789, David was carried away by the flood +of enthusiasm that made all the intellect of France believe in a +new era of equality and emancipation from all the ills of life.</p> + +<p>The success of his sketch for the picture of the “Oath of the +Tennis Court,” and his pronounced republicanism, secured +David’s election to the Convention in September 1792, by the +<i>Section du Muséum</i>, and he quickly distinguished himself by +the defence of two French artists in Rome who had fallen into +the merciless hands of the Inquisition. As, in this matter, the +behaviour of the authorities of the French Academy in Rome +had been dictated by the tradition of subservience to authority, +he used his influence to get it suppressed. In the January following +his election into the Convention his vote was given for the +king’s death. Thus the man who was so greatly indebted to the +Roman academy and to Louis XVI. assisted in the destruction +of both, no doubt in obedience to a principle, like the act of +Brutus in condemning his sons—a subject he painted with all his +powers. Cato and stoicism were the order of the day. Hitherto +the actor had walked the stage in modern dress. Brutus had +been applauded in red-heeled shoes and <i>culottes jarretées</i>; but +Talma, advised by David, appeared in toga and sandals before an +enthusiastic audience. At this period of his life Mademoiselle de +Noailles persuaded him to paint a sacred subject, with Christ as +the hero. When the picture was done, the Saviour was found to +be another Cato. “I told you so,” he replied to the expostulations +of the lady, “there is no inspiration in Christianity now!” +David’s revolutionary ideas, which led to his election to the +presidency of the Convention and to the committee of general +security, inspired his pictures “Last Moments of Lepelletier de +Saint-Fargeau” and “Marat Assassinated.” He also arranged +the programme of the principal republican festivals. When +Napoleon rose to power David became his enthusiastic admirer. +His picture of Napoleon on horseback pointing the way to Italy +is now in Berlin. During this period he also painted the “Rape of +the Sabines” and “Leonidas at Thermopylae.” Appointed painter +to the emperor, David produced the two notable pictures “The +Coronation” (of Josephine) and the “Distribution of the Eagles.”</p> + +<p>On the return of the Bourbons the painter was exiled with the +other remaining regicides, and retired to Brussels, where he again +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page862" id="page862"></a>862</span> +returned to classical subjects: “Amor quitting Psyche,” “Mars +disarmed by Venus,” &c. He rejected the offer, made through +Baron Humboldt, of the office of minister of fine arts at Berlin, +and remained at Brussels till his death on the 29th of December +1825. His end was true to his whole career and to his nationality. +While dying, a print of the Leonidas, one of his favourite subjects, +was submitted to him. After vaguely looking at it a long time, +“<i>Il n’y a que moi qui pouvais concevoir la tête de Léonidas</i>,” he +whispered, and died. His friends and his party thought to carry +the body back to his beloved Paris for burial, but the government +of the day arrested the procession at the frontier, an act +which caused some scandal, and furnished the occasion of a +terrible song of Béranger’s.</p> + +<p>It is difficult for a generation which has witnessed another +complete revolution in the standards of artistic taste to realize +the secret of David’s immense popularity in his own day. His +style is severely academic, his colour lacking in richness and +warmth, his execution hard and uninteresting in its very perfection. +Subjects and treatment alike are inspired by the passing +fashion of an age which had deceived itself into believing that +it was living and moving in the spirit of classical antiquity. +The inevitable reaction of the romantic movement made the +masterpieces, which had filled the men of the Revolution +with enthusiasm, seem cold and lifeless to those who had been +taught to expect in art that atmosphere of mystery which in +nature is everywhere present. Yet David was a great artist, +and exercised in his day and generation a great influence. His +pictures are magnificent in their composition and their draughtsmanship; +and his keen observation and insight into character +are evident, especially in his portraits, notably of Madame +Récamier, of the Conventional Gérard and of Boissy d’Anglas.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. J. Delécluze, <i>Louis David, son école et son temps</i> (Paris, +1855), and <i>Le Peintre Louis David. Souvenirs et documents inédits</i>, +by J. L. Jules David, the painter’s grandson (Paris, 1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVID, PIERRE JEAN<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1789-1856), usually called David +d’Angers, French sculptor, was born at Angers on the 12th of +March 1789. His father was a sculptor, or rather a carver, but +he had thrown aside the mallet and taken the musket, fighting +against the Chouans of La Vendée. He returned to his trade +at the end of the civil war, to find his customers gone, so that +young David was born into poverty. As the boy grew up his +father wished to force him into some more lucrative and certain +way of life. At last he succeeded in surmounting the opposition +to his becoming a sculptor, and in his eighteenth year left for +Paris to study the art upon a capital of eleven francs. After +struggling against want for a year and a half, he succeeded in +taking the prize at the École des Beaux-Arts. An annuity of +600 francs (£24) was granted by the municipality of his native +town in 1809, and in 1811 David’s “Epaminondas” gained the +<i>prix de Rome</i>. He spent five years in Rome, during which his +enthusiasm for the works of Canova was often excessive.</p> + +<p>Returning from Rome about the time of the restoration of +the Bourbons, he would not remain in the neighbourhood of the +Tuileries, which swarmed with foreign conquerors and returned +royalists, and accordingly went to London. Here Flaxman and +others visited upon him the sins of David the painter, to whom +he was erroneously supposed to be related. With great difficulty +he made his way to Paris again, where a comparatively prosperous +career opened upon him. His medallions and busts were in +much request, and orders for monumental works also came to +him. One of the best of these was that of Gutenberg at Strassburg; +but those he himself valued most were the statue of Barra, +a drummer boy who continued to beat his drum till the moment +of death in the war in La Vendée, and the monument to the Greek +liberator Bozzaris, consisting in a young female figure called +“Reviving Greece,” of which Victor Hugo said: “It is difficult +to see anything more beautiful in the world; this statue joins +the grandeur of Pheidias to the expressive manner of Puget.” +David’s busts and medallions were very numerous, and among +his sitters may be found not only the illustrious men and women +of France, but many others both of England and Germany—countries +which he visited professionally in 1827 and 1829. His +medallions, it is affirmed, number 500. He died on the 4th of +January 1856. David’s fame rests firmly on his pediment of the +Panthéon, his monument to General Gobert in Père Lachaise and +his marble “Philopoemen” in the Louvre. In the Musée David at +Angers is an almost complete collection of his works either in the +form of copies or in the original moulds. As an example of his benevolence +of character may be mentioned his rushing off to the sickbed +of Rouget de Lisle, the author of the “Marseillaise Hymn,” +modelling and carving him in marble without delay, making +a lottery of the work, and sending to the poet in the extremity +of need the seventy-two pounds which resulted from the sale.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Jouin, <i>David d’Angers et ses relations littéraires</i> (1890); +<i>Lettres de P. J. David d’Angers à Louis Dupré</i> (Paris, 1891); +<i>Collection de portraits des contemporains d’après les médaillons de +P. J. David</i> (Paris, 1838).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVIDISTS,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> a fancy name rather than a recognized designation +for three religious sects. It has been applied (1) to the followers +(if he had any) of David of Dinant, in Belgium, the teacher or +pupil of Amalric (Amaury) of Bena, both of whom taught apparently +a species of pantheism. David’s <i>Quaterni</i>, or <i>Quaternuli</i>, +condemned and burnt at Paris (1209), is a lost book, known only +by references in Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas. Its +author would have been burnt had he not fled. The name has +been given (2) to the followers of David George or Joris (<i>q.v.</i>), +and (3) to the followers of Francis Dávid (1510-1579), the apostle +of Transylvanian unitarianism. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Socinus</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Unitarianism</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVIDSON, ANDREW BRUCE<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1831-1902), Scottish divine, +was born in 1831 at Kirkhill in Aberdeenshire, where his father +Andrew Davidson had a farm. The Davidsons belonged to the +congregation of James Robertson (1803-1860) of Ellon, one of +the ministers of Strathbogie Presbytery, which in the controversy +which led to the disruption, resisted the “dangerous claims +of the established church to self-government.” When the disruption +came the principles at stake were keenly canvassed in +Ellon, and eventually Andrew Davidson, senior, went with the +Free Church. In 1845 the boy, who had been a “herd” on the +farm, went for six months to the grammar school at Aberdeen +and was there prepared for a university bursary, which was +sufficient to pay his fees, but no more. During his four years at +the university his mother supplied him fortnightly with provisions +from the farm; sometimes she walked the whole twenty +miles from Kirkhill and handed the coach fee to her son. He +graduated in 1849. At the university he had acquired a distrust +of philosophy, and found it difficult to choose between mathematical +and linguistic studies. A Free Church school having +been opened in Ellon, he became master there for three years. +Here he developed special aptitude for linguistic and philological +studies. Besides Hebrew he taught himself French, German, +Dutch, Italian and Spanish. In November 1852 he entered New +College, Edinburgh. There he took the four years’ theological +course, and was licensed in 1856. For two years he preached +occasionally and took vacancies. In 1858 the New College +authorities appointed him assistant to the professor of Hebrew. +He taught during the winter, and in the long vacation continued +his preparation for his life work. One year he worked in Germany +under Ewald, another year he went to Syria to study Arabic. +In 1862 he published the first part of a commentary on Job. It +was never finished and deals only with one-third of the book, but +it is recognized as the first really scientific commentary on the +Old Testament in the English language. In 1863 he was appointed +by the general assembly professor of oriental languages at New +College. He was junior colleague of Dr John Duncan (Rabbi +Duncan) till 1870, and then for thirty years sole professor. He +was a member of the Old Testament revision committee, and his +work was recognized by several honorary distinctions, LL.D. +(Aberdeen), D.D. (Edinburgh), Litt.D. (Cambridge). Among +his students were Professors Elmslie, Skinner, Harper of Melbourne, +Walker of Belfast, George Adam Smith of Glasgow and +W. Robertson Smith. He understood it to be the first duty of an +exegete to ascertain the meaning of the writer, and he showed +that this could be done by the use of grammar and history and the +historical imagination. He supplied guidance when it was much +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page863" id="page863"></a>863</span> +needed as to the methods and results of the higher criticism. +Being a master of its methods, but very cautious in accepting +assertions about its results, he secured attention early in the +Free Church for scientific criticism, and yet threw the whole +weight of his learning and his caustic wit into the argument +against critical extravagance. He had thought himself into the +ideas and points of view of the Hebrews, and his work in Old +Testament theology is unrivalled. He excels as an expositor of +the governing Hebrew ideas such as holiness, righteousness, +Spirit of God, Messianism. In 1897 he was chosen moderator of +the general assembly, but his health prevented his accepting the +post. He died, unmarried, on the 26th of January 1902.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides the commentary on Job he published a book on the +<i>Hebrew Accents</i>, the only Scottish performance of the kind since the +days of Thomas Boston. His <i>Introductory Hebrew Grammar</i> has +been widely adopted as a class-book in theological colleges. His +<i>Hebrew Syntax</i> has the same admirable clearness, precision and teaching +quality. His <i>Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews</i> is one of a +series of handbooks for Bible classes. These were followed by commentaries +on Job, Ezekiel, Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah, in the +Cambridge series; and a Bible-class primer on <i>The Exile and +Restoration</i>. His lectures on <i>Old Testament Prophecy</i> were published +after his death by Professor J. A. Paterson. The <i>Theology of the Old +Testament</i> in the “International Theological Library” is a posthumous +volume edited by Professor Salmond. “Isaiah” in the <i>Temple +Bible</i> was finished, but not revised, when he died; and he also had in +hand the volume on Isaiah for the <i>International Critical Commentary</i>; +to which must be added a mass of articles contributed to <i>The +Imperial Bible Dictionary</i>, <i>The Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, and +the chief religious reviews. Various articles in Dr Hastings’ +<i>Bible Dictionary</i> were by Davidson, especially the article “God.” +Two volumes of sermons, <i>The Called of God</i>, and <i>Waiting upon God</i>, +were published from MS. after Davidson’s death.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVIDSON, JOHN<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1857-1909), British poet, playwright and +novelist, son of the Rev. Alexander Davidson, a minister of the +Evangelical Union, was born at Barrhead, Renfrewshire, Scotland, +on the 11th of April 1857. After a schooling at the Highlanders’ +Academy, Greenock, at the age of thirteen he was set to work in +that town, by helping in a sugar factory laboratory and then in +the town analyst’s office; and at fifteen he went back to his old +school as a pupil-teacher. In 1876 he studied for a session at +Edinburgh University, and then went as a master to various +Scotch schools till 1890, varying his experiences in 1884 by being +a clerk in a Glasgow thread firm. He had married in 1885, and +meanwhile his literary inclinations had shown themselves, without +attracting any public success, in the publication of his poetical +and fantastic plays, <i>Bruce</i> (1886), <i>Smith; a tragic farce</i> (1888) +and <i>Scaramouch in Naxos</i> (1889). Determining at all costs to +follow his literary vocation, he went to London in 1890, but at +first had a hard struggle. There his prose-romance <i>Perfervid</i> +(1890) was published, one of the most original and fascinating +stories of “young blood” and child adventure ever written, but +for some reason it did not catch the public; and a sort of sequel +in <i>The Great Men</i> (1891) met no better fate. He contributed, +however, to newspapers and became known among literary +journalists, and his volume of verse <i>In a Music-Hall</i> (1891) +prepared the way for the genuine success two years later of his +<i>Fleet Street Eclogues</i> (1893), which sounded a new and vigorous +note and at once established his position among the younger +generation of poets. He subsequently produced several more +books in prose, romantic stories like <i>Baptist Lake</i> (1894) and +<i>Earl Lavender</i> (1895), and an admirable piece of descriptive +landscape writing in <i>A Random Itinerary</i> (1894); but his acceptance +as a poet gave a more emphatic impulse to his work in verse, +and most attention was given to the increasing proof of his +powers shown in his <i>Ballads and Songs</i> (1894), <i>Second Series of +Fleet Street Eclogues</i> (1895), <i>New Ballads</i> (1896), <i>The Last Ballad, +&c.</i> (1898), all full of remarkably fresh and unconventional beauty. +In spite of the strangely neglected genius of this early <i>Perfervid</i>, +it is accordingly as a writer of verse rather than of prose-fiction +that he occupies a leading place, with a decided character of his +own, in recent English literature, his revival of a modernized +ballad form being a considerable achievement in itself, and his +poems being packed with fine thought, robust and masterful in +expression and imagery. Meanwhile in 1896 he produced an +English verse adaptation, in <i>For the Crown</i> (acted by Forbes +Robertson and Mrs Patrick Campbell), of François Coppée’s +drama <i>Pour la couronne</i>, which had considerable success and +was revived in 1905; and he wrote several other literary plays, +remarkable none the less for dramatic qualities,—<i>Godfrida</i> (1898), +<i>Self’s the Man</i> (1901), <i>The Knight of the Maypole</i> (1902) and <i>The +Theatrocrat</i> (1905), in the last of which a tendency to be extraordinary +is rather too manifest. This tendency was not absent +from his volume of <i>Holiday and Other Poems</i> (1906), containing +many fine things, together with an “essay on blank verse” +illustrated from his own compositions, the outspoken criticisms +of a writer of admitted originality and insight, but not devoid of +eccentric volubility. But if the identification of “eccentricity” +and “greatness” by Cosmo Mortimer in Mr Davidson’s own +<i>Perfervid</i> sometimes obtrudes itself on the memory in considering +his more peculiarly “robust” and somewhat volcanic deliverances, +no such objection can detract from the genuine inspiration +of his best work, in which the true poetic afflatus is unmistakable. +This is to be found in his poems published from 1893 to 1898, +five years during which his reputation steadily and deservedly +grew,—the <i>Fleet Street Eclogues</i>, with their passionate modern +criticism of life combined with their breath of rural beauty, and +such intense ballads as those “Of a Nun,” and “Of Heaven +and Hell.” In his ethical and didactic utterances, <i>The Testament +of a Vivisector</i> and <i>The Testament of a Man Forbid</i> (1901), +<i>The Testament of an Empire Builder</i> (1902), <i>Mammon and his +Message</i> (1908), &c., the fine quality of the verse is wedded +with a certain fervid satirical journalism of subject, less admirable +than the detachment of thought in the earlier volumes. In +later years he lived at Penzance, provided with a small Civil +List pension, but otherwise badly off, for his writings brought +in very little money. On March 23rd, 1909, he disappeared, +in circumstances pointing to suicide, and six months later his +body was found in the sea.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See an article by Filson Young on “The New Poetry,” in the +<i>Fortnightly Review</i>, January 1909.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVIDSON, RANDALL THOMAS<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1848-  ), archbishop of +Canterbury, son of Henry Davidson, of Muirhouse, Edinburgh, +was born in Edinburgh and educated at Harrow and Trinity +College, Oxford. He took orders in 1874 and held a curacy at +Dartford, in Kent, till 1877, when he became resident chaplain +and private secretary to Dr Tait, archbishop of Canterbury, +a position which he occupied till Dr Tait’s death, and retained +for a short time (1882-1883) under his successor Dr Benson. He +married in 1878 Edith, the second daughter of Archbishop Tait, +whose <i>Life</i> he eventually wrote (1891). In 1882 he became +honorary chaplain and sub-almoner to Queen Victoria, and in +the following year was appointed dean of Windsor, and domestic +chaplain to the queen. His advice upon state matters was +constantly sought by the queen and greatly valued. From 1891 +to 1903 he was clerk of the closet, first to Queen Victoria and +afterwards to King Edward VII. He was made bishop of +Rochester in 1891, and was translated to Winchester in 1895. +In 1903 he succeeded Temple as archbishop of Canterbury. The +new archbishop, without being one of the English divines who +have made notable contributions to theological learning, already +had a great reputation for ecclesiastical statesmanship; and in +subsequent years his diplomatic abilities found ample scope in +dealing not only with the difficulties caused in the church by +doctrinal questions, but pre-eminently with the education crisis, +and with the new problems arising in the enlarged Anglican Communion. +As the chief representative of the Church of England +in the House of Lords, his firmness, combined with broadmindedness, +in regard to the attitude of the nonconformists towards +denominational education, made his influence widely felt. In +1904 he visited Canada and the United States, and was present +at the triennial general convention of the Protestant Episcopal +Church of the United States and Canada. In 1908 he presided +at the Pan-Anglican congress held in London, and at the +Lambeth conference which followed. He had edited in 1889 +<i>The Lambeth Conferences</i>, an historical account of the conferences +of 1867, 1878 and 1888, giving the official reports and +resolutions, and the sermons preached on these occasions.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page864" id="page864"></a>864</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVIDSON, SAMUEL<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1807-1898), Irish biblical scholar, +was born near Ballymena in Ireland. He was educated at the +Royal College of Belfast, entered the Presbyterian ministry in +1835, and was appointed professor of biblical criticism at his own +college. Becoming a Congregationalist, he accepted in 1842 the +chair of biblical criticism, literature and oriental languages at the +Lancashire Independent College at Manchester; but he was +obliged to resign in 1857, being brought into collision with the +college authorities by the publication of an introduction to the +Old Testament entitled <i>The Text of the Old Testament, and the +Interpretation of the Bible</i>, written for a new edition of Horne’s +<i>Introduction to the Sacred Scripture</i>. Its liberal tendencies caused +him to be accused of unsound views, and a most exhaustive +report prepared by the Lancashire College committee was followed +by numerous pamphlets for and against. After his resignation +a fund of £3000 was subscribed as a testimonial by his friends. +In 1862 he removed to London to become scripture examiner in +London University, and he spent the rest of his life in literary +work. He died on the 1st of April 1898. Davidson was a +member of the Old Testament Revision Committee. Among his +principal works are:—<i>Sacred Hermeneutics Developed and Applied</i> +(1843), rewritten and republished as <i>A Treatise on Biblical +Criticism</i> (1852), <i>Lectures on Ecclesiastical Polity</i> (1848), <i>An +Introduction to the New Testament</i> (1848-1851), <i>The Hebrew Text +of the Old Testament Revised</i> (1855), <i>Introduction to the Old +Testament</i> (1862), <i>On a Fresh Revision of the Old Testament</i> +(1873), <i>The Canon of the Bible</i> (1877), <i>The Doctrine of Last Things +in the New Testament</i> (1883), besides translations of the New +Testament from Von Tischendorf’s text, Gieseler’s <i>Ecclesiastical +History</i> (1846) and Fürst’s <i>Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVIDSON, THOMAS<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1817-1885), British palaeontologist, +was born in Edinburgh on the 17th of May 1817. His parents +possessed considerable landed property in Midlothian. Educated +partly in the university at Edinburgh and partly in France, Italy +and Switzerland, and early acquiring an interest in natural +history, he benefited greatly by acquaintance with foreign +languages and literature, and with men of science in different +countries. He was induced in 1837, through the influence of +Leopold von Buch, to devote his special attention to the brachiopoda, +and in course of time he became the highest authority on +this group. The great task of his life was the <i>Monograph of +British Fossil Brachiopoda</i>, published by the Palaeontographical +Society (1850-1886). This work, with supplements, comprises +six quarto volumes with more than 200 plates drawn on stone +by the author. He also prepared an exhaustive memoir on +“Recent Brachiopoda,” published by the Linnean Society. He +was elected F.R.S. in 1857. He was awarded in 1865 the Wollaston +medal by the Geological Society of London, and in 1870 a Royal +medal by the Royal Society; and in 1882 the degree of LL.D. +was conferred upon him by the university of St Andrews. He +died at Brighton on the 14th of October 1885, bequeathing his fine +collection of recent and fossil brachiopoda to the British Museum.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See biography with portrait and list of papers in <i>Geol. Mag.</i> for +1871, p. 145.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVIES, DAVID CHARLES<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1826-1891), Welsh nonconformist +divine, was born at Aberystwyth on the 11th of May +1826, his father being a merchant and a pioneer of Welsh Methodism, +his mother a niece of Thomas Charles (<i>q.v.</i>) of Bala. He +was educated in his native town by a noted schoolmaster, John +Evans, at Bala College, and at University College, London, +where he graduated B.A. in 1847 and M.A. (in mathematics) in +1849. He had already begun to preach, and after an evangelistic +tour in South Wales supplied the pulpit of the English presbyterian +church at Newtown for six months, and settled as pastor +of the bilingual church at Builth in 1851. He returned to this +charge after a pastorate at Liverpool (1853-1856), left it again +in 1858 for Newtown, and went in May 1859 to the Welsh church +at Jewin Crescent, London. Here he remained until 1876, and +from that date till 1882, although living at Bangor for reasons +of health, had the chief oversight of the church. In 1888 he +accepted the principalship of the Calvinistic Methodist College at +Trevecca in Brecknockshire. His work here was successful, but +short; he died at Bangor on the 26th of September 1891, and +was buried at Aberystwyth.</p> + +<p>Though Davies stood somewhat apart from the main currents +of thought both without and within his church, and was largely +unknown to English audiences or readers, he exercised a strong +influence on Welsh life and thought in the 19th century. He was +a serious student, especially of anti-theistic positions, a good +speaker, and a frequent contributor to Welsh theological journals. +Several of his articles have been collected and published, the +most noteworthy being expositions on <i>The First Epistle of John</i> +(1889), <i>Ephesians</i> (2 vols., 1896, 1901), <i>Psalms</i> (1897), <i>Romans</i> +(1902); and <i>The Atonement and Intercession of Christ</i> (1899, +English trans. by D. E. Jenkins, 1901).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVIES, SIR JOHN<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1569-1626), English philosophical poet, +was baptized on the 16th of April 1569, at Tisbury, Wiltshire, +where his parents lived at the manor-house of Chicksgrove. He +was educated at Winchester College, and became a commoner of +Queen’s College, Oxford, in 1585. In 1588 he entered the Middle +Temple, and was called to the bar in 1595. In his general +onslaught on literature in 1599 the archbishop of Canterbury +ordered to be burnt the notorious and now excessively rare +volume, <i>All Ovid’s Elegies, 3 Bookes, by C. M. Epigrams by J. D.</i> +(Middleburgh, 1598?), which contained posthumous work by +Marlowe. The epigrams by Davies, although not devoid of wit, +were coarse enough to deserve their fate. It is probable that +they were earlier in date of composition than the charming +fragment entitled <i>Orchestra</i> (1596), written in praise of dancing. +The poet, in the person of Antinoüs, tries to induce Penelope to +dance by arguing that all harmonious natural processes partake +of the nature of a conscious and well-ordered dance. He closes +his argument by foreshadowing in a magic mirror the revels of +the court of Cynthia (Elizabeth). <i>Orchestra</i> was dedicated to the +author’s “very friend, Master Richard Martin,” but in the next +year the friends quarrelled, and Davies was expelled from the +society for having struck Martin with a cudgel in the hall of the +Middle Temple. He spent the year after his expulsion at Oxford +in the composition of his philosophical poem on the nature of the +soul and its immortality—<i>Nosce teipsum</i> (1599). The style of +the work was entirely novel; and the stanza in which it was +written—the decasyllabic quatrain with alternate rhymes—had +never been so effectively handled. Its force, eloquence and +ingenuity, the orderly and lucid arrangement of its matter, place +it among the finest of English didactic poems. In 1599 he also +published a volume of twenty-six graceful acrostics on the words +<i>Elisabetha Regina</i>, entitled <i>Hymns to Astraea</i>. He produced no +more poetry except his contributions to Francis Davison’s +<i>Poetical Rhapsody</i> (1608). These were two dialogues which had +been written as entertainments for the queen, and “Yet other +Twelve Wonders of the World,” satirical epigrams on the courtier, +the divine, the maid, &c., and “A Hymn in praise of Music.” +Ten sonnets to Philomel are signed J. D., and are assigned to +Davies (<i>Poetical Rhapsody</i>, ed. A. H. Bullen, 1890). In 1601 +Davies was restored to his position at the bar, after making his +apologies to Martin, and in the same year he sat for Corfe Castle +in parliament. James I. received the author of <i>Nosce teipsum</i> +with great favour, and sent him (1603) to Ireland as solicitor-general, +conferring the honour of knighthood upon him in the +same year. In 1606 he was promoted to be attorney-general for +Ireland, and created serjeant-at-arms. Of the difficulties in the +way of the prosecution of his work, and his untiring industry in +overcoming them, there is abundant evidence in his letters to +Cecil preserved in the <i>State Papers on Ireland</i>. One of his chief +aims was to establish the Protestant religion firmly in Ireland, +and he took strict measures to enforce the law for attendance +at church. With the same end in view he took an active part +in the “plantation” of Ulster. In 1612 he published his prose +<i>Discoverie of the true causes why Ireland was never entirely subdued +untill the beginning of his Majestie’s happie raigne</i>.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In the same +year he entered the Irish parliament as member for Fermanagh, +and was elected speaker after a scene of disorder in which the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page865" id="page865"></a>865</span> +Catholic nominee, Sir John Everard, who had been installed, +was forcibly ejected. In the capacity of speaker he delivered +an excellent address reviewing previous Irish parliaments. He +resigned his Irish offices in 1619, and sat in the English parliament +of 1621 for Newcastle-under-Lyme. With Sir Robert +Cotton he was one of the founders of the Society of Antiquaries. +He was appointed lord chief justice in 1626, but died suddenly +(December 8th) before he could enter on the office. He had +married (1609) Eleanor Touchet, daughter of George, Baron +Audley. She developed eccentricity, verging on madness, and +wrote several fanatical books on prophecy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1615 Davies published at Dublin <i>Le Primer Discours des Cases +et Matters in Ley resolues et adjudges en les Courts del Roy en cest +Realme</i> (reprinted 1628). He issued an edition of his poems in +1622. His prose publications were mainly posthumous. <i>The Question +concerning Impositions, Tonnage, Poundage ...</i> was printed in +1656, and four of the tracts relating to Ireland, with an account of +Davies and his services to that country, were edited by G. Chalmers +in 1786. His works were edited by Dr A. B. Grosart (3 vols. 1869-1876), +with a full biography, for the Fuller Worthies Library.</p> + +<p>He is not to be confounded with another poet, <span class="sc">John Davies</span> of +Hereford (1565?-1618), among whose numerous volumes of verse +may be mentioned <i>Mirum in modum</i> (1602), <i>Microcosmus</i> (1603), +<i>The Holy Roode</i> (1609), <i>Wittes Pilgrimage</i> (<i>c.</i> 1610), <i>The Scourge of +Folly</i> (<i>c.</i> 1611), <i>The Muses Sacrifice</i> (1612) and <i>Wittes Bedlam</i> (1607); +his <i>Scourge of Folly</i> contains verses addressed to many of his contemporaries, +to Shakespeare among others; he also wrote <i>A Select +Second Husband for Sir Thomas Overbury’s Wife</i> (1616), and <i>The +Writing Schoolmaster</i> (earliest known edition, 1633); his works +were collected by Dr A. B. Grosart (2 vols., 1873) for the Chertsey +Worthies Library.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Edited by Henry Morley in his <i>Ireland under Elizabeth and +James I.</i> (1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVIES<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Davisius</span>), <b>JOHN</b> (1679-1732), English classical +scholar and critic, was born in London on the 22nd of April +1679. He was educated at Charterhouse and Queens’ College, +Cambridge, of which society he was elected fellow (July 7th, +1701). He subsequently became rector of Fen Ditton, prebendary +of Ely, and president of his college. He died on the +7th of March 1731-1732, and was buried in the college chapel. +Davies was considered one of the best commentators on Cicero, +his attention being chiefly devoted to the philosophical works +of that author. Amongst these he edited the <i>Tusculanae disputationes</i> +(1709), <i>De natura deorum</i> (1718), <i>De divinatione</i> and +<i>De fato</i> (1725), <i>Academica</i> (1725), <i>De legibus</i> (1727), <i>De finibus</i> +(1728). His nearly finished notes on the <i>De officiis</i> he bequeathed +to Dr Richard Mead, with a view to their publication. +Mead, finding himself unable to carry out the undertaking, +transferred the notes to Thomas Bentley (nephew of the famous +Richard Bentley), by whose carelessness they were burnt. +Davies’s editions, which were intended to supplement those of +Graevius, show great learning and an extensive knowledge of +the history and systems of philosophy, but he allows himself too +much licence in the matter of emendation. He also edited +Maximus of Tyre’s <i>Dissertationes</i> (1703); the works of Caesar +(1706); the <i>Octavius</i> of Minucius Felix (1707); the <i>Epitome +divinarum institutionum</i> of Lactantius (1718). Although on +intimate terms with Richard Bentley, he found himself unable +to agree with the great scholar in regard to his dispute with +Trinity College.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVIES, SIR LOUIS HENRY<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1845-  ), Canadian politician +and jurist, was born in Prince Edward Island in 1845, of +Huguenot descent. From 1869 to 1879 he took part in local +politics, and was premier from 1876-1879; in 1882 he entered +the Canadian parliament as a Liberal, and from 1896 to 1901 was +minister of marine and fisheries. In the latter year he became +one of the judges of the supreme court of Canada. In 1877 he +was counsel for Great Britain before the Anglo-American +fisheries arbitration at Halifax; in 1897 he was a joint delegate +to Washington with Sir Wilfrid Laurier on the Bering Sea seal +question; and in 1898-1899 a member of the Anglo-American +joint high commission at Quebec.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVIES, RICHARD<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1505-1581), Welsh bishop and scholar, +was born in North Wales, and was educated at New Inn Hall, +Oxford, becoming vicar of Burnham, Buckinghamshire, in 1550. +Being a reformer he took refuge at Geneva during the reign of +Mary, returning to England and to parochial work after the +accession of Elizabeth in 1558. His connexion with Wales was +renewed almost at once; for, after serving on a commission which +visited the Welsh dioceses, he was, in January 1560, consecrated +bishop of St Asaph, whence he was translated, early in +1561, to the bishopric of St Davids. As a bishop Davies was +an earnest reformer, very industrious, active and liberal, but not +very scrupulous with regard to the property of the church. He +was a member of the council of Wales, was very friendly with +Matthew Parker, archbishop of Canterbury, and was regarded +both by Parker and by William Cecil, Lord Burghley, as a trustworthy +adviser on Welsh concerns. Another of the bishop’s +friends was Walter Devereux, first earl of Essex. Assisting +William Salisbury, Davies took part in translating the New +Testament into Welsh, and also did some work on the Welsh +translation of the Book of Common Prayer. He helped to revise +the “Bishops’ Bible” of 1568, being himself responsible for the +book of Deuteronomy, and the second book of Samuel. He died on +the 7th of November 1581, and was buried in Abergwili church.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVILA, ENRICO CATERINO<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (1576-1631), Italian historian, +was descended from a Spanish noble family. His immediate +ancestors had been constables of the kingdom of Cyprus for the +Venetian republic since 1464. But in 1570 the island was taken +by the Turks; and Antonio Davila, the father of the historian, +had to leave it, despoiled of all he possessed. He travelled into +Spain and France, and finally returned to Padua, and at Sacco +on the 30th of October 1576 his youngest son, Enrico Caterino, +was born. About 1583 Antonio took this son to France, where +he became a page in the service of Catherine de’ Medici, wife of +King Henry II. In due time he entered the military service, and +fought through the civil wars until the peace in 1598. He then +returned to Padua, where, and subsequently at Parma, he led +a studious life until, when war broke out, he entered the service +of the republic of Venice and served with distinction in the field. +But during the whole of this active life, many details of which +are very interesting as illustrative of the life and manners of the +time, he never lost sight of a design which he had formed at a +very early period, of writing the history of those civil wars in +France in which he had borne a part, and during which he had +had so many opportunities of closely observing the leading personages +and events. This work was completed about 1630, and was +offered in vain by the author to all the publishers in Venice. At +last one Tommaso Baglíoni, who had no work for his presses, +undertook to print the manuscript, on condition that he should +be free to leave off if more promising work offered itself. The +printing of the <i>Istoria delle guerre civili di Francia</i> was, however, +completed, and the success and sale of the work were immediate +and enormous. Over two hundred editions followed, of which +perhaps the best is the one published in Paris in 1644. Davila +was murdered, while on his way to take possession of the government +of Cremona for Venice in July 1631, by a ruffian, with whom +some dispute seems to have arisen concerning the furnishing of the +relays of horses ordered for his use by the Venetian government.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Istoria</i> was translated into French by G. Baudouin (Paris, +1642); into Spanish by Varen de Soto (Madrid, 1651, and Antwerp, +1686); into English by W. Aylesbury (London, 1647), and by +Charles Cotterel (London, 1666), and into Latin by Pietro Francesco +Cornazzano (Rome, 1745). The best account of the life of Davila is +that by Apostolo Zeno, prefixed to an edition of the history printed +at Venice in 2 vols. in 1733. Peter Bayle is severe on certain +historical inaccuracies of Davila, and it is true that Davila must +be read with due remembrance of the fact that he was not only a +Catholic but the especial protégé of Catherine de’ Medici, but it +is not to be forgotten that Bayle was as strongly Protestant.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVIS, ANDREW JACKSON<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1826-1910), American spiritualist, +was born at Blooming Grove, Orange county, New York, on +the 11th of August 1826. He had little education, though +probably much more than he and his friends pretended. In 1843 +he heard lectures in Poughkeepsie on “animal magnetism,” as +the phenomena of hypnotism was then termed, and found that +he had remarkable clairvoyant powers; and in the following year +he had, he said, spiritual messages telling him of his life work. +For the next three years (1844-1847) he practised magnetic +healing with much success; and in 1847 he published <i>The +Principles of Nature</i>, <i>Her Divine Revelations</i>, and a <i>Voice to</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page866" id="page866"></a>866</span> +<i>Mankind</i>, which in 1845 he had dictated while in a trance to his +“scribe,” William Fishbough. He lectured with little success +and returned to writing (or “dictating”) books, publishing about +thirty in all, including <i>The Great Harmonia</i> (1850-1861), an +“encyclopaedia” in six volumes; <i>The Philosophy of Special +Providences</i> (1850), which with its evident rehash of old arguments +against special providences and miracles would seem to +show that Davis’s inspiration was literary; <i>The Magic Staff: an +Autobiography</i> (1857), which was supplemented by <i>Arabula: or the +Divine Guest, Containing a New Collection of New Gospels</i> (1867), +the gospels being those “according to” St Confucius, St John +(G. Whittier), St Gabriel (Derzhavin), St Octavius (Frothingham), +St Gerrit (Smith), St Emma (Hardinge), St Ralph (W. Emerson), +St Seiden (J. Finney), St Theodore (Parker), &c.; and <i>A Stellar +Key to the Summer Land</i> (1868) and <i>Views of Our Heavenly Home</i> +(1878), each with illustrative diagrams. Davis was much influenced +by Swedenborg and by the Shakers, who reprinted his panegyric +of Ann Lee in an official <i>Sketch of Shakers and Shakerism</i> (1884).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVIS, CHARLES HOWARD<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1857-  ), American landscape +painter, was born at East Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the +2nd of February 1857. A pupil of the schools of the Boston +Museum of Fine Arts, he was sent to Paris in 1880. Having +studied at the Academy Julian under Lefebvre and Boulanger, +he went to Barbizon and painted much in the forest of Fontainebleau +under the traditions of the “men of thirty.” He became +a full member of the National Academy of Design in 1906, and +received many awards, including a silver medal at the Paris +Exhibition of 1889. He is represented by important works in +the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; the Corcoran Art +Gallery, Washington; the Pennsylvania Academy, Philadelphia, +and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVIS, CUSHMAN KELLOGG<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1838-1900), American political +leader and lawyer, was born in Henderson, New York, on the 16th +of June 1838. He was taken by his parents to Wisconsin +Territory in the year of his birth, and was educated at Carroll +College, Waukesha, Wisconsin, and at the university of +Michigan, from which he graduated in 1857. After studying law +in the office of Alexander W. Randall, he was admitted to the bar +in 1860. During the Civil War, as a first lieutenant of Federal +volunteers, he served in the western campaigns of 1862 and 1863, +and in 1864 was an aide to General Willis A. Gorman (1814-1876). +Resigning his commission (1864) on account of ill-health, +he soon settled in St Paul, Minnesota, where he practised law +in partnership with General Gorman, and soon became prominent +both at the bar and, as a Republican, in politics. He served in the +state House of Representatives in 1867, 1868-1873 was United +States district attorney for Minnesota. In 1874-1876 he was +governor of the state, and from 1887 until his death was a +member of the United States Senate. In the Senate he was one +of the acknowledged leaders of his party, an able and frequent +speaker and a committee worker of great industry. In March +1897 he became chairman of the committee on foreign relations +at a time when its work was peculiarly influential in shaping +American foreign policy. His extensive knowledge of international +law, and his tact and diplomacy, enabled him to +render services of the utmost importance in connexion with the +Spanish-American War, and he was one of the peace commissioners +who negotiated and signed the treaty of Paris by +which the war was terminated. He died at St Paul on the 27th +of November 1900. Few public men in the United States since +the Civil War have combined skill in diplomacy, constructive +statesmanship, talent for political organization, oratorical +ability and broad culture to such a degree as Senator Davis. +In addition to various speeches and public addresses, he +published an essay entitled <i>The Law of Shakespeare</i> (1899).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVIS, HENRY WILLIAM BANKS<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (1833-  ), English +painter, received his art training in the Royal Academy schools, +where he was awarded two silver medals. He was elected an +associate of the Academy in 1873, and academician in 1877. He +made a considerable reputation as an accomplished painter of +quiet pastoral subjects and carefully elaborated landscapes with +cattle. His pictures, “Returning to the Fold” (1880), and +“Approaching Night” (1899), bought for the Chantrey Fund +Collection, are now in the National Gallery of British Art +(Tate Gallery).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVIS, HENRY WINTER<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1817-1865), American political +leader, was born at Annapolis, Maryland, on the 16th of August +1817. His father, Rev Henry Lyon Davis (1775-1836), was a +prominent Protestant Episcopal clergyman of Maryland, and for +some years president of St John’s College at Annapolis. The son +graduated at Kenyon College, Gambier, Ohio, in 1837, and from +the law department of the university of Virginia in 1841, and +began the practice of law in Alexandria, Virginia, but in 1850 +removed to Baltimore, Maryland, where he won a high position +at the bar. Early becoming imbued with strong anti-slavery +views, though by inheritance he was himself a slave holder, he +began political life as a Whig, but when the Whig party disintegrated, +he became an “American” or “Know-Nothing,” +and as such served in the national House of Representatives from +1855 to 1861. By his independent course in Congress he won the +respect and esteem of all political groups. In the contest over the +speakership at the opening of the Thirty-Sixth Congress (1859) he +voted with the Republicans, thereby incurring a vote of censure +from the Maryland legislature, which called upon him to resign. +In 1860, not being quite ready to ally himself wholly with the +Republican party, he declined to be a candidate for the Republican +nomination for the vice-presidency, and supported the Bell and +Everett ticket. He was himself defeated in this year for re-election +to Congress. In the winter of 1860-1861 he was active +on behalf of compromise measures. Finally, after President +Lincoln’s election, he became a Republican, and as such was +re-elected in 1862 to the national House of Representatives, in +which he at once became one of the most radical and aggressive +members, his views commanding especial attention owing to his +being one of the few representatives from a slave state. From +December 1863 to March 1865 he was chairman of the committee +on foreign affairs; as such, in 1864, he was unwilling to leave +the delicate questions concerning the French occupation of +Mexico entirely in the hands of the president and his secretary of +state, and brought in a report very hostile to France, which was +adopted in the House, but fortunately, as it proved later, was not +adopted by the Senate. With other radical Republicans Davis +was a bitter opponent of Lincoln’s plan for the reconstruction of +the Southern States, and on the 15th of February 1864 he reported +from committee a bill placing the process of reconstruction under +the control of Congress, and stipulating that the Confederate +States, before resuming their former status in the Union, must +disfranchise all important civil and military officers of the +Confederacy, abolish slavery, and repudiate all debts incurred +by or with the sanction of the Confederate government. In his +speech supporting this measure Davis declared that until Congress +should “recognize a government established under its auspices, +there is no government in the rebel states save the authority of +Congress.” The bill—the first formal expression by Congress +with regard to Reconstruction—did not pass both Houses until +the closing hours of the session, and failed to receive the approval +of the president, who on the 8th of July issued a proclamation +defining his position. Soon afterwards, on the 5th of August +1864, Davis joined Benjamin F. Wade of Ohio, who had piloted +the bill through the Senate, in issuing the so-called “Wade-Davis +Manifesto,” which violently denounced President Lincoln +for encroaching on the domain of Congress and insinuated that +the presidential policy would leave slavery unimpaired in the +reconstructed states. In a debate in Congress some months later +he declared, “When I came into Congress ten years ago this was +a government of law. I have lived to see it a government of +personal will.” He was one of the radical leaders who preferred +Frémont to Lincoln in 1864, but subsequently withdrew his opposition +and supported the President for re-election. He early +favoured the enlistment of negroes, and in July 1865 publicly +advocated the extension of the suffrage to them. He was not +a candidate for re-election to Congress in 1864, and died in +Baltimore, Maryland, on the 30th of December 1865. Davis +was a man of scholarly tastes, an orator of unusual ability and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page867" id="page867"></a>867</span> +great eloquence, tireless and fearless in fighting political battles, +but impulsive to the verge of rashness, impractical, tactless and +autocratic. He wrote an elaborate political work entitled <i>The +War of Ormuzd and Ahriman in the <span class="correction" title="amended from Ninteenth">Nineteenth</span> Century</i> (1853), in +which he combated the Southern contention that slavery was a +divine institution.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Speeches of Henry Winter Davis</i> (New York, 1867), to +which is prefixed an oration on his life and character delivered in the +House of Representatives by Senator J. A. J. Creswell of Maryland.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVIS, JEFFERSON<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1808-1889), American soldier and statesman, +president of the Confederate states in the American Civil +War, was born on the 3rd of June 1808 at what is now the village +of Fairview, in that part of Christian county, Kentucky, which +was later organized as Todd county. His father, Samuel Davis +(1756-1824), who served in the War of Independence, was of +Welsh, and his mother, Jane Cook, of Scotch-Irish descent; +during his infancy the family moved to Wilkinson county, +Mississippi. Jefferson Davis was educated at Transylvania +University (Lexington, Kentucky) and at the United States +Military Academy at West Point. From the latter he graduated +in July 1828, and became by brevet a second lieutenant of +infantry. He was assigned for duty to Jefferson Barracks at St +Louis, and on reaching this post was ordered to Fort Crawford, +near Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin. In 1833 he took part in the +closing scenes of the Black Hawk War, was present at the capture +of Black Hawk, and was sent to Dixon, Illinois, to muster into +service some volunteers from that state. Their captain was +Abraham Lincoln, and Lieutenant Davis is said to have +administered to him his first oath of allegiance. In June 1835 +he resigned from the army, married Miss Knox Taylor, daughter +of Colonel (later General) Zachary Taylor, and became a cotton +planter in Warren county, Miss. In September of the same +year, while visiting in Louisiana to escape the fever, his wife +died of it and Davis himself was dangerously ill. For the next +few months he travelled to regain his health; and in the spring +of 1836 returned to his cotton plantation, where for several years +he devoted his time largely to reading political philosophy, +political economy, public law and the English classics, and by +careful management of his estate he acquired considerable wealth. +In 1843 Davis entered the field of politics as a Democrat, and +exhibited great power as a public speaker. In 1844 he was chosen +as a presidential elector on the Polk and Dallas ticket; in +February 1845 he married Miss Varina Howell (1826-1906) of +Mississippi (a granddaughter of Governor Richard Howell of +New Jersey), and in the same year became a Democratic representative +in Congress. From the beginning of his political career +he advocated a strict construction of the Federal constitution. +He was an ardent admirer of John C. Calhoun, and eventually +became his successor as the leader of the South. In his rare +speeches in the House of Representatives he clearly defined his +position in regard to states rights, which he consistently held +ever afterwards. During his first session, war with Mexico was +declared, and he resigned his seat in June 1846 to take command +of the first regiment raised in his state—the Mississippi Rifles. +He served in the Northern Campaign under his father-in-law, +General Taylor, and was greatly distinguished for gallantry and +soldierly conduct at Monterey and particularly at Buena Vista, +where he was severely wounded early in the engagement, but +continued in command of his regiment until victory crowned the +American arms. While still in the field he was appointed (May +1847) by President Polk to be brigadier-general of volunteers; +but this appointment Davis declined, on the ground, as he afterwards +said, “that volunteers are militia and the Constitution +reserves to the state the appointment of all militia officers.” +Afterwards, Davis himself, as president of the Confederate States, +was to appoint many volunteer officers.</p> + +<p>Upon his return to his home late in 1847 he was appointed to +fill a vacancy in the United States Senate, and in 1850 he was +elected for a full term of six years. He resigned in 1851, but was +again elected in 1857, and continued as a member from that year +until the secession of his State in 1861. As a senator he stood in +the front rank in a body distinguished for ability; his purity +of character and courteous manner, together with his intellectual +gifts, won him the esteem of all parties; and he became more and +more the leader of the Southern Democrats. He was, however, +possessed of a logical rather than an intuitive mind. In his +famous speech in the Senate on the 12th of July 1848, on the +question of establishing a government for Oregon Territory, he +held that a slave should be treated by the Federal government +on the same basis as any other property, and therefore that it +was the duty of Congress to protect the owner’s right to his slave +in whatever state or territory of the Union that slave might be. +In the debates on the Compromise Measures of 1850 he took +an active part, strongly opposing these measures, while Henry +Stuart Foote (1800-1880), the other Mississippi senator, was one +of their leading advocates. But although still holding to the +theory expounded in his July speech of 1848, he was now ready +with the proposal that slavery might be prohibited north of +latitude 36° 30′ N. provided it should not be interfered with in +any territory south of that line. He resigned from the Senate in +1851 to become a candidate of the Democratic States-Rights +party for the governorship of his state against Foote, the candidate +of the Union Democrats. In the campaign he held, in +opposition to the wishes of the more radical members of his +party, that although secession might be resorted to as a last +alternative the circumstances were not yet such as to justify it. +A temporary loss of eyesight interfered with his canvass, and +he was defeated by a small majority (1009), the campaign having +been watched with the greatest interest throughout the country. +In 1853 he accepted the position of secretary of war in the +cabinet of President Pierce, and for four years performed the +duties of the office with great distinction and with lasting benefit +to the nation. He organized the engineer companies which +explored and reported on the several proposed routes for a railway +connecting the Mississippi valley with the Pacific Ocean; +he effected the enlargement of the army, and made material +changes in its equipment of arms and ammunition, utilizing +the latest improvements; he made his appointments of subordinates +on their merits, regardless of party considerations; +he revised the system of tactics, perfected the signal corps +service, and enlarged the coast and frontier defences of the +country. During all this time he was on terms of intimate +friendship with the president, over whom he undoubtedly exerted +a powerful, but probably not, as is often said, a dominating +influence; for instance he is generally supposed to have won +the president’s support for the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. +After the passage of this bill, Davis, who as secretary of war +had control of the United States troops in Kansas, sympathized +strongly with the pro-slavery party there. At the end of his +service in the cabinet, he was returned to the Senate. To his +insistence in 1860 that the Democratic party should support +his claim to the protection of slavery in the territories by the +Federal government, the disruption of that party was in large +measure due. At the same time he practically told the Senate +that the South would secede in the event of the election of a +radical Republican to the presidency; and on the 10th of +January 1861, not long after the election of Lincoln, he argued +before that body the constitutional right of secession and +declared that the treatment of the South had become such that +it could no longer remain in the Union without being degraded. +When his state had passed the ordinance of secession he resigned +his seat, and his speech on the 21st of January was a clear and +able statement of the position taken by his state, and a most +pathetic farewell to his associates.</p> + +<p>On the 25th of January 1861 Davis was commissioned major-general +of the forces Mississippi was raising in view of the +threatened conflict. On the 9th of February he received the +unanimous vote of the Provisional Congress of the seceded states +as president of the “Confederate States of America.” He was +inaugurated on the 18th of February, was subsequently, after +the adoption of the permanent constitution, regularly elected by +popular vote, for a term of six years, and on the 22nd of February +1862 was again inaugurated. He had not sought the office, +preferring service in the field. His brilliant career, both as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page868" id="page868"></a>868</span> +a civilian and as a soldier, drew all eyes to him as best fitted +to guide the fortunes of the new Confederacy, and with a deep +sense of the responsibility he obeyed the call. He heartily +approved of the peace conference, which attempted to draw up +a plan of reconciliation between the two sections, but whose +failure made war inevitable. Montgomery, in Alabama, was +the first Confederate capital, but after Virginia joined her sister +states, the seat of government was removed to Richmond, on the +29th of May 1861. How Davis—of whom W. E. Gladstone, in +the early days of English sympathy with the South, said that +he had “made a nation”—bore himself in his most responsible +position during the gigantic conflict which ensued, cannot here +be related in detail. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Confederate States</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American +Civil War</a></span>.) In the shortest time he organized and put into the +field one of the finest bodies of soldiers of which history has record. +Factories sprang up in the South in a few months, supplying +the army with arms and munitions of war, and the energy of the +president was everywhere apparent. That he committed serious +errors, his warmest admirers will hardly deny. Unfortunately +his firmness developed into obstinacy, and exhibited itself in +continued confidence in officers who had proved to be failures, +and in dislike of some of his ablest generals. He committed the +great mistake, too, of directing the movements of distant armies +from the seat of government, though those armies were under able +generals. This naturally caused great dissatisfaction, and more +than once resulted in irreparable disaster. Moreover, he was not, +like Lincoln, a great manager of men; he often acted without +tact; he was charged with being domineering and autocratic, +and at various times he was seriously hampered by the meddling +of the Confederate Congress and the opposition of such men as +the vice-president, A. H. Stephens, Governor Joseph E. Brown +of Georgia, and Governor Zebulon Vance of North Carolina.</p> + +<p>During the winter of 1864-1865 the resources of the government +showed such exhaustion that it was apparent that the end +would come with the opening of the spring campaign. This was +clearly stated in the reports of the heads of departments and of +General Lee. President Davis, however, acted as if he was +assured of ultimate success. He sent Duncan F. Kenner as +special commissioner to the courts of England and France to +obtain recognition of the Confederacy on condition of the +abolition of slavery. When a conference was held in Hampton +Roads on the 3rd of February 1865 between President Lincoln +and Secretary Seward on the one side, and A. H. Stephens, +R. M. T. Hunter, and Judge James A. Campbell, representing +President Davis, on the other, he instructed his representatives +to insist on the recognition of the Confederacy as a condition to +any arrangement for the termination of the war. This defeated +the object of the conference, and deprived the South of terms +which would have been more beneficial than those imposed by +the conqueror when the end came a few weeks later. The last +days of the Confederate Congress were spent in recriminations +between that body and President Davis, and the popularity with +which he commenced his administration had almost entirely +vanished. In January 1865 the Congress proposed to supersede +the president and make General Lee dictator,—a suggestion, +however, to which the Confederate commander refused to listen.</p> + +<p>After the surrender of the armies of Lee and Johnston in April +1865, President Davis attempted to make his way, through +Georgia, across the Mississippi, in the vain hope of continuing +the war with the forces of Generals Smith and Magruder. He was +taken prisoner on the 10th of May by Federal troops near Irwinville, +Irwin county, Georgia, and was brought back to Old Point, +Virginia, in order to be confined in prison at Fortress Monroe. +In prison he was chained and treated with great severity. He +was indicted for treason by a Virginia grand jury, persistent +efforts were made to connect him with the assassination of +President Lincoln, he was unjustly charged with having deliberately +and wilfully caused the sufferings and deaths of Union +prisoners at Andersonville and for two years he was denied trial +or bail. Such treatment aroused the sympathy of the Southern +people, who regarded him as a martyr to their cause, and in a +great measure restored him to that place in their esteem which +by the close of the war he had lost. It also aroused a general +feeling in the North, and when finally he was admitted to bail +(in May 1867), Horace Greeley, Gerrit Smith, and others in that +section who had been his political opponents, became his sureties. +Charles O’Conor, a leader of the New York bar, volunteered to +act as his counsel. With him was associated Robert Ould of +Richmond, a lawyer of great ability. They moved to quash the +indictment on which he was brought to trial. Chief Justice +Chase and Judge John C. Underwood constituted the United +States circuit court sitting for Virginia before which the case +was brought in December 1868; the court was divided, the chief +justice voting to sustain the motion and Underwood to overrule +it. The matter was thereupon certified to the Supreme Court +of the United States, but as the general amnesty of the 25th of +December 1868 included Davis, an order of <i>nolle prosequi</i> was +entered in February 1869, and Davis and his bondsmen were +thereupon released. After his release he visited Europe, and +spent the last years of his life in retirement, during which he +wrote his <i>Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government</i> (2 vols., +1881). In these volumes he attempted to vindicate his administration, +and in so doing he attacked the records of those generals +he disliked. He also wrote a <i>Short History of the Confederate +States of America</i> (1890). He died on the 6th of December 1889, +at New Orleans, leaving a widow and two daughters—Margaret, +who married J. A. Hayes in 1877, and Varina Anne (1864-1898), +better known as “Winnie” Davis, the “daughter of the Confederacy,” +who was the author of several books, including <i>A +Sketch of the Life of Robert Emmet</i> (1888), a novel, <i>The Veiled +Doctor</i> (1895), and <i>A Romance of Summer Seas</i> (1898). A monument +to her, designed by George J. Zolnay, and erected by the +Daughters of the Confederacy, was unveiled in Hollywood +cemetery, Richmond, Va., on the 9th of November 1899. Mrs +Davis, who exerted a marked influence over her husband, survived +him many years, passed the last years of her life in New +York City, and died there on the 16th of October 1906.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Several biographies and memoirs of Davis have +been published, of which the best are: <i>Jefferson Davis, Ex-President +of the Confederate States</i> (2 vols., New York, 1890), by his widow; +F. H. Alfriend’s <i>Life of Jefferson Davis</i> (Cincinnati, 1868), which +defended him from the charges of incompetence and despotism +brought against him; E. A. Pollard’s <i>Life of Jefferson Davis, with +a Secret History of the Southern Confederacy</i> (Philadelphia, 1869), a +somewhat partisan arraignment by a prominent Southern journalist; +and W. E. Dodd’s <i>Jefferson Davis</i> (Philadelphia, 1907), which +embodies the results of recent historical research. <i>The Prison Life +of Jefferson Davis</i> (New York, 1866) by John J. Craven (d. 1893), a +Federal army surgeon who was Davis’s physician at Fortress +Monroe, was long popular; it gives a vivid and sympathetic picture +of Mr Davis as a prisoner, but its authenticity and accuracy have +been questioned.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. W. H.*; N. D. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVIS<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Davys</span>), <b>JOHN</b> (1550?-1605), one of the chief +English navigators and explorers under Elizabeth, especially in +Polar regions, was born at Sandridge near Dartmouth about 1550. +From a boy he was a sailor, and early made several voyages with +Adrian Gilbert; both the Gilbert and Raleigh families were +Devonians of his own neighbourhood, and through life he seems +to have profited by their friendship. In January 1583 he appears +to have broached his design of a north-west passage to Walsingham +and John Dee; various consultations followed; and in +1585 he started on his first north-western expedition. On this he +began by striking the ice-bound east shore of Greenland, which +he followed south to Cape Farewell; thence he turned north once +more and coasted the west Greenland littoral some way, till, +finding the sea free from ice, he shaped a “course for China” +by the north-west. In 66° N., however, he fell in with Baffin +Land, and though he pushed some way up Cumberland Sound, +and professed to recognize in this the “hoped strait,” he now +turned back (end of August). He tried again in 1586 and 1587; +in the last voyage he pushed through the straits still named after +him into Baffin’s Bay, coasting west Greenland to 73° N., almost +to Upernavik, and thence making a last effort to find a passage +westward along the north of America. Many points in Arctic +latitudes (Cumberland Sound, Cape Walsingham, Exeter Sound, +&c.) retain names given them by Davis, who ranks with Baffin +and Hudson as the greatest of early Arctic explorers and, like +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page869" id="page869"></a>869</span> +Frobisher, narrowly missed the discovery of Hudson’s Bay via +Hudson’s Straits (the “Furious Overfall” of Davis). In 1588 +he seems to have commanded the “Black Dog” against the +Spanish Armada; in 1589 he joined the earl of Cumberland off +the Azores; and in 1591 he accompanied Thomas Cavendish +on his last voyage, with the special purpose, as he tells us, of +searching “that north-west discovery upon the back parts +of America.” After the rest of Cavendish’s expedition returned +unsuccessful, he continued to attempt on his own account the +passage of the Strait of Magellan; though defeated here by foul +weather, he discovered the Falkland Islands. The passage home +was extremely disastrous, and he brought back only fourteen of +his seventy-six men. After his return in 1593 he published +a valuable treatise on practical navigation in <i>The Seaman’s +Secrets</i> (1594), and a more theoretical work in <i>The World’s +Hydrographical Description</i> (1595). His invention of back-staff +and double quadrant (called a “Davis Quadrant” after him) +held the field among English seamen till long after Hadley’s +reflecting quadrant had been introduced. In 1596-1597 Davis +seems to have sailed with Raleigh (as master of Sir Walter’s +own ship) to Cadiz and the Azores; and in 1598-1600 he accompanied +a Dutch expedition to the East Indies as pilot, sailing +from Flushing, returning to Middleburg, and narrowly escaping +destruction from treachery at Achin in Sumatra. In 1601-1603 +he accompanied Sir James Lancaster as first pilot on his voyage +in the service of the East India Company; and in December +1604 he sailed again for the same destination as pilot to Sir +Edward Michelborne (or Michelbourn). On this journey he was +killed by Japanese pirates off Bintang near Sumatra.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>A Traverse Book made by John Davis in 1587</i>, an <i>Account of his +Second Voyage in 1586</i>, and a <i>Report of Master John Davis of his +three voyages made for the Discovery of the North West Passage</i> were +printed in Hakluyt’s collection. Davis himself published <i>The +Seaman’s Secrets, divided into two Parts</i> (London, 1594), <i>The World’s +Hydrographical Description ... whereby appears that there is a short +and speedy Passage into the South Seas, to China, Molucca, Philippina, +and India, by Northerly Navigation</i> (London, 1595). Various +references to Davis are in the <i>Calendars of State Papers, Domestic</i> +(1591-1594), and <i>East Indies</i> (1513-1616). See also <i>Voyages and +Works of John Davis</i>, edited by A. H. Markham (London, Hakluyt +Society, 1880), and the article “John Davys” by Sir J. K. Laughton +in the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. R. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVIS, THOMAS OSBORNE<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1814-1845), Irish poet and +journalist, was born at Mallow, Co. Cork, on the 14th of October +1814. His father, James Thomas Davis, a surgeon in the royal +artillery, who died in the month of his son’s birth, belonged to +an English family of Welsh extraction, and his mother, Mary +Atkins, belonged to a Protestant Anglo-Irish family. Davis +graduated B.A. at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1836, and was called +to the bar two years later. Brought up in an English and Tory +circle, he was led to adopt nationalist views by the study of Irish +history, a complicated subject in which text-books and the +ordinary guides to knowledge were then lacking. In 1840 he +made a speech appealing to Irish sentiment before the college +historical society, which had been reorganized in 1839. With a +view to indoctrinating the Irish people with the idea of nationality +he joined John Blake Dillon in editing the <i>Dublin Morning +Register</i>. The proprietor very soon dismissed him, and Davis +saw that his propaganda would be ineffective if he continued to +stand outside the national organization. He therefore announced +himself a follower of Daniel O’Connell, and became an energetic +worker (1841) on the committee of the repeal association. He +helped Dillon and Charles Gavan Duffy to found the weekly +newspaper, <i>The Nation</i>, the first number of which appeared on +the 15th of October 1842. The paper was chiefly written by these +three promoters, and its concentrated purpose and vigorous +writing soon attracted attention. Davis, who had never written +verse, was induced to attempt it for the new undertaking. The +“Lament of Owen Roe O’Neill” was printed in the sixth +number, and was followed by a series of lyrics that take a high +place in Irish national poetry—“The Battle of Fontenoy,” +“The Geraldines,” “Máire Bhán a Stoír” and many others. +Davis contemplated a history of Ireland, an edition of the +speeches of Irish orators, one volume of which appeared, and +a life of Wolfe Tone. These projects remained incomplete, but +Davis’s determination and continuous zeal made their mark on +his party. Differences arose between O’Connell and the young +writers of <i>The Nation</i>, and as time went on became more +pronounced. Davis was accused of being anti-Catholic, and +was systematically attacked by O’Connell’s followers. But he +differed, said Sir Charles Gavan Duffy, from earlier and later +Irish tribunes, “by a perfectly genuine desire to remain unknown, +and reap neither recognition nor reward for his work.” +His early death from scarlet fever (September 15th, 1845) deprived +“Young Ireland” of its most striking personality.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Poems</i> and his <i>Literary and Historical Essays</i> were collected +in 1846. There is an edition of his prose writings (1889) in the +<i>Camelot Classics</i>. See the monograph on <i>Thomas Davis</i> by Sir +Charles Gavan Duffy (1890, abridged ed. 1896), and the same +writer’s <i>Young Ireland</i> (revised edition, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVISON, WILLIAM<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1541-1608), secretary to Queen +Elizabeth, was of Scottish descent, and in 1566 acted as secretary +to Henry Killigrew (d. 1603), when he was sent into Scotland by +Elizabeth on a mission to Mary, queen of Scots. Remaining in +that country for about ten years, Davison then went twice to the +Netherlands on diplomatic business, returning to England in +1586 to defend the hasty conduct of his friend, Robert Dudley, +earl of Leicester. In the same year he became member of parliament +for Knaresborough, a privy councillor, and assistant to +Elizabeth’s secretary, Thomas Walsingham; but he soon appears +to have acted rather as the colleague than the subordinate of +Walsingham. He was a member of the commission appointed +to try Mary, queen of Scots, although he took no part in its +proceedings. When sentence was passed upon Mary the warrant +for her execution was entrusted to Davison, who, after some +delay, obtained the queen’s signature. On this occasion, and +also in subsequent interviews with her secretary, Elizabeth +suggested that Mary should be executed in some more secret +fashion, and her conversation afforded ample proof that she +disliked to take upon herself any responsibility for the death of +her rival. Meanwhile, the privy council having been summoned +by Lord Burghley, it was decided to carry out the sentence at +once, and Mary was beheaded on the 8th of February 1587. +When the news of the execution reached Elizabeth she was +extremely indignant, and her wrath was chiefly directed against +Davison, who, she asserted, had disobeyed her instructions not +to part with the warrant. The secretary was arrested and +thrown into prison, but, although he defended himself vigorously, +he did not say anything about the queen’s wish to get rid of +Mary by assassination. Charged before the Star Chamber with +misprision and contempt, he was acquitted of evil intention, but +was sentenced to pay a fine of 10,000 marks, and to imprisonment +during the queen’s pleasure; but owing to the exertions +of several influential men he was released in 1589. The queen, +however, refused to employ him again in her service, and he +retired to Stepney, where he died in December 1608. Davison +appears to have been an industrious and outspoken man, and was +undoubtedly made the scapegoat for the queen’s pusillanimous +conduct. By his wife, Catherine Spelman, he had a family of four +sons and two daughters. Two of his sons, Francis and Walter, +obtained some celebrity as poets.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Many state papers written by him, and many of his letters, are +extant in various collections of manuscripts. See Sir N. H. Nicolas, +<i>Life of W. Davison</i> (London, 1823); J. A. Froude, <i>History of England</i> +(London, 1881 fol.); <i>Calendar of State Papers 1580-1609</i>; and <i>Correspondence +of Leicester during his Government of the Low Countries</i>, +edited by J. Bruce (London, 1844).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVIS STRAIT,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> the broad strait which separates Greenland +from North America, and connects Baffin Bay with the open +Atlantic. At its narrowest point, which occurs just where the +Arctic Circle crosses it, it is nearly 200 m. wide. This part is also +the shallowest, a sounding of 112 fathoms being found in the +centre, whereas the depth increases rapidly both to north and to +south. Along the western shore (Baffin Land) a cold current +passes southward; but along the east there is a warm northward +stream, and there are a few Danish settlements on the +Greenland coast. The strait takes its name from the explorer +John Davis.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page870" id="page870"></a>870</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">DAVITT, MICHAEL<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1846-1906), Irish Nationalist politician, +son of a peasant farmer in Co. Mayo, was born on the 25th of +March 1846. His father was evicted for non-payment of rent +in 1851, and migrated to Lancashire, where at the age of ten the +boy began work in a cotton mill at Haslingden. In 1857 he lost +his right arm by a machinery accident, and he had to get employment +as a newsboy and printer’s “devil.” He drifted into the +ranks of the Fenian brotherhood in 1865, and in 1870 he was +arrested for treason-felony in arranging for sending fire-arms +into Ireland, and was sentenced to fifteen years’ penal servitude. +After seven years he was released on ticket of leave. He at once +rejoined the “Irish Republican Brotherhood,” and went to the +United States, where his mother, herself of American birth, had +settled with the rest of the family, in order to concert plans +with the Fenian leaders there. Returning to Ireland he helped +C. S. Parnell to start the Land League in 1879, and his violent +speeches resulted in his re-arrest and consignment to Portland by +Sir William Harcourt, then home secretary. He was released in +1882, but was again prosecuted for seditious speeches in 1883, and +suffered three months’ imprisonment. He had been elected to +parliament for Meath as a Nationalist in 1882, but being a convict +was disqualified to sit. He was included as one of the +respondents before the Parnell Commission (1888-1890) and +spoke for five days in his own defence, but his prominent association +with the revolutionary Irish schemes was fully established. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Parnell</a></span>.) He took the anti-Parnellite side in 1890, and in +1892 was elected to parliament for North Meath, but was unseated +on petition. He was then returned for North-East Cork, but had +to vacate his seat through bankruptcy, caused by the costs in +the North Meath petition. In 1895 he was elected for West Mayo, +but retired before the dissolution in 1900. He died on the 31st +of May 1906, in Dublin. A sincere but embittered Nationalist, +anti-English to the backbone, anti-clerical, and sceptical as to +the value of the purely parliamentary agitation for Home Rule, +Davitt was a notable representative of the survival of the Irish +“physical force” party, and a strong link with the extremists in +America. In later years his Socialistic Radicalism connected him +closely with the Labour party. He wrote constantly in American +and colonial journals, and published some books, always with +the strongest bias against English methods; but his force of +character earned him at least the respect of those who could make +calm allowance for an open enemy of the established order, and a +higher meed of admiration from those who sympathized with his +objects or were not in a position to be threatened by them.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVOS<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (Romonsch <i>Tavau</i>, a name variously explained as +meaning a sheep pasture or simply “behind”), a mountain +valley in the Swiss canton of the Grisons, lying east of Coire +(whence it is 40 m. distant by rail), and north-west of the Lower +Engadine (accessible at Süs in 18 m. by road). It contains two +main villages, 2 m. from each other, Dörfli and Platz (the chief +hamlet), which are 5015 ft. above the sea-level, and had a population +in 1900 of 8089, a figure exceeded in the Grisons only by +the capital Coire. Of the population 5391 were Protestants, 2564 +Romanists, and 81 Jews; while 6048 were German-speaking +and 486 Romonsch-speaking. In 1860 the population was only +1705, rising to 2002 in 1870, to 2865 in 1880, to 3891 in 1888, +and to 8089 in 1890. This steady increase is due to the fact that +the valley is now much frequented in winter by consumptive +patients, as its position, sheltered from cold winds and exposed +to brilliant sunshine in the daytime, has a most beneficial effect +on invalids in the first stages of that terrible disease. A local +doctor, by name Spengler, first noticed this fact about 1865, +and the valley soon became famous. It is now provided with +excellent hotels, sanatoria, &c., but as lately as 1860 there was +only one inn there, housed in the 16th-century <i>Rathhaus</i> (town +hall), which is still adorned by the heads of wolves shot in the +neighbourhood. At the north end of the valley is the fine lake +of Davos, used for skating in the winter, while from Platz the +splendidly engineered <i>Landwasserstrasse</i> leads (20 m.) down to the +Alvaneubad station on the Albula railway from Coire to the +Engadine.</p> + +<p>We first hear of Tavaus or Tavauns in 1160 and 1213, as a +mountain pasture or “alp.” It was then in the hands of a +Romonsch-speaking population, as is shown by many surviving +field names. But, some time between 1260 and 1282, a colony +of German-speaking persons from the Upper Valais (first +mentioned in 1289) was planted there by its lord, Walter von +Vaz, so that it has long been a Teutonic island in the midst of +a Romonsch-speaking population. Historically it is associated +with the Prättigau or Landquart valley to the north, as it was +the most important village of the region, and in 1436 became the +capital of the League of the Ten Jurisdictions. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grisons</a></span>.) +It formerly contained many iron mines, and belonged from 1477 +to 1649 to the Austrian Habsburgs. In 1779 Davos was visited +and described by Archdeacon W. Coxe.</p> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVOUT, LOUIS NICOLAS,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> duke of Auerstädt and prince of +Eckmühl (1770-1823), marshal of France, was born at Annoux +(Yonne) on the 10th of May 1770. His name is also, less correctly, +spelt Davoût and Davoust. He entered the French army as a +sub-lieutenant in 1788, and on the outbreak of the Revolution he +embraced its principles. He was <i>chef de bataillon</i> in a volunteer +corps in the campaign of 1792, and distinguished himself at +Neerwinden in the following spring. He had just been promoted +general of brigade when he was removed from the active list +as being of noble birth. He served, however, in the campaigns +of 1794-1797 on the Rhine, and accompanied Desaix in the +Egyptian expedition of Bonaparte. On his return he took part +in the campaign of Marengo under Napoleon, who placed the +greatest confidence in his abilities, made him a general of division +soon after Marengo, and in 1801 gave him a command in the consular +guard. At the accession of Napoleon as emperor, Davout +was one of the generals who were created marshals of France. +As commander of the III. corps of the <i>Grande Armée</i> Davout +rendered the greatest services. At Austerlitz, after a forced +march of forty-eight hours, the III. corps bore the brunt of the +allies’ attack. In the Jena campaign Davout with a single corps +fought and won the brilliant victory of Auerstädt against the main +Prussian army. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>.) He took part, and +added to his renown, in the campaign of Eylau and Friedland. +Napoleon left him as governor-general in the grand-duchy of +Warsaw when the treaty of Tilsit put an end to the war (1807), +and in 1808 created him duke of Auerstädt. In the war of 1809 +Davout took a brilliant part in the actions which culminated in +the victory of Eckmühl, and had an important share in the +battle of Wagram (<i>q.v.</i>). He was created prince of Eckmühl about +this time. It was Davout who was entrusted by Napoleon with +the task of organizing the “corps of observation of the Elbe,” +which was in reality the gigantic army with which the emperor +invaded Russia in 1812. In this Davout commanded the I. corps, +over 70,000 strong, and defeated the Russians at Mohilev before +he joined the main army, with which he continued throughout +the campaign and the retreat from Moscow. In 1813 +he commanded the Hamburg military district, and defended +Hamburg, a city ill fortified and provisioned, and full of disaffection, +through a long siege, only surrendering the place on +the direct order of Louis XVIII. after the fall of Napoleon in 1814.</p> + +<p>Davout’s military character was on this, as on many other +occasions, interpreted as cruel and rapacious, and he had to +defend himself against many attacks upon his conduct at +Hamburg. He was a stern disciplinarian, almost the only one +of the marshals who exacted rigid and precise obedience from +his troops, and consequently his corps was more trustworthy +and exact in the performance of its duty than any other. Thus, +in the earlier days of the <i>Grande Armée</i>, it was always the +III. corps which was entrusted with the most difficult part of +the work in hand. The same criterion is to be applied to his +conduct of civil affairs. His rapacity was in reality Napoleon’s, for +he gave the same undeviating obedience to superior orders which +he enforced in his own subordinates. As for his military talents, +he was admitted by his contemporaries and by later judgment +to be one of the ablest, perhaps the ablest, of all Napoleon’s +marshals. On the first restoration he retired into private life, +openly displaying his hostility to the Bourbons, and when +Napoleon returned from Elba; Davout at once joined him. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page871" id="page871"></a>871</span> +Appointed minister of war, he reorganized the French army as +far as the limited time available permitted, and he was so far +indispensable to the war department that Napoleon kept him at +Paris during the Waterloo campaign. To what degree his skill +and bravery would have altered the fortunes of the campaign +of 1815 can only be surmised, but it has been made a ground of +criticism against Napoleon that he did not avail himself in the +field of the services of the best general he then possessed. Davout +directed the gallant, but hopeless, defence of Paris after Waterloo, +and was deprived of his marshalate and his titles at the second +restoration. When some of his subordinate generals were proscribed, +he demanded to be held responsible for their acts, as +executed under his orders, and he endeavoured to prevent +the condemnation of Ney. After a time the hostility of the +Bourbons towards Davout died away, and he was reconciled to +the monarchy. In 1817 his rank and titles were restored, and in +1819 he became a member of the chamber of peers. He died at +Paris on the 1st of June 1823.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the marquise de Blocqueville, <i>Le Maréchal Davout raconté +par les siens et lui-même</i> (Paris, 1870-1880, 1887); Chenier, <i>Davout, +duc d’Auerstädt</i> (Paris, 1866).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAVY, SIR HUMPHRY,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> Bart. (1778-1829), English chemist, +was born on the 17th of December 1778 at or near Penzance +in Cornwall. During his school days at the grammar schools +of Penzance and Truro he showed few signs of a taste for +scientific pursuits or indeed of any special zeal for knowledge +or of ability beyond a certain skill in making verse translations +from the classics and in story-telling. But when in +1794 his father, Robert Davy, died, leaving a widow and five +children in embarrassed circumstances, he awoke to his responsibilities +as the eldest son, and becoming apprentice to a surgeon-apothecary +at Penzance set to work on a systematic and remarkably +wide course of self-instruction which he mapped out for +himself in preparation for a career in medicine. Beginning with +metaphysics and ethics and passing on to mathematics, he +turned to chemistry at the end of 1797, and within a few months +of reading Nicholson’s and Lavoisier’s treatises on that science +had produced a new theory of light and heat. About the same +time he made the acquaintance of two men of scientific attainments—Gregory +Watt (1777-1804), a son of James Watt, and +Davies Giddy, afterwards Gilbert (1767-1839), who was president +of the Royal Society from 1827 to 1831. By the latter he was +recommended to Dr Thomas Beddoes, who was in 1798 establishing +his Medical Pneumatic Institution at Bristol for investigating +the medicinal properties of various gases. Here Davy, released +from his indentures, was installed as superintendent towards the +end of 1798. Early next year two papers from his pen were +published in Beddoes’ <i>West Country Contributions</i>—one “On +Heat, Light and the Combinations of Light, with a new Theory +of Respiration and Observations on the Chemistry of Life,” and +the other “On the Generation of Phosoxygen (Oxygen gas) and +the Causes of the Colours of Organic Beings.” These contain +an account of the well-known experiment in which he sought to +establish the immateriality of heat by showing its generation +through the friction of two pieces of ice in an exhausted vessel, +and further attempt to prove that light is “matter of a peculiar +kind,” and that oxygen gas, being a compound of this matter +with a simple substance, would more properly be termed phosoxygen. +Founded on faulty experiments and reasoning, the +views he expressed were either ignored or ridiculed; and it was +long before he bitterly regretted the temerity with which he had +published his hasty generalizations.</p> + +<p>One of his first discoveries at the Pneumatic Institution on +the 9th of April 1799 was that pure nitrous oxide (laughing gas) +is perfectly respirable, and he narrates that on the next day +he became “absolutely intoxicated” through breathing sixteen +quarts of it for “near seven minutes.” This discovery brought +both him and the Pneumatic Institution into prominence. The +gas itself was inhaled by Southey and Coleridge among other +distinguished people, and promised to become fashionable, while +further research yielded Davy material for his <i>Researches, +Chemical and Philosophical, chiefly concerning Nitrous Oxide</i>, +published in 1800, which secured his reputation as a chemist. +Soon afterwards, Count Rumford, requiring a lecturer on chemistry +for the recently established Royal Institution in London, opened +negotiations with him, and on the 16th of February 1801 he was +engaged as assistant lecturer in chemistry and director of the +laboratory. Ten weeks later, having “given satisfactory proofs +of his talents” in a course of lectures on galvanism, he was +appointed lecturer, and his promotion to be professor followed +on the 31st of May 1802. One of the first tasks imposed on +him by the managers was the delivery of a course of lectures +on the chemical principles of tanning, and he was given leave +of absence for July, August and September 1801 in order to +acquaint himself practically with the subject. The main facts +he discovered from his experiments in this connexion were +described before the Royal Society in 1803. In 1802 the board +of agriculture requested him to direct his attention to agricultural +subjects; and in 1803, with the acquiescence of the Royal +Institution, he gave his first course of lectures on agricultural +chemistry and continued them for ten successive years, ultimately +publishing their substance as <i>Elements of Agricultural +Chemistry</i> in 1813. But his chief interest at the Royal Institution +was with electro-chemistry. Galvanic phenomena had +already engaged his attention before he left Bristol, but in +London he had at his disposal a large battery which gave +him much greater opportunities. His first communication to the +Royal Society, read in June 1801, related to galvanic combinations +formed with single metallic plates and fluids, and showed +that an electric cell might be constructed with a single metal +and two fluids, provided one of the fluids was capable of oxidizing +one surface of the metal; previous piles had consisted of two +different metals, or of one plate of metal and the other of charcoal, +with an interposed fluid. Five years later he delivered +before the Royal Society his first Bakerian lecture, “On some +Chemical Agencies of Electricity,” which J. J. Berzelius described +as one of the most remarkable memoirs in the history of +chemical theory. He summed up his results in the general +statement that “hydrogen, the alkaline substances, the metals +and certain metallic oxides are attracted by negatively electrified +metallic surfaces, and repelled by positively electrified metallic +surfaces; and contrariwise, that oxygen and acid substances are +attracted by positively electrified metallic surfaces and repelled +by negatively electrified metallic surfaces; and these attractive +and repulsive forces are sufficiently energetic to destroy or suspend +the usual operation of elective affinity.” He also sketched a +theory of chemical affinity on the facts he had discovered, and +concluded by suggesting that the electric decomposition of +neutral salts might in some cases admit of economical applications +and lead to the isolation of the true elements of bodies. +A year after this paper, which gained him from the French +Institute the medal offered by Napoleon for the best experiment +made each year on galvanism, he described in his second +Bakerian lecture the electrolytic preparation of potassium and +sodium, effected in October 1807 by the aid of his battery. +According to his cousin, Edmund Davy,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> then his laboratory +assistant, he was so delighted with this achievement that he +danced about the room in ecstasy. Four days after reading his +lecture his health broke down, and severe illness kept him from his +professional duties until March 1808. As soon as he was able to +work again he attempted to obtain the metals of the alkaline +earths by the same methods as he had used for those of the fixed +alkalis, but they eluded his efforts and he only succeeded in +preparing them as amalgams with mercury, by a process due to +Berzelius. His attempts to decompose “alumine, silica, zircone +and glucine” were still less fortunate. At the end of 1808 he +read his third Bakerian lecture, one of the longest of his papers +but not one of the best. In it he disproved the idea advanced by +Gay Lussac that potassium was a compound of hydrogen, not an +element; but on the other hand he cast doubts on the elementary +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page872" id="page872"></a>872</span> +character of phosphorus, sulphur and carbon, though on this +point he afterwards corrected himself. He also described the +preparation of boron, for which at first he proposed the name +boracium, on the impression that it was a metal. About this +time a voluntary subscription among the members of the Royal +Institution put him in possession of a new galvanic battery +of 2000 double plates, with a surface equal to 128,000 sq. in., +to replace the old one, which had become unserviceable. His +fourth Bakerian lecture, in November 1809, gave further proofs +of the elementary nature of potassium, and described the +properties of telluretted hydrogen. Next year, in a paper read +in July and in his fifth Bakerian lecture in November, he +argued that oxymuriatic acid, contrary to his previous belief, +was a simple body, and proposed for it the name “chlorine.”</p> + +<p>Davy’s reputation was now at its zenith. As a lecturer he +could command an audience of little less than 1000 in the theatre +of the Royal Institution, and his fame had spread far outside +London. In 1810, at the invitation of the Dublin Society, he +gave a course of lectures on electro-chemical science, and in the +following year he again lectured in Dublin, on chemistry and +geology, receiving large fees at both visits. During his second +visit Trinity College conferred upon him the honorary degree of +LL.D., the only university distinction he ever received. On the +8th of April 1812 he was knighted by the prince regent; on +the 9th he gave his farewell lecture as professor of chemistry at +the Royal Institution; and on the 11th he was married to Mrs +Apreece, daughter and heiress of Charles Kerr of Kelso, and a +distant connexion of Sir Walter Scott. A few months after his +marriage he published the first and only volume of his <i>Elements +of Chemical Philosophy</i>, with a dedication to his wife, and was +also re-elected professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution, +though he would not pledge himself to deliver lectures, explaining +that he wished to be free from the routine of lecturing in +order to have more time for original work. Towards the end of +the year he began to investigate chloride of nitrogen, which had +just been discovered by P. L. Dulong, but was obliged to suspend +his inquiries during the winter on account of injury to his eye +caused by an explosion of that substance. In the spring of 1813 +he was engaged on the chemistry of fluorine, and though he +failed to isolate the element, he reached accurate conclusions +regarding its nature and properties. In October he started with +his wife for a continental tour, and with them, as “assistant +in experiments and writing,” went Michael Faraday, who in the +previous March had been engaged as assistant in the Royal +Institution laboratory. Having obtained permission from the +French emperor to travel in France, he went first to Paris, where +during his two months’ stay every honour was accorded him, +including election as a corresponding member of the first class +of the Institute. He does not, however, seem to have reciprocated +the courtesy of his French hosts, but gave offence by the +brusqueness of his manner, though his supercilious bearing, +according to his biographer, Dr Paris, was to be ascribed less to +any conscious superiority than to an “ungraceful timidity which +he could never conquer.” Nor was his action in regard to iodine +calculated to conciliate. That substance, recently discovered +in Paris, was attracting the attention of French chemists when +he stepped in and, after a short examination with his portable +chemical laboratory, detected its resemblance to chlorine and +pronounced it an “undecompounded body.” Towards the end +of December he left for Italy. At Genoa he investigated the +electricity of the torpedo-fish, and at Florence, by the aid of the +great burning-glass in the Accademia del Cimento, he effected +the combustion of the diamond in oxygen and decided that, +beyond containing a little hydrogen, it consisted of pure carbon. +Then he went to Rome and Naples and visited Vesuvius and +Pompeii, called on Volta at Milan, spent the summer in Geneva, +and returning to Rome occupied the winter with an inquiry into +the composition of ancient colours.</p> + +<p>A few months after his return, through Germany, to London +in 1815, he was induced to take up the question of constructing +a miner’s safety lamp. Experiments with samples of fire-damp +sent from Newcastle soon taught him that “explosive mixtures +of mine-damp will not pass through small apertures or tubes”; +and in a paper read before the Royal Society on the 9th of +November he showed that metallic tubes, being better conductors +of heat, were superior to glass ones, and explained that +the heat lost by contact with a large cooling surface brought +the temperature of the first portions of gas exploded below that +required for the firing of the other portions. Two further +papers read in January 1816 explained the employment of wire +gauze instead of narrow tubes, and later in the year the safety +lamps were brought into use in the mines. A large collection of +the different models made by Davy in the course of his inquiries +is in the possession of the Royal Institution. He took out no +patent for his invention, and in recognition of his disinterestedness +the Newcastle coal-owners in September 1817 presented him +with a dinner-service of silver plate.<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>In 1818, when he was created a baronet, he was commissioned +by the British government to examine the papyri of Herculaneum +in the Neapolitan museum, and he did not arrive back in England +till June 1820. In November of that year the Royal Society, of +which he had become a fellow in 1803, and acted as secretary +from 1807 to 1812, chose him as their president, but his personal +qualities were not such as to make him very successful in that +office, especially in comparison with the tact and firmness of +his predecessor, Sir Joseph Banks. In 1821 he was busy with +electrical experiments and in 1822 with investigations of the +fluids contained in the cavities of crystals in rocks. In 1823, +when Faraday liquefied chlorine, he read a paper which suggested +the application of liquids formed by the condensation of gases +as mechanical agents. In the same year the admiralty consulted +the Royal Society as to a means of preserving the copper sheathing +of ships from corrosion and keeping it smooth, and he suggested +that the copper would be preserved if it were rendered +negatively electrical, as would be done by fixing “protectors” +of zinc to the sheeting. This method was tried on several ships, +but it was found that the bottoms became extremely foul from +accumulations of seaweed and shellfish. For this reason the +admiralty decided against the plan, much to the inventor’s +annoyance, especially as orders to remove the protectors already +fitted were issued in June 1825, immediately after he had +announced to the Royal Society the full success of his remedy.</p> + +<p>In 1826 Davy’s health, which showed signs of failure in 1823, +had so declined that he could with difficulty indulge in his +favourite sports of fishing and shooting, and early in 1827, after +a slight attack of paralysis, he was ordered abroad. After a +short stay at Ravenna he removed to Salzburg, whence, his illness +continuing, he sent in his resignation as president of the Royal +Society. In the autumn he returned to England and spent his +time in writing his <i>Salmonia or Days of Flyfishing</i>, an imitation +of <i>The Compleat Angler</i>. In the spring of 1828 he again left +England for Illyria, and in the winter fixed his residence at +Rome, whence he sent to the Royal Society his “Remarks on the +Electricity of the Torpedo,” written at Trieste in October. This, +with the exception of a posthumous work, <i>Consolations in Travel, +or the Last Days of a Philosopher</i> (1830), was the final production +of his pen. On the 20th of February 1829 he suffered a second +attack of paralysis which rendered his right side quite powerless, +but under the care of his brother, Dr John Davy (1791-1868), +he rallied sufficiently to be removed to Geneva, where he died on +the 29th of May.</p> + +<p>Of a sanguine, somewhat irritable temperament, Davy displayed +characteristic enthusiasm and energy in all his pursuits. +As is shown by his verses and sometimes by his prose, his mind +was highly imaginative; the poet Coleridge declared that if he +“had not been the first chemist, he would have been the first poet +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page873" id="page873"></a>873</span> +of his age,” and Southey said that “he had all the elements of a +poet; he only wanted the art.” In spite of his ungainly exterior +and peculiar manner, his happy gifts of exposition and illustration +won him extraordinary popularity as a lecturer, his +experiments were ingenious and rapidly performed, and Coleridge +went to hear him “to increase his stock of metaphors.” The +dominating ambition of his life was to achieve fame, but though +that sometimes betrayed him into petty jealousy, it did not +leave him insensible to the claims on his knowledge of the +“cause of humanity,” to use a phrase often employed by him +in connexion with his invention of the miners’ lamp. Of the +smaller observances of etiquette he was careless, and his +frankness of disposition sometimes exposed him to annoyances +which he might have avoided by the exercise of ordinary tact.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Dr J. A. Paris, <i>The Life of Sir Humphry Davy</i> (1831), vol. ii. +of which on pp. 450-456 gives a list of his publications. Dr John +Davy, <i>Memoirs of Sir Humphry Davy</i> (1836); Collected Works (with +shorter memoir, 1839); <i>Fragmentary Remains, Literary and Scientific</i> +(1858). T. E. Thorpe, <i>Humphry Davy, Poet and Philosopher</i> +(1896).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Edmund Davy (1785-1857) became professor of chemistry at +Cork Institution in 1813, and at the Royal Dublin Society in 1826. +His son, Edmund William Davy (born in 1826), was appointed +professor of medicine in the Royal College, Dublin, in 1870.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Davy’s will directed that this service, after Lady Davy’s death, +should pass to his brother, Dr John Davy, on whose decease, if he +had no heirs who could make use of it, it was to be melted and sold, +the proceeds going to the Royal Society “to found a medal to be +given annually for the most important discovery in chemistry anywhere +made in Europe or Anglo-America.” The silver produced +£736, and the interest on that sum is expended on the Davy medal, +which was awarded for the first time in 1877, to Bunsen and Kirchhoff +for their discovery of spectrum analysis.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAWARI,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Dauri</span>, a Pathan tribe on the Waziri border of the +North-West Frontier Province of India. The Dawaris inhabit +the Tochi Valley (<i>q.v.</i>), otherwise known as Dawar or Daur, and +are a homogeneous tribe of considerable size, numbering 5200 +fighting men. Though surrounded on all four sides by a Waziri +population they bear little resemblance to Waziris. They are +an agricultural and the Waziris a pastoral race, and they are +much richer than their neighbours. They thrive on a rich sedimentary +soil copiously irrigated in the midst of a country where +cultivable land of any kind is scarce and water in general hardly +to be obtained. But they pay a heavy tax in health and well-being +for the possession of their fertile acres. Fevers and other +ravaging diseases are bred in the wet sodden lands of the Tochi +Valley, lying at the bottom of a deep depression exposed to the +burning rays of the sun; and the effects of these ailments may be +clearly traced in the drawn or bloated features and the shrunken +or swollen limbs of nearly every Dawari that has passed middle +life. They have an evil name for indolence, drug-eating and +unnatural vices, and are morally the lowest of the Afghan races; +but in spite of these defects, and of the contempt with which they +are regarded by the other Afghan tribes, they have held their +own for centuries against the warlike and hardy Waziris. The +secret of this is that the Dawaris stand together, and the Waziris +do not, while the weaker race is gifted with infinite patience and +tenacity of purpose. With the advent of British government, +however, the Dawaris are now secured in the possession of their +ancestral lands.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. G. Lorimer, <i>Grammar and Vocabulary of Waziri Pushtu</i> +(1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAWES, HENRY LAURENS<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1816-1903), American lawyer, +was born at Cummington, Massachusetts, on the 30th of +October 1816. After graduating at Yale in 1839, he taught for a +time at Greenfield, Mass., and also edited <i>The Greenfield Gazette</i>. +In 1842 he was admitted to the bar and began the practice of +law at North Adams, where for a time he conducted <i>The Transcript</i>. +He served in the Massachusetts House of Representatives +in 1848-1849 and in 1852, in the state Senate in 1850, and in the +Massachusetts constitutional convention in 1853. From 1853 to +1857 he was United States district attorney for the western +district of Massachusetts; and from 1857-1875 he was a +Republican member of the national House of Representatives. +In 1875 he succeeded Charles Sumner as senator from Massachusetts, +serving until 1893. During this long period of +legislative activity he served in the House on the committees on +elections, ways and means, and appropriations, took a prominent +part in the anti-slavery and reconstruction measures during and +after the Civil War, in tariff legislation, and in the establishment +of a fish commission and the inauguration of daily weather +reports. In the Senate he was chairman of the committee on +Indian affairs, and gave much attention to the enactment of +laws for the benefit of the Indians. On leaving the Senate, in +1893, he became chairman of the Commission to the Five Civilized +Tribes (sometimes called the Dawes Indian Commission), +and served in this capacity for ten years, negotiating with the +tribes for the extinction of the communal title to their land and +for the dissolution of the tribal governments, with the object +of making the tribes a constituent part of the United States.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +Dawes died at Pittsfield, Mass., on the 5th of February 1903.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The commission completed its labours on the 1st of July 1905, +after having allotted 20,000,000 acres of land among 90,000 Indians +and absorbed the five Indian governments into the national system. +The “five tribes” were the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek +and Seminole Indians.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAWES, RICHARD<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1708-1766), English classical scholar, +was born in or near Market Bosworth. He was educated at the +town grammar school under Anthony Blackwall, and at Emmanuel +College, Cambridge, of which society he was elected fellow in 1731. +His peculiar habits and outspoken language made him unpopular. +His health broke down in consequence of his sedentary life, and +it is said that he took to bell-ringing at Great St Mary’s as a +restorative. He was a bitter enemy of Bentley, who he declared +knew nothing of Greek except from indexes. In 1738 Dawes was +appointed to the mastership of the grammar school, Newcastle-on-Tyne, +combined with that of St Mary’s hospital. From all +accounts his mind appears to have become unhinged; his +eccentricities of conduct and continual disputes with his governing +body ruined the school, and finally, in 1749, he resigned his +post and retired to Heworth, where he chiefly amused himself +with boating. He died on the 21st of March 1766. Dawes was +not a prolific writer. The book on which his fame rests is his +<i>Miscellanea critica</i> (1745), which gained the commendation of +such distinguished continental scholars as L. C. Valckenaer +and J. J. Reiske. The <i>Miscellanea</i>, which was re-edited by +T. Burgess (1781), G. C. Harles (1800) and T. Kidd (1817), for +many years enjoyed a high reputation, and although some +of the “canons” have been proved untenable and few can be +accepted universally, it will always remain an honourable and +enduring monument of English scholarship.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Hodgson, <i>An Account of the Life and Writings of Richard +Dawes</i> (1828); H. R. Luard in <i>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</i>; J. E. Sandys, +<i>Hist. of Classical Scholarship</i>, ii. 415.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAWISON, BOGUMIL<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1818-1872), German actor, was born +at Warsaw, of Jewish parents, and at the age of nineteen went on +the stage. In 1839 he received an appointment to the theatre +at Lemberg in Galicia. In 1847 he played at Hamburg with +marked success, was from 1849 to 1854 a member of the Burg +theatre in Vienna, and then became connected with the Dresden +court theatre. In 1864 he was given a life engagement, but +resigned his appointment, and after starring through Germany +visited the United States in 1866. He died in Dresden on the 1st +of February 1872. Dawison was considered in Germany an actor +of a new type; a leading critic wrote that he and Marie Seebach +“swept like fresh gales over dusty tradition, and brushing aside +the monotony of declamation gave to their rôles more character +and vivacity than had hitherto been known on the German +stage.” His chief parts were Mephistopheles, Franz Moor, Mark +Antony, Hamlet, Charles V., Richard III. and King Lear.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAWKINS, WILLIAM BOYD<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1838-  ), English geologist +and archaeologist, was born at Buttington vicarage near +Welshpool, Montgomeryshire, on the 26th of December 1838. +Educated at Rossall School and Oxford, he joined the Geological +Survey in 1862, and in 1869 became curator of the Manchester +museum, a post which he retained till 1890. He was appointed +professor of geology and palaeontology in Owens College, +Manchester, in 1874. He paid special attention to the question +of the existence of coal in Kent, and in 1882 was selected by the +Channel tunnel committee to make a special survey of the French +and English coasts. He was also employed in the scheme of a +tunnel beneath the Humber. His chief distinctions, however, +were won in the realms of anthropology by his researches into the +lives of the cave-dwellers of prehistoric times, labours which +have borne fruit in his books <i>Cave-hunting</i> (1874); <i>Early Man +in Britain</i> (1880); <i>British Pleistocene Mammalia</i> (1866-1887). +He became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1867, and acted as +president of the anthropological section of the British Association +in 1882 and of the geological section in 1888.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page874" id="page874"></a>874</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">DAWLISH,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> a watering-place in the Ashburton parliamentary +division of Devonshire, England, on the English Channel, near +the outflow of the Exe, 12 m. S. of Exeter by the Great Western +railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4003. It lies on a cove +sheltered by two projecting headlands. A small stream which +flows through the town is lined on both sides by pleasure-grounds. +Dawlish owes its prosperity to the visitors attracted, +in spring and early summer, by the warm climate and excellent +bathing. An annual pleasure fair is held on Easter Monday, and +a regatta in August or September. Until its sale in the 19th +century, the site of Dawlish belonged to Exeter cathedral, having +been given to the chapter by Leofric, bishop of Exeter, in 1050.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAWN<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (the 16th-century form of the earlier “dawing” or +“dawning,” from an old verb “daw,” O. Eng. <i>dagian</i>, to +become day; <i>cf.</i> Dutch <i>dagen</i>, and Ger. <i>tagen</i>), the time when +light appears (daws) in the sky in the morning. The dawn +colours appear in the reverse order of the sunset colours and +are due to the same cause. When the sun is lowest in both cases +the colour is deep red; this gradually changes through orange to +gold and brilliant yellow as the sun approaches the horizon. +These colours follow each other in order of refrangibility, reproducing +all the colours of the spectrum in order except the blue +rays which are scattered in the sky. The colours of the dawn +are purer and colder than the sunset colours since there is less +dust and moisture in the atmosphere and less consequent sifting +of light rays.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAWSON, GEORGE<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1821-1876), English nonconformist +divine, was born in London on the 24th of February 1821, and +was educated at Marischal College, Aberdeen, and at the university +of Glasgow. In 1843 he accepted the pastorate of the +Baptist church at Rickmansworth, and in 1844 a similar charge +at Mount Zion, Birmingham, where he attracted large congregations +by his eloquence and his unconventional views. Desiring +freedom from any definite creed, he left the Baptist church and +became minister of the “Church of the Saviour,” a building +erected for him by his supporters. Here he exercised a stimulating +and varied ministry for nearly thirty years, gathering round +him a congregation of all types and especially of such as found the +dogmas of the age distasteful. He had much sympathy with the +Unitarian position, but was not himself a Unitarian. Indeed he +had no fixed standpoint, and discussed truths and principles +from various aspects. His sermons, though not particularly +speculative, were unconventional and quickening. He was the +friend of Carlyle and Emerson, and did much to popularize +their teachings, his influence being conspicuous, especially in +his demand for a high ethical standard in everyday life and his +insistence on the Christianization of citizenship. He was warmly +supported by Dr R. W. Dale, and by J. T. Bunce, editor of +<i>The Birmingham Daily Post</i>. Both Dawson and Dale were disqualified +as ministers from seats on the town council, but both +served on the Birmingham school board. Dawson also lectured +on English literature at the Midland Institute and helped to +found the Shakespeare Memorial library in Birmingham. He +died suddenly at King’s Norton on the 30th of November 1876. +Four volumes of <i>Sermons</i>, two of <i>Prayers</i> and two of <i>Biographical +Lectures</i> were published after his death.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life</i> by H. W. Crosskey (1876) and an article by R. W. Dale +in <i>The Nineteenth Century</i> (August 1877).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAWSON, SIR JOHN WILLIAM<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1820-1899), Canadian +geologist, was bom at Pictou, Nova Scotia, on the 30th of +October 1820. Of Scottish descent, he went to Edinburgh to +complete his education, and graduated at the university in 1842, +having gained a knowledge of geology and natural history from +Robert Jameson. On his return to Nova Scotia in 1842 he +accompanied Sir Charles Lyell on his first visit to that territory. +Subsequently he was appointed to the post of superintendent of +education (1850-1853); at the same time he entered zealously +into the geology of the country, making a special study of the +fossil forests of the coal-measures. From these strata, in +company with Lyell (during his second visit) in 1852, he obtained +the first remains of an “air-breathing reptile” named <i>Dendrerpeton</i>. +He also described the fossil plants of the Silurian, +Devonian and Carboniferous rocks of Canada for the Geological +Survey of that country (1871-1873). From 1855 to 1893 he +was professor of geology and principal of M’Gill University, +Montreal, an institution which under his influence attained a +high reputation. He was elected F.R.S. in 1862. When the +Royal Society of Canada was constituted he was the first to +occupy the presidential chair, and he also acted as president of +the British Association at its meeting at Birmingham in 1886, +and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. +Sir William Dawson’s name is especially associated with the +<i>Eozoon canadense</i>, which in 1864 he described as an organism +having the structure of a foraminifer. It was found in the +Laurentian rocks, regarded as the oldest known geological +system. His views on the subject were contested at the time, +and have since been disproved, the so-called organism being now +regarded as a mineral structure. He was created C.M.G. in 1881, +and was knighted in 1884. In his books on geological subjects he +maintained a distinctly theological attitude, declining to admit +the descent or evolution of man from brute ancestors, and holding +that the human species only made its appearance on this earth +within quite recent times. Besides many memoirs in the +Transactions of learned societies, he published <i>Acadian Geology: +The geological structure, organic remains and mineral resources +of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island</i> +(1855; ed. 3, 1878); <i>Air-breathers of the Coal Period</i> (1863); +<i>The Story of the Earth and Man</i> (1873; ed. 6, 1880); <i>The Dawn of +Life</i> (1875); <i>Fossil Men and their Modern Representatives</i> (1880); +<i>Geological History of Plants</i> (1888); <i>The Canadian Ice Age</i> +(1894). He died on the 20th of November 1899.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">George Mercer Dawson</span> (1849-1901), was born at +Pictou on the 1st of August 1849, and received his education at +M‘Gill University and the Royal School of Mines, London, where +he had a brilliant career. In 1873 he was appointed geologist +and naturalist to the North American boundary commission, +and two years later he joined the staff of the geological survey +of Canada, of which he became assistant director in 1883, and +director in 1895. He was in charge of the Canadian government’s +Yukon expedition in 1887, and his name is permanently written +in Dawson City, of gold-bearing fame. As one of the Bering Sea +Commissioners he spent the summer of 1891 investigating the facts +of the seal fisheries on the northern coasts of Asia and America. +For his services there, and at the subsequent arbitration in Paris, +he was made a C.M.G. He was elected F.R.S. in 1891, and in +the same year was awarded the Bigsby medal by the Geological +Society of London. He was president of the Royal Society of +Canada in 1893. He died on the 2nd of March 1901. He was +the author of many scientific papers and reports, especially on +the surface geology and glacial phenomena of the northern and +western parts of Canada.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAWSON CITY,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Dawson</span>, the capital of the Yukon territory, +Canada, on the right bank of the Yukon river, and in the +middle of the Klondyke gold region, of which it is the distributing +centre. It is situated in beautiful mountainous country, 1400 ft. +above the sea, and 1500 m. from the mouth of the Yukon river. +It is reached by a fleet of river steamers, and has telegraphic +communication. Founded in 1896, its population soon reached +over 20,000 at the height of the gold rush; in 1901 it was officially +returned as 9142, and is now not more than 5000. The temperature +varies from 90° F. in summer to 50° below zero in winter. +It possesses three opera-houses and numerous hotels, and is a +typical mining town, though even at first there was much less +lawlessness than is usually the case in such cities.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAX,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement +in the department of Landes, 92 m. S.S.W, of Bordeaux, +on the Southern railway between that city and Bayonne. Pop. +(1906) 8585. The town lies on the left bank of the Adour, a +stone bridge uniting it to its suburb of Le Sablar on the right +bank. It has remains of ancient Gallo-Roman fortifications, +now converted into a promenade. The most remarkable building +in the town is the church of Notre-Dame, once a cathedral; it +was rebuilt from 1656 to 1719, but still preserves a sacristy, a +porch and a fine sculptured doorway of the 13th century. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page875" id="page875"></a>875</span> +church of St Vincent, to the south-west of the town, derives its +name from the first bishop, whose tomb it contains. The church +of St Paul-lès-Dax, a suburb on the right bank of the Adour, +belongs mainly to the 15th century, and has a Romanesque apse +adorned with curious bas-reliefs. On a hill to the west of Dax +stands a tower built in memory of the sailor and scientist Jean +Charles Borda, born there in 1733; a statue was erected to him +in the town in 1891. Dax, which is well known as a winter resort, +owes much of its importance to its thermal waters and mud-baths +(the deposit of the Adour), which are efficacious in cases +of rheumatism, neuralgia and other disorders. The best-known +spring is the Fontaine Chaude, which issues into a basin 160 ft. +wide in the centre of the town. The principal of numerous bathing +establishments are the Grands Thermes, the Bains Salés, adjoining +a casino, and the Baignots, which fringe the Adour and are +surrounded by gardens. Dax has a sub-prefecture, tribunals of +first instance and of commerce, a communal college, a training +college and a library. It has salt workings, tanneries, saw-mills, +manufactures of soap and corks; commerce is chiefly +in the pine wood, resin and cork of the Landes, in mules, +cattle, horses and poultry.</p> + +<p>Dax (<i>Aquae Tarbellicae</i>, <i>Aquae Augustae</i>, later <i>D’Acqs</i>) was +the capital of the Tarbelli under the Roman domination, when +its waters were already famous. Later it was the seat of a +viscounty, which in the 11th century passed to the viscounts +of Béarn, and in 1177 was annexed by Richard Cœur de Lion +to Gascony. The bishopric, founded in the 3rd century, was +in 1801 attached to that of Aire.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAY, JOHN<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1574-1640?), English dramatist, was born at +Cawston, Norfolk, in 1574, and educated at Ely. He became +a sizar of Caius College, Cambridge, in 1592, but was expelled +in the next year for stealing a book. He became one of Henslowe’s +playwrights, collaborating with Henry Chettle, William +Haughton, Thomas Dekker, Richard Hathway and Wentworth +Smith, but his almost incessant activity seems to have left him +poor enough, to judge by the small loans, of five shillings and +even two shillings, that he obtained from Henslowe. The first +play in which Day appears as part-author is <i>The Conquest of +Brute, with the finding of the Bath</i> (1598), which, with most of +his journeyman’s work, is lost. A drama dealing with the early +years of the reign of Henry VI., <i>The Blind Beggar of Bednal +Green</i> (acted 1600, printed 1659), written in collaboration with +Chettle, is his earliest extant work. It bore the sub-title of <i>The +Merry Humor of Tom Strowd, the Norfolk Yeoman</i>, and was so +popular that second and third parts, by Day and Haughton, +were produced in the next year. <i>The Ile of Guls</i> (printed 1606), +a prose comedy founded upon Sir Philip Sidney’s <i>Arcadia</i>, +contains in its light dialogue much satire to which the key is now +lost, but Mr Swinburne notes in Manasses’s burlesque of a Puritan +sermon a curious anticipation of the eloquence of Mr Chadband +in <i>Bleak House</i>. In 1607 Day produced, in conjunction with +William Rowley and George Wilkins, <i>The Travailes of the Three +English Brothers</i>, which detailed the adventures of Sir Thomas, +Sir Anthony and Robert Shirley.</p> + +<p><i>The Parliament of Bees</i> is the work on which Day’s reputation +chiefly rests. This exquisite and unique drama, or rather masque, +is entirely occupied with “the doings, the births, the wars, the +wooings” of bees, expressed in a style at once most singular +and most charming. The bees hold a parliament under Prorex, +the Master Bee, and various complaints are preferred against +the humble-bee, the wasp, the drone and other offenders. This +satirical allegory of affairs ends with a royal progress of Oberon, +who distributes justice to all. The piece contains much for +which parallel passages are found in Dekker’s <i>Wonder of a +Kingdom</i> (1636) and Samuel Rowley’s (or Dekker’s) <i>Noble +Soldier</i> (printed 1634). There is no earlier known edition of <i>The +Parliament of Bees</i> than that in 1641, but a persistent tradition +has assigned the piece to 1607. In 1608 Day published two +comedies, <i>Law Trickes, or Who Would have Thought it?</i> and +<i>Humour out of Breath</i>. The date of his death is unknown, but +an elegy on him by John Tatham, the city poet, was published +in 1640. The six dramas by John Day which we possess show +a delicate fancy and dainty inventiveness all his own. He preserved, +in a great measure, the dramatic tradition of John Lyly, +and affected a kind of subdued euphuism. <i>The Maydes Metamorphosis</i> +(1600), once supposed to be a posthumous work of Lyly’s, +may be an early work of Day’s. It possesses, at all events, many +of his marked characteristics. His prose <i>Peregrinatic Scholastica +or Learninges Pilgrimage</i>, dating from his later years, was printed +by Mr A. H. Bullen from a MS. of Day’s. Considerations partly +based on this work have suggested that he had a share in the +anonymous <i>Pilgrimage to Parnassus</i> and the <i>Return from +Parnassus</i>. The beauty and ingenuity of <i>The Parliament of +Bees</i> were noted and warmly extolled by Charles Lamb; and +Day’s work has since found many admirers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His works, edited by A. H. Bullen, were printed at the Chiswick +Press in 1881. The same editor included <i>The Maydes Metamorphosis</i> +in vol. i. of his <i>Collection of Old Plays</i>. <i>The Parliament of Bees</i> and +<i>Humour out of Breath</i> were printed in <i>Nero and other Plays</i> (Mermaid +Series, 1888), with an introduction by Arthur Symons. An appreciation +by Mr A. C. Swinburne appeared in <i>The Nineteenth Century</i> +(October 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAY, THOMAS<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1748-1789), British author, was born in +London on the 22nd of June 1748. He is famous as the writer +of <i>Sandford and Merton</i> (1783-1789), a book for the young, which, +though quaintly didactic and often ridiculous, has had considerable +educational value as inculcating manliness and independence. +Day was educated at the Charterhouse and at Corpus Christi +College, Oxford, and became a great admirer of J. J. Rousseau +and his doctrine of the ideal state of nature. Having independent +means he devoted himself to a life of study and philanthropy. +His views on marriage were typical of the man. He brought +up two foundlings, one of whom he hoped eventually to marry. +They were educated on the severest principles, but neither +acquired the high quality of stoicism which he had looked for. +After several proposals of marriage to other ladies had been +rejected, he married an heiress who agreed with his ascetic +programme of life. He finally settled at Ottershaw in Surrey and +took to farming on philanthropic principles. He had many +curious and impracticable theories, among them one that all +animals could be managed by kindness, and while riding an +unbroken colt he was thrown near Wargrave and killed on the +28th of September 1789. His poem <i>The Dying Negro</i>, published +in 1773, struck the keynote of the anti-slavery movement. +It is also obvious from his other works, such as <i>The Devoted +Legions</i> (1776) and <i>The Desolation of America</i> (1777), that he +strongly sympathized with the Americans during their War of +Independence.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAY<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>dæg</i>, Ger. <i>Tag</i>; according to the <i>New English +Dictionary</i>, “in no way related to the Lat. <i>dies</i>”), in astronomy, +the interval of time in which a revolution of the earth on its axis +is performed. Days are distinguished as solar, sidereal or lunar, +according as the revolution is taken relatively to the sun, the +stars or the moon. The solar day is the fundamental unit of +time, not only in daily life but in astronomical practice. In the +latter case, being determined by observations of the sun, it is +taken to begin with the passage of the mean sun over the meridian +of the place, or at mean noon, while the civil day begins at midnight. +A vigorous effort was made during the last fifteen years +of the 19th century to bring the two uses into harmony by beginning +the astronomical day at midnight. In some isolated cases +this has been done; but the general consensus of astronomers +has been against it, the day as used in astronomy being only a +measure of time, and having no relation to the period of daily +repose. The time when the day shall begin is purely a matter +of convenience. The present practice being the dominant one +from the time of Ptolemy until the present, it was felt that the +confusion in the combination of past and present astronomical +observations, and the doubts and difficulties in using the astronomical +ephemerides, formed a decisive argument against any +change.</p> + +<p>The question of a possible variability in the length of the +day is one of fundamental importance. One necessary effect +of the tidal retardation of the earth’s rotation is gradually to +increase this length. It is remarkable that the discussion of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page876" id="page876"></a>876</span> +ancient eclipses of the moon, and their comparison with modern +observations, show only a small and rather doubtful change, +amounting perhaps to less than one-hundredth of a second +per century. As this amount seems to be markedly less than +that which would be expected from the cause in question, it is +probable that some other cause tends to accelerate the earth’s +rotation and so to shorten the day. The moon’s apparent +mean motion in longitude seems also to indicate slow periodic +changes in the earth’s rotation; but these are not confirmed +by transits of Mercury, which ought also to indicate them. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Moon</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tides</a></span>.)</p> +<div class="author">(S. N.)</div> + +<p><i>Legal Aspects.</i>—In law, a day may be either a <i>dies naturalis</i> or +natural day, or a <i>dies artificialis</i> or artificial day. A natural day +includes all the twenty-four hours from midnight to midnight. +Fractions of the day are disregarded to avoid dispute, though +sometimes the law will consider fractions, as where it is necessary +to show the first of two acts. In cases where action must be taken +for preserving or asserting a right, a day would mean the natural +day of twenty-four hours, but on the other hand, as in cases of +survivorship, for testamentary or other purposes, it would suffice +if a person survived for even the smallest portion of the last day +necessary.</p> + +<p>When a statute directs any act to be done within so many +days, these words mean <i>clear days</i>, <i>i.e.</i> a number of perfect +intervening days, not counting the terminal days: if the statute +says nothing about Sunday, the days mentioned mean consecutive +days and include Sundays. Under some statutes (<i>e.g.</i> the Parliamentary +Elections Act 1868, the Corrupt and Illegal Practices +Prevention Act 1883) Sundays and holidays are excluded in +reckoning days, and consequently all the Sundays, &c., of a +prescribed sequence of days would be eliminated. So also, by +custom, the word “day” may be understood in some special +sense. In bills of lading and charter parties, when “days” or +“running days” are spoken of without qualification, they +usually mean consecutive days, and Sundays and holidays are +counted, but when there is some qualification, as where a charter +party required a cargo “to be discharged in fourteen days,” +“days” will mean <i>working days</i>. Working days, again, vary +in different ports, and the custom of the port will decide in each +case what are working days. In English charter parties, unless +the contrary is expressed, Christmas day and other recognized +holidays are included as working days. A <i>weather working day</i>, +a term sometimes used in charter parties, means a day when work +is not prevented by the weather, and unless so provided for, a +day on which work was rendered impossible by bad weather +would still be counted as a working day. <i>Lay days</i>, which are +days given to the charterer in a charter party either to load or +unload without paying for the use of the ship, are days of the +week, not periods of twenty-four hours.</p> + +<p><i>Days of Grace.</i>—When a bill of exchange is not payable at +sight or on demand, certain days (called days of grace, from +being originally a gratuitous favour) are added to the time of +payment as fixed by the bill, and the bill is then due and payable +on the last day of grace. In the United Kingdom, by the Bills of +Exchange Act 1882, three days are allowed as days of grace, but +when the last day of grace falls on Sunday, Christmas day, Good +Friday or a day appointed by royal proclamation as a public +fast or thanksgiving day, the bill is due and payable on the +preceding business day. If the last day of grace is a bank holiday +(other than Christmas day or Good Friday), or when the last day +of grace is a Sunday, and the second day of grace is a bank +holiday, the bill is due and payable on the succeeding business +day. Days of grace (<i>dies non</i>) are in existence practically among +English-speaking peoples only. They were abolished by the +French Code (Code de Commerce, Liv. i. tit. 8, art. 135), and by +most, if not all, of the European codes since framed.</p> + +<p><i>Civil Days.</i>—An artificial or civil day is, to a certain extent, +difficult to define; it “may be regarded as a convenient term +to signify all the various kinds of ‘day’ known in legal proceedings +other than the natural day.” (<i>Ency. English Law</i>, tit. +“Day”). The Jews, Chaldeans and Babylonians began the +day at the rising of the sun; the Athenians at the fall; the +Umbri in Italy began at midday; the Egyptians and Romans +at midnight; and in England, the United States and most of the +countries of Europe the Roman civil day still prevails, the day +usually commencing as soon as the clock begins to strike 12 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> +of the preceding day.</p> + +<p>In England the period of the civil day may also vary under +different statutes. In criminal law the day formerly commenced +at sunrise and extended to sunset, but by the Larceny Act 1861 +the day is that period between six in the morning and nine in +the evening. The same period of time comprises a day under the +Housing of the Working Classes Act 1885 and the Public Health +(London) Act 1891, but under the Public Health (Scotland) Act +1897 “day” is the period between 9 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and 6 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> By an act +of 1845, regulating the labour of children in print-works, “day” +is defined as from 6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> to 10 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> Daytime, within which +distress for rent must be made, is from sunrise to sunset (<i>Tulton</i> +v. <i>Darke</i>, 1860, 2 L.T. 361). An obligation to pay money on a +certain day is theoretically discharged if the money is paid before +midnight of the day on which it falls due, but custom has so far +modified this that the law requires reasonable hours to be +observed. If, for instance, payment has to be made at a bank +or place of business, it must be within business hours.</p> + +<p>When an act of parliament is expressed to come into operation +on a certain day, it is to be construed as coming into operation +on the expiration of the previous day (Interpretation Act 1889, +§ 36; Statutes [Definition of Time] Act 1880).</p> + +<p>Under the orders of the supreme court the word “day” has +two meanings. For purposes of personal service of writs, it +means any time of the day or night on week-days, but excludes +the time from twelve midnight on Saturday till twelve midnight +on Sunday. For purposes of service not required to be personal, +it means before six o’clock on any week-day except Saturday, +and before 2 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> on Saturday.</p> + +<p><i>Closed Days</i>, <i>i.e.</i> Sunday, Christmas day and Good Friday, are +excluded from all fixtures of time less than six days: otherwise +they are included, unless the last day of the time fixed falls on +one of those days (R.S.C., O. lxiv.).</p> + +<p><i>American Practice.</i>—In the United States a day is the space +of time between midnight and midnight. The law pays no +regard to fractions of a day except to prevent injustice. A +“day’s work” is by statute in New York fixed at eight hours +for all employees except farm and domestic servants, and for +employees on railroads at ten hours (Laws 1897, ch. 415). In +the recording acts relating to real property, fractions of a day +are of the utmost importance, and all deeds, mortgages and other +instruments affecting the property, take precedence in the order +in which they were filed for record. Days of grace are abolished +in many of the seventeen states in which the Negotiable Instruments +law has been enacted. Sundays and public holidays are +usually excluded in computing time if they are the last day +within which the act was to be done. General public holidays +throughout the United States are Christmas, Thanksgiving (last +Thursday in November) and Independence (July 4th) days +and Washington’s birthday (February 22nd). The several +states have also certain local public holidays. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Month</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Time</a></span>.)</p> +<div class="author">(T. A. I.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAYLESFORD,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a town of Talbot county, Victoria, Australia, +74 m. by rail N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 3384. It lies on +the flank of the Great Dividing Range, at an elevation of 2030 ft. +On Wombat Hill are beautiful public gardens commanding +extensive views, and a fine convent of the Presentation Order. +Much wheat is grown in the district, and gold-mining, both +quartz and alluvial, is carried on. Daylesford has an important +mining school. Near the town are the Hepburn mineral springs +and a number of beautiful waterfalls, and 6 m. from it is Mount +Franklin, an extinct volcano.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAYTON,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> a city of Campbell county, Kentucky, U.S.A., on +the S. bank of the Ohio river, opposite Cincinnati, and adjoining +Bellevue and Newport, Ky. Pop. (1890) 4264; (1900) 6104 including +655 foreign-born and 63 negroes; (1910) 6979. It is served +by the Chesapeake & Ohio railway at Newport, of which it is a +suburb, largely residential. It has manufactories of watch-cases +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page877" id="page877"></a>877</span> +and pianos, and whisky distilleries. In the city is the Speers +Memorial hospital. Dayton was settled and incorporated in +1849.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DAYTON,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Montgomery county, +Ohio, U.S.A., at the confluence of Wolf Creek, Stillwater river +and Mad river with the Great Miami, 57 m. N.N.E. of Cincinnati +and about 70 m. W.S.W. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 61,220; +(1900) 85,333; (1910) 116,577. In 1900 there were 10,053 +foreign-born and 3387 negroes; of the foreign-born 6820 were +Germans and 1253 Irish. Dayton is served by the Erie, +the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Pittsburg, +Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Cincinnati, Hamilton & +Dayton, and the Dayton & Union railways, by ten interurban +electric railways, centring here, and by the Miami & Erie Canal. +The city extends more than 5 m. from E. to W., and 3½ m. from +N. to S., lies for the most part on level ground at an elevation of +about 740 ft. above sea-level, and numerous good, hard gravel +roads radiate from it in all directions through the surrounding +country, a fertile farming region which abounds in limestone, used +in the construction of public and private buildings. Among the +more prominent buildings are the court-house—the portion first +erected being designed after the Parthenon—the Steele high +school, St Mary’s college, Notre Dame academy, the Memorial +Building, the Arcade Building, Reibold Building, the Algonquin +Hotel, the post office, the public library (containing about 75,000 +volumes), the Young Men’s Christian Association building and +several churches. At Dayton are the Union Biblical seminary, +a theological school of the United Brethren in Christ, and the +publishing house of the same denomination. By an agreement +made in 1907 the school of theology of Ursinus College (Collegeville, +Pennsylvania; the theological school since 1898 had been +in Philadelphia) and the Heidelberg Theological seminary +(Tiffin, Ohio) united to form the Central Theological seminary of +the German Reformed Church, which was established in Dayton +in 1908. The boulevard and park along the river add attractiveness +to the city. Among the charitable institutions are the Dayton +state hospital (for the insane), the Miami Valley and the St +Elizabeth hospitals, the Christian Deaconess, the Widows’ and the +Children’s homes, and the Door of Hope (for homeless girls); +and 1 m. W. of the city is the central branch of the National +Home for disabled volunteer soldiers, with its beautifully +ornamented grounds, about 1 sq. m. in extent. The Mad river is +made to furnish good water-power by means of a hydraulic canal +which takes its water through the city, and Dayton’s manufactures +are extensive and varied, the establishments of the +National Cash Register Company employing in 1907 about 4000 +wage-earners. This company is widely known for its “welfare +work” on behalf of its operatives. Baths, lunch-rooms, rest-rooms, +clubs, lectures, schools and kindergartens have been +supplied, and the company has also cultivated domestic pride +by offering prizes for the best-kept gardens, &c. From April +to July 1901 there was a strike in the already thoroughly unionized +factories; complaint was made of the hectoring of union +men by a certain foreman, the use in toilet-rooms of towels +laundered in non-union shops (the company replied by allowing +the men to supply towels themselves), the use on doors of springs +not union-made (these were removed by the company), and +especially the discharge of four men whom the company refused +to reinstate. The company was victorious in the strike, and the +factory became an “open shop.” In addition to cash registers, +the city’s manufactured products include agricultural implements, +clay-working machinery, cotton-seed and linseed oil machinery, +filters, turbines, railway cars (the large Barney-Smith car works +employed 1800 men in 1905), carriages and wagons, sewing-machines +(the Davis Sewing Machine Co.), automobiles, clothing, +flour, malt liquors, paper, furniture, tobacco and soap. The total +value of the manufactured product, under the “factory system,” +was $31,015,293 in 1900 and $39,596,773 in 1905. Dayton’s +site was purchased in 1795 from John Cleves Symmes by a party +of Revolutionary soldiers, and it was laid out as a town in 1796 +by Israel Ludlow (one of the owners), by whom it was named in +honour of Jonathan Dayton (1760-1824), a soldier in the War of +Independence, a member of Congress from New Jersey in 1791-1799, +and a United States senator in 1799-1805. It was made +the county-seat in 1803, was incorporated as a town in 1805, +grew rapidly after the opening of the canal in 1828, and in 1841 +was chartered as a city.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEACON<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="diakonos">διάκονος</span>, minister, servant), the name given +to a particular minister or officer of the Christian Church. The +status and functions of the office have varied in different ages and +in different branches of Christendom.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>The Ancient Church.</i>—The office of deacon is almost as old +as Christianity itself, though it is impossible to fix the moment +at which it came into existence. Tradition connects its origin +with the appointment of “the Seven” recorded in Acts vi. +This connexion, however, is questioned by a large and increasing +number of modern scholars, on the ground that “the Seven” +are not called deacons in the New Testament and do not seem to +have been identified with them till the time of Irenaeus (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 180). +The first definite reference to the diaconate occurs in St Paul’s +Epistle to the Philippians (i. 1), where the officers of the Church +are described as “bishops and deacons”—though it is not +unlikely that earlier allusions are to be found in 1 Cor. xii. 28 +and Romans xii. 7. In the pastoral epistles the office seems to +have become a permanent institution of the Church, and special +qualifications are laid down for those who hold it (1 Tim. iii. 8). +By the time of Ignatius (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 110) the “three orders” of the +ministry were definitely established, the deacon being the lowest +of the three and subordinate to the bishop and the presbyters. +The inclusion of deacons in the “three orders” which were +regarded as essential to the existence of a true Church sharply +distinguished them from the lower ranks of the ministry, and gave +them a status and position of importance in the ancient Church.</p> + +<p>The functions attaching to the office varied at different times. +In the apostolic age the duties of deacons were naturally vague +and undefined. They were “helpers” or “servants” of the +Church in a general way and served in any capacity that was +required of them. With the growth of the episcopate, however, +the deacons became the immediate ministers of the bishop. +Their duties included the supervision of Church property, the +management of Church finances, the visitation of the sick, the +distribution of alms and the care of widows and orphans. They +were also required to watch over the souls of the flock and report +to the bishop the cases of those who had sinned or were in need of +spiritual help. “You deacons,” says the Apostolical Constitutions +(4th century), “ought to keep watch over all who need +watching or are in distress, and let the bishop know.” With the +growth of hospitals and other charitable institutions, however, +the functions of deacons became considerably curtailed. The +social work of the Church was transferred to others, and little by +little the deacons sank in importance until at last they came to +be regarded merely as subordinate officers of public worship, +a position which they hold in the Roman Church to-day, where +their duties are confined to such acts as the following:—censing +the officiating priest and the choir, laying the corporal on the +altar, handing the paten or cup to the priest, receiving from him +the pyx and giving it to the subdeacon, putting the mitre on +the archbishop’s head (when he is present) and laying his pall +upon the altar.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>The Church of England.</i>—The traditionary position of the +diaconate as one of the “three orders” is here maintained. +Deacons may conduct any of the ordinary services in the church, +but are not permitted to pronounce the absolution or consecrate +the elements for the Eucharist. In practice the office has become +a stepping-stone to the priesthood, the deacon corresponding +to the licentiate in the Presbyterian Church. Candidates for the +office must have attained the age of twenty-three and must +satisfy the bishop with regard to their intellectual, moral and +spiritual fitness. The functions of the office are defined in the +Ordinal—“to assist the priest in divine service and specially +when he ministereth the Holy Communion, to read Holy +Scriptures and Homilies in the church, to instruct the youth in +the catechism, to baptize in the absence of the priest, to preach +if he be admitted thereto by the bishop, and furthermore to search +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page878" id="page878"></a>878</span> +for the sick, poor and impotent people and intimate their estates +and names to the curate.”</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>Churches of the Congregational Order.</i>—In these (which of +course include Baptists) the diaconate is a body of laymen +appointed by the members of the church to act as a management +committee and to assist the minister in the work of the church. +There is no general rule as to the number of deacons, though the +traditionary number of seven is often kept, nor as to the frequency +of election, each church making its own arrangements +in this respect. The deacons superintend the financial affairs of +the church, co-operate with the minister in the various branches +of his work, assist in the visitation of the sick, attend to the +church property and generally supervise the activities of the +church.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Thomassinus, <i>Vetus ac nova disciplina</i>, pars i. lib. i. c. 51 f. +and lib. ii. c. 29 f. (Lugdunum, 1706); J. N. Seidl, <i>Der Diakonat in +der katholischen Kirche</i> (Regensburg, 1884); R. Sohm, <i>Kirchenrecht</i>, +i. 121-137 (Leipzig, 1892); F. J. A. Hort, <i>The Christian Ecclesia</i> +(London, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEACONESS<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="hê diakonos">ἡ διάκονος</span> or <span class="grk" title="diakonissa">διακόνισσα</span>, servant, minister), +the name given to a woman set apart for special service in the +Christian Church. The origin and early history of the office are +veiled in obscurity. It is quite certain that from the 3rd century +onward there existed in the Eastern Church an order of women, +known as deaconesses, who filled a position analogous to that of +deacons. They are quite distinct from the somewhat similar +orders of “virgins” and “widows,” who belonged to a lower +plane in the ecclesiastical system. The order is recognized in the +canons of the councils of Nicaea (325) and Chalcedon (451), and +is frequently mentioned in the writings of Chrysostom (some of +whose letters are addressed to deaconesses at Constantinople), +Epiphanius, Basil, and indeed most of the more important +Fathers of the 4th and 5th centuries. Deaconesses, upon entering +their office, were ordained much in the same way as deacons, +but the ordination conveyed no sacerdotal powers or authority. +Epiphanius says quite distinctly that they were woman-elders +and not priestesses in any sense of the term, and that their +mission was not to interfere with the functions allotted to priests +but simply to perform certain offices in connexion with the care of +women. Several specimens of the ordination service for deaconesses +have been preserved (see Cecilia Robinson, <i>The Ministry of +Deaconesses</i>, London, 1878, appendix B, p. 197). The functions +of the deaconess were as follows: (1) To assist at the baptism of +women, especially in connexion with the anointing of the body +which in the ancient Church always preceded immersion; (2) to +visit the women of the Church in their homes and to minister +to the needs of the sick and afflicted; (3) according to the Apostolical +Constitutions they acted as door-keepers in the church, +received women as they entered and conducted them to their +allotted seats. In the Western Church, on the other hand, we +hear nothing of the order till the 4th century, when an attempt +seems to have been made to introduce it into Gaul. Much +opposition, however, was encountered, and the movement was +condemned by the council of Orange in 441 and the council of +Epaone in 517. In spite of the prohibition the institution made +some headway, and traces of it are found later in Italy, but it +never became as popular in the West as it was in the East. In the +middle ages the order fell into abeyance in both divisions of the +Church, the abbess taking the place of the deaconess. Whether +deaconesses, in the later sense of the term, existed before 250 +is a disputed point. The evidence is scanty and by no means +decisive. There are only three passages which bear upon the +question at all. (i) Romans xvi. 1: Phoebe is called <span class="grk" title="hê diakonos">ἡ διάκονος</span>, +but it is quite uncertain whether the word is used in its technical +sense. (ii) 1 Tim. iii. 11: after stating the qualifications necessary +for deacons the writer adds, “Women in like manner must +be grave—not slanderers,” &c.; the Authorized Version took +the passage as referring to deacons’ wives, but many scholars +think that by “women” deaconesses are meant. (iii) In Pliny’s +famous letter to Trajan respecting the Christians of Bithynia +mention is made of two Christian maidservants “<i>quae ministrae +dicebantur</i>”; whether <i>ministrae</i> is equivalent to <span class="grk" title="diakonoi">διάκονοι</span>, as is +often supposed, is dubious. On the whole the evidence does not +seem sufficient to prove the contention that an order of deaconesses—in +the ecclesiastical sense of the term—existed from the +apostolic age.</p> + +<p>In modern times several attempts have been made to revive +the order of deaconesses. In 1833 Pastor Fleidner founded “an +order of deaconesses for the Rhenish provinces of Westphalia” +at Kaiserswerth. The original aim of the institution was to train +nurses for hospital work, but its scope was afterwards extended +and it trained its members for teaching and parish work as well. +Kaiserswerth became the parent of many similar institutions +in different parts of the continent. A few years later, in 1847, +Miss Sellon formed for the first time a sisterhood at Devonport +in connexion with the Church of England. Her example was +gradually followed in other parts of the country, and in 1898 +there were over two thousand women living together in different +sisterhoods. The members of these institutions do not represent +the ecclesiastical deaconesses, however, since they are not +ministers set apart by the Church; and the sisterhoods are merely +voluntary associations of women banded together for spiritual +fellowship and common service. In 1861 Bishop Tait set apart +Miss Elizabeth Ferard as a deaconess by the laying on of hands, +and she became the first president of the London Deaconess +Institution. Other dioceses gradually adopted the innovation. +It has received the sanction of Convocation, and the Lambeth +Conference in 1897 declared that it “recognized with thankfulness +the revival of the office of deaconess,” though at the same +time it protested against the indiscriminate use of the title and +laid it down emphatically that the name must be restricted to +those who had been definitely set apart by the bishop for the +position and were working under the direct supervision and +control of the ecclesiastical authority in the parish.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In addition to Miss Robinson’s book cited above, see <i>Church +Quarterly Review</i>, xlvii. 302 ff., art. “On the Early History and +Modern Revival of Deaconesses” (London, 1899), and the works +there referred to; D. Latas, <span class="grk" title="Christianikê Archaiologia">Χριστιανικὴ Ἀρχαιολογία</span>, i. 163-171 +(Athens, 1883); <i>Testamentum Domini</i>, ed. Rahmani (Mainz, 1899); +L. Zscharnack, <i>Der Dienst der Frau in den ersten Jahrhunderten der +chr. Kirche</i> (1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEAD SEA,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> a lake in Palestine occupying the deepest part of +the valley running along the line of a great “fault” that has been +traced from the Gulf of Akaba (at the head of the Red Sea) to +Hermon. This fracture was caused after the end of the Eocene +period by the earth-movement which resulted in the raising of the +whole region out of the sea. Level for level, the more ancient +rocks are on the eastward side of the lake: the cretaceous limestones +that surmount the older volcanic substrata come down +on the western side to the water’s edge, while on the eastern side +they are raised between 3000 and 4000 feet above it. In the +Pleistocene period the whole of this depression was filled with +water forming a lake about 200 m. long north to south, whose +waters were about the same level as that of the Mediterranean +Sea. With the diminishing rainfall and increased temperature +that followed that period the effects of evaporation gradually +surpassed the precipitation, and the waters of the lake slowly +diminished to about the extent which they still display.</p> + +<p>The length of the sea is 47 m., and its maximum breadth is +about 9½ m.; its area is about 340 sq. m. It lies nearly north +and south. Its surface being 1289-1300 ft. below the level of the +Mediterranean Sea, it has of course no outlet. It is bounded on +the north by the broad valley of the Jordan; on the east by the +rapidly rising terraces which culminate in the Moabite plateau, +3100 ft. above the level of the lake; on the south by the desert +of the Arabah, which rises to the watershed between the Dead +and the Red Sea—65½ m. from the former, 46½ from the latter; +height 660 ft.—and on the west by the Judean mountains which +attain a height of 3300 ft. On the east side a peninsula, El-Lisān +(“the tongue”), of white calcareous marl with beds of salt and +gypsum, divides the sea into two unequal parts: this peninsula +is about 50 ft. high, and is connected by a narrow strip of marshland +with the shore. Its northern and southern extremities +have been named Cape Costigan and Cape Molyneux, in memory +of two explorers who were among the first in modern times to +navigate the sea and succumbed to the consequent fever and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page879" id="page879"></a>879</span> +exhaustion. North of the peninsula the lake has a maximum +depth of 1278 ft.; south of it the water is nowhere more than +12 ft., and in some places only 3 ft. The surface level of the lake +varies with the season, and recent observations taken on behalf +of the Palestine Exploration Fund seem to show that there +are probably cyclical variations also (ultimately dependent on +the rainfall), the nature and periodicity of which there are as +yet no sufficient data to determine. In 1858 there was a small +island near the north end rising 10 or 12 ft. above the surface +and connected with the shore by a causeway; this has been +submerged since 1892; and owing to the gradual rise of level +within these years the fords south of the Lisān, and the pathway +which formerly rounded the Ras Feshkhah, are now no longer +passable.</p> + +<p>The slopes on each side of the sea are furrowed with watercourses, +some of them perennial, others winter torrents only. +The chief affluents of the sea are as follows:—on the north, +Jordan and ‘Ain es-Suweimeh; on the east Wadis Ghuweir, +Zerka Ma’in (Callirrhoë), Mōjib (Arnon), Ed-Dera’a, and el-Hesi; +on the west, Wadis Muhawāt and Seyāl, ‘Ain Jidi +(En-Gedi), Wadi el Merabbah, ‘Ain Ghuweir, Wadi el-Nar, +‘Ain Feshkhah. The quantity of water poured daily into the +sea is not less than 6,000,000 tons, all of which has to be carried +off by evaporation. The consequence of the ancient evaporation, +by which the great Pleistocene lake was reduced to its present +modest dimensions, and of the ceaseless modern daily evaporation, +is the impregnation of the waters of the lake with salts and +other mineral substances to a remarkable degree. Ocean water +contains on an average 4-6% of salts: Dead Sea water contains +25%. The following analysis, by Dr Bernays, gives the contents +of the water more accurately:—</p> + +<p>Specific gravity 1.1528 at 15.5° C.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Calcium carbonate</td> <td class="tcr">70.00</td> <td class="tcl">grains</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Calcium sulphate</td> <td class="tcr">163.39</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Magnesium nitrate</td> <td class="tcr">175.01</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Potassium chloride</td> <td class="tcr">1089.06</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sodium chloride</td> <td class="tcr">5106.00</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Calcium chloride</td> <td class="tcr">594.46</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Magnesium chloride</td> <td class="tcr">7388.21</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Magnesium bromide</td> <td class="tcr">345.80</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Iron and aluminium oxides</td> <td class="tcr">10.50</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Organic matter, water of crystallization, loss</td> <td class="tcr">317.57</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Total residue per gallon</td> <td class="tcr">15260.00</td> <td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The density of the water averages 1.166. It increases from +north to south, and with the depth. The increase is at first rapid, +then, after reaching a certain point, becomes more uniform. At +300 metres its density is 1.253. The boiling point is 221° F. +To the quantity of solid matter suspended in its water the Dead +Sea owes, beside its saltness, its buoyancy and its poisonous +properties. The human body floats on the surface without +exertion. Owing principally to the large proportion of chloride +and bromide of magnesia no animal life can exist in its water. +Fish, which abound in the Jordan and in the brackish spring-fed +lagoons that exist in one or two places around its shores (such as +‘Ain Feshkhah), die in a very short time if introduced into the +main waters of the lake. The only animal life reported from the +lake has been some tetanus and other bacilli said to have been +found in its mud; but this discovery has not been confirmed. +To the chloride of calcium is due the smooth and oily feeling of +the water, and to the chloride of magnesia its disagreeable taste. +In Roman times curative properties were ascribed to the waters: +Mukaddasi (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 985) asserts that people assembled to drink it +on a feast day in August. The salt of the Dead Sea is collected +and sold in Jerusalem; smuggling of salt (which in Turkey is a +government monopoly) is a regular occupation of the Bedouin. +The bitumen which floats to shore is also collected. The origin +of this bitumen is disputed: it was supposed to be derived from +subaqueous strata of bituminous marl and rose to the surface +when loosened by earthquakes. It is, however, now more generally +believed that it exists in the breccia of some of the valleys +on the west side of the lake, which is washed into the sea and +submerged, till the small stones by which it is sunk are loosened +and fall out, when the bitumen rises to the surface.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The earliest references to the sea or its basin are in +the patriarchal narratives of Lot and Abraham, the most striking +being the destruction of the neighbouring cities of Sodom and +Gomorrah. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sodom</a></span>.) The biblical name is the Salt Sea, the +Sea of the Arabah (the south end of the Jordan valley), or the +East Sea. The name in Josephus is <i>Asphaltites</i>, referring to +the bituminous deposits above alluded to. The modern name is +Bahr Lūt or “Sea of Lot”—a name hardly to be explained as a +survival of a vague tradition of the patriarch, but more probably +due to the literary influences of the Hebrew Scriptures and the +Koran filtering through to the modern inhabitants or their +ancestors. The name Dead Sea first appears in late Greek writers, +as Pausanias and Galen. At En-Gedi on its western bank David +for a while took refuge. South of it is the stronghold of Masada, +built by Jonathan Maccabaeus and fortified by Herod in 42 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +where the last stand of the Jews was made against the Romans +after the fall of Jerusalem, and where the garrison, when the +defences were breached, slew themselves rather than fall into +Roman hands.</p> + +<p>The sea has been but little navigated. Tacitus and Josephus +mention boats on the lake, and boats are shown upon it in the +Madeba mosaic. The navigation dues formed part of the revenue +of the lords of Kerak under the crusaders. In modern times +navigation is practically <i>nil</i>. The lake, with the whole Jericho +plain, is claimed as the personal property of the sultan.</p> + +<p>The medieval travellers brought home many strange legends +of the sea and its peculiarities—some absurd, others with a basis +of fact. The absence of sea-birds, due to the absence of fish, +probably accounts for the story that no birds could fly over it. +The absence of vegetation on its shores, due to the scanty +rainfall and general want of fresh water—except in the neighbourhood +of springs like ‘Ain Feshkhah and ‘Ain Jidi, where +a luxuriant subtropical vegetation is found—accounts for the +story that no plant could live in the poisonous air which broods +over the sea. The mists, due to the great heat and excessive +evaporation, and the noxious miasmata, especially of the southern +region, were exaggerated into the noisome vapours that the +“black and stinking” waters ever exhaled. The judgment on +Sodom and Gomorrah (which of course they believed to be <i>under</i> +the waters of the lake, in accordance with the absurd theory +first found in Josephus and still often repeated) blinded these +good pilgrims to the ever-fresh beauty of this most lovely +lake, whose blue and sparkling waters lie deep between rocks +and precipices of unsurpassable grandeur. The play of brilliant +colours and of ever-changing contrasts of light and shade on +those rugged mountain-sides and on the surface of the sea itself +might have been expected to appeal to the most prosaic. The +surface of the sea is generally smooth (seldom, however, absolutely +inert as the pilgrims represented it), but is frequently raised by +the north winds into waves, which, owing to the weight and +density of the water, are often of great force.</p> + +<p>The first to navigate the sea in modern times was an Irish +traveller, Costigan by name, in August and September 1835. +Owing largely to the folly of his Greek servant, who, without +his master’s knowledge, threw overboard the drinking-water to +lighten the boat, the explorer after circumnavigating the sea +reached Jericho in an exhausted condition, and was there attacked +by a severe fever. The greatest difficulty was experienced in +obtaining assistance for him, but he was ultimately conveyed +on camel-back to Jerusalem, where he died; his grave is in the +Franciscan cemetery there. His fate was shared by his successor, +a British naval officer, Lieutenant Molyneux (1847), whose party +was attacked and robbed by Bedouins. W. F. Lynch, an American +explorer (1848), equipped by the United States government, was +more successful, and he may claim to be the first who examined +its shores and sounded its depths. Since his time the duc de +Luynes, Lartet, Wilson, Hull, Blanckenhorn, Gautier, Libbey, +Masterman and Schmidt, to name but a few, have made contributions +to our knowledge of this lake; but still many problems +present themselves for solution. Among these may be mentioned +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page880" id="page880"></a>880</span> +(1) the explanation of a remarkable line of white foam that +extends along the axis of the lake <span class="correction" title="amended from amost">almost</span> every morning—supposed +by Blanckenhorn to mark the line of a fissure, thermal and +asphaltic, under the bed of the lake, but otherwise explained +as a consequence of the current of the Jordan, which is not +completely expended till it reaches the Lisān, or as a result of +the mingling of the salt water with the brackish spring water +especially along the western shore; (2) a northward current +that has been observed along the east coast; (3) various disturbances +of level, due possibly to differences of barometric pressure; +(4) some apparently electrical phenomena that have been observed +in the valley. Before we can be said to know all that +we might regarding this most interesting of lakes further extensive +scientific observations are necessary; but these are extremely +difficult owing to the impossibility of maintaining self-registering +instruments in a region practically closed to Europeans for +nearly half the year by the stifling heat, and inhabited only +by Bedouins, who are the worst kind of ignorant, thievish and +mischievous savages.</p> +<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEADWOOD,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Lawrence county, +South Dakota, U.S.A., about 180 m. W. of Pierre. Pop. (1890) +2366; (1900) 3498, of whom 707 were foreign-born; (1905) 4364; +(1910) 3653. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy +and the Chicago & North-Western railways. It lies on hilly +ground in the canyon of Whitewood Creek at an elevation of about +4530 ft. Deadwood is the commercial centre of the Black Hills. +About it are several gold mines (including the well-known Home-stake +mine), characterized by the low grade of their ores (which +range from $2 to $8 per ton), by their vast quantity, and by the +ease of mining and of extracting the metal. The ore contains +free gold, which is extracted by the simple process of stamping +and amalgamation, and refractory values, extracted by the +cyaniding process. Several hundred tons of ore are treated +thus in Deadwood and its environs daily, and its stamp mills +are exceeded in size only by those of the Treadwell mine in S.E. +Alaska, and by those on the Rand in South Africa. The discovery +of gold here was made known in June 1875, and in February +1877 the United States government, after having purchased the +land from the Sioux Indians, opened the place for legal settlement.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEAF AND DUMB.<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span><a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The term “deaf” is frequently applied +to those who are deficient in hearing power in any degree, however +slight, as well as to people who are unable to detect the +loudest sounds by means of the auditory organs. It is impossible +to draw a hard and fast line between the deaf and the hearing at +any particular point. For the purposes of this article, however, +that denotation which is generally accepted by educators of the +deaf may be given to the term. This makes it refer to those who +are so far handicapped as to be incapable of instruction by the +ordinary means of the ear in a class of those possessing normal +hearing. Paradoxical though it may seem, it is yet true to say +that “dumbness” in our sense of the word does not, strictly +speaking, exist, though the term “dumb” may, for all practical +purposes, fairly be applied to many of the deaf even after they +are supposed to have learnt how to speak. Oral teachers now +confess that it is not worth while to try to teach more than a +large percentage of the deaf to speak at all. We are not concerned +with aphasia, stammering or such inability to articulate +as may be due to malformation of the vocal organs. In the case +of the deaf and dumb, as these words are generally understood, +dumbness is merely the result of ignorance in the use of the voice, +this ignorance being due to the deafness. The vocal organs are +perfect. The deaf man can laugh, shout, and in fact utter any +and every sound that the normal person can. But he does not +speak English (if that happens to be his nationality) for the same +reason that a French child does not, which is that he has never +heard it. There is in fact no more a priori reason why an English +baby, born in England, should talk English than that it should +talk any other language. English may be correctly described +as its “mother tongue,” but not its <i>natural</i> language; the only +reason why one person speaks English and another Russian is +that each imitated that particular language which he heard +in infancy. This imitation depends upon the ability to hear. +Hence if one has never heard, or has lost hearing in early childhood, +he has never been able to imitate that language which his +parents and others used, and the condition of so-called dumbness +is added to his deafness. From this it follows that if the sense of +hearing be not lost till the child has learnt to speak fluently, the +ability to speak is unaffected by the calamity of deafness, except +that after many years the voice is likely to become high-pitched, +or too guttural, or peculiar in some other respect, owing to the +absence of the control usually exercised by the ear. It also +follows that, to a certain extent, the art of speech can be taught +the deaf person even though he were born deaf. Theoretically, +he is capable of talking just as well as his hearing brother, for +the organs of speech are as perfect in one as in the other, except +that they suffer from lack of exercise in the case of the deaf man. +Practically, he can never speak perfectly, for even if he were +made to attempt articulation as soon as he is discovered to be +deaf, the fact that the ear, the natural guide of the voice, is useless, +lays upon him a handicap which can never be wiped out. He +can never hear the tone of his teacher’s voice nor of his own; he +can only see small and, in many instances, scarcely discernible +movements of the lips, tongue, nose, cheeks and throat in those +who are endeavouring to teach him to speak, and he can never +hope to succeed in speech through the instrumentality of such +unsatisfactory appeals to his eye as perfectly as the hearing child +can with the ideal adaptation of the voice to the ear. Sound +appeals to the ear, not the eye, and those who have to rely upon +the latter to imitate speech must suffer by comparison.</p> + +<p>Deafness then, in our sense, means the incapacity to be +instructed by means of the ear in the normal way, and dumbness +means only that ignorance of how to speak one’s mother +tongue which is the effect of the deafness.</p> + +<p>Of such deaf people many can hear sound to some extent. +Dr Kerr Love quotes several authorities (<i>Deaf Mutism</i>, pp. 58 ff.) +to show that 50 or 60% are absolutely deaf, while 25% can +detect loud sounds such as shouting close to the ear, and the rest +can distinguish vowels or even words. He himself thinks that +not more than 15 or 20% are totally deaf—sometimes only 7 or +8%; that ability to hear speech exists in about one in four, +while ten or fifteen in each hundred are only semi-deaf. He +rightly warns against the use of tuning forks or other instruments +held on the bones of the head as tests of hearing, +because the vibration which is felt, not heard, may very often +be mistaken for sound.</p> + +<p>Dr Edward M. Gallaudet, president of the Columbia Institution +for the Deaf in Washington, D.C., suggests the following terms +for use in dividing the whole class of the deaf into its main sections, +though it is obviously impossible to split them up into perfectly +defined subdivisions, where, as a matter of fact, you have each +degree of deafness and dumbness shading into the next:—the +<i>speaking deaf</i>, <i>the semi-speaking deaf</i>, the <i>mute deaf</i> (or <i>deaf-mute</i>), +the <i>speaking semi-deaf</i>, the <i>mute semi-deaf</i>, the <i>hearing mute</i> and +the <i>hearing semi-mute</i>. He points out that the last two classes are +usually persons of feeble mental power. We should exclude these +altogether from the list, since their hearing is, presumably, perfect, +and should add the <i>semi-speaking semi-deaf</i> before the mute +semi-deaf. This would give two main divisions—those who +cannot hear at all, and those who have partial hearing—with +three subsections in each main division—those who speak, +those who have partial speech and those who do not speak at all. +Where the hearing is perfect it is paradoxical to class a person +with the deaf, and the dumbness in such a case is due (where +there is no malformation of the vocal organs) to inability of the +mind to pay attention to, and imitate, what the ear really hears. +In such cases this mental weakness is generally shown in other +ways besides that of not hearing sounds. Probably no sign will +be given of recognizing persons or objects around; there will be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page881" id="page881"></a>881</span> +in fact, a general incapacity of the whole body and senses. It +is incorrect to designate such persons as deaf and feeble-minded +or deaf and idiotic, because in many cases their organs of hearing +are as perfect as are other organs of their body, and they are no +more deaf than blind, though they may pay no attention to what +they hear any more than to what they see. They are simply +weak in intellect, and this is shown by the disuse of any and all of +their senses; hence it is incorrect to classify them according to +one, and one only, of the evidences of this mental weakness.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Extent of Deafness.</i>—The following table shows the number of deaf +and dumb persons in the United Kingdom at successive censuses:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb sc" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb sc" colspan="4">Number of Deaf and Dumb Persons.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">United<br />Kingdom.</td> <td class="tccm allb">England<br />& Wales.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Scotland.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Ireland.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1851</td> <td class="tcc rb">17,649</td> <td class="tcc rb">10,314</td> <td class="tcc rb">2155</td> <td class="tcc rb">5180</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1861</td> <td class="tcc rb">20,224</td> <td class="tcc rb">12,236</td> <td class="tcc rb">2335</td> <td class="tcc rb">5653</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1871</td> <td class="tcc rb">19,159</td> <td class="tcc rb">11,518</td> <td class="tcc rb">2087</td> <td class="tcc rb">5554</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1881</td> <td class="tcc rb">20,573</td> <td class="tcc rb">13,295</td> <td class="tcc rb">2142</td> <td class="tcc rb">5136</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">20,781</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,192</td> <td class="tcc rb">2125</td> <td class="tcc rb">4464</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">21,855</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15,246</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2638</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3971</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>From this we find that the proportion of deaf and dumb to the +population has been as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb sc" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb sc" colspan="4">Proportion of Deaf and Dumb to the Population.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">United<br />Kingdom.</td> <td class="tccm allb">England<br />& Wales.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Scotland.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Ireland.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1851</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 in 1550</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 in 1739</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 in 1340</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 in 1264</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1861</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 in 1430</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 in 1639</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 in 1310</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 in 1025</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1871</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 in 1642</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 in 1972</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 in 1610</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 in 974</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1881</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 in 1694</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 in 1953</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 in 1745</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 in 1008</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 in 1814</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 in 2040</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 in 1893</td> <td class="tcc rb">1 in 1053</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1 in 1897</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1 in 2132</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1 in 1694</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1 in 1122</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>There has, therefore, been on the whole a steady decrease of those +described as “deaf and dumb” in proportion to the population in +Great Britain and Ireland. But in the census for 1901, in addition +to the 15,246 returned as “deaf and dumb” in England and Wales, +18,507 were entered as being “deaf,” 2433 of whom were described +as having been “deaf from childhood.”</p> + +<p>Mr B. H. Payne, the principal of the Royal Cambrian Institution, +Swansea, makes the following remarks upon these figures:—</p> + +<p>“The natural conclusion, of course, is that there has been a large +increase, relative as well as absolute, of the class in which we are +interested, which we call the deaf, and which includes the deaf and +dumb. Indeed, the number, large as it is, cannot be considered as +complete, for the schedules did not require persons who were only +deaf to state their infirmity, and, though many did so, it may be +presumed that more did not.</p> + +<p>“On the other hand, circumstances exist which may reasonably +be held to modify the conclusion that there has been a large relative +increase of the deaf. The spread of education, the development of +local government, and an improved system of registration, may have +had the effect of procuring fuller enumeration and more appropriate +classification than heretofore, while 1368 persons described +simply as dumb, and who therefore probably belong, not to the deaf, +but to the feeble-minded and aphasic classes, are included in the +‘deaf and dumb’ total. It is also to be noted that some of those +who described themselves as ‘deaf’ though not born so may have +been educated in the ordinary way before they lost their hearing, +and are therefore outside the sphere of the operation of schools for +the deaf.</p> + +<p>“In connexion with the census of 1891, it has been remarked in the +report of the institution that no provision was made in the schedules +for distinguishing the congenital from the non-congenital deaf, and +that it was desirable to draw such a distinction. To ascertain the +relative increase or decrease of one or the other section of the class +would contribute to our knowledge of the incidence of known causes +of deafness or to the confirmation or discovery of other causes, and +so far indicate the appropriate measures of prevention, while such an +inquiry as that recommended has, besides, a certain bearing upon +educational views.</p> + +<p>“The exact number of ‘deaf and dumb’ and ‘deaf’ children who +are of school age cannot be ascertained from the census tables, which +give the numbers in quinquennial age-groups, while the school age +is seven to sixteen. It is a pity that in this respect the functions of +the census department are not co-ordinated with those of the Board +of Education.”</p> + +<p> John Hitz, the superintendent of the Volta Bureau for the Increase +of Knowledge Relating to the Deaf, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., gives +the number of schools for deaf children, and pupils, in different +countries in 1900 as follows:—</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Africa.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Country.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Schools.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Teachers.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Pupils.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Algeria</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 37</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Egypt</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cape Colony</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">9*</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 77</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Natal</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 7</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">7</td> <td class="tcc allb">16*</td> <td class="tcc allb">127</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="4">* Incomplete.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Asia.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Country.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Schools.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Teachers.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Pupils.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">China</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 43</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">India</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 73</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Japan</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">24</td> <td class="tcc rb">337</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">9</td> <td class="tcc allb">47</td> <td class="tcc allb">453</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Australasia.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Country.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Schools.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Teachers.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Pupils.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Australia</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">41</td> <td class="tcc rb">282</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">New Zealand</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 5</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 50</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">7</td> <td class="tcc allb">46</td> <td class="tcc allb">332</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Europe.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Country.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Schools.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Teachers.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Pupils.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Austria-Hungary</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td> <td class="tcr rb">291</td> <td class="tcr rb">2440</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Belgium</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">181</td> <td class="tcr rb">1265</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Denmark</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">57</td> <td class="tcr rb">348</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">71</td> <td class="tcr rb">598</td> <td class="tcr rb">4098</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">798</td> <td class="tcr rb">6497</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">462</td> <td class="tcr rb">4222</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Italy</td> <td class="tcr rb">47</td> <td class="tcr rb">234</td> <td class="tcr rb">2519</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Luxemburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Netherlands</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">74</td> <td class="tcr rb">473</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Norway</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcr rb">309</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Portugal</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">64</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rumania</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">46</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Russia, Finland, Livonia</td> <td class="tcr rb">34</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td> <td class="tcr rb">1719</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Servia</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">2*</td> <td class="tcr rb">26*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Spain</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">60</td> <td class="tcr rb">462</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sweden</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">124</td> <td class="tcr rb">726</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Switzerland</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">650</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Turkey</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr allb">450</td> <td class="tcr allb">3152</td> <td class="tcr allb">25,886</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="4">* Incomplete.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">North America.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Country.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Schools.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Teachers.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Pupils.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Canada</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">130</td> <td class="tcr rb">768</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">126</td> <td class="tcr rb">1347</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,946</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mexico</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">46</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cuba</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr allb">135</td> <td class="tcr allb">1490</td> <td class="tcr allb">11,760</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">South America.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Country.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Schools.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Teachers.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Pupils.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Argentine</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">18</td> <td class="tcc rb">133</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Brazil</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 9</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 35</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chile</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 7</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 61</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Uruguay</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">7</td> <td class="tcc allb">34</td> <td class="tcc allb">229</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page882" id="page882"></a>882</span></p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Summary.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Country.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Schools.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Teachers.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Pupils.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Africa</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">127</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Asia</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">47</td> <td class="tcr rb">453</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Australia</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">46</td> <td class="tcr rb">332</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Europe</td> <td class="tcr rb">450</td> <td class="tcr rb">3152</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,886</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">North America</td> <td class="tcr rb">135</td> <td class="tcr rb">1490</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,760</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">South America</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">34</td> <td class="tcr rb">229</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">615</td> <td class="tcc allb">4785</td> <td class="tcc allb">38,787</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>These figures refer only to deaf children who are actually under +instruction, not to the whole deaf population.</p> + +<p>While it is gratifying to find that so much is being done in the way +of educating this class of the community, the number of schools in +most parts of the world is still lamentably inadequate. For instance, +taking the school age as from seven to sixteen, which is now made +compulsory by Act of Parliament in Great Britain, and assuming +that 20% of the deaf population are of that age, as they are in +England, there should be 40,000 deaf pupils under instruction in +India alone, whereas there are but seventy-three. There are 200,000 +deaf of all ages in India. And what an enormous total should be in +schools in China instead of forty-three! The whole of the rest of +Asia, with the exception of Japan, has apparently not a single school. +There must be many thousands of thousands of deaf (hundreds of +thousands, if not thousands of thousands of whom are of school age) +in that continent, unless indeed they are destroyed, which is not +impossible. What are we to say of Africa, where only 100 pupils are +being taught; of South America, with its paltry 200, and Australia’s +300? To come to Europe itself, Russia should have many times +more pupils than her 1700. Even in Great Britain the education of +the deaf was not made compulsory till 1893, and there are many still +evading the law and growing up uneducated. Mr Payne of Swansea +estimated (<i>Institution Report</i>, 1903-1904) from the 1901 census, that +there must be approximately 204 deaf of school age in South Wales +and Monmouthshire, while only 144 were accounted for in all the +schools in that district according to Dr Hitz’s statistics.</p> + +<p>Dr Kerr Love (<i>Deaf Mutism</i>, p. 217) gives the following table, +which shows the number of deaf people in proportion to the +population in the countries named:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Switzerland</td> <td class="tcc cl">1 in</td> <td class="tcr cl">408</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Austria</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcr">765</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Hungary</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td> <td class="tcr cl">792</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sweden</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcr">977</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Prussia</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td> <td class="tcr cl">981</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Finland</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcr">981</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Canada</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td> <td class="tcr cl">1003</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Norway</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcr">1052</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Germany (exclusive of Prussia)</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td> <td class="tcr cl">1074</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Portugal</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcr">1333</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Ireland</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td> <td class="tcr cl">1398*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">India</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcr">1459</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">United States</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td> <td class="tcr cl">1514</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Denmark</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcr">1538</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Greece</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td> <td class="tcr cl">1548</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">France</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcr">1600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Italy</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td> <td class="tcr cl">1862</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Scotland</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcr">1885*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Cape Colony</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td> <td class="tcr cl">1904</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">England</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcr">2043*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Spain</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td> <td class="tcr cl">2178</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Belgium</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcr">2247</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Australasia</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td> <td class="tcr cl">2692</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Holland</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcr">2985</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Ceylon</td> <td class="tcc cl">”</td> <td class="tcr cl">4328</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="list f80">* The figures for England, Scotland and Ireland, according to the +1901 census, are different and have been given above.</p> + +<p class="pt1">According to a tabular statement of British and Colonial schools, +June 1899, the proportion of those born deaf to those who lost +hearing after birth was, at that time and in those countries, 2126 +to 1251, as far as returns had been made. Several schools had, +however, failed to give statistics. These figures show a proportion of +nearly 59% congenitally deaf persons to over 41% whose deafness +is acquired. Professor Fay, whose monumental work, <i>Marriages of +the Deaf in America</i>, deserves particular attention, mentions (p. 38) +that of 23,931 persons who attended American schools for the deaf +up to the year 1890, 9842, or 41%, were reported as congenitally deaf, +and 14,089, or 59%, as adventitiously deaf,—figures which exactly +reverse those just quoted. The classification of deafness acquired +in infancy with congenital deafness by some other authorities (giving +rise to the rather absurd term “toto-congenital” to describe the +latter) is unscientific. There is reason for the opinion that the non-congenital, +even when hearing has been lost in early infancy, acquire +language better, and it is a mistake from any point of view to include +them in the born deaf.</p> + +<p>Other statistics vary very much as to the proportion of born deaf, +some being as low as a quarter, and some as high as three-quarters, +of the whole class. We can only say, speaking of both sides of the +Atlantic, and counterbalancing one period with another, that the +general average appears to be about 50% for each. Probably the +percentage varies in different places for definite reasons, which we +shall now briefly consider.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Causes of Deafness.</i>—These may be considered in two divisions, +pre-natal and post-natal.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Pre-Natal.</i>—A small percentage of these is due, it seems, +to malformation of some portion of the auditory apparatus. +Another percentage is known to represent the children of the +intermarriage of blood relations. Dr Kerr Love (<i>Deaf Mutism</i>, +p. 117) gives statistics from thirteen British institutions which +show that on a general average at least 8% of the congenitally +deaf are the offspring of such marriages. Besides this, little is +known. Beyond all doubt a much larger percentage of deaf +children are the offspring of marriages in which one or both +partners were born deaf than of ordinary marriages. But +inquiries into such phenomena have generally been directed +towards tracing deafness and not consanguinity, or at least the +inquirer has rarely troubled to make sure whether the grandparents +or great-grandparents on either side were relations or +not. Such investigations rarely go beyond ascertaining if the +parents were related to each other, though we have proof that +a certain tendency towards any particular abnormality may not +exhibit itself in every generation of the family in question. To +give an illustration, suppose that G is a deaf man. Several +inquirers may trace back to the preceding generation F, and to +the grandparents E, and even to the great-grandparents D, in +search of an ancestor who is deaf, and such they may discover +in the third generation D. But probably not one of these +several inquirers will ask G if any of his grandparents or great-grandparents +married a cousin, for instance, though they may ask +if his father did. To continue this hypothetical case, the investigators +will again trace back along the family tree to generations +C, B and A in search of an original <i>deaf</i> ancestor, on whose +shoulders they seek to lay the blame of both D’s and G’s deafness. +Not finding any such, they will again content themselves with +asking if D’s parents (generation C) were blood relations or not, +and, receiving an answer in the negative, desist from further +inquiry in this direction, assuming that D’s deafness is the original +cause of G’s deafness. They do not, we fear, inquire if any grandparents +or great-grandparents (hearing people) were related, +with the same persistency as they ask if any were deaf. The +search for deafness is pushed through several generations, the +search for consanguinity is only extended to one generation. +Perhaps if it were carried further, it would be discovered that A +married his niece, and there lay the secret of the deafness in both +D and G. In other words, the deafness in D is not the cause of +that in G, but the deafness in both D and G are effects of the +consanguineous marriage in A. All this is, however, merely by +way of suggestion. We submit that if deafness in one generation +may be followed by deafness two or even three generations later, +while the tendency to deafness exists, but does not appear, in the +intermediate generations, it is only logical to inquire if deafness in +the first discoverable instance in a family may not be caused by +consanguinity, the effect of which is not seen for two or three +generations in a similar manner. Moreover it is probable that +consanguinity in parents or grandparents may often be denied. +An exhaustive investigation along these lines is desirable, for we +believe that congenital deafness would be proved to be due to +consanguinity in hearing people, if the search were pushed far +enough back and the truth were told, in a far greater percentage +of cases than is now suspected. This is not disproved by quoting +numbers of cases where no deafness follows consanguinity in +any generation, for resulting weakness may be shown (where it +exists) in many other ways than by deafness.</p> + +<p>This theory receives support from the statistics quoted by +Dr Kerr Love (<i>Deaf Mutism</i>, p. 132), where the percentage of +defective children resulting from the consanguineous marriages +of hearing people increases in almost exact proportion to the +nearness of affinity of the parents. It is further borne out by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page883" id="page883"></a>883</span> +statistics of the duchy of Nassau, and of Berlin, both quoted by +Dr Kerr Love (pp. 119, 120). These show 1 deaf person in 1397 +Roman Catholics, 1101 Evangelicals and 508 Jews in the former +case, and 1 in 3000 Roman Catholics, 2000 Protestants and 400 +Jews in the latter. When we are told that “Roman Catholics +prohibit marriages between persons who are near blood relations, +Protestants view such marriages as permissible, and Jews +encourage intermarriage with blood relations,” these figures +become suggestive. We find the same greater tendency to deafness +in thinly-populated and out-of-the-way districts and +countries where, owing to the circle of acquaintances being +limited, people are more likely to marry relations.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>With regard to the question of marriages of the deaf, Professor +Edward Allen Fay’s work is so complete that the results of his six +years’ labour are particularly worthy of notice, for, as the introduction +states, the book is a “collection of records of marriages of the +deaf far larger than all previous collections put together,” and it +deals in detail with 4471 such marriages. The summary of statistics +is as follows (<i>Marriages of the Deaf in America</i>, p. 134):—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb sc" rowspan="2">Marriages of the Deaf.</td> <td class="tccm allb sc" colspan="2">Number of<br />Marriages.</td> <td class="tccm allb sc" colspan="2">Number of<br />Children.</td> <td class="tccm allb sc" colspan="2">Percentage.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Total.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Resulting<br />in deaf<br />offspring. + </td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Deaf. + </td> <td class="tccm allb">Marriages<br />resulting<br />in deaf<br />offspring. + </td> <td class="tccm allb">Deaf<br />children.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">One or both partners deaf</td> <td class="tcr rb">3078</td> <td class="tcr rb">300</td> <td class="tcr rb">6782</td> <td class="tcr rb">588</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Both partners deaf</td> <td class="tcr rb">2377</td> <td class="tcr rb">220</td> <td class="tcr rb">5072</td> <td class="tcr rb">429</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">One partner deaf, the other hearing</td> <td class="tcr rb">599</td> <td class="tcr rb">75</td> <td class="tcr rb">1532</td> <td class="tcr rb">151</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">One or both partners congenitally deaf</td> <td class="tcr rb">1477</td> <td class="tcr rb">194</td> <td class="tcr rb">3401</td> <td class="tcr rb">413</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">One or both partners adventitiously deaf</td> <td class="tcr rb">2212</td> <td class="tcr rb">124</td> <td class="tcr rb">4701</td> <td class="tcr rb">199</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Both partners congenitally deaf</td> <td class="tcr rb">335</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">779</td> <td class="tcr rb">202</td> <td class="tcr rb">24.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">One partner congenitally deaf, the other adventitiously deaf</td> <td class="tcr rb">814</td> <td class="tcr rb">66</td> <td class="tcr rb">1820</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Both partners adventitiously deaf</td> <td class="tcr rb">845</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">1720</td> <td class="tcr rb">40</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">One partner congenitally deaf, the other hearing</td> <td class="tcr rb">191</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td> <td class="tcr rb">528</td> <td class="tcr rb">63</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">One partner adventitiously deaf, the other hearing</td> <td class="tcr rb">310</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">713</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.2</td> <td class="tcr rb"> 2.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Both partners had deaf relatives</td> <td class="tcr rb">437</td> <td class="tcr rb">103</td> <td class="tcr rb">1060</td> <td class="tcr rb">222</td> <td class="tcr rb">23.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">One partner had deaf relatives, the other had not</td> <td class="tcr rb">541</td> <td class="tcr rb">36</td> <td class="tcr rb">1210</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Neither partner had deaf relatives</td> <td class="tcr rb">471</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">1044</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Both partners congenitally deaf; both had deaf relatives</td> <td class="tcr rb">172</td> <td class="tcr rb">49</td> <td class="tcr rb">429</td> <td class="tcr rb">130</td> <td class="tcr rb">28.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Both partners congenitally deaf; one had deaf relatives, the other had not</td> <td class="tcr rb">49</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Both partners congenitally deaf; neither had deaf relatives</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Both partners adventitiously deaf; both had deaf relatives</td> <td class="tcr rb">57</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Both partners adventitiously deaf; one had deaf relatives, the other had not</td> <td class="tcr rb">167</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">357</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Both partners adventitiously deaf; neither had deaf relatives</td> <td class="tcr rb">284</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">550</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Partners consanguineous</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">31</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">45.1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">30.0</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>One point deserves special attention in the above list. It is that +where there are no deaf relatives (<i>i.e.</i> where there has not been a +history of deafness in the family) only one child out of twenty-four +is deaf, even when the parents were both born deaf themselves. +Where there were deaf relatives already in the family on both sides, +and the parents were born deaf, the percentage of deaf children is +seven and a half times as great. This seems to show that there are +causes of congenital deafness which are, comparatively speaking, +unlikely to be transmitted to future generations, while other causes +of congenital deafness are so liable to be perpetuated that one child +in every three is deaf. We conjecture that one original cause of congenital +deafness which reappears in a family is consanguinity—for +instance, the intermarriage of first or second cousins (hearing people) +in some previous generation. Out of the 2245 deaf persons who were +born deaf, 269 had parents who were blood relations, according to +Fay. And perhaps many more refrained from acknowledging the +fact. Eleven had grandparents who were cousins. This theory +calls for investigation, and while the marriage of deaf people is not +encouraged, it is fair to ask those who so strenuously oppose such +unions whether they may not be spending their energies on trying to +check an effect instead of a cause, and if that cause may not really +be consanguinity,—witness the percentage of deaf people among +Roman Catholics, Protestants and Jews before noticed. On the +principle that prevention is better than cure it is the intermarriage +of cousins and other relations which should be discouraged. The +marriage of deaf people is inadvisable where there has been deafness +in the family in former generations, but the same warning applies +to all the other members of that family, for the hearing members are +as likely to transmit the defect of which deafness is a symptom as the +deaf members are. We are more concerned to discover the primary +cause of the defect, and take steps to prevent the latter from occurring +at all. Those who have no dissuasions for hearing people, who might +perhaps cause the misery, and only give counsel to those among the +transmitters of it who happen to be deaf, are acting in a manner +which is hardly logical.</p> +</div> + +<p>2. <i>Post-Natal.</i>—We have collected and grouped the stated +causes of deafness in those partners of the marriages in America +noticed by Fay. About a hundred and thirty did not mention +how they lost hearing. Any errors in this calculation must be +less than 1% at most, and can make no material difference. +In some cases two or more diseases are given as the cause of +deafness. In such cases where one is a very common cause +of deafness, and the other is unusual, the former is credited +with being the reason for the defect. Where both are common, +we have divided the cases between them in a rough proportion.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Scarlet fever 973; scarlatina 3; scarlet rash 2</td> <td class="tcrb cl">978</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Spotted fever 260; meningitis 92; spinal meningitis 76;<br /> +   cerebro-spinal meningitis 70; spinal fever 28; spinal<br /> +   disease 8; congestion of spine 2</td> <td class="tcrb">536</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Brain fever 309; inflammation of brain 62; congestion of brain<br /> +   30; disease in brain 3</td> <td class="tcrb cl">404</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Typhoid 127; “fever” (unspecified) 117; typhus 17; intermittent<br /> +   fever 14; bilious fever 11; other fevers 14</td> <td class="tcrb">300</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Gatherings, inflammations, in head; ulcers, disease, sores,<br /> +   risings, &c., all but 22 being explicitly stated to be in<br /> +   head or ears</td> <td class="tcrb cl">276</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">“Sickness” 167; “illness” 49; “disease” 8; no definite<br /> +   specification 12</td> <td class="tcrb">236</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Measles</td> <td class="tcrb cl">191</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Colds 101; colds in head, &c. 35; catarrh 19; catarrhal fevers<br /> +   10; chills, &c. 17</td> <td class="tcrb">182</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Whooping cough 77; diphtheria 34; lung fever, and various<br /> +   diseases of lungs and throat 60</td> <td class="tcrb cl">171</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Falls</td> <td class="tcrb">143</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Fits and convulsions 58; spasms 18; teething 16</td> <td class="tcrb cl">92</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Scrofula 35; mumps 25; swellings on neck 2</td> <td class="tcrb">62</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Many various and unusual causes</td> <td class="tcrb cl">60</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Smallpox 8; chickenpox 6, cholera, &c. 7; canker, &c. 11;<br /> +   erysipelas 13</td> <td class="tcrb">45</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Paralysis, &c. 12; nerve diseases 12; fright 8; palsy 3</td> <td class="tcrb cl">35</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Hydrocephalus 14; dropsy on brain or in head 17; dropsy 2</td> <td class="tcrb">33</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Various accidents, blows, kicks, &c.</td> <td class="tcrb cl">31</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Quinine 22; other medicines 7</td> <td class="tcrb">29</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcrb">——</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">Total</td> <td class="tcrb">3804</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcrb">——</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>We have counted a hundred and thirty of those who were +returned as having lost hearing who were also stated to be the +offspring of consanguineous marriages.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page884" id="page884"></a>884</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Dr Kerr Love (<i>Deaf Mutism</i>, p. 150) gives the following list compiled +from the registers of British institutions:—</p> +</div> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Scarlet fever</td> <td class="tcr cl">331</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Miscellaneous causes</td> <td class="tcr">175</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Teething, convulsions, &c.</td> <td class="tcr cl">171</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Meningitis, brain fever, &c.</td> <td class="tcr">166</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Measles</td> <td class="tcr cl">138</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Falls and accidents</td> <td class="tcr">122</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Enteric and other fevers</td> <td class="tcr cl">119</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Disease, illness, &c.</td> <td class="tcr">37</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Whooping cough</td> <td class="tcr cl">33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Suppurative ear diseases</td> <td class="tcr">18</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Syphilis</td> <td class="tcr cl">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">——</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">1312</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl pt1">Unknown causes</td> <td class="tcr pt1">98</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The same writer quotes Hartmann’s table, compiled in 1880 from +continental statistics, as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Cerebral affections, inflammations, convulsions</td> <td class="tcr cl">644</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cerebro-spinal meningitis</td> <td class="tcr">295</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Typhus</td> <td class="tcr cl">260</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Scarlatina</td> <td class="tcr">205</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Measles</td> <td class="tcr cl">84</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ear disease, proper</td> <td class="tcr">77</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Lesions of the head</td> <td class="tcr cl">70</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Other diseases</td> <td class="tcr">354</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">——</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">1989</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>There appears to be no cure for deafness that is other than +partial; but with the advance of science preventive treatment +is expected to be efficacious in scarlet fever, measles, &c.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Condition of the Deaf.</i></p> + +<p>1. <i>In Childhood.</i>—It is difficult to impress people with two +facts in connexion with teaching language to the average child +who was born deaf, or lost hearing in early infancy. One is the +necessity of the undertaking, and the other is that this necessity +is not due to mental deficiency in the pupil. To the born +deaf-mute in an English-speaking country English is a foreign +language. His inability to speak is due to his never having heard +that tongue which his mother uses. The same reason holds good +for his entire ignorance of that language. The hearing child does +not know a word of English when he is born, and never would +learn it if taken away from where it is spoken. He learns English +unconsciously by imitating what he hears. The deaf child never +hears English, and so he never learns it till he goes to school. +Here he has to start learning English—or whatever is the +language of his native land—in the same way as a hearing boy +learns a foreign language.</p> + +<p>But another reason exists which renders his task much more +difficult than that of a normal English schoolboy learning, say, +German. The latter has two channels of information, the eye +and the ear; the deaf boy has only one, the eye. The hearing boy +learns German by what he hears of it in class as well as by reading +it; the deaf boy can only learn by what he sees. It is as if you +tried to fill two cisterns of the same capacity with two inlets to +one and only one inlet to the other; supposing the inlets to be +the same size, the former will fill twice as fast. So it is in the +case of the hearing boy as compared with his deaf brother. The +cerebral capacity and quality are the same, but in one case one +of the avenues to the brain is closed, and consequently the +development is less rapid. Moreover, the thoughts are precisely +those which would be expected in people who form them only +from what they see. We were often asked by our deaf playmates +in our childhood such questions (in signs) as “What does the cat +say?”—“The dog talks, does he not?”—“Is the rainbow very +hot on the roof of that house?” They have often told us such +things as that they used to think someone went to the end of the +earth and climbed up the sky to light the stars, and to pour down +rain through a sieve.</p> + +<p>But there is yet a third disadvantage for the already handicapped +deaf boy. He has no other language to build upon, while +the other has his mother tongue with which to compare the +foreign language he is learning. The latter already has a general +idea of sentences and clauses, of tense and mood, of gender, +number and case, of substantives, verbs and prepositions; and +he knows that one language must form some sort of parallel +to another. He is already prepared to find a subject, predicate +and object, in the sentence of a foreign language, even when he +knows not a word of any but his own mother tongue. If he is +told that a certain word in German is an adjective, he understands +what its function is, even when he has yet to learn the meaning +of the word. All this goes for nothing in the case of the deaf +pupil. The very elementary fact that certain words denote +certain objects—that there is such a class of word as substantives—comes +as a revelation to most deaf children. They have +to begin at seven laboriously and artificially to learn what an +ordinary baby has unconsciously and naturally discovered at the +age of two. English, spoken, written, printed or finger-spelled, +is no more natural, comprehensible or easy of acquirement to the +deaf than is Chinese. The manual alphabet is simply one way of +expressing the vernacular on the fingers; it is no more the deaf-mute’s +“natural” language than speech or writing, and if he +cannot express himself by the latter modes of communicating, +he cannot by spelling on the fingers. The last is simply a case of +<i>vicaria linguae manus</i>. None of these are languages in themselves; +whether you use pen or type, hand or voice, you are but +adopting one or other method of expressing one and the same +tongue—English or whatever it may be, that of a “people of a +strange speech and of a hard language, whose words they cannot +understand.” The deaf child’s natural mode of communication—more +natural to him than any verbal language is to hearing +people—is the world-wide, natural language of signs.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Natural Language of the Deaf.</i>—We have just called signs a +natural language. While a purist might properly object to this +adjective being applied to all signs, yet it is not an unfair term to +use as regards this method of conversing as a whole, even in the +United States, where signs, being to a great extent the French +signs invented by de l’Epée, are more artificial than in England. +The old story, by the way, of the pupil of de l’Epée failing to +write more than “hand, breast,” as describing what an incredulous +investigator did when he laid his hand on his breast, proves +nothing. In all probability he had no idea that he was expected +to describe an action, and thought that he was being asked the +names of certain parts of the body. The hand was held out to +him and he wrote “hand.” Then the breast was indicated by +placing the hand on it, and he wrote “breast.” Moreover, the +artificial element is much less pronounced than is supposed by +most of those who are loudest in their condemnation of signs, +there being almost invariably an obvious connexion between the +sign and idea. These critics are generally people whose acquaintance +with the subject is rather limited, and the thermometer of +whose zeal in waging war against gestures generally falls in proportion +as the photometer of their knowledge about them shows +an increasing light. We may go still further and point out that +to object to any sign on the ground of artificiality <i>per se</i>, is to +strain at the gnat and to swallow the camel, for English itself +is one of the most artificial languages in existence, and certainly +is more open to such an objection than signs. If we apply the +same test to English that is applied to signs by those who would +rule out any which they suppose cannot come under the head of +natural gesture or pantomime, what fraction of our so-called +natural language should we have left? For a spoken word to be +“natural” in this sense it must be onomatopoetic, and what +infinitesimal percentage of English words are such? A foreigner, +unacquainted with the language, could not glean the drift of a +conversation in English, except perhaps a trifle from the tone of +the voices and more from the natural signs used—the smiles and +frowns, the expressions of the faces, the play of eyes, lips, hands +and whole body. The only words he could possibly understand +without such aids are some such onomatopoetic words as the cries +of animals—“mew,” “chirrup,” &c., and a few more like +“bang” or “swish.”</p> + +<p>The reason why we insist emphatically upon the importance +of teaching English in schools for the deaf in English-speaking +countries, is, firstly, because that is the language which the pupil +will be called upon to use in his intercourse with his fellow-men +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page885" id="page885"></a>885</span> +after he leaves school, and secondly, because, if his grasp of that +tongue only be sufficient and his interest in books be properly +aroused, he can go on educating himself in after-life by means +of reading. Time tables are overcrowded with kindergarten, +clay modelling, wood-carving, carpentry, and other things which +are excellent in themselves. But there is not time for everything, +and these are not as important in the case of the deaf pupil as +language. Putting aside the question of religion and moral +training, we consider the flooding of their minds with general +knowledge, and the teaching of English to enable them to express +their thoughts to their neighbours, to be of paramount importance, +so paramount that all other branches of education in their turn +pale into insignificance by comparison with these, while the +question of methods of instruction should be subservient to these +main ends. Too many make speech in itself an end. This is a +mistake. Speech is not in itself English; it is only one way of +expressing that language. And we are little concerned to inquire +by what means the deaf pupil expresses himself in English so long +as he does so express himself, whether by speech or writing, or +as he does so express himself, whether by speech or writing or +finger-spelling—for if he can finger-spell he can write. It is not +the mere fact that he can make certain sounds or write certain +letters or form the alphabet on his hands that should signify. It +is the actual language that he uses, whatever be the means, +and the thoughts that are enshrined in the language, that should +be our criterion when judging of his education.</p> + +<p>The importance of English is insisted upon because to place the +deaf child in touch with his English-speaking fellow-men we must +teach him their language, and also because he can thereby educate +himself by means of books if, and when, he has a sufficient +command of that language. The reason is not because the +vernacular is actually superior to signs as a means of conversation. +The sign language is quite equal to the vernacular as a means of expression. +The former is as much our mother tongue, if we may say +so, as the latter; we used one language as soon as the other, in +our earliest infancy; and, after a lifelong experience of both, we +affirm that signs are a more beautiful language than English, and +provide possibilities of a wealth of expression which English does +not possess, and which probably no other language possesses.</p> + +<p>That others whose knowledge of signs is lifelong hold similar +opinions is shown by the following extract from <i>The Deaf and +their Possibilities</i>, by Dr Gallaudet:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“Thinking that the question may arise in the minds of some, +‘Does the sign language give the deaf, when used in public addresses, +all that speech affords to the hearing?’ I will say that my +experience and observation lead me to answer with a decided affirmative. +On occasions almost without number it has been my privilege +to interpret, through signs to the deaf, addresses given in speech; +I have addressed hundreds of assemblages of deaf persons in the +college, in schools I have visited, and elsewhere, using signs for the +original expression of thought; I have seen many more lectures and +public debates given originally in signs; I have seen conventions of +deaf-mutes in which no word was spoken, and yet all the forms of +parliamentary proceedings were observed, and the most earnest, and +even excited, discussions were carried on. I have seen the ordinances +of religion administered, and the full service of the Church rendered +in signs; and all this with the assurance growing out of my complete +understanding of the language—a knowledge which dates from my +earliest childhood—that for all the purposes enumerated gestural +expression is in no respect inferior, and is in many respects superior, +to oral, verbal utterance as a means of communicating ideas.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The following is an analysis of the sign language given by Mr +Payne of the Swansea Institution, together with his explanatory +notes:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="center">“<i>Analysis of the Sign Language.</i></p> + +<p>I. Facial expression.</p> + +<p>II. Gesture</p> + +<div style="margin-left: 4em;"> + <p>      Conventional especially in shortened form.</p> + <p class="noind">1. Sympathetic<br /> + 2. Representative (= Natural signs)<br /> + 3. Systematic (<i>a</i>) Arbitrary signs<br /> +       (<i>b</i>) Grammatical signs</p> +</div> + +<p>III. Mimic action.</p> + +<p>IV. Pantomime.</p> + +<p>“<i>Observations.</i>—People speak of ‘manual signs.’ Of course there +are signs which are made with the hands only, as there are others +which are labial, &c. But the sign language is comprehensive, and at +times the whole frame is engaged in its use. A late American teacher +could and did ‘sign’ a story to his pupils with his hands behind him. +Facial expression plays an important part in the language. Sympathetic +gestures are individualistic and spontaneous, and are sometimes +unconsciously made. The speaker, feeling that words are +inadequate, reinforces them with gesture. Arbitrary signs are, <i>e.g.</i>, +drumming with three separated fingers on the chin for ‘uncle.’ +Grammatical signs are those which are used for inflections, parts of +speech, or letters as in the manual alphabet, and some numerical +signs, though other numerals may be classed as natural; also signs +for sounds, and even labial signs. Signs, whether natural or arbitrary, +which gain acceptance, especially if they are shortened, are +‘conventional.’ ‘Mimic action’ refers, <i>e.g.</i>, to the sign for sawing, +the side of one hand being passed to and fro over the side or back of +the other.’Pantomime’ means, <i>e.g.</i>, when the signer pretends to +hang up his hat and coat, roll up his sleeves, kneel on his board, guide +the saw with his thumb, saw through, wipe his forehead, &c.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Illustrations of one style of numerical signs are given below.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:900px; height:86px" src="images/img885.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 1.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Units are signified with the palm turned inwards; tens with the +palm turned outwards; hundreds with the fingers downwards; +thousands with the left hand to the right shoulder; millions with +the hand near the forehead. For 12, sign 10 outwards and 2 +inwards, and so on up to 19. 21 = 2 outwards, 1 inwards, and so +on up to 30. 146 = 1 downwards, 4 outwards, 6 inwards. +207,837 = 2 downwards, 7 inwards (both at shoulder), 8 downwards, +3 outwards, 7 inwards. 599,126,345 = 5 downwards, +9 outwards, 9 inwards (all near forehead); 1 downwards, 2 +outwards, 6 inwards (all at shoulder); 3 downwards, 4 outwards, +5 inwards (in front of chest).</p> + +<p>Only the third, and a few of the second, subdivision of the +second section of the above classes of signs can be excluded when +talking of signs as being the deaf-mute’s natural language. In +fact we hesitate to call representative gesture—<i>e.g.</i> the horns and +action of milking for “cow,” the smelling at something grasped +in the hand for “flower,” &c.—conventional at all, except when +shortened as the usual sign for “cat” is, for instance, from the +sign for whiskers <i>plus</i> stroking the fur on back and tail <i>plus</i> the +action of a cat licking its paw and washing its face, to the sign for +whiskers only.</p> + +<p>The deaf child expresses himself in the sign language of his +own accord. The supposition that in manual or combined schools +generally they “teach them signs” is incorrect, except that +perhaps occasionally a few pupils may be drilled and their signs +polished for a dramatic rendering of a poem at a prize distribution +or public meeting, which is no more “teaching them signs” +than training hearing children to recite the same poem orally and +polishing their rendering of it is teaching them English. If the +deaf boy meets with some one who will use gesture to him, a +new sign will be invented as occasion requires by one or other to +express a new idea, and if it be a good one is tacitly adopted +to express that idea, and so an entire language is built up. It +follows that in different localities signs will differ to a great +extent, but one who is accustomed to signing can readily see the +connexion and understand what is meant even when the signs +are partly novel to him. We are sometimes asked if we can +make a deaf child understand abstract ideas by this language. +Our answer is that we can, if a hearing child of no greater age +and intelligence can understand the same ideas in English. Signs +are particularly the best means of conveying religious truths to +the deaf. If you wish to appeal to him, to impress him, to reach +his heart and his sympathies (and, incidentally, to offer the best +possible substitute for music), use his own eloquent language of +signs. We have conversed by signs with deaf people from all +parts of the British Isles, from France, Norway and Sweden, +Poland, Finland, Italy, Russia, Turkey, the United States, and +found that they are indeed a world-wide means of communication, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page886" id="page886"></a>886</span> +even when we wandered on to most unusual and abstract subjects. +Deaf people in America converse with Red Indians with +ease thereby, which shows how natural the generality of even +de l’Epée signs are. The sign language is everybody’s natural +language, not only the deaf-mute’s.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Addison (<i>Deaf Mutism</i>, p. 283) quotes John Bulwer as follows:—“What +though you (the deaf and dumb) cannot express your minds +in those verbal contrivances of man’s invention: yet you want not +speech who have your whole body for a tongue, having a language +which is more natural and significant, which is common to you with +us, to wit, gesture, the general and universal language of human +nature.” The same writer says further on (p. 297): “The same +process of growth goes on alike with the signs of the deaf and dumb +as with the spoken words of the hearing. Arnold, than whom no +stronger advocate of the oral method exists, recognizes this in his +comment on this principle of the German school, for he writes: ‘It +is much to be regretted that teachers should indulge in unqualified +assertions of the impossibility of deaf-mutes attaining to clear conceptions +and abstract thinking by signs or mimic gestures. Facts +are against them.’ Again, Graham Bell, who is generally considered +an opponent of the sign system, says: ‘I think that if we have the +mental condition of the child alone in view without reference to +language, no language will reach the mind like the language of signs; +it is the method of reaching the mind of the deaf child.’”</p> + +<p>The opinions of the deaf themselves, from all parts of the world, +are practically unanimous on this question. In the words of Dr +Smith, president of the World’s Congress of the Deaf held at St +Louis, Missouri, in 1904, under the auspices of the National Association +of the Deaf, U.S.A., “the educated deaf have a right to be heard +in these matters, and they must and shall be heard.” A portion +may be quoted of the resolutions passed at that congress of 570 of +the best-informed deaf the world has ever seen, at least scores, if not +hundreds, of them holding degrees, and being as well educated as the +vast majority of teachers of the deaf in England: “Resolved, that +the oral method, which withholds from the congenitally and quasi-congenitally +deaf the use of the language of signs outside the schoolroom, +robs the children of their birthright; that those champions of +the oral method, who have been carrying on a warfare, both overt +and covert, against the use of the language of signs by the adult deaf, +are not friends of the deaf; and that, in our opinion, it is the duty +of every teacher of the deaf, no matter what method he or she uses, +to have a working command of the sign language.”</p> +</div> + +<p>It is often urged as an objection to the use of signs that those +who use them think in them, and that their English (or other +vernacular language) suffers in consequence. There is, however, +no more objection to thinking in signs than to thinking in any +other language, and as to the second objection, facts are against +such a statement. The best-educated deaf in the world, as a class, +are in America, and the American deaf sign almost to a man. +It is true that at first a beginner in school may, when at a loss how +to express himself in words, render his thoughts in sign-English, +if we may use the expression, just as a schoolboy will sometimes +put Latin words in the English order. That is, the deaf pupil +puts the word in the natural order of the signs, which is really the +logical order, and is much nearer the Latin sequence of words +than the English. But, firstly, if he had always been forbidden +to use signs he would not express himself in English any better +in that particular instance; he would simply not attempt to +express himself at all,—so he loses nothing, at least; and +secondly, it is perfectly easy to teach him in a very short time +that each language has its own idiom and that the thought is +expressed in a different order in each.</p> + +<p>Of the deaf child’s moral condition nothing more need be said +than that it is at first exactly that of his hearing brother, and his +development therein depends entirely upon whether he is trained +to the same degree. The need of this is great. He is quite as +capable of religious and moral instruction, and benefits as much +by what he receives of it. Happiness is a noticeable feature of the +character of the deaf when they are allowed to mix with each +other. The charge of bad temper can usually be sustained only +when the fault is on the side of those with whom they live. For +instance, the latter often talk in the presence of the deaf person +without saying a word to him, and if he then shows irritation, +which is not often in any case, it is no more to be wondered at +than if a hearing person resents whispering or other secret communication +in his presence.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Social Status, &c.</i>—From the 1901 census “Summary +Tables” we gather the following facts concerning the occupations +of the deaf, aged ten and upwards, in England and Wales. +About half of the total number, taking males and females +together (13,450), are engaged in occupations—6665. The rest—6785—are +retired or unoccupied. Of the former, the following +table given below shows the distribution:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">In general or local government work (clerks, messengers, &c.)</td> <td class="tcr cl">11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">In professional occupations and subordinate services</td> <td class="tcr">87</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">In domestic offices or services</td> <td class="tcr cl">788</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">In commercial occupations</td> <td class="tcr">12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">In work connected with conveyance of men, goods or messages</td> <td class="tcr cl">144</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">In agriculture</td> <td class="tcr">568</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">In fishing</td> <td class="tcr cl">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">In and about mines and quarries, &c.</td> <td class="tcr">151</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">In work connected with metals, machines, implements, &c.</td> <td class="tcr cl">503</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">In work connected with precious metals, jewels, games, &c.</td> <td class="tcr">46</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">In building and works of construction</td> <td class="tcr cl">485</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">In work connected with wood, furniture, fittings and decorations</td> <td class="tcr">470</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">In work connected with brick, cement, pottery and glass</td> <td class="tcr cl">153</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">In work connected with chemicals, oil, soap, &c.</td> <td class="tcr">46</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">In work connected with skins, hair and feathers</td> <td class="tcr cl">137</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">In work connected with paper, prints, books, &c.</td> <td class="tcr">238</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">In work connected with textile fabrics</td> <td class="tcr cl">407</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">In work connected with dress</td> <td class="tcr">1829</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">In work connected with food, tobacco, drink and lodging</td> <td class="tcr cl">194</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">In work connected with gas, water and electric supply, and sanitary service</td> <td class="tcr">22</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Other general and undefined workers and dealers</td> <td class="tcr cl">371</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">——</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">Total</td> <td class="tcr">6665</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among those in professional occupations are a clergyman, five +law clerks, ten schoolmasters, teachers, &c., thirty-seven painters, +engravers and sculptors, and seven photographers. Of those not +engaged in occupations, 235 have retired from business, and 245 are +living on their own means. Probably a very large number of the remainder +were out of work or engaged in odd jobs at the time of the +census; it would certainly be incorrect to take the words “Without +specified occupations or unoccupied” to mean that those classified +as such were permanently unable to support themselves.</p> + +<p>The commonest occupations of men are bootmaking (555), tailoring +(429), farm-labouring (287), general labouring (257), carpentry +(195), cabinet-making (142), painting, decorating and glazing (95), +French-polishing (88), harness-making, &c. (80).</p> + +<p>The commonest occupations of women are dressmaking (484), +domestic service (367), laundry and washing service (230), tailoring +(170), shirtmaking, &c. (81), charing (79).</p> + +<p>In Munich there are about sixty deaf artists, especially painters and +sculptors. In Germany and Austria generally, deaf lithographers, +xylographers and photographers are well employed, as are bookbinders +in Leipzig in particular, and labourers in the provinces.</p> + +<p>In France there are several deaf writers, journalists, &c., two +principals of schools, an architect, a score or so of painters, several of +whom are ladies, nine sculptors, and a few engravers, photographers, +proof-readers, &c.</p> + +<p>Italy boasts deaf wood-carvers, sculptors, painters, and architects +graduating from the universities and academies of fine arts with +prizes and medals; also type-setters, pressmen, carvers of coral, +ivory and precious stones.</p> + +<p>Two gentlemen in the office of the Norwegian government are deaf, +as are four in the engraving department of the land survey; one is a +master-lithographer, another a master-printer, a third a civil engineer, +and the rest are engaged in the usual trades, as are those in Sweden.</p> +</div> + +<p>The deaf form societies of their own to guard their interests, +for social intercourse and other purposes. In England there +is the British Deaf and Dumb Association; in America the +National Association of the Deaf and many lesser societies; +Germany has no fewer than 150 such associations, some of +which are athletic clubs, benefit societies, dramatic clubs, and so +forth. The central Federation is the largest German association. +France has the National Union of Deaf-Mutes and others, many +being benefit clubs. Italy has some societies; Sweden has eight.</p> + +<p>In the United States there are no fewer than fifty-three publications +devoted to the interests of the deaf, most of them being +school magazines published in the institutions themselves. +Great Britain and Ireland have six, four of them being school +magazines. France, Germany, Sweden, Hungary have several, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page887" id="page887"></a>887</span> +and Finland, Russia, Norway, Denmark and Austria are represented. +Canada has three.</p> + +<p>There are many Church and other missions to the deaf in +England and abroad, which are much needed owing to the +difficulty the average deaf person has in understanding the +archaic language of both Bible and Prayer-book. Until they +have this explained to them it is useless to place these books +in their hands, and even where they are well-educated and can +follow the services, they fail to get the sermon. Chaplains and +missioners engage in all branches of pastoral work among them, +and also try to find them employment, interpret for them where +necessary, and interview people on their behalf.</p> + +<p>The difficulty of obtaining employment for the deaf has been +increased in Great Britain by the Employers’ Liability and +Workmen’s Compensation Acts, for masters are afraid—needlessly, +as facts show—to employ them, under the impression that +they are more liable to accidents owing to their affliction.</p> + +<p>The new After-Care Committees of the London County Council +are a late confession of a need which other bodies have long +endeavoured to supply. Education should be a development of +the whole nature of the child. The board of education in England +provides for intellectual, industrial and physical training, but +does not take cognizance of those parts of education which +are far more important—the social, moral and spiritual. Some +teachers, both oral and manual, do an incalculable amount of +good at the cost of great self-sacrifice and in face of much discouragement. +They deserve the highest praise for so doing, and +such work needs to be carried on after their pupils leave school.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Education.</i></p> + +<p><i>History.</i><a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a>—“Who hath made man’s mouth? or who maketh +a man dumb, or deaf, or seeing, or blind? Is it not I the Lord?” +(Ex. iv. 11). Such is the first known reference to the deaf. But +the significance of this statement was not realized by the ancients, +who mercilessly destroyed all the defective, the deaf among the +rest. Greek and Roman custom demanded their death, and they +were thrown into the river, or otherwise killed, without causing +any comment but that so many encumbrances had been removed. +They were regarded as being on a mental level with idiots and +utterly incapable of helping themselves. In later times Roman +law forbade those who were deaf and dumb from birth to make +a will or bequest, placing them under the care of guardians who +were responsible for them to the state; though if a deaf person +had lost hearing after having been educated, and could either +speak or write, he retained his rights. Herodotus refers to a +deaf son of Croesus, whom he declares to have suddenly recovered +his speech upon seeing his father about to be killed. Gellius +makes a similar statement with reference to a certain athlete. +Hippocrates was in advance of Aristotle when he realized that +deaf-mutes did not speak simply because they did not know how +to; for the last-named seems to have considered that some defect +of the intellect was the cause of their inability to utter articulate +sounds. Pliny the elder and Messalla Corvinus mention deaf-mutes +who could paint.</p> + +<p>The true mental condition of the deaf was realized, however, +by few, if any, before the time of Christ. He, as He opened the +ears of the deaf man and loosened his tongue, talked to him in his +own language, the language of signs.</p> + +<p>St Augustine erred amazingly when he declared that the deaf +could have no faith, since “faith comes by hearing only.” The +Talmud, on the other hand, recognized that they could be taught, +and were therefore not idiotic.</p> + +<p>It is, however, with those who attempted to educate the deaf +that we are here chiefly concerned. The first to call for notice +is St John of Beverley. The Venerable Bede tells how this bishop +made a mute speak and was credited with having performed a +miracle in so doing. Probably it was nothing more than the first +attempt to teach by the oral method, and the greatest credit is due +to him for being so far in advance of his times as to try to instruct +his pupil at all. Bede himself invented a system of counting on +the hands; and also a “manual speech,” as he called it,—using +his numerals to indicate the number of the letter of the alphabet; +thus, the sign for “seven” would also signify the letter “g,” and +so forth. But we do not know that he intended this alphabet +for the use of the deaf.</p> + +<p>It is not until the 16th century that we hear much of anybody +else who was interested in the deaf, but at this date we find +Girolamo Cardan stating that they can be instructed by writing, +after they have been shown the signification of words, since their +mental power is unaffected by their inability to hear.</p> + +<p>Pedro Ponce de Leon (<i>c.</i> 1520-1584), a Spanish Benedictine +monk, is more worthy of notice, as he, to use his own words, +taught the deaf “to speak, read, write, reckon, pray, serve at +the altar, know Christian doctrine, and confess with a loud voice.” +Some he taught languages and science. That he was successful +was proved by other witness than his own, for Panduro, Valles +and de Morales all give details of his work, the last-named giving +an account by one of Ponce’s pupils of his education. De +Morales says further that Ponce de Leon addressed his scholars +either by signs or writing, and that the reply came by speech. +It appears that this master committed his methods to writing. +Though this work is lost it is probable that his system was put +into practice by Juan Pablo Bonet. This Spaniard successfully +instructed a brother of his master the constable of Castile, who +had lost hearing at the age of two. His method corresponded in +a great measure to that which is now called the combined system, +for, in the work which he wrote, he shows how the deaf can be +taught to speak by reducing the letters to their phonetic value, +and also urges that finger-spelling and writing should be used. +The connexion between all three, he goes on to say, should be +shown the pupils, but the manual alphabet should be mastered +first. Nouns he taught by pointing to the objects they represented; +verbs he expressed by pantomime; while the value of +prepositions, adverbs and interjections, as well as the tenses of +verbs, he believed could be learnt by repeated use. The pupil +should be educated by interrogation, conversation, and carefully +graduated reading. The success of Bonet’s endeavours are +borne witness to by Sir Kenelm Digby, who met the teacher at +Madrid.</p> + +<p>Bonifacio’s work on signs, in which he uses every part of +the body for conversational purposes, may be mentioned before +passing to John Bulwer, the first Englishman to treat of teaching +the deaf. In his three works, <i>Philocophus</i>, <i>Chirologia</i> and +<i>Chironomia</i>, he enlarges upon Sir Kenelm Digby’s account, and +argues about the possibility of teaching the deaf by speech. +But he seems to have had no practical experience of the art.</p> + +<p>Dr John Wallis is more important, though it has been disputed +whether he was not indebted to his predecessors for some ideas. +He taught by writing and articulation. He took the trouble to +classify to a certain extent the various sounds, dividing both +vowels and “open” consonants into gutturals, palatals and +labials. The “closed” consonants he subdivided into mutes, +semi-mutes and semi-vowels. Language, Wallis maintained, +should be taught when the pupil had first learned to write, and +the written characters should be associated with some sort of +manual alphabet. Names of things should be given first, and +then the parts of those things, <i>e.g.</i> “body” first, and then, under +that, “head,” “arm,” “foot,” &c. Then the singular and plural +should be given, then possessives and possessive pronouns, +followed by particles, other pronouns and adjectives. These +should be followed by the copulative verb; after which should +come the intransitive verb and its nominative in the different +tenses, and the transitive with its object in the same way. +Lastly, prepositions and conjunctions should be taught. All +this, Wallis held, ought to be done by writing as well as signing, +for he did not lose sight of the fact that “we must learn the +pupil’s language in order to teach him ours.”</p> + +<p>Dr William Holder, who read an essay before the Royal +Society in 1668-1669 on the “Elements of Speech,” added an +appendix concerning the deaf and dumb. He describes the +organs of speech and their positions in articulation, suggesting +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page888" id="page888"></a>888</span> +teaching the pupil the sounds in order of simplicity, though he +held that he must learn to write first. Afterwards the pupil +must associate the letters with a manual alphabet. Holder +notices that dumbness is due to the want of hearing, and therefore +speech can be acquired through watching the lips, though he +admits the task is a laborious one. He also urges the teacher to +be patient and to make the work as interesting to the pupil as +possible. Command of language, he maintains, will enable the +deaf person to read a sentence from the lips if he gets most of the +words; for he will be able to supply those he did not see, from +his knowledge of English.</p> + +<p>Johan Baptist van Helmont treated of the work of the vocal +organs. Amman says that Van Helmont had discovered a +manual alphabet and used it to instruct the deaf, but had not +attained very good results.</p> + +<p>George Sibscota published a work in 1670 called the <i>Deaf +and Dumb Man’s Discourse</i>, in which he contradicts Aristotle’s +opinion that people are dumb because of defects in the vocal +organs; for they are, he believed, dumb because never taught +to speak. They can gain knowledge by sight, he maintained; +can write, converse by signs, speak and lip-read. Ramirez +de Carrion also taught the deaf to speak and write, as did +P. Lana Terzi.</p> + +<p>About George Dalgarno more is known. He wrote, in 1680, +his <i>Didascalocophus</i>, or <i>Deaf-Mute’s Preceptor</i>, in which he makes +the mistake of saying that the deaf have the advantage over the +blind in opportunities for learning language. The deaf can, in +his opinion, be taught to speak, and also to read the lips if the +letters are very distinct. They ought to read, write and spell on +the fingers constantly, but use no signs. Substantives are to +be taught by associating them with the things they represent; +then adjectives should be joined to them. Verbs should be +taught by suiting the action to the words, and associating the +pronouns with them. Other parts of speech should be given as +opportunities of explaining them present themselves. Dalgarno +invented an alphabet, the letters being on the joints of the +fingers and palm of the left hand.</p> + +<p>John Conrad Amman published his <i>Dissertatio de Loquela</i> in +1700. In the first chapter he treats, among other things, of the +nature of the breath and voice and the organs of speech. In +the second chapter he classifies sounds into vowels, semi-vowels +and consonants, and a detailed description of each sound is given. +The third chapter is devoted to showing how to produce and +control the voice, to utter each sound from writing or from the +lips, and to combine them into syllables and words. It was only +after the pupil had attained to considerable success in articulation +and lip-reading that Amman taught the meaning of words and +language; but the name of this teacher will long stand as that +of one of the most successful the world has known.</p> + +<p>Passing over Camerarius, Schott, Kerger (who began teaching +language sooner than Amman did, and depended more on writing +and signs), Raphel (who instructed three deaf daughters), Lasius, +Arnoldi, Lucas, Vanin, de Fay (himself deaf) and many others, +we come to Giacobbo Rodriguez Pereira, the pioneer of deaf-mute +education in France, if we except de Fay. Beginning his experience +by instructing his deaf sister, he soon attained to considerable +success with two other pupils; his chief aim being, as he +said, to make them comprehend the meaning of, and express their +thoughts in, language. A commission of the French Academy +of Sciences, before whom he appeared, testified to the genuineness +of his achievements, noticing that he wrote and signed to his +pupils, and stating that he hoped to proceed to the instruction +of lip-reading. Pereira soon after came under the notice of the +duc de Chaulnes, whose deaf godson, Saboureaux de Fontenay, +became his pupil; and in five years this boy was well able +to speak and read the lips. Pereira had several other pupils. +Probably kindness and affection were two of the secrets of his +success, for the love his scholars showed for him was unbounded. +His method is only partly known, but he used a manual alphabet +which indicated the pronunciation of the letters and some +combinations. He used reading and writing; but signs were +only called to his aid when absolutely necessary. Language he +taught by founding it on action where possible, abstract ideas +being gradually developed in later stages of the education.</p> + +<p>We now come to the abbé de l’Epée (<i>q.v.</i>). The all-important +features in this teacher’s character and method were his intense +devotion to his scholars and their class, and the fact that he +lived among them and talked to them as one of themselves. +Meeting with two girls who were deaf, he started upon the task +of instructing them, and soon had a school of sixty pupils, supported +entirely by himself. He spared himself no expense and +no trouble in doing his utmost to benefit the deaf, learning +Spanish for the sole purpose of reading Bonet’s work, and making +this book and Amman’s <i>Dissertatio de Loquela</i> his guiding lights. +But de l’Epée was the first to attach great importance to signs; +and he used them, along with writing, until the pupil had some +knowledge of language before he passed on to articulation and +lip-reading. To the latter method, however, he never paid as +much attention as he did to instructing by signs and writing, +and finally he abandoned it altogether through lack of time and +means. He laboured long on a dictionary of signs, but never +completed it. He was attacked by Pereira, who condemned his +method as being detrimental, and this was the beginning of the +disputes as to the merits of the different methods which have +lasted to the present day; but whatever opinions we may hold +as to the best means of instructing the deaf we cannot but admire +the devoted teacher who spent his life and his all in benefiting +this class of the community.</p> + +<p>Samuel Heinicke first began his work in 1754 at Dresden, but +in 1778 he removed to Leipzig and started on the instruction of +nine pupils. His methods he kept secret; but we know that he +taught orally, using signs only when he considered them helpful, +and spelling only to combine ideas. He wrote two books and +several articles on the subject of educating the deaf, but it is +from Walther and Fornari that we learn most about his system. +At first Heinicke laid stress on written language, starting with the +concrete and going on to the abstract; and he only passed to oral +instruction when the pupils could express themselves in fairly correct +language. Subsequently, however, he expressed the opinion +that speech should be the sole method of instruction, and, strange +to say, that by speech alone could thoughts be fully expressed.</p> + +<p>Henry Baker became tutor to a deaf girl in 1720, and his success +led to the establishment of a private school in London. He also +kept his system a secret, but recently his work on lessons for +the deaf was discovered, from which we gather that he adopted +writing, drawing, speech and lip-reading as his course of instruction. +The point to notice is that after the primary stages Baker +turned events of every-day life to use in his teaching. His pupils +went about with him, and he taught by conversation upon what +they saw in the streets,—an excellent method; but it is a pity +that such a good teacher had not the philanthropy to make his +methods known and to give the poorer deaf the benefit of them, +as de l’Epée did.</p> + +<p>A school was established in Edinburgh in 1760 by Thomas +Braidwood, who taught by the oral method. He taught the sounds +first, then syllables, and finally words, teaching their meaning. +In 1783 Braidwood came to Hackney, whence he moved to Old +Kent Road, and in 1809 there were seventy pupils in what was +lately the Old Kent Road Institution. Braidwood’s method was +practically a development of Wallis’s. We must regard him as +the founder of the first public school for the deaf in England.</p> + +<p>It was only at the beginning of the 19th century that a brighter +day dawned on the deaf as a class. With the sole exception of +de l’Epée no teacher had yet undertaken the instruction of a deaf +child who could not pay for it. Now things began to be different. +Institutions were founded, and their doors were opened to nearly +all.</p> + +<p>Dr Watson, the first principal of the Old Kent Road “Asylum,” +taught by articulation and lip-reading, reading and writing, +explaining by signs to some extent, but using pictures much +more, according to Addison, and composing a book of these for +the use of his pupils. From Addison (<i>Deaf Mutism</i>, pp. 248 ff.) +we learn what developments followed. In Vienna, Prague and +Berlin, schools had been founded in rapid succession before +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page889" id="page889"></a>889</span> +the 19th century dawned, and in 1810 the Edinburgh institution +opened its doors. Nine years later the Glasgow school was +established and, under the able guidance of Mr Duncan +Anderson (after several other headmasters had been tried) from +1831, taught pupils whose grasp of English was equal to that of +the very best educated deaf in England to-day, as has been +proved by conversation with the survivors. Mr Anderson’s great +aim was to teach his pupils language, and we might look almost +in vain for a teacher in England to succeed as well with a whole +class in the beginning of the 20th century as he did in the +middle of the 19th. He wrote a dictionary, used pictures +and signs to explain English, and apparently paid little or +no attention to most of the numerous subjects attempted +to-day in schools for the deaf, which, while excellent in themselves, +generally exclude what is far more important from the +curriculum.</p> + +<p>Addison further mentions Mr Baker of Doncaster, a contemporary +of Anderson, as having compiled many lesson books +for deaf children which came to be used in ordinary schools +also, and Mr Scott of Exeter as having, together with Baker, +“exercised a profound influence on the course of deaf-mute +education in this country.” “Written language,” explained by +signs where necessary, was the watchword of these teachers.</p> + +<p>Moritz Hill is credited with being principally responsible for +having evolved the German, or “pure,” oral method out of the +experimental stage to that at which it has arrived at the present +day. Arnold of Riehen is also honourably mentioned.</p> + +<p>The great “oral revival” now swept all before it. The +German method was enthusiastically welcomed in all parts of +Europe, and at the Milan conference in 1880 was almost unanimously +adopted by teachers from all countries. Those in high +places countenanced it; educational authorities awoke to the +fact that the deaf needed special teaching, and came to the +conclusion that the “pure” oral method was the panacea that +would restore all the deaf to a complete equality with the hearing +in any conversation upon any subject that might be broached; +many governments suddenly took the deaf under the shelter +of their own ample wings, and the “bottomless pocket of the +ratepayer,” instead of the purse of the charitable, became in +many cases the fount of supply for what has been a costly and by +no means entirely satisfactory experiment in the history of their +education. The “pure” oral method has had a long and unique +trial in England in circumstances which other methods have +never enjoyed.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile in the United States Dr Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet +was elected in 1815 to go to Europe to inquire into the methods +of educating the deaf in vogue there. This was at a meeting +held in the house of a physician named Cogswell, in Hartford, +Connecticut, and was the result of the latter’s discovery that +eighty-four persons in the state besides his own little girl were +deaf. Henry Winter Syle, himself deaf, tells how “four months +were spent in learning that the doors of the British schools were +‘barred with gold, and opened but to golden keys,’” and how, +disappointed in England, Gallaudet met with a ready response +to his inquiries in Paris. With Laurent Clerc, a deaf teacher, +he returned to the United States in 1816, and the “Connecticut +Asylum” was founded a year after with seven pupils. The name +was changed to “The American Asylum” later, when it was +enlarged. This was followed by the Pennsylvania, New York and +Kentucky institutions, with the second of which the Peet family +were connected. Dr Gallaudet married one of his deaf pupils, +Sophia Fowler, and, after a very happy married life, Mrs Gallaudet +accompanied her youngest son, Edward Miner Gallaudet, +to the Columbia institution for the Deaf and Dumb, Washington, +D.C., founded in 1857 by Congress and largely supported by +Amos Kendall, and to the National Deaf Mute College, which +was founded in 1864, was renamed the Gallaudet College, in +honour of Dr T. H. Gallaudet, in 1893, and with the Kendall +School (secondary), now forms the Columbia Institution. This +college is supported by Congress.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following account of the work done at the National Deaf-Mute +College at Washington is worth attention, as the results are +unique, and are often strangely ignored.</p> + +<p>Here is a statement of the course for the B.A. degree:—</p> + +<p>First year: Algebra, grammar, punctuation, history of England, +composition, Latin grammar, Caesar.</p> + +<p>Second year: Algebra (from quadratics), geometry, composition, +Caesar (Gallic War), Cicero (Orations), Allen and Greenough’s +<i>Latin Grammar</i>, Myer’s <i>General History</i>, Goodwin’s <i>Greek Grammar</i> +(optional), Xenophon’s <i>Anabasis</i> (optional).</p> + +<p>Third year: Olney’s or Loomis’s <i>Plane and Spherical Trigonometry</i>, +Loomis’s <i>Analytical Geometry</i> (optional), Orton’s <i>Zoology</i>, +Gray’s <i>Botany</i>, Remsen’s <i>Chemistry</i>, laboratory practice, Virgil’s +<i>Aeneid</i>, Homer’s <i>Iliad</i> (optional), Meiklejohn’s <i>History of English +Literature and Language</i> (two books), Maertz’s <i>English Literature</i>, +Hadley’s <i>History</i>, original composition.</p> + +<p>Fourth year: Loomis’s <i>Calculus</i> (optional), Dana’s <i>Mechanics</i>, +Gage’s <i>Natural Philosophy</i>, Young’s <i>Astronomy</i>, laboratory practice, +qualitative analysis, Steel’s Hygienic <i>Physiology</i>, Edgren’s <i>French +Grammar</i>, Super’s <i>French Reader, Demosthenes on the Crown</i> +(optional), Hart’s <i>Composition and Rhetoric</i>, original composition, +Hill’s-Jevon’s <i>Elementary Logic</i>.</p> + +<p>Fifth year: Arnold’s <i>Manual of English Literature</i>, Maertz’s +<i>English Literature</i>, original composition, Guizot’s <i>History of Civilization</i>, +Sheldon’s <i>German Grammar</i>, Joynes’s <i>German Reader</i>, LeConte’s +<i>Geology</i>, Guyot’s <i>Earth and Man</i>, Hill’s <i>Elements of Psychology</i>, +Haven’s <i>Moral Philosophy</i>, Butler’s <i>Analogy</i>, Bascom’s <i>Elements of +Beauty</i>, Perry’s <i>Political Economy</i>, Gallaudet’s <i>International Law</i>.</p> + +<p>Even in 1893 we were told that of the graduates of the college +“fifty-seven have been engaged in teaching, four have entered the +ministry; three have become editors and publishers of newspapers; +three others have taken positions connected with journalism; fifteen +have entered the civil service of the government,—one of these, who +had risen rapidly to a high and responsible position, resigned to enter +upon the practice of law in patent cases, in Cincinnati and Chicago, +and has been admitted to practise in the Supreme Court of the +United States; one is the official botanist of a state, who has correspondents +in several countries of Europe who have repeatedly +purchased his collections, and he has written papers upon seed tests +and related subjects which have been published and circulated by +the agricultural department; one, while filling a position as instructor +in a western institution, has rendered important service to the coast +survey as a microscopist, and one is engaged as an engraver in the +chief office of the survey; of three who became draughtsmen in +architects’ offices, one is in successful practice as an architect on his +own account, which is also true of another, who completed his preparation +by a course of study in Europe; one has been repeatedly +elected recorder of deeds in a southern city, and two others are +recorders’ clerks in the west; one was elected and still sits as a city +councilman; another has been elected city treasurer and is at present +cashier of a national bank; one has become eminent as a practical +chemist and assayer; two are members of the faculty of the college, +and two others are rendering valuable service as instructors therein; +some have gone into mercantile and other offices; some have undertaken +business on their own account; while not a few have chosen +agricultural and mechanical pursuits, in which the advantages of +thorough mental training will give them a superiority over those not +so well educated. Of those alluded to as having engaged in teaching, +one has been the principal of a flourishing institution in Pennsylvania; +one is now in his second year as principal of the Ohio institution; one +has been at the head of a day school in Cincinnati, and later of the +Colorado institution; a third has had charge of the Oregon institution; +a fourth is at the head of a day school in St Louis; three +others have respectively founded and are now at the head of schools +in New Mexico, North Dakota, and Evansville, Indiana, and others +have done pioneer work in establishing schools in Florida and in +Utah.”</p> + +<p>Later years would unfold a similar tale of subsequent students; in +1907 there were 134 in the college and 59 in the Kendall School.</p> + +<p>There is a normal department attached to the college, to which are +admitted six hearing young men and women for one year who are +recommended as being anxious to study methods of teaching the deaf +and likely to profit thereby. Their course of study for 1898-1899 +included careful training in the oral method, instruction in Bell’s +<i>Visible Speech</i>, instruction in the anatomy of the vocal organs, +lectures on sound, observation of methods, oral and manual, in +Kendall School, lectures on various subjects connected with the deaf +and their education, lectures on pedagogy, lessons in the language of +signs, practical work with classes in Kendall School under the direction +of the teachers, correction of essays of the introductory class, +&c. But the greatest advantage of the year’s course is that the half-dozen +hearing students live in the college, have their meals with the +hundred deaf, and mix with them all day long—if they wish it—in +social intercourse and recreation. We are very far indeed from +saying that one such year is sufficient to make a hearing man a +qualified teacher of the deaf, but the arrangement is based on the +right principle, and it sets his feet on the right path to learn how to +teach—so far as this art can be learned. The recent regulation of +the board of education in England, prohibiting hearing pupil teachers +in schools for the deaf, is deplorable, retrograde and inimical to the +best interests of the deaf. It shows a complete ignorance of their +needs. The younger a teacher begins to mix with that class the better +he will teach them.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page890" id="page890"></a>890</span></p> + +<p>In 1886 a royal commission investigated the condition and +education of the deaf in Great Britain, and in 1889 issued its +report. Some of the recommendations most worthy of notice +were that deaf children from seven to sixteen years of age should +be compelled to attend a day school or institution, part, or the +whole, of the expense being borne by the local school authority; +that technical instruction should be given, and that all the +children should be taught to speak and lip-read on the “pure” +oral method unless physically or mentally disqualified, those who +had partial hearing or remains of speech being entirely educated +by that method. To the last mentioned recommendation—concerning +the method to be adopted—two of the commissioners +took exception, and another stated his recognition of some +advantage in the manual method.</p> + +<p>As a result of the report of the royal commission a bill was +passed in 1893 making it compulsory for all deaf children to be +educated. This was to be done by the local education authority, +either by providing day classes or an institution for them, or by +sending them to an already existing institution, parents having +the choice, within reasonable limits, of the school to which the +child should go. School-board classes came into existence in +almost every large town where there was no institution, and +sometimes where one existed. Those who uphold the day-school +system advance the arguments that the pupils are not, under it, +cut off from the influence of home life as they are in institutions; +that such influences are of great advantage; that this system +permits the deaf to mix freely with their hearing brethren, &c. +The objections, however, to this arrangement outweigh its +possible advantages. The latter, indeed, amount to little; for +home influences in many cases, especially in the poorer parts of +the large cities, are not the best, and communication with the +hearing children who attend some of the day schools may not +be an unmixed blessing, nor is freedom to run wild on the streets +between school hours. But it may be urged further that it is +difficult, except in very large towns, to obtain a sufficient +number of deaf children attending a day school to classify them +according to their status, while it is more than one teacher can do +to give sufficient attention to several children, each at a different +stage of instruction from any other. Moreover, the deaf need +more than mere school work; they need training in morals and +manners, and receive much less of it from their parents than their +hearing brothers and sisters. This can only be given in an institution +wherein they board and lodge as well as attend classes. The +existing institutions were from 1893 placed, by the act of that +date, either partly or wholly under the control of the school +board. They were put under the inspection of the government, +and as long as they fulfilled the requirements of the inspectors +as regards education, manual and physical training, outdoor recreation +and suitable class-room and dormitory accommodation, +they might remain in the hands of a committee who collected, +or otherwise provided, one-third of the total expenditure, and +received two-thirds from public sources. Or else, the institution +might be surrendered entirely to the management of the public +school authority, and then the whole of the expenditure was to +be borne by that body. Extra government grants of five guineas +per pupil are now given for class work and manual or technical +training. Such is the state of things at the present day, except, +of course, that the school board has given place to the county +council as local authority.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Some teachers have asked for the children to be sent to school at +the age of five instead of seven. This savours of another confession +that the “pure” oral method had not done what was expected of +it at first. First, the demand was for the method itself; then came requests +for more teachers, so that, the classes being smaller, each pupil +should receive more attention; this meant more money, and so this +was asked for; then day schools would remedy the failure by giving +the pupils opportunities of talking with the public in general; then +we were told the teachers were unskilful; finally, more time is +needed. And yet the <i>language</i> of the pupils is no better to-day than +it was in 1881, even though they were at school only four or five +years then as opposed to nine or ten now.</p> + +<p>To Addison’s <i>Report on a Visit to some Continental Schools for the +Deaf</i> (1904-1905) we are indebted for the following information. +The new school at Frankfort-on-Maine, accommodating forty or fifty +children at a cost of £40 to £50 per head, is modelled on the plan of +<span class="sidenote">Foreign schools.</span> +a family home. The main objects are to obtain good speech and lip-reading +and to use these colloquially; the work is very +thorough and the teaching very skilful. At Munich those +of the hundred pupils who have some hearing are separated +from the others and taught by ear as well as eye. At Vienna (Royal +Institution) a small proportion of the pupils are day scholars, as they +are at Munich, and the teaching is, of course, carried on by the oral +method, as it is all over Germany. Here, however, the teachers +“think it impossible to educate fully all deaf-mutes by the oral +method only.” In the Jews’ Home at Vienna the semi-deaf are +taught by the acoustic method, and are not allowed to see the +teacher’s lips at all. At Dresden, a large school of 240 pupils, the +director favours smaller institutions than his own, considers the oral +method possible for all but the “weak-minded deaf,” and divides his +pupils into A, B and C divisions, according to intellect. In the first +division good speech is obtained. Saxony boasts a home for deaf +homeless women, grants premiums for deaf apprentices, and trains +its teachers of the deaf in the institution itself—a good record and +plan. In the royal institution at Berlin Addison saw good lip-reading +and thorough work, though the deaf in the city—as in most of the +schools—signed. The men in Berlin “like the adult deaf generally, +were all in favour of a combination of methods, and condemned the +pure oral theory as impracticable.” At Hamburg, again, “hand +signs” were used at least for Sunday service. Schleswig has two +schools. Pupils are admitted first to the residential institution, +where they are instructed for a year, and are then divided into A, B and +C classes, “according to intellect.” The lowest class (C) remain at +this institution for the rest of the eight years, and a “certain amount +of signing” is allowed in their instruction. A and B classes are +boarded out in the town and attend classes at a day school specially +built for them, being taught orally exclusively.</p> + +<p>In Denmark Addison saw what impressed him most. All the +children of school age go to Fredericia and remain for a year in the +boarding institution. They are then examined and the semi-deaf—29% +of the whole—are sent to Nyborg. The rest—all the totally +deaf—remain another year at Fredericia and are then divided into +the A, B and C divisions before mentioned, and on the same criterion—intellect. +Those in C—the lowest class, 28% of the totally deaf—are +sent to Copenhagen, where they are taught by the manual +method, no oral work being attempted. Those in B class, numbering +19% of the deaf, remain in the residential institution in Fredericia +and are taught orally, while the best pupils—A class—are boarded +out in the town and attend a special day school. These form 26% +of the deaf, and those with whom they live encourage them to speak +when out of as well as when in school. The buildings and equipment +generally are excellent. “Hand signs” are used at Nyborg, indicating +the position of the vocal organs when speaking, and, as might +be expected, the “lip”-reading is 90% more correct when these +symbols—infinitely more visible than most of the movements of the +vocal organs and face when speaking—are used at the same time. +The idea of these hand signs, by the way, corresponds to that of +Graham Bell’s <i>Visible Speech</i>, in which a written symbol is used to +indicate the position of the vocal organs when uttering each sound; +it is a kind of phonetic writing which is to a slight extent illustrative +at the same time. We find natural signs of the utmost value when +teaching articulation, to describe the position of the vocal organs. +We give these details from Mr Addison’s notes because it is to +Germany that so many look for guidance to-day, and it is the home +of the so-called “pure” oral method; while the system of classification +in Denmark into the four schools which are controlled by one +authority, struck him very favourably and so is given rather fully.</p> + +<p>In France most of the schools are supported by charity, and the +only three government institutions are those at Paris for boys, with +263 pupils lately, at Bordeaux for girls, having 225 inmates, and at +Chambéry with 86 boys and 38 girls. In the great majority the +method of instruction is professedly pure oral. “But,” said Henri +Gaillard (<i>Report, World’s Congress of the Deaf</i>, Missouri, 1904), “this +is only in appearance. In reality all of the schools use the combined +method; only they are not willing to admit it, because the oral method +is the official method, imposed by the inspectors of the minister of +the interior.”</p> + +<p>In Italy, again, we are told that the teachers sign in most of the +schools, which are professedly pure oral.</p> + +<p>In Sweden, schools for the deaf have ceased to depend, as they +did up to 1891, upon private benevolence. The system is generally +the combined, and in schools where the oral method is adopted the +pupils are divided into A, B and C divisions, as in Denmark and +Dresden, in the two latter divisions of which signs are allowed. In +Norway the method is the oral.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Methods of Teaching.</i>—There have always been two principal +methods of teaching the deaf, and all education at the present +time is carried on by means of one or other or both of these. +Where there is sufficient hearing to be utilized, instruction is +sometimes given thereby as well, though this auricular method +does not seem to make much headway, and experience is not in +favour of believing that the sense of hearing, where a little +exists, can be “cultivated” to any marked degree. It is really +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page891" id="page891"></a>891</span> +impossible to draw hard and fast lines between these means of +instruction. One merges into another, and this other into the +next; and no two teachers will, or can, adopt exactly the same +lines. It is not desirable that they should, for much must be left +to individuality. Orders, rules, methods, should not be absolute +laws. Observe them generally, but dispense with them as circumstances, +the pupil and opportunity may require. Strong +individuality, sympathy, enthusiasm, long intercourse with the +deaf, are needed in the teacher, and it is surely obvious that +every teacher should have a full command of all the primary +means of instruction to begin with, and not of one only.</p> + +<p>Where deafness is absolute, or practically so, we have to seek +for means that will appeal to the eye instead of the ear. Of these, +we have the sign language, writing and printing, pictures, manual +alphabets and lip-reading. We have to choose which of these is +to be used, if not all, and which must be rejected, if any. Moreover, +we have to decide how much or how little one or another is +to be adopted if we employ more than one. Hence it is obvious +that there may be many different systems and subdivisions of +systems. But the two main methods are the <i>manual</i>, which +generally depends upon all the above-mentioned means of +appealing to the eye except lip-reading, and the <i>oral</i>, which +adopts what the manual method rejects, uses writing and +printing and perhaps pictures, but excludes finger-spelling and +(theoretically) signs. To these two we must add a third means +of instruction—the <i>combined system</i>—which rejects no means of +teaching, but uses all in most cases. The dual method need hardly +be called a separate method or system, for it implies simply the +use of the manual method for some pupils and of the oral for +others. Nor need we call the mother’s (= intuitive or natural) +a separate method in the sense in which we are using the word +here, for it is rather a mode of procedure which can be applied +manually or orally indifferently. The same may be said of the +grammatical “method”; also of the “word method,” which is +really the “mother’s.” The “eclectic method” is practically +the combined system, or something between that and the dual +method, and hardly needs separate classification.</p> + +<p>Let us notice the manual method, the oral method, and the +combined system, considering with the last the “dual method.”</p> + +<p>The chief elements of the manual method are finger-spelling, +reading and writing and signing. These are used, that is to say, +as means of teaching English and imparting ideas. +<span class="sidenote">Manual.</span> +Signs are used to awaken the child’s thoughts, finger-spelling +and writing are used to express these thoughts in the +vernacular. The latter are used to express English, the former +to explain English.</p> + +<p>We give two manual alphabets, the one-handed being used in +America, on the continent of Europe with some variations and +additions, in Ireland, and also to some extent in England; the +two-handed in Great Britain, Ireland and Australia. A speed of +130 words a minute can be attained when spelling on the fingers. +Words are quite readable at this speed.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:900px; height:150px" src="images/img891a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">The Manual Alphabet. (One-handed.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:900px; height:162px" src="images/img891b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—The Manual Alphabet. (Two-handed.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Although reading and writing are common to both methods, +the manual and oral, as a matter of fact they seem to be used +considerably more in the former than in the latter.</p> + +<p>In the oral method articulation and lip-reading are chiefly +relied upon; reading and writing are also adopted. The phonetic +<span class="sidenote">Oral.</span> +values of the letters are taught, not the names of the +letters; for instance, the <i>sound</i> of the letter <i>ă</i> in “hat” +is taught instead of the <i>name</i> of the letter (long A), though of +course the latter is taught where such is the proper pronunciation, +as in “hate.”</p> + +<p>Here is a chart which was lately in use:</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Articulation Sheets.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb sc" colspan="8">Analysis of the Vowel Sounds.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Long.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Middle.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Short.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Broad.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm f80 lb bb">Diacritic<br />mark.</td> <td class="tccm f80 rb bb">Phonetic<br />spelling.</td> + <td class="tccm f80 bb">Diacritic<br />mark.</td> <td class="tccm f80 rb bb">Phonetic<br />spelling.</td> + <td class="tccm f80 bb">Diacritic<br />mark.</td> <td class="tccm f80 rb bb">Phonetic<br />spelling.</td> + <td class="tccm f80 bb">Diacritic<br />mark.</td> <td class="tccm f80 rb bb">Phonetic<br />spelling.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm lb">fāt(e)</td> <td class="tclm rb">= feit</td> <td class="tclm">fär</td> <td class="tclm rb">= far</td> <td class="tclm">făt</td> <td class="tclm rb">= fat</td> <td class="tclm">fãll</td> <td class="tcl rb">= fawl<br /> fol</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm lb">mē</td> <td class="tcl rb">= mee<br /> mi</td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tclm">mět</td> <td class="tclm rb">= met</td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">pīn(e)</td> <td class="tcl rb">= pain</td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl">pĭn</td> <td class="tcl rb">= pin</td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">nō</td> <td class="tcl rb">= nou</td> <td class="tcl">möve</td> <td class="tcl rb">= muv</td> <td class="tcl">nŏt</td> <td class="tcl rb">= not</td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb bb">tūb(e)</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">= tiub</td> <td class="tcl bb">büll</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">= bul</td> <td class="tcl bb">tŭb</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">= tub</td> <td class="tcl bb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center">Order in which the Vowel Sounds are to be taught.</p> + +<div class="center"><img style="width:526px; height:340px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img891c.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">The consonants are as follows, though the order of teaching +them varies:—</p> + +<p>p; f; s; h; sh; v = <i>f</i>; th (thin; moth); <i>th</i> (then; smooth); +l; r; t; k; b; d; g (go; egg); z = <i>s</i>; m; n; ch = tsh; j = dzh = g; +ph = f; kc = k; cs = s; q = kw; x = ks; ng; w = oo; wh = hw; y = e.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page892" id="page892"></a>892</span></p> + +<p>The following mode of writing the sounds is now preferred by +some as it renders the diacritic marks unnecessary:—</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Middle, Broad and Long Vowel Sounds.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc">ar</td> <td class="tcc">or</td> <td class="tcc">oo</td> <td class="tcc">ee</td> <td class="tcc">er</td> <td class="tcc">oa</td> <td class="tcc">igh</td> <td class="tcc">ai</td> <td class="tcc">ew</td> <td class="tcc">oi</td> <td class="tcc">ou</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc">aw</td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc">ea</td> <td class="tcc">ir</td> <td class="tcc">o-e</td> <td class="tcc">i-e</td> <td class="tcc">a-e</td> <td class="tcc">u-e</td> <td class="tcc">oy</td> <td class="tcc">ow</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc">au</td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc">ur</td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc">ay</td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc">a—</td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Short Vowel Sounds.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc">a</td> <td class="tcc">o</td> <td class="tcc">oo</td> <td class="tcc">e</td> <td class="tcc">i</td> <td class="tcc">u</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Consonants.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm">h</td> <td class="tccm">p</td> <td class="tccm cl">ph<br />f</td> <td class="tccm">t</td> <td class="tccm">s</td> <td class="tccm">th</td> <td class="tccm">sh</td> <td class="tccm">ch</td> <td class="tccm cl">k<br />ck</td> <td class="tccm">l</td> <td class="tccm">r</td> <td class="tccm">m</td> <td class="tccm">n</td> <td class="tccm">ng</td> <td class="tccm">w</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm"> </td> <td class="tccm">b</td> <td class="tccm">v</td> <td class="tccm">d</td> <td class="tccm">z</td> <td class="tccm"><i>th</i></td> <td class="tccm">zh</td> <td class="tccm cl">j<br />dzh</td> <td class="tccm">g</td> <td class="tccm"> </td> <td class="tccm"> </td> <td class="tccm"> </td> <td class="tccm"> </td> <td class="tccm"> </td> <td class="tccm"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>These charts are given as examples of those used, but they +vary in different schools, as does the order of teaching the vowel +and consonant sounds and the combinations. The exact order +is not important. Words are made up by combining vowels and +consonants as soon as the pupil can say each sound separately.</p> + +<p>Here are extracts from the directions on articulation written +by a principal to the teacher of the lowest class, which show the +method of procedure:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<div class="list"> +<p>“(1) Produce the sound of a letter. Each pupil to reproduce, +and write it on the tablet.</p> + +<p>(2) Point to the letter on the tablet, and make each pupil say it.</p> + +<p>(3) The same with combinations of vowels and consonants.</p> + +<p>(4) Instead of tablet, each pupil to use rough exercise-book.</p> + +<p>(5) Write on tablet and make each pupil articulate from +teacher’s writing.</p> + +<p>(6) When a combination is made of which a word may be made +make all write it in their books, thus:—’te—tea,’ ‘shō—show,’ +‘ŏv—of,’ ‘nālz—nails,’ &c.</p> + +<p>(7) When one pupil produces a combination correctly make +the others lip-read it from him. In this way make them +exercise each other.</p> + +<p>(8) When they have a good many sounds and combinations +written in their books make them sit down and say them +off their books as hearing children do.</p> + +<p>(9) Make them say the sounds off the cards, and form combinations +on the cards for them to say.</p> + +<p>(10) Take each vowel separately and make each pupil use it +before and after each consonant.</p> + +<p>(11) Take each consonant and put it before and after each vowel.</p> +</div> + +<p>“The above will suggest other exercises to the teacher.</p> + +<p>“Give breathing exercises. Incite emulation as to deep breathing +and slow expiration. Never force the voice. Make the pupil speak +out, but do not let him strain either the voice or vocal organs. Do +not force the tongue, lips, or any organ into position more than you +can help. Do all as gently as possible. Register their progress. +‘Ä’ (as in ‘path’; ‘father’). As ‘Ä’ is the basis of all the vowels, +being most like all, it is taken first. It is an open vowel. Do not +make grimaces, or exaggerate. If false sound be produced do not let +the pupil speak loudly; make him speak quietly. If nasal sound be +produced do not pinch the nose, but first take the back of the child’s +hand, warmly breathe on it, or get a piece of glass, and let the child +breathe on it, or press the back of the tongue down. Show the child +that when you are saying ‘a’ your tongue lies flat or nearly so, and +you do not raise the back of the tongue. Prefix ‘h’ to ‘a’ and +make the pupil say ‘ha’ first, then ‘a’ alone.</p> + +<p>“‘P.’ If the child does not imitate at the first the teacher should +take the back of the hand and let the child feel the puff of air as ‘p’ +is formed on the lips.</p> + +<p>“‘P’ is produced by the volume of air brought into the cavity of +the mouth being, checked by the perfect closure of the lips, which are +then opened, and the accumulated air is propelled. The outburst of +this propelled air creates the sound of ‘p.’ Take the pupil to see +porridge boiling. Pretend to smoke. ‘P’ is taken first because it +has no vibration and is the most simple. The consonants should +first be joined to each vowel separately, and to prevent the pupils +making an after-sound the letters should be said with a pause +between, viz. ‘A . . p,’ and as they become more familiar with them, +lessen the pause until it is pronounced properly:—‘ap.’”</p> +</div> + +<p>These directions, which are only brief examples of those given +for one particular subject in one particular class, will give an +idea of the mode of beginning to teach articulation and lip-reading.</p> + +<p>The combined system, as before mentioned, makes use of both +the manual and oral method, as well as the auricular, without +any hard and fast rule as regards the amount of instruction +<span class="sidenote">Combined method.</span> +to be given by means of each, but using more of +one and less of another, or <i>vice versa</i>, according to the +aptitude of the child. It thus follows the sensible, obvious plan +of fitting the method to the child and not the unnatural one of +forcing the child to try to fit the method.</p> + +<p>The following is the way the same principal would teach +language to beginners by the combined system:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“The letters p, q, b and d of the Roman text are to be taught first. +The pupils are to do them 9 in. long on the blackboard or tablet first; +then trace them on the frames; then on slips of paper with pen and +ink, or in rough exercise-book with pen and ink.</p> + +<p>“The whole of the Roman text is then to be taught in the same +manner, also the small and capital script.</p> + +<p>“When the English alphabet has been mastered in the above four +forms the pupil may proceed to the printing and writing of his own +name. Then his teacher’s and class-mates’ names. Then the names +of other persons and the places, things and actions with which he +has to do in his daily life. Every direction the teacher has to give in +school and out of school should be expressed in speech, writing or +finger-spelling, or by any two or all three means. Repetition of such +directions by the pupil enables him to learn words before he has +finished the alphabet.</p> + +<p>“All words to be spelled on one hand first; then two. When a few +words have been memorized, they should be written on slips of paper, +then in the exercise-books and dated. After this there should be +further repetition and exercising. The same course should be taken +with phrases and short sentences. Names of persons should be written +on cards and slips of paper and pinned to the chest. Names of things +to be affixed to them, or written on them. Names of apartments on +cards laid in the rooms. Where the object is not available use a +picture, or draw the outline and make pupil do the same. Never +nod, or point, or jerk the finger, or use any other gesture, without +previously giving the word, and when the latter is understood drop +the gesture altogether.</p> + +<p>“Never allow a single mistake to pass uncorrected, and make pupils +always learn the corrections.</p> + +<p>“Language should be a translation of life. It should proceed all day +long, out of school as well as in it. If spoken so much the better, but +finger-spelling is not a hindrance but a valuable help to its acquisition.</p> + +<p>“In most language lessons, especially those exemplifying a particular +form of sentence, the pupils should:</p> + +<p>“(1) Correct each other’s mistakes. Correct ‘mistakes’ designedly +made by the teacher.</p> + +<p>“(2) Teacher rubs out a word here and there on the blackboard or +tablet; pupils to supply them.</p> + +<p>“(3) Pupils to answer questions, giving the subject, predicate and +object of the sentence as required, <i>e.g.</i> ‘A farmer ploughs the ground.’ +‘Who ploughs the ground?’ ‘What does a farmer do?’ ‘What +does he plough?’ Also additional and illustrative questions; <i>e.g.</i> +‘Does the ground plough the farmer?’ ‘Does a farmer plough the +sea?’ ‘Does he eat the ground?’ &c.</p> + +<p>“The pupils should learn meanings or synonyms of unfamiliar +words before such words are signed.</p> + +<p>“(4) Teacher gives a word, and requires pupils to exemplify it in +a sentence, <i>e.g.</i> ‘sows,’ ‘He sows the seed.’</p> + +<p>“(5) Let them give as many sentences as they can think of in the +same form.</p> + +<p>“Occurrences, incidents, objects, pictures, reading-books, newspaper +cuttings and correspondence should all be used.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The “pure” oral method, as before noticed, came with a +bound into popularity in the early seventies. Since then it has +had everything in its favour, but the results have been +by no means entirely satisfactory, and there is a marked +<span class="sidenote">The best system.</span> +tendency among advocates of this method to withdraw +from the extreme position formerly held. Opinion has +gradually veered round till they have come to seek for some sort +of <i>via media</i> that shall embrace the good points of both methods. +Some now suggest the “dual method”—that those pupils who +show no aptitude for oral training shall be taught exclusively +by the manual method and the rest by the oral only. While this +is a concession which is positively amazing when compared with +the title of the booklet containing utterances of the Abbé Tarra, +president of the Milan conference in 1880—“The <i>Pure</i> Oral +Method the <i>Best</i> for <i>All</i> Deaf Children”!—yet we believe that in +no case should the instruction be given by the oral method alone, +and that the best system is the “combined.” That the combined +system is detrimental to lip-reading has not much more than a +fraction of truth in it, for if the command of language is better +the pupils can supply the lacunae in their lip-reading from their +better knowledge of English. It is found that they have constantly +to guess words and letters from the context. Teach all +by and through finger-spelling, reading, writing and signing +where necessary to explain the English, and teach those in whose +case it is worth it by articulation and lip-reading as well. Signs +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page893" id="page893"></a>893</span> +should be used less and less in class work, and English more and +more exclusively as the pupil progresses—English in any and +every form. A proportion of teachers should be themselves deaf, +as in America. They are in perfect understanding and sympathy +with their pupils, which is not always the case with hearing +teachers. Statistics which we collected in London showed the +following results of the education of 403 deaf pupils after they +had left school:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">Manual.</td> <td class="tcc">Combined.</td> <td class="tcc">Oral.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Quite satisfactory result</td> <td class="tcc">65%</td> <td class="tcc">51%</td> <td class="tcc">20%</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Moderate success</td> <td class="tcc">29%</td> <td class="tcc">41%</td> <td class="tcc">35%</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Unsatisfactory result</td> <td class="tcc">5%</td> <td class="tcc">7%</td> <td class="tcc">44%</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>That the combined system should show to slightly less advantage +than the exclusively manual method is what we might +perhaps expect, for the time given to oral instruction means +time taken from teaching language speedily, the manual method +being, we believe, the best of all for this. But it may be worth +while to lose a little in command of language for the sake of +gaining another means of expressing that language. Hence we +advocate the combined system, regarding speech as merely a +means of expressing English, as writing and finger-spelling are, +and a good sentence written or finger-spelled as being preferable +to a poorer one which is spoken, no matter how distinct the +speech may be. It is no answer to point to a few isolated cases +where the oral method is considered to have succeeded, for one +success does not counterbalance a failure if by another method +you would have had two successes; and, moreover, these oral +successes would have been still greater successes—we are taking +language in any form as our criterion—had the teacher fully +known and judiciously used the manual method as well as the +oral.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>exclusive</i> use of the oral method leads, generally speaking, to +comparative failure, for the following, among other, reasons:—(1) It +is a slow way of teaching English, the learning to speak the elements +of sound taking months at least, and seldom being fully mastered for +years. The “word method,” by the way, starts at once with words +without taking their component phonetic elements separately; but +it has yet to be proved that any quicker progress is made by this +means of teaching speech than by the other. (2) Lip-reading is, to the +deaf, sign-reading with the disadvantage of being both microscopic +and partially hidden. The deaf hear nothing, they only partly <i>see</i> +tiny movements of the vocal organs. Finger-spelling, writing, signing, +are incomparably more visible, while 130 words a minute can be +attained by finger-spelling, and read at that speed. (3) The signs—as +they are to the deaf—made by the vocal organs are entirely +arbitrary, and have not even a fraction of the redeeming feature of +naturalness which oralists demand in ordinary gestures. (4) Circumstances, +such as light, position of the speaker, &c., must be favourable +for the lip-reading to approach certainty. (5) Styles of speech +vary, and it is a constant experience that even pupils who comparatively +easily read their teacher’s lips, to whose style of utterance they +are accustomed, fail to read other people’s lips. (6) There is a great +similarity between certain sounds as seen on the lips, <i>e.g.</i> between <i>t</i> +and <i>d</i>, <i>f</i> and <i>v</i>, <i>p</i> and <i>b</i>, <i>s</i> and <i>z</i>, <i>k</i> and <i>g</i>. Which is meant has usually +to be guessed from the context, and this requires a certain amount of +knowledge of language, which is the very thing that is needed to be +imparted. (7) The deliberate avoidance by the teacher of the pupil’s +own language—signs—as an aid to teaching him English. If a hearing +boy does not understand the meaning of a French word he looks +it up in the dictionary and finds its English equivalent. If the deaf +boy does not understand a word in English, the simplest, quickest, +best way to explain it is, in most cases, to sign it. (8) The distaste +of the pupil for the method. This is common. (9) The mechanical +nature of the method. There is nothing to rouse his interest nor to +appeal to his imagination in it. (10) The temptation to the teacher +to use very simple phrases, owing to the difficulty the pupil has in +reading others from his lips. Consequently the pupil comparatively +seldom learns advanced language.</p> + +<p>Other means of educating the deaf in addition to the oral should +have a fair trial in modern conditions for the same length of time that +the oral method has been in operation. To consider pupils taught +manually in oral schools fair criteria of what can be done by the +manual method or combined system, when those pupils have confessedly +been relegated to the manual class because of “dulness” +(as in the case of the C divisions in Denmark and Dresden), is obviously +unfair. This division, moreover, assumes that the “pure” +oral method is the best for the brightest pupils. The comparing of +oral pupils privately taught by a tutor to themselves with manual +pupils from an institution crippled and hampered by need of funds, +where they had to take their chance in a class of twelve, and the comparison +of oral pupils of twelve years’ standing with combined system +pupils of four years’, are also obviously unfair. Reference may be +made on this subject to Heidsiek’s remarkable articles on the question +of education, which appeared in the <i>American Annals of the Deaf</i> +from April 1899 to January 1900.</p> + +<p>The opinions of the deaf themselves as to the relative merits of the +methods of teaching also demand particular attention. The ignoring +of their expressed sentiments by those in authority is remarkable. +In the case of school children it might fairly be argued that they are +too young to know what is good for them, but with the adult deaf +who have had to learn the value of their education by bitter experience +in the battle of life it is otherwise. In Germany, the home of +the “pure” oral method, 800 deaf petitioned the emperor against +that method. In 1903 no fewer than 2671 of the adult deaf of Great +Britain and Ireland who had passed through the schools signed +a petition in favour of the combined system. The figures are remarkable, +for children under sixteen were excluded, those who had +not been educated in schools for the deaf were excluded, and the +education of the deaf has only lately been made compulsory, while +many thousands who live scattered about the country in isolation +probably never even heard of the petition, and so could not sign it. +In America an overwhelming majority favour the combined system, +and it is in America that by far the best results of education are to be +seen. At the World’s Congress of the Deaf at St Louis in 1904 the +combined system was upheld, as it was at Liége. From France, +Germany, Norway and Sweden, Finland, Italy, Russia, everywhere +in fact where they are educated, the deaf crowd upon us with expressions +of their emphatic conviction, repeated again and again, +that the combined system is what meets their needs best and brings +most happiness into their lives. The majority of deaf in every known +country which is in favour of this means of education is so great that +we venture to say that in no other section of the community could +there be shown such an overwhelming preponderance of opinion on +one side of any question which affects its well-being. In the case of +the rare exceptions, the pupil has almost always been brought up in +the strictest ignorance of the manual method, which he has been +sedulously taught to regard as clumsy and objectionable.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>The Blind Deaf.</i></p> + +<p>In the summary tables (p. 283) of the 1901 British census +the following numbers are given of those suffering from other +afflictions besides deafness:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">1. Blind and deaf and dumb</td> <td class="tcr cl">58</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">2. Blind and deaf</td> <td class="tcr">389</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">3. Blind, deaf and dumb and lunatic</td> <td class="tcr cl">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">4. Blind, deaf and lunatic</td> <td class="tcr">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">5. Deaf and dumb and lunatic</td> <td class="tcr cl">136</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">6. Deaf and lunatic</td> <td class="tcr">51</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">7. Blind, deaf and dumb and feeble-minded</td> <td class="tcr cl">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">8. Blind, deaf and feeble-minded</td> <td class="tcr">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">9. Deaf and dumb and feeble-minded</td> <td class="tcr cl">221</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">10. Deaf and feeble-minded</td> <td class="tcr">100</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In addition to these, 2 are said to be blind, dumb and +lunatic; 20 dumb and lunatic; 3 blind, dumb and feeble-minded, +and 222 dumb and feeble-minded. These are certainly +outside our province, which is the deaf. The “dumbness” in +these four classes is aphasia, due to some brain defect.</p> + +<p>Of those in the list, classes 7, 8, 9 and 10 are (we are strongly +of opinion) incorrectly described, being, as we think, composed of +those who are simply feeble-minded as well as, in classes 7 and 8, +blind. Their so-called “deafness” is merely inability of the +brain to notice what the ear does actually hear and to govern the +vocal organs to produce articulate sound. Many of classes 9 and +10, however, may not be “feeble-minded” at all, but only rather +dull pupils whom their teachers have failed to educate.</p> + +<p>It is safe to say that in some instances in classes 3, 4, 5 and 6 +the persons were only assumed to be deaf. Again, cases of deaf +people who to all appearance could not fairly be called insane +but who may have had violent temper or some slight eccentricity +being relegated to an asylum have come to our notice. A good +teacher might accomplish much with some of these described +as lunatic in classes 5 and 6. Finally, classes 3 and 4 may have +become lunatic owing to the loneliness and brooding inseparable +to a great extent from such terrible afflictions as blindness and +deafness combined. Probably the isolation became intolerable, +and if only they had had some one who understood them to +educate them their reason might have been saved.</p> + +<p>We are most concerned with the first two classes, and in +considering them have to take individual cases separately, as +there is no regular institution for them in Great Britain.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page894" id="page894"></a>894</span></p> + +<p>Mr W. H. Illingworth, head master of the Blind School at Old +Trafford, Manchester, tells how David Maclean, a blind and deaf +boy, was taught, in the 1903 report of the conference of teachers +of the deaf. The boy lost both sight and hearing, but not +before six years of age, which was an advantage, and could still +speak or whisper to some extent when admitted to school. His +teacher began with kindergarten and attempts at proper voice-production. +He gave the sound of “ah” and made David feel +his larynx. Then he tickled the boy under his arms, and when +he laughed made him feel his own larynx, so that the boy should +notice the similarity of the vibration. Then, acting on the +theory that brain-waves are to some extent transmittable, Mr +Illingworth procured a hearing boy as companion, and, ordering +him to keep his mind fixed on the work and to place one hand +on David’s shoulder, made him repeat what was articulated. +The blind-deaf boy’s right hand was placed on Mr Illingworth’s +larynx and the left on the companion’s lips. Thus the pupil felt +the sound and the companion’s imitation of it, and soon reproduced +it himself. From this syllables and words were formed +by degrees. The pupil knew the forms of some letters of the +alphabet in the Roman type before he lost sight and hearing, and +the connexion between them and the Braille characters and +manual alphabet was the next step achieved. This, and all the +steps, were aided to a great extent by the hearing and seeing boy +companion’s sympathetic influence and concentration of mind, +in Mr Illingworth’s opinion. After this stage his progress was +comparatively quick and easy; he read from easy books in +Braille, and people spelled to him in the ordinary way by forming +the letters with their right hand on his left.</p> + +<p>From Mr B. H. Payne of Swansea comes the following account +of how four blind-deaf pupils were taught:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“We have received four pupils who were deaf-mute and blind, one +of them being also without the sense of smell. One was born deaf, the +others having lost hearing in childhood. There was no essential +difference between the methods employed in their education and +those of ‘sighted’ deaf children. Free-arm writing of ordinary +script was taught on the blackboard, the teacher guiding the pupil’s +hand, or another pupil guiding it over the teacher’s pencilling. The +script alphabet was cut on a slate, and the pupil’s pencil made to run +in the grooves. The one-hand alphabet, used with the left hand, was +employed to distinguish the letters so written. The script alphabet +was also formed in wire for him. The object was to enable the pupil +when he had gained language to write to friends and others who were +unacquainted with Braille, but the latter notation was taught to +enable the pupil to profit by the literature provided for the blind. +Both one- and two-hand alphabets were taught, the teacher forming +the letters with one of his own hands upon the pupil’s hand. The +name of the object presented to the pupil was spelled and written +repeatedly until he had memorized it. Qualities were taught by +comparison, and actions by performance. The words ‘Come with me’ +were spelled before he was guided to any place, and other sentences +were spelled as they would be spoken to a ‘hearing’ child in appropriate +associations. The blind pupil followed with his hands the +signs made by junior pupils who were unacquainted with language, +and in this way readily learned to sign himself, the art being of +advantage in stimulating and in forming the mind, and explaining +language to him. One of the pupils was confirmed, and in preparation +for the rite over 800 questions were put to him by finger-spelling. +His education was continued in Braille. The deaf-born boy developed +a fair voice, and could imitate sounds by placing his hand on a +speaker’s mouth. Two of them had a keen sense of humour, and +would slyly move the finger to the muscles of their companion’s face +to feel the smile with which a bit of pleasantry was responded to. +In connexion with the pupil who was confirmed, the vicar who examined +him declared that none of his questions had been answered +better even by candidates possessed of all their faculties than they +were by this blind-deaf boy.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Mr W. M. Stone, principal of the Royal Blind School at West +Craigmillar, Edinburgh, gives this very interesting information:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“We have five blind-deaf children at this institution, and all are +wonderfully clever and intelligent. In all cases the children possessed +hearing for a time and had some knowledge—very slight in some +cases—of language. The method of teaching is, first to teach them +the names of common objects on their fingers. A well-known object +is put in the child’s hand and then the word is spelled on the hand,—the +child’s hand of course. The child learns to associate these signs—he +does not know they are letters—with the object, and so he learns +a name. Other names are then given and similar names are associated +together, and by noticing the difference in the names the child +gradually grasps the idea of an alphabet. For instance, if he learns +the words cat, bat and mat, he will quickly distinguish that the words +are alike except in their initial letters. When in this way language +has been acquired he is taught the Braille system of reading for the +blind and his progress is now very rapid. This method may appear +very complicated and difficult, but in reality it is not so. There are +no institutions in Great Britain specially for the blind-deaf, nor are +there any in America. I do not know of any on the continent. Our +own blind children here are receiving the same education as our +other children, and in some ways are more advanced than seeing +and hearing children of their own ages. They not only read, write +and do arithmetic, but they do typewriting and much manual work.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Mr Addison mentions two deaf and blind pupils who were +taught by the late Mr Paterson of Manchester, and a third in the +same school later on. Another was taught in the asylum for the +blind in Glasgow, though she only lost hearing and became deaf +at ten.</p> + +<p>Mr William Wade has written a monograph on the blind-deaf +of America, in the preface to which he points out, rightly, that +the education of the blind-deaf is not such a stupendous task as +people imagine it to be.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“It may not be amiss,” he says, “to state the methods of teaching +the first steps to a deaf-blind pupil, that the public may see how +exceedingly simple the fundamental principles are, and it should be +remembered that those principles are exactly the same in the cases +of the deaf and of the deaf-blind, the only difference being in the +application—the deaf <i>see</i>, the deaf-blind <i>feel</i>. Some familiar, +tangible object—a doll, a cup, or what not—is given to the pupil, +and at the same time the name of the object is spelled into its hand +by the manual alphabet.” (The one-hand alphabet is in vogue in +America.) “By patient persistence, the pupil comes to recognize +the manual spelling as a <i>name</i> for a familiar object, when the next +step is taken—associating familiar acts with the corresponding +manual spelling. A continuation of this simple process gradually +leads the pupils to the comprehension of language as a means for +communication of thoughts.” Mr Wade is right. Given a sympathetic, +resourceful teacher with strong individuality, common-sense, +patience, and the necessary amount of time, anything and everything +in the way of teaching them is not only possible but certain to +be achieved. Language,—give the deaf and the blind-deaf a working +command of that and everything else is easy.</p> +</div> + +<p>In the New York Institution for the Deaf ten blind-deaf pupils +were educated, up to the year 1901. Nearly all of these lost one or +both senses after they had been able to acquire some knowledge +with their aid. In the Perkins Institution for the Blind, Boston, +five were taught. It was here that Laura Bridgman was educated +by Dr Samuel G. Howe (<i>q.v.</i>); all honour is due to him +for being the pioneer in attempting to teach this class of the +community, for she was the first blind-deaf person to be taught. +Many other schools for the deaf or blind have admitted one or +two pupils suffering from both afflictions. In all, seventy cases +are mentioned by Mr Wade of those who are quite blind and +deaf, and others of people who are partially so. The most +interesting, of course, of all these is Helen Keller, if we +except Laura Bridgman, in whose case the initial attempt to +teach the blind-deaf was made. Helen Keller was taught +primarily by finger-spelling into her hand, and signing (which she, +of course, felt with her hands) where necessary. Her first teacher +was Miss Sullivan. The pupil “acquired language by practice +and habit rather than by study of rules and definitions.” Finger-spelling +and books were the two great means of educating her at +all times. After her grasp of language had been brought to a +high standard, Miss Fuller gave her her first lessons in speech, and +Miss Sullivan continued them, the method being that of making +the pupil feel the vocal organs of the teacher. She learnt to +speak well, and to tell (with some assistance from finger-spelling) +what some people say by feeling their mouth. Her literary style +became excellent; her studies included French, German, Latin, +Greek, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, history, ancient and +modern, and poetry and literature of every description. Of +course she had many tutors, but Miss Sullivan was “eyes and +ears” at all times, by acting as interpreter, and this patient +teacher had the satisfaction of seeing her pupil pass the +entrance examination of Harvard University. To all time the +success attained in educating Helen Keller will be a monument +of what can be accomplished in the most favourable +conditions.</p> +<div class="author">(A. H. P.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The two words are common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. <i>taub</i> +and <i>dumm</i> (only in the sense of “stupid”), Dutch <i>doof</i> and <i>dom</i>; the +original meaning seems to have been dull of perception, stupid, +obtuse, and the words may be ultimately related. The Gr. <span class="grk" title="typhlos">τυφλός</span> +blind, and <span class="grk" title="typhos">τῦφος</span>, smoke, mist, probably show the same base.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> For our résumé of the history we are indebted solely to Arnold +(<i>Education of Deaf Mutes, Teachers’ Manual</i>) as far as the date of the +founding of the Old Kent Road Institution.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEÁK, FRANCIS<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Ferencz</span>), (1803-1876), Hungarian statesman, +was born at Söjtör in the county of Zala, on the 17th of +October 1803. He came of an ancient and distinguished noble +family, and was educated for the law at Nagy-Kanizsá, Pápá, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page895" id="page895"></a>895</span> +Raab and Pest, and practised first as an advocate and ultimately +as a notary. His first case was the defence of a notorious robber +and murderer. His reputation in his own county was quickly +established, and when in 1833 his elder brother Antal, also a +man of extraordinary force of character, was obliged by ill-health +to relinquish his seat in the Hungarian parliament, the electors +chose Ferencz in his stead. He took an active part in the proceedings +of the diet at Pressburg and made the acquaintance +of Ödon Beöthy and the other Liberal leaders. No man +owed less to external advantages. He was to all appearance a +simple country squire. His true greatness was never exhibited +in debate. It was in friendly talk, generally with a pipe in his +mouth and an anecdote on the tip of his tongue, that he exercised +his extraordinary influence over his fellows. Convinced from the +first of his disinterestedness and sincerity, and impressed by his +penetrating shrewdness and his instinctive faculty of always +seizing the main point and sticking to it, his hearers soon felt +an absolute confidence in the deputy from Zala county. Perhaps +there is not another instance in history in which a man who was +neither a soldier, nor a diplomatist, nor a writer, who appealed to +no passion but patriotism, and who avoided power with almost +oriental indolence instead of seeking it, became, in the course of a +long life, the leader of a great party by sheer force of intellect and +moral superiority.</p> + +<p>During the diet of 1839-1840 Deák succeeded in bringing about +an understanding between a reactionary government, sadly in +want of money, and a Liberal opposition determined that the +nation should have its political privileges respected. “Let us +put all jealousy on one side and allow him the pre-eminence,” +wrote Széchenyi of Deák (April 30th, 1840). Deák would not +go to the diet of 1843-1844, though he had received a mandate, +because his election was the occasion of bloodshed in the struggle +between the Clericals who would have ousted him and the +Liberals who brought him in. In 1848, however, he accepted +the post of minister of justice offered to him by Louis Batthyány. +He never ceased to urge moderation in those stormy days, holding +rather with Eötvös and Batthyány than with Kossuth, +and he went more than once to Vienna to endeavour to effect a +compromise between the Radicals and the court. But when the +ill-will of the Vienna government became patent, and the sentiments +of the king doubtful, he resigned together with Batthyány, +but without ceasing to be a member of the diet. He it was who +drew up the resolution of the Lower House in reply to the rescript +of the Austrian ministry demanding the repeal of the Hungarian +constitution. It was he who urged the Hungarian cabinet not to +depart a hair’s-breadth from their legitimate position. He was +one of the parliamentary deputation which waited in vain upon +Prince Windischgrätz in his camp. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>: <i>History</i>.) +He then retired to his estate at Kehida. After the war of independence +he was tried by court-martial, but acquitted.</p> + +<p>During the years of repression he lived in complete retirement. +He rejected Schmerling’s proposal that he should take part in +the project of judicial reform, but on the other hand he held +completely aloof from the widespread, secret revolutionary movements. +After 1854 he spent the greater part of his time at Pest, +and his little room at the “Queen of England” inn became the +meeting-place for those patriots who in those dark days looked to +the wisdom of Deák for guidance. He used every opportunity of +stimulating the moral strength of the nation and keeping its +hopes alive. He invited the nation to contribute to the support +of the orphans of Vörösmarty when that great poet died. He +drew up the petition of the academy to the government, in which +he defended the maintenance of this asylum of the national +language against Austrian intervention. He trusted that, as had +so often happened in the course of Hungarian history, the weakness +and blindness of the court would help Hungary back to her +constitutional rights. Armed resistance he considered dangerous, +but he was an immutable defender of the continuity of the +Hungarian constitution on the basis of the reforms of 1848. +His principles alienated him from the Kossuth faction, which +looked for salvation to a second war with Austria, engineered +from abroad; but he was equally opposed to the attitude of +resignation taken up by the followers of Széchenyi, who, according +to Deák, always regarded the world from a purely provincial +point of view.</p> + +<p>The war of 1859 convinced the Austrian government, at +last, of the necessity of a reconciliation with Hungary; but +the ensuing negotiations were conducted not through Deák, but +through the Magyar Conservatives. In 1860 Deák rejected the +October diploma (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>: <i>History</i>), which was simply +a cast-back to the Maria Theresa system of 1747; but, at +the request of the government, he went to Vienna to set forth +the national demands. On this occasion he insisted on the +re-establishment of the constitution in its integrity as a <i>sine qua +non</i>. Meanwhile, it became more and more evident that the +Conservative party had no standing in the country. The +majority of the deputies returned to the diet of 1861 were in +favour of asserting their rights by a resolution of the House, +instead of petitioning for them by an address to the crown; +hence arose the two parties of the Addressers and the Resolutioners. +The <i>Patent</i> of the 20th of February 1861 increased the +uneasiness and suspicion of the nation; but Deák, now one of the +deputies for Pest, was in favour of an address rather than of a +resolution, and his great speech on the subject (May 13th, 1861) +converted the majority hostile to an address into a majority for it. +The object of the Addressers was to make the responsibility for a +rupture rest on the Austrian government. Nevertheless, the court +found the address so voted inadmissible; whereupon, on Deák’s +motion, the Hungarian diet drew up a second address vigorously +defending the rights of the nation, and solemnly protesting +against the usurpations of the Austrian government. The speech +which Deák made on this occasion was his finest effort. Henceforth +all Europe identified his name with the cause of Hungary. +The Magyar Conservatives hereupon entered into negotiations +with Deák, and the Austrian government, more than ever +convinced of the necessity of a reconciliation, was ready to take +the first step, if Hungary would take the second and third. +Deák now proposed that the sovereign himself should break away +from counsellors who had sought to oppress Hungary, and should +restore the constitution as a personal act. The worthy response +to this loyal invitation was the dismissal of the Schmerling +administration, the suspension of the February constitution +and the summoning of the coronation diet. Of that diet Deák +was the indispensable leader. Under his direction the Addressers +and the Resolutioners coalesced, and he was entrusted with the +difficult and delicate negotiations with the crown, which aimed +at effecting a compromise between the Pragmatic Sanction +of 1719, which established the indivisibility of the Habsburg +monarchy, and the March decrees of 1848. The committee of +which he was president had completed its work, when the war +of 1866 broke out and all again became uncertain.</p> + +<p>After Königgrätz the extreme parties in Hungary hoped to +extort still more favourable terms from the emperor; but Deák +remained true to himself and to the constitutional principle. +On the 18th of July he went to Vienna, to urge the necessity +of forming a responsible Magyar ministry without delay. He +offered the post of premier to Count Julius Andrássy, but would +not himself take any part in the administration. The diet was +resummoned on the 17th of November 1866 and, chiefly through +the efforts of Deák, the responsible ministry was formed (February +17th, 1867). There was still one fierce parliamentary struggle, in +which Deák defended the Composition (Ausgleich) of 1867, both +against the Kossuthites and against the Left-centre, which had +detached itself from his own party under the leadership of Kálmán +Tisza (<i>q.v.</i>). He, a simple citizen, from pure patriotism, thus +mediated between the crown and the people, as the Hungarian +palatines were wont to do in years gone by, and it was the wish +of the diet that Deák should exercise the functions of a palatine +at the solemn ceremony of the coronation. This honour he +refused, as he had refused every other reward and distinction. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page896" id="page896"></a>896</span> +“It was beyond the king’s power to give him anything but +a clasp of the hand.” His real recompense was the assurance of +the prosperity and the tranquillity of his country in the future, +and the reconciliation of the nation and its sovereign. The +consciousness of these great services even reconciled him to the +loss of much of his popularity; for there can be no doubt that a +large part of the Hungarian nation regarded the Composition of +1867 as a sort of surrender and blamed Deák as the author of it. +The Composition was the culminating point of Deák’s political +activity; but as a party-leader he still exercised considerable +influence. He died at midnight of the 28th-29th of July 1876, +after long and painful sufferings. His funeral was celebrated +with royal pomp on the 3rd of February, and representatives +from every part of Hungary followed the “Sage” to the grave. +A mausoleum was erected by national subscription, and in 1887 +a statue, overlooking the Danube, was erected to his memory.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Speeches</i> (Hung.) ed. by Manó Kónyi (Budapest, 1882); +Z. Ferenczi, <i>Life of Deák</i> (Hung., Budapest, 1894); <i>Memorials +of Ferencz Deák</i> (Hung., Budapest, 1889-1890); Ferencz Pulszky, +<i>Charakterskizze</i> (Leipzig, 1876).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEAL,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> a market town, seaport and municipal borough in +the St Augustine’s parliamentary division of Kent, England, 8 m. +N.E. by N. of Dover on the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. +Pop. (1901) 10,581. It consists of three divisions—Lower Deal, +on the coast; Middle Deal; and, about a mile inland, though +formerly on the coast, Upper Deal, which is the oldest part. +Though frequented as a seaside resort, the town derives its +importance mainly from its vicinity to the Downs, a fine +anchorage, between the shore and the Goodwin Sands, about +8 m. long and 6 m. wide, in which large fleets of windbound +vessels may lie in safety. The trade consequently consists largely +in the supply of provisions and naval stores, which are conveyed +to the ships in need of them by “hovellers,” as the boatmen +are called all along the Kentish coast; the name is probably +a corruption of <i>hobeler</i>, anciently applied to light-horsemen +from the hobby or small horse which they rode. The Deal +hovellers and pilots are famous for their skill. Boat-building and +a few other industries are carried on. Among buildings the most +remarkable are St Leonard’s church in Upper Deal, which dates +from the Norman period; the Baptist chapel in Lower Deal, +founded by Captain Taverner, governor of Deal Castle, in 1663; +the military and naval hospital; and the barracks, founded in +1795. The site of the old navy yard is occupied by villas; and +the esplanade, nearly four miles long, is provided with a +promenade pier. The golf-links is well known. At the south +end of the town is Deal Castle, erected by Henry VIII. in 1539, +together with the castles of Sandown, Walmer and Sandgate. +They were built alike, and consisted of a central keep surrounded +by four lunettes. Sandown Castle, which stood about a mile +to the east of Deal Castle, was of interest as the prison in which +Colonel Hutchinson, the Puritan soldier, was confined, and is +said to have died, September 1664. It was removed on becoming +endangered by encroachments of the sea. The “captain” of +Deal Castle is appointed by the lord warden of the Cinque Ports. +The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. +Area, 1111 acres.</p> + +<p>Deal is one of the possible sites of the landing-place of Julius +Caesar in Britain. Later in the period of Roman occupation +the site was inhabited, but apparently was not a port. In the +Domesday Survey, Deal (<i>Dola</i>, <i>Dale</i>, <i>Dele</i>) is mentioned among +the possessions of the canons of St Martin, Dover, as part of the +hundreds of Bewsborough and Cornilo; it seems, however, from +early times to have been within the liberty of the Cinque Ports +as a member of Sandwich, but was not continuously reckoned +as a member until Henry VI., on the occasion of a dispute as +to its assessment, finally annexed it to their jurisdiction.</p> + +<p>In the time of Henry VIII. Deal was merely a fishing village +standing half-a-mile from the sea, but the growth of the English +navy and the increase of trade brought men-of-war and merchant +ships in increased numbers to the Downs. Deal began to grow +in importance, and Lower or New Deal was built along the shore. +The prosperity of the town has ever since depended almost +entirely on its shipping trade. In 1699 the inhabitants petitioned +for incorporation, since previously the town had been under the +jurisdiction of Sandwich and governed by a deputy appointed by +the mayor of that town; William III. by his charter incorporated +the town under the title of mayor, jurats and commonalty +of Deal, and he also granted a market to be held on Tuesday +and Saturday, and fairs on the 25th and 26th of March, and on the +30th of September and 1st of October, with a court of Pie Powder. +The Cinque Ports were first represented in the parliament of +1265; the two members returned by Sandwich represented +Sandwich, Deal and Walmer, until they were disenfranchized by +the act of 1885.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEAL.<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1) (A common Teutonic word for a part or portion, +cf. Ger. <i>Teil</i>, and the Eng. variant “dole”), a division or part, +obsolete except in such phrases as “a great deal” or “a good +deal,” where it equals quantity or lot. From the verb “to deal,” +meaning primarily to divide into parts, come such uses as for +the giving out of cards to the players in a game, or for a business +transaction. (2) (Also a Teutonic word, meaning a plank or +board, cf. Ger. <i>Diele</i>, Dutch <i>deel</i>), strictly a term in carpentry and +joinery for a sawn plank, usually of pine or fir, 9 in. wide and 2 to +4½ in. thick. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joinery</a></span>.) The word is also used more loosely +of the timber from which such deals are cut, thus “white deal” +is used of the wood of the Norway spruce, and “red deal” of the +Scotch pine.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEAN<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (Lat. <i>decanus</i>, derived from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="deka">δέκα</span>, ten), the style +of a certain functionary, primarily ecclesiastical. Whether the +term was first used among the secular clergy to signify the +priest who had a charge of inspection and superintendence over +two parishes, or among the regular clergy to signify the monk +who in a monastery had authority over ten other monks, appears +doubtful. “Decurius” may be found in early writers used to +signify the same thing as “decanus,” which shows that the word +and the idea signified by it were originally borrowed from the +old Roman military system.</p> + +<p>The earliest mention which occurs of an “archipresbyter” +seems to be in the fourth epistle of St Jerome to Rusticus, in +which he says that a cathedral church should possess one bishop, +one archipresbyter and one archdeacon. Liberatus also (<i>Breviar.</i> +c. xiv.) speaks of the office of archipresbyter in a manner which, +as J. Bingham says, enables one to understand what the nature +of his duties and position was. And he thinks that those are +right who hold that the archipresbyters were the same as the +deans of English cathedral churches. E. Stillingfleet (<i>Irenic.</i> +part ii. c. 7) says of the archipresbyters that “the memory +of them is preserved still in cathedral churches, in the chapters +there, where the dean was nothing else but the archipresbyter; +and both dean and prebendaries were to be assistant to the +bishop in the regulating the church affairs belonging to the city, +while the churches were contained therein.” Bingham, however, +following Liberatus, describes the office of the archipresbyter to +have been next to that of the bishop, the head of the presbyteral +college, and the functions to have consisted in administering all +matters pertaining to the church in the absence of the bishop. +But this does not describe accurately the office of dean in an +English cathedral church. The dean is indeed second to the +bishop in rank and dignity, and he is the head of the presbyteral +college or chapter; but his functions in no wise consist in +administering any affairs in the absence of the bishop. There +may be some matters connected with the ordering of the internal +arrangements of cathedral churches, respecting which it may be +considered a doubtful point whether the authority of the bishop +or that of the dean is supreme. But the consideration of any +such question leads at once to the due theoretical distinction +between the two. With regard to matters spiritual, properly and +strictly so called, the bishop is supreme in the cathedral as far as—and +no further than—he is supreme in his diocese generally. +With regard to matters material and temporal, as concerning +the fabric of the cathedral, the arrangement and conduct of the +services, and the management of the property of the chapter, &c., +the dean (not excluding the due authority of the other members +of the chapter, but speaking with reference to the bishop) is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page897" id="page897"></a>897</span> +supreme. And the cases in which a doubt might arise are +those in which the material arrangements of the fabric or of the +services may be thought to involve doctrinal considerations.</p> + +<p>The Roman Catholic writers on the subject say that there are +two sorts of deans in the church—the deans of cathedral churches, +and the rural deans—as has continued to be the case in the +English Church. And the probability would seem to be that the +former were the successors and representatives of the monastic +decurions, the latter of the inspectors of “ten” parishes in the +primitive secular church. It is thought by some that the rural +dean is the lineal successor of the <i>chorepiscopus</i>, who in the early +church was the assistant of the bishop, discharging most, if not all, +episcopal functions in the rural districts of the diocese. But upon +the whole the probability is otherwise. W. Beveridge, W. Cave, +Bingham and Basnage all hold that the <i>chorepiscopi</i> were true +bishops, though Romanist theologians for the most part have +maintained that they were simple priests. But if the <i>chorepiscopus</i> +has any representative in the church of the present day, +it seems more likely that the archdeacon is such rather than the +dean.</p> + +<p>The ordinary use of the term dean, as regards secular bodies +of persons, would lead to the belief that the oldest member of a +chapter had, as a matter of right, or at least of usage, become +the dean thereof. But Bingham (lib. ii. chap. 18) very conclusively +shows that such was at no time the case; as is also +further indicated by the maxim to the effect that the dean must +be selected from the body of the chapter—“<i>Unus de gremio +tantum potest eligi et promoveri ad decanatus dignitatem</i>.” The +duties of the dean in a Roman Catholic cathedral are to preside +over the chapter, to declare the decisions to which the chapter +may have in its debates arrived by plurality of voices, to exercise +inspection over the choir, over the conduct of the capitular body, +and over the discipline and regulations of the church; and to +celebrate divine service on occasion of the greater festivals of +the church in the absence or inability of the bishop. With the +exception of the last clause the same statement may be made +as to the duties and functions of the deans of Church of England +cathedral churches.</p> + +<p>Deans had also a place in the judicial system of the Lombard +kings in the 8th, 9th and 10th centuries. But the office indicated +by that term, so used, seems to have been a very subordinate one; +and the name was in all probability adopted with immediate +reference to the etymological meaning of the word,—a person +having authority over ten (in this case apparently) families. +L. A. Muratori, in his <i>Italian Antiquities</i>, speaks of the resemblance +between the <i>saltarii</i> or <i>sylvani</i> and the <i>decani</i>, and shows +that the former had authority in the rural districts, and the +latter in towns, or at least in places where the population was +sufficiently close for them to have authority over ten families. +Nevertheless, a document cited by Muratori from the archives +of the canons of Modena, and dated in the year 813, recites the +names of several “deaneries” (<i>decania</i>), and thus shows that the +authority of the dean extended over a certain circumscription +of territory.</p> + +<p>In the case of the “dean of the sacred college,” the connexion +between the application of the term and the etymology of it is not +so evident as in the foregoing instances of its use; nor is it by any +means clear how and when the idea of seniority was first attached +to the word. This office is held by the oldest cardinal—<i>i.e.</i> +he who has been longest in the enjoyment of the purple, not he +who is oldest in years,—who is usually, but not necessarily or +always, the bishop of Ostia and Velletri. Perhaps the use of the +word “dean,” as signifying simply the eldest member of any +corporation or body of men, may have been first adopted +from its application to that high dignitary. The dean of the +sacred college is in the ecclesiastical hierarchy second to the pope +alone. His privileges and special functions are very many; a +compendious account of the principal of them may be found in +the work of G. Moroni, vol. xix. p. 168.</p> + +<p>There are four sorts of deans of whom the law of England takes +notice. (1) The dean and chapter are a council subordinate to the +bishop, assistant to him in matters spiritual relating to religion, +and in matters temporal relating to the temporalities of the +bishopric. The dean and chapter are a corporation, and the +dean himself is a corporation sole. Deans are said to be either of +the old or of the new foundation—the latter being those created +and regulated after the dissolution of the monasteries by Henry +VIII. The deans of the old foundation before the Ecclesiastical +Commissioners Act 1841 were elected by the chapter on the king’s +<i>congé d’élire</i>; and the deans of the new foundation (and, since the +act, of the old foundation also) are appointed by the king’s letters +patent. It was at one time held that a layman might be dean; +but since 1662 priest’s orders are a necessary qualification. +Deaneries are sinecures in the old sense, <i>i.e.</i> they are without +cure of souls. The chapter formerly consisted of canons and +prebendaries, the dean being the head and an integral part of the +corporation. By the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1841, it is +enacted that “all the members of the chapter except the dean, +in every collegiate and cathedral church in England, and in the +cathedral churches of St David and Llandaff, shall be styled +canons.” By the same act the dean is required to be in residence +eight months, and the canons three months, in every year. The +bishop is visitor of the dean and chapter. (2) A dean of peculiars +is the chief of certain peculiar churches or chapels. He “hath +no chapter, yet is presentative, and hath cure of souls; he hath +a <i>peculiar</i>, and is not subject to the visitation of the bishop of +the diocese.” The only instances of such deaneries are Battle +(Sussex), Bocking (Essex) and Stamford (Rutland). The deans +of Jersey and Guernsey have similar status. (3) The third dean +“hath no cure of souls, but hath a court and a <i>peculiar</i>, in which +he holdeth plea and jurisdiction of all such ecclesiastical matters +as come within his peculiar. Such is the dean of the arches, who +is the judge of the court of the arches, the chief court and consistory +of the archbishop of Canterbury, so called of Bow Church, +where this court was ever wont to be held.” (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arches, Court +of</a></span>.) The parish of Bow and twelve others were within the +peculiar jurisdiction of the archbishop in spiritual causes, and +exempted out of the bishop of London’s jurisdiction. They were +in 1845 made part of the diocese of London. (4) Rural deans +are clergymen whose duty is described as being “to execute the +bishop’s processes and to inspect the lives and manners of the +clergy and people within their jurisdiction.” (See Phillimore’s +<i>Ecclesiastical Law</i>.)</p> + +<p>In the colleges of the English universities one of the fellows +usually holds the office of “dean,” and is specially charged +with the discipline, as distinguished from the teaching functions +of the tutors. In some universities the head of a faculty is +called “dean,” and in each of these cases the word is used in a +non-ecclesiastical and purely titular sense.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEAN, FOREST OF,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> a district in the west of Gloucestershire, +England, between the Severn and the Wye. It extends northward +in an oval form from the junction of these rivers, for a +distance of 20 m., with an extreme breadth of 10 m., and still +retains its true forest character. The surface is agreeably undulating, +its elevation ranging from 120 to nearly 1000 ft., and its +sandy peat soil renders it most suitable for the growth of timber, +which is the cause of its having been a royal forest from time +immemorial. It is recorded that the commanders of the Armada +had orders not to leave in it a tree standing. In the reign of +Charles I. the forest contained 105,537 trees, and, straitened for +money, the king granted it to Sir John Wyntour for £10,000, +and a fee farm rent of £2000. The grant was cancelled by +Cromwell; but at the Restoration only 30,000 trees were left, +and Wyntour, the Royalist commander, having got another grant, +destroyed all but 200 trees fit for navy timber. In 1680 an act +was passed to enclose 11,000 acres and plant with oak and beech +for supply of the dockyards; and the present forest, though not +containing very many gigantic oaks, has six “walks” covered +with timber in various stages of growth.</p> + +<p>The forest is locally governed by two crown-appointed deputy +gavellers to superintend the woods and mines, and four verderers +elected by the freeholders, whose office, since the extermination +of the deer in 1850, is almost purely honorary. From time +immemorial all persons born in the hundred of St Briavel’s, who +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page898" id="page898"></a>898</span> +have worked a year and a day in a coal mine, become “free +miners,” and may work coal in any part of the forest not previously +occupied. The forest laws were administered at the Speech-House, +a building of the 17th century in the heart of the forest, +where the verderers’ court is still held. The district contains +coal and iron mines, and quarries of building-stone, which fortunately +hardly minimize its natural beauty. Near Coleford and +Westbury pit workings of the Roman period have been discovered, +and the Romans drew large supplies of iron from this district. +The scenery is especially fine in the high ground bordering the +Wye (<i>q.v.</i>), opposite to Symond’s Yat above Monmouth, and +Tintern above Chepstow. St Briavel’s Castle, above Tintern, +was the headquarters of the forest officials from an early date and +was frequented by King John. It is a moated castle, of which +the north-west front remains, standing in a magnificent position +high above the Wye.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. G. Nicholls, <i>Forest of Dean</i> (London, 1858).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEANE, RICHARD<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1610-1653), British general-at-sea, major-general +and regicide, was a younger son of Edward Deane of +Temple Guiting or Guyting in Gloucestershire, where he was born, +his baptism taking place on the 8th of July 1610. His family +seems to have been strongly Puritan and was related to many +of those Buckinghamshire families who were prominent in the +parliamentary party. His uncle or great-uncle was Sir Richard +Deane, lord mayor of London, 1628-1629. Of Deane’s early life +nothing is accurately known, but he seems to have had some +sea training, possibly on a ship-of-war. At the outbreak of the +Civil War he joined the parliamentary army as a volunteer in the +artillery, a branch of the service with which he was constantly +and honourably associated. In 1644 he held a command in the +artillery under Essex in Cornwall and took part in the surrender +after Lostwithiel. Essex (<i>Letter to Sir Philip Stapleton</i>, Rushworth +Collection) calls him “an honest, judicious and stout +man,” an estimate of Deane borne out by Clarendon’s “bold and +excellent officer” (book xiv. cap. 27), and he was one of the few +officers concerned in the surrender who were retained at the +remodelling of the army. Appointed comptroller of the ordnance, +he commanded the artillery at Naseby and during Fairfax’s +campaign in the west of England in 1645. In 1647 he was +promoted colonel and given a regiment. In May of that year +Cromwell was made lord-general of the forces in Ireland by +the parliament, and Deane, as a supporter of Cromwell who had +to be reckoned with, was appointed his lieutenant of artillery. +Cromwell refused to be thus put out of the way, and Deane +followed his example. When the war broke out afresh in 1648 +Deane went with Cromwell to Wales. As brigadier-general his +leading of the right wing at Preston contributed greatly to the +victory. On the entry of the army into London in 1648, Deane +superintended the seizure of treasure at the Guildhall and +Weavers’ Hall the day after Pride “purged” the House of +Commons, and accompanied Cromwell to the consultations as to +the “settlement of the Kingdom” with Lenthall and Sir Thomas +Widdrington, the keeper of the great seal. He is rightly called by +Sir J. K. Laughton (in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</i>) Cromwell’s “trusted +partisan,” a character which he maintained in the active and +responsible part taken by him in the events which led up to the +trial and execution of the king. He was one of the commissioners +for the trial, and a member of the committee which examined +the witnesses. He signed the death warrant.</p> + +<p>Deane’s capacities and activities were now required for the +navy. In 1649 the office of lord high admiral was put into +commission. The first commissioners were Edward Popham, +Robert Blake and Deane, with the title of generals-at-sea. +His command at sea was interrupted in 1651, when as major-general +he was brought back to the army and took part in +the battle of Worcester. Later he was made president of the +commission for the settlement of Scotland, with supreme command +of the military and naval forces. At the end of 1652 +Deane returned to his command as general-at-sea, where Monck +had succeeded Popham, who had died in 1651. In 1653 Deane +was with Blake in command at the battle off Portland and +later took the most prominent and active part in the refitting +of the fleet on the reorganization of the naval service. At the +outset of the three days’ battle off the North Foreland, the 1st, +2nd and 3rd of June 1653, Deane was killed. His body lay in +state at Greenwich and after a public funeral was buried in +Henry VII.’s chapel at Westminster Abbey, to be disinterred at +the Restoration.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Bathurst Deane, <i>The Life of Richard Deane</i> (1870).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEANE, SILAS<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1737-1789), American diplomat, was born in +Groton, Connecticut, on the 24th of December 1737. He graduated +at Yale in 1758 and in 1761 was admitted to the bar, but +instead of practising became a merchant at Wethersfield, Conn. +He took an active part in the movements in Connecticut +preceding the War of Independence, and from 1774 to 1776 was +a delegate from Connecticut to the Continental Congress. Early +in 1776 he was sent to France by Congress, in a semi-official +capacity, as a secret agent to induce the French government to +lend its financial aid to the colonies. Subsequently he became, +with Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee, one of the regularly +accredited commissioners to France from Congress. On arriving +in Paris, Deane at once opened negotiations with Vergennes and +Beaumarchais, securing through the latter the shipment of many +vessel loads of arms and munitions of war to America. He also +enlisted the services of a number of Continental soldiers of +fortune, among whom were Lafayette, Baron Johann De Kalb +and Thomas Conway. His carelessness in keeping account of his +receipts and expenditures, and the differences between himself +and Arthur Lee regarding the contracts with Beaumarchais, +eventually led, in November 1777, to his recall to face charges, +of which Lee’s complaints formed the basis. Before returning +to America, however, he signed on the 6th of February 1778 the +treaties of amity and commerce and of alliance which he and +the other commissioners had successfully negotiated. In America +he was defended by John Jay and John Adams, and after stating +his case to Congress was allowed to return to Paris (1781) to settle +his affairs. Differences with various French officials led to his +retirement to Holland, where he remained until after the treaty +of peace had been signed, when he settled in England. The +publication of some “intercepted” letters in Rivington’s <i>Royal +Gazette</i> in New York (1781), in which Deane declared his belief +that the struggle for independence was hopeless and counselled +a return to British allegiance, aroused such animosity against +him in America that for some years he remained in England. +He died on shipboard in Deal harbour, England, on the 23rd of +September 1789 after having embarked for America on a Boston +packet. No evidence of his dishonesty was ever discovered, and +Congress recognized the validity of his claims by voting $37,000 +to his heirs in 1842. He published his defence in <i>An Address to +the Free and Independent Citizens of the United States of North +America</i> (Hartford, Conn., and London, 1784).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Correspondence of Silas Deane</i> was published in the Connecticut +Historical Society’s Collections, vol. ii.; and <i>The Deane Papers</i>, in +5 vols., in the New York Historical Society’s <i>Collections</i> (1887-1890). +See also Winsor’s <i>Narrative and Critical History</i>, vol. vii. +chap, i., and Wharton’s <i>Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence of +the United States</i> (6 vols., Washington, 1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEATH,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> the permanent cessation of the vital functions in +the bodies of animals and plants, the end of life or act of dying. +The word is the English representative of the substantive common +to Teutonic languages, as “dead” is of the adjective, and “die” +of the verb; the ultimate origin is the pre-Teutonic verbal stem +<i>dau</i>-; cf. Ger <i>Tod</i>, Dutch <i>dood</i>, Swed. and Dan. <i>död</i>.</p> + +<p>For the scientific aspects of the processes involved in life and +its cessation see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Biology</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Physiology</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pathology</a></span>, and allied +articles; and for the consideration of the prolongation of life +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Longevity</a></span>. Here it is only necessary to deal with the more +primitive views of death and with certain legal aspects.</p> + +<p><i>Ethnology.</i>—To the savage, death from natural causes is +inexplicable. At all times and in all lands, if he reflects upon +death at all, he fails to understand it as a natural phenomenon; +nor in its presence is he awed or curious. Man in a primitive +state has for his dead an almost animal indifference. The +researches of archaeologists prove that Quaternary Man cared +little what became of his fellow-creature’s body. And this lack +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page899" id="page899"></a>899</span> +of interest is found to-day as a general characteristic of savages. +The Goajiros of Venezuela bury their dead, they confess, simply +to get rid of them. The Galibis of Guiana, when asked the +meaning of their curious funeral ceremony, which consists in +dancing on the grave, replied that they did it to stamp down +the earth. Fuegians, Bushmen, Veddahs, show the same lack of +concern and interest in the memory of the dead. Even the +Eskimos, conspicuous as they are for their intelligence and +sociability, save themselves the trouble of caring for their sick +and old by walling them up and leaving them to die in a lonely +hut; the Chukches stone or strangle them to death; some +Indian tribes give them over to tigers, and the Battas of Sumatra +eat them. This indifference is not dictated by any realization +that death means annihilation of the personality. The savage +conception of a future state is one that involves no real break in +the continuity of life as he leads it. If a man dies without being +wounded he is considered to be the victim of the sorcerers and +the evil spirits with which they consort. Throughout Africa +the death of anyone is ascribed to the magicians of some hostile +tribe or to the malicious act of a neighbour. A culprit is easily +discovered either by an appeal to a local diviner or in torturing +some one into confession. In Australia it is the same. Mr +Andrew Lang says that “whenever a native dies, no matter +how evident it may be that death has been the result of natural +causes, it is at once set down that the defunct was bewitched.” +The Bechuanas and all Kaffir tribes believe that death, even at an +advanced age, if not from hunger or violence, is due to witchcraft, +and blood is required to expiate or avenge it. Similar beliefs +are found among the Papuans, and among the Indians of both +Americas. The history of witchcraft in Europe and its attendant +horrors, so vividly painted in Lecky’s <i>Rise of Rationalism</i>, are but +echoes of this universal refusal of savage man to accept death as +the natural end of life. Even to-day the ignorant peasantry of +many European countries, Russia, Galicia and elsewhere, believe +that all disease is the work of demons, and that medicinal herbs +owe their curative properties to their being the materialized forms +of benevolent spirits.</p> + +<p>This animistic tendency is a marked characteristic of primitive +Man in every land. The savage explains the processes of inanimate +nature by assuming that living beings or spirits, possessed +of capacities similar to his own, are within the inanimate object. +The growth of a tree, the spark struck from a flint, the devastating +floods of a river, mean to him the natural actions of beings +within the tree, stone or water. And thus too he explains to +himself the phenomena of human life, believing that each man has +within him a mannikin or animal which dictates his actions in life. +This miniature man is the savage’s conception of the soul; sleep +and trance being regarded as the temporary, death as the +permanent, absence of the soul. Each individual is thus deemed +to have a dual existence. This “subliminal” self (in modern +terminology) has many forms. The Hurons thought that it +possessed head, body, arms and legs, in fact that it was an exact +miniature of a man. The Nootkas of British Columbia regard +it as a tiny man, living in the crown of the head. So long as it +stands erect, its possessor is well, but if it falls from its position +the misfortunes of ill-health and madness at once assail him. +The ancient Egyptian believed in the soul or “double.” The +inhabitants of Nias, an island to the west of Sumatra, have the +strange belief that to everyone before birth is given the choice of +a long and heavy or short and light soul (a parallel belief may be +found in early Greek philosophy), and his choice determines the +length of life. Sometimes the soul is conceived as a bird. The +Bororos of Brazil fancy that in that shape the soul of a sleeper +passes out of the body during night-time, returning to him at his +awakening. The Bella Coola Indians say the soul is a bird +enclosed in an egg and lives in the nape of the neck. If the shell +bursts and the soul flies away, the man must die. If however +the bird flies away, egg and all, then he faints or loses his reason. +A popular superstition in Bohemia assumes that the soul in the +shape of a white bird leaves the body by way of the mouth. +Among the Battas of Sumatra rice or grain is sprinkled on the +head of a man who returns from a dangerous enterprise, and in +the latter case the grains are called <i>padiruma tondi</i>, “means to +make the soul (<i>tondi</i>) stay at home.” In Java the new-born +babe is placed in a hen-coop, and the mother makes a clucking +noise, as if she were a hen, to attract the child’s soul. It is +regarded by many savage peoples as highly dangerous to arouse +a sleeper suddenly, as his soul may not have time to return. +Still more dangerous is it to move a sleeper, for the soul on its +return might not be able to find the body. Flies and butterflies +are forms which the souls are believed by some races to take, +and the Esthonians of the island of Oesel think that the gusts of +wind which whirl tornado-like through the roads are the souls of +old women seeking what they can find.</p> + +<p>But more widespread perhaps than any belief, from its simplicity +doubtless, is the idea that the body’s shadow or reflexion +is the soul. The Basutos think that crocodiles can devour the +shadow of a man cast on the surface of water. In many parts of +the world sorcerers are credited with supernatural powers over +a man by an attack on his shadow. The sick man is considered +to have lost his shadow or a part of it. Dante refers to the +shadowless spectre of Virgil, and the folklore of many European +countries affords examples of the prevalence of the superstition +that a man must be as careful of his shadow as of his body. In +the same way the reflexion-soul is thought to be subject to a +malice of enemies or attacks of beasts and has been the cause of +superstitions which in one form or another exist to-day. From +the Fijian and Andaman islander who exhibits abject terror at +seeing himself in a glass or in water, to the English or European +peasant who covers up the mirrors or turns them to the wall, +upon a death occurring, lest an inmate of the house should see his +own face and have his own speedy demise thus prognosticated, +the idea holds its ground. It was probably the origin of the +story of Narcissus, and there is scarcely a race which is free from +the haunting dread. Lastly the soul is pictured as being a man’s +breath (<i>anima</i>), and this again has come down to us in literature, +evidenced by the fact that the word “breath” has become a +synonym for life itself. The “last breath” has meant more than +a mere metaphor. It expresses the savage belief that there +departs from the dying in the final expiration a something +tangible, capable of separate existence—the soul. Among the +Romans custom imposed a sacred duty on the nearest relative, +usually the heir, to inhale the “last breath” of the dying. +Moreover the classics bear evidence to the sanctity with which +sentiment surrounded the last kiss; Cicero, in his speech against +Verres, saying “<i>Matres ab extremo complexu liberum exclusae: +quae nihil aliud orabant nisi ut filiorum extremum spiritum ore +excipere sibi liceret</i>.” Virgil, too, refers in the <i>Aeneid</i>, iv. 684, +to the custom, which survives to-day as a ceremonial practice +among many savage and semi-civilized people.</p> + +<p>From the inability of the savage in all ages and in all lands +to comprehend death as a natural phenomenon, there results a +tendency to personify death, and myths are invented to account +for its origin. Sometimes it is a “taboo” which has been +broken and gives Death power over man. In New Zealand +Maui, the divine hero of Polynesia, was not properly baptized. +In Australia a woman was told not to go near a tree where a bat +lived: she infringed the prohibition, the bat fluttered out, and +death resulted. The Ningphoos were dismissed from Paradise +and became mortal because one of them bathed in water which +had been “tabooed” (Dalton, p. 13). Other versions of the +Death-myth in Polynesia relate that Maui stole a march on Night +as she slept, and would have passed right through her to destroy +her, but a little bird which sings at sunset woke her, she destroyed +Maui, and men lost immortality. In India Yama, the god of +Death, is assumed, like Maui, to have been the first to “spy out +the path to the other world.” In the Solomon Islands (<i>Jour. +Anth. Inst.</i>, February 1881) “Koevari was the author of death, +by resuming her cast-off skin.” The same story is told in the +Banks Islands. The Greek myth (Hesiód, <i>Works and Days</i>, 90) +alleged that mortals lived “without ill diseases that give death +to men” till the cover was lifted from the box of Pandora. +This personification of Death has had as a consequence the +introduction into the folklore of many lands of stories, often +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page900" id="page900"></a>900</span> +humorous, of the tricks played on the Enemy of Mankind. +Thus Sisyphus fettered Death, keeping him prisoner till rescued +by Ares; in Venetian folklore Beppo ties him up in a bag for +eighteen months; while in Sicily an innkeeper corks him up in +a bottle, and a monk keeps him in his pouch for forty years. +The German parallel is Gambling Hansel, who kept Death up +a tree for seven years. Such examples might be multiplied +unendingly, but enough has been said to show that the attitude +of civilized man towards the sphinx-riddle of his end has been +in part dictated and is even still influenced by the savage belief +that to die is unnatural.</p> + +<p><i>Law—Registration.</i>—The registration of burials in England +goes back to the time of Thomas Cromwell, who in 1538 instituted +the keeping of parish registers. Statutory measures were taken +from time to time to ensure the preservation of registers of +burials, but it was not until 1836 (the Births and Deaths Registration +Act) that the registration of deaths became a national +concern. Other acts dealing with death registration were subsequently +passed, and the whole law for England consolidated by +the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1874. By that act, the +registration of every death and the cause of the death is compulsory. +When a person dies in a house information of the +death and the particulars required to be registered must be given +within five days of the death to the registrar to the best of the +person’s knowledge and belief by one of the following persons:—(1) +The nearest relative of the deceased present at the death, or +in attendance during the last illness of the deceased. If they fail, +then (2) some other relative of the deceased in the same sub-district +(registrar’s) as the deceased. In default of relatives, (3) +some person present at the death, or the occupier of the house in +which, to his knowledge, the death took place. If all the above +fail, (4) some inmate of the house, or the person causing the body +of the deceased to be buried. The person giving the information +must sign the register. Similarly, also, information must be +given concerning death where the deceased dies not in a house.</p> + +<p>Where written notice of the death, accompanied by a medical +certificate of the cause of death, is sent to the registrar, information +must nevertheless be given and the register signed within +fourteen days after the death by the person giving the notice +or some other person as required by the act. Failure to give +information of death, or to comply with the registrar’s requisitions, +entails a penalty not exceeding forty shillings, and making +false statements or certificates, or forging or falsifying them, is +punishable either summarily within six months, or on indictment +within three years of the offence. Before burial takes place +the clergyman or other person conducting the funeral or religious +service must have the registrar’s certificate that the death of the +deceased person has been duly registered, or else a coroner’s +order or warrant. Failing the certificate, the clergyman cannot +refuse to bury, but he must forthwith give notice in writing to the +registrar. Failure to do so within seven days involves a penalty +not exceeding ten pounds. Children must not be registered +as still-born without a medical certificate or a signed declaration +from some one who would have been required, if the child had +been born alive, to give information concerning the birth, that +the child was still-born and that no medical man was present at +the birth, or a coroner’s order. The registration of deaths at +sea is regulated by the act of 1874 together with the Merchant +Shipping Act 1894. See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Birth</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Burial and Burial +Acts</a></span>. Registers of death are, in law, evidence of the fact of +death, and the entry, or a certified copy of it, will be sufficient +evidence without a certificate of burial, although it is desirable +that it should also be produced.</p> + +<p><i>Presumption of Death.</i>—The fact of death may, in English law, +be proved not only by direct but by presumptive evidence. +When a person disappears, so that no direct proof of his whereabouts +or death is obtainable, death may be presumed at the +expiration of seven years from the period when the person was last +heard of. It is always, however, a matter of fact for the jury, and +the onus of proving the death lies on the party who asserts it. +In Scotland, by the Presumption of Life (Scotland) Act 1891, the +presumption is statutory. In those cases where people disappear +under circumstances which create a strong probability of death, +the court may, for the purpose of probate or administration, +presume the death before the lapse of seven years. The question +of survivorship, where two or more persons are shown to have +perished by the same catastrophe, as in cases of shipwreck, has +been much discussed. It was at one time thought that there +might be a presumption of survivorship in favour of the younger +as against the older, of the male as against the female, &c. +But it is now clear that there is no such presumption (<i>In re +Alston</i>, 1892, P. 142). This is also the rule in most states of the +American Union. The doctrine of survivorship originated in the +Roman Law, which had recourse to certain artificial presumptions, +where the particular circumstances connected with deaths +were unknown. Some of the systems founded on the civil law, +as the French code, have adopted certain rules of survivorship.</p> + +<p><i>Civil Death</i> is an expression used, in law, in contradistinction +to natural death. Formerly, a man was said to be dead in law +(1) when he entered a monastery and became professed in religion; +(2) when he abjured the realm; (3) when he was attainted of +treason or felony. Since the suppression of the monasteries +there has been no legal establishment for professed persons in +England, and the first distinction has therefore disappeared, +though for long after the original reason had ceased to make it +necessary grants of life estates were usually made for the terms +of a man’s <i>natural</i> life. The act abolishing sanctuaries (1623) +did away with civil death by abjuration; and the Forfeiture Act +1870, that on attainder for treason or felony.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the tax levied on the estate of deceased persons, and sometimes +called “death duty,” see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Succession Duty</a></span>.</p> + +<p>For the statistics of the death-rate of the United Kingdom as compared +with that of the various European countries see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">United +Kingdom</a></span>. See also the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Annuity</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Capital Punishment</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cremation</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Insurance</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Medical Jurisprudence</a></span>, &c.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEATH-WARNING,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> a term used in psychical research for an +intimation of the death of another person received by other than +the ordinary sensory channels, <i>i.e.</i> by (1) a sensory hallucination +or (2) a massive sensation, both being of telepathic origin. (See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Telepathy</a></span>.) Both among civilized and uncivilized peoples +there is a widespread belief that the apparition of a living person +is an omen of death; but until the Society of Psychical Research +undertook the statistical examination of the question, there were +no data for estimating the value of the belief. In 1885 a collection +of spontaneous cases and a discussion of the evidence was +published under the title <i>Phantasms of the Living</i>, and though +the standard of evidence was lower than at the present time, a +substantial body of testimony, including many striking cases, +was there put forward. In 1889 a further inquiry was undertaken, +known as the “Census of Hallucinations,” which provided +information as to the percentage of individuals in the general +population who, at some period of their lives, while they were in a +normal state of health, had had “a vivid impression of seeing +or being touched by a living being or inanimate object, or of +hearing a voice; which impression, so far as they could discover, +was not due to any external cause.” To the census question +about 17,000 answers were received, and after making all deductions +it appeared that death coincidences numbered about 30 in +1300 cases of recognized apparitions; or about 1 in 43, whereas +if chance alone operated the coincidences would have been +in the proportion of 1 to 19,000. As a result of the inquiry +the committee held it to be proved that “between deaths and +apparitions of the dying person a connexion exists which is +not due to chance alone.” From an evidential point of view +the apparition is the most valuable class of death-warning, +inasmuch as recognition is more difficult in the case of an +auditory hallucination, even where it takes the form of spoken +words; moreover, auditory hallucinations coinciding with deaths +may be mere knocks, ringing of bells, &c.; tactile hallucinations +are still more difficult of recognition; and the hallucinations +of smell which are sometimes found as death-warnings rarely +have anything to associate them specially with the dead person. +Occasionally the death-warning is in the form of an apparition +of some other person; it may also take the form of a temporary +feeling of intense depression or other massive sensation.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page901" id="page901"></a>901</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Podmore, Gurney and Myers, <i>Phantasms of the +Living</i> (1885); for the Census Report see <i>Proceedings of the Society +for Psychical Research</i>, part xxvi.; see also F. Podmore, <i>Apparitions +and Thought Transference</i>. For a criticism of the results of the +Census see E. Parish, <i>Hallucinations and Illusions</i> and <i>Zur Kritik +des telepathischen Beweismaterials</i>, and Mrs Sidgwick’s refutation +in <i>Proc. S.P.R.</i> part xxxiii. 589-601. The <i>Journal of the S.P.R.</i> +contains the most striking spontaneous cases received from time to +time by the society.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(N. W. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEATH-WATCH,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> a popular name applied to insects of two +distinct families, which burrow and live in old furniture and +produce the mysterious “ticking” vulgarly supposed to foretell +the death of some inmate of the house. The best known, because +the largest, is a small beetle, <i>Anobium striattum</i>, belonging to the +family <i>Ptinidae</i>. The “ticking,” in reality a sexual call, like the +chirp of a grasshopper, is produced by the beetle rapidly striking +its head against the hard and dry woodwork. In the case of +the smaller death-watches, some of the so-called book-lice of the +family <i>Psocidae</i>, the exact way in which the sound is caused has +not been satisfactorily explained. Indeed the ability of such +small and soft insects to give rise to audible sounds has been +seriously doubted; but it is impossible to ignore the positive +evidence on the point. The names <i>Atropos divinatoria</i> and +<i>Clothilla pulsatoria</i>, given to two of the commoner forms, bear +witness both to a belief in a causal connexion between these +insects and the ticking, and to the superstition regarding the +fateful significance of the sound.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DE BARY, HEINRICH ANTON<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1831-1888), German botanist, +was of Belgian extraction, though his family had long been +settled in Germany, and was born on the 26th of January 1831, +at Frankfort-on-Main. From 1849 to 1853 he studied medicine +at Heidelberg, Marburg and Berlin. In 1853 he settled at Frankfort +as a surgeon. In 1854 he became privat-docent for botany +in Tübingen, and professor of botany at Freiburg in 1855. In +1867 he migrated to Halle, and in 1872 to Strassburg, where he +was the first rector of the newly constituted university, and +where he died on the 19th of January 1888.</p> + +<p>Although one of his largest and most important works was +on the <i>Comparative Anatomy of Ferns and Phanerogams</i> (1877), +and notwithstanding his admirable acquaintance with systematic +and field botany generally, de Bary will always be remembered +as the founder of modern mycology. This branch of botany +he completely revolutionized in 1866 by the publication of his +celebrated <i>Morphologie und Physiologie d. Pilze</i>, &c., a classic +which he rewrote in 1884, and which has had a world-wide +influence on biology. His clear appreciation of the real significance +of symbiosis and the dual nature of lichens is one of his +most striking achievements, and in many ways he showed powers +of generalizing in regard to the evolution of organisms, which +alone would have made him a distinguished man. It was as +an investigator of the then mysterious Fungi, however, that +de Bary stands out first and foremost among the biologists of +the 19th century. He not only laid bare the complex facts of the +life-history of many forms,—<i>e.g.</i> the Ustilagineae, Peronosporeae, +Uredineae and many Ascomycetes,—treating them from the +developmental point of view, in opposition to the then prevailing +anatomical method, but he insisted on the necessity of tracing +the evolution of each organism from spore to spore, and by his +methods of culture and accurate observation brought to light +numerous facts previously undreamt of. These his keen perception +and insight continually employed as the basis for hypotheses, +which in turn he tested with an experimental skill and critical +faculty rarely equalled and probably never surpassed. One of +his most fruitful discoveries was the true meaning of infection as +a morphological and physiological process. He traced this step +by step in <i>Phytophthora</i>, <i>Cystopus</i>, <i>Puccinia</i>, and other Fungi, +and so placed before the world in a clear light the significance +of parasitism. He then showed by numerous examples wherein +lay the essential differences between a parasite and a saprophyte; +these were by no means clear in 1860-1870, though he himself +had recognized them as early as 1853, as is shown by his work, +<i>Die Brandpilze</i>.</p> + +<p>These researches led to the explanation of epidemic diseases, +and de Bary’s contributions to this subject were fundamental, +as witness his classical work on the potato disease in 1861. They +also led to his striking discovery of <i>heteroecism</i> (or <i>metoecism</i>) +in the Uredineae, the truth of which he demonstrated in wheat +rust experimentally, and so clearly that his classical example +(1863) has always been confirmed by subsequent observers, +though much more has been discovered as to details. It is +difficult to estimate the relative importance of de Bary’s astoundingly +accurate work on the sexuality of the Fungi. He not +only described the phenomena of sexuality in Peronosporeae +and Ascomycetes—<i>Eurotium</i>, <i>Erysiphe</i>, <i>Peziza</i>, &c.—but also +established the existence of parthenogenesis and apogamy on so +firm a basis that it is doubtful if all the combined workers who +have succeeded him, and who have brought forward contending +hypotheses in opposition to his views, have succeeded in shaking +the doctrine he established before modern cytological methods +existed. In one case, at least (<i>Pyronema confluens</i>), the most +skilful investigations, with every modern appliance, have shown +that de Bary described the sexual organs and process accurately.</p> + +<p>It is impossible here to mention all the discoveries made by +de Bary. He did much work on the Chytridieae, Ustilagineae, +Exoasceae and Phalloideae, as well as on that remarkable group +the Myxomycetes, or, as he himself termed them, <i>Mycetozoa</i>, +almost every step of which was of permanent value, and started +lines of investigation which have proved fruitful in the hands of +his pupils. Nor must we overlook the important contributions to +algology contained in his earlier monograph on the Conjugatae +(1858), and investigations on Nostocaceae (1863), <i>Chara</i> (1871), +<i>Acetabularia</i> (1869), &c. De Bary seems to have held aloof from +the Bacteria for many years, but it was characteristic of the +man that, after working at them in order to include an account +of the group in the second edition of his book in 1884, he found +opportunity to bring the whole subject of bacteriology under the +influence of his genius, the outcome being his brilliant <i>Lectures +on Bacteria</i> in 1885. De Bary’s personal influence was immense. +Every one of his numerous pupils was enthusiastic in admiration +of his kind nature and genial criticism, his humorous sarcasm, +and his profound insight, knowledge and originality.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Memoirs of de Bary’s life will be found in <i>Bot. Centralbl.</i> (1888), +xxxiv. 93, by Wilhelm; <i>Ber. d. d. bot. Ges.</i> vol. vi. (1888) p. viii., +by Reess, each with a list of his works; <i>Bot. Zeitung</i> (1889), vol. xlvii. +No. 3, by Graf zu Soems-Laubach.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. M. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEBENTURES</span> and <span class="bold">DEBENTURE STOCK.<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> One of the +many advantages incident to incorporation under the English +Companies Acts is found in the facilities which such incorporation +affords a trading concern for borrowing on debentures or debenture +stock. More than five hundred millions of money are now invested +in these forms of security. Borrowing was not specifically +dealt with by the Companies Acts prior to the act of 1900, but +that it was contemplated by the legislature is evident from the +provision in § 43 of the act of 1862 for a company keeping a +register of mortgages and charges. The policy of the legislature +in this, as in other matters connected with trading companies, +was apparently to leave the company to determine whether +borrowing should or should not form one of its objects.</p> + +<p>The first principle to be borne in mind is that a company +cannot borrow unless it is expressly or impliedly authorized to do +so by its memorandum of association. In the case of a <i>trading</i> +company borrowing is impliedly authorized as a necessary +incident of carrying on the company’s business. Thus a company +established for the conveyance of passengers and luggage by +omnibuses, a company formed to buy and run vessels between +England and Australia, and a company whose objects included +discounting approved commercial bills, have all been held to +be trading companies with an incidental power of borrowing as +such to a reasonable amount. A building society, on the other +hand, has no inherent power of borrowing (though a limited +statutory power was conferred on such societies by the Building +Societies Act 1874); nor has a society formed not for gain but +to promote art, science, religion, charity or any other useful +object. Public companies formed to carry out some undertaking +of public utility, such as docks, water works, or gas works, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page902" id="page902"></a>902</span> +governed by the Companies Clauses Acts, have only limited +powers of borrowing.</p> + +<p>An implied power of borrowing, even when it attaches, is too +inconvenient to be relied on in practice, and an express power is +always now inserted in a joint stock company’s memorandum +of association. This power is in the most general terms. It is +left to the articles to define the amount to be borrowed, the nature +of the security, and the conditions, if any,—such as the sanction +of a general meeting of shareholders,—on which the power is +to be exercised. Under the Companies Act 1908, § 87, a company +cannot exercise any borrowing power until it has fulfilled +the conditions prescribed by the act entitling it to commence +business: one of which is that the company must have obtained +its “minimum subscription.” A person who is proposing to lend +money to a company must be careful to acquaint himself with +any statutory regulations of this kind, and also to see (1) that +the memorandum and articles of association authorize borrowing, +and (2) that the borrowing limit is not being exceeded, for if +it should turn out that the borrowing was in excess of the +company’s powers and <i>ultra vires</i>, the company cannot be bound, +and the borrower’s only remedy is against the directors for breach +of warranty of authority, or to be surrogated to the rights of any +creditors who may have been paid out of the borrowed moneys.</p> + +<p>A company proposing to borrow usually issues a prospectus, +similar to the ordinary share prospectus, stating the amount of +the issue, the dates for payment, the particulars of the property +to be comprised in the security, the terms as to redemption, and +so on, and inviting the public to subscribe. Underwriting is also +resorted to, as in the case of shares, to ensure that the issue is +taken up. There is no objection to a company issuing debentures +or debenture stock at a discount, as there is to its issuing its +shares at a discount. It must borrow on the best terms its credit +will enable it to obtain. A prospectus inviting subscriptions for +debentures or debenture stock comes within the terms of the +Directors’ Liability Act 1890 (re-enacted in Companies Act +1908, § 84), and persons who are parties to it have the +onus cast upon them, should the prospectus contain any +misstatements, of showing that, at the time when they issued +the prospectus, they had reasonable grounds to believe, and +did in fact believe, that the statements in question were +true; otherwise they will be liable to pay compensation to any +person injured by the misstatements. A debenture prospectus +is also within the terms of the Companies Act 1908. It must +be filed with the registrar of joint stock companies (§ 80) and +must contain all the particulars specified in § 81 of the act. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Company</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>The usual mode of borrowing by a company is either on +debentures or debenture stock. Etymologically, debenture is +merely the Latin word <i>debentur</i>,—The first word in a document +in common use by the crown in early times admitting indebtedness +to its servants or soldiers. This was the germ of a security +which has now, with the expansion of joint stock company +enterprise, grown into an instrument of considerable complexity.</p> + +<p>Debentures may be classified in various ways. From the +point of view of the security they are either (1) debentures +(simply); (2) mortgage debentures; (3) debenture bonds. In +the debenture the security is a floating charge. In the mortgage +debenture there is also a floating charge, but the property forming +the principal part of the security is conveyed by the company to +trustees under a trust deed for the benefit of the debenture-holders. +In the debenture bond there is no security proper: +only the covenant for payment by the company. For purposes +of title and transfer, debentures are either “registered” or “to +bearer.” For purposes of payment they are either “terminable” +or “perpetual” (see Companies Act 1908, § 103).</p> + +<p><i>The Floating Debenture.</i>—The form of debenture chiefly in use +at the present day is that secured by a floating charge. By it the +company covenants to pay to the holder thereof the sum secured +by the debenture on a specified day (usually ten or fifteen years +after the date of issue), or at such earlier date as the principal +moneys become due under the provisions of the security, and +in the meantime the company covenants to pay interest on the +principal moneys until payment, or until the security becomes +enforceable under the conditions; and the company further +charges its undertaking and all its property, including its uncalled +capital, with the payment of the amount secured by the debentures. +Uncalled capital if included must be expressly mentioned, +because the word “property” by itself will not cover uncalled +capital which is only property potentially, <i>i.e.</i> when called up. +This is the body of the instrument; on its back is endorsed a +series of conditions, constituting the terms on which the debenture +is issued. Thus the debenture-holders are to rank <i>pari passu</i> +with one another against the security; the debenture is to be +transferable free from equities between the company and the +original holder; the charge is to be a floating charge, and the +debenture-holders’ moneys are to become immediately repayable +and the charges enforceable in certain events: for instance, if the +interest is in arrear for (say) two or three months, or if a winding-up +order is made against the company, or a resolution for winding-up +is passed. Other events indicative of insolvency are sometimes +added in which payment is to be accelerated. The conditions +also provide for the mode and form of transfer of the +debentures, the death or bankruptcy of the holder, the place of +payment, &c. The most characteristic feature of the security—the +floating charge—grew naturally out of a charge on a company’s +undertaking as a going concern. Such a charge could only be +made practicable by leaving the company free to deal with and +dispose of its property in the ordinary course of its business—to +sell, mortgage, lease, and exchange it as if no charge existed: and +this is how the security works. The debenture-holders give the +directors an implied licence to deal with and dispose of the +property comprised in the security until the happening of any of +the events upon which the debenture-holders’ money becomes +under the debenture conditions immediately repayable. Pending +this the charge is dormant. The licence extends, however, +only to dealings in <i>the ordinary course of business</i>. Payment by +a company of its just debts is always in the ordinary course of +business, but satisfaction by execution levied <i>in invitum</i> is not. +This floating form of security is found very convenient both to +the borrowing company and to the lender. The company is not +embarrassed by the charge, while the lender has a security +covering the whole assets for the time being, and can intervene +at any moment by obtaining a receiver if his security is imperilled, +even though none of the events in which the principal moneys +are made payable have happened. If any of them has happened, +for instance default in payment of interest, or a resolution by the +company to wind up, the payment of the principal moneys is +accelerated, and a debenture-holder can at once commence an +action to obtain payment and to realize his security. At times +a proviso is inserted in the conditions endorsed on the debenture, +that the company is not to create any mortgage or charge ranking +in priority to or <i>pari passu</i> with that contained in the debentures. +Very nice questions of priority have arisen under such +a clause. A floating charge created by a company within three +months of its being wound up will now be invalid under § 12 of +the Companies Act 1908 unless the company is shown to have +been solvent at the time, but there is a saving clause for cash paid +under the security and interest at 5%.</p> + +<p><i>Trust Deeds.</i>—When the amount borrowed by a company is +large, the company commonly executes a trust deed by way of +further security. The object of such a trust deed is twofold: +(1) it conveys specific property to the trustees of the deed by +way of legal mortgage (the charge contained in the debentures is +only an equitable security), and it further charges all the remaining +assets in favour of the debenture-holders, with appropriate +provisions for enabling them, in certain events similar to those +expressed in the debenture conditions, to enforce the security, +and for that purpose to enter into possession and carry on the +business, or to sell it and distribute the proceeds; (2) it organizes +the debenture-holders and constitutes in the trustees of the +deed a body of experienced business men who can watch over +the interests of the debenture-holders and take steps for their +protection if necessary. In particular it provides machinery +for the calling of meetings of debenture-holders by the trustees, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page903" id="page903"></a>903</span> +and empowers a majority of (say) two-thirds or three-fourths +in number and value at such meeting to bind the rest to any +compromise or arrangement with the company which such +majorities may deem beneficial. This is found a very useful +power, and may save recourse to a scheme or arrangement first +sanctioned under the machinery of the Joint Stock Companies +Arrangement Act 1870 (Companies Act 1908, § 120).</p> + +<p><i>Registration of Mortgages and Charges.</i>—A company is bound, +under the Companies Act 1862, to keep a register of mortgages and +charges, but the register is only open for the inspection of persons +who have actually become creditors of the company, not of +persons who may be thinking of giving it credit, and the legislature +recognizing its inadequacy provided in the Companies Act +1900 (§ 4 of act of 1908) for a public register at Somerset House of +all mortgages and charges of certain specified classes by a company. +If not registered within twenty-one days from their creation +such mortgages and charges are made void—so far as they are +securities—against the liquidator and any creditor of the company, +but the debenture-holders retain the rights of unsecured +creditors. An extension of the time for registering may be +granted by the court, but it will only be without prejudice to +the rights of third persons acquired before actual registration. +These provisions for registration as amended are contained in +the Companies Act 1908 (§ 93).</p> + +<p><i>Debentures Registered and to Bearer.</i>—Debentures are, for +purposes of title and transfer, of two kinds—(1) registered debentures, +and (2) debentures to bearer. Registered debentures are +transferable only in the books of the company. Debentures to +bearer are negotiable instruments and pass by delivery. Coupons +for interest are attached. Sometimes debentures to bearer are +made exchangeable for registered debentures and vice versa.</p> + +<p><i>Redemption.</i>—A company generally reserves to itself a right of +redeeming the security before the date fixed by the debenture +for repayment; and accordingly a power for that purpose is +commonly inserted in the conditions. But as debenture-holders, +who have got a satisfactory security, do not wish to be paid off, +the right of redemption is often qualified so as not to arise till +(say) five years after issue, and a premium of 5% is made +payable by way of bonus to the redeemed debenture-holder. +Sometimes the number of debentures to be redeemed each year is +limited. The selection is made by drawings held in the presence +of the directors. A sinking fund is a convenient means frequently +resorted to for redemption of a debenture debt, and is especially +suitable where the security is of a wasting character, leaseholds, +mining property or a patent. Such a fund is formed by the +company setting apart a certain sum each year out of the profits +of the company after payment of interest on the debentures. +Redeemed debentures may in certain cases be reissued; see +Companies Act 1908 (§ 104).</p> + +<p><i>Debenture Stock.</i>—Debenture stock bears the same relation +to debentures that stock does to shares. “Debenture stock,” +as Lord Lindley states (<i>Companies</i>, 5th ed., 195), “is merely +borrowed capital consolidated into one mass for the sake of +convenience. Instead of each lender having a separate bond or +mortgage, he has a certificate entitling him to a certain sum, +being a portion of one large loan.” This sum is not uniform, as in +the case of debentures, but variable. One debenture-stockholder, +for instance, may hold £20 of the debenture stock, another +£20,000. Debenture stock is usually issued in multiples of £10 +or sometimes of £1, and is made transferable in sums of any +amount not involving a fraction of £1. It is this divisibility of +stock, whether debenture or ordinary stock, into quantities of any +amount, which constitutes in fact its chief characteristic, and its +convenience from a business point of view. It facilitates dealing +with the stock, and also enables investors with only a small +amount to invest to become stockholders. The property comprised +in this security is generally the same as in the case of +debentures. Debenture stock created by trading companies +differs in various particulars from debenture stock created by +public companies governed by the Companies Clauses Act. The +debenture stock of trading companies is created by a contract +made between the company and trustees for the debenture-stockholders. +This contract is known as a debenture-stockholders’ +trust deed, and is analogous in its provisions to the trust +deed above described as used to secure debentures. By such a +deed the company acknowledges its indebtedness to the trustees, +as representing the debenture-stockholders, to the amount of the +sum advanced, covenants to pay it, and conveys the property +by way of security to the trustees with all the requisite powers +and provisions for enabling them to enforce the security on +default in payment of interest by the company or on the happening +of certain specified events evidencing insolvency. The +company further, in pursuance of the contract, enters the names +of the subsisting stockholders in a register, and issues certificates +for the amount of their respective holdings. These certificates +have, like debentures, the conditions of the security indorsed on +their back. Debenture stock is also issued to bearer. A deed +securing debenture stock requires an <i>ad valorem</i> stamp.</p> + +<p><i>Debenture Scrip.</i>—Debentures and debenture stock are usually +made payable in instalments, for example 10% on application, +10% on allotment and the remainder at intervals of a few +months. Until these payments are complete the securities are +not issued, but to enable the subscriber to deal with his security +pending completion the company issues to him an interim scrip +certificate acknowledging his title and exchangeable on payment +of the remaining instalments for debentures or debenture stock +certificates. If a subscriber for debentures made default in +payment the company could not compel him specifically to +perform his contract, the theory of law being that the company +could get the loan elsewhere, but this inconvenience is now +removed (see § 105 of the Companies Act 1908).</p> + +<p><i>Remedies.</i>—When debenture-holders’ security becomes +enforceable there are a variety of remedies open to them. These +fall into two classes—(1) remedies available without the aid +of the court; (2) remedies available only with the aid of the +court.</p> + +<p>1. If there is a trust deed, the trustees may appoint a receiver +of the property comprised in the security, and they may also sell +under the powers contained in the deed, or under § 25 of the +Conveyancing Act 1881. Sometimes, where there is no trust +deed, similar powers—to appoint a receiver and to sell—are +inserted in the conditions indorsed on the debentures.</p> + +<p>2. The remedies with the aid of the court are—(<i>a</i>) an action by +one or more debenture-holders on behalf of all for a receiver and +to realize the security; (<i>b</i>) an originating summons for sale or +other relief, under Rules of Supreme Court, 1883, O. lv. r. 5A; +(<i>c</i>) an action for foreclosure where the security is deficient +(all the debenture-holders must be parties to this proceeding); +(<i>d</i>) a winding-up petition. Of these modes of proceeding, the +first is by far the most common and most convenient. Immediately +on the issue of the writ in the action the plaintiff applies for +the appointment of a receiver to protect the security, or if the +security comprises a going business, a receiver <i>and manager</i>. +In due course the action comes on for judgment, usually on +agreed minutes, when the court directs accounts and inquiries +as to who are the holders of the debentures, what is due to them, +what property is comprised in the security, and gives leave to any +of the parties to apply in chambers for a sale. If the company +has gone into liquidation, leave must be obtained to commence +or continue the action, but such leave in the case of debenture-holders +is <i>ex debito justitiae</i>. A debenture-holder action when +the company is in winding up is always now transferred to the +judge having the control of the winding-up proceedings. The +administration of a company’s assets in such actions by debenture-holders +(debenture-holders’ liquidations, as they are called) has +of late encroached very much on the ordinary administration of +winding up, and it cannot be denied that great hardship is often +inflicted by the floating security on the company’s unsecured +creditors, who find that everything belonging to the company, +uncalled capital included, has been pledged to the debenture-holders. +The conventional answer is that such creditors might +and ought to have inspected the company’s register of mortgages +and charges. The matter was fully considered by the departmental +board of trade committee which reported in July 1906, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page904" id="page904"></a>904</span> +but the committee, looking at the business convenience of the +floating charge, saw no reason for recommending an alteration +in the law.</p> + +<p><i>Reconstruction.</i>—When a company reconstructs, as it often +does in these days, the rights of debenture-holders have to be +provided for. Reconstructions are mainly of two kinds—(1) by +arrangement, under the Joint Stock Companies Arrangement Act +1870, amended in 1900 and 1907, incorporated in act of 1908 +(§ 120), and (2) by sale and transfer of assets, either under § 192 +of the act of 1908, or under a power in the company’s +memorandum of association. By the procedure provided under +(1) a petition for the sanction of the court to a scheme +is presented, and the court thereupon directs meetings of +creditors, including debenture-holders, to be held. A three-fourths +majority in value of debenture-holders present at the +meeting in person or by proxy binds the rest. Debenture-holders +claiming to vote must produce their debentures at or +before the meeting. Under the other mode of reconstruction—sale +and transfer of assets—there is usually a novation, and +the debenture-holders accept the security of the new company +in the shape of debentures of equivalent value or—occasionally—of +fully paid preference shares.</p> + +<p>A point in this connexion, which involves some hardship +to debenture-holders, may here be adverted to. It is a not +uncommon practice for a solvent company to pass a resolution +to wind up voluntarily for the purpose of reconstructing. The +effect of this is to accelerate payment of the security, and the +debenture-holders have to accept their principal and interest +only, parting with a good security and perhaps a premium which +would have accrued to them in a year or two. The company is +thus enabled by its own act to redeem the reluctant debenture-holder +on terms most advantageous to itself. To obviate this +hardship, it is now a usual thing in a debenture-holders’ trust +deed to provide—the committee of the London Stock Exchange +indeed require it—that a premium shall be paid to the debenture-holders +in the event of the security becoming enforceable by a +voluntary winding up with a view to reconstruction.</p> + +<p><i>Public Companies.</i>—Public companies, <i>i.e.</i> companies incorporated +by special act of parliament for carrying on undertakings +of public utility, form a class distinct from trading companies. +The borrowing powers of these companies, the form of their +debenture or debenture stock, and the rights of the debenture-holders +or debenture-stockholders, depend on the conjoint +operation of the companies’ own special act and the Companies +Clauses Acts 1845, 1863 and 1869. The provisions of these acts +as to borrowing, being express, exclude any implicit power of +borrowing. The first two of the above acts relate to mortgages +and bonds, the last to debenture stock. The policy of the legislature +in all these acts is the same, namely, to give the greatest +facilities for borrowing, and at the same time to take care that +undertakings of public utility which have received legislative +sanction shall not be broken up or destroyed, as they would be +if the mortgagees or debenture-holders were allowed the ordinary +rights of mortgagees for realizing their security by seizure and +sale. Hence the legislature has given them only “the fruit of +the tree,” as Lord Cairns expressed it. The debenture-holders +or the debenture-stockholders may take the earnings of the +company’s undertaking by obtaining the appointment of a +receiver, but that is all they can do. They cannot sell the undertaking +or disorganize it by levying execution, so long as the +company is a going concern; but this protecting principle of +public policy will not be a bar to a debenture-holder, in his +character of creditor, presenting a petition to wind up the +company, if it is no longer able to fulfil its statutory objects. +Railway companies have further special legislation, which will +be found in the Railway Companies Powers Act 1864, the +Railways Construction Facilities Act 1864 and the Railway +Securities Act 1866.</p> + +<p><i>Municipal Corporations and County Councils.</i>—These bodies +are authorized to borrow for their proper purposes on debentures +and debenture stock with the sanction of the Local Government +Board. See the Municipal Corporations Act 1882, the Local +Authorities’ Loans Act 1875, and the Local Government (England +and Wales) Act 1888.</p> + +<p><i>United States.</i>—In the United States there are two meanings +of debenture—(1) a bond not secured by mortgage; (2) a certificate +that the United States is indebted to a certain person or his +assigns in a certain sum on an audited account, or that it will +refund a certain sum paid for duties on imported goods, in case +they are subsequently exported.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—E. Manson, <i>Debentures and Debenture Stock</i> +(London, 2nd ed., 1908); Simonson, <i>Debentures and Debenture Stock</i> +(London, 2nd ed., 1902); Palmer, <i>Company Precedents</i> (<i>Debentures</i>) +(3rd ed., London, 1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Ma.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEBORAH<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (Heb. for “bee”), the Israelite heroine in the +Bible through whose encouragement the Hebrews defeated the +Canaanites under Sisera. The account is preserved in Judges +iv.-v., and the ode of victory (chap. v.), known as the “Song +of Deborah,” is held to be one of the oldest surviving specimens +of Hebrew literature. Although the text of this <i>Te Deum</i> has +suffered (especially in vv. 8-15) its value is without an equal +for its historical contents. It is not certain that the poem was +actually composed by Deborah (v. 1); ver. 7, which can be rendered +“until <i>thou</i> didst arise, O Deborah,” is indecisive. The poem +consists of a series of rapidly shifting scenes; the words are +often obscure, but the general drift of the whole can be easily +followed. After the exordium, the writer describes the approach +of Yahweh from his seats in Seir and Edom in the south to the +help of his people—the language is reminiscent of Ps. lxviii. 7 sqq., +Hab. iii. 3 seq. 12 seq. In the days of Shamgar the son of Anath +the land had been insecure, the people were disarmed, and neither +shield nor spear was to be seen among their forty thousand +(cf. 1 Sam. xiii. 19-22, and for the number Josh. iv. 13). Then +follows, apparently, a summons to magnify Yahweh. After an +apostrophe to Deborah and Barak, the son of Abinoam, the meeting +of the clans is vividly portrayed. Ephraim, with Benjamin +behind him (for the wording, cf. Hos. v. 8), Machir (here the +tribe of Manasseh) and Zebulun, Issachar and Naphtali, pour +down into the valley of the Kishon. Not all the tribes were +represented. Reuben was wavering, Gilead (<i>i.e.</i> Gad) remained +beyond the Jordan, and Dan’s interests were apparently with the +sea-going Phoenicians (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dan</a></span>); their conduct is contrasted +with the reckless bravery of Zebulun and Naphtali. Judah is +nowhere mentioned; it lay outside the confederation. The +Canaanite kings unite at Taanach by Megiddo, an ancient battlefield +probably to be identified with Lejjūn. The heavens joined +the fight against Sisera (cf. the appeal in Josh. x. 12 seq.), a storm +rages, and the enemy are swept away in the flood. Meroz, +presumably on the line of flight, is bitterly cursed for its inaction: +“they came not to the help of Yahweh.” In vivid contrast to +this is the conduct of one of the Kenites: “blessed of all women +is Jael, of all the nomad women is she blessed.” The poem +recounts how the fleeing king craves water, she gives him +milk, and (as he drinks) she fells him (perhaps with a tent-peg); +“at her feet he sank down, he fell, he lay, where he sank he +lay overcome.” The last scene paints the mother of Sisera +impatiently awaiting the king. Her attendants confidently +picture him dividing the booty—a maiden or two for each man, +and richly embroidered cloth for himself. With inimitable +strength the poet suddenly drops the curtain—“so perish thine +enemies, all of them, Yahweh! But let them that love him be +as the sun when it rises in its might.”</p> + +<p>The historical background of this great event is unknown. +The Israelite confederation consists of central Palestine with the +(east-Jordanic) Machir, and the northern tribes with the exception +of Dan and Asher. This has suggested to some an invasion +from the coast, or from the north by way of the coast, since had +Dan and Asher fallen into the hands of the enemy, this would +probably have been referred to in some way. Sisera is scarcely a +Semitic name; a “Hittite” origin has been suggested.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Shamgar +son of Anath seems equally foreign; the latter is the name of a +Syrian goddess and the former recalls Sangara, a Hittite chief +of Carchemish in the 9th century. The context suggests that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page905" id="page905"></a>905</span> +Shamgar is a foreign oppressor (ver. 6), but he appears to have +been converted subsequently into one of the “judges” of Israel +(iii. 31), perhaps with the idea of bringing their total up to twelve.</p> + +<p>The prose version (iv.) contains new and conflicting details. +Deborah, whose home is placed under “Deborah’s palm” +between Ramah and Bethel, summons Barak from Kadesh-Naphtali +to collect Naphtali and Zebulun, 10,000 strong, and to +meet Sisera (who is here the general of a certain Jabin, king +of Hazor) at Mt. Tabor. But Sisera marches south to Kishon, +and after his defeat flees north through Israelite territory, past +Hazor to the neighbourhood of Kadesh. His death, moreover, +is differently described (iv. 21, v. 25-27), and Jael “who with +inhospitable guile smote Sisera sleeping” (Milton) is guilty of an +act which has possibly originated from a misunderstanding of +the poem. In the prose narrative Jabin has nothing to do with +the fight, whereas in Josh. xi. he is at the head of an alliance of +north Canaanite kings who were defeated by Joshua at the +waters of Merom. It would seem that certain elements which +are inconsistent with the representation in Judg. v. belonged +originally to the other battle. Kadesh, for example, might be a +natural meeting-place for an attack upon Hazor, and the designation +“Jabin’s general,” applied to Sisera, is probably due to the +attempt to harmonize the two distinct stories. Moreover, +Deborah, who is associated with the tribe of Issachar (v. 15), +appears to have been confused with Rebekah’s nurse, whose +tomb lay near Bethel (Gen. xxxv. 5). Some more northerly +place seems to be required, and it has been pointed out that +the name corresponds with Daberath (modern Dabūrīyeh) at +the foot of Tabor, on the border of Zebulun and Issachar. At all +events, to represent her as a prophetess, judging the people of +Israel (iv. 4 seq.), ill accords with both the older account (v.) +and the general situation reflected in the earlier narratives in +the book of Judges.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For fuller details see G. A. Cooke, <i>History and Song of Deborah</i> +(1892), the commentaries on Judges and the histories of Israel. +Cheyne, <i>Critica Biblica</i>, pp. 446-464, offers many new textual emendations. +Paton (<i>Syria and Palestine</i>, p. 158 sqq.) suggests that the battle +was against the Hittites (Sisera, a successor of Shamgar). See also +L. W. Batten, J<i>ourn. Bibl. Lit.</i> (1905) pp. 31-40 (who regards +Judg. v. and Josh. xi. as duplicates); Winckler, <i>Gesch. Israels</i>, ii. +125-155; <i>Keilinschr. u. d. Alte Test.</i>(<span class="sp">3</span>) p. 218; and Ed. Meyer, +<i>Israeliten</i>, pp. 272 sqq., 487 sqq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The term “Hittite” is here used as a loose but convenient +designation for closely related groups of N. Syria; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hittites</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEBRECZEN,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a town of Hungary, capital of the county of +Hajdu, 138 m. E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 72,351. It +is the principal Protestant centre in Hungary, and bears the +name of “Calvinistic Rome.” Debreczen is one of the largest +towns of Hungary, and is situated in the midst of a sandy but +fertile plain. It consists of the inner old town, and several +suburbs, which stretch out irregularly into the plain. The walls +of the old town have given place to a broad boulevard and several +open commons, beautifully laid out. The most prominent of its +public buildings is the principal Protestant church, built at +the beginning of the 19th century, which ranks as the largest +in the country, but has no great architectural pretensions. In +its immediate neighbourhood is the Protestant Collegium, for +theology and law, which is one of the most frequented institutions +of its kind in Hungary, being attended by over two +thousand students. This college was founded in 1531, and +possesses a rich library and other scientific collections. The town +hall, the Franciscan church, the Piarist monastery and college, +and the theatre are also worthy of mention. Amongst its +educational establishments it includes an agricultural academy. +The industries of the town are various, but none is of importance +enough to give it the character of a manufacturing centre. Its +tobacco-pipes, sausages and soap are widely known. It carries +on an active trade in cattle, horses, corn and honey, while four +well-attended fairs are held annually. The municipality of +Debreczen owns between three hundred and four hundred +square miles of the adjoining country, which possesses all the +characteristics of the Hungarian <i>puszta</i>, and on which roam +large herds of cattle.</p> + +<p>The town is of considerable antiquity, but owes its development +to the refugees who flocked from the villages plundered +by the Turks in the 15th century. In 1552 it adopted the +Protestant faith, and it had to suffer in consequence, especially +when it was captured in 1686 by the imperial forces. In 1693 it +was made a royal free city. In 1848-1849 it formed a refuge for +the national government and legislature when Budapest fell into +the hands of the Austrians; and it was in the great Calvinist +church that, on Kossuth’s motion (April 14th, 1849) the resolution +was passed declaring the house of Habsburg to have forfeited +the crown of St Stephen. On the 3rd of July the town was +captured by the Russians.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEBT<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (Lat. <i>debitum</i>, a thing owed), a definite sum due by one +person to another. It may be created by contract, by statute +or by judgment. Putting aside those created by statute, recoverable +by civil process, debts may be divided into three +classes, (1) judgment debts, (2) specialty debts, and (3) simple +contract debts. As to judgment debts, it is sufficient to say that, +when by the judgment of a court of competent jurisdiction an +order is made that a sum of money be paid by one of two parties +to another, such a debt is not only enforceable by process of +court, but it can be sued upon as if it were an ordinary debt. +A specialty debt is created by deed or instrument under seal. +Until 1869 specialty debts had preference under English law +over simple contract debts in the event of the bankruptcy or +death of the debtor, but this was abolished by the Administration +of Estates Act of that year. The main difference now is +that a specialty debt may, in general, be created without consideration, +as for example by a bond (a gratuitous promise under +seal), and that a right of action arising out of a specialty debt is +not barred if exercised any time within twenty years, whereas +a right of action arising out of a simple contract debt is barred +unless exercised within six years. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Limitation, Statutes of</a></span>.) +Any other debt than a judgment or specialty debt, whether +evidenced by writing or not, is a simple contract debt. There +are also certain liabilities or debts which, for the convenience of +the remedy, have been made to appear as though they sprang +from contract, and are sometimes termed quasi-contracts. Such +would be an admission by one who is in account with another +that there is a balance due from him. Such an admission +implies a promise to pay when requested and creates an actionable +liability <i>ex contractu</i>. Or, when one person is compelled by +law to discharge the legal liabilities of another, he becomes the +creditor of the person for the money so paid. Again, where a +person has received money under circumstances which disentitle +him to retain it, such as receiving payment of an account twice +over, it can generally be recovered as a debt.</p> + +<p>At English common law debts and other choses in action were +not assignable (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chose</a></span>), but by the Judicature Act 1873 any +absolute assignment of any debt or other legal chose in action, +of which express notice in writing is given to the debtor, trustee +or other person from whom the assignor would have been entitled +to receive or claim such debt, is effectual in law. Debts do not, +as a general rule, carry interest, but such an obligation may arise +either by agreement or by mercantile usage or by statute. The +discharge of a debt may take place either by payment of the +amount due, by accord and satisfaction, <i>i.e.</i> acceptance of +something else in discharge of the liability, by set-off (<i>q.v.</i>), by +release or under the law of bankruptcy (<i>q.v.</i>). It is the duty of +a debtor to pay a debt without waiting for any demand, and, +unless there is a place fixed on either by custom or agreement, +he must seek out his creditor for the purpose of paying him +unless he is “beyond the seas.” Payment by a third person to +the creditor is no discharge of a debt, as a general rule, unless +the debtor subsequently ratifies the payment. When a debtor +tenders the amount due to his creditor and the creditor refuses +to accept, the debt is not discharged, but if the debtor is subsequently +sued for the debt and continues willing and ready to pay, +and pays the amount tendered into court, he can recover his costs +in the action. A creditor is not bound to give change to the +debtor, whose duty it is to make tender in lawful money the whole +amount due, or more, without asking for change. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Payment</a></span>.) +A debtor takes the risk if he makes payment through the post, +unless the creditor has requested or authorized that mode of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page906" id="page906"></a>906</span> +payment. The payment of a debt is sometimes secured by one +person, called a surety, who makes himself collaterally liable +for the debt of the principal. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guarantee</a></span>.) The ordinary +method of enforcing a debt is by action. Where the debt does +not exceed £100 the simplest procedure for its recovery is that of +the county court, but if the debt exceeds £100 the creditor must +proceed in the high court, unless the cause of action has arisen +within the jurisdiction of certain inferior courts, such as the +mayor’s court of London, the Liverpool court of passage, &c. +When judgment has been obtained it may be enforced either +by process (under certain conditions) against the person of the +debtor, by an execution against the debtor’s property, or, with +the assistance of the court, by attaching any debt owed to the +debtor by a third person. Where a debtor has committed any +act of bankruptcy a creditor or creditors whose aggregate claims +are not less than £50 may proceed against him in bankruptcy +(<i>q.v.</i>). Where the debtor is a company or corporation registered +under the companies acts, the creditor may petition to have it +wound up. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Company</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>Imprisonment for debt, the evils of which have been so +graphically described by Dickens, was abolished in England by +the Debtors Act 1869, except in cases of default of payment +of penalties, default by trustees or solicitors and certain other +cases. But in cases where a debt or instalment is in arrear and +it is proved to the satisfaction of the court that the person making +default either has or has had since the date of the order or judgment +the means to pay the sum in respect of which he has made +default and has refused or neglected to pay, he may be committed +to prison at the discretion of the judge for a period of not +more than forty-two days. In practice, a period of twenty-one +days is usually the maximum period ordered. Such an imprisonment +does not operate as a satisfaction or extinguishment of the +debt, and no second order of commitment can be made against +him for the same debt, although where the court has made an +order or judgment for the payment of the debt by instalments +a power of committal arises on default of payment of each instalment. +In Ireland imprisonment for debt was abolished by the +Debtors Act (Ireland) 1872, and in Scotland by the Debtors +(Scotland) Act 1880. In France it was abolished in 1867, in +Belgium in 1871, in Switzerland and Norway in 1874, and in +Italy in 1877. In the United States imprisonment for debt was +universal under the common law, but it has been abolished in +every state, except in certain cases, as where there is any suspicion +of fraud or where the debtor has an intention of removing out of +the state to avoid his debts. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Contract</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bankruptcy</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEBUSSY, CLAUDE ACHILLE<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1862-  ), French composer, +was born at St Germain-en-Laye on the 22nd of August 1862, and +educated at the Paris Conservatoire under Marmontel, Lavignac, +Massenet and Guiraud. There between 1874 and 1884 he gained +many prizes for solfège, pianoforte playing, accompanying, +counterpoint and fugue, and, in the last-named year, the coveted +Grand Prix de Rome by means of his cantata <i>L’Enfant prodigue</i>. +In this composition already were thought to be noticeable the +germs of unusual and “new” talent, though in the light of +later developments it is not very easy to discern them, for +then Debussy had not come under the influence which ultimately +turned his mind to the system he afterwards used, not only with +peculiar distinction but also with particular individual and +complete success. Nevertheless, the mind had clearly been +prepared by nature for the reception of this influence when it +should arise; for, in order to fulfil that condition of the Prix de +Rome which entails the submitting periodically of compositions +to the judges, Debussy sent to them his symphonic suite +<i>Printemps</i>, to which the judges took exception on the ground +of its formlessness. Following in the wake of <i>Printemps</i> came +<i>La damoiselle élue</i> for solo, female voice and orchestra—a setting +of a French version of Rossetti’s “The Blessed Damosel”—which +in the eyes of the judges was even more unorthodox than its +predecessor, though, be it said, fault was found as much with the +libretto as with the music. Both works were denied the customary +public performance.</p> + +<p>The Rome period over, Debussy returned to Paris, whence +shortly he went to Russia, where he came directly under the +influence referred to above. In Russia he absorbed the native +music, especially that of Moussorgsky, who, recently dead, had +left behind him the reputation of a “musical nihilist,” and on +his return to Paris Debussy devoted himself to composition, the +stream of his muse being even in 1908 as fluent as twenty +years before. To him public recognition was slow in coming, +but in 1893 the Société Nationale de Musique performed his +<i>Damoiselle élue</i>, in 1894 the Ysaye Quartet introduced the +string quartet, while in the same year the <i>Prélude à l’après-midi +d’un Faune</i> was heard, and brought Debussy’s name +into some prominence. As time passed the prominence grew, +until the climax of Debussy’s creative career was reached by +the production at the Opéra Comique on the 30th of April 1902 +of his masterpiece <i>Pelléas et Mélisande</i>. Herein lay the whole +strength of Debussy’s system, the perfection of his appeal to +the mind and imagination as well as to the emotions and +senses. Since its production the world has been enriched by +<i>La Mer</i>, and by the <i>Ariettes oubliées</i>, but the lyric drama remains +on its own lofty pedestal, a monument of elusive and subtle +beauty, of emphatic originality and of charm. In an Apologia +Debussy has declared that in composing <i>Pelléas</i> he “wanted to +dispense with parasitic musical phrases. Melody is, if I may +say so, almost anti-lyric, and powerless to express the constant +change of emotion or life. Melody is suitable only for the +chanson, which confirms a fixed sentiment. I have never +been willing that my music should hinder, through technical +exigencies, the change of sentiment and passion felt by my +characters. It is effaced as soon as it is necessary that these +should have perfect liberty in their gestures or in their cries, +in their joy, or in their sorrow.”</p> + +<p>The list of Debussy’s works is a lengthy one. Several of +them have been referred to already. Among the others, of which +the complete list is too long to print here, are the dances for +chromatic harp or pianoforte; <i>Images</i>; incidental music to +<i>King Lear</i>; the <i>Petite Suite</i>; <i>Trois Nocturnes</i>; innumerable +songs, as <i>Proses Lyriques</i> (text by Debussy); two series of +Verlaine’s <i>Fêtes galantes</i>; <i>Cinq Poèmes de Baudelaire</i>; many +pianoforte pieces.</p> + +<p>In 1891 Debussy was appointed critic of the <i>Revue Blanche</i>. +In his first notice he expressed his faith thus: “I shall endeavour +to trace in a musical work the many different emotions which +have helped to give it birth, also to demonstrate its inner life. +This, surely, will be accounted of greater interest than the game +which consists in dissecting it as if it were a curious timepiece.”</p> + +<p>As to the theories, so much debated, of this remarkable +musician—probably in the whole range of musical history there +has not appeared a more difficult theorist to “place.” Unquestionably +Debussy has introduced a new system of colour into +music, which has begun already to exert widespread influence. +Roughly, Debussy’s system may be summarized thus:</p> + +<p>His scale basis is of six whole tones (enharmonic), as (1) middle +C, D, E, G♭, A♭, B♭, which are of excellent sound when superimposed +in the form of two augmented unrelated triads.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">B♭<br />G♭ or enharmonically<br />D</td> +<td>  </td> +<td class="tcl cl">A♯<br />F♯<br />D</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">A♭<br />E<br />C</td> +<td>  </td> +<td class="tcl cl">G♯<br />E<br />C</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">used frequently incomplete (<i>i.e.</i> by the omission of one note) by +Debussy.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td>  </td> +<td class="tcl cl">E<br />C<br />A<br />F♯<br />D</td> +<td>  </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Now, upon the basis of an augmented triad a tune may be +played above it provided that it be based upon the six-tone scale, +and a fugue may be written, the re-entry of the subject of which +may be made upon any note of the scale, and the harmony will be +complete. To associate this scale with the ordinary diatonic +scale let a major 9th be taken, <i>e.g.</i>: one may conventionally +flatten or sharpen the fifth of this (A becoming ♯ or ♭ as +desired): if <i>both</i> the flattened and sharpened fifths be taken +in the one chord this chord is arrived at:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page907" id="page907"></a>907</span></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td>  </td> +<td class="tcl cl">E<br />C<br />B♭<br />A♭<br />F♯<br />D</td> +<td class="tcl"> <br /> <br /> <br />(A♯ enharmonically altered to B♭)<br /> <br /> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">which is composed of the notes of the aforesaid scale (1), and +Debussy thereby proves his case to belong to the “primitifs.” +It will be noticed that chords of the 9th in sequence and in all +forms occur in Debussy’s music as well as the augmented triad +harmonics, where the melodic line is based on the tonal scale. +This, in all likelihood, is the outcome of Debussy’s instinctive +feeling for the association of his so-called discovery with the +ordinary scale. The “secret,” it may be added, comes not +from Annamese music as has been frequently stated, but probably +from Russia, where certainly it was used before Debussy’s +rise.</p> +<div class="author">(R. H. L.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECADE<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="deka">δέκα</span>, ten), a group or series containing ten +members, particularly a period of ten years. In the new calendar +made at the time of the French Revolution in 1793, a decade of +ten days took the place of the week. The word is also used of the +divisions containing ten books or parts into which the history of +Livy was divided.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECAEN, CHARLES MATHIEU ISIDORE,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1769-1832), +French soldier, was born at Caen on the 13th of April +1769. He was educated for the bar, but soon showed a strong +preference for the military career, in which he quickly made his +way during the wars of the French Revolution under Kléber, +Marceau and Jourdan, in the Rhenish campaigns. In 1799 he +became general of division, and contributed to the success of +the famous attack by General Richepanse on the Austrian flank +and rear at Hohenlinden (December 1800). Becoming known for +his Anglophobe tendencies, he was selected by Napoleon early in +the year 1802 for the command of the French possessions in the +East Indies. The secret instructions issued to him bade him +prepare the way, so that in due course (September 1804 was +hinted at as the suitable time) everything might be ready for an +attack on the British power in India. Napoleon held out to him +the hope of acquiring lasting glory in that enterprise. Decaen +set sail with Admiral Linois early in March 1803 with a small +expeditionary force, touched at the Cape of Good Hope (then in +Dutch hands), and noted the condition of the fortifications there. +On arriving at Pondicherry he found matters in a very critical +condition. Though the outbreak of war in Europe had not yet +been heard of, the hostile preparations adopted by the Marquis +Wellesley caused Decaen to withdraw promptly to the Isle of +France (Mauritius), where, during eight years, he sought to harass +British trade and prepare for plans of alliance with the Mahratta +princes of India. They all came to naught. Linois was captured +by a British squadron, and ultimately, in 1811, Mauritius itself +fell to the Union Jack. Returning to France on honourable +terms, Decaen received the command of the French troops in +Catalonia. The rest of his career calls for no special mention. +He died of the cholera in 1832.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M. L. E. Gautier, <i>Biographie du général Decaen</i> (Caen, +1850).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Hl. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECALOGUE<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (in patristic Gr. <span class="grk" title="hê dekalogos">ἡ δεκάλογος</span>, <i>sc.</i> <span class="grk" title="biblos">βἰβλος</span> or +<span class="grk" title="nomothesia">νομοθεσία</span>), another name for the biblical <i>Ten Commandments</i>, +in Hebrew the <i>Ten Words</i> (Deut. iv. 13, x. 4; Ex. xxxiv. 28), +written by God on the two tables of stone (Ex. xxiv. 12, xxxii. +16), the so-called <i>Tables of the Revelation</i> (E.V. “tables of testimony,” +Ex. xxxiv. 29), or <i>Tables of the Covenant</i> (Deut. ix. 9, 11, +15). These tables were broken by Moses (Ex. xxxii. 19), and two +new ones were hewn (xxxiv. 1), and upon them were written the +words of the covenant by Moses (xxxiv. 27 sqq.) or, according to +another view, by God himself (Deut. iv. 13, ix. 10). They were +deposited in the Ark (Ex. xxv. 21; 1 Kings viii. 9). In Deuteronomy +the inscription on these tables, which is briefly called the +covenant (iv. 13), is expressly identified with the words spoken by +Jehovah (Yahweh) out of the midst of the fire at Mt. Sinai or +Horeb (according to the Deuteronomic tradition), in the ears of +the whole people on the “day of the assembly,” and rehearsed +in v. 6-21. In the narrative of Exodus the relation of the “ten +words” of xxxiv. to the words spoken from Sinai, xx. 2-17, is +not so clearly indicated, and it is generally agreed that the +Pentateuch presents divergent and irreconcilable views of the +Sinaitic covenant.</p> + +<p>As regards the Decalogue, as usually understood, and embodied +in the parallel passages in Ex. xx. and Deut. v., certain preliminary +points of detail have to be noticed. The variations +in the parallel texts are partly verbal, partly stylistic (<i>e.g.</i> +“Remember the Sabbath day,” Ex.; but “observe,” &c., +Deut.), and partly consist of amplifications or divergent explanations. +Thus the reason assigned for the institution of the Sabbath +in Exodus is drawn from the creation, and agrees with Gen. ii. 3. +In Deuteronomy the command is based on the duty of humanity +to servants and the memory of Egyptian bondage. Again, in the +tenth commandment, as given in Exodus, “house” means house +and household, including the wife and all the particulars which are +enumerated in ver. 17. In Deuteronomy, “Thou shalt not covet +thy neighbour’s wife,” comes first, and “house” following in +association with field is to be taken in the literal restricted sense, +and another verb (“thou shalt not desire”) is used.</p> + +<p>The construction of the second commandment in the Hebrew +text is disputed, but the most natural sense seems to be, “Thou +shalt not make unto thee a graven image; (and) to no visible +shape in heaven, &c., shalt thou bow down, &c.” The third +commandment might be rendered, “Thou shalt not utter the +name of the Lord thy God vainly,” but it is possible that the +meaning is that Yahweh’s name is not to be used for purposes +of sorcery.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The order of the commandments relating to murder, adultery and +stealing varies in the Vatican text of the Septuagint, viz. adultery, +stealing, murder, in Ex.; adultery, murder, stealing, in Deut. The +latter is supported by several passages in the New Testament (Rom. +xiii. 9; Mark x. 19, A.V.; Luke xviii. 20; contrast Matt. xix. 18), and +by the “Nash Papyrus.”<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> It may be added that the double system +of accentuation of the Decalogue in the Hebrew Bible seems to +preserve traces of the ancient uncertainty concerning the numeration.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Divisions of the Decalogue.</i>—The division current in England +and Scotland, and generally among the Reformed (Calvinistic) +churches and in the Orthodox Eastern Church, is known as the +Philonic division (Philo, <i>de Decalogo</i>, §12). It is sometimes called +by the name of Origen, who adopts it in his <i>Homilies on Exodus</i>. +On this scheme the preface, Ex. xx. 2, has been usually taken +as part of the first commandment. The Church of Rome and +the Lutherans adopt the Augustinian division (Aug., <i>Quaest. super +Exod.</i>, lxxi.), combining into one the first and second commandments +of Philo, and splitting his tenth commandment into two. +To gain a clear distinction between the ninth and tenth commandments +on this scheme it has usually been felt to be necessary to +follow the Deuteronomic text, and make the ninth commandment, +Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour’s wife.<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> As few scholars will +now claim priority for the text of Deuteronomy, this division may +be viewed as exploded. But there is a third scheme (the Talmudic) +still current among the Jews, and not unknown to early Christian +writers, which is still a rival of the Philonic view, though less +satisfactory. Here the preface, Ex. xx. 2, is taken as the first +“word,” and the second embraces verses 3-6.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See further Nestle, <i>Expository Times</i> (1897), p. 427. The decision +between Philo and the Talmud must turn on two questions. Can +we take the preface as a separate “word”? And can we regard +the prohibition of polytheism and the prohibition of idolatry as one +commandment? Now, though the Hebrew certainly speaks of ten +“words,” not of ten “precepts,” it is most unlikely that the first +word can be different in character from those that follow. But the +statement “I am the Lord thy God” is either no precept at all, or +only enjoins by implication what is expressly commanded in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page908" id="page908"></a>908</span> +words “Thou shalt have no other gods before me.” Thus to take +the preface as a distinct word is not reasonable unless there are cogent +grounds for uniting the commandments against polytheism and +idolatry. But that is far from being the case. The first precept of +the Philonic scheme enjoins monolatry, the second expresses God’s +spiritual and transcendental nature. Accordingly Kuenen does not +deny that the prohibition of images contains an element additional +to the precept of monolatry, but, following De Goeje, regards the +words from “thou shalt not make unto thyself” down to “the +waters under the earth” as a later insertion in the original Decalogue. +Unless this can be made out, the Philonic scheme is clearly best, and +as such it is now accepted by most scholars.</p> +</div> + +<p>How were the ten words disposed on the two tables? The +natural arrangement (which is assumed by Philo and Josephus) +would be five and five. And this, as Philo recognized, is a division +appropriate to the sense of the precepts; for antiquity did not +look on piety towards parents as a mere precept of probity, part +of one’s duty towards one’s neighbour. The authority of parents +and rulers is viewed in the Old Testament as a delegated +divine authority, and the violation of it is akin to blasphemy +(cf. Ex. xxi. 17 and Lev. xx. 9 with Lev. xxiv. 15, 16, and note +the formula of treason, 1 Kings xxi. 13).</p> + +<p>We have thus five precepts of piety on the first table, and five +of probity, in negative form, on the second, an arrangement +which is accepted by the best recent writers. But the current +view of the Western Church since Augustine has been that the +precept to honour parents heads the second table. The only +argument of weight in favour of this view is that it makes the +amount of writing on the two tables less unequal, while we +know that the second table as well as the first was written on +both sides (Ex. xxxii. 15). But we shall presently see that there +may be another way out of this difficulty.</p> + +<p><i>Date.</i>—It is much disputed what the original compass of +the Decalogue was. Did the whole text of Ex. xx. 2-17 stand on +the tables of stone? The answer to this question must start +from the reason annexed to the fourth commandment, which is +different in Deuteronomy. But the express words “and he +added no more,” in Deut. v. 22, show that there is no conscious +omission by the Deuteronomic speaker of part of the original +Decalogue, which cannot therefore have included the reason +annexed in Exodus. On the other hand the reason annexed in +Deuteronomy is rather a parenetic addition than an original +element dropped in Exodus. Thus the original fourth commandment +was simply “Remember the Sabbath day to keep +it holy.”<a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> When this is granted it must appear not improbable +that the elucidations of other commandments may not have +stood on the tables, and that Nos. 6-9 have survived in their +original form. Thus in the second commandment, “Thou shalt +not bow down to any visible form,” &c., is a sort of explanatory +addition to the precept “Thou shalt not make unto thee a +graven image.” And so the promise attached to the fifth +commandment was probably not on the tables, and the tenth +commandment may have simply been, “Thou shalt not covet +thy neighbour’s house,” which includes all that is expressed in +the following clauses. Such a view gets over the difficulty +arising from the unequal length of the two halves of the +Decalogue.</p> + +<p>It is quite another question whether there is any idea in the +Decalogue which can be as old as Moses. It is urged by many +critics that Moses cannot have prohibited the worship of Yahweh +by images; for the subsequent history shows us a descendant +of Moses as priest in the idolatrous sanctuary of Dan. There were +teraphim in David’s house, and the worship of Yahweh under the +image of a calf was the state religion of the kingdom of Ephraim. +Even Moses himself is said to have made a brazen serpent which, +down to Hezekiah’s time, continued to be worshipped at +Jerusalem. It is argued from these facts that image-worship +went on unchallenged, and that this would not have been possible +had Moses forbidden it. The argument is supported by others +of great cogency. Although the literary problems of the chapters +which narrate the law-giving on Mt. Sinai are extremely intricate, +it is generally agreed that Ex. xx. cannot be ascribed to the +oldest source, and if, in accordance with many critics, this +chapter is ascribed to the Elohist or Ephraimite school, its +incorporation can scarcely be older than the middle of the 8th +century, and is probably later. With this, the condemnation +of adultery in Gen. xx. 1-17 (contrast xii. 10-20, xxvi. 6-11) is in +harmony, and the prohibition of the worship of the heavenly +bodies is aimed at a form of idolatry which is frequently alluded +to in the times of the later kings. The lofty ethics (<i>e.g.</i> tenth +commandment) is in itself no <i>sound</i> criterion, whilst the external +form of the laws, though characteristic of later codes, need not +be taken as evidence of importance. But the general result of a +study of the Decalogue as a whole, in connexion with Israelite +political history and religion, strongly supports, in fact demands, +a post-Mosaic origin, and modern criticism is chiefly divided only +as to the approximate date to which it is to be ascribed. The +time of Manasseh (cf. especially its contact with Micah vi. 6-8) +has found many adherents, but an earlier period, about 750 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +(time of Amos and Hosea), is often held to satisfy the main +conditions; the former, however, is probably nearer the mark.</p> + +<p><i>The Decalogue of Exodus xxxiv.</i>—In the book of Exodus the +words written on the tables of stone are nowhere expressly +identified with the ten commandments of chap. xx. In xxv. 16, +xxxi. 18, xxxii. 15, we simply read of “the testimony” inscribed +on the tables, and it seems to be assumed that its contents must +be already known to the reader. The expression “ten words” +first occurs in xxxiv. 28, in a passage which relates the restoration +of the tables after they had been broken. But these “ten words” +are called “the words of the covenant,” and so can hardly be +different from the words mentioned in the preceding verse as +those in accordance wherewith the covenant was made with +Israel. And again, the words of ver. 27 are necessarily the commandments +which immediately precede in vv. 12-26. Accordingly +many recent critics have sought to show that Ex. xxxiv. +12-26 contains just ten precepts forming a second decalogue.<a name="fa4f" id="fa4f" href="#ft4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>These consist not of precepts of social morality, but of several +laws of religious observance closely corresponding to the religious +and ritual precepts of Ex. xxi.-xxiii. The number ten is not +clearly made out, and the individual precepts are somewhat +variously assigned. They prohibit (1) the worship of other gods, +(2) the making of molten images; they ordain (3) the observance +of the feast of unleavened bread, (4) the feast of weeks, (5) the +feast of ingathering at the end of the year, and (6) the seventh-day +rest; to Yahweh belong (7) the firstlings, and (8) the first-fruits +of the land; they forbid also (9) the offering of the blood +of sacrifice with leaven, (10) the leaving-over of the fat of a feast +until the morning, and (11) the seething of a kid in its mother’s +milk. This scheme ignores the command to appear thrice in the +year before Yahweh which recapitulates Nos. 3-5, and the decade +is obtained by omitting No. 6, which some hold to be out of place. +Others include “none shall appear before me empty-handed” +(xxxiv. 20), and unite Nos. 4-5, 9 and 10. C. F. Kent (<i>Beginnings +of Heb. Hist.</i> pp. 183 sqq.) obtains a decalogue from scattered +precepts in Ex. xx.-xxiii., which corresponds with Nos. 2, 7, 6, 3 +and 5 (in one), 9 and 10 (in one), 11 above, and adds (<i>a</i>) the +building of an altar of earth (xx. 24), (<i>b</i>) offering from the harvest +and wine-press (xxii. 29), (<i>c</i>) firstlings of animals (xxii. 29 sqq.; +cf. No. 7, and xxxiv. 19); (<i>d</i>) prohibition against eating torn +flesh (xxii. 31).<a name="fa5f" id="fa5f" href="#ft5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The so-called Yahwist Decalogue in xxxiv. +presupposes a rather more primitive stage in society, partly +nomadic and partly agricultural; No. 6 is suitable only for +agriculturists and cannot have originated among nomads. The +whole may be summed up in a sentence:—“Worship Yahweh +and Yahweh alone, without images, let the worship be simple and +in accord with the old usage; forbear to introduce the practices +of your Canaanitish neighbours” (Harper). It would seem to +represent more precisely a Judaean standpoint (cf. the simpler +customs of the Rechabites, <i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page909" id="page909"></a>909</span></p> + +<p>If such a system of precepts was ever viewed as the basis of +the covenant with Israel, it must belong to a far earlier stage of +religious development than that of Ex. xx. This is recognized +by Wellhausen, who says that our decalogue stands to that of +Ex. xxxiv. as Amos stood to his contemporaries, whose whole +religion lay in the observance of sacred feasts. To those +accustomed to look on the Ten Words written on the tables of +stone as the very foundation of the Mosaic law, it is hard to realize +that in ancient Israel there were two opinions as to what these +“Words” were. The hypothesis that Ex. xxxiv. 10-26 originally +stood in a different connexion, and was misplaced at some +stage in the redaction of the Hexateuch, does not help us, since it +would still have to be admitted that the editor to whom we owed +the present form of the chapter identified this little code of +religious observances with the Ten Words. Were this the case +the editor, to quote Wellhausen, “introduced the most serious +internal contradiction found in the Old Testament.”<a name="fa6f" id="fa6f" href="#ft6f"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p> + +<p><i>The Decalogue in Christian Theology.</i>—Following the New +Testament, in which the “commandments” summed up in the +law of love are identified with the precepts of the Decalogue +(Mark x. 19; Rom. xiii. 9; cf. Mark xii. 28 ff.), the ancient +Church emphasized the permanent obligation of the ten commandments +as a summary of <i>natural</i> in contradistinction to +<i>ceremonial</i> precepts, though the observance of the Sabbath was +to be taken in a spiritual sense (Augustine, <i>De spiritu et litera</i>, +xiv.; Jerome, <i>De celebratione Paschae</i>). The medieval theologians +followed in the same line, recognizing all the precepts of +the Decalogue as moral precepts <i>de lege naturae</i>, though the law of +the Sabbath is not of the law of nature, in so far as it prescribes +a determinate day of rest (Thomas, <i>summa</i>, I<span class="sp">ma</span> II<span class="sp">dae</span>, qu. c. +art. 3; Duns, <i>Super sententias</i>, lib. iii. dist. 37). The most +important medieval exposition of the Decalogue is that of Nicolaus +de Lyra; and the 15th century, in which the Decalogue acquired +special importance in the confessional, was prolific in treatises +on the subject (Antoninus of Florence, Gerson, &c.).</p> + +<p>Important theological controversies on the Decalogue begin +with the Reformation. The question between the Lutheran +(Augustinian) and Reformed (Philonic) division of the ten +commandments was mixed up with controversy as to the legitimacy +of sacred images not designed to be worshipped. The +Reformed theologians took the stricter view. The identity of +the Decalogue with the eternal law of nature was maintained in +both churches, but it was an open question whether the Decalogue, +as such (that is, as a law given by Moses to the Israelites), is of +perpetual obligation. The Socinians, on the other hand, regarded +the Decalogue as abrogated by the more perfect law of Christ; +and this view, especially in the shape that the Decalogue is a +civil and not a moral law (J. D. Michaelis), was the current one +in the period of 18th-century rationalism. The distinction of a +permanent and a transitory element in the law of the Sabbath is +found, not only in Luther and Melanchthon, but in Calvin and +other theologians of the Reformed church. The main controversy +which arose on the basis of this distinction was whether +the prescription of one day in seven is of permanent obligation. +It was admitted that such obligation must be not natural but +positive; but it was argued by the stricter Calvinistic divines +that the proportion of one in seven is agreeable to nature, based +on the order of creation in six days, and in no way specially +connected with anything Jewish. Hence it was regarded as a +<i>universal positive</i> law of God. But those who maintained the +opposite view were not excluded from the number of the orthodox. +The laxer conception found a place in the Cocceian school.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—Geffcken, <i>Über die verschiedenen Eintheilungen des +Dekalogs und den Einfluss derselben auf den Cultus</i>; W. Robertson +Smith, <i>Old Test. Jew. Church</i>, pp. 331-345, where his earlier views +(1877) in the <i>Ency. Brit.</i> are largely modified (cf. also <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> +(1888) p. 352); Montefiore, <i>Hibbert Lectures</i> (1892), Appendix I; +W. R. Harper, <i>Internat. Crit. Comm. on Amos and Hosea</i>, pp. 58-64 +(on the position of the Decalogue in early pre-prophetic religion of +Israel); C. A. Briggs, <i>Higher Criticism of Hexat</i>.<span class="sp">2</span> pp. 189-210; +see also the references under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exodus</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. R. S.; S. A. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A Hebrew fragment probably of the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, in the +University Library, Cambridge, containing the Decalogue with +several variant readings; see S. A. Cook, <i>Proceed. Soc. Bibl. Archaeology</i> +(1903), pp. 34-56; F. C. Burkitt, <i>Jewish Quarterly Review</i> (1903), +pp. 392-408; N. Peters, <i>D. älteste Abschrift d. zehn Gebote</i> (1905).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> So, for example, Augustine, l.c., Thomas, <i>Summa</i> (<i>Prima +Secundae</i>, qu. c. art. 4), and recently Sonntag and Kurtz. Purely +arbitrary is the idea of Lutheran writers (Gerhard, Loc. xiii. § 46) +that the ninth commandment forbids <i>concupiscentia actualis</i>, the +tenth <i>conc. originalis</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> It is generally assumed that the addition in Exodus is from a +hand akin to Gen. ii. 2 sqq.; Ex. xxxi. 17 (P.).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4f" id="ft4f" href="#fa4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> So Hitzig (<i>Ostern und Pfingsten im zweiten Dekalog</i>, Heidelberg, +1838), independently of a previous suggestion of Goethe in 1783, who +in turn appears to have been anticipated by an early Greek writer +(Nestle, <i>Zeit. für alt-test. Wissenschaft</i> (1904), pp. 134 sqq.).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5f" id="ft5f" href="#fa5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See also W. E. Barnes, <i>Journ. Theol. Stud.</i> (1905), pp. 557-563.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6f" id="ft6f" href="#fa6f"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The last three sentences of this paragraph are taken almost +bodily from Robertson Smith’s later views (<i>Old Testament in the +Jewish Church</i><span class="sp">2</span>, pp. 335 seq.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DE CAMP, JOSEPH<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (1858-  ), American portrait and figure +painter, was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1858. He was a pupil +of Frank Duveneck and of the Royal Academy of Munich; +became a member of the society of Ten American Painters, and +a teacher in the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine +Arts, Philadelphia, and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts; and +painted important mural decorations in the Philadelphia city +hall.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECAMPS, ALEXANDRE GABRIEL<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1803-1860), French +painter, was born in Paris on the 3rd of March 1803. In his youth +he travelled in the East, and reproduced Oriental life and scenery +with a bold fidelity to nature that made his works the puzzle +of conventional critics. His powers, however, soon came to be +recognized, and he was ranked along with Delacroix and Vernet +as one of the leaders of the French school. At the Paris Exhibition +of 1855 he received the grand or council medal. Most of his life +was passed in the neighbourhood of Paris. He was passionately +fond of animals, especially dogs, and indulged in all kinds of field +sports. He died on the 22nd of August 1860 in consequence of +being thrown from a vicious horse while hunting at Fontainebleau. +The style of Decamps was characteristically and intensely French. +It was marked by vivid dramatic conception, by a manipulation +bold and rapid, sometimes even to roughness, and especially by +original and startling use of decided contrasts of colour and of +light and shade. His subjects embraced an unusually wide range. +He availed himself of his travels in the East in dealing with +scenes from Scripture history, which he was probably the first +of European painters to represent with their true and natural +local background. Of this class were his “Joseph sold by his +Brethren,” “Moses taken from the Nile,” and his scenes from the +life of Samson, nine vigorous sketches in charcoal and white. +Perhaps the most impressive of his historical pictures is his +“Defeat of the Cimbri,” representing with wonderful skill the +conflict between a horde of barbarians and a disciplined army. +Decamps produced a number of genre pictures, chiefly of scenes +from French and Algerine domestic life, the most marked feature +of which is humour. The same characteristic attaches to most +of his numerous animal paintings. He painted dogs, horses, &c., +with great fidelity and sympathy; but his favourite subject was +monkeys, which he depicted in various studies and sketches with +a grotesque humour that could scarcely be surpassed. Probably +the best known of all his works is “The Monkey Connoisseurs,” +a clever satire of the jury of the French Academy of Painting, +which had rejected several of his earlier works on account of their +divergence from any known standard. The pictures and sketches +of Decamps were first made familiar to the English public +through the lithographs of Eugène le Roux.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Moreau’s <i>Decamps et son œuvre</i> (Paris, 1869).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECAPOLIS,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> a league of ten cities (<span class="grk" title="deka poleis">δέκα πόλεις</span>) with their +surrounding district, situated with one exception on the eastern +side of the upper Jordan and the Sea of Tiberias. Being +essentially a confederation of <i>cities</i> it is impossible precisely to +fix Decapolis as a <i>region</i> with definite boundaries. The names +of the original ten cities are given by Pliny; these are as follows: +Damascus, Philadelphia, Raphana, Scythopolis (= Beth-Shan, +now <i>Beisan</i>, west of Jordan), Gadara, Hippos, Dion, Pella, +Gerasa and Kanatha. Of these Damascus alone retains its +importance. Scythopolis (as represented by the village of Beisan) +is still inhabited; the ruins of Pella, Gerasa and Kanatha +survive, but the other sites are unknown or disputed. Scythopolis, +being in command of the communications with the sea and +the Greek cities on the coast, was the most important member of +the league. The league subsequently received additions and some +of the original ten dropped out. In Ptolemy’s enumeration +Raphana has no place, and nine, such as Kapitolias, Edrei, +Bosra, &c., are added. The purpose of the league was no doubt +mutual defence against the marauding Bedouin tribes that +surrounded them. These were hardly if at all checked by the +Semitic kinglings to whom the Romans delegated the government +of eastern Palestine.</p> + +<p>It was probably soon after Pompey’s campaign in 64-63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +that the Decapolis league took shape. The cities comprising it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page910" id="page910"></a>910</span> +were united by the main roads on which they lay, their respective +spheres of influence touching, if not overlapping, one another. +A constant communication was maintained with the Mediterranean +ports and with Greece, and there was a vigorous municipal +life which found expression in literature, in athletic contests, and +in a thriving commerce, thus carrying a truly Hellenic influence +into Perea and Galilee. From Josephus we learn that the cities +were severally subject to the governor of Syria and taxed for +imperial purposes; some of them afterwards came under Herod’s +jurisdiction, but reserved the substantial rights granted them +by Pompey.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best account is in G. A. Smith’s <i>Historical Geography of the +Holy Land</i>, chap. xxviii.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECASTYLE<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="deka">δέκα</span>, ten, and <span class="grk" title="stylos">στῦλος</span>, column), the architectural +term given to a temple where the front portico has ten +columns; as in the temple of Apollo Didymaeus at Miletus, and +the portico of University College, London. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Temple</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECATUR, STEPHEN<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1779-1820), American naval commander, +was born at Sinnepuxent, Maryland, on the 5th of +January 1779, and entered the United States navy as a midshipman +in 1798. He was promoted lieutenant a year later, and +in that rank saw some service in the short war with France. In +1803 he was in command of the “Enterprise,” which formed +part of Commodore Preble’s squadron in the Mediterranean, and +in February 1804 led a daring expedition into the harbour of +Tripoli for the purpose of burning the U.S. frigate “Philadelphia” +which had fallen into Tripolitan hands. He succeeded in his +purpose and made his escape under the fire of the batteries with +a loss of only one man wounded. This brilliant exploit earned +him his captain’s commission and a sword of honour from +Congress. Decatur was subsequently engaged in all the attacks +on Tripoli between 1804 and 1805. In the War of 1812 his ship +the “United States” captured H.M.S. “Macedonian” after a +desperate fight, and in 1813 he was appointed commodore to +command a squadron in New York harbour, which was soon +blockaded by the British. In an attempt to break out in February +1815 Decatur’s flagship the “President” was cut off and after +a spirited fight forced to surrender to a superior force. Subsequently +he commanded in the Mediterranean against the corsairs +of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli with great success. On his return +he was made a navy commissioner (November 1815), an office +which he held until his death, which took place in a duel with +Commodore James Barron at Bladensburg, Md., on the 22nd +of March 1820.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Mackenzie, <i>Life of Decatur</i> (Boston, 1846).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECATUR,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Macon county, +Illinois, U.S.A., in the central part of the state, near the Sangamon +river, about 39 m. E. of Springfield. Pop. (1890) 16,841; (1900) +20,754, of whom 1939 were foreign-born; (1910 census) +31,140. Decatur is served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & +Dayton, the Illinois Central, the Wabash (which maintains car +shops here), and the Vandalia railways, and is connected with +Danville, Saint Louis, Springfield, Peoria, Bloomington and +Champaign by the Illinois Traction System (electric). Decatur +has three large parks and a public library; and S.E. of Fairview +Park, with a campus of 35 acres, is the James Millikin University +(co-educational; Cumberland Presbyterian), founded in 1901 +by James Millikin, and opened in 1903. The university comprises +schools of liberal arts, engineering (mechanical, electrical, +and civil), domestic economy, fine and applied arts, commerce +and finance, library science, pedagogy, music, and a preparatory +school; in 1907-1908 it had 936 students, 440 being in the school +of music. Among the city’s manufactures are iron, brass castings, +agricultural implements, flour, Indian corn products, soda +fountains, plumbers’ supplies, coffins and caskets, bar and store +fixtures, gas and electric light fixtures, street cars, and car trucks. +The value of the city’s factory products increased from $5,133,677 +in 1900 to $8,667,302 in 1905, or 68.8%. The city is also an +important shipping point for agricultural products (especially +grain), and for coal taken from the two mines in the city and from +mines in the surrounding country. The first settlement in Decatur +was made in 1829, and the place was incorporated in 1836. On +the 22nd of February 1856 a convention of Illinois editors met +at Decatur to determine upon a policy of opposition to the +Kansas-Nebraska Bill. They called a state convention, which +met at Bloomington, and which is considered to have taken the +first step toward founding the Republican party in Illinois.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECAZES, ÉLIE,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duc</span> (1780-1860), French statesman, was born +at Saint Martin de Laye in the Gironde. He studied law, became +a judge in the tribunal of the Seine in 1806, was attached to the +cabinet of Louis Bonaparte in 1807, and was counsel to the court +of appeal at Paris in 1811. Immediately upon the fall of the +empire he declared himself a Royalist, and remained faithful to +the Bourbons through the Hundred Days. He made the personal +acquaintance of Louis XVIII. during that period through Baron +Louis, and the king rewarded his energy and tact by appointing +him prefect of police at Paris on the 7th of July 1815. His +marked success in that difficult position won for him the ministry +of police, in succession to Fouché, on the 24th of September. In +the interval he had been elected deputy for the Seine (August +1815) and both as deputy and as minister he led the moderate +Royalists. His formula was “to royalize France and to nationalize +the monarchy.” The Moderates were in a minority in the +chamber of 1815, but Decazes persuaded Louis XVIII. to dissolve +the house, and the elections of October 1816 gave them a majority. +During the next four years Decazes was called upon to play the +leading rôle in the government. At first, as minister of police +he had to suppress the insurrections provoked by the ultra-Royalists +(the White Terror); then, after the resignation of the +duc de Richelieu, he took the actual direction of the ministry, +although the nominal president was General J. J. P. A. Dessolle +(1767-1828). He held at the same time the portfolio of the +interior. The cabinet, in which Baron Louis was minister of +finance, and Marshal Gouvion Saint Cyr remained minister of +war, was entirely Liberal; and its first act was to suppress the +ministry of police, as Decazes held that it was incompatible with +the régime of liberty. His reforms met with the strong hostility +of the Chamber of Peers, where the ultra-Royalists were in a +majority, and to overcome it he got the king to create sixty new +Liberal peers. He then passed the laws on the press, suppressing +the censorship. By reorganization of the finances, the protection +of industry and the carrying out of great public works, France +regained its economic prosperity, and the ministry became +popular. But the powers of the Grand Alliance had been watching +the growth of Liberalism in France with increasing anxiety. +Metternich especially ascribed this mainly to the “weakness” +of the ministry, and when in 1819 the political elections still +further illustrated this trend, notably by the election of the +celebrated Abbé Grégoire, it began to be debated whether the +time had not come to put in force the terms of the secret treaty +of Aix-la-Chapelle. It was this threat of foreign intervention, +rather than the clamour of the “Ultras,” that forced Louis +XVIII. to urge a change in the electoral law that should render +such a “scandal” as Grégoire’s election impossible for the +future. Dessolle and Louis, refusing to embark on this policy, +now resigned; and Decazes became head of the new ministry, +as president of the council (November 1819). But the exclusion +of Grégoire from the chamber and the changes in the franchise +embittered the Radicals without conciliating the “Ultras.” +The news of the revolution in Spain in January 1820 added fuel +to their fury; it was the foolish and criminal policy of the royal +favourite that had once more unchained the demon of revolution. +Decazes was denounced as the new Sejanus, the modern Catiline; +and when, on the 13th of February, the duke of Berry was +murdered, clamorous tongues loudly accused him of being an +accomplice in the crime. Decazes, indeed, foreseeing the storm, +at once placed his resignation in the king’s hands. Louis at first +refused. “They will attack,” he exclaimed, “not your system, +my dear son, but mine.” But in the end he was forced to yield +to the importunity of his family (February 17th); and Decazes, +raised to the rank of duke, passed into honourable exile as +ambassador to Great Britain.</p> + +<p>This ended Decazes’s meteoric career of greatness. In +December 1821 he returned to sit in the House of Peers, when +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page911" id="page911"></a>911</span> +he continued to maintain his Liberal opinions. After 1830 he +adhered to the monarchy of July, but after 1848 he remained in +retirement. He had organized in 1826 a society to develop the +coal and iron of the Aveyron, and the name of Decazeville was +given in 1829 to the principal centre of the industry. He died +on the 24th of October 1860.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Louis Charles Élie Decazes</span>, duc de Glücksberg +(1819-1886), was born at Paris, and entered the diplomatic +career. He became minister plenipotentiary at Madrid and at +Lisbon, but the revolution of 1848 caused him to withdraw into +private life, from which he did not emerge until in 1871 he was +elected deputy to the National Assembly by the Gironde. There +he sat in the right centre among the Orleanists, and was chosen +by the duc de Broglie as minister of foreign affairs in November +1873. He voted with the Orleanists the “Constitutional Laws” +of 1875, and approved of MacMahon’s parliamentary <i>coup d’état</i> +on the 16th of May 1877. He was re-elected deputy in October +1877 by the arrondissement of Puget-Théniers, but his election +was annulled by the chamber, and he was not re-elected. He +died on the 16th of September 1886.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>On the Duc Decazes see E. Daudet, <i>Louis XVIII. et le duc Decazes</i> +(1899), and his “L’ambassade du duc Decazes” in the <i>Revue des deux +mondes</i> for 1899.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECAZEVILLE,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> a town of south-central France, in the +department of Aveyron, 34 m. N.W. of Rodez by the Orleans +railway. Pop. (1906) 9749. It possesses iron mines and is the +centre of the coal-fields of the Aveyron, which supply the ironworks +established by the Duc Decazes, minister of Louis XVIII. +A statue commemorates the founder.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECCAN<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (Sans. <i>Dakshina</i>, “the South”), a name applied, +according to Hindu geographers, to the whole of the territories in +India situated to the south of the river Nerbudda. In its more +modern acceptation, however, it is sometimes understood as +comprising only the country lying between that river and the +Kistna, the latter having for a long period formed the southern +boundary of the Mahommedan empire of Delhi. Assigning it the +more extended of these limits, it comprehends the whole of the +Indian peninsula, and in this view the mountainous system, +consisting of the Eastern and Western Ghats, constitutes the +most striking feature of the Deccan. These two mountain +ranges unite at their northern extremities with the Vindhya +chain of mountains, and thus is formed a vast triangle supporting +at a considerable elevation the expanse of table-land which +stretches from Cape Comorin to the valley of the Nerbudda. +The surface of this table-land slopes from west to east, as +indicated by the direction of the drainage of the country,—the +great rivers, the Cauvery, Godavari, Kistna and Pennar, though +deriving their sources from the base of the Western Ghats, all +finding their way into the Bay of Bengal through fissures in the +Eastern Ghats.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The detailed and authentic history of the Deccan +only begins with the 13th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Of the early history +the main facts established are the Aryan invasion (<i>c.</i> 700 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), +the growth of the Maurya empire (250 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and the invasion +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 100) of the Scythic tribes known as the Sakas, Pahlavas +and Yavanas, which led to the establishment of the power +of the Kshaharata satraps in western India. In addition +to this, modern study of monuments and inscriptions has +recovered the names, and to a certain extent the records, of a +succession of dynasties ruling in the Deccan; of these the most +conspicuous are the Cholas, the Andhras or Satavahanas, the +Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas and the Yadavas of Devagiri +(Deogiri). (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">India</a></span>: <i>History</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bombay</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Presidency</a></span>: +<i>History</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inscriptions</a></span>: <i>Indian</i>.) In 1294 Ala-ud-Din Khilji, +emperor of Delhi, invaded the Deccan, stormed Devagiri, and +reduced the Yadava rajas of Maharashtra to the position of +tributary princes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Daulatabad</a></span>), then proceeding southward +overran Telingana and Carnata (1294-1300). With this event +the continuous history of the Deccan begins. In 1307, owing to +non-payment of tribute, a fresh series of Mussulman incursions +began, under Malik Kafur, issuing in the final ruin of the Yadava +power; and in 1338 the reduction of the Deccan was completed +by Mahommed ben Tughlak. The imperial sway was, however, +of brief duration. Telingana and Carnata speedily reverted +to their former masters; and this defection on the part of the +Hindu states was followed by a general revolt of the Mussulman +governors, resulting in the establishment in 1347 of the independent +Mahommedan dynasty of Bahmani, and the consequent +withdrawal of the power of Delhi from the territory south of the +Nerbudda. In the struggles which ensued, the Hindu kingdom of +Telingana fell bit by bit to the Bahmani dynasty, who advanced +their frontier to Golconda in 1373, to Warangal in 1421, and to +the Bay of Bengal in 1472. On the dissolution of the Bahmani +empire (1482), its dominions were distributed into the five +Mahommedan states of Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Bidar +and Berar. To the south of these the great Hindu state of Carnata +or Vijayanagar still survived; but this, too, was destroyed, +at the battle of Talikota (1565), by a league of the Mahommedan +powers. These latter in their turn soon disappeared. Berar +had already been annexed by Ahmednagar in 1572, and Bidar +was absorbed by Bijapur in 1609. The victories of the Delhi +emperors, Akbar, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, crushed the +rest. Ahmednagar was incorporated in the Mogul empire in +1598, Bijapur in 1686, and Golconda in 1688. The rule of the +Delhi emperors in the Deccan did not, however, long survive. +In 1706 the Mahrattas acquired the right of levying tribute in +southern India, and their principal chief, the Peshwa of Poona, +became a practically independent sovereign. A few years later +the emperor’s viceroy in Ahmednagar, the nizam-al-mulk, threw +off his allegiance and established the seat of an independent +government at Hyderabad (1724). The remainder of the imperial +possessions in the peninsula were held by chieftains acknowledging +the supremacy of one or other of these two potentates. In the +sequel, Mysore became the prize of the Mahommedan usurper +Hyder Ali. During the contests for power which ensued about +the middle of the 18th century between the native chiefs, the +French and the English took opposite sides. After a brief course +of triumph, the interests of France declined, and a new empire in +India was established by the British. Mysore formed one of their +earliest conquests in the Deccan. Tanjore and the Carnatic +were shortly after annexed to their dominions. In 1818 the +forfeited possessions of the Peshwa added to their extent; and +these acquisitions, with others which have more recently fallen +to the paramount power by cession, conquest or failure of heirs, +form a continuous territory stretching from the Nerbudda to +Cape Comorin. Its length is upwards of 1000 m., and its extreme +breadth exceeds 800. This vast tract comprehends the chief +provinces now distributed between the presidencies of Madras +and Bombay, together with the native states of Hyderabad +and Mysore, and those of Kolhapur, Sawantwari, Travancore, +Cochin and the petty possessions of France and Portugal.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. D. B. Gribble, <i>History of the Deccan</i> (1896); Prof. Bhandarkar, +“Early History of the Dekkan” (<i>Bombay Gazetteer</i>); Vincent +A. Smith, <i>Early History of India</i> (2nd ed., Oxford, 1908), chap. xv. +“The Kingdoms of the Deccan.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECELEA<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Dekeleia">Δεκελεία</span>), an Attic deme, on the pass which +led over the east end of Mt. Parnes towards Oropus and Chalcis. +From its position it has a commanding view over the Athenian +plain. Its eponymous hero, Decelus, was said to have indicated +to the Tyndaridae, Castor and Pollux, the place where Theseus +had hidden their sister Helen at Aphidnae; and hence there was +a traditional friendship between the Deceleans and the Spartans +(Herodotus ix. 73). This tradition, together with the advice of +Alcibiades, led the Spartans to fortify Decelea as a basis for +permanent occupation in Attica during the later years of the +Peloponnesian War, from 413-404 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Its position enabled +them to harass the Athenians constantly, and to form a centre +for fugitive slaves and other deserters. The royal palace of Tatoi +has been built on the site.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peloponnesian War</a></span>; also Judeich in Pauly-Wissowa, +<i>Realencyclopädie</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECEMBER<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (Lat. <i>decem</i>, ten), the last month of the year. In +the Roman calendar, traditionally ascribed to Romulus, the year +was divided into ten months, the last of which was called December, +or the <i>tenth</i> month, and this name, though etymologically +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page912" id="page912"></a>912</span> +incorrect, was retained for the last or twelfth month of the +year as now divided. In the Romulian calendar December had +thirty days; Numa reduced the number to twenty-nine; Julius +Caesar added two days to this, giving the month its present +length. The <i>Saturnalia</i> occurred in December, which is therefore +styled “acceptus geniis” by Ovid (<i>Fasti</i>, iii. 58); and this also +explains the phrase of Horace “libertate Decembri utere” +(<i>Sat.</i> ii. 7). Martial applies to the month the epithet <i>canus</i> +(hoary), and Ovid styles it <i>gelidus</i> (frosty) and <i>fumosus</i> (smoky). +In the reign of Commodus it was temporarily styled <i>Amazonius</i>, +in honour of the emperor’s mistress, whom he had had painted as +an Amazon. The Saxons called it <i>winter-monath</i>, winter month, +and <i>heligh-monath</i>, holy month, from the fact that Christmas +fell within it. Thus the modern Germans call it <i>Christmonat</i>. +The 22nd of December is the date of the winter solstice, when the +sun reaches the tropic of Capricorn.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECEMVIRI<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (“the ten men”), the name applied by the +Romans to any official <span class="correction" title="amended from commision">commission</span> of ten. The title was often +followed by a statement of the purpose for which the commission +was appointed, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Xviri legibus scribundis, stlitibus judicandis, +sacris faciundis</i>.</p> + +<p>I. Apart from such qualification, it signified chiefly the temporary +commission which superseded all the ordinary magistrates +of the Republic from 451 to 449 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, for the purpose of drawing +up a code of laws. In 462 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> a tribune proposed that the +appointment of a commission to draw up a code expressing the +legal principles of the administration was necessary to secure +for the <i>plebs</i> a hold over magisterial caprice. Continued agitation +to this effect resulted in an agreement in 452 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> between +patricians and plebeians that decemvirs should be appointed +to draw up a code, that during their tenure of office all other +magistracies should be in abeyance, that they should not be +subject to appeal, but that they should be bound to maintain +the laws which guaranteed by religious sanctions the rights of +the plebs. The first board of decemvirs (apparently consisting +wholly of patricians) was appointed to hold office during 451 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; +and the chief man among them was Appius Claudius. Livy +(iii. 32) says that only patricians were eligible. Mommsen, +however, held that plebeians were legally eligible, though none +were actually appointed for 451. The decemvirs ruled with +singular moderation, and submitted to the <i>Comitia Centuriata</i> a +code of laws in ten headings, which was passed. So popular were +the decemvirs that another board of ten was appointed for the +following year, some of whom, if the extant list of names is +correct, were certainly plebeians. These added two more to the +ten laws of their predecessors, thus completing the Laws of the +Twelve Tables (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Law</a></span>). But their rule then became +violent and tyrannical, and they fell before the fury of the <i>plebs</i>, +though for some reason, not easily understood, they continued +to have the support of the patricians. They were forced to +abdicate (449 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and the ordinary magistrates were restored.</p> + +<p>II. The judicial board of decemvirs (<i>stlitibus judicandis</i>) +formed a civil court of ancient origin concerned mainly with +questions bearing on the status of individuals. They were +originally a body of jurors which gave a verdict under the +presidency of the praetor (<i>q.v.</i>), but eventually became annual +minor magistrates of the Republic, elected by the <i>Comitia +Tributa</i>.</p> + +<p>III. The priestly board of decemvirs (<i>sacris faciundis</i>) was an +outcome of the claim of the <i>plebs</i> to a share in the administration +of the state religion. Five of the decemvirs were patricians, and +five plebeians. They were first appointed in 367 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> instead of +the patrician <i>duumviri</i> who had hitherto performed these duties. +The board was increased to fifteen in the last century of the +Republic. Its chief function was the care of the Sibylline books, +and the celebration of the games of Apollo (Livy x. 8) and the +Secular Games (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xi. 11).</p> + +<p>IV. Decemvirs were also appointed from time to time to +control the distribution of the public land (<i>agris dandis adsignandis</i>; +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agrarian Laws</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—B. G. Niebuhr, <i>History of Rome</i> (Eng. trans.), +ii. 309 et seq. (Cambridge, 1832); Th. Mommsen, <i>History of Rome</i>, +bk. ii. c. 2, vol. i. pp. 361 et seq. (Eng. trans., new ed., 1894); +<i>Römisches Staatsrecht</i>, ii. 605 et seq., 714 (Leipzig, 1887); A. H. J. +Greenidge, <i>Legal Procedure of Cicero’s Time</i>, p. 40 et seq., 263 +(Oxford, 1901); J. Muirhead, <i>Private Law of Rome</i>, p. 73 et seq. +(London, 1899); Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, iv. 2256 et seq. +(Kübler).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. M. Cl.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECHEN, ERNST HEINRICH KARL VON<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (1800-1889), German +geologist, was born in Berlin on the 25th of March 1800, and was +educated in the university in that city. He subsequently studied +mining in Bochum and Essen, and was in 1820 placed in the +mining department of the Prussian state, serving on the staff +until 1864, and becoming director in 1841 when he was stationed +at Bonn. In early years he made journeys to study the mining +systems of other countries, and with this object he visited England +and Scotland in company with Karl von Oeynhausen (1797-1865). +In the course of his work he paid special attention to the +coal-formation of Westphalia and northern Europe generally, +and he greatly furthered the progress made in mining and +metallurgical works in Rhenish Prussia. He made numerous +contributions to geological literature; notably the following:—<i>Geognostische +Umrisse der Rheinländer zwischen Basel und Mainz +mit besonderer Rücksicht auf das Vorkommen des Steinsalzes</i> +(with von Oeynhausen and La Roche), 2 vols. (Berlin, 1825); +<i>Geognostische Führer in das Siebengebirge am Rhein</i> (Bonn, 1861); +<i>Die nutzbaren Mineralien und Gebirgsarten im deutschen Reiche</i> +(1873). But his main work was a geological map of Rhenish +Prussia and Westphalia in 35 sheets on the scale of 1 : 80,000, +issued with two volumes of explanatory text (1855-1882). He +published also a small geological map of Germany (1869). He +died at Bonn on the 15th of February 1889.</p> +<div class="author">(H. B. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECIDUOUS<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>decidere</i>, to fall down), a botanical +and zoological term for “falling in season,” as of petals after +flowering, leaves in autumn, the teeth or horns of animals, or the +wings of insects.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECIMAL COINAGE.<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span><a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Any currency in which the various +denominations of coin are arranged in multiples or submultiples +of ten (Lat. <i>decem</i>), with reference to a standard unit, is a decimal +system. Thus if the standard unit be 1 the higher coins will be +10, 100, 1000, &c., the lower .1, .01, .001, &c. In a perfect +system there would be no breaks or interpolations, but the actual +currencies described as “decimal” do not show this rigid +symmetry. In France the standard unit—the franc—has the +10 franc and the 100 franc pieces above it; the 10 centime below +it; there are also, however, 50 franc, 20 franc, 5 franc, 2 franc +pieces as well as 50 and 20 centime ones. Similar irregularities +occur in the German and United States coinages, and indeed +in all countries in which a decimal system has been established. +Popular convenience has compelled this departure from the +strict decimal form.</p> + +<p>Subject to these practical modifications the leading countries +of the world (Great Britain and India are the chief exceptions) +have adopted decimal coinage. The United States led the way +(1786 and 1792) with the dollar as the unit, and France soon +followed (1799 and 1803), her system being extended to the +countries of the Latin Union (1865). The German empire (1873), +the Scandinavian States (1875), Austria-Hungary (1870, developed +in 1892) and Russia (1839 and 1897) are further adherents to the +decimal system. The Latin-American countries and Japan (1871) +have also adopted it.</p> + +<p>In England proposals for decimalizing the coinage have long +been under discussion at intervals. Besides the inconvenience +of altering the established currency, the difficulty of choosing +between the different schemes propounded has been a considerable +obstacle. One plan took the farthing as a base: then 10 +farthings = 1 doit (2½d.), 10 doits = 1 florin (2s. 1d.), 10 florins = +1 pound (20s. 10d.). The advantages claimed for this scheme +were (1) the preservation of the smaller coins (the penny = +4 farthings); and (2) the avoidance of interference with the +smaller retail prices. Its great disadvantage was the destruction +of the existing unit of value—the pound—and the consequent +disturbance of all accounts. A second proposal would retain the +pound as unit and the florin, but would subdivide the latter into +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page913" id="page913"></a>913</span> +100 “units” (or farthings reduced 4%) and introduce a new coin += 10 units (2.4d.). By it the unit of account would remain as at +present, and the shilling (as 50 units) would continue in use. +The alteration of the bronze and several silver coins, and the need +of readjusting all values and prices expressed in pence, formed +the principal difficulties. A third scheme, which was connected +with the assimilation of English to French and American money, +proposed the establishment of an 8s. gold coin as unit, with the +tenpenny or franc and the penny (reduced by 4%) as subdivisions. +The new coin would be equivalent to 10 francs or +(by an anticipated reduction of the dollar) 2 dollars. None of +these plans has gained any great amount of popular support.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the general question of monetary scales see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Money</a></span>, and for +the decimal system in reference to weights and measures see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metric +System</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Weights and Measures</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. F. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For “decimal” in general see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arithmetic</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECIUS, GAIUS MESSIUS QUINTUS TRAJANUS<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (201-251), +Roman emperor, the first of the long succession of distinguished +men from the Illyrian provinces, was born at Budalia near +Sirmium in lower Pannonia in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 201. About 245 the emperor +Philip the Arabian entrusted him with an important command +on the Danube, and in 249 (or end of 248), having been sent to +put down a revolt of the troops in Moesia and Pannonia, he was +forced to assume the imperial dignity. He still protested his +loyalty to Philip, but the latter advanced against him and was +slain near Verona. During his brief reign Decius was engaged in +important operations against the Goths, who crossed the Danube +and overran the districts of Moesia and Thrace. The details are +obscure, and there is considerable doubt as to the part taken in +the campaign by Decius and his son (of the same name) respectively. +The Goths were surprised by the emperor while besieging +Nicopolis on the Danube; at his approach they crossed the +Balkans, and attacked Philippopolis. Decius followed them, +but a severe defeat near Beroë made it impossible to save +Philippopolis, which fell into the hands of the Goths, who treated +the conquered with frightful cruelty. Its commander, Priscus, +declared himself emperor under Gothic protection. The siege +of Philippopolis had so exhausted the numbers and resources +of the Goths, that they offered to surrender their booty and +prisoners on condition of being allowed to retire unmolested. +But Decius, who had succeeded in surrounding them and hoped +to cut off their retreat, refused to entertain their proposals. +The final engagement, in which the Goths fought with the +courage of despair, took place on swampy ground in the Dobrudja +near Abritum (Abrittus) or Forum Trebonii and ended in the +defeat and death of Decius and his son. Decius was an excellent +soldier, a man of amiable disposition, and a capable administrator, +worthy of being classed with the best Romans of the +ancient type. The chief blot on his reign was the systematic +and authorized persecution of the Christians, which had for its +object the restoration of the religion and institutions of ancient +Rome. Either as a concession to the senate, or perhaps with the +idea of improving public morality, Decius endeavoured to revive +the separate office and authority of the censor. The choice was +left to the senate, who unanimously selected Valerian (afterwards +emperor). But Valerian, well aware of the dangers and difficulties +attaching to the office at such a time, declined the responsibility. +The invasion of the Goths and the death of Decius put an end to +the abortive attempt.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Aurelius Victor, <i>De Caesaribus</i>, 29, <i>Epit.</i> 29; Jordanes, <i>De +rebus Geticis</i>, 18; fragments of Dexippus, in C. W. Müller, <i>Frag. +Hist. Graec.</i> iii. (1849); Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall</i>, chap. 10; +H. Schiller, <i>Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit</i>, i. (pt. 2), 1883.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECIZE,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a town of central France, in the department of Nièvre, +on an island in the Loire, 24 m. S.E. of Nevers by the Paris-Lyon +railway. Pop. (1906) 3813. The most important of its buildings +is the church of Saint Aré, which dates in part from the 11th and +12th centuries; there are also ruins of a castle of the counts of +Nevers. The town has a statue of Guy Coquille, the lawyer and +historian, who was born there in 1523. Decize is situated at the +starting-point of the Nivernais canal. The coal mine of La +Machine, which belongs to the Schneider Company of Le Creusot, +lies four miles to the north. The industries of Decize and its +suburbs on both banks of the Loire include the working of gypsum +and lime, and the manufacture of ceramic products and glass. +Trade is in horses from the Morvan, cattle, coal, iron, wood and +stone.</p> + +<p>Under the name of <i>Decetia</i> the place is mentioned by Julius +Caesar as a stronghold of the Aedui, and in 52 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> was the scene +of a meeting of the senate held by him to settle the leadership +of the tribe and to reply to his demand for aid against Vercingetorix. +In later times it belonged to the counts of Nevers, from +whom it obtained a charter of franchise in 1226.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECKER, SIR MATTHEW,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> Bart. (1679-1749), English +merchant and writer on trade, was born in Amsterdam in 1679. +He came to London in 1702 and established himself there as a +merchant. He was remarkably successful in his business life, +gaining great wealth and having many honours conferred upon +him. He was a director of the East India Company, sat in +parliament for four years as member for Bishops Castle, and +was high sheriff of Surrey in 1729. He was created a baronet by +George I. in 1716. Decker’s fame as a writer on trade rests on +two tracts. The first, <i>Serious considerations on the several high +duties which the Nation in general, as well as Trade in particular, +labours under, with a proposal for preventing the removal of goods, +discharging the trader from any search, and raising all the Publick +Supplies by one single Tax</i> (1743; name affixed to 7th edition, +1756), proposed to do away with customs duties and substitute +a tax upon houses. He also suggested taking the duty off +tea and putting instead a licence duty on households wishing +to consume it. The second, an <i>Essay on the Causes of the +Decline of the Foreign Trade, consequently of the value of +the lands in Britain, and on the means to restore both</i> (1744), +has been attributed to W. Richardson, but internal evidence +is strongly in favour of Decker’s authorship. He advocates +the licence plan in an extended form; urges the repeal of +import duties and the abolition of bounties, and, in general, +shows himself such a strong supporter of the doctrine of +free trade as to rank as one of the most important forerunners +of Adam Smith. Decker died on the 18th of March 1749.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECKER, PIERRE DE<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (1812-1891), Belgian statesman and +author, was educated at a Jesuit school, studied law at Paris, +and became a journalist on the staff of the <i>Revue de Bruxelles</i>. +In 1839 he was elected to the Belgian lower chamber, where +he gained a great reputation for oratory. In 1855 he became +minister of the interior and prime minister, and attempted, +by a combination of the moderate elements of the Catholic and +Liberal parties, the impossible task of effecting a settlement +of the educational and other questions by which Belgium was +distracted. In 1866 he retired from politics and went into +business, with disastrous results. He became involved in +financial speculations which lost him his good name as well as the +greater part of his fortune; and, though he was never proved to +have been more than the victim of clever operators, when in 1871 +he was appointed by the Catholic cabinet governor of Limburg, +the outcry was so great that he resigned the appointment and +retired definitively into private life. He died on the 4th of +January 1891. Decker, who was a member of the Belgian +academy, wrote several historical and other works of value, of +which the most notable are <i>Études historiques et critiques sur les +monts-de-piété en Belgique</i> (Brussels, 1844); <i>De l’influence du +libre arbitre de l’homme sur les faits sociaux</i> (1848); <i>L’Esprit de +parti et l’esprit national</i> (1852); <i>Étude politique sur le vicomte Ch. +Vilain XIIII</i> (1879); <i>Épisodes de l’hist. de l’art en Belgique</i> +(1883); <i>Biographie de H. Conscience</i> (1885).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECLARATION<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>declarare</i>, to make fully clear, +<i>clarus</i>), formerly, in an action at English law, the first step in +pleading—the precise statement of the matter in respect of which +the plaintiff sued. It was divided into counts, in each of which +a specific cause of action was alleged, in wide and general terms, +and the same acts or omissions might be stated in several counts +as different causes of actions. Under the system of pleading +established by the Judicature Act 1875, the declaration has been +superseded by a statement of claim setting forth the facts on +which the plaintiff relies. Declarations are now in use only in +the mayor’s court of London and certain local courts of record, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page914" id="page914"></a>914</span> +and in those of the United States and the British colonies in +which the Common Law system of pleading survives. In the +United States a declaration is termed a “complaint,” which is +the first pleading in an action. It is divided into parts,—the +<i>title</i> of the court and term; the <i>venue</i> or county in which the +facts are alleged to have occurred; the <i>commencement</i>, which +contains a statement of the names of the parties and the character +in which they appear; the <i>statement</i> of the cause of action; +and the <i>conclusion</i> or claim for relief. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pleading</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>The term is also used in other English legal connexions; <i>e.g.</i> +the Declaration of Insolvency which, when filed in the Bankruptcy +Court by any person unable to pay his debts, amounts to an act +of bankruptcy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bankruptcy</a></span>); the Declaration of Title, for +which, when a person apprehends an invasion of his title to land, +he may, by the Declaration of Title Act 1862, petition the Court +of Chancery (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Land Registration</a></span>); or the Declaration of +Trust, whereby a person acknowledges that property, the title of +which he holds, belongs to another, for whose use he holds it; +by the Statute of Frauds, declarations of trust of land must be +evidenced in writing and signed by the party declaring the trust. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trusts</a></span>.) By the Statutory Declarations Act 1835 (which +was an act to make provision for the abolition of unnecessary +oaths, and to repeal a previous act of the same session on the +same subject), various cases were specified in which a solemn +declaration was, or might be, substituted for an affidavit. In +nearly all civilized countries an affirmation is now permitted to +those who object to take an oath or upon whose conscience an +oath is not binding. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Affidavit</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oath</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>An exceptional position in law is accorded to a Dying or Deathbed +Declaration. As a general rule, hearsay evidence is excluded +on a criminal charge, but where the charge is one of homicide +it is the practice to admit dying declarations of the deceased +with respect to the cause of his death. But before such declarations +can be admitted in evidence against a prisoner, it must be +proved that the deceased when making the declaration had given +up all hope of recovery. Unsworn declarations as to family +matters, <i>e.g.</i> as to pedigree, may also be admitted as evidence, as +well as declarations made by deceased persons in the course of +their duty. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Evidence</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECLARATION OF PARIS,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> a statement of principles of +international law adopted at the conclusion (16th of April 1856) +of the negotiations for the treaty of Paris at the suggestion of +Count Walewski, the French plenipotentiary. The declaration +set out that maritime law in time of war had long been the +subject of deplorable disputes, that the uncertainty of the rights +and duties in respect of it gave rise to differences of opinion +between neutrals and belligerents which might occasion serious +difficulties and even conflicts, and that it was consequently +desirable to agree upon some fixed uniform rules. The plenipotentiaries +therefore adopted the four following principles:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. Privateering is and remains abolished; 2. The neutral flag +covers enemy’s goods, with the exception of contraband of war; +3. Neutral goods, with the exception of contraband of war, are not +liable to capture under the enemy’s flag; 4. Blockades, in order to +be binding, must be effective, that is to say, maintained by a force +sufficient really to prevent access to the coast of the enemy.</p> +</div> + +<p>They also undertook to bring the declaration to the knowledge +of the states which had not taken part in the congress of Paris +and to invite them to accede to it. The text of the declaration +concluded as follows:—“Convinced that the maxims which +they now proclaim cannot but be received with gratitude by +the whole world, the undersigned plenipotentiaries doubt not that +the efforts of their governments to obtain the general adoption +thereof will be crowned with full success.”</p> + +<p>The declaration is of course binding only on the powers which +adopted it or have acceded to it. The majority which adopted +it consisted of Great Britain, Austria, France, Prussia, Russia, +Sardinia and Turkey. The United States government declined +to sign the declaration on the ground that, not possessing a great +navy, they would be obliged in time of war to rely largely upon +merchant ships commissioned as war vessels, and that therefore +the abolition of privateering would be entirely in favour of +European powers, whose large navies rendered them practically +independent of such aid. All other maritime states acceded to +the declaration except Spain, Mexico<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and Venezuela.</p> + +<p>Although the United States and Spain were not parties to the +declaration, both, during the Spanish-American War, observed +its principles. The Spanish government, however, expressly +gave notice that it reserved its right to issue letters of marque. +At the same time both belligerents organized services of auxiliary +cruisers composed of merchant ships under the command of naval +officers. In how far this might operate as a veiled revival of the +forbidden practice has now ceased to be a matter of much +importance, the Hague Conference having adopted a series of +rules on the subject which may be said to interpret the first of +the four principles of the declaration with such precision as to take +its place.</p> + +<p>The New Convention on the subject (October 18th, 1907) sets +out that, in view of the incorporation in time of war of merchant +vessels in combatant fleets, it is desirable to define the conditions +under which this can be effected, that, nevertheless, the contracting +powers, not having been able to come to an understanding +on the question whether the transformation of a merchant +ship into a war vessel may take place on the high sea,<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a> are agreed +that the question of the place of transformation is in no way +affected by the rules adopted, which are as follows:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Art. i. No merchant ship transformed into a war vessel can +have the rights and obligations attaching to this condition unless it +is placed under the direct authority, the immediate control and the +responsibility of the power whose flag it carries.</p> + +<p>Art. ii. Merchant ships transformed into war vessels must bear +the distinctive external signs of war vessels of their nationality.</p> + +<p>Art. iii. The officer commanding must be in the service of the state, +and properly commissioned by the competent authorities. His name +must appear in the list of officers of the combatant fleet.</p> + +<p>Art. iv. The crew must be subject to the rules of military discipline.</p> + +<p>Art. v. Every merchant ship transformed into a war vessel is bound +to conform, in its operation, to the laws and customs of war.</p> + +<p>Art. vi. The belligerent who transforms a merchant ship into a +war vessel must, as soon as possible, mention this transformation +on the list of vessels belonging to its combatant fleet.</p> + +<p>Art. vii. The provisions of the present convention are only applicable +as among the contracting powers and provided the belligerents +are all parties to the convention.</p> + +<p>See T. Gibson Bowles, <i>Declaration of Paris</i> (London, 1900); Sir T. +Barclay, <i>Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy</i> (London, +1907), chap. xv.<span class="sp">2</span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. Ba.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> At the 7th plenary sitting of the second Hague Conference +(September 7th, 1907) the chiefs of the Spanish and Mexican delegations, +M. de Villa Urratia and M. de la Barra, announced the +determination of their respective governments to accede to the +Declaration of Paris.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This relates to the incident in the Russo-Japanese War of the +transformation of Russian vessels which had passed through the +Dardanelles unarmed.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECLARATOR,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> in Scots law, a form of action by which some +right of property, or of servitude, or of status, or some inferior +right or interest, is sought to be judicially declared.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECLINATION<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>declinare</i>, to decline), in magnetism +the angle between true north and magnetic north, <i>i.e.</i> the +variation between the true meridian and the magnetic meridian. +In 1596 at London the angle of declination was 11° E. of N., in +1652 magnetic north was true north, in 1815 the magnetic +needle pointed 24½° W. of N., in 1891 18° W., in 1896 17° 56′ W. +and in 1906 17° 45′. The angle is gradually diminishing and the +declination will in time again be 0°, when it will slowly increase in +an easterly direction, the north magnetic pole oscillating slowly +around the North Pole. Regular daily changes of declination +also occur. Magnetic storms cause irregular variations sometimes +of one or two degrees. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Magnetism, Terrestrial</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>In astronomy the declination is the angular distance, as seen +from the earth, of a heavenly body from the celestial equator, +thus corresponding with terrestrial latitude.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECOLOURIZING,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> in practical chemistry and chemical +technology, the removal of coloured impurities from a substance. +The agent most frequently used is charcoal, preferably prepared +from blood, which when shaken with a coloured solution frequently +precipitates the coloured substances leaving the solution +clear. Thus the red colour of wines may be removed by filtering +the wine through charcoal; the removal of the dark-coloured +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page915" id="page915"></a>915</span> +impurities which arise in the manufacture of sugar may be +similarly effected. Other “decolourizers” are sulphurous acid, +permanganates and manganates, all of which have received +application in the sugar industry.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECORATED PERIOD,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> in architecture, the term given by +Richman to the second pointed or Gothic style, 1307-1377. It +is characterized by its window tracery, geometrical at first and +flowing in the later period, owing to the omission of the circles +in the tracery of windows, which led to the juxtaposition of the +foliations and their pronounced curves of contre-flexure. This +flowing or flamboyant tracery was introduced in the first quarter +of the century and lasted about fifty years. The arches are +generally equilateral, and the mouldings bolder than in the Early +English, with less depth in the hollows and with the fillet largely +used. The ball flower and a four-leaved flower take the place of +the dog-tooth, and the foliage in the capitals is less conventional +than in Early English and more flowing, and the diaper patterns +in walls are more varied. The principal examples are those of the +east end of Lincoln and Carlisle cathedral; the west fronts of +York and Lichfield; the crossing of Ely cathedral, including the +lantern and three west bays of choir and the Lady Chapel; and +Melrose Abbey.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DE COSTA, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1831-1904), American +clergyman and historical writer, was born in Charlestown, +Massachusetts, on the 10th of July 1831. He graduated in 1856 +at the Biblical Institute at Concord, New Hampshire (now a +part of Boston University), became a minister in the Episcopal +Church in 1857, and during the next three years was a rector +first at North Adams, and then at Newton Lower Falls, Mass. +After serving as chaplain in two Massachusetts regiments during +the first two years of the Civil War, he became editor (1863) of +<i>The Christian Times</i> in New York, and subsequently edited <i>The +Episcopalian</i> and <i>The Magazine of American History</i>. He was +rector of the church of St John the Evangelist in New York city +from 1881 to 1899, when he resigned in consequence of being +converted to Roman Catholicism. He was one of the organizers +and long the secretary of the Church Temperance Society, and +founded and was the first president (1884-1899) of the American +branch of the White Cross Society. He became a high authority +on early American cartography and the history of the period of +exploration. He died in New York city on the 4th of November +1904. In addition to numerous monographs and valuable +contributions to Winsor’s <i>Narrative and Critical History of +America</i>, he published <i>The Pre-Columbian Discovery of America +by the Northmen</i> (1868); <i>The Northmen in Maine</i> (1870); <i>The +Moabite Stone</i> (1871); <i>The Rector of Roxburgh</i> (1871), a novel +under the <i>nom de plume</i> of “William Hickling”; and <i>Verrazano +the Explorer; being a Vindication of his Letter and Voyage</i> (1880).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DE COSTER, CHARLES THÉODORE HENRI<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1827-1879), +Belgian writer, was born at Munich on the 20th of August 1827. +His father, Augustin de Coster, was a native of Liége, who was +attached to the household of the papal nuncio at Munich, but +soon returned to Belgium. Charles was placed in a Brussels bank, +but in 1850 he entered the university of Brussels, where he +completed his studies in 1855. He was one of the founders of the +<i>Société des Joyeux</i>, a small literary club, more than one member +of which was to achieve literary distinction. De Coster made +his début as a poet in the <i>Revue trimestrielle</i>, founded in 1854, +and his first efforts in prose were contributed to a periodical +entitled <i>Uylenspiegel</i> (founded 1856). A correspondence covering +the years 1850-1858, his <i>Lettres à Élisa</i>, were edited by +Ch. Potvin in 1894. He was a keen student of Rabelais and +Montaigne, and familiarized himself with 16th-century French. +He said that Flemish manners and speech could not be rendered +faithfully in modern French, and accordingly wrote his best +works in the old tongue. The success of his <i>Légendes flamandes</i> +(1857) was increased by the illustrations of Félicien Rops and +other friends. In 1861 he published his <i>Contes brabançons</i>, in +modern French. His masterpiece is his <i>Légende de Thyl Uylenspiegel +et de Lamme Goedzak</i> (1867), a 16th-century romance, in +which Belgian patriotism found its fullest expression. In the +preparation for this prose epic of the <i>gueux</i> he spent some ten +years. Uylenspiegel (Eulenspiegel) has been compared to Don +Quixote, and even to Panurge. He is the type of the 16th-century +Fleming, and the history of his resurrection from the grave itself +was accepted as an allegory of the destiny of the race. The +exploits of himself and his friend form the thread of a semi-historical +narrative, full of racy humour, in spite of the barbarities +that find a place in it. This book also was illustrated by +Rops and others. In 1870 De Coster became professor of general +history and of French literature at the military school. His +works however were not financially profitable; in spite of his +government employment he was always in difficulties; and he +died in much discouragement on the 7th of May 1879 at Ixelles, +Brussels. The expensive form in which <i>Uylenspiegel</i> was produced +made it open only to a limited class of readers, and when +a new and cheap edition in modern French appeared in 1893 it +was received practically as a new book in France and Belgium.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECOY,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a contrivance for the capture or enticing of duck +and other wild fowl within range of a gun, hence any trap +or enticement into a place or situation of danger. Decoys are +usually made on the following plan: long tunnels leading from +the sea, channel or estuary into a pool or pond are covered +with an arched net, which gradually narrows in width; the +ducks are enticed into this by a tame trained bird, also known +as a “decoy” or “decoy-duck.” In America the “decoy” +is an artificial bird, placed in the water as if it were feeding, +which attracts the wild fowl within range of the concealed +sportsman. The word “decoy” has, etymologically, a complicated +history. It appears in English first in the 17th century +in these senses as “coy” and “coy-duck,” from the Dutch <i>kooi</i>, +a word which is ultimately connected with Latin <i>cavea</i>, hollow +place, “cage.”<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The <i>de</i>-, with which the word begins, is either +a corruption of “duck-coy,” the Dutch article <i>de</i>, or a corruption +of the Dutch <i>eende-kooi</i>, <i>eende</i>, duck. The <i>New English +Dictionary</i> points out that the word “decoy” is found in +the particular sense of a sharper or swindler as a slang term +slightly earlier than “coy” or “decoy” in the ordinary sense, +and, as the name of a game of cards, as early as 1550, apparently +with no connexion in meaning. It is suggested that “coy” may +have been adapted to this word.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Distinguish “coy,” affectedly shy or modest, from O. Fr. <i>coi</i>, +Lat. <i>quietus</i>, quiet.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECREE<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (from the past participle, <i>decretus</i>, of Lat. <i>decernere</i>), +in earlier form <i>Decreet</i>, an authoritative decision having the force +of law; the judgment of a court of justice. In Roman law, a +decree (<i>decretum</i>) was the decision of the emperor, as the supreme +judicial officer, settling a case which had been referred to him. +In ecclesiastical law the term was given to a decision of an ecclesiastical +council settling a doubtful point of doctrine or discipline +(cf. also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Decretals</a></span>). In English law decree was more particularly +the judgment of a court of equity, but since the Judicature +Acts the expression “judgment” (<i>q.v.</i>) is employed in reference +to the decisions of all the divisions of the supreme court. A +“decree <i>nisi</i>” is the conditional order for a dissolution of marriage +made by the divorce court, and it is made “absolute” after six +months (which period may, however, be shortened) in the absence +of sufficient cause shown to the contrary. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Divorce</a></span>.) <i>Decreet +arbitral</i> is a Scottish phrase for the award of an arbitrator.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECRETALS<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (<i>Epistolae decretales</i>), the name (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Decree</a></span> +above), which is given in Canon Law to those letters of the pope +which formulate decisions in ecclesiastical law; they are generally +given in answer to consultations, but are sometimes due to the +initiative of the popes. These furnish, with the canons of the +councils, the chief source of the legislation of the church, and form +the greater part of the <i>Corpus Juris</i>. In this connexion they are +dealt with in the article on Canon Law (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p><i>The False Decretals.</i> A special interest, however, attaches to +the celebrated collection known by this name. This collection, +indeed, comprises at least as many canons of councils as decretals, +and the decretals contained in it are not all forgeries. It is an +amplification and interpolation, by means of spurious decretals, +of the canonical collection in use in the Church of Spain in the 8th +century, all the documents in which are perfectly authentic. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page916" id="page916"></a>916</span> +With these amplifications, the collection dates from the middle +of the 9th century. We shall give a brief account of its contents, +its history and its influence on canon law.</p> + +<p>The author assumes the name of Isidore, evidently the archbishop +of Seville, who was credited with a preponderating part +in the compilation of the <i>Hispana</i>; he takes in addition the +surname of Mercator, perhaps because he has made use of two +passages of Marius Mercator. Hence the custom of alluding to +the author of the collection under the name of the pseudo-Isidore.</p> + +<p>The collection itself is divided into three parts. The first, +which is entirely spurious, contains, after the preface and various +introductory sections, seventy letters attributed to the popes of +the first three centuries, up to the council of Nicaea, <i>i.e.</i> up to but +not including St Silvester; all these letters are a fabrication of +the pseudo-Isidore, except two spurious letters of Clement, which +were already known. The second part is the collection of +councils, classified according to their regions, as it figures in the +<i>Hispana</i>; the few spurious pieces which are added, and notably +the famous Donation of Constantine, were already in existence. +In the third part the author continues the series of decretals which +he had interrupted at the council of Nicaea. But as the collection +of authentic decretals does not begin till Siricius (385), the +pseudo-Isidore first forges thirty letters, which he attributes to +the popes from Silvester to Damasus; after this he includes +the authentic decretals, with the intermixture of thirty-five +apocryphal ones, generally given under the name of those popes +who were not represented in the authentic collection, but sometimes +also under the names of the others, for example, Damasus, +St Leo, Vigilius and St Gregory; with one or two exceptions he +does not interpolate genuine decretals. The series stops at St +Gregory the Great (d. 604), except for one letter of Gregory II. +(715-731). The forged letters are not, for the most part, entirely +composed of fresh material; the author draws his inspiration +from the notices on each of the popes given in the <i>Liber Pontificalis</i>; +he inserts whole passages from ecclesiastical writers; and +he antedates the evidences of a discipline which actually existed; +so it is by no means all invented.</p> + +<p>Thus the authentic elements were calculated to serve as a +passport for the forgeries, which were, moreover, quite skilfully +composed. In fact, the collection thus blended was passed from +hand to hand without meeting with any opposition. At most all +that was asked was whether those decretals which did not appear +in the <i>Liber canonum</i> (the collection of Dionysius Exiguus, +accepted in France) had the force of law, but Pope Nicholas +having answered that all the pontifical letters had the same +authority (see <i>Decr. Gra.</i> Dist. xix. c. 1), they were henceforward +accepted, and passed in turn into the later canonical collections. +No doubts found an expression until the 15th century, when +Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa (d. 1464) and Juan Torquemada +(d. 1468) freely expressed their suspicions. More than one +scholar of the 16th century, George Cassander, Erasmus, and the +two editors of the <i>Decretum</i> of Gratian, Dumoulin (d. 1568) and +Le Conte (d. 1577), decisively rejected the False Decretals. +This contention was again upheld, in the form of a violent polemic +against the papacy, by the Centuriators of Magdeburg (<i>Ecclesiastica +historia</i>, Basel, 1559-1574); the attempt at refutation by +the Jesuit Torres (<i>Adversus Centur. Magdeburg. libri quinque</i>, +Florence, 1572) provoked a violent rejoinder from the Protestant +minister David Blondel (<i>Pseudo-Isidorus et Turrianus rapulantes</i>, +Geneva, 1620). Since then, the conclusion has been accepted, +and all researches have been of an almost exclusively historical +character. One by one the details are being precisely determined, +and the question may now almost be said to be settled.</p> + +<p>In the first place, an exact determination of the date of the +collection has been arrived at. On the one hand, it cannot go +back further than 847, the date of the False Capitularies, +with which the author of the False Decretals was +<span class="sidenote">Date.</span> +acquainted.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> On the other hand, in a letter of Lupus, abbot of +Ferrières, written in 858, and in the synodical letter of the council +of Quierzy in 857 are to be found quotations which are certainly +from these false decretals; and further, an undoubted allusion +in the statutes given by Hincmar to his diocese on the 1st of +November 852. The composition of the collection must then be +dated approximately at 850.</p> + +<p>The object which the forger had in view is clearly stated in +his preface; the reform of the canon law, or rather its better +application. But, again, in what particular respects +he wishes it to be reformed can be best deduced from +<span class="sidenote">Aim of the author.</span> +certain preponderant ideas which make themselves +felt in the apocryphal documents. He constantly harps upon +accusations brought against bishops and the way they were +judged; his wish is to prevent them from being unjustly accused, +deposed or deprived of their sees; to this end he multiplies the +safeguards of procedure, and secures the right of appeal to the +pope and the possibility of restoring bishops to their sees. His +object, too, was to protect the property, as well as the persons, +of the clergy against the encroachments of the temporal power. +In the second place, Isidore wishes to increase the strength and +cohesion of the churches; he tries to give absolute stability to +the diocese and the ecclesiastical province; he reinforces the +rights of the bishop and his comprovincials, while he initiates +a determined campaign against the <i>chorepiscopi</i>; finally, as the +keystone of the arch he places the papacy. These aims are most +laudable, and in no way subversive; but the author must have +had some particular reasons for emphasizing these questions +rather than others; and the examination of these reasons may +help us to determine the nationality of this collection.</p> + +<p>The name of Isidore usurped by the author at first led to the +supposition that the False Decretals originated in Spain; this +opinion no longer meets with any support; it is enough +to point out that there is no Spanish manuscript of the +<span class="sidenote">Nationality of the collection.</span> +collection, at least until the 13th century. In the 16th +century the Protestants, who wished to represent the +forgeries in the light of an attempt in favour of the papacy, +ascribed the origin of the False Decretals to Rome, but neither +the manuscript tradition nor the facts confirm this view, which +is nowadays entirely abandoned. Everybody is agreed in placing +the origin of the False Decretals within the Frankish empire. +Within these limits, three different theories have successively +arisen: “At first it was thought that Isidore’s domicile could be +fixed in the province of Mainz, it is now about fifty years ago that +the balance of opinion was turned in favour of the province of +Reims; and now, after the lapse of about twenty years, several +authors have suggested the province of Tours” (P. Fournier, +<i>Étude sur les Fausses Décrétales</i>). In favour of Mainz, especial +stress was laid on the fact that it was the country of Benedictus +Levita, the compiler of the False Capitularies, to which the False +Decretals are closely related. But Benedict, the deacon of Otgar +of Mainz, is as much of a hypothetical personage as Isidorus +Mercator; moreover, in the middle of the 9th century the +condition of the province of Mainz was not disturbed, nor were +the <i>chorepiscopi</i> menaced. In favour of Reims, it has been +pointed out that it was there that the first judicial use of the +False Decretals is recorded, in the trials of Rothad, bishop of +Soissons (d. 869), and of Hincmar the younger, bishop of Laon +(d. <i>c.</i> 882); and an application of the axiom has been attempted: +<i>Is fecit cui prodest</i>. But both these trials took place later than +852, at which date the existence of the collection is an established +fact; the texts of it were used, but they were in existence before. +Between 847 and 852, the province of Reims was disturbed by +another affair, that of the clergy ordained by Ebbo at the time +of his short restoration to the see of Reims, in 840-841; these +clerics, Vulfadus (afterwards archbishop of Bourges), and a few +others, had been suspended by Hincmar on his election in 845. +But the affair of Ebbo’s clergy did not become critical till the +council of Soissons in 853; up till then these clergy had, so far +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page917" id="page917"></a>917</span> +as we know, produced no documents, and the citations from the +False Decretals made in their later writings do not prove that +they had forged them. Moreover, Hincmar would not have cited +the forged letters of the popes in 852; above all, this theory would +not explain the chief preoccupation of the forger, which is to +protect bishops against unjust judgments and depositions. We +must, then, look for conditions in which the bishops were concerned. +It is precisely this which has suggested the province of +Tours. Brittany, which was dependent on the province of Tours, +had just for a time recovered its independence, thanks to its +duke Nominoé. The struggle between the two nationalities, the +Celt and the Frank, found a reflexion in the sphere of religion. +The Breton bishops were for the most part abbots of monasteries, +who had but little consideration for the territorial limits of the +civitates; and many of the religious usages of the Bretons differed +profoundly from those of the Franks. Charlemagne had divided +up the Breton dioceses and established in them Frankish bishops. +Nominoé hastened to depose the four Frankish bishops, after +wringing from them by force confessions of simony; he then +established a metropolitan see at Dol. Hence arose incessant +complaints on the part of the dispossessed bishops, of the +metropolitan of Tours, and his suffragans, notably those of Angers +and Le Mans, which were more exposed than the others to the +incursions of the Bretons; and this gave rise to numerous papal +letters, and all this throughout a period of thirty years. There +were requests that the bishops should be judged according to +the rules, protests against the interlopers, demands for the restoration +of the bishops to their sees. These circumstances +fall in perfectly with the questions about which, as we have +pointed out, the pseudo-Isidore was mainly concerned: the +judgment of bishops, and the stability of the ecclesiastical +organizations.</p> + +<p>In the province of Tours, attempts have been made to define +more clearly the centre of the forgeries, and the most recent +authorities fix upon Le Mans. The sole argument, though a very +weighty one, is found in the undeniable relation, revealed in +an astonishing similarity both in expressions and composition, +which exists between these forgeries and some other documents +certainly fabricated at Le Mans, under the episcopate of Aldric +(832-856), notably the <i>Actus Pontificum Cenomanis in urbe +degentium</i>, in which there is no lack of forged documents. These +certainly bear the mark of the same hand.</p> + +<p>Though we cannot admit that the False Decretals were composed +in order to enforce the rights of the papacy, we may at +least consider whether the popes did not make use of +the False Decretals to support their rights. It is +<span class="sidenote">Canonical influence.</span> +certain that in 864 Rothad of Soissons took with him +to Rome, if not the collection, at least important extracts +from the pseudo-Isidore; M. Fournier has pointed out in the +letters of the pope of that time, “a literary influence, which +is shown in the choice of expressions and metaphors,” notably +in those passages relating to the <i>restitutio spolii</i>; but he +concludes by affirming that the ideas and acts of Nicholas +were not modified by the new collection: even before 864 he +acted in affairs concerning bishops, <i>e.g.</i> in the case of the +Breton bishops or the adversaries of Photius, patriarch of +Constantinople, exactly as he acted later; all that can be +said is that the False Decretals, though not expressly cited +by the pope, “led him to accentuate still further the arguments +which he drew from the decrees of his predecessors,” notably +with regard to the <i>exceptio spolii</i>. In the papal letters of the +end of the 9th and the whole of the 10th century, only two +or three insignificant citations of the pseudo-Isidore have been +pointed out; the use of the pseudo-Isidorian forged documents +did not become prevalent at Rome till about the middle of the +11th century, in consequence of the circulation of the canonical +collections in which they figured; but nobody then thought of +casting any doubts on the authenticity of those documents. +One thing only is established, and this may be said to have been +the real effect of the False Decretals, namely, the powerful +impulse which they gave in the Frankish territories to the movement +towards centralization round the see of Rome, and the legal +obstacles which they opposed to unjust proceedings against the +bishops.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The best edition is that of P. Hinschius, +<i>Decretales pseudo-Isidorianae et capitula Angilramni</i> (Leipzig, 1863). +In it the authentic texts are printed in two columns, the forgeries +across the whole width of the page; an important preface of +ccxxviii. pages contains, besides the classification of the MSS., a +profound study of the sources and other questions bearing on the +collection. After the works cited above, the following dissertations +should be noted. Placing the origin of the False Decretals at Rome +is: A. Theiner, <i>De pseudo-Isidoriana canonum collectione</i> (Breslau, +1827); at Mainz, the brothers Ballerini, <i>De antiquis collectionibus et +collectoribus canonum</i>, iii. (<i>S. Leonis opera</i>, t. iii.; Migne, <i>Patrologia +Lat.</i> t. 56); Blascus, <i>De coll. canonum Isidori Mercatoris</i> +(Naples, 1760); Wasserschleben, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte der falschen +Dekretalen</i> (Breslau, 1844); in the province of Reims: Weizsäcker, +“Die pseudoisidorianische Frage,” in the <i>Histor. Zeitschrift</i> of Sybel +(1860); Hinschius, Preface, p. ccviii.; A. Tardif, <i>Histoire des sources +du droit canonique</i> (Paris, 1887); Schneider, <i>Die Lehre der Kirchenrechtsquellen</i> +(Regensburg, 1892). An excellent résumé of the +question; seems more favourable to Le Mans in the article of the +<i>Kirchenlexicon</i> of Wetzer and Welte (2nd ed.); F. Lot, <i>Études sur le +règne de Hugues Capet</i> (Paris, 1903); Lesne, <i>La Hiérarchie episcopale +en Gaule et Germanie</i> (Paris, 1905); for the province of Tours and +Le Mans: B. Simson, <i>Die Entstehung der pseudoisidor. Fälschungen +in Le Mans</i> (Leipzig, 1886. It is he who pointed out the connexion +with the forgeries of Le Mans); especially Paul Fournier, +“La Question des fausses décrétales,” in the <i>Nouvelle Revue historique +de droit français et étranger</i> (1887, 1888); in the <i>Congrès internat. +des savants cathol.</i> t. ii.; “Étude sur les fausses décrétales,” in +<i>Revue d’histoire ecclésiastique de Louvain</i> (1906, 1907), to which the +above article is greatly indebted.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Bo.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The False Capitularies are for civil legislation what the False +Decretals are for ecclesiastical legislation: three books of Capitularies +of the Frankish kings, more of which are spurious than authentic. +The author gives himself out as a certain Benedict, a deacon +of the church of Mainz; hence the name by which he is usually +known, Benedictus Levita. The two false collections are closely +akin, and are doubtless the fabrication of the same hands.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DECURIO,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> a Roman official title, used in three connexions. +(1) A member of the senatorial order in the Italian towns under +the administration of Rome, and later in provincial towns +organized on the Italian model (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Curia</a></span> 4). The number of +<i>decuriones</i> varied in different towns, but was usually 100. The +qualifications for the office were fixed in each town by a special law +for that community (<i>lex municipalis</i>). Cicero (<i>in Verr.</i> 2. 49, 120) +alludes to an age limit (originally thirty years, until lowered +by Augustus to twenty-five), to a property qualification (cf. Pliny, +<i>Ep.</i> i. 19. 2), and to certain conditions of rank. The method of +appointment varied in different towns and at different periods. +In the early municipal constitution ex-magistrates passed automatically +into the senate of their town; but at a later date this +order was reversed, and membership of the senate became a +qualification for the magistracy. Cicero (<i>l.c.</i>) speaks of the senate +in the Sicilian towns as appointed by a vote of the township. +But in most towns it was the duty of the chief magistrate to +draw up a list (<i>album</i>) of the senators every five years. The +<i>decuriones</i> held office for life. They were convened by the +magistrate, who presided as in the Roman senate. Their powers +were extensive. In all matters the magistrates were obliged +to act according to their direction, and in some towns they heard +cases of appeal against judicial sentences passed by the +magistrate. By the time of the municipal law of Julius Caesar +(45 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) special privileges were conferred on the <i>decuriones</i>, +including the right to appeal to Rome for trial in criminal cases. +Under the principate their status underwent a marked decline. +The office was no longer coveted, and documents of the 3rd and +4th centuries show that means were devised to compel members +of the towns to undertake it. By the time of the jurists it had +become hereditary and compulsory. This change was largely +due to the heavy financial burdens which the Roman government +laid on the municipal senates. (2) The president of a +<i>decuria</i>, a subdivision of the <i>curia</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). (3) An officer in the +Roman cavalry, commanding a troop of ten men (<i>decuria</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—C. G. Bruns, <i>Fontes juris Romani</i>, c. 3, No. 18, +c. 4, Nos. 27, 29, 30 (<i>leges municipales</i>); J. C. Orelli, <i>Inscr. Latinae</i>, +No. 3721 (Album of Canusium); Godefroy, <i>Paratitl. ad cod. Theodosianam</i>, +xii. 1 (vol. iv. pp. 352 et seq., ed. Ritter); J. Marquardt, +<i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, i. pp. 183 et seq. (Leipzig, 1881); +P. Willems, <i>Droit public romain</i>, pp. 535 et seq. (Paris, 1884); Pauly-Wissowa, +<i>Realencyclopädie</i>, IV. ii. pp. 2319 foll. (Stuttgart, 1901); +W. Liebenam, <i>Städteverwaltung im römischen Kaiserreiche</i> (Leipzig, +1900).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. M. Cl.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DÉDÉAGATCH,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> a seaport of European Turkey, in the vilayet +of Adrianople, 10 m. N.W. of the Maritza estuary, on the Gulf of +Enos, an inlet of the Aegean Sea. Pop. (1905) about 3000, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page918" id="page918"></a>918</span> +mostly Greeks. Until 1871 Dédéagatch was a mere cluster of +fishermen’s huts. A new town then began to spring up, settlers +being attracted by the prospect of opening up a trade in the +products of a vast forest of valonia oaks which grew near. In +1873 it was made the chief town of a <i>Kaza</i>, to which it gave its +name, and a <i>Kaimakam</i> was appointed to it. In 1884 it was +raised in administrative rank from a <i>Kaza</i> to a <i>Sanjak</i>, and the +governor became a <i>Mutessarif</i>. In 1889 the Greek archbishopric +of Enos was transferred to Dédéagatch. On the opening, early in +1896, of the Constantinople-Salonica railway, which has a station +here, a large proportion of the extensive transit trade which +Enos, situated at the mouth of the Maritza, had acquired, was +immediately diverted to Dédéagatch, and an era of unprecedented +prosperity began; but when the railway connecting +Burgas on the Black Sea with the interior was opened, in 1898, +Dédéagatch lost all it had won from Enos. Owing to the lack of +shelter in its open roadstead, the port has not become the great +commercial centre which its position otherwise qualifies it to be. +It is, however, one of the chief outlets for the grain trade of the +Adrianople, Demotica and Xanthi districts. The valonia trade +has also steadily developed, and is supplemented by the export +of timber, tobacco and almonds. In 1871, while digging out +the foundations of their houses, the settlers found many ancient +tombs. Probably these are relics, not of the necropolis of the +ancient <i>Zonê</i>, but of a monastic community of Dervishes, of +the Dédé sect, which was established here in the 15th century, +shortly after the Turkish conquest, and gave to the place its +name.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEDHAM,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> a township and the county seat of Norfolk county, +Massachusetts, U.S.A., with an area of 23 sq. m. of comparatively +level country. Pop. (1890) 7123; (1900) 7457, of whom 2186 were +foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 9284. The township is +traversed by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and +by interurban electric lines. It contains three villages, Dedham, +East Dedham and Oakdale. Dedham has a public library +(1854; incorporated 1871). The Dedham historical society was +organized in 1859 and was incorporated in 1862. The Fairbanks +house was erected in part as early as 1654. Carpets, handkerchiefs +and woollen goods are manufactured, and a pottery here +is reputed to make the only true crackleware outside the East. +Dedham was “planted” in 1635 and was incorporated in 1636. +It was one of the first two inland settlements of the colony, being +coeval with Concord. The original plantation, about 20 m. long +and 10 m. wide, extended from Roxbury and Dorchester to the +present state line of Rhode Island: from this territory several +townships were created, including Westwood (pop. in 1910, 1266), +in 1897. A free public school, one of the first in America to be +supported by direct taxation, was established in Dedham in +1645. In the Woodward tavern, the birthplace of Fisher Ames, +a convention met in September 1774 and adjourned to Milton +(<i>q.v.</i>), where it passed the Suffolk Resolves.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEDICATION<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (Lat. <i>dedicatio</i>, from <i>dedicare</i>, to proclaim, to +announce), properly the setting apart of anything by solemn +proclamation. It is thus in Latin the term particularly applied +to the consecration of altars, temples and other sacred buildings, +and also to the inscription prefixed to a book, &c., and addressed +to some particular person. This latter practice, which formerly +had the purpose of gaining the patronage and support of the +person so addressed, is now only a mark of affection or regard. +In law, the word is used of the setting apart by a private owner +of a road to public use. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Highway</a></span>.)</p> + +<p><i>The Feast of Dedication</i> (<span title="hanuka">חנכה</span>; <span class="grk" title="ta egkainia">τὰ ἐγκαίνια</span>) was a Jewish +festival observed for eight days from the 25th of Kislev +(<i>i.e.</i> about December 12) in commemoration of the reconsecration +(165 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) of the temple and especially of the altar of +burnt offering, after they had been desecrated in the persecution +under Antiochus Epiphanes (168 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The distinguishing +features of the festival were the illumination of houses and +synagogues, a custom probably taken over from the feast of +tabernacles, and the recitation of Psalm xxx. The biblical +references are 1 Macc. i. 41-64, iv. 36-39; 2 Macc. vi. 1-11; +John x. 22. See also 2 Macc. i. 9, 18; ii. 16; and Josephus, +<i>Antiq.</i> xii. v. 4. J. Wellhausen suggests that the feast was +originally connected with the winter solstice, and only afterwards +with the events narrated in Maccabees.</p> + +<p><i>Dedication of Churches.</i>—The custom of solemnly dedicating +or consecrating buildings as churches or chapels set apart for +Christian worship must be almost as old as Christianity itself. +If we find no reference to it in the New Testament or in the very +earliest apostolic or post-apostolic writings, it is merely due to the +fact that Christian churches had not as yet begun to be built. +Throughout the ante-Nicene period, until the reign of Constantine, +Christian churches were few in number, and any public dedication +of them would have been attended with danger in those days of +heathen persecution. This is why we are ignorant as to what +liturgical forms and what consecration ritual were employed in +those primitive times. But when we come to the earlier part of +the 4th century allusions to and descriptions of the consecration +of churches become plentiful.</p> + +<p>Like so much else in the worship and ritual of the Christian +church this service is probably of Jewish origin. The hallowing +of the tabernacle and of its furniture and ornaments (Exodus +xl.); the dedication of Solomon’s temple (1 Kings viii.) and of +the second temple by Zerubbabel (Ezra vi.), and its rededication +by Judas Maccabaeus (see above), and the dedication of the +temple of Herod the Great (Josephus, <i>Antiq. of the Jews</i>, bk. +xv. c. xi. § 6), and our Lord’s recognition of the Feast of Dedication +(St John xi. 22, 23)—all these point to the probability +of the Christians deriving their custom from a Jewish origin, +quite apart from the intrinsic appropriateness of such a custom +in itself.</p> + +<p>Eusebius (<i>Hist. Eccles.</i> lib. x. cap. 3) speaks of the dedication +of churches rebuilt after the Diocletian persecution, including the +church at Tyre in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 314. The consecrations of the church of +the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 335, which had been +built by Constantine, and of other churches after his time, are +described both by Eusebius and by other ecclesiastical historians. +From them we gather that every consecration was accompanied +by a celebration of the Holy Eucharist and a sermon, and special +prayers of a dedicatory character, but there is no trace of the +elaborate ritual, to be described presently, of the medieval +pontificals dating from the 8th century onwards.</p> + +<p>The separate consecration of altars is provided for by canon 14 +of the council of Agde in 506, and by canon 26 of the council of +Epaone in 517, the latter containing the first known reference to +the usage of anointing the altar with chrism. The use of both +holy water and of unction is attributed to St Columbanus, who +died in 615 (Walafrid Strabo, <i>Vita S. Galli</i>, cap. 6).</p> + +<p>There was an annual commemoration of the original dedication +of the church, a feast with its octave extending over eight +days, during which Gregory the Great encouraged the erection +of booths and general feasting on the part of the populace, +to compensate them for, and in some way to take the place of, +abolished heathen festivities (Sozomen, <i>Hist. Eccles.</i> lib. ii. +cap. 26; Bede, <i>Hist. Eccles.</i> lib. i. cap. 30).</p> + +<p>At an early date the right to consecrate churches was reserved +to bishops, as by canon 37 of the first council of Bracara in 563, +and by the 23rd of the Irish collections of canons, once attributed +to St Patrick, but hardly to be put earlier than the 8th century +(Haddon and Stubbs, <i>Councils, &c.</i>, vol. ii. pt. 2, p. 329).</p> + +<p>When we come to examine the MS. and printed service-books +of the medieval church, we find a lengthy and elaborate service +provided for the consecration of churches. It is contained in the +pontifical. The earliest pontifical which has come down to us is +that of Egbert, archbishop of York (732-766), which, however, +only survives in a 10th-century MS. copy. Later pontificals are +numerous; we cannot describe all their variations. A good idea, +however, of the general character of the service will be obtained +from a skeleton of it as performed in this country before the +Reformation according to the use of Sarum. The service in +question is taken from an early 15th-century pontifical in the +Cambridge University Library as printed by W. Makell in +<i>Monumenta ritualia ecclesiae Anglicanae</i>, and ed., vol. i. pp. +195-239.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page919" id="page919"></a>919</span></p> + +<p>There is a preliminary office for laying a foundation-stone. +On the day of consecration the bishop is to vest in a tent outside +the church, thence to proceed to the door of the church on the +outside, a single deacon being inside the church, and there to bless +holy water, twelve lighted candles being placed outside, and +twelve inside the church. He is then to sprinkle the walls all +round outside, and to knock at the door; then to sprinkle the +walls all round outside a second time and to knock at the door +again; then to sprinkle the walls all round outside a third time, +and a third time to knock at the door, by which he will then enter, +all laity being excluded. The bishop is then to fix a cross in the +centre of the church, after which the litany is said, including a +special clause for the consecration of the church and altar. +Next the bishop inscribes the alphabet in Greek letters on one of +the limbs of St Andrew’s cross from the left east corner to the +right west corner on the pavement cindered for the purpose, and +the alphabet in Latin on the other limb from the right east corner +to the left west corner. Then he is to genuflect before the altar +or cross. Then he blesses water, mingled with salt, ashes and +wine, and sprinkles therewith all the walls of the church inside +thrice, beginning at the altar; then he sprinkles the centre of the +church longwise and crosswise on the pavement, and then goes +round the outside of the church sprinkling it thrice. Next reentering +the church and taking up a central position he sprinkles +holy water to the four points of the compass, and toward the roof. +Next he anoints with chrism the twelve internal and twelve +external wall-crosses, afterwards perambulating the church +thrice inside and outside, censing it.</p> + +<p>Then there follows the consecration of the altar. First, holy +water is blessed and mixed with chrism, and with the mixture +the bishop makes a cross in the middle of the altar, then on the +right and the left, then on the four horns of the altar. Then the +altar is sprinkled seven times or three times with water not mixed +with chrism, and the altar-table is washed therewith and censed +and wiped with a linen cloth. The centre of the altar is next +anointed with the oil of the catechumens in the form of a cross; +and the altar-stone is next anointed with chrism; and then the +whole altar is rubbed over with oil of the catechumens and with +chrism. Incense is next blessed, and the altar censed, five grains +of incense being placed crosswise in the centre and at the four +corners, and upon the grains five slender candle crosses, which are +to be lit. Afterwards the altar is scraped and cleansed; then the +altar-cloths and ornaments having been sprinkled with holy water +are placed upon the altar, which is then to be censed.</p> + +<p>All this is subsidiary to the celebration of mass, with which +the whole service is concluded. The transcription and description +of the various collects, psalms, anthems, benedictions, &c., +which make up the order of dedication have been omitted for +the sake of brevity.</p> + +<p>The Sarum order of dedication described above is substantially +identical with the Roman order, but it would be superfluous to +tabulate and describe the lesser variations of language or ritual. +There is, however, one very important and significant piece of +ritual, not found in the above-described English church order, +but always found in the Roman service, and not infrequently +found in the earlier and later English uses, in connexion with +the presence and use of relics at the consecration of an altar. +According to the Roman ritual, after the priest has sprinkled +the walls of the church inside thrice all round and then sprinkled +the pavement from the altar to the porch, and sideways from wall +to wall, and then to the four quarters of the compass, he prepares +some cement at the altar. He then goes to the place where the +relics are kept, and starts a solemn procession with the relics +round the outside of the church. There a sermon is preached, +and two decrees of the council of Trent are read, and the founder’s +deed of gift or endowment. Then the bishop, anointing the door +with chrism, enters the church with the relics and deposits them +in the cavity or confession in the altar. Having been enclosed +they are censed and covered in, and the cover is anointed. Then +follows the censing and wiping of the altar as in the Sarum +order.</p> + +<p>This use of relics is very ancient and can be traced back to the +time of St Ambrose. There was also a custom, now obsolete, of +enclosing a portion of the consecrated Eucharist if relics were not +obtainable. This was ordered by cap. 2 of the council of Celchyth +(Chelsea) in 816. But though ancient the custom of enclosing +relics was not universal, and where found in English church +orders, as it frequently is found from the pontifical of Egbert +onwards, it is called the “Mos Romanus” as distinguished from +the “Mos Anglicanus” (<i>Archaeologia</i>, liv. 416). It is absent +from the description of the early Irish form of consecration +preserved in the <i>Leabhar Breac</i>, translated and annotated by +Rev. T. Olden in the <i>Transactions of the St Paul’s Ecclesiolog. +Soc.</i> vol. iv. pt. ii. p. 98.</p> + +<p>The curious ritual act, technically known as the <i>abecedarium</i>, +<i>i.e.</i> the tracing of the alphabet, sometimes in Latin characters, +sometimes in Latin and Greek, sometimes, according to Menard, +in Latin, Greek and Hebrew, along the limbs of St Andrew’s +cross on the floor of the church, can be traced back to the 8th +century and may be earlier. Its origin and meaning are unknown. +Of all explanations we like best the recent one suggested by Rossi +and adopted by the bishop of Salisbury. This interprets the St +Andrew’s cross as the initial Greek letter of Christus, and the +whole act as significant of taking possession of the site to be +consecrated in the name of Christ, who is the Alpha and Omega, +the word of God, combining in himself all letters that lie between +them, every element of human speech. The three languages +may then have been suggested by the Latin, Greek and Hebrew, +in which his title was written on the cross.</p> + +<p>The disentangling the Gallican from the Roman elements in +the early Western forms of service is a delicate and difficult task, +undertaken by Monsignor Louis Duchesne, who shows how the +former partook of a funerary and the latter of a baptismal +character (<i>Christian Worship</i> (London, 1904), cap. xii.).</p> + +<p>The dedication service of the Greek Church is likewise long and +elaborate. Relics are to be prepared and guarded on the day +previous in some neighbouring sacred building. On the morning +following, all ornaments and requisites having been got ready, the +laity being excluded, the bishop and clergy vested proceed to fix +in its place and consecrate the altar, a long prayer of dedication +being said, followed by a litany. The altar is then sprinkled +with warm water, then with wine, then anointed with chrism in +the form of a cross. The altar, the book of the gospels, and all +cloths are then censed, every pillar is crossed with chrism, while +various collects are said and psalms recited. One lamp is then +filled with oil and lit, and placed on the altar, while clergy bring +in other lamps and other ornaments of the church. On the next +day—if the service cannot be concluded in one day—the bishop +and clergy go to the building where the relics have been kept and +guarded. A procession is formed and advances thence with the +relics, which are borne by a priest in a holy vessel (<i>discus</i>) on his +head; the church having been entered, the relics are placed by +him with much ceremonial in the “confession,” the recess prepared +in or about the altar for their reception, which is then +anointed and sealed up. After this the liturgy is celebrated both +on the feast of dedication and on seven days afterwards.</p> + +<p>There is no authorized form for the dedication of a church in +the reformed Church of England. A form was drawn up and +approved by both houses of the convocation of Canterbury under +Archbishop Tenison in 1712, and an almost identical form was +submitted to convocation in 1715, but its consideration was not +completed by the Lower House, and neither form ever received +royal sanction. The consequence has been that Anglican bishops +have fallen back on their undefined <i>jus liturgicum</i>, and have +drawn up and promulgated forms for use in their various dioceses, +some of them being content to borrow from other dioceses for this +purpose. There is a general similarity, with a certain amount of +difference in detail, in these various forms. In the diocese of +London the bishop, attended by clergy and churchwardens, +receives at the west door, outside, a petition for consecration; +the procession then moves round the whole church outside, while +certain psalms are chanted. On again reaching the west door +the bishop knocks thrice for admission, and the door being +opened the procession advances to the east end of the church. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page920" id="page920"></a>920</span> +He there lays the keys on the table “which is to be hallowed.” +The <i>Veni Creator</i> is then sung kneeling, followed by the litany +with special suffrages. The bishop then proceeds to various +parts of the church and blesses the font, the chancel, with special +references to confirmation and holy matrimony, the lectern, +the pulpit, the clergy stalls, the choir seats, the holy table. The +deed of consecration is then read and signed, and the celebration +of Holy Communion follows with special collects, epistle and +gospel.</p> + +<p>The Church of Ireland and the episcopal Church of Scotland +are likewise without any completely authorized form of dedication, +and their archbishops or bishops have at various times +issued forms of service on their own authority.</p> +<div class="author">(F. E. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DE DONIS CONDITIONALIBUS,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> a chapter of the statute of +Westminster the Second (1285) which originated the law of +entail. Strictly speaking, a form of entail was known before +the Norman feudal law had been domesticated in England. The +common form was a grant “to the feoffee and the heirs of his +body,” by which limitation it was sought to prevent alienation +from the lineage of the first purchaser. These grants were also +known as <i>feuda conditionata</i>, because if the donee had no heirs +of his body the estate reverted to the donor. This right of +reversion was evaded by the interpretation that such a gift was +a conditional fee, which enabled the donee, if he had an heir of +the body born alive, to alienate the land, and consequently +disinherit the issue and defeat the right of the donor. To remedy +this the statute <i>De Donis Conditionalibus</i> was passed, which +enacted that, in grants to a man and the heirs of his body, the +will of the donor according to the form in the deed of gift manifestly +expressed, should be from thenceforth observed; so that +they to whom the land was given under such condition, should +have no power to alienate the land so given, but that it should +remain unto the issue of those to whom it was given after their +death, or unto the giver or his heirs, if issue fail. Since the +passing of the statute an estate given to a man and the heirs of +his body has been known as an estate tail, or an estate in fee tail +(<i>feudum talliatum</i>), the word tail being derived from the French +<i>tailler</i>, to cut, the inheritance being by the statute cut down and +confined to the heirs of the body. The operation of the statute +soon produced innumerable evils: “children, it is said, grew +disobedient when they knew they could not be set aside; farmers +were deprived of their leases; creditors were defrauded of their +debts; innumerable latent entails were produced to deprive +purchasers of the land they had fairly bought; treasons also were +encouraged, as estates tail were not liable to forfeiture longer +than for the tenant’s life” (Williams, <i>Real Property</i>). Accordingly, +the power of alienation was reintroduced by the judges in +Taltarum’s case (<i>Year Book</i>, 12 Edward IV., 1472) by means of +a fictitious suit or recovery which had originally been devised +by the regular clergy for evading the statutes of mortmain. This +was abolished by an act passed in 1833. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fine</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEDUCTION<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>deducere</i>, to take or lead from or out +of, derive), a term used in common parlance for the process +of taking away from, or subtracting (as in mathematics), and +specially for the argumentative process of arriving at a conclusion +from evidence, <i>i.e.</i> for any kind of inference.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In this +sense it includes both arguments from particular facts and those +from general laws to particular cases. In logic it is generally +used in contradiction to “induction” for a kind of mediate +inference, in which a conclusion (often itself called the deduction) +is regarded as following necessarily under certain fixed laws +from premises. This, the most common, form of deduction is +the syllogism (<i>q.v.</i>; see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Logic</a></span>), which consists in taking a +general principle and deriving from it facts which are necessarily +involved in it. This use of deduction is of comparatively modern +origin; it was originally used as the equivalent of Aristotle’s +<span class="grk" title="apagôgê">ἀπαγωγή</span> (see <i>Prior Analytics</i>, B xxv.). The modern use of +deduction is practically identical with the Aristotelian +<span class="grk" title="syllogismos">συλλογισμός</span>.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Two forms of the verb are used, “deduce” and “deduct”; +originally synonymous, they are now distinguished, “deduce” being +confined to arguments, “deduct” to quantities.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEE, JOHN<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1527-1608), English mathematician and +astrologer, was born on the 13th of July 1527, in London, where +his father was, according to Wood, a wealthy vintner. In 1542 +he was sent to St John’s College, Cambridge. After five years +spent in mathematical and astronomical studies, he went to +Holland, in order to visit several eminent continental mathematicians. +Having remained abroad nearly a year, he returned +to Cambridge, and was elected a fellow of Trinity College, then +first erected by King Henry VIII. In 1548 he took the degree +of master of arts; but in the same year he found it necessary +to leave England on account of the suspicions entertained of +his being a conjurer; these were first excited by a piece of +machinery, which, in the <i>Pax</i> of Aristophanes, he exhibited to the +university, representing the scarabaeus flying up to Jupiter, with +a man and a basket of victuals on its back. He went first to the +university of Louvain, where he resided about two years, and then +to the college of Rheims, where he had extraordinary success in +his public lectures on Euclid’s <i>Elements</i>. On his return to England +in 1551 King Edward assigned him a pension of 100 crowns, +which he afterwards exchanged for the rectory of Upton-upon-Severn, +Worcestershire. Soon after the accession of Mary he was +accused of using enchantments against the queen’s life; but +after a tedious confinement he obtained his liberty in 1555, +by an order of council.</p> + +<p>When Elizabeth ascended the throne, Dee was asked by Lord +Dudley to name a propitious day for the coronation. On this +occasion he was introduced to the queen, who took lessons in +the mystical interpretation of his writings, and made him great +promises, which, however, were never fulfilled. In 1564 he again +visited the continent, in order to present his <i>Monas hieroglyphica</i> +to the emperor Maximilian, to whom he had dedicated it. He +returned to England in the same year; but in 1571 he was in +Lorraine, whither two physicians were sent by the queen to his +relief in a dangerous illness. Returning to his home at Mortlake, +in Surrey, he continued his studies, and made a collection of +curious books and manuscripts, and a variety of instruments. +In 1578 Dee was sent abroad to consult with German physicians +and astrologers in regard to the illness of the queen. On his +return to England, he was employed in investigating the title of +the crown to the countries recently discovered by British subjects, +and in furnishing geographical descriptions. Two large rolls +containing the desired information, which he presented to the +queen, are still preserved in the Cottonian Library. A learned +treatise on the reformation of the calendar, written by him about +the same time, is also preserved in the Ashmolean Library at +Oxford.</p> + +<p>From this period the philosophical researches of Dee were +concerned entirely with necromancy. In 1581 he became +acquainted with Edward Kelly, an apothecary, who had been +convicted of forgery and had lost both ears in the pillory at +Lancaster. He professed to have discovered the philosopher’s +stone, and by his assistance Dee performed various incantations, +and maintained a frequent imaginary intercourse with spirits. +Shortly afterwards Kelly and Dee were introduced by the earl +of Leicester to a Polish nobleman, Albert Laski, palatine of Siradz, +devoted to the same pursuits, who persuaded them to accompany +him to his native country. They embarked for Holland in +September 1583, and arrived at Laski’s residence in February +following. Upon Dee’s departure the mob, believing him a +wizard, broke into his house, and destroyed a quantity of +furniture and books and his chemical apparatus. Dee and +Kelly lived for some years in Poland and Bohemia in alternate +wealth and poverty, according to the credulity or scepticism of +those before whom they exhibited. They professed to raise +spirits by incantation; and Kelly dictated the utterances to Dee, +who wrote them down and interpreted them.</p> + +<p>Dee at length quarrelled with his companion, and returned to +England in 1589. He was helped over his financial difficulties by +the queen and his friends. In May of 1595 he became warden of +Manchester College. In November 1604 he returned to Mortlake, +where he died in December 1608, at the age of eighty-one, in +the greatest poverty. Aubrey describes him as “of a very fair, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page921" id="page921"></a>921</span> +clear sanguine complexion, with a long beard as white as milk—a +very handsome man—tall and slender. He wore a goune like +an artist’s goune with hanging sleeves.” Dee’s <i>Speculum</i> or +mirror, a piece of solid pink-tinted glass about the size of an +orange, is preserved in the British Museum.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal works are—<i>Propaedeumata aphoristica</i> (London, +1558); <i>Monas hieroglyphica</i> (Antwerp, 1564); <i>Epistola ad Fredericum +Commandinum</i> (Pesaro, 1570); <i>Preface Mathematical to the +English Euclid</i> (1570); <i>Divers Annotations and Inventions added +after the tenth book of English Euclid</i> (1570); <i>Epistola praefixa +Ephemeridibus Joannis Feldi, a. 1557; Parallaticae commentationis +praxeosque nucleus quidam</i> (London, 1573). The catalogue of his +printed and published works is to be found in his <i>Compendious +Rehearsal</i>, as well as in his letter to Archbishop Whitgift. A manuscript +of Dee’s, relating what passed for many years between him +and some spirits, was edited by Meric Casaubon and published in +1659. <i>The Private Diary of Dr John Dee, and the Catalogue of his +Library of Manuscripts</i>, edited by J. O. Halliwell, was published +by the Camden Society in 1842. There is a life of Dee in Thomas +Smith’s <i>Vitae illustrium virorum</i> (1707); English translation by W. +A. Ayton, the <i>Life of John Dee</i> (1909).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEE<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (Welsh, <i>Dyfrdwy</i>; Lat., and in Milton, <i>Deva</i>), a river of +Wales and England. It rises in Bala Lake, Merionethshire, which +is fed by a number of small streams. Leaving the lake near the +town of Bala it follows a north-easterly course to Corwen, turns +thence E. by S. past Llangollen to a point near Overton, and then +bends nearly north to Chester, and thereafter north-west through +a great estuary opening into the Irish Sea. In the Llangollen +district the Dee crosses Denbighshire, and thereafter forms the +boundary of that county with Shropshire, a detached part of +Flint, and Cheshire. From Bala nearly down to Overton, a +distance of 35 m., during which the river falls about 330 ft., its +course lies through a narrow and beautiful valley, enclosed on the +south by the steep lower slopes of the Berwyn Mountains and on +the north by a succession of lesser ranges. The portion known +as the Vale of Llangollen is especially famous. Here an aqueduct +carrying the Pontcysyllte branch of the Shropshire Union canal +bestrides the valley; it is a remarkable engineering work +completed by Thomas Telford in 1805. The Dee has a total +length of about 70 m. and a fall of 530 ft. Below Overton it +debouches upon its plain track. Below Chester it follows a +straight artificial channel to the estuary, and this is the only +navigable portion. The estuary, which is 14 m. long, and 5¼ m. +wide at its mouth, between Hilbre Point on the English and +Point of Air on the Welsh side, is not a commercial highway like +the neighbouring mouth of the Mersey, for though in appearance +a fine natural harbour at high tide, it becomes at low tide a vast +expanse of sand, through which the river meanders in a narrow +channel. The navigation, however, is capable of improvement, +and schemes have been set on foot to this end. The tide rushes +in with great speed over the sands, and their danger is illustrated +in the well-known ballad “The Sands of Dee” by Charles +Kingsley. The Dee drains an area of 813 sq. m.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEE,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> a river in the south of Aberdeenshire, Scotland, pursuing +a generally easterly direction from its source in the extreme west +of the county till it reaches the North Sea at the city of Aberdeen. +It rises in the Wells of Dee, a spring on Ben Braeriach, one of the +Cairngorms, at a height of 4061 ft. above the sea. It descends +rapidly from this altitude, and by the time that it receives the +Geusachan, on its right bank, about 6 m. from its source, it has +fallen 2421 ft. From the mountains flanking its upper reaches +it is fed by numerous burns named and unnamed. With its +tributaries the river drains an area of 1000 sq. m. Rapid and +turbulent during the first half of its course of 90 m., it broadens +appreciably below Aboyne and the rate of flow is diminished. +The channel towards its mouth was artificially altered in order +to provide increased dock accommodation at Aberdeen, but, +above, the stream is navigable for only barges and small craft +for a few miles. It runs through scenery of transcendent beauty, +especially in Braemar. About two miles above Inverey it enters +a narrow rocky gorge, 300 yds. long and only a few feet wide at +one part, and forms the rapids and cascades of the famous Linn +of Dee. One of the finest of Scottish salmon streams, it retains +its purity almost to the very end of its run. The principal +places on the Dee, apart from private residences, are Castleton +of Braemar, Ballater, Aboyne, Kincardine O’Neil, Banchory, +Culter and Cults.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEED<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (in O. Eng. <i>deâd</i>, from the stem of the verb “to do”), +that which is done, an act, doing; particularly, in law, a contract +in writing, sealed and delivered by the party bound to the party +intended to benefit. Contracts or obligations under seal are called +in English law <i>specialties</i>, and down to 1869 they took precedence +in payment over <i>simple</i> contracts, whether written or not. +Writing, sealing and delivery are all essential to a deed. The +signature of the party charged is not material, and the deed is +not void for want of a date. Delivery, it is held, may be complete +without the actual handing over of the deed; it is sufficient if the +act of sealing were accompanied by words or acts signifying that +the deed was intended to be presently binding; and delivery to +a third person for the use of the party benefited will be sufficient. +On the other hand, the deed may be handed over to a third person +as an <i>escrow</i>,<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in which case it will not take effect as a deed until +certain conditions are performed. Such conditional delivery +may be inferred from the circumstances attending the transaction, +although the conditions be not expressed in words. A deed +indented, or indenture (so called because written in counterparts +on the same sheet of parchment, separated by cutting a wavy +line between them so as to be identified by fitting the parts +together), is between two or more parties who contract mutually. +The actual indentation is not now necessary to an indenture. +The <i>deed-poll</i> (with a polled or smooth-cut edge, not indented) +is a deed in which one party binds himself without reference +to any corresponding obligations undertaken by another party. +See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Contract</a></span>.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> An Anglo-French law term meaning a “scroll” or strip of parchment, +cognate with the English “shred.” The modern French +<i>écroue</i> is used for the entry of a name on a prison register.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEEMS, CHARLES (ALEXANDER) FORCE<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (1820-1893), +American clergyman, was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on the +4th of December 1820. He was a precocious child and delivered +lectures on temperance and on Sunday schools before he was +fourteen years old. He graduated at Dickinson College in 1839, +taught and preached in New York city for a few months, in 1840 +took charge of the Methodist Episcopal church at Asbury, New +Jersey, and removed in the next year to North Carolina, where +he was general agent for the American Bible Society. He was +professor of logic and rhetoric at the University of North Carolina +in 1842-1847, and professor of natural sciences at Randolph-Macon +College (then at Boydton, Virginia) in 1847-1848, and +after two years of preaching at Newbern, N.C., he held for +four years (1850-1854) the presidency of Greensboro (N.C.) +Female College. He continued as a Methodist Episcopal clergyman +at various pastorates in North Carolina from 1854 to 1865, +for the last seven years being a presiding elder and in 1859 to 1863 +being the proprietor of St Austin’s Institute, Wilson. In 1865 +he settled in New York City, where in 1866 he began preaching in +the chapel of New York University, and in 1868 he established +and became the pastor of the undenominational Church of the +Strangers, which in 1870 occupied the former Mercer Street +Presbyterian church, purchased and given to Dr Deems by +Cornelius Vanderbilt; there he remained until his death in +New York city on the 18th of November 1893. He was one of +the founders (1881) and president of the American Institute of +Christian Philosophy and for ten years was editor of its organ, +<i>Christian Thought</i>. Dr Deems was an earnest temperance advocate, +as early as 1852 worked (unsuccessfully) for a general prohibition +law in North Carolina, and in his later years allied himself +with the Prohibition party. He was influential in securing from +Cornelius Vanderbilt the endowment of Vanderbilt University, +in Nashville, Tennessee. He was a man of rare personal and +literary charm; he edited <i>The Southern Methodist Episcopal +Pulpit</i> (1846-1852) and <i>The Annals of Southern Methodism</i> +(1855-1857); he compiled <i>Devotional Melodies</i> (1842), and, with +the assistance of Phoebe Cary, one of his parishioners, <i>Hymns +for all Christians</i> (1869; revised, 1881); and he published many +books, among which were: <i>The Life of Dr Adam Clarke</i> (1840); +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page922" id="page922"></a>922</span> +<i>The Triumph of Peace and other Poems</i> (1840); <i>The Home Altar</i> +(1850); <i>Jesus</i> (1872), which ran through many editions and +several revisions, the title being changed in 1880 to <i>The Light +of the Nations</i>; <i>Sermons</i> (1885); <i>The Gospel of Common Sense</i> +(1888); <i>The Gospel of Spiritual Insight</i> (1891) and <i>My Septuagint</i> +(1892). The Charles F. Deems Lectureship in Philosophy was +founded in his honour in 1895 at New York University by the +American Institute of Christian Philosophy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Autobiography</i> (New York, 1897) is autobiographical only to +1847, the memoir being completed by his two sons.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEER<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (O. E. <i>déor</i>, <i>díor</i>, a common Teutonic word, meaning a +wild animal, cf. Ger. <i>Tier</i>, Du. <i>dier</i>, &c., probably from a root +<i>dhus</i>-, to breathe), originally the name of one of two British +species, the red-deer or the fallow-deer, but now extended to all +the members of the family <i>Cervidae</i>, in the section Pecora of the +suborder Artiodactyla of the order Ungulata. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pecora</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artiodactyla</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ungulata</a></span>.) Briefly, deer may be defined as +Pecora presenting the following characteristics:—either antlers +present in the male, or when these are absent, the upper canines +large and sabre-like, and the lateral metacarpal bones represented +only by their lower extremities. This definition will include the +living and also most of the extinct forms, although in some of +the latter the lateral metacarpal bones not only retain their lower +ends, but are complete in their entire length.</p> + +<p>The leading characters of antlers are described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pecora</a></span>, +but these structures may be defined somewhat more fully in the +following passage from the present writer’s <i>Deer of all Lands</i>:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“Antlers are supported on a pair of solid bony processes, or +pedicles, arising from the frontal bones of the skull, of which they +form an inseparable portion; and if in a fully adult deer these pedicles +be sawn through, they will generally be found to consist of solid, +ivory-like bone, devoid of perceptible channels for the passage of +blood-vessels. The pedicles are always covered with skin well +supplied with blood-vessels; and in young deer, or those in which +the antlers have been comparatively recently shed, the covering of +skin extends over their summits, when they appear as longer or +shorter projections on the forehead, according to the species. When +the first or a new antler is about to be formed, the summits of these +pedicles become tender, and bear small velvet-like knobs, which have +a high temperature, and are supplied by an extra quantity of blood, +which commences to deposit bony matter. This deposition of bony +matter progresses very rapidly, and although in young deer and the +adults of some species the resulting antler merely forms a simple +spike, or a single fork, in full-grown individuals of the majority it +assumes a more or less complexly branched structure. All this time +the growing antler is invested with a skin clothed with exceedingly +fine short hairs, and is most liberally supplied with blood-vessels; +this sensitive skin being called the velvet. Towards the completion +of its growth a more or less prominent ring of bone, termed the burr +or coronet, is deposited at its base just above the junction with the +pedicle; this ring tending to constrict the blood-vessels, and thus +cut off the supply of blood from the antlers....</p> + +<p>“When the antlers are freed from the velvet—a process usually +assisted by the animal rubbing them against tree stems or boughs—they +have a more or less rugose surface, owing to the grooves +formed in them by the nutrient blood-vessels. Although a few +living species have the antlers in the form of simple spikes in the +adult male, in the great majority of species they are more or less +branched; while in some, like the elk and fallow-deer, they expand +into broad palmated plates, with tines, or snags, on one or both +margins. In the antlers of the red-deer group, which form the type +of the whole series, the following names have been applied to their +different component parts and branches. The main shaft is termed +the beam; the first or lowest tine the brow-tine; the second the +bez-tine; the third the trez-tine, or royal; and the branched portion +forming the summit the crown, or surroyals. But the antlers of all +deer by no means conform to this type; and in certain groups other +names have to be adopted for the branches.</p> + +<p>“The antlers of young deer are in the form of simple spikes; and +this form is retained in the South American brockets, although the +simple antlers of these deer appear due to degeneration, and are not +primitive types. Indeed, no living deer shows such primitive spike-like +antlers in the adult, and it is doubtful whether such a type is displayed +by any known extinct form, although many have a simple +fork. In the deer of the sambar group, where the antlers never +advance beyond a three-tined type, the shedding is frequently, if +not invariably, very irregular; but in the majority at least of the +species with complex antlers the replacement is annual, the new +appendages attaining their full development immediately before the +pairing-season. In such species there is a more or less regular annual +increase in the complexity of the antlers up to a certain period of life, +after which they begin to degenerate.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The <i>Cervidae</i> are distributed all over Europe, Asia, Northern +Africa and America, but are unknown in Africa south of the +Sahara. They are undoubtedly a group of European or Asiatic +origin, and obtained an entrance into America at a time when +that continent was connected with Asia by way of Bering Strait.</p> + +<p>The existing members of the family are classified in the writer’s +<i>Deer of all Lands</i> as follows:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A. Subfamily <span class="sc">Cervinae</span>.—Antlers, with one exception, present +in the male; liver without a gall-bladder; a face-gland, and a +gland-pit in the skull.</p> + +<p>I. Reindeer, Genus <i>Rangifer</i>.—Lateral metacarpal bones represented +only by their lower extremities; antlers present in both sexes, +complex. Northern part of both hemispheres.</p> + +<p>II. Elk, Genus <i>Alces</i>.—Lateral metacarpals as in preceding; antlers +(as in the following genera) present only in the male, arising at right +angles to the median longitudinal line of the skull, and extending at +first in the plane of the forehead, after which, when in their fullest +development, they expand into a broad palmation margined with +snags. Northern portion of both hemispheres.</p> + +<p>III. True Deer, Genus <i>Cervus</i>.—Lateral metacarpals represented +only by their upper ends. Antlers arising at acute angles to the +median line of the skull (as in the following genera), at first projecting +from the plane of the forehead, and then continued upwards +nearly in that plane, supported on short pedicles, and furnished with +a brow-tine, never regularly forked at first division, but generally of +large size, and with not less than three tines; the skull without +ridges on the frontals forming the bases of the pedicles of the antlers. +Upper canine teeth small, or wanting. Europe, Asia and N. America.</p> + +<p>1. Red-deer Group, Subgenus <i>Cervus</i>.—Antlers rounded, usually +with five or more tines, generally including a bez (second), and always +a trez (third); coat of adult generally unspotted, with a large light-coloured +disk surrounding the tail; young, spotted. Europe, +Northern and Central Asia and North America.</p> + +<p>2. Sika Deer, Subgenus <i>Pseudaxis</i>.—Antlers smaller and simpler, +four-tined, with a trez (third), but no bez (second); coat of adult +spotted, at least in summer, with a white area bordered by black in +the region of the tail, which is also black and white. North-Eastern +Asia.</p> + +<p>3. Fallow-deer, Subgenus <i>Dama</i>.—Antlers without a bez, but +with a trez-tine, above which the beam is more or less palmated, and +generally furnished with numerous snags; coat of adult spotted +in summer, uniform in winter, with black and white markings in +the region of the tail similar to those of <i>Pseudaxis</i>; young, spotted. +Mediterranean region, but more widely spread in Europe during +the Pleistocene epoch, and also introduced into many European +countries.</p> + +<p>4. Sambar Group, Subgenus <i>Rusa</i>.—Antlers rounded, three-tined, +with the bez- and trez-tines wanting, and the beam simply +forked at the summit; coat either uniform or spotted at all seasons. +Indo-Malay countries and part of China.</p> + +<p>5. Barasingha Group, Subgenus <i>Rucervus</i>.—Antlers flattened or +rounded, without bez- or trez-tine, the beam dichotomously forking, +and one or both branches again forked, so that the number of tines +is at least four; brow-tine forming a right angle or a continuous +curve with the beam; coat of adult generally more or less uniform, +of young spotted. Indo-Malay countries.</p> + +<p>IV. Muntjacs, Genus <i>Cervulus</i>.—Lateral metacarpals as in +<i>Cervus</i>; antlers small, with a brow-tine and an unbranched beam, +supported on long bony pedicles, continued downwards as convergent +ridges on the forehead; upper canines of male large and +tusk-like. Indo-Malay countries and China.</p> + +<p>V. Tufted Muntjacs, Genus <i>Elaphodus</i>.—Nearly related to the +last, but the antlers still smaller, with shorter pedicles and divergent +frontal ridges; upper canines of male not everted at the tips. Tibet +and China.</p> + +<p>VI. Water-deer, Genus <i>Hydrelaphus</i>.—Lateral metacarpals as +in <i>Rangifer</i>; antlers wanting; upper canines of males tusk-like +and growing from semi-persistent pulps; cheek-teeth tall-crowned +(hypsodont); tail moderate. China.</p> + +<p>VII. Roe-deer, Genus <i>Capreolus</i>.—Lateral metacarpals as in +<i>Rangifer</i>; antlers rather small, without a brow-tine or sub-basal +snag, dichotomously forked, with the upper or posterior prong +again forking; tail rudimentary; vomer not dividing posterior +nasal aperture of skull. Europe and Northern Asia.</p> + +<p>VIII. Père David’s Deer, Genus <i>Elaphurus</i>.—Lateral metacarpals +as in <i>Cervus</i>; antlers large, without a brow-tine or sub-basal +snag, dichotomously forked, with the upper prong of the fork +curving forwards and dividing, and the lower prong long, simple, +and projected backwards, the beam making a very marked angle +with the plane of the face; tail very long; vomer as in <i>Capreolus</i>. +North-East Asia.</p> + +<p>IX. American Deer, Genus <i>Mazama</i>.—Lateral metacarpals as in +<i>Rangifer</i>; antlers very variable in size, forming a marked angle with +the plane of the face, without a brow-tine; when consisting of more +than a simple prong, dichotomously forked, frequently with a sub-basal +snag, and always with the lower prong of the fork projected +from the front edge of the beam, in some cases the lower, in others +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page923" id="page923"></a>923</span> +the upper, and in others both prongs again dividing; tail long; +tarsal gland generally present; metatarsal gland very variable, both +as regards presence and position; vomer dividing the inner aperture +of the nostrils in the skull into two distinct chambers. America.</p> + +<p>1. White-tailed Group, Subgenus <i>Dorcelaphus</i> or <i>Odocoileus</i>.—Antlers +large and complex, with a sub-basal snag, and the lower +prong more or less developed at the expense of the upper one; +metatarsal gland usually present; tail long or moderate, and hairy +below; face very long and narrow; the face-gland small, and the +gland-pit in the skull of moderate extent; no upper canines; size +generally large. North America to Northern South America.</p> + +<p>2. Marsh-deer Group, Subgenus <i>Blastoceros</i>.—Antlers large and +complex, without a sub-basal snag, and the upper prong more +developed than the lower one; metatarsal gland absent; tail +short; face moderately long; face-gland and gland-pit well +developed; upper canines usually present in male. Size large or +rather small. South America.</p> + +<p>3. Guemals, Subgenus <i>Xenelaphus</i>.—Antlers small and simple, +forming a single dichotomous fork; metatarsal gland absent; tail +short; face moderately long; face-gland and gland-pit well +developed; upper canines present in both sexes. Size medium. +South America.</p> + +<p>4. Brockets, Subgenus <i>Mazama</i>.—Antlers in the form of simple +unbranched spikes; metatarsal, and in one case also the tarsal +gland absent; tail very short; face elongated; face-gland small +and gland-pit deep and triangular; hair of face radiating from two +whorls: upper canines sometimes present in old males. Size small. +Central and South America.</p> + +<p>X. Genus <i>Pudua</i>.—Skull and metacarpals generally as in +<i>Mazama</i>; size very small; hair coarse and brittle; antlers in the +form of short, simple spikes; cannon-bones very short; tail very +short or wanting; no whorls in the hair of the face; face-gland +moderately large, and gland-pit deep and oval; tarsal and metatarsal +glands wanting; ectocuneiform bone of tarsus united with +the naviculocuboid. South America.</p> + +<p>B. Subfamily <span class="sc">Moschinae</span>.—Antlers wanting in both sexes; liver +furnished with a gall-bladder; no face-gland or gland-pit.</p> + +<p>XI. Musk-deer, Genus <i>Moschus</i>.—Hair coarse and brittle; upper +canines of male very long; no tarsal or metatarsal glands or +tufts; lateral metacarpals represented by their lower extremities; +lateral hoofs very large; tail very short; naked portion of muzzle +extensive; male with a large abdominal gland. Central Asia.</p> +</div> + +<p>Of the above, Reindeer and Elk are dealt with in separate +articles (<i>qq.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>The first or typical group of the genus <i>Cervus</i> includes the red-deer +(<i>Cervus elaphus</i>) of Europe and western Asia, of which there +are several local races, such as the large <i>C. elaphus maral</i> of +eastern Europe and Persia, which is often partially spotted above +and dark-coloured below, the smaller <i>C. e. barbarus</i> of Tunisia +and Morocco, and the still smaller <i>C. e. corsicanus</i> of Corsica. +The Scandinavian red-deer is the typical form of the species. In +all red-deer the antlers are rounded, and show a more or less +marked tendency to form a cup at the summit. Wapiti, on the +other hand, show a marked tendency to the flattening of the +antlers, with a great development of the fourth tine, which is +larger than all the others, and the whole of the tines above this in +the same plane, or nearly so, this plane being the same as the long +axis of the animal. Normally no cup is developed at the summit +of the antler. The tail, too, is shorter than in the red-deer; +while in winter the under parts become very dark, and the upper +surface often bleaches almost white. The cry of the stags in the +breeding season is also different. The typical representative of +the group is the North American wapiti <i>C. canadensis</i>, but there +are several closely allied races in Central Asia, such as <i>C. canadensis +songaricus</i> and <i>C. c. bactrianus</i>, while in Manchuria the +subgroup is represented by <i>C. c. xanthopygus</i>, in which the +summer coat is reddish instead of grey. The hangul (<i>C. cashmirianus</i>) +of Kashmir is a distinct dark-coloured species, in which +the antlers tend to turn in at the summit; while <i>C. yarcandensis</i>, +of the Tarim Valley, Turkestan, is a redder animal, with a wholly +rufous tail, and antlers usually terminating in a simple fork placed +in a transverse plane. Another Asiatic species is the great shou +(<i>C. affinis</i>) of the Chumbi Valley, in which the antlers curve +forwards in a remarkable manner. Lastly <i>C. albirostris</i>, of Tibet, +is easily recognized by its white muzzle, and smooth, whitish, +flattened antlers, which have fewer tines than those of the other +members of the group, all placed in one plane.</p> + +<p>The second group of the genus <i>Cervus</i>, forming the subgenus +<i>Pseudaxis</i>, is typified by the handsome little Japanese deer, or +sika, <i>C.</i> (<i>P.</i>) <i>sika</i>, in which the antlers are four-tined, and covered +with red “velvet” when first grown, while the coat is fully +spotted in summer, but more or less uniformly brown in winter. +The most distinctive feature of the deer of this group is, however, +the patch of long erectile white hairs on the buttocks, which, +although inconspicuous when the animals are quiescent, is +expanded into a large chrysanthemum-like bunch when they +start to run or are otherwise excited. The patch then forms a +guiding signal for the members of the herd when in flight. On +the mainland of Manchuria both the typical sika, and a larger +race (<i>C. sika manchuricus</i>), occur. A still larger and finer animal +is the Pekin sika (<i>C. hortulorum</i>), of northern Manchuria, which +is as large as a small red-deer; it is represented in the Yang-tse +valley by a local race, <i>C. h. kopschi</i>. Formosa possesses a species +of its own (<i>C. taëvanus</i>), which, in correlation with the perpetual +verdure of that island, is spotted at all seasons.</p> + +<p>For the fallow-deer, <i>Cervus</i> [<i>Dama</i>] <i>dama</i>, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fallow-deer</a></span>.</p> + +<p>The rusine or sambar group of <i>Cervus</i>, of which the characteristics +are given above, comprises a considerable number of long-tailed +species with three-tined antlers from the Indo-Malay +countries and some parts of China. The largest and handsomest +is the sambar of India (<i>Cervus</i> [<i>Rusa</i>] <i>unicolor</i>), characterized by +its massive and rugged antlers. It is represented by a number +of local races, mostly of smaller size, such as the Burmese and +Malay <i>C. u. equinus</i>, the Formosan <i>C. u. swinhoei</i>, and the +Philippine <i>C. u. philippinus</i> and <i>C. u. nigricans</i>, of which the +latter is not larger than a roe-buck, while the sambar itself is +as large as a red-deer. Whether these local phases of a single +variable type are best denominated races or species, must be +largely a matter of individual opinion. The rusa, or Javan +sambar, <i>C.</i> (<i>R.</i>) <i>hippelaphus</i>, is a lighter-coloured and smaller +deer than the Indian sambar, with longer, slenderer and less +rugged antlers. Typically from Java, this deer is also represented +in the Moluccas and Timor, and has thus the most easterly range +of the whole tribe. A black coat with white spots distinguishes +the Philippine spotted deer, <i>C. alfredi</i>, which is about the size +of a roe-buck; while other members of this group are the +Calamianes deer of the Philippines (<i>C. culionensis</i>), the Bavian +deer (<i>C. kuhli</i>) from a small island near Java, and the well-known +Indian hog-deer or para (<i>C. porcinus</i>), all these three last being +small, more or less uniformly coloured, and closely allied species. +On the other hand, the larger and handsomer chital, or spotted +deer (<i>C. axis</i>), stands apart by its white-spotted fawn-red coat +and differently formed antlers.</p> + +<p>Nearly allied to the preceding is the barasingha or rucervine +group (subgenus <i>Rucervus</i>), in which the antlers are of a different +and generally more complex character. The typical species is +the Indian barasingha or swamp-deer, <i>Cervus</i> (<i>Rucervus</i>) <i>duvauceli</i>, +a uniformly red animal, widely distributed in the forest +districts of India. In Siam it is replaced by <i>C.</i> (<i>R.</i>) <i>schomburgki</i>, +in which the antlers are of a still more complex type. Finally, +we have the thamin, or Eld’s deer, <i>C.</i> (<i>R.</i>) <i>eldi</i>, ranging from +Burma to Siam, and characterized by the continuous curve +formed by the beam and the brow-tine of the antlers.</p> + +<p>For the small eastern deer, respectively known as muntjacs +(<i>Cervulus</i>) and tufted muntjacs or tufted deer (<i>Elaphodus</i>), see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Muntjac</a></span>; while under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Water-deer</a></span> will be found a notice of +the Chinese representative of the genus <i>Hydrelaphus</i> (or <i>Hydropotes</i>). +The roe-deer, or roe-buck (<i>Capreolus</i>), likewise form the +subject of a separate article (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roe-buck</a></span>), as is also the case +with Père David’s deer, the sole representative of the genus +<i>Elaphurus</i>.</p> + +<p>The American deer include such New World species as are +generically distinct from Old World types. All these differ from +the members of the genus <i>Cervus</i> in having no brow-tine to the +antlers, which, in common with those of the roe-deer, belong to +what is called the forked type. Including all these deer except +one in the genus <i>Mazama</i> (of which the typical representatives +are the South American brockets), the North American species +constitute the subgenus <i>Dorcelaphus</i> (also known as <i>Cariacus</i> and +<i>Odocoileus</i>). One of the best known of these is the white-tailed +deer <i>Mazama</i> (<i>Dorcelaphus</i>) <i>americana</i>, often known as the Virginian +deer. It is typically an animal of the size of a fallow-deer, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page924" id="page924"></a>924</span> +reddish in summer and greyish in winter, with a long tail, which +is coloured like the back above but white below, and is carried +elevated when the animal is running, so as to form with the white +of the inner sides of the buttocks a conspicuous “blaze.” A +white fetlock-gland with a black centre is also distinctive of this +species. The antlers are large and curve forwards, giving off an +upright snag near the base, and several vertical tines from the +upper surface of the horizontal portion. As we proceed southwards +from the northern United States, deer of the white-tailed +type decrease steadily in size, till in Central America, Peru and +Guiana they are represented by animals not larger that a roe-buck. +The most convenient plan appears to be to regard all +these degenerate forms as local races of the white-tail, although +here again there is room for difference of opinion, and many +naturalists prefer to call them species. The large ears, brown-and-white +face, short, black-tipped tail, and antlers without +large basal snag serve to distinguish the mule-deer <i>M.</i> (<i>D.</i>) +<i>hemionus</i>, of western North America; while the black tail, +<i>M.</i> (<i>D.</i>) <i>columbiana</i>, ranging from British Columbia to California, +is a smaller animal, recognizable by the larger and longer tail, +which is black above and white below.</p> + +<p>South America is the home of the marsh-deer or guazu, +<i>M.</i> (<i>Blastoceros</i>) <i>dichotoma</i>, representing a subgenus in which the +complex antlers lack a basal snag, while the hair of the back is +reversed. This species is about the size of a red-deer, with a foxy +red coat with black legs. The pampas-deer, <i>M.</i> (<i>B.</i>) <i>bezoartica</i>, +of the Argentine pampas is a much smaller animal, of paler +colour, with three-tined antlers. The Chilean and Peruvian +Andes and Patagonia are the homes of two peculiar deer locally +known as guemals (huemals), and constituting the subgenus +<i>Xenelaphus</i>, or <i>Hippocamelus</i>. They are about the size of fallow-deer, +and have simply forked antlers. The Chilian species is +<i>M.</i> (<i>B.</i>) <i>bisulca</i> and the Peruvian <i>M.</i> (<i>B.</i>) <i>antisiensis</i>. Brockets, +of which there are numerous species, such as <i>M. rufa</i> and +<i>M. nemorivaga</i>, are Central and South American deer of the size +of roe-bucks or smaller, with simple spike-like antlers, tufted +heads and the hair of the face radiating from two whorls on the +forehead so that on the nose the direction is downwards. The +smallest of all deer is the Chilian pudu (<i>Pudua pudu</i>), a creature +not much larger than a hare, with almost rudimentary antlers.</p> + +<p>The musk-deer forms the subject of a separate article.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For deer in general, see R. Lydekker, <i>The Deer of all Lands</i> +(London, 1898, 1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEERFIELD,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> a township of Franklin county, Massachusetts, +U.S.A., on the Connecticut and Deerfield rivers, about 33 m. N. +of Springfield. Pop. (1900) 1969; (1910 U.S. census) 2209. +Deerfield is served by the Boston & Maine and the New York, +New Haven & Hartford railways. The natural beauty and the +historic interest of Deerfield attract many visitors. There are +several villages and hamlets in the township, the oldest and +most interesting of which is that known as “The Street” or +“Old Street.” This extends along one wide thoroughfare over a +hill and across a plateau or valley that is hemmed in on the E. by +a range of highlands known as East Mountain and on the W. by +the foothills of Hoosac Mountain. Many of the houses in this +village are very old. In Memorial Hall, a building erected in 1797-1798 +for the Deerfield academy, the Pocumtuck Valley memorial +association (incorporated in 1870) has gathered an interesting +collection of colonial and Indian relics. Deerfield was one of the +first places in the United States to enter into the modern “arts +and crafts movement”; in 1896 many of the old household +industries were revived and placed upon a business basis. Most of +the work is done by women in the homes. The products, including +needlework and embroidery, textiles, rag rugs, netting, +wrought iron, furniture, and metal-work in gold and silver +embellished with precious and semi-precious stones, are annually +exhibited in an old-fashioned house built in 1710, and a large +portion of them are sold to tourists. There is an arts and crafts +society, but the profits from the sales go entirely to the workers.</p> + +<p>The territory which originally constituted the township of +Deerfield (known as Pocumtuck until 1674) was a tract of 8000 +acres granted in 1654 to the town of Dedham in lieu of 2000 acres +previously taken from that town and granted to Rev. John Eliot +to further his mission among the Natick Indians. The rights of +the Pocumtuck Indians to the Deerfield tract were purchased +at about fourpence per acre, settlement was begun upon it in +1669, and the township was incorporated in 1673. For many +years, Deerfield was the N.W. frontier settlement of New England. +It was slightly fortified at the beginning of King Philip’s War, and +after an attack by the Indians on the 1st of September 1675 it +was garrisoned by a small force under Captain Samuel Appleton. +A second attack was made on the 12th of September, and six +days later, as Captain Thomas Lothrop and his company were +guarding teams that were hauling wheat from Deerfield to the +English headquarters at Hadley, they were surprised by Indians +in ambush at what has since been known as Bloody Brook (in +the village of South Deerfield), and Lothrop and more than sixty +of his men were slain. From this time until the end of the war +Deerfield was abandoned. In the spring of 1677 a few of the old +settlers returned, but on the 19th of September some were killed +and the others were captured by a party of Indians from Canada. +Resettlement was undertaken again in 1682. On the 15th of +September 1694 Deerfield narrowly escaped capture by a force of +French and Indians from Canada. In the early morning of the +29th of February 1703-1704, Deerfield was surprised by a force +of French and Indians (under Hertel de Rouville), who murdered +49 men, women and children, captured 111, burned the town, +and on the way back to Canada murdered 20 of the captured. +Among the captives was the Rev. John Williams (1664-1729), +the first minister of Deerfield, who (with the other captives) was +redeemed in 1706 and continued as pastor here until his death; +in 1707 he published an account of his experiences as a prisoner, +<i>The Redeemed Captive Returning to Zion</i>, which has frequently +been reprinted. From the original township of Deerfield the +territory of the following townships has been taken: Greenfield +(1753 and 1896), Conway (1767, 1791 and 1811), Shelburne +(1768) and a part of Whately (1810).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See George Sheldon, <i>A History of Deerfield</i> (Deerfield, 1895); the +<i>History and Proceedings of the Pocumtuck Valley Memorial Association</i> +(Deerfield, 1890 et seq.); and Pauline C. Bouvé, “The Deerfield +Renaissance,” in <i>The New England Magazine</i> for October 1905.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEER PARK,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> an enclosure of rough wooded pastureland for +the accommodation of red- or fallow-deer. The distinction +between a deer “park” and a deer “forest” is that the former +is always enclosed either by a wall or fence, and is relatively +small, whereas the forest covers a much larger area, and is not +only open but sometimes contains practically no trees at all. +Originally, the possession of a deer park in England was a royal +prerogative, and no subject could enclose one without a direct +grant from the crown—a licence to impark, like a licence to +embattle a house, was always necessary. When Domesday Book +was compiled, there were already thirty-one deer parks in England, +some of which may have existed in Saxon times; about +one-fourth of them belonged to the king. After the Conquest they +increased rapidly in number, but from about the middle of the +11th century this tendency was reversed. In the middle of the +16th century it was conjectured that one-twentieth of England +and Wales was given up to deer and rabbits. Upon Saxton’s +maps, which were made between 1575 and 1580, over 700 parks +are marked, and it is not improbable that the number was +understated. Mr Evelyn Philip Shirley enumerated only 334 in +his book on <i>English Deer Parks</i> published in 1867. To these +Mr Joseph Whitaker, in <i>A Descriptive List of the Deer Parks of +England</i> (1892), has added another fifty, and the total is believed +to be now about 400. It is a curious circumstance that despite +the rather minute detail of Domesday none of the parks there +enumerated can now be identified. There is, however, a plausible +case for Eridge Park in Sussex as the Reredfelle of Domesday. +The state and consequence of the great barons of the middle ages +depended in some measure upon the number of deer parks which +they possessed. Most bishops and abbots had one or two, and at +one time more than twenty were attached to the archbishopric +of Canterbury. When the power of the barons was finally broken +and a more settled period began with the accession of the house +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page925" id="page925"></a>925</span> +of Tudor, the deer park began to fall into decay. By Queen +Elizabeth’s time a considerable proportion of the ancestral +acres of the great houses had passed into the possession of rich +merchants and wealthy wool-staplers, and it had become more +profitable to breed bullocks than to find pasture for deer, and +even where the new men retained, and even in some cases created, +deer parks, they reduced their area in order that more land might +be available for grazing or for corn. Thus began that decadence +of the deer park which has continued down to the present time. +More than anything, however, the strife between Charles I. and +parliament contributed to reduce both the number and size of +English parks containing deer. By the Restoration the majority +of the parks in England had for the time being been destroyed, +the palings pulled down, the trees felled, and the deer stolen. +Of the duke of Newcastle’s eight parks seven were ruined, +that at Welbeck alone remaining intact. Not a tree was left in +Clipston Park, although the timber had been valued at £20,000. +One of the results of the Restoration was to empty the parks of +the Roundhead squires to replenish those of the Royalists, but +this measure helped little, and great numbers of deer had to +be brought from Germany to replenish the depleted stocks. A +gentleman of the Isle of Ely was indeed given a baronetcy in +return for a large present of deer which he made to Charles II. +The largest existing deer park in England is that at Savernake +(4000 acres), next comes Windsor, which contains about 2600 +acres in addition to the 1450 acres of Windsor Forest. Lord +Egerton of Tatton’s park at Tatton in Cheshire, and Lord +Abergavenny’s at Eridge, each contain about 2500 acres. Other +parks which are much about the same size are those of Blenheim, +Richmond, Eastwell, Duncombe, Grimsthorpe, Thoresby and +Knowsley. All these parks are famous either for their size, their +beauty, or the number and long descent of the deer which inhabit +them. The size of English parks devoted to deer varies from that +of these historic examples down to a very few acres. A small +proportion of the older enclosures contains red- as well as fallow-deer. +In some of the larger ones many hundreds of head browse, +whereas those of the smallest size may have only a dozen or two. +Although many enclosures were disparked in very recent times, +the 19th century saw the making of a considerable number of +new ones, usually of small dimensions. The tendency, however, +is still towards diminution both in number and extent, cattle +taking the place of deer.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEFAMATION<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (from the classical Lat. <i>diffamare</i>, to spread +abroad an evil report—the English form in <i>de</i> is taken from the +Late Lat. <i>defamare</i>), the saying or writing something of another, +calculated to injure his reputation or expose him to public hatred, +contempt and ridicule. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Libel and Slander</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEFAULT<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (Fr. <i>défaut</i>, from <i>défailler</i>, to fail, Lat. <i>fallere</i>), in +English law, a failure to do some act required by law either as a +regular step in procedure or as being a duty imposed. Parties +in an action may be in default as to procedure by failure to appear +to the writ, or to take some other step, within the prescribed time. +In such cases the opposing party gains some advantage by being +allowed to sign judgment or otherwise. But as a rule, unless the +party is much in default and is under a peremptory order to +proceed, the penalty for default is by order to pay the costs +occasioned. When there is default in complying with the terms +of a judgment the remedy is by executing it by one of the +processes admitted by the law. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Execution</a></span>.) In the case +of judgments in criminal or quasi-criminal cases, where a fine +is imposed, it is in most cases legal and usual to order imprisonment +if the fine is not paid or if the property of the +defendant is insufficient to realize its amount. Default in +compliance with a statute renders the defaulter liable to action +by the person aggrieved or to indictment if the matter of +command is of public concern, subject in either case to the +qualification that the statute may limit the remedy for the +default to some particular proceeding specifically indicated; +and in some instances, <i>e.g.</i> in the case of local authorities, +default in the execution of their public duties is dealt with +administratively by a department of the government, and only +in the last resort, if at all, by recourse to judicial tribunals.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEFEASANCE,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Defeazance</span> (Fr. <i>défaire</i>, to undo), in law, +an instrument which defeats the force or operation of some other +deed or estate; as distinguished from <i>condition</i>, that which in the +same deed is called a condition is a defeasance in another deed. +A defeasance should recite the deed to be defeated and its date, +and it must be made between the same parties as are interested +in the deed to which it is collateral. It must be of a thing +defeasible, and all the conditions must be strictly carried out +before the defeasance can be consummated. Defeasance in a +bill of sale is the putting an end to the security by realizing +the goods for the benefit of the mortgagee. It is not strictly a +defeasance, because the stipulation is in the same deed; it is +really a condition in the nature of a defeasance.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEFENCE<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (Lat. <i>defendere</i>, to defend), in general, a keeping +off or defending, a justification, protection or guard. Physical +defence of self is the right of every man, even to the employment +of force, in warding off an attack. A person attacked may use +such force as he believes to be necessary for the warding off an +attack, even to the extent of killing an assailant. The same right +of reciprocal defence extends not only to defence of one’s own +person, but also to the defence of a husband or wife, parent or +child, master or servant. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Assault</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Homicide</a></span>.) As a legal +term in English pleading, “defence” means the denial by the +party proceeded against of the validity of a charge, or the steps +taken by an accused person or his legal advisers for defending +himself. In civil actions, a statement of defence is the second +step in proceedings, being the answer of the defendant to the +plaintiff’s statement of claim. In the statement of defence must +be set out every material fact upon which the defendant intends +to rely at the trial. Every fact alleged in the statement of claim +must be dealt with, and either admitted or denied; further facts +may be pleaded in answer to those admitted; the whole pleading +of the plaintiff may be objected to as insufficient in law, or a set-off +or counter-claim may be advanced. A statement of defence +must be delivered within ten days from the delivery of the +statement of claim, or appearance if no statement of claim be +delivered.</p> + +<p>By the Poor Prisoners’ Defence Act 1903, where it appears, +having regard to the nature of the defence set up by any poor +prisoner, as disclosed in the evidence given or statement made +by him before the committing justices, that it is desirable in the +interests of justice that he should have legal aid in the preparation +and conduct of his defence, and that his means are insufficient +to enable him to obtain such aid, it may be ordered either +(1) on committal for trial by the committing justices, or (2) after +reading the depositions by the judge or quarter sessions chairman. +The defence includes the services of solicitor and counsel and the +expenses of witnesses, the cost being payable in the same manner +as the expenses of a prosecution for felony. Briefly, the object +of the act is, not to give a prisoner legal assistance to find out if he +has got a defence, but in order that a prisoner who has a defence +may have every inducement to tell the truth about it at the +earliest opportunity. Legal assistance under the act is only +given where both (1) the nature of the defence as disclosed is +such that in the interests of justice the prisoner should have +legal aid to make his defence clear, and (2) where also his +means are insufficient for that end (Lord Alverstone, C. J., at +Warwick Summer Assizes, <i>The Times</i>, July 26, 1904).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEFENDANT,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> in law, a person against whom proceedings +are instituted or directed; one who is called upon to answer in +any suit. At one time the term “defendant” had a narrower +meaning, that of a person sued in a personal action only, the +corresponding term in a real action being “tenant,” but the +distinction is now practically disregarded, except in a few states +of the United States.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEFENDER OF THE FAITH<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (<i>Fidei Defensor</i>), a title belonging +to the sovereign of England in the same way as <i>Christianissimus</i> +belonged to the king of France, and <i>Catholicus</i> belongs to the ruler +of Spain. It seems to have been suggested in 1516, and although +certain charters have been appealed to in proof of an earlier use +of the title, it was first conferred by Pope Leo X. on Henry VIII. +The Bull granting the title is dated the 11th of October 1521, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page926" id="page926"></a>926</span> +and was a reward for the king’s treatise, <i>Assertio, septem sacramentorum</i>, +against Luther. When Henry broke with the papacy, +Pope Paul III. deprived him of this designation, but in 1544 the +title of “Defender of the Faith” was confirmed to Henry by +parliament, and has since been used by all his successors on the +English throne.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEFERENT<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (Lat. <i>deferens</i>, bearing down), in ancient +astronomy, the mean orbit of a planet, which carried the epicycle +in which the planet revolved. It is now known to correspond to +the actual orbit of the planet round the sun.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEFFAND, MARIE ANNE DE VICHY-CHAMROND,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquise +du</span> (1697-1780), a celebrated Frenchwoman, was born at the +chateau of Chamrond near Charolles (department of Saône-et-Loire) +of a noble family in 1697. Educated at a convent in Paris, +she showed, along with great intelligence, a sceptical and cynical +turn of mind. The abbess, alarmed at the freedom of her views, +arranged that Massillon should visit and reason with her, but he +accomplished nothing. Her parents married her at twenty-one +years of age to her kinsman, Jean Baptiste de la Lande, marquis +du Deffand, without consulting her inclination. The union +proved an unhappy one, and resulted in a separation as early +as 1722. Madame du Deffand, young and beautiful, is said by +Horace Walpole to have been for a short time the mistress of the +regent, the duke of Orleans (Walpole to Gray, January 25, 1766). +She appeared in her earlier days to be incapable of any strong +attachment, but her intelligence, her cynicism and her <i>esprit</i> +made her the centre of attraction of a brilliant circle. In 1721 +began her friendship with Voltaire, but their regular correspondence +dates only from 1736. She spent much time at Sceaux, +at the court of the duchesse du Maine, where she contracted +a close friendship with the president Hénault. In Paris she +was in a sense the rival of Madame Geoffrin, but the members +of her salon were drawn from aristocratic society more than from +literary cliques. There were, however, exceptions. Voltaire, +Montesquieu, Fontenelle and Madame de Staal-Delaunay were +among the habitués. When Hénault introduced D’Alembert, +Madame du Deffand was at once captivated by him. With the +encyclopaedists she was never in sympathy, and appears to have +tolerated them only for his sake. In 1752 she retired from Paris, +intending to spend the rest of her days in the country, but she +was persuaded by her friends to return. She had taken up her +abode in 1747 in apartments in the convent of St Joseph in the +rue St Dominique, which had a separate entrance from the street. +When she lost her sight in 1754 she engaged Mademoiselle de +Lespinasse to help her in entertaining. This lady’s wit made +some of the guests, D’Alembert among others, prefer her society +to that of Madame du Deffand, and she arranged to receive her +friends for an hour before the appearance of her patron. When +this state of things was discovered Mademoiselle de Lespinasse +was dismissed (1764), but the salon was broken up, for she took +with her D’Alembert, Turgot and the literary clique generally. +From this time Madame du Deffand very rarely received any +literary men. The principal friendships of her later years were +with the duchesse de Choiseul and with Horace Walpole. Her +affection for the latter, which dated from 1765, was the strongest +and most durable of all her attachments. Under the stress of +this tardy passion she developed qualities of style and eloquence +of which her earlier writings had given little promise. In the +opinion of Sainte-Beuve the prose of her letters ranks with that +of Voltaire as the best of that classical epoch without excepting +any even of the great writers. Walpole refused at first to acknowledge +the closeness of their intimacy from an exaggerated +fear of the ridicule attaching to her age, but he paid several +visits to Paris expressly for the purpose of enjoying her society, +and maintained a close and most interesting correspondence +with her for fifteen years. She died on the 23rd of September +1780, leaving her dog Tonton to the care of Walpole, who +was also entrusted with her papers. Of her innumerable witty +sayings the best known is her remark on the cardinal de +Polignac’s account of St Denis’s miraculous walk of two miles +with his head in his hands,—<i>Il n’y a que le premier pas qui +coûte</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Correspondance inédite</i> of Madame du Deffand with D’Alembert, +Hénault, Montesquieu, and others was published in Paris (2 +vols.) in 1809. <i>Letters of the marquise du Deffand to the Hon. Horace +Walpole, afterwards earl of Orford, from the year 1766 to the year 1780</i> +(4 vols.), edited, with a biographical sketch, by Miss Mary Berry, were +published in London from the originals at Strawberry Hill in 1810.</p> + +<p>The standard edition of her letters is the <i>Correspondance complète de +la marquise du Deffand ...</i> by M. de Lescure (1865); the <i>Correspondance +inédite</i> with M. and Mme de Choiseul and others was edited +in 1859 and again in 1866 by the marquis de Ste-Aulaire. Other +papers of Madame du Deffand obtained at the breaking up of +Walpole’s collection are in private hands. Madame du Deffand +returned many of Walpole’s letters at his request, and subsequently +destroyed those which she received from him. Those in his possession +appear to have been destroyed after his death by Miss Berry, +who printed fragments from them as footnotes to the edition of 1810. +The correspondence between Walpole and Madame du Deffand thus +remains one-sided, but seven of Walpole’s letters to her are printed +for the first time in the edition (1903) of his correspondence by Mrs +Paget Toynbee, who discovered a quantity of her unedited letters. +See Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vols. i. and xiv.; and the +notice by M. de Lescure in his edition of the correspondence.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEFIANCE,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> a city and the county seat of Defiance county, +Ohio, U.S.A., at the confluence of the Auglaize and Tiffin rivers +with the Maumee, about 50 m. S.W. of Toledo. Pop. (1890) +7694; (1900) 7579 (960 foreign-born); (1910) 7327. It is served +by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Wabash railways, and by the +Ohio Electric railway to Lima (42 m.). The city commands a fine +view of the rivers and the surrounding country, which is well +adapted to agriculture; and has large machine shops and several +flour mills, besides manufactories of agricultural implements, +waggons, sashes and blinds, and wood-working machinery for the +manufacture of artillery wheels. Here, too, is Defiance College, +an institution of the Christian Denomination, opened in 1885. +Defiance was long the site of an Indian village. In 1794 General +Anthony Wayne built a fort here and named it Defiance. In 1822 +Defiance was laid out as a town; in 1845 it was made the county +seat of the newly erected county; and in 1881 it became a city of +the second class.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEFILE,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a military expression for a passage, to march through +which troops are compelled to “defile,” or narrow their front +(from the Fr. <i>défiler</i>, to march in a line, or by “files”). The word +is usually applied to a ravine or gorge in a range of hills, but a +causeway over a river, a bridge and even a village may equally +be called a defile. The term is also used to express, without any +special reference to military operations, a gorge in mountains. +The verb “to defile” is used of troops marching on a narrow +front, or narrowing their front, under all circumstances, and in +this sense is the contrary of “deploy.”</p> + +<p>“Defile,” in the sense of “pollute,” is another form of +“defoul”; though spelt alike, the two words are pronounced +differently, the accent being on the first syllable for the former +and on the second for the latter.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEFINITION<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (Lat. <i>definitio</i>, from <i>de-finire</i>, to set limits to, +describe), a logical term used popularly for the process of explaining, +or giving the meaning of, a word, and also in the concrete +for the proposition or statement in which that explanation +is expressed. In logic, definition consists in determining the +qualities which belong to given concepts or universals; it is not +concerned with individuals, which are marked by an infinity +of peculiarities, any one or all of which might be predicated of +another individual. Individuals can be defined only in so far as +they belong to a single kind. According to Aristotle, definition is +the statement of the essence of a concept (<span class="grk" title="horismos men gar tou +ti esti kai ousias">ὁρισμὸς μὲν γὰν τοῦ τί ἐστι καὶ οὐσίας</span>, <i>Posterior Analytics</i>, B iii. 90 b 30); that is, +it consists of the genus and the differentia. In other words, +“man” is defined as “animal <i>plus</i> rationality,” or “rational +animal,”<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> the concept is (1) referred to the next higher genus, +and (2) distinguished from other modes in which that genus +exists, <i>i.e.</i> from other species. It is sometimes argued that, there +being no definition of individuals as such, definition is of names +(see J. S. Mill, <i>Logic</i>, i. viii. 5), not of things; it is generally, +however, maintained that definition is <i>of things, regarded as, or</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page927" id="page927"></a>927</span> +<i>in so far as they are, of a kind</i>. Definition of words can be +nothing more than the explanation of terms such as is given in a +dictionary.</p> + +<p>The following rules are generally given as governing accurate +definition. (1) <i>The definition must be equivalent or commensurate +with that which is defined</i>; it must be applicable to all the +individuals included in the concept and to nothing else. Every +man, and nothing else, is a rational animal. “Man is mortal” +is not a definition, for mortality is predicable of irrational +animals. (2) <i>The definition must state the essential attributes</i>; +a concept cannot be defined by its accidental attributes; those +attributes must be given which are essential and primary. +(3) <i>The definition must be per genus et differentiam</i> (or <i>differentias</i>), +as we have already seen. These are the important +rules. Three minor rules are: (4) <i>The definition must not +contain the name of the concept to be defined</i>; if it does, no +information is given. Such a proposition as “an archdeacon +is one who performs archidiaconal functions” is not a definition. +Concepts cannot be defined by their correlatives. Such +a definition is known as a <i>circulus in definiendo</i>. (5) <i>Obscure +and figurative language must be avoided</i>, and (6) <i>Definitions must +not be in the negative when they can be in the affirmative</i>.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> “Rational animal” is thus the predicate of the statement +constituting the definition. Sometimes the word “definition” is +used to signify merely the predicate.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEFOE, DANIEL<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1659-1731), English author, was born in +the parish of St Giles, Cripplegate, London, in the latter part of +1659 or early in 1660, of a nonconformist family. His grandfather, +Daniel Foe, lived at Etton, Northamptonshire, apparently +in comfortable circumstances, for he is said to have kept a +pack of hounds. As to the variation of name, Defoe or Foe, its +owner signed either indifferently till late in life, and where his +initials occur they are sometimes D. F. and sometimes D. D. F. +Three autograph letters of his are extant, all addressed in 1705 +to the same person, and signed respectively D. Foe, de Foe and +Daniel Defoe. His father, James Foe, was a butcher and a +citizen of London.</p> + +<p>Daniel was well educated at a famous dissenting academy, +Mr Charles Morton’s of Stoke Newington, where many of the best-known +nonconformists of the time were his schoolfellows. With +few exceptions all the known events of Defoe’s life are connected +with authorship. In the older catalogues of his works two +pamphlets, <i>Speculum Crapegownorum</i>, a satire on the clergy, and +<i>A Treatise against the Turks</i>, are attributed to him before the +accession of James II., but there seems to be no publication of his +which is certainly genuine before <i>The Character of Dr Annesley</i> +(1697). He had, however, before this, taken up arms in +Monmouth’s expedition, and is supposed to have owed his lucky +escape from the clutches of the king’s troops and the law, to his +being a Londoner, and therefore a stranger in the west country. +On the 26th of January 1688 he was admitted a liveryman of the +city of London, having claimed his freedom by birth. Before his +western escapade he had taken up the business of hosiery factor. +At the entry of William and Mary into London he is said to have +served as a volunteer trooper “gallantly mounted and richly +accoutred.” In these days he lived at Tooting, and was instrumental +in forming a dissenting congregation there. His business +operations at this period appear to have been extensive and +various. He seems to have been a sort of commission merchant, +especially in Spanish and Portuguese goods, and at some time to +have visited Spain on business. In 1692 he failed for £17,000. +His misfortunes made him write both feelingly and forcibly on +the bankruptcy laws; and although his creditors accepted a +composition, he afterwards honourably paid them in full, a +fact attested by independent and not very friendly witnesses. +Subsequently, he undertook first the secretaryship and then the +management and chief ownership of some tile-works at Tilbury, +but here also he was unfortunate, and his imprisonment in 1703 +brought the works to a standstill, and he lost £3000. From +this time forward we hear of no settled business in which he +engaged.</p> + +<p>The course of Defoe’s life was determined about the middle of +the reign of William III. by his introduction to that monarch +and other influential persons. He frequently boasts of his +personal intimacy with the “glorious and immortal” king, and +in 1695 he was appointed accountant to the commissioners of +the glass duty, an office which he held for four years. During +this time he produced his <i>Essay on Projects</i> (1698), containing +suggestions on banks, road-management, friendly and insurance +societies of various kinds, idiot asylums, bankruptcy, academies, +military colleges, high schools for women, &c. It displays +Defoe’s lively and lucid style in full vigour, and abounds with +ingenious thoughts and apt illustrations, though it illustrates also +the unsystematic character of his mind. In the same year Defoe +wrote the first of a long series of pamphlets on the then burning +question of occasional conformity. In this, for the first time, +he showed the unlucky independence which, in so many other +instances, united all parties against him. While he pointed out +to the dissenters the scandalous inconsistency of their playing fast +and loose with sacred things, yet he denounced the impropriety +of requiring tests at all. In support of the government he published, +in 1698, <i>An Argument for a Standing Army</i>, followed in +1700 by a defence of William’s war policy called <i>The Two Great +Questions considered</i>, and a set of pamphlets on the Partition +Treaty. Thus in political matters he had the same fate as in +ecclesiastical; for the Whigs were no more prepared than the +Tories to support William through thick and thin. He also dealt +with the questions of stock-jobbing and of electioneering corruption. +But his most remarkable publication at this time was <i>The +True-Born Englishman</i> (1701), a satire in rough but extremely +vigorous verse on the national objection to William as a foreigner, +and on the claim of purity of blood for a nation which Defoe +chooses to represent as crossed and dashed with all the strains and +races in Europe. He also took a prominent part in the proceedings +which followed the Kentish petition, and was the author, +some say the presenter, of the <i>Legion Memorial</i>, which asserted +in the strongest terms the supremacy of the electors over the +elected, and of which even an irate House of Commons did not +dare to take much notice. The theory of the indefeasible supremacy +of the freeholders of England, whose delegates merely, +according to this theory, the Commons were, was one of Defoe’s +favourite political tenets, and he returned to it in a powerfully +written tract entitled <i>The Original Power of the Collective Body +of the People of England examined and asserted</i> (1701).</p> + +<p>At the same time he was occupied in a controversy on the +conformity question with John How (or Howe) on the practice +of “occasional conformity.” Defoe maintained that the dissenters +who attended the services of the English Church on +particular occasions to qualify themselves for office were guilty +of inconsistency. At the same time he did not argue for the +complete abolition of the tests, but desired that they should be so +framed as to make it possible for most Protestants conscientiously +to subscribe to them. Here again his moderation pleased neither +party.</p> + +<p>The death of William was a great misfortune to Defoe, and +he soon felt the power of his adversaries. After publishing <i>The +Mock Mourners</i>, intended to satirize and rebuke the outbreak +of Jacobite joy at the king’s death, he turned his attention +once more to ecclesiastical subjects, and, in an evil hour for +himself, wrote the anonymous <i>Shortest Way with the Dissenters</i> +(1702), a statement in the most forcible terms of the extreme +“high-flying” position, which some high churchmen were unwary +enough to endorse, without any suspicion of the writer’s +ironical intention. The author was soon discovered; and, as he +absconded, an advertisement was issued offering a reward for +his apprehension, and giving the only personal description we +possess of him, as “a middle-sized spare man about forty years +old, of a brown complexion and dark brown-coloured hair, but +wears a wig; a hooked nose, a sharp chin, grey eyes, and a large +mole near his mouth.” In this conjuncture Defoe had really no +friends, for the dissenters were as much alarmed at his book as +the high-flyers were irritated. He surrendered, and his defence +appears to have been injudiciously conducted; at any rate he +was fined 200 marks, and condemned to be pilloried three times, +to be imprisoned indefinitely, and to find sureties for his good +behaviour during seven years. It was in reference to this +incident that Pope, whose Catholic rearing made him detest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page928" id="page928"></a>928</span> +the abettor of the Revolution and the champion of William of +Orange, wrote in the <i>Dunciad</i>—</p> + +<p class="center f90">“Earless on high stands unabash’d Defoe”</p> + +<p class="noind">—though he knew that the sentence to the pillory had long ceased +to entail the loss of ears. Defoe’s exposure in the pillory (July +29, 30, 31) was, however, rather a triumph than a punishment, +for the populace took his side; and his <i>Hymn to the Pillory</i>, +which he soon after published, is one of the best of his poetical +works. Unluckily for him his condemnation had the indirect +effect of destroying his business at Tilbury.</p> + +<p>He remained in prison until August 1704, and then owed his +release to the intercession of Robert Harley, who represented +his case to the queen, and obtained for him not only liberty but +pecuniary relief and employment, which, of one kind or another, +lasted until the termination of Anne’s reign. Defoe was uniformly +grateful to the minister, and his language respecting +him is in curious variance with that generally used. There +is no doubt that Harley, who understood the influence wielded +by Defoe, made some conditions. Defoe says he received no +pension, but his subsequent fidelity was at all events indirectly +rewarded; moreover, Harley’s moderation in a time of the +extremest party-insanity was no little recommendation to Defoe. +During his imprisonment he was by no means idle. A spurious +edition of his works having been issued, he himself produced a +collection of twenty-two treatises, to which some time afterwards +he added a second group of eighteen more. He also wrote in +prison many short pamphlets, chiefly controversial, published a +curious work on the famous storm of the 26th of November 1703, +and started in February 1704 perhaps the most remarkable of all +his projects, <i>The Review</i>. This was a paper which was issued +during the greater part of its life three times a week. It was +entirely written by Defoe, and extends to eight complete volumes +and some few score numbers of a second issue. He did not +confine himself to news, but wrote something very like finished +essays on questions of policy, trade and domestic concerns; +he also introduced a “Scandal Club,” in which minor questions +of manners and morals were treated in a way which undoubtedly +suggested the <i>Tatlers</i> and <i>Spectators</i> which followed. Only one +complete copy of the work is known to exist, and that is in the +British Museum. It is probable that if bulk, rapidity of production, +variety of matter, originality of design, and excellence +of style be taken together, hardly any author can show a work +of equal magnitude. After his release Defoe went to Bury St +Edmunds, though he did not interrupt either his <i>Review</i> or his +occasional pamphlets. One of these, <i>Giving Alms no Charity, +and Employing the Poor a Grievance to the Nation</i> (1704), is +extraordinarily far-sighted. It denounces both indiscriminate +alms-giving and the national work-shops proposed by Sir +Humphrey Mackworth.</p> + +<p>In 1705 appeared <i>The Consolidator, or Memoirs of Sundry +Transactions from the World in the Moon</i>, a political satire which +is supposed to have given some hints for Swift’s <i>Gulliver’s +Travels</i>; and at the end of the year Defoe performed a secret +mission, the first of several of the kind, for Harley. In 1706 +appeared the <i>True Relation of the Apparition of one Mrs Veal</i>, +long supposed to have been written for a bookseller to help off an +unsaleable translation of Drelincourt, <i>On Death</i>, but considerable +doubt has been cast upon this by William Lee. Defoe’s next +work was <i>Jure divino</i>, a long poetical argument in (bad) verse; +and soon afterwards (1706) he began to be much employed in +promoting the union with Scotland. Not only did he write +pamphlets as usual on the project, and vigorously recommend it +in <i>The Review</i>, but in October 1706 he was sent on a political +mission to Scotland by Sidney Godolphin, to whom Harley had +recommended him. He resided in Edinburgh for nearly sixteen +months, and his services to the government were repaid by a +regular salary. He seems to have devoted himself to commercial +and literary as well as to political matters, and prepared at this +time his elaborate <i>History of the Union</i>, which appeared in 1709. +In this year Henry Sacheverell delivered his famous sermons, +and Defoe wrote several tracts about them and attacked the +preacher in his <i>Review</i>.</p> + +<p>In 1710 Harley returned to power, and Defoe was placed in a +somewhat awkward position. To Harley himself he was bound +by gratitude and by a substantial agreement in principle, but +with the rest of the Tory ministry he had no sympathy. He +seems, in fact, to have agreed with the foreign policy of the Tories +and with the home policy of the Whigs, and naturally incurred +the reproach of time-serving and the hearty abuse of both parties. +At the end of 1710 he again visited Scotland. In the negotiations +concerning the Peace of Utrecht, Defoe strongly supported the +ministerial side, to the intense wrath of the Whigs, displayed in +an attempted prosecution against some pamphlets of his on the +all-important question of the succession. Again the influence of +Harley saved him. He continued, however, to take the side of +the dissenters in the questions affecting religious liberty, which +played such a prominent part towards the close of Anne’s reign. +He naturally shared Harley’s downfall; and, though the loss of +his salary might seem a poor reward for his constant support of +the Hanoverian claim, it was little more than his ambiguous, +not to say trimming, position must have led him to expect.</p> + +<p>Defoe declared that Lord Annesley was preparing the army in +Ireland to join a Jacobite rebellion, and was indicted for libel; +and prior to his trial (1715) he published an apologia entitled <i>An +Appeal to Honour and Justice</i>, in which he defended his political +conduct. Having been convicted of the libel he was liberated +later in the year under circumstances that only became clear in +1864, when six letters were discovered in the Record Office from +Defoe to a Government official, Charles Delafaye, which, according +to William Lee, established the fact that in 1718 at least Defoe +was doing not only political work, but that it was of a somewhat +equivocal kind—that he was, in fact, sub-editing the Jacobite +<i>Mist’s Journal</i>, under a secret agreement with the government +that he should tone down the sentiments and omit objectionable +items. He had, in fact, been released on condition of becoming +a government agent. He seems to have performed the same +not very honourable office in the case of two other journals—<i>Dormer’s +Letter</i> and the <i>Mercurius Politicus</i>; and to have +written in these and other papers until nearly the end of his +life. Before these letters were discovered it was supposed +that Defoe’s political work had ended in 1715.</p> + +<p>Up to that time Defoe had written nothing but occasional +literature, and, except the <i>History of the Union</i> and <i>Jure Divino</i>, +nothing of any great length. In 1715 appeared the first volume +of <i>The Family Instructor</i>, which was very popular during the 18th +century. The first volume of his most famous work, the immortal +story—partly adventure, partly moralizing—of <i>The Life and +Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe</i>, was published +on the 25th of April 1719. It ran through four editions in as +many months, and then in August appeared the second volume. +Twelve months afterwards the sequel <i>Serious Reflections</i>, now +hardly ever reprinted, appeared. Its connexion with the two +former parts is little more than nominal, Crusoe being simply +made the mouth-piece of Defoe’s sentiments on various points of +morals and religion. Meanwhile the first two parts were reprinted +as a <i>feuilleton</i> in <i>Heathcote’s Intelligencer</i>, perhaps the earliest +instance of the appearance of such a work in such a form. The +story was founded on Dempier’s <i>Voyage round the World</i> (1697), +and still more on Alexander Selkirk’s adventures, as communicated +by Selkirk himself at a meeting with Defoe at the house +of Mrs Damaris Daniel at Bristol. Selkirk afterwards told Mrs +Daniel that he had handed over his papers to Defoe. <i>Robinson +Crusoe</i> was immediately popular, and a wild story was set afloat +of its having been written by Lord Oxford in the Tower. A +curious idea, at one time revived by Henry Kingsley, is that the +adventures of Robinson are allegorical and relate to Defoe’s own +life. This idea was certainly entertained to some extent at the +time, and derives some colour of justification from words of +Defoe’s, but there seems to be no serious foundation for it. +<i>Robinson Crusoe</i> (especially the story part, with the philosophical +and religious moralizings largely cut out) is one of the +world’s classics in fiction. Crusoe’s shipwreck and adventures, +his finding the footprint in the sand, his man “Friday,”—the +whole atmosphere of romance which surrounds the position of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page929" id="page929"></a>929</span> +the civilized man fending for himself on a desert island—these +have made Defoe’s great work an imperishable part of English +literature. Contemporaneously appeared <i>The Dumb Philosopher</i>, +or <i>Dickory Cronke</i>, who gains the power of speech at the end of his +life and uses it to predict the course of European affairs.</p> + +<p>In 1720 came <i>The Life and Adventures of Mr Duncan Campbell</i>. +This was not entirely a work of imagination, its hero, the fortune-teller, +being a real person. There are amusing passages in the +story, but it is too desultory to rank with Defoe’s best. In the +same year appeared two wholly or partially fictitious histories, +each of which might have made a reputation for any man. The +first was the <i>Memoirs of a Cavalier</i>, which Lord Chatham believed +to be true history, and which William Lee considers the embodiment +at least of authentic private memoirs. The Cavalier was +declared at the time to be Andrew Newport, made Lord Newport +in 1642. His elder brother was born in 1620 and the Cavalier +gives 1608 as the date of his birth, so that the facts do not fit the +dates. It is probable that Defoe, with his extensive acquaintance +with English history, and his astonishing power of working up +details, was fully equal to the task of inventing it. As a model +of historical work of a certain kind it is hardly surpassable, and +many separate passages—accounts of battles and skirmishes—have +never been equalled except by Carlyle. <i>Captain Singleton</i>, +the last work of the year, has been unjustly depreciated by most +of the commentators. The record of the journey across Africa, +with its surprising anticipations of subsequent discoveries, yields +in interest to no work of the kind known to us; and the semi-piratical +Quaker who accompanies Singleton in his buccaneering +expeditions is a most life-like character. There is also a Quaker +who plays a very creditable part in <i>Roxana</i> (1724), and Defoe +seems to have been well affected to the Friends. In estimating +this wonderful productiveness on the part of a man sixty years +old, it should be remembered that it was a habit of Defoe’s to +keep his work in manuscript sometimes for long periods.</p> + +<p>In 1721 nothing of importance was produced, but in the next +twelvemonth three capital works appeared. These were <i>The +Fortunes and Misfortunes of Moll Flanders</i>, <i>The Journal of the +Plague Year</i>, and <i>The History of Colonel Jack</i>. <i>Moll Flanders</i> +and <i>The Fortunate Mistress</i> (Roxana), which followed in 1724, +have subjects of a rather more than questionable character, but +both display the remarkable art with which Defoe handles such +subjects. It is not true, as is sometimes said, that the difference +between the two is that between gross and polished vice. The +real difference is much more one of morals than of manners. +Moll is by no means of the lowest class. Notwithstanding the +greater degradation into which she falls, and her originally +dependent position, she has been well educated, and has consorted +with persons of gentle birth. She displays throughout +much greater real refinement of feeling than the more high-flying +Roxana, and is at any rate flesh and blood, if the flesh be +somewhat frail and the blood somewhat hot. Neither of the +heroines has any but the rudiments of a moral sense; but Roxana, +both in her original transgression and in her subsequent conduct, +is actuated merely by avarice and selfishness—vices which are +peculiarly offensive in connexion with her other failing, and +which make her thoroughly repulsive. The art of both stories +is great, and that of the episode of the daughter Susannah in +<i>Roxana</i> is consummate; but the transitions of the later plot +are less natural than those in <i>Moll Flanders</i>. It is only fair to +notice that while the latter, according to Defoe’s more usual +practice, is allowed to repent and end happily, Roxana is brought +to complete misery; Defoe’s morality, therefore, required more +repulsiveness in one case than in the other.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Journal of the Plague Year</i>, more usually called, from the +title of the second edition, <i>A History of the Plague</i>, the accuracy +and apparent veracity of the details is so great that many +persons have taken it for an authentic record, while others have +contended for the existence of such a record as its basis. But +here too the genius of Mrs Veal’s creator must, in the absence of +all evidence to the contrary, be allowed sufficient for the task. +<i>The History of Colonel Jack</i> is an unequal book. There is hardly +in <i>Robinson Crusoe</i> a scene equal, and there is consequently not +in English literature a scene superior, to that where the youthful +pickpocket first exercises his trade, and then for a time loses his +ill-gotten gains. But a great part of the book, especially the +latter portion, is dull; and in fact it may be generally remarked +of Defoe that the conclusions of his tales are not equal to the +beginning, perhaps from the restless indefatigability with which +he undertook one work almost before finishing another.</p> + +<p>To this period belong his stories of famous criminals, of Jack +Sheppard (1724), of Jonathan Wild (1725), of the Highland Rogue +<i>i.e.</i> Rob Roy (1723). The pamphlet on the first of these Defoe +maintained to be a transcript of a paper which he persuaded +Sheppard to give to a friend at his execution.</p> + +<p>In 1724 appeared also the first volume of <i>A Tour through the +whole Island of Great Britain</i>, which was completed in the two +following years. Much of the information in this was derived from +personal experience, for Defoe claims to have made many more +tours and visits about England than those of which we have +record; but the major part must necessarily have been dexterous +compilation. In 1725 appeared <i>A New Voyage round the World</i>, +apparently entirely due to the author’s own fertile imagination +and extensive reading. It is full of his peculiar verisimilitude +and has all the interest of Anson’s or Dampier’s voyages, with a +charm of style superior even to that of the latter.</p> + +<p>In 1726 Defoe published a curious and amusing little pamphlet +entitled <i>Everybody’s Business is Nobody’s Business, or Private +Abuses Public Grievances, exemplified in the Pride, Insolence, and +Exorbitant Wages of our Women-Servants, Footmen, &c.</i> This +subject was a favourite one with him, and in the pamphlet he +showed the immaturity of his political views by advocating +legislative interference in these matters. Towards the end of +this same year <i>The Complete English Tradesman</i>, which may be +supposed to sum up the experience of his business life, appeared, +and its second volume followed two years afterwards. This book +has been variously judged. It is generally and traditionally +praised, but those who have read it will be more disposed to +agree with Charles Lamb, who considers it “of a vile and debasing +tendency,” and thinks it “almost impossible to suppose the +author in earnest.” The intolerable meanness advocated for the +sake of the paltriest gains, the entire ignoring of any pursuit in +life except money-getting, and the representation of the whole +duty of man as consisting first in the attainment of a competent +fortune, and next, when that fortune has been attained, in spending +not more than half of it, are certainly repulsive enough. But +there are no reasons for thinking the performance ironical or +insincere, and it cannot be doubted that Defoe would have been +honestly unable even to understand Lamb’s indignation. To +1726 also belongs <i>The Political History of the Devil</i>. This is a +curious book, partly explanatory of Defoe’s ideas on morality, +and partly belonging to a series of demonological works which he +wrote, and of which the chief others are <i>A System of Magic</i> (1726), +and <i>An Essay on the History of Apparitions</i> (1728), issued the +year before under another title. In all these works his treatment +is on the whole rational and sensible; but in <i>The History +of the Devil</i> he is somewhat hampered by an insufficiently +worked-out theory as to the nature and personal existence +of his hero, and the manner in which he handles the subject is +an odd and not altogether satisfactory mixture of irony and +earnestness. <i>A Plan of English Commerce</i>, containing very +enlightened views on export trade, appeared in 1728.</p> + +<p>During the years from 1715 to 1728 Defoe had issued pamphlets +and minor works too numerous to mention. The only one of +them perhaps which requires notice is <i>Religious Courtship</i> (1722), +a curious series of dialogues displaying Defoe’s unaffected +religiosity, and at the same time the rather meddling intrusiveness +with which he applied his religious notions. This was +more flagrantly illustrated in one of his latest works, <i>The Treatise +Concerning the Use and Abuse of the Marriage Bed</i> (1727), which +was originally issued with a much more offensive name, and has +been called “an excellent book with an improper title.” The +<i>Memoirs of Captain Carleton</i> (1728) were long attributed to Defoe, +but the internal evidence is strongly against his authorship. +They have been also attributed to Swift, with greater probability +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page930" id="page930"></a>930</span> +as far as style is concerned. <i>The Life of Mother Ross</i>, reprinted +in Bohn’s edition, has no claim whatever to be considered +Defoe’s.</p> + +<p>There is little to be said of Defoe’s private life during this +period. He must in some way or other have obtained a considerable +income. In 1724 he had built himself a large house at Stoke +Newington, which had stables and grounds of considerable size. +From the negotiations for the marriage of his daughter Sophia +it appears that he had landed property in more than one place, +and he had obtained on lease in 1722 a considerable estate from +the corporation of Colchester, which was settled on his unmarried +daughter at his death. Other property was similarly allotted to +his widow and remaining children, though some difficulty seems +to have arisen from the misconduct of his son, to whom, for some +purpose, the property was assigned during his father’s lifetime, +and who refused to pay what was due. There is a good deal of +mystery about the end of Defoe’s life; it used to be said that he +died insolvent, and that he had been in jail shortly before his death. +As a matter of fact, after great suffering from gout and stone, he +died in Ropemaker’s Alley, Moorfields, on Monday the 26th of +April 1731, and was buried in Bunhill Fields. He left no will, +all his property having been previously assigned, and letters of +administration were taken out by a creditor. How his affairs fell +into this condition, why he did not die in his own house, and why +in the previous summer he had been in hiding, as we know he was +from a letter still extant, are points not clearly explained. He +was, however, attacked by Mist, whom he wounded, in prison in +1724. It is most likely that Mist had found out that Defoe was +a government agent and quite probable that he communicated +his knowledge to other editors, for Defoe’s journalistic employment +almost ceased about this time, and he began to write +anonymously, or as “Andrew Moreton.” It is possible that he +had to go into hiding to avoid the danger of being accused as +a real Jacobite, when those with whom he had contracted to +assume the character were dead and could no longer justify +his attitude.</p> + +<p>Defoe married, on New Year’s Day, 1684, Mary Tuffley, who +survived until December 1732. They had seven children. His +second son, Bernard or Benjamin Norton, has, like his father, a +scandalous niche in the <i>Dunciad</i>. In April 1877 public attention +was called to the distress of three maiden ladies, directly descended +from Defoe, and bearing his name; and a crown pension of £75 +a year was bestowed on each of them. His youngest daughter, +Sophia, who married Henry Baker, left a considerable correspondence, +now in the hands of her descendants. There are several +portraits of Defoe, the principal one being engraved by Vandergucht.</p> + +<p>In his lifetime, Defoe, as not belonging to either of the great +parties at a time of the bitterest party strife, was subjected +to obloquy on both sides. The great Whig writers leave him +unnoticed. Swift and Gay speak slightingly of him,—the +former, it is true, at a time when he was only known as a party +pamphleteer. Pope, with less excuse, put him in the <i>Dunciad</i> +towards the end of his life, but he confessed to Spence in private +that Defoe had written many things and none bad. At a later +period he was unjustly described as “a scurrilous party writer,” +which he certainly was not; but, on the other hand, Johnson +spoke of his writing “so variously and so well,” and put <i>Robinson +Crusoe</i> among the only three books that readers wish longer. +From Sir Walter Scott downwards the tendency to judge literary +work on its own merits to a great extent restored Defoe to +his proper place, or, to speak more correctly, set him there for +the first time. Lord Macaulay’s description of <i>Roxana</i>, <i>Moll +Flanders</i> and <i>Colonel Jack</i> as “utterly nauseous and wretched” +must be set aside as a freak of criticism.</p> + +<p>Scott justly observed that Defoe’s style “is the last which +should be attempted by a writer of inferior genius; for though it +be possible to disguise mediocrity by fine writing, it appears in all +its naked inanity when it assumes the garb of simplicity.” The +methods by which Defoe attains his result are not difficult to +disengage. They are the presentment of all his ideas and scenes +in the plainest and most direct language, the frequent employment +of colloquial forms of speech, the constant insertion of little +material details and illustrations, often of a more or less digressive +form, and, in his historico-fictitious works, as well as in his novels, +the most rigid attention to vivacity and consistency of character. +Plot he disregards, and he is fond of throwing his dialogues into +regular dramatic form, with by-play prescribed and stage +directions interspersed. A particular trick of his is also to divide +his arguments after the manner of the preachers of his day into +heads and subheads, with actual numerical signs affixed to them. +These mannerisms undoubtedly help and emphasize the extraordinary +faithfulness to nature of his fictions, but it would be a +great mistake to suppose that they fully explain their charm. +Defoe possessed genius, and his secret is at the last as impalpable +as the secret of genius always is.</p> + +<p>The character of Defoe, both mental and moral, is very clearly +indicated in his works. He, the satirist of the true-born Englishman, +was himself a model, with some notable variations and +improvements, of the Englishman of his period. He saw a great +many things, and what he did see he saw clearly. But there were +also a great many things which he did not see, and there was often +no logical connexion whatever between his vision and his blindness. +The most curious example of this inconsistency, or rather +of this indifference to general principle, occurs in his <i>Essay on +Projects</i>. He there speaks very briefly and slightingly of life +insurance, probably because it was then regarded as impious +by religionists of his complexion. But on either side of this refusal +are to be found elaborate projects of friendly societies and widows’ +funds, which practically cover, in a clumsy and roundabout +manner, the whole ground of life insurance. In morals it is +evident that he was, according to his lights, a strictly honest and +honourable man. But sentiment of any “high-flying” description—to +use the cant word of his time—was quite incomprehensible +to him, or rather never presented itself as a thing to be +comprehended. He tells us with honest and simple pride that +when his patron Harley fell out, and Godolphin came in, he for +three years held no communication with the former, and seems +quite incapable of comprehending the delicacy which would have +obliged him to follow Harley’s fallen fortunes. His very anomalous +position in regard to Mist is also indicative of a rather blunt +moral perception. One of the most affecting things in his novels +is the heroic constancy and fidelity of the maid Amy to her +exemplary mistress Roxana. But Amy, scarcely by her own +fault, is drawn into certain breaches of definite moral laws which +Defoe did understand, and she is therefore condemned, with +hardly a word of pity, to a miserable end. Nothing heroic or +romantic was within Defoe’s view; he could not understand +passionate love, ideal loyalty, aesthetic admiration or anything +of the kind; and it is probable that many of the little sordid +touches which delight us by their apparent satire were, as designed, +not satire at all, but merely a faithful representation +of the feelings and ideas of the classes of which he himself was a +unit.</p> + +<p>His political and economical pamphlets are almost unmatched +as clear presentations of the views of their writer. For driving +the nail home no one but Swift excels him, and Swift perhaps +only in <i>The Drapier’s Letters</i>. There is often a great deal to be +said against the view presented in those pamphlets, but Defoe +sees nothing of it. He was perfectly fair but perfectly one-sided, +being generally happily ignorant of everything which told against +his own view.</p> + +<p>The same characteristics are curiously illustrated in his moral +works. The morality of these is almost amusing in its downright +positive character. With all the Puritan eagerness to push +a clear, uncompromising, Scripture-based distinction of right +and wrong into the affairs of every-day life, he has a thoroughly +English horror of casuistry, and his clumsy canons consequently +make wild work with the infinite intricacies of human nature. +He is, in fact, an instance of the tendency, which has so often +been remarked by other nations in the English, to drag in moral +distinctions at every turn, and to confound everything which is +novel to the experience, unpleasant to the taste, and incomprehensible +to the understanding, under the general epithets of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page931" id="page931"></a>931</span> +wrong, wicked and shocking. His works of this class therefore +are now the least valuable, though not the least curious, of his +books.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The earliest regular life and estimate of Defoe is that of Dr Towers +in the <i>Biographia Britannica</i>. George Chalmers’s <i>Life</i>, however +(1786), added very considerable information. In 1830 Walter Wilson +wrote the standard <i>Life</i> (3 vols.); it is coloured by political prejudice, +but is a model of painstaking care, and by its abundant +citations from works both of Defoe and of others, which are practically +inaccessible to the general reader, is invaluable. In 1859 +appeared a life of Defoe by William Chadwick, an extraordinary +rhapsody in a style which is half Cobbett and half Carlyle, but +amusing, and by no means devoid of acuteness. In 1864 the discovery +of the six letters stirred up William Lee to a new investigation, +and the results of this were published (London, 1869) in three large +volumes. The first of these (well illustrated) contains a new life and +particulars of the author’s discoveries. The second and third contain +fugitive writings assigned by Lee to Defoe for the first time. For +most of these, however, we have no authority but Lee’s own impressions +of style, &c.; and consequently, though the best qualified +judges will in most cases agree that Defoe may very likely +have written them, it cannot positively be stated that he did. +There is also a <i>Life</i> by Thomas Wright (1894). The <i>Earlier Life +and Chief Earlier Works</i> of Defoe (1890) was included by Henry +Morley in the “Carisbrooke Library.” Charles Lamb’s criticisms +were made in three short pieces, two of which were written for +Wilson’s book, and the third for <i>The Reflector</i>. The volume on +<i>Defoe</i> (1879) in the “English Men of Letters” series is by W. Minto.</p> + +<p>There is considerable uncertainty about many of Defoe’s writings; +and even if all contested works be excluded, the number is still +enormous. Besides the list in Bohn’s <i>Lowndes</i>, which is somewhat +of an <i>omnium gatherum</i>, three lists drawn with more or less care were +compiled in the 19th century. Wilson’s contains 210 distinct works, +three or four only of which are marked as doubtful; Hazlitt’s +enumerates 183 “genuine” and 52 “attributed” pieces, with notes +on most of them; Lee’s extends to 254, of which 64 claim to be new +additions. The reprint (3 vols.) edited for the “Pulteney Library” +by Hazlitt in 1840-1843 contains a good and full life mainly derived +from Wilson, the whole of the novels (including the <i>Serious +Reflections</i> now hardly ever published with <i>Robinson Crusoe</i>), <i>Jure +Divino</i>, <i>The Use and Abuse of Marriage</i>, and many of the more +important tracts and smaller works. There is also an edition, often +called Scott’s, but really edited by Sir G. C. Lewis, in twenty +volumes (London, 1840-1841). This contains the <i>Complete Tradesman</i>, +<i>Religious Courtship</i>, <i>The Consolidator</i> and other works not +comprised in Hazlitt’s. Scott had previously in 1809 edited for +Ballantyne some of the novels, in twelve volumes. Bohn’s “British +Classics” includes the novels (except the third part of <i>Robinson +Crusoe</i>), <i>The History of the Devil</i>, <i>The Storm</i>, and a few political +pamphlets, also the undoubtedly spurious <i>Mother Ross</i>. In 1870 +Nimmo of Edinburgh published in one volume an admirable selection +from Defoe. It contains Chalmers’s <i>Life</i>, annotated and completed +from Wilson and Lee, <i>Robinson Crusoe</i>, pts. i. and ii., <i>Colonel Jack</i>, +<i>The Cavalier</i>, <i>Duncan Campbell</i>, <i>The Plague</i>, <i>Everybody’s Business</i>, +<i>Mrs Veal</i>, <i>The Shortest Way with Dissenters</i>, <i>Giving Alms no Charity</i>, +<i>The True-Born Englishman</i>, <i>Hymn to the Pillory</i>, and very copious +extracts from <i>The Complete English Tradesman</i>. An edition of +Defoe’s <i>Romances and Narratives</i> in sixteen volumes by G. A. Aitken +came out in 1895.</p> + +<p>If we turn to separate works, the bibliography of Defoe is practically +confined (except as far as original editions are concerned) to +<i>Robinson Crusoe</i>. <i>Mrs Veal</i> has been to some extent popularized +by the work which it helped to sell; <i>Religious Courtship</i> and <i>The +Family Instructor</i> had a vogue among the middle class until well +into the 19th century, and <i>The History of the Union</i> was republished +in 1786. But the reprints and editions of <i>Crusoe</i> have been innumerable; +it has been often translated; and the eulogy pronounced on it +by Rousseau gave it special currency in France, where imitations +(or rather adaptations) have also been common.</p> + +<p>In addition to the principal authorities already mentioned see +John Forster, <i>Historical and Biographical Essays</i> (1858); G. Saintsbury, +“Introduction” to Defoe’s <i>Minor Novels</i>; and valuable notes +by G. A. Aitken in <i>The Contemporary Review</i> (February 1890), and +<i>The Athenaeum</i> (April 30, 1889; August 31, 1890). A facsimile +reprint (1883) of <i>Robinson Crusoe</i> has an introduction by Mr Austin +Dobson. Dr Karl T. Bülbring edited two unpublished works of +Defoe, <i>The Compleat English Gentleman</i> (London, 1890) and <i>Of +Royall Educacion</i> (London, 1905), from British Museum Add. MS. +32,555. Further light was thrown on Defoe’s work as a political +agent by the discovery (1906) of an unpublished paper of his in the +British Museum by G. F. Warner. This was printed in the <i>English +Historical Review</i>, and afterwards separately.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEGAS, HILAIRE GERMAIN EDGARD<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1834-  ), French +painter, was born in Paris on the 19th of July 1834. Entering +in 1855 the École des Beaux Arts, he early developed independence +of artistic outlook, studying under Lamothe. He first +exhibited in the Salon of 1865, contributing a “War in the +middle ages,” a work executed in pastel. To this medium he was +ever faithful, using it for some of his best work. In 1866 his +“Steeplechase” revealed him as a painter of the racecourse and +of all the most modern aspects of life and of Parisian society, +treated in an extremely original manner. He subsequently +exhibited in 1867 “Family Portraits,” and in 1868 a portrait of +a dancer in the “Ballet of <i>La Source</i>.” In 1869 and 1870 he +restricted himself to portraits; but thenceforward he abandoned +the Salons and attached himself to the Impressionists. With +Manet and Monet he took the lead of the new school at its first +exhibition in 1874, and repeatedly contributed to these exhibitions +(in 1876, 1878, 1879 and 1880). In 1868 he had shown his +first study of a dancer, and in numerous pastels he proclaimed +himself the painter of the ballet, representing its figurantes in +every attitude with more constant aim at truth than grace. +Several of his works may be seen at the Luxembourg Gallery, to +which they were bequeathed, among a collection of impressionist +pictures, by M. Caillebotte. In 1880 Degas showed his powers +of observation in a set of “Portraits of Criminals,” and he +attempted modelling in a “Dancer,” in wax. He afterwards +returned to his studies of the sporting world, exhibiting in +December 1884 at the Petit Gallery two views of “Races” which +had a great success, proving the increasing vogue of the artist +among collectors. He is ranked with Manet as the leader of the +“impressionist school.” At the eighth Impressionist Exhibition, +in 1886, Degas continued his realistic studies of modern life, +showing drawings of the nude, of workwomen, and of jockeys. +Besides his pastels and his paintings of genre and portraits—among +these, several likenesses of Manet—Degas also handled +his favourite subjects in etching and in aquatint; and executed +several lithographs of “Singers at Cafés-concert,” of “Ballet-girls,” +and indeed of every possible subject of night-life and +incidents behind the scenes. His work is to be seen not only at +the Luxembourg but in many of the great private collections in +Paris, in England and America. In the Centenary Exhibition +of 1900 he exhibited “The Interior of a Cotton-Broker’s Office at +New Orleans” (belonging to the Museum at Pau) and “The +Rehearsal.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also G. Moore, “Degas, the Painter of Modern Life,” +<i>Magazine of Art</i> (1890); J. K. Huysmans, <i>Certains</i> (Paris, 1889); +G. Geffroy, <i>La Vie Artistique</i> (3<span class="sp">e</span> Série, Paris, 1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DE GEER, LOUIS GERHARD,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1818-1896), Swedish +statesman and writer, was born on the 18th of July 1818 at +Finspång castle. He adopted the legal profession, and in 1855 +became president of the Göta Hofret, or lord justice of one of the +Swedish supreme courts. From the 7th of April 1858 to the 3rd +of June 1870 he was minister of justice. As a member of the +Upper House he took part in all the Swedish <i>Riksdags</i> from 1851 +onwards, though he seldom spoke. From 1867 to 1878 he was +the member for Stockholm in the first chamber, and introduced +and passed many useful reformatory statutes; but his greatest +achievement, as a statesman, was the reform of the Swedish +representative system, whereby he substituted a bi-cameral +elective parliament, on modern lines, for the existing cumbersome +representation by estates, a survival from the later middle +ages. This great measure was accepted by the Riksdag in +December 1865, and received the royal sanction on the 22nd +of June 1866. For some time after this De Geer was the most +popular man in Sweden. He retired from the ministry in 1870, +but took office again, as minister of justice, in 1875. In 1876 +he became minister of state, which position he retained till April +1880, when the failure of his repeated efforts to settle the armaments’ +question again induced him to resign. From 1881 to 1888 +he was chancellor of the universities of Upsala and Lund. Besides +several novels and aesthetic essays, De Geer has written a few +political memoirs of supreme merit both as to style and matter, +the most notable of which are: <i>Minnesteckning öfver A. J. v. +Höpken</i> (Stockholm, 1881); <i>Minnesteckning öfver Hans Järta</i> +(Stockholm, 1874); <i>Minnesteckning öfver B. B. von Platen</i> +(Stockholm, 1886); and his own <i>Minnen</i> (Stockholm, 1892), +an autobiography, invaluable as a historical document, in +which the political experience and the matured judgments of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page932" id="page932"></a>932</span> +a lifetime are recorded with singular clearness, sobriety and +charm.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Sveriges historia</i> (Stockholm, 1881, &c.), vi,; Carl Gustaf +Malmström, <i>Historiska Studier</i> (Stockholm, 1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEGGENDORF,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Deckendorf</span>, a town of Germany, in the +kingdom of Bavaria, 25 m. N.W. of Passau, on the left bank of +the Danube, which is there crossed by two iron bridges. Pop. +(1905) 7154. It is situated at the lower end of the beautiful +valley of the Perlbach, and in itself it is a well-built and attractive +town. It possesses an old town hall dating from 1566, a hospital, +a lunatic asylum, an orphanage, and a large parish church rebuilt +in 1756; but the chief interest centres in the church of the Holy +Sepulchre, built in 1337, which attracts thousands of pilgrims +to its <i>Porta Caeli</i> or <i>Gnadenpforte</i> (Gate of Mercy) opened annually +on Michaelmas eve and closed again on the 4th of October. In +1837, on the celebration of the 500th anniversary of this +solemnity, the number of pilgrims was reckoned at nearly 100,000. +Such importance as the town possesses is now rather commercial +than religious,—it being a depôt for the timber trade of the +Bavarian forest, a station for the Danube steamboat company, +and the seat of several mills, breweries, potteries and other +industrial establishments. On the bank of the Danube outside +the town are the remains of the castle of Findelstein; and on +the Geiersberg (1243 ft.), in the immediate vicinity, stands +another old pilgrimage church. About 6 m. to the north is the +village of Metten, with a Benedictine monastery founded by +Charlemagne in 801, restored as an abbey in 1840 by Louis I. of +Bavaria, and well known as an educational institution. The first +mention of Deggendorf occurs in 868, and it appears as a town +in 1212. Henry (d. 1290) of the Landshut branch of the ruling +family of Bavaria made it the seat of a custom-house; and in 1331 +it became the residence of Henry III. of Natternberg (d. 1333), +so called from a castle in the neighbourhood. In 1337 a wholesale +massacre of the Jews, who were accused of having thrown the +sacred host of the church of the Holy Sepulchre into a well, took +place in the town; and it is probably from about this date that +the pilgrimage above mentioned came into vogue. The town +was captured by the Swedish forces in 1633, and in the war of the +Austrian Succession it was more than once laid in ashes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Grüber and Müller, <i>Der bayerische Wald</i> (Regensburg, 1851); +Mittermüller, <i>Die heil. Hostien und die Jüden in Deggendorf</i> (Landshut, +1866); and <i>Das Kloster Metten</i> (Straubing, 1857).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DE HAAS, MAURITZ FREDERICK HENDRICK<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (1832-1895), +American marine painter, was born on the 12th of December 1832 +in Rotterdam, Holland. He studied art in the Rotterdam +Academy and at The Hague, under Bosboom and Louis Meyer, +and in 1851-1852 in London, following the English water-colourists +of the day. In 1857 he received an artist’s commission +in the Dutch navy, but in 1859, under the patronage of August +Belmont, who had recently been minister of the United States at +The Hague, he resigned and removed to New York city. He +became an associate of the National Academy in 1863 and an +academician in 1867, and exhibited annually in the academy, +and in 1866 he was one of the founders of the American Society +of Painters in Water Colors. He died on the 23rd of November +1895. His “Farragut Passing the Forts at the Battle of New +Orleans” and “The Rapids above Niagara,” which were +exhibited at the Paris Exposition of 1878, were his best known +but not his most typical works, for his favourite subjects were +storm and wreck, wind and heavy surf, and less often moonlight +on the coasts of Holland, of Jersey, of New England, and of Long +Island, and on the English Channel.</p> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">William Frederick de Haas</span> (1830-1880), who +emigrated to New York in 1854, was also a marine painter.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEHRA,<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> a town of British India, headquarters of the Dehra +Dun district in the United Provinces. Pop. (1901) 28,095. It +lies at an elevation of 2300 ft. Here the Hardwar-Dehra railway +terminates. Dehra is the headquarters of the Trigonometrical +Survey and of the Forest Department, besides being a cantonment +for a Gurkha force. The Forest School, which trains +subordinate forest officials for all parts of India, is a fine building. +Attached to it is an institution for the scientific study of sylvi-culture +and the exploitation and administration of forests. The +town of Dehra grew up round the temple built in 1699 by the +heretical Sikh Guru, Ram Rai, the founder of the Udasi sect of +Ascetics. This temple is a remarkable building in Mahommedan +style. The central block, in imitation of the emperor Jahangir’s +tomb, contains the bed on which the Guru, after dying at will +and coming back to life several times, ultimately died outright; +it is an object of great veneration. At the corners of the central +block are smaller monuments commemorating the Guru’s wives.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEHRA DUN,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> a district of British India, in the Meerut +division of the United Provinces. Its area is 1209 sq. m. The +district is bounded on the N. by the native state of Tehri or +Garhwal, on the E. by British Garhwal, on the S. by the Siwálik +hills, which separate it from Saharanpur district, and on the W. +by the hill states of Sirmur, Jubbal and Taroch. The valley +(the Dun) has an area of about 673 sq. m., and forms a parallelogram +45 m. from N.W. to S.E. and 15 m. broad. It is well +wooded, undulating and intersected by streams. On the N.E. +the horizon is bounded by the Mussoorie or lower range of the +Himalayas, and on the S. by the Siwálik hills. The Himalayas +in the north of the district attain a height between 7000 and 8000 +ft., one peak reaching an elevation of 8565 ft.; the highest point +of the Siwálik range is 3041 ft. above sea-level. The principal +passes through the Siwálik hills are the Timli pass, leading to +the military station of Chakráta, and the Mohand pass leading to +the sanatoriums of Mussoorie and Landaur. The Ganges bounds +the Dehra valley on the E.; the Jumna bounds it on the W. +From a point about midway between the two rivers, and near +the town of Dehra, runs a ridge which forms the watershed of the +valley. To the west of this ridge the water collects to form the +Asan, a tributary of the Jumna; whilst to the east the Suswa +receives the drainage and flows into the Ganges. To the east the +valley is characterized by swamps and forests, but to the west the +natural depressions freely carry off the surface drainage. Along +the central ridge, the water-level lies at a great depth from the +surface (228 ft.), but it rises gradually as the country declines +towards the great rivers. In 1901 the population was 178,195, +showing an increase of 6% in the decade. A railway to Dehra +from Hardwar, on the Oudh and Rohilkhand line (32 m.), was +completed in 1900. The district is served by the Dun canals. +Tea gardens cover a considerable area, and the valley contains a +colony of European tea planters.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Dehra Dun only emerges from the mists of legend +into authentic history in the 17th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, when it formed +part of the Garhwal kingdom. Towards the end of the century +the heretical Sikh Guru, Ram Rai, expelled from the Punjab, +sought refuge in the Dun and gathered round him a crowd of +devotees. Fateh Sah, raja of Garhwal, endowed the temple +which he built, round which grew up the town of Gurudwara or +Dehra (<i>q.v.</i>). In the 18th century the fertility of the valley +attracted the attention of Najib-ud-daula, governor of Saharanpur, +who invaded it with an army of Rohillas in 1757 and annexed +it to his dominion. His rule, which lasted till 1770, brought great +prosperity to the Dun; but on his death it became a prey to +the surrounding tribes, its desolation being completed after its +conquest by the Gurkhas in 1803. In 1814 it was taken possession +of by the British, and in the following year was annexed +to Saharanpur. Under British administration the Dun rapidly +recovered its prosperity.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEIOCES<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Dêiokês">Δηιόκης</span>), according to Herodotus (i. 96 ff.) the first +king of the Medes. He narrates that, when the Medes had +rebelled against the Assyrians and gained their independence +about 710 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, according to his chronology (cf. Diodor. ii. 32), +they lived in villages without any political organization, and +therefore the whole country was in a state of anarchy. Then +Deioces, son of Phraortes, an illustrious man of upright character, +was chosen judge in his village, and the justness of his decisions +induced the inhabitants of the other villages to throng to him. +At last the Medes resolved to make an end of the intolerable state +of their country by erecting a kingdom, and chose Deioces king. +He now caused them to build a great capital, Ecbatana, with a +royal palace, and introduced the ceremonial of oriental courts; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page933" id="page933"></a>933</span> +he surrounded himself with a guard and no longer showed himself +to the people, but gave his judgments in writing and controlled +the people by officials and spies. He united all the Median tribes, +and ruled fifty-three years (<i>c.</i> 699-647 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), though perhaps, as +G. Rawlinson supposed, the fifty-three years of his reign are +exchanged by mistake with the twenty-two years of his son +Phraortes, under whom the Median conquests began.</p> + +<p>The narration of Herodotus is only a popular tradition which +derives the origin of kingship from its judicial functions, considered +as its principal and most beneficent aspect. We know +from the Assyrian inscriptions that just at the time which +Herodotus assigns to Deioces the Medes were divided into +numerous small principalities and subjected to the great Assyrian +conquerors. Among these petty chieftains, Sargon in 715 +mentions Dāyukku, “lieutenant of Man” (he probably was, +therefore, a vassal of the neighbouring king of Man in the +mountains of south-eastern Armenia), who joined the Urartians +and other enemies of Assyria, but was by Sargon transported +to Hamath in Syria “with his clan.” His district is called “bit-Dāyaukki,” +“house of Deioces,” also in 713, when Sargon +invaded these regions again. So it seems that the dynasty, +which more than half a century later succeeded in throwing off +the Assyrian yoke and founded the Median empire, was derived +from this Dāyukku, and that his name was thus introduced into +the Median traditions, which contrary to history considered him +as founder of the kingdom.</p> +<div class="author">(Ed. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEÏOTARUS,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> a tetrarch of Galatia (Gallo-Graecia) in Asia +Minor, and a faithful ally of the Romans. He is first heard of at +the beginning of the third Mithradatic war, when he drove out +the troops of Mithradates under Eumachus from Phrygia. His +most influential friend was Pompey, who, when settling the +affairs of Asia (63 or 62 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), rewarded him with the title of king +and an increase of territory (Lesser Armenia). On the outbreak +of the civil war, Deïotarus naturally sided with his old patron +Pompey, and after the battle of Pharsalus escaped with him to +Asia. In the meantime Pharnaces, the son of Mithradates, had +seized Lesser Armenia, and defeated Deïotarus near Nicopolis. +Fortunately for Deïotarus, Caesar at that time (47) arrived in +Asia from Egypt, and was met by the tetrarch in the dress of a +suppliant. Caesar pardoned him for having sided with Pompey, +ordered him to resume his royal attire, and hastened against +Pharnaces, whom he defeated at Zela. In consequence of the +complaints of certain Galatian princes, Deïotarus was deprived +of part of his dominions, but allowed to retain the title of king. +On the death of Mithradates of Pergamum, tetrarch of the Trocmi, +Deïotarus was a candidate for the vacancy. Other tetrarchs also +pressed their claims; and, further, Deïotarus was accused by +his grandson Castor of having attempted to assassinate Caesar +when the latter was his guest in Galatia. Cicero, who entertained +a high opinion of Deïotarus, whose acquaintance he had +made when governor of Cilicia, undertook his defence, the case +being heard in Caesar’s own house at Rome. The matter was +allowed to drop for a time, and the assassination of Caesar +prevented any final decision being pronounced. In his speech +Cicero briefly dismisses the charge of assassination, the main +question being the distribution of the provinces, which was the +real cause of the quarrels between Deïotarus and his relatives. +After Caesar’s death, Mark Antony, for a large monetary +consideration, publicly announced that, in accordance with +instructions left by Caesar, Deïotarus was to resume possession +of all the territory of which he had been deprived. When civil +war again broke out, Deïotarus was persuaded to support +Brutus and Cassius, but after the battle of Philippi went over +to the triumvirs. He remained in possession of his kingdom +till his death at a very advanced age.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Cicero, <i>Philippica</i>, ii. 37; <i>Ad fam.</i> viii. 10, ix. 12, xv. 1, 2, 4; +<i>Ad Att.</i> xiv. 1; <i>De divin.</i> i. 15, ii. 36, 37; <i>De harusp. resp.</i> 13, and +above all <i>Pro rege Deiotaro</i>; Appian, <i>Bell. Mithrid.</i> 75, 114; +<i>Bellum Alexandrinum</i>, 34-41, 65-77; Dio Cassius xli. 63, xlii. 45, +xlvii. 24, 48, xlviii. 33.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEIR,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Deir Ez-Zor</span>, a town of Asiatic Turkey, on the +right bank of the Euphrates, 27½ m. above its junction with the +Khabor, lat. 35° 20′ N., long. 40° 12′ E. Pop. 8000 and upward, +about one-tenth Christians; except in the official classes, there +are no Turks. It is the capital and the only considerable town +of the Zor sanjak, formed in 1857, which includes Ras el-’Ain on +the north and Palmyra on the south, with a total area of 32,820 +sq. m., chiefly desert, and an estimated population of 100,000, +mostly Arab nomads. Deir itself is a thrifty and rising town, +having considerable traffic; it is singularly European in appearance, +with macadamized streets and a public garden. The name +Deir means monastery, but there is no other trace or tradition of +the occupation of the site before the 14th century, and until it +became the capital of the sanjak it was an insignificant village. +It is an important centre for the control of the Bedouin Arabs, +and has a garrison of about 1000 troops, including a special corps +of mule-riders. It is also a road centre, the roads from the +Mediterranean to Bagdad by way of Aleppo and Damascus +respectively meeting here. A road also leads northward, by +Sinjar, to Mosul, crossing the river on a stone bridge, built in +1897, the only permanent bridge over the Euphrates south of +Asia Minor.</p> +<div class="author">(J. P. Pe.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEIRA,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> the southern of the two English kingdoms afterwards +united as Northumbria. According to Simeon of Durham it +extended from the Humber to the Tyne, but the land was waste +north of the Tees. York was the capital of its kings. The date +of its first settlement is quite unknown, but the first king of whom +we have any record is Ella or Ælle, the father of Edwin, who is +said to have been reigning about 585. After his death Deira +was subject to Æthelfrith, king of Northumbria, until the accession +of Edwin, in 616 or 617, who ruled both kingdoms (see +Edwin) till 633. Osric the nephew of Edwin ruled Deira (633-634), +but his son Oswine was put to death by Oswio in 651. For +a few years subsequently Deira was governed by Æthelwald +son of Oswald.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Bede, <i>Historia ecclesiastica</i>, ii. 14, iii. 1, 6, 14 (ed. C. Plummer, +Oxford, 1896); Nennius, <i>Historia Brittonum</i>, § 64 (ed. Th. Mommsen, +Berlin, 1898); Simeon of Durham, <i>Opera</i>, i. 339 (ed. T. Arnold, +London, 1882-1885).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. G. M. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEISM<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (Lat. <i>deus</i>, god), strictly the belief in one supreme God. +It is however the received name for a current of rationalistic +theological thought which, though not confined to one country, +or to any well-defined period, was most conspicuous in England in +the last years of the 17th and the first half of the 18th century. +The deists, differing widely in important matters of belief, were +yet agreed in seeking above all to establish the certainty and +sufficiency of natural religion in opposition to the positive +religions, and in tacitly or expressly denying the unique +significance of the supernatural revelation in the Old and New +Testaments. They either ignored the Scriptures, endeavoured +to prove them in the main by a helpful republication of the +<i>Evangelium aeternum</i>, or directly impugned their divine character, +their infallibility, and the validity of their evidences as a +complete manifestation of the will of God. The term “deism” +not only is used to signify the main body of the deists’ teaching, +or the tendency they represent, but has come into use as a +technical term for one specific metaphysical doctrine as to the +relation of God to the universe, assumed to have been characteristic +of the deists, and to have distinguished them from atheists, +pantheists and theists,—the belief, namely, that the first cause +of the universe is a personal God, who is, however, not only +distinct from the world but apart from it and its concerns.</p> + +<p>The words “deism” and “deist” appear first about the +middle of the 16th century in France (cf. Bayle’s <i>Dictionnaire, +s.v.</i> “Viret,” note D), though the deistic standpoint had already +been foreshadowed to some extent by Averroists, by Italian +authors like Boccaccio and Petrarch, in More’s <i>Utopia</i> (1515), and +by French writers like Montaigne, Charron and Bodin. The first +specific attack on deism in English was Bishop Stillingfleet’s +<i>Letter to a Deist</i> (1677). By the majority of those historically +known as the English deists, from Blount onwards, the name +was owned and honoured. They were also occasionally called +“rationalists.” “Free-thinker” (in Germany, <i>Freidenker</i>) was +generally taken to be synonymous with “deist,” though obviously +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page934" id="page934"></a>934</span> +capable of a wider signification, and as coincident with <i>esprit fort</i> +and with <i>libertin</i> in the original and theological sense of the word.<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +“Naturalists” was a name frequently used of such as recognized +no god but nature, of so-called Spinozists, atheists; but both in +England and Germany, in the 18th century, this word was more +commonly and aptly in use for those who founded their religion +on the <i>lumen naturae</i> alone. It was evidently in common use +in the latter half of the 16th century as it is used by De Mornay +in <i>De la vérité de la religion chrétienne</i> (1581) and by Montaigne. +The same men were not seldom assaulted under the name of +“theists”; the later distinction between “theist” and “deist,” +which stamped the latter word as excluding the belief in providence +or in the immanence of God, was apparently formulated +in the end of the 18th century by those rationalists who were +aggrieved at being identified with the naturalists. (See also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theism</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>The chief names amongst the deists are those of Lord Herbert +of Cherbury (1583-1648), Charles Blount (1654-1693), Matthew +Tindal (1657-1733), William Wollaston (1659-1724), Thomas +Woolston (1669-1733), Junius Janus (commonly known as John) +Toland (1670-1722), the 3rd earl of Shaftesbury (1671-1713), +Viscount Bolingbroke (1678-1751), Anthony Collins (1676-1729), +Thomas Morgan (?-1743), and Thomas Chubb (1679-1747).<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +Peter Annet (1693-1769), and Henry Dodwell (the younger; +d. 1784), who made his contribution to the controversy +in 1742, are of less importance. Of the eleven first named, +ten appear to have been born within twenty-five years of one +another; and it is noteworthy that by far the greater part of the +literary activity of the deists, as well as of their voluminous +opponents, falls within the same half century.</p> + +<p>The impulses that promoted a vein of thought cognate to +deism were active both before and after the time of its greatest +notoriety. But there are many reasons to show why, in the 17th +century, men should have set themselves with a new zeal, in +politics, law and theology, to follow the light of nature alone, and +to cast aside the fetters of tradition and prescriptive right, of +positive codes, and scholastic systems, and why in England +especially there should, amongst numerous free-thinkers, have +been not a few free writers. The significance of the Copernican +system, as the total overthrow of the traditional conception of +the universe, dawned on all educated men. In physics, Descartes +had prepared the way for the final triumph of the mechanical +explanation of the world in Newton’s system. In England the +new philosophy had broken with time-honoured beliefs more +completely than it had done even in France; Hobbes was more +startling than Bacon. Locke’s philosophy, as well as his theology, +served as a school for the deists. Men had become weary of +Protestant scholasticism; religious wars had made peaceful +thinkers seek to take the edge off dogmatical rancour; and the +multiplicity of religious sects, coupled with the complete failure +of various attempts at any substantial reconciliation, provoked +distrust of the common basis on which all were founded. There was +a school of distinctively latitudinarian thought in the Church of +England; others not unnaturally thought it better to extend the +realm of the <i>adiaphora</i> beyond the sphere of Protestant ritual or +the details of systematic divinity. Arminianism had revived the +rational side of theological method. Semi-Arians and Unitarians, +though sufficiently distinguished from the free-thinkers by +reverence for the letter of Scripture, might be held to encourage +departure from the ancient landmarks. The scholarly labours of +P. D. Huet, R. Simon, L. E. Dupin, and Jean Le Clerc (Clericus), +of the orientalists John Lightfoot, John Spencer and Humphrey +Prideaux, of John Mill, the collator of New Testament readings, +and John Fell, furnished new materials for controversy; and the +scope of Spinoza’s <i>Tractatus theologico-politicus</i> had naturally +been much more fully apprehended than ever his <i>Ethica</i> could be. +The success of the English revolution permitted men to turn from +the active side of political and theological controversy to speculation +and theory; and curiosity was more powerful than faith. +Much new ferment was working. The toleration and the free press +of England gave it scope. Deism was one of the results, and is an +important link in the chain of thought from the Reformation to +our own day.</p> + +<p>Long before England was ripe to welcome deistic thought +Lord Herbert of Cherbury earned the name “Father of Deism” +by laying down the main line of that religious philosophy which +in various forms continued ever after to be the backbone of +deistic systems. He based his theology on a comprehensive, if +insufficient, survey of the nature, foundation, limits and tests +of human knowledge. And amongst the divinely implanted, +original, indefeasible <i>notitiae communes</i> of the human mind, he +found as foremost his five articles:—that there is one supreme +God, that he is to be worshipped, that worship consists chiefly of +virtue and piety, that we must repent of our sins and cease from +them, and that there are rewards and punishments here and +hereafter. Thus Herbert sought to do for the religion of nature +what his friend Grotius was doing for natural law,—making a +new application of the standard of Vincent of Lerins, <i>Quod +semper, quod ubique, quod ab omnibus</i>. It is important to notice +that Herbert, as English ambassador at Paris, united in himself +the currents of French and English thought, and also that his +De Veritate, published in Latin and translated into French, did +not appear in an English version.</p> + +<p>Herbert had hardly attempted a systematic criticism of the +Christian revelation either as a whole or in its details. Blount, a +man of a very different spirit, did both, and in so doing may be +regarded as having inaugurated the second main line of deistic +procedure, that of historico-critical examination of the Old and +New Testaments. Blount adopted and expanded Hobbes’s +arguments against the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch; +and, mainly in the words of Burnet’s <i>Archeologiae philosophicae</i>, +he asserts the total inconsistency of the Mosaic Hexaemeron with +the Copernican theory of the heavens, dwelling with emphasis +on the impossibility of admitting the view developed in Genesis, +that the earth is the most important part of the universe. He +assumes that the narrative was meant <i>ethically</i>, not <i>physically</i>, +in order to eliminate false and polytheistic notions; and he +draws attention to that double narrative in Genesis which was +elsewhere to be so fruitfully handled. The examination of the +miracles of Apollonius of Tyana, professedly founded on papers +of Lord Herbert’s, is meant to suggest similar considerations +with regard to the miracles of Christ. Naturalistic explanations +of some of these are proposed, and a mythical theory is distinctly +foreshadowed when Blount dwells on the inevitable tendency of +men, especially long after the event, to discover miracles attendant +on the birth and death of their heroes. Blount assaults the +doctrine of a mediator as irreligious. He dwells much more +pronouncedly than Herbert on the view, afterwards regarded as +a special characteristic of all deists, that much or most error in +religion has been invented or knowingly maintained by sagacious +men for the easier maintenance of good government, or in the +interests of themselves and their class. And when he heaps +suspicion, not on Christian dogmas, but on beliefs of which the +resemblance to Christian tenets is sufficiently patent, the real aim +is so transparent that his method seems to partake rather of the +nature of literary eccentricity than of polemical artifice; yet by +this disingenuous indirectness he gave his argument that savour +of duplicity which ever after clung to the popular conception of +deism.</p> + +<p>Shaftesbury, dealing with matters for the most part different +from those usually handled by the deists, stands almost wholly +out of their ranks. But he showed how loosely he held the views +he did not go out of his way to attack, and made it plain how +little weight the letter of Scripture had for himself; and, writing +with much greater power than any of the deists, he was held +to have done more than any one of them to forward the cause +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page935" id="page935"></a>935</span> +for which they wrought. Founding ethics on the native and +cultivable capacity in men to appreciate worth in men and actions, +and, like the ancient Greek thinkers whom he followed, associating +the apprehension of morality with the apprehension of beauty, +he makes morality wholly independent of scriptural enactment, +and still more, of theological forecasting of future bliss or agony. +He yet insisted on religion as the crown of virtue; and, arguing +that religion is inseparable from a high and holy enthusiasm for +the divine plan of the universe, he sought the root of religion in +feeling, not in accurate beliefs or meritorious good works. He set +little store on the theology of those who in a system of dry and +barren notions “pay handsome compliments to the Deity,” +“remove providence,” “explode devotion,” and leave but “little +of zeal, affection, or warmth in what they call rational religion.” +In the protest against the scheme of “judging truth by counting +noses,” Shaftesbury recognized the danger of the standard which +seemed to satisfy many deists; and in almost every respect +he has more in common with those who afterwards, in Germany, +annihilated the pretensions of complacent rationalism than with +the rationalists themselves.</p> + +<p>Toland, writing at first professedly without hostility to any +of the received elements of the Christian faith, insisted that +Christianity was not mysterious, and that the value of religion +could not lie in any unintelligible or self-contradictory elements; +though we cannot know the real essence of God or of any of +his creatures, yet our beliefs about God must be thoroughly +consistent with reason. Afterwards, Toland discussed, with +considerable real learning and much show of candour, the comparative +evidence for the canonical and apocryphal Scriptures, +and demanded a careful and complete historical examination of +the grounds on which our acceptance of the New Testament canon +rests. He contributed little to the solution of the problem, but +forced the investigation of the canon alike on theologians and the +reading public. Again, he sketched a view of early church history, +further worked out by Johann Salomo Semler (1725-1791), +and surprisingly like that which was later elaborated by the +Tübingen school. He tried to show, both from Scripture and +extra-canonical literature, that the primitive church, so far from +being an incorporate body of believers with the same creed and +customs, really consisted of two schools, each possessing its +“own gospel”—a school of Ebionites or Judaizing Christians, +and the more liberal school of Paul. These parties, consciously +but amicably differing in their whole relation to the Jewish law +and the outside world, were subsequently forced into a non-natural +uniformity. The cogency of Toland’s arguments was +weakened by his manifest love of paradox. Wollaston upheld the +“intellectual” theory of morality, and all his reasoning is independent +of any authority or evidence derived from revelation. +His system was simplicity itself, all sin being reduced to the one +form of lying. He favoured the idea of a future life as being +necessary to set right the mistakes and inequalities of the +present.</p> + +<p>Collins, who had created much excitement by his <i>Discourse +of Free-thinking</i>, insisting on the value and necessity of unprejudiced +inquiry, published at a later stage of the deistic controversy +the famous argument on the evidences of Christianity. Christianity +is founded on Judaism; its main prop is the argument from +the fulfilment of prophecy. Yet no interpretation or rearrangement +of the text of Old Testament prophecies will secure a fair +and non-allegorical correspondence between these and their +alleged fulfilment in the New Testament. The inference is not +expressly drawn, though it becomes perfectly clear from his +refutation of William Whiston’s curious counter theory that there +were in the original Hebrew scriptures prophecies which were +literally fulfilled in the New Testament, but had been expunged +at an early date by Jewish scribes. Collins indicates the possible +extent to which the Jews may have been indebted to Chaldeans +and Egyptians for their theological views, especially as great +part of the Old Testament would appear to have been remodelled +by Ezra; and, after dwelling on the points in which the prophecies +attributed to Daniel differ from all other Old Testament predictions, +he states the greater number of the arguments still used +to show that the book of Daniel deals with events past and +contemporaneous, and is from the pen of a writer of the Maccabean +period, a view now generally accepted. Collins resembles Blount +in “attacking specific Christian positions rather than seeking +for a foundation on which to build the edifice of Natural +Religion.” Amongst those who replied to him were Richard +Bentley, Edward Chandler, bishop of Lichfield, and Thomas +Sherlock, afterwards bishop of London, who also attacked +Woolston. They refuted him easily on many specific points, but +carefully abstained from discussing the real question at issue, +namely the propriety of free inquiry.</p> + +<p>Woolston, at first to all appearance working earnestly in behalf +of an allegorical but believing interpretation of the New Testament +miracles, ended by assaulting, with a yet unknown violence +of speech, the absurdity of accepting them as actual historical +events, and did his best to overthrow the credibility of Christ’s +principal miracles. The bitterness of his outspoken invective +against the clergy, against all priestcraft and priesthood, was a +new feature in deistic literature, and injured the author more than +it furthered his cause.</p> + +<p>Tindal’s aim seems to have been a sober statement of the whole +case in favour of natural religion, with copious but moderately +worded criticism of such beliefs and usages in the Christian and +other religions as he conceived to be either non-religious or +directly immoral and unwholesome. The work in which he +endeavoured to prove that true Christianity is as old as the +creation, and is really but the republication of the gospel of +nature, soon gained the name of the “Deist’s Bible.” It was +against Tindal that the most important of the orthodox replies +were directed, <i>e.g.</i> John Conybeare’s <i>Defence of Revealed Religion</i>, +William Law’s <i>Case of Reason</i> and, to a large extent, Butler’s +<i>Analogy</i>.</p> + +<p>Morgan criticized with great freedom the moral character of the +persons and events of Old Testament history, developing the +theory of conscious “accommodation” on the part of the leaders +of the Jewish church. This accommodation of truth, by altering +the form and substance of it to meet the views and secure the +favour of ignorant and bigoted contemporaries, Morgan attributes +also to the apostles and to Jesus. He likewise expands at great +length a theory of the origin of the Catholic Church much like +that sketched by Toland, but assumes that Paul and his party, +latterly at least, were distinctly hostile to the Judaical party +of their fellow-believers in Jesus as the Messias, while the college +of the original twelve apostles and their adherents viewed Paul +and his followers with suspicion and disfavour. Persecution +from without Morgan regards as the influence which mainly +forced the antagonistic parties into the oneness of the catholic +and orthodox church. Morgan “seems to have discerned the +dawning of a truer and better method” than the others. “He +saw dimly that things require to be accounted for as well as +affirmed or denied,” and he was “one of the pioneers of modern +historical science as applied to biblical criticism.”</p> + +<p>Annet made it his special work to invalidate belief in the +resurrection of Christ, and to discredit the work of Paul.</p> + +<p>Chubb, the least learnedly educated of the deists, did more +than any of them, save Herbert, to round his system into a +logical whole. From the New Testament he sought to show that +the teaching of Christ substantially coincides with natural +religion as he understood it. But his main contention is that +Christianity is not a doctrine but a life, not the reception of a +system of truths or facts, but a pious effort to live in accordance +with God’s will here, in the hope of joining him hereafter. Chubb +dwells with special emphasis on the fact that Christ preached +the gospel to the poor, and argues, as Tindal had done, that the +gospel must therefore be accessible to all men without any need +for learned study of evidences for miracles, and intelligible to the +meanest capacity. He sought to show that even in the New +Testament there are essential contradictions, and instances the +unconditional forgiveness preached by Christ in the gospels as +compared with Paul’s doctrine of forgiveness by the mediation +of Christ. Externally Chubb is interesting as representing the +deism of the people contrasted with that of Tindal the theologian.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page936" id="page936"></a>936</span></p> + +<p>Dodwell’s ingenious thesis, that Christianity is not founded +on argument, was certainly not meant as an aid to faith; and, +though its starting-point is different from all other deistical works, +it may safely be reckoned amongst their number.</p> + +<p>Though himself contemporary with the earlier deists, Bolingbroke’s +principal works were posthumously published after +interest in the controversy had declined. His whole strain, in +sharp contrast to that of most of his predecessors, is cynical and +satirical, and suggests that most of the matters discussed were of +small personal concern to himself. He gives fullest scope to the +ungenerous view that a vast proportion of professedly revealed +truth was ingeniously palmed off by the more cunning on the +more ignorant for the convenience of keeping the latter under. +But he writes with keenness and wit, and knows well how to use +the materials already often taken advantage of by earlier deists.</p> + +<p>Before passing on to a summary of the deistic position, it is +necessary to say something of the views of Conyers Middleton +(<i>q.v.</i>), who, though he never actually severed himself from orthodoxy, +yet advanced theories closely analogous to those of the +deists. His most important theological work was that devoted +to an exposure of patristic miracles. His attack was based +largely on arguments which could be turned with equal force +against the miracles of the New Testament, and he even went +further than previous rationalists in impugning the credibility +of statements as to alleged miracles emanating from martyrs +and the fathers of the early church. That Middleton was prepared +to carry this type of argument into the apostolic period +is shown by certain posthumous essays (<i>Miscellaneous Works</i>; +ii. pp. 255 ff.), in which he charges the New Testament writers +with inconsistency and the apostles with suppressing their +cherished beliefs on occasions of difficulty.</p> + +<p>In the substance of what they received as natural religion, the +deists were for the most part agreed; Herbert’s articles continued +to contain the fundamentals of their theology. Religion, +though not identified with morality, had its most important +outcome in a faithful following of the eternal laws of morality, +regarded as the will of God. With the virtuous life was further +to be conjoined a humble disposition to adore the Creator, +avoiding all factitious forms of worship as worse than useless. +The small value they attributed to all outward and special forms +of service, and the want of any sympathetic craving for the communion +of saints, saved the deists from attempting to found a +free-thinking church. They seem generally to have inclined to a +quietistic accommodation to established forms of faith, till better +times came. They steadfastly sought to eliminate the miraculous +from theological belief, and to expel from the system of religious +truth all debatable, difficult or mysterious articles. They aimed +at a rational and intelligible faith, professedly in order to make +religion, in all its width and depth, the heritage of every man. +They regarded with as much suspicion the notion of a “peculiar +people” of God, as of a unique revelation, and insisted on the +possibility of salvation for the heathen. They rejected the +doctrine of the Trinity, and protested against mediatorship, +atonement and the imputed righteousness of Christ, always +laying more stress on the teaching of Christ than on the teaching +of the church about him; but they repeatedly laid claim to the +name of Christians or of Christian deists. Against superstition, +fanaticism and priestcraft they protested unceasingly. They all +recognized the soul of man—not regarded as intellectual alone—as +the ultimate court of appeal. But they varied much in their +attitude towards the Bible. Some were content to argue their +own ideas into Scripture, and those they disliked out of it; to +one or two it seemed a satisfaction to discover difficulties in +Scripture, to point to historical inaccuracies and moral defects. +Probably Chubb’s position on this head is most fairly characteristic +of deism. He holds that the narrative, especially of the New +Testament, is in the main accurate, but, as written after the +events narrated, has left room for misunderstandings and +mistakes. The apostles were good men, to whom, after Christ, +we are most indebted; but they were fairly entitled to their own +private opinions, and naturally introduced these into their +writings. The epistles, according to Chubb, contain errors of +fact, false interpretations of the Old Testament, and sometimes +disfigurement of religious truth.</p> + +<p>The general tendency of the deistical writings is sufficiently +self-consistent to justify a common name. But deism is not a +compact system nor is it the outcome of any one line of philosophical +thought. Of matters generally regarded as pertaining +to natural religion, that on which they were least agreed was the +certainty, philosophical demonstrability and moral significance +of the immortality of the soul, so that the deists have sometimes +been grouped into “mortal” and “immortal” deists. For some +the belief in future rewards and punishments was an essential of +religion; some seem to have questioned the doctrine as a whole; +and, while others made it a basis of morality, Shaftesbury +protested against the ordinary theological form of the belief +as immoral. No two thinkers could well be more opposed than +Shaftesbury and Hobbes; yet sometimes ideas from both were +combined by the same writer. Collins was a pronounced necessitarian; +Morgan regarded the denial of free will as tantamount to +atheism. And nothing can be more misleading than to assume +that the belief in a Creator, existent wholly apart from the work +of his hands, was characteristic of the deists as a body. In none of +them is any theory on the subject specially prominent, except +that in their denial of miracles, of supernatural revelation, and a +special redemptive interposition of God in history, they seem to +have thought of providence much as the mass of their opponents +did. Herbert starts his chief theological work with the design of +vindicating God’s providence. Shaftesbury vigorously protests +against the notion of a wholly transcendent God. Morgan more +than once expresses a theory that would now be pronounced one +of immanence. Toland, the inventor of the name of pantheism, +was notoriously, for a great part of his life, in some sort a +pantheist. And while as thinkers they diverged in their opinions, +so too they differed radically in character, in reverence for their +subject and in religious earnestness and moral worth.</p> + +<p>The deists were not powerful writers; none of them was distinguished +by wide and accurate scholarship; hardly any was +either a deep or comprehensive thinker. But though they generally +had the best scholarship of England against them, they were +bold, acute, well-informed men; they appreciated more fully +than their contemporaries not a few truths now all but universally +accepted; and they seemed therefore entitled to leave their +mark on subsequent theological thought. Yet while the seed +they sowed was taking deep root in France and in Germany, the +English deists, the most notable men of their time, were soon +forgotten, or at least ceased to be a prominent factor in the +intellectual life of the century. The controversies they had +provoked collapsed, and deism became a by-word even amongst +those who were in no degree anxious to appear as champions of +orthodoxy.</p> + +<p>The fault was not wholly in the subjectivism of the movement. +But the subjectivism that founded its theology on the “common +sense” of the individual was accompanied by a fatal pseudo-universalism +which, cutting away all that was peculiar, individual +and most intense in all religions, left in any one of them +but a lifeless form. A theology consisting of a few vague generalities +was sufficient to sustain the piety of the best of the deists; +but it had not the concreteness or intensity necessary to take a +firm hold on those whom it emancipated from the old beliefs. +The negative side of deism came to the front, and, communicated +with fatal facility, seems ultimately to have constituted the +deism that was commonly professed at the clubs of the wits +and the tea-tables of polite society. But the intenser religious life +before which deism fell was also a revolt against the abstract and +argumentative orthodoxy of the time.</p> + +<p>That the deists appreciated fully the scope of difficulties in +Christian theology and the sacred books is not their most +noteworthy feature; but that they made a stand, sometimes +cautiously, often with outspoken fearlessness, against the presupposition +that the Bible is the religion of Protestants. They +themselves gave way to another presupposition equally fatal +to true historical research, though in great measure common +to them and their opponents. It was assumed by deists in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page937" id="page937"></a>937</span> +debating against the orthodox, that the flood of error in the +hostile camp was due to the benevolent cunning or deliberate +self-seeking of unscrupulous men, supported by the ignorant with +the obstinacy of prejudice.</p> + +<p>Yet deism deserves to be remembered as a strenuous protest +against bibliolatry in every degree and against all traditionalism +in theology. It sought to look not a few facts full in the face, +from a new point of view and with a thoroughly modern though +unhistorical spirit. It was not a religious movement; and +though, as a defiance of the accepted theology, its character was +mainly theological, the deistical crusade belongs, not to the +history of the church, or of dogma, but to the history of general +culture. It was an attitude of mind, not a body of doctrine; its +nearest parallel is probably to be found in the eclectic strivings +of the Renaissance philosophy and the modernizing tendencies +of cisalpine humanism. The controversy was assumed to be +against prejudice, ignorance, obscurantism; what monks were to +Erasmus the clergy as such were to Woolston. Yet English deism +was in many ways characteristically English. The deists were, as +usually happens with the leaders of English thought, no class of +professional men, but represented every rank in the community. +They made their appeal in the mother tongue to all men who +could read and think, and sought to reduce the controversy to its +most direct practical issue. And, with but one or two exceptions, +they avoided wildness in their language as much as in the general +scheme of theology they proposed. If at times they had recourse +to ambiguity of speech and veiled polemic, this might be partly +excused when we remember the hanging of Thomas Aikenhead +in 1697 for ridiculing the Bible, and Woolston’s imprisonment +in 1729.</p> + +<p>French deism, the direct progeny of the English movement, +was equally short-lived. Voltaire during his three years’ +residence in England (1726-1729) absorbed an enthusiasm for +freedom of thought, and provided himself with the arguments +necessary to support the deism which he had learned in his +youth; he was to the end a deist of the school of Bolingbroke. +Rousseau, though not an active assailant of Christianity, could +have claimed kindred with the nobler deists. Diderot was for a +time heartily in sympathy with deistic thought; and the <i>Encyclopédie</i> +was in its earlier portion an organ of deism. Even in the +Roman Catholic Church a large number of the leading divines were +frankly deistic, nor were they for that reason regarded as irreligious. +But as Locke’s philosophy became in France sensationalism, +and as Locke’s pregnant question, reiterated by Collins, how we +know that the divine power might not confer thought on matter, +led the way to dogmatic materialism, so deism soon gave way to +forms of thought more directly and completely subversive of the +traditional theology. None the less it is unquestionable that in +the period preceding the Revolution the bulk of French thinkers +were ultimately deists in various degrees, and that deism was a +most potent factor not only in speculative but also in social +and political development. Many of the leaders of the revolutionary +movement were deists, though it is quite false to say that the +extreme methods of the movement were the result of widespread +rationalism.</p> + +<p>In Germany there was a native free-thinking theology nearly +contemporary with that of England, whence it was greatly +developed and supplemented. Among the earliest names are +those of Georg Schade (1712-1795), J. B. Basedow (1723-1790), +the educationist, Johann August Eberhard (<i>q.v.</i>); and K. F. +Bahrdt, who regarded Christ as merely a noble teacher like Moses, +Confucius and Luther. The compact rational philosophy of +Wolff nourished a theological rationalism which in H. S. Reimarus +was wholly undistinguishable from dogmatic deism, and was +undoubtedly to a great extent adopted by Lessing; while, in the +case of the historico-critical school to which J. S. Sender belonged, +the distinction is not always easily drawn—although these +rationalists professedly recognized in Scripture a real divine +revelation, mingled with local and temporary elements. It +deserves to be noted here that the former, the theology of the +<i>Aufklärung</i>, was, like that of the deists, destined to a short-lived +notoriety; whereas the solid, accurate and scholarly researches +of the rationalist critics of Germany, undertaken with no +merely polemical spirit, not only form an epoch in the history of +theology, but have taken a permanent place in the body of +theological science. Ere <i>rationalismus vulgaris</i> fell before the +combined assault of Schleiermacher’s subjective theology and +the deeper historical insight of the Hegelians, it had found a +refuge successively in the Kantian postulates of the practical +reason, and in the vague but earnest faith-philosophy of +Jacobi.</p> + +<p>Outside France, Germany and England, there were no great +schools of thought distinctively deistic, though in most countries +there is to be found a rationalistic anti-clerical movement which +partakes of the character of deism. It seems probable, for +example, that in Portugal the marquis de Pombal was in reality +a deist, and both in Italy and in Spain there were signs of the +same rationalistic revolt. More certain, and also more striking, +is the fact that the leading statesmen in the American War of +Independence were emphatically deists; Benjamin Franklin +(who attributes his position to the study of Shaftesbury and +Collins), Thomas Paine, Washington and Jefferson, although they +all had the greatest admiration for the New Testament story, +denied that it was based on any supernatural revelation. For +various reasons the movement in America did not appear on +the surface to any great extent, and after the comparative +failure of Elihu Palmer’s <i>Principles of Nature</i> it expressed itself +chiefly in the spread of Unitarianism.</p> + +<p>In England, though the deists were forgotten, their spirit +was not wholly dead. For men like Hume and Gibbon the standpoint +of deism was long left behind; yet Gibbon’s famous two +chapters might well have been written by a deist. Even now +many undoubtedly cling to a theology nearly allied to deism. +Rejecting miracles and denying the infallibility of Scripture, +protesting against Calvinistic views of sovereign grace and having +no interest in evangelical Arminianism, the faith of such inquirers +seems fairly to coincide with that of the deists. Even some +cultured theologians, the historical representatives of latitudinarianism, +seem to accept the great body of what was contended +for by the deists. Moreover, the influence of the deistic writers +had an incalculable influence in the gradual progress towards +tolerance, and in the spread of a broader attitude towards +intellectual problems, and this too, though, as we have seen, the +original deists devoted themselves mainly to a crusade against +the doctrine of revelation.</p> + +<p>The original deists displayed a singular incapacity to understand +the true conditions of history; yet amongst them there +were some who pointed the way to the truer, more generous +interpretation of the past. When Shaftesbury wrote that +“religion is still a discipline, and progress of the soul towards +perfection,” he gave birth to the same thought that was afterwards +hailed in Lessing’s <i>Erziehung des Menschengeschlechtes</i> as +the dawn of a fuller and a purer light on the history of religion +and on the development of the spiritual life of mankind.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—See John Leland, <i>A View of the Principal +Deistical Writers</i> (2 vols., 1754-1756; ed. 1837); G. V. Lechler, +<i>Geschichte des englischen Deismus</i> (2 vols., 1841); L. Noack, <i>Die +Freidenker in der Religion</i> (Bern, 1853-1855); John Hunt, <i>Religious +Thought in England</i> (3 vols., 1870-1872); Leslie Stephen, <i>History +of English Thought in the 18th Century</i> (2 vols., 1876); A. S. Farrar, +<i>A Critical History of Free Thought</i> (1862, Bampton Lectures); +J. H. Overton and F. Relton, <i>The English Church from the Accession +of George I. to the end of the 18th Century</i> (1906; especially +chap. iv., “The Answer to Deism”); A. W. Benn, <i>History of +English Rationalism in the 19th Century</i> (1906); i. 111 ff.; +J. M. Robertson, <i>Short History of Free Thought</i> (1906); G. Ch. +B. Pünjer, <i>Geschichte der christlichen Religionsphilosophie seit +der Reformation</i> (Brunswick, 1880); M. W. Wiseman, <i>Dynamics +of Religion</i> (London, 1897), pt. ii.; article “Deismus” in Herzog-Hauck, +<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (vol. iv., 1898).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The right of the orthodox party to use this name was asserted +by the publication in 1715 of a journal called <i>The Freethinker</i>, conducted +by anti-deistic clergymen. The term <i>libertin</i> appears to have +been used first as a hostile epithet of the Brethren of the Free Spirit, +a 13th-century sect which was accused not only of free-thought but +also of licentious living.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See the separate biographies of these writers. The three most +significant names after Lord Herbert are those of Toland, Wollaston +and Tindal.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEISTER,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> a chain of hills in Germany, in the Prussian province +of Hanover, about 15 m. S.W. of the city of Hanover. It runs +in a north-westerly direction from Springe in the S. to Rodenberg +in the N. It has a total length of 14 m., and rises in the +Höfeler to a height of 1250 ft. The chain is well-wooded and +abounds in game. There are some coal mines and sandstone +quarries.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page938" id="page938"></a>938</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DÉJAZET, PAULINE VIRGINIE<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1798-1875), French actress, +born in Paris on the 30th of <span class="correction" title="amended from Ausust">August</span> 1798, made her first appearance +on the stage at the age of five. It was not until 1820, when +she began her seven years’ connexion with the recently founded +Gymnase, that she won her triumphs in soubrette and “breeches” +parts, which came to be known as “<i>Dêjazets</i>.” From 1828 she +played at the Nouveautés for three years, then at the Variétés, +and finally became manager, with her son, of the Folies, which +was renamed the Théâtre Déjazet. Here, even at the age of +sixty-five, she had marvellous success in youthful parts, especially +in a number of Sardou’s earlier plays, previously unacted. She +retired in 1868, and died on the 1st of December 1875, leaving a +great name in the annals of the French stage.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Duval’s <i>Virginie Déjazet</i> (1876).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DE KALB,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> a city of De Kalb county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the N. +part of the state, about 58 m. W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 2579; +(1900) 5904 (1520 foreign-born); (1910) 8102. De Kalb is +served by the Chicago Great Western, the Chicago & North-Western, +and the Illinois, Iowa & Minnesota railways, and by +interurban electric lines. It is the seat of the Northern Illinois +state normal school (opened in 1899). The principal manufactures +of De Kalb are woven and barbed wire, waggons and +agricultural implements, pianos, shoes, gloves, and creamery +packages. The city has important dairy interests also. De +Kalb was first settled in 1832, was known as Buena Vista until +1840, was incorporated as a village in 1861, and in 1877 was +organized under the general state law as a city.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DE KEYSER, THOMAS<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1596 or 1597-1667), Dutch painter, +was born at Amsterdam, the son of the architect and sculptor +Hendrik de Keyser. We have no definite knowledge of his +training, and but scant information as to the course of his life, +though it is known that he owned a basalt business between 1640 +and 1654. Aert Pietersz, Cornelis vanider Voort, Werner van +Valckert and Nicolas Elias are accredited by different authorities +with having developed his talent; and M. Karl Woermann, +who has pronounced in favour of Nicolas Elias is supported +by the fact that almost all that master’s pictures were formerly +attributed to De Keyser, who, in like fashion, exercised some +influence upon Rembrandt when he first went to Amsterdam in +1631. De Keyser chiefly excelled as a portrait painter, though he +also executed some historical and mythological pictures, such +as the “Theseus” and “Ariadne” in the Amsterdam town hall. +His portraiture is full of character and masterly in handling, +and often, as in the “Old Woman” of the Budapest gallery, is +distinguished by a rich golden glow of colour and Rembrandtesque +chiaroscuro. Some of his portraits are life-size, but the +artist generally preferred to keep them on a considerably smaller +scale, like the famous “Group of Amsterdam Burgomasters” +assembled to receive Marie de’ Medici in 1638, now at the Hague +museum. The sketch for this important painting, together with +three other drawings, was sold at the Gallitzin sale in 1783 +for the sum of threepence. The German emperor owns an +“Equestrian Portrait of a young Dutchman,” by De Keyser, +a late work which in general disposition and in the soft manner +of painting recalled the work of Cuyp. Similar pictures are in +the Dresden and Frankfort museums, in the Heyl collection at +Worms, and the Liechtenstein Gallery in Vienna. The National +Gallery, London, owns a characteristic portrait group of a +“Merchant with his Clerk”; the Hague museum, besides the +group already referred to, a magnificent “Portrait of a Savant,” +and the Haarlem museum a fine portrait of “Claes Fabricius.” +At the Ryks Museum in Amsterdam there are no fewer than +twelve works from his brush, and other important examples +are to be found in Brussels, Munich, Copenhagen and St +Petersburg.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEKKER, EDWARD DOUWES<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1820-1887), Dutch writer, +commonly known as <span class="sc">Multatuli</span>, was born at Amsterdam on the +2nd of March 1820. His father, a ship’s captain, intended his son +for trade, but this humdrum prospect disgusted him, and in 1838 +he went out to Java, and obtained a post in the Inland Revenue. +He rose from one position to another, until, in 1851, he found +himself assistant-resident at Amboyna, in the Moluccas. In 1857 +he was transferred to Lebak, in the Bantam residency of Java. +By this time, however, all the secrets of Dutch administration +were known to him, and he had begun to protest against the +abuses of the colonial system. In consequence he was threatened +with dismissal from his office for his openness of speech, and, +throwing up his appointment, he returned to Holland in a state of +fierce indignation. He determined to expose in detail the scandals +he had witnessed, and he began to do so in newspaper articles and +pamphlets. Little notice, however, was taken of his protestations +until, in 1860, he published, under the pseudonym of “Multatuli,” +his romance entitled <i>Max Havelaar</i>. An attempt was made to +ignore this brilliant and irregular book, but in vain; it was read +all over Europe. The exposure of the abuse of free labour in the +Dutch Indies was complete, although there were not wanting +apologists who accused Dekker’s terrible picture of being over-coloured. +He was now fairly launched on literature, and he lost +no time in publishing <i>Love Letters</i> (1861), which, in spite of their +mild title, proved to be mordant satires of the most rancorous +and unsparing kind. The literary merit of Multatuli’s work was +much contested; he received an unexpected and most valuable +ally in Vosmaer. He continued to write much, and to faggot +his miscellanies in uniform volumes called <i>Ideas</i>, of which seven +appeared between 1862 and 1877. Douwes quitted Holland, +snaking off her dust from his feet, and went to live at Wiesbaden. +He now made several attempts to gain the stage, and one of his +pieces, <i>The School for Princes</i>, 1875 (published in the fourth +volume of <i>Ideas</i>), pleased himself so highly that he is said to have +styled it the greatest drama ever written. It is a fine poem, +written in blank verse, like an English tragedy, and not in Dutch +Alexandrines; but it is undramatic, and has not held the boards. +Douwes Dekker moved his residence to Nieder Ingelheim, on the +Rhine, and there he died on the 19th of February 1887.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of his career he was the centre of a crowd +of disciples and imitators, who did his reputation no service; +he is now, again, in danger of being read too little. To understand +his fame, it is necessary to remember the sensational way +in which he broke into the dulness of Dutch literature fifty years +ago, like a flame out of the Far East. He was ardent, provocative, +perhaps a little hysterical, but he made <span class="correction" title="amended from himelf">himself</span> heard +all over Europe. He brought an exceedingly severe indictment +against the egotism and brutality of the administrators of Dutch +India, and he framed it in a literary form which was brilliantly +original. Not satisfied with this, he attacked, in a fury that +was sometimes blind, everything that seemed to him falsely +conventional in Dutch religion, government, society and morals. +He respected nothing, he left no institution untouched. Now +that it is possible to look back upon Multatuli without passion, +we see in him, not what Dutch enthusiasm saw,—“the second +writer of Europe in the nineteenth century” (Victor Hugo being +presumably the first),—but a great man who was a powerful +and glowing author, yet hardly an artist, a reckless enthusiast, +who was inspired by indignation and a burning sense of justice, +who cared little for his means if only he could produce his effect. +He is seen to his best and worst in <i>Max Havelaar</i>; his <i>Ideas</i>, hard, +fantastic and sardonic, seldom offer any solid satisfaction to the +foreign reader. But Multatuli deserves remembrance, if only on +account of the unequalled effect his writing had in rousing Holland +from the intellectual and moral lethargy in which she lay half a +century ago.</p> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEKKER, JEREMIAS DE<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1610-1666), Dutch poet, was born +at Dort in 1610. His father was a native of Antwerp, who, +having embraced the reformed religion, had been compelled to +take refuge in Holland. Entering his father’s business at an +early age, he found leisure to cultivate his taste for literature +and especially for poetry, and to acquire without assistance a +competent knowledge of English, French, Latin and Italian. +His first poem was a paraphrase of the Lamentations of Jeremiah +(<i><span class="correction" title="amended from Klaagliedern">Klaagliederen</span> van Jeremias</i>), which was followed by translations +and imitations of Horace, Juvenal and other Latin poets. The +most important of his original poems were a collection of epigrams +(<i>Puntdichten</i>) and a satire in praise of avarice (<i>Lof der Geldzucht</i>). +The latter is his best-known work. Written in a vein of light and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page939" id="page939"></a>939</span> +yet effective irony, it is usually ranked by critics along with +Erasmus’s <i>Praise of Folly</i>. Dekker died at Amsterdam in +November 1666.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A complete collection of his poems, edited by Brouerius van +Nideck, was published at Amsterdam in 1726 under the title +<i>Exercices poétiques</i> (2 vols. 4to.). Selections from his poems are +included in Siegenbeck’s <i>Proeven van nederduitsche Dichtkunde</i> (1823), +and from his epigrams in Geijsbeek’s <i>Epigrammatische Anthologie</i> +(1827).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEKKER<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Decker</span>), <b>THOMAS</b> (<i>c.</i> 1570-1641), English +dramatist, was born in London. His name occurs frequently in +Henslowe’s <i>Diary</i> during the last three years of the 16th century; +he is mentioned there as receiving loans and payments for writing +plays in conjunction with Ben Jonson, Drayton, Chettle, +Haughton, Wilson, Day and others, and he would appear to +have been then in the most active employment as a playwright. +The titles of the plays on which he was engaged from April 1599 +to March 1599/1600 are <i>Troilus and Cressida</i>, <i>Orestes Fures</i>, +<i>Agamemnon</i>, <i>The Gentle Craft</i>, <i>The Stepmother’s Tragedy</i>, <i>Bear a +Brain</i>, <i>Pagge of Plymouth</i>, <i>Robert the Second</i>, <i>The Whole History of +Fortunatus</i>, <i>Patient Grissel</i>, <i>Truth’s Supplication to Candlelight</i>, +<i>The Spanish Moor’s Tragedy</i>, <i>The Seven Wise Masters</i>. At that +date it is evident that Dekker’s services were in great request for +the stage. He is first mentioned in the Diary under date 8th of +January 1597/1598, as having sold a book, <i>i.e.</i> the manuscript of +a play; the payments in 1599 are generally made in advance, “in +earnest” of work to be done. In the case of three of the above +plays, <i>Orestes Fures</i>, <i>Truth’s Supplication</i> and <i>The Gentle Craft</i>, +Dekker is paid as the sole author. Only <i>The Gentle Craft</i> has been +preserved; it was published anonymously in 1600 under the title +of <i>The Shoemaker’s Holiday</i>. It would be unsafe to argue from +the classical subjects of some of these plays that Dekker was then +a young man from the university, who had come up like so many +others to make a living by writing for the stage. Classical knowledge +was then in the air; playwrights in want of a subject were +content with translations, if they did not know the originals. +However educated, Dekker was then a young man just out of his +teens, if he spoke with any accuracy when he said that he was +threescore in 1637. And it was not in scholarly themes that he +was destined to find his true vein. The call for the publication +of <i>The Gentle Craft</i>, which deals with the life of the city, showed +him where his strength lay.</p> + +<p>To give a general idea of the substance of Dekker’s plays, there +is no better way than to call him the Dickens of the Elizabethan +period. The two men were as unlike as possible in their habits +of work, Dekker having apparently all the thriftlessness and +impecunious shamelessness of Micawber himself. Henslowe’s +<i>Diary</i> contains two notes of payments made in 1597/1598 and +1598/1599 to release Dekker from prison, and he is supposed to +have spent the years between 1613 and 1616 in the King’s Bench. +Dekker’s Bohemianism appears in the slightness and hurry of his +work, a strong contrast to the thoroughness and rich completeness +of every labour to which Dickens applied himself; perhaps also in +the exquisite freshness and sweetness of his songs, and the natural +charm of stray touches of expression and description in his plays. +But he was like Dickens in the bent of his genius towards the +representation of the life around him in London, as well as in the +humorous kindliness of his way of looking at that life, his vein of +sentiment, and his eye for odd characters, though the random +pickings of Dekker, hopping here and there in search of a subject, +give less complete results than the more systematic labours of +Dickens. Dekker’s Simon Eyre, the good-hearted, mad shoemaker, +and his Orlando Friscobaldo, are touched with a kindly +humour in which Dickens would have delighted; his Infelices, +Fiamettas, Tormiellas, even his Bellafront, have a certain likeness +in type to the heroines of Dickens; and his roaring blades and +their gulls are prototypes of Sir Mulberry Hawk and Lord +Frederick Verisopht. Only there is this great difference in the +spirit of the two writers, that Dekker wrote without the smallest +apparent wish to reform the life that he saw, desiring only to +exhibit it; and that on the whole, apart from his dramatist’s +necessity of finding interesting matter, he cast his eye about +rather with a liking for the discovery of good under unpromising +appearances than with any determination to detect and expose +vice. The observation must also be made that Dekker’s personages +have much more individual character, more of that mixture +of good and evil which we find in real human beings. Hack-writer +though Dekker was, and writing often under sore pressure, +there is no dramatist whose personages have more of the breath of +life in them; drawing with easy, unconstrained hand, he was a +master of those touches by which an imaginary figure is brought +home to us as a creature with human interests. A very large part +of the motive power in his plays consists in the temporary yielding +to an evil passion. The kindly philosophy that the best of natures +may be for a time perverted by passionate desires is the chief +animating principle of his comedy. He delights in showing +women listening to temptation, and apparently yielding, but still +retaining sufficient control over themselves to be capable of +drawing back when on the verge of the precipice. The wives of +the citizens were his heroines, pursued by the unlawful addresses +of the gay young courtiers; and on the whole Dekker, from +inclination apparently as well as policy, though himself, if Ben +Jonson’s satire had any point, a bit of a dandy in his youth, took +the part of morality and the city, and either struck the rakes with +remorse or made the objects of their machinations clever enough +to outwit them. From Dekker’s plays we get a very lively +impression of all that was picturesque and theatrically interesting +in the city life of the time, the interiors of the shops and the +houses, the tastes of the citizens and their wives, the tavern +and tobacco-shop manners of the youthful aristocracy and their +satellites. The social student cannot afford to overlook Dekker; +there is no other dramatist of that age, except Thomas Middleton, +from whom we can get such a vivid picture of contemporary +manners in London. He drew direct from life; in so far as he +idealized, he did so not in obedience to scholarly precepts or +dogmatic theories, but in the immediate interests of good-natured +farce and tender-hearted sentiment.</p> + +<p>In all the serious parts of Dekker’s plays there is a charming +delicacy of touch, and his smallest scraps of song are bewitching; +but his plays, as plays, owe much more to the interest of the +characters and the incidents than to any excellence of construction. +We see what use could be made of his materials by a +stronger intellect in <i>Westward Ho!</i> which he wrote in conjunction +with John Webster. The play, somehow, though the parts are +more firmly knit together, and it has more unity of purpose, is not +so interesting as Dekker’s unaided work. Middleton formed a +more successful combination with Dekker than Webster; there +is some evidence that in <i>The Honest Whore</i>, or <i>The Converted +Courtesan</i>, which is generally regarded as the best that bears +Dekker’s name, he had the assistance of Middleton, although the +assistance was so immaterial as not to be worth acknowledging +in the title-page. Still that Middleton, a man of little genius but +of much practical talent and robust humour, was serviceable to +Dekker in determining the form of the play may well be believed. +The two wrote another play in concert, <i>The Roaring Girl</i>, for +which Middleton probably contributed a good deal of the matter, +as well as a more symmetrical form than Dekker seems to have +been capable of devising. In <i>The Witch of Edmonton</i>, except in +a few scenes, it is difficult to trace the hand of Dekker with +any certainty; his collaborators were John Ford and William +Rowley; to Ford probably belongs the intense brooding and +murderous wrath of the old hag, which are too direct and hard +in their energy for Dekker, while Rowley may be supposed to +be responsible for the delineation of country life. <i>The Virgin +Martyr</i>, one of the best constructed of his plays, was written in +conjunction with Massinger, to whom the form is no doubt due. +Dekker’s plays contain a few songs which show him to have been +possessed of very great lyrical skill, but of this he seems to have +made sadly little use. His poem of <i>Canaans Calamitie</i>—if indeed +it be his, which is hard to believe—is exceedingly poor stuff, and +the verse portion of his <i>Dreame</i>, though containing some good +lines, is, as a whole, not much better.</p> + +<p>When Gerard Langbaine wrote his <i>Account of the English +Dramatic Poets</i> in 1691, he spoke of Dekker as being “more +famous for the contention he had with Ben Jonson for the bays, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page940" id="page940"></a>940</span> +than for any great reputation he had gained by his own writings.” +This is an opinion that could not be professed now, when Dekker’s +work is read. In the contention with Ben Jonson, one of the most +celebrated quarrels of authors, the origin of which is matter of +dispute, Dekker seems to have had very much the best of it. We +can imagine that Jonson’s attack was stinging at the time, because +it seems to be full of sarcastic personalities, but it is dull enough +now when nobody knows what Dekker was like, nor what was +the character of his mother. There is nothing in the <i>Poetaster</i> +that has any point as applied to Dekker’s powers as a dramatist, +while, on the contrary, <i>Satiromastix, or the Untrussing of the +Humorous Poet</i> is full of pungent ridicule of Jonson’s style, and of +retorts and insults conceived in the happiest spirit of good-natured +mockery. Dekker has been accused of poverty of +invention in adopting the character of the <i>Poetaster</i>, but it is +of the very pith of the jest that Dekker should have set on +Jonson’s own foul-mouthed Captain Tucca to abuse Horace +himself.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Works.</span>—<i>The Pleasant Comedie of Old Fortunatus</i> (1600); <i>The +Shomakers Holiday. Or The gentle Craft. With the humorous life of +Simon Eyre, shoomaker, and Lord Maior of London</i> (1600); <i>Satiromastix. +Or The untrussing of the Humorous Poet</i> (1602); <i>The +Pleasant Comodie of Patient Grissill</i> (1603), with Chettle and +Haughton; <i>The Honest Whore. With The Humours of the Patient +Man, and the Longing Wife</i> (1604); <i>North-Ward Hoe</i> (1607), with +John Webster; <i>West-Ward Hoe</i> (1607), with John Webster; <i>The +Whore of Babylon</i> (1607); <i>The Famous History of Sir Thomas Wyat. +With the Coronation of Queen Mary, and the coming in of King Philip</i> +(1607), with John Webster; <i>The Roaring Girle. Or Moll Cut-Purse</i> +(1611), with Thomas Middleton; <i>The Virgin Martir</i> (1622), with +Massinger; <i>If It Be Not Good, the Divel is in it</i> (1612); <i>The Second +Part of the Honest Whore. With the Humors of the Patient Man, the +Impatient Wife; the Honest Whore, perswaded by strong Arguments to +turne Curtizan againe; her brave refuting those Arguments. And +lastly, the Comicall Passages of an Italian Bridewell, where the Scaene +ends</i> (1630); <i>A Tragi-Comedy: Called, Match mee in London</i> (1631); +<i>The Wonder of a Kingdome</i> (1636); <i>The Witch of Edmonton. A +known true Story. Composed into a Tragi-Comedy</i> (1658), with +William Rowley and John Ford. <i>The Sun’s Darling</i> (1656) was +possibly written by Ford and Dekker, or may be perhaps more +correctly regarded as a recast by Ford of a masque by Dekker, +perhaps his lost play of <i>Phaëton</i>. The pageants for the Lord Mayor’s +shows of 1612 and 1629 were written by Dekker, and both are +preserved. His tracts are invaluable for the light which they throw on +the London of his time, especially in their descriptions of the circumstances +of the theatre. Their titles, many of which are necessarily +abbreviated, are: <i>Canaans Calamitie, Jerusalems Miserie, and +Englands Mirror</i> (1598), in verse; <i>The Wonderfull Yeare 1603. +Wherein is shewed the picture of London lying sicke of the Plague</i> +(1603); <i>The Batchelars Banquet</i> (1603); a brilliant adaptation of +<i>Les Quinze Joyes de mariage</i>; the <i>Seven Deadly Sinnes of London</i> +(1606); <i>Newes from Hell, Brought by the Divells Carrier</i> (1606), +reprinted in the next year with some interesting additions as +<i>A Knights Conjuring; Jests to make you Merie</i> (1607), with George +Wilkins; <i>The Belman of London: Bringing to Light the most +notorious villanies that are now practised in the Kingdome</i> (1608); +followed by a second part and enlarged editions under other titles; +<i>The Dead Tearme</i> (1608); <i>The Ravens Almanacke, foretelling of a +Plague, Famine and Civill Warre</i> (1609), ridiculing the almanac +makers; <i>The Guls Horne-booke</i> (1609), the most famous of all his +tracts, providing a code of manners for the Elizabethan gallant, in +the aisle of St Paul’s, at the ordinary, at the playhouse, and other +resorts; <i>Worke for Armorours, or the Peace is Broken</i> (1609); <i>Foure +Birds of Noahs Ark</i> (1609); <i>A Strange Horse-Race</i> (1613); <i>Dekker +his Dreame ...</i> (1620), in verse and prose, illustrated with a woodcut +of the dreamer; and <i>A Rod for Run-awayes</i> (1625). This long +list does not exhaust Dekker’s work, much of which is lost.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—An edition of the collected dramatic works of +Dekker by R. H. Shepherd appeared in 1873; his prose tracts and +poems were included in Dr A. B. Grosart’s <i>Huth Library</i> (1884-1886): +both these contain memoirs of him, but by far the most complete +account of his life and writings is to be found in the article by +A. H. Bullen in the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>. See also +the elaborate discussion of his plays in Mr Fleay’s <i>Biographical +Chronicle</i> (1891), i. 115, &c., and, for his quarrel with Ben Jonson, +Prof. J. H. Penniman’s <i>War of the Theatres</i> (Boston, 1897) and +Mr R. A. Small’s <i>Stage Quarrel between Ben Jonson and the so-called +Poetasters</i> (Breslau, 1899). A selection from his plays was +edited for the Mermaid Series (1887; new series, 1904) by Ernest +Rhys. An essay on Dekker by A. C. Swinburne appeared in <i>The +Nineteenth Century</i> for January 1887.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. M.; R. B. McK.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DE LA BECHE, SIR HENRY THOMAS<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1796-1855), English +geologist, was born in the year 1796. His father, an officer in the +army, possessed landed property in Jamaica, but died while his +son was still young. The boy accordingly spent his youth with +his mother at Lyme Regis among the interesting and picturesque +coast cliffs of the south-west of England, where he imbibed a love +for geological pursuits and cultivated a marked artistic faculty. +When fourteen years of age, being destined, like his friend +Murchison, for the military profession, he entered the college at +Great Marlow, where he distinguished himself by the rapidity and +skill with which he executed sketches showing the salient features +of a district. The peace of 1815, however, changed his career and +he devoted himself with ever-increasing assiduity to the pursuit +of geology. When only twenty-one years of age he joined the +Geological Society of London, continuing throughout life to be +one of its most active, useful and honoured members. He was +president in 1848-1849. Possessing a fortune sufficient for the +gratification of his tastes, he visited many localities of geological +interest, not only in Britain, but also on the continent, in France +and Switzerland. His journeys seldom failed to bear fruit in +suggestive papers accompanied by sketches. Early attachment +to the south-west of England led him back to that region, where, +with enlarged experience, he began the detailed investigation of +the rocks of Cornwall and Devon. Thrown much into contact with +the mining community of that part of the country, he conceived +the idea that the nation ought to compile a geological map of the +United Kingdom, and collect and preserve specimens to illustrate, +and aid in further developing, its mineral industries. He showed +his skilful management of affairs by inducing the government of +the day to recognize his work and give him an appointment in +connexion with the Ordnance Survey. This formed the starting +point of the present Geological Survey of Great Britain, which +was officially recognized in 1835, when De la Beche was appointed +director. Year by year increasing stores of valuable specimens +were transmitted to London; and the building at Craig’s Court, +where the young Museum of Economic Geology was placed, +became too small. But De la Beche, having seen how fruitful his +first idea had become, appealed to the authorities not merely to +provide a larger structure, but to widen the whole scope of the +scientific establishment of which he was the head, so as to impart +to it the character of a great educational institution where +practical as well as theoretical instruction should be given in +every branch of science necessary for the conduct of mining work. +In this endeavour he was again successful. Parliament sanctioned +the erection of a museum in Jermyn Street, London, and the +organization Of a staff of professors with laboratories and other +appliances. The establishment, in which were combined the +offices of the Geological Survey, the Museum of Practical Geology, +The Royal School of Mines and the Mining Record Office, was +opened in 1851. Many foreign countries have since formed +geological surveys avowedly based upon the organization and +experience of that of the United Kingdom. The British colonies, +also, have in many instances established similar surveys for the +development of their mineral resources, and have had recourse +to the parent survey for advice and for officers to conduct the +operations.</p> + +<p>De la Beche published numerous memoirs on English geology +in the <i>Transactions of the Geological Society of London</i>, as well as in +the <i>Memoirs of the Geological Survey</i>, notably the <i>Report on the +Geology of Cornwall, Devon and West Somerset</i> (1839). He likewise +wrote <i>A Geological Manual</i> (1831; 3rd ed., 1833); and a +work of singular breadth and clearness—<i>Researches in Theoretical +Geology</i> (1834)—in which he enunciated a philosophical treatment +of geological questions much in advance of his time. An +early volume, <i>How to Observe Geology</i> (1835 and 1836), was +rewritten and enlarged by him late in life, and published under +the title of <i>The Geological Observer</i> (1851; 2nd ed., 1853). It was +marked by wide practical experience, multifarious knowledge, +philosophical insight and a genius for artistic delineation of +geological phenomena. He was elected F.R.S. in 1819. He +received the honour of knighthood in 1848, and near the close of +his life was awarded the Wollaston medal—the highest honour +in the gift of the Geological Society of London. After a life of +constant activity he began to suffer from partial paralysis, but, +though becoming gradually worse, continued able to transact +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page941" id="page941"></a>941</span> +his official business until a few days before his death, which +took place on the 13th of April 1855.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sir A. Geikie’s <i>Memoir of Sir A. C. Ramsay</i> (1895), which +contains a sketch of the history of the Geological Survey, and of +the life of De la Beche (with portrait); also <i>Summary of Progress of +the Geological Survey for 1897</i> (1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELABORDE, HENRI FRANÇOIS,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1764-1833), +French soldier, was the son of a baker of Dijon. At the outbreak +of the French Revolution he joined the “Volunteers of the +Côte-d’Or,” and passing rapidly through all the junior grades, +was made general of brigade after the combat of Rhein-Zabern +(1793). As chief of the staff he was present at the siege of Toulon +in the same year, and, promoted general of division, he was for +a time governor of Corsica. In 1794 Delaborde served on the +Spanish frontier, distinguishing himself at the Bidassoa (July 25) +and Misquiriz (October 16). His next command was on the +Rhine. At the head of a division he took part in the celebrated +campaigns of 1795-97, and in 1796 covered Moreau’s +right when that general invaded Bavaria. Delaborde was in +constant military employment during the Consulate and the +early Empire. Made commander of the Legion of Honour in +1804, he received the dignity of count in 1808. In that year +he was serving in Portugal under Junot. Against Sir Arthur +Wellesley’s English army he fought the <span class="correction" title="amended from skilful">skillful</span> brilliant +rear-guard action of Rolica. In 1812 he was one of Mortier’s +divisional leaders in the Russian War, and in the following +year was grand cross and governor of the castle of Compiègne. +Joining Napoleon in the Hundred Days, he was marked for +punishment by the returning Bourbons, sent before a court-martial, +and only escaped condemnation through a technical +flaw in the wording of the charge. The rest of his life was +spent in retirement.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELACROIX, FERDINAND VICTOR EUGÈNE<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (1798-1863), +French historical painter, leader of the Romantic movement, +was born at Charenton-St-Maurice, near Paris, on the 26th of +April 1798. His father Charles Delacroix (1741-1805) was a +partisan of the most violent faction during the time of the Revolution, +and was foreign minister under the Directory. The family +affairs seem to have been conducted in the wildest manner, and +the accidents that befell the child, well authenticated as they are +said to be, make it almost a miracle that he survived. He was +first nearly burned to death in the cradle by a nurse falling asleep +over a novel and the candle dropping on the coverlet; this left +permanent marks on his arms and face. He was next dropped +into the sea by another <i>bonne</i>, who was climbing up a ship’s side +to see her lover. He was nearly poisoned, and nearly choked, +and, to crown all, he tried to hang himself, without any thought of +suicide, in imitation of a print exhibiting a man in that position +of final ignominy. The prediction of a charlatan founded on his +horoscope has been preserved: “Cet enfant deviendra un +homme célèbre, mais sa vie sera des plus laborieuses, des plus +tourmentées, et toujours livrée à la contradiction.”</p> + +<p>Delacroix the elder (also known as Delacroix de Contaut) +died at Bordeaux when Eugène was seven years of age, and his +mother returned to Paris and placed him in the Lycée Napoléon. +Afterwards, on his determining to be a painter, he entered the +<i>atelier</i> of Baron Guérin, who affected to treat him as an amateur. +His fellow-pupil was Ary Scheffer, who was alike by temperament +and antecedents the opposite of the <i>bizarre</i> Delacroix, and +the two remained antagonistic to the end of life. Delacroix’s +acknowledged power and yet want of success with artists and +critics—Thiers being his only advocate—perhaps mainly resulted +from his bravura and rude dash in the use of the brush, at a +time when smooth roundness of surface was general. His first +important picture, “Dante and Virgil,” was painted in his own +studio; and when Guérin went to see it he flew into a passion, +and told him his picture was absurd, detestable, exaggerated. +“Why ask me to come and see this? You knew what I must +say.” Yet his work was received at the Salon, and produced an +enthusiasm of debate (1822). Some said Géricault had worked +on it, but all treated it with respect. Still in private his position, +even after the larger tragic picture, the “Massacre of Chios,” had +been deposited in the Luxembourg by the government (1824), +became that of an Ishmaelite. The war for the freedom of Greece +then going on moved him deeply, and his next two pictures—“Marino +Faliero Decapitated on the Giant’s Staircase of the +Ducal Palace” (which has always remained a European success), +and “Greece Lamenting on the Ruins of Missolonghi”—with +many smaller works, were exhibited for the benefit of the +patriots in 1826. This exhibition was much visited by the public, +and next year he produced another of his important works, +“Sardanapalus,” from Byron’s drama. After this, he says, “I +became the abomination of painting, I was refused water and +salt,”—but, he adds with singularly happy naïveté, “J’étais +enchanté de moi-même!” The patrimony he inherited, or +perhaps it should be said, what remained of it, was 10,000 <i>livres +de rente</i>, and with economy he lived on this, and continued the +expensive process of painting large historical pictures. In 1831 +he reappeared in the Salon with six works, and immediately +after left for Morocco, where he found much congenial matter. +Delacroix never went to Italy; he refused to go on principle, +lest the old masters, either in spirit or manner, should impair +his originality and self-dependence. His greatest admiration in +literature was the poetry of Byron; Shakespeare also attracted +him for tragic inspirations; and of course classic subjects had +their turn of his easel.</p> + +<p>He continued his work indefatigably, having his pictures very +seldom favourably received at the Salon. These were sometimes +very large, full of incidents, with many figures. “Drawing of +Lots in the Boat at Sea,” from Byron’s <i>Don Juan</i>, and the +“Taking of Constantinople by the Christians” were of that +character, and the former was one of his noblest creations. In +1845 he was employed to decorate the library of the Luxembourg, +that of the chamber of deputies in 1847, the ceiling of the gallery +of Apollo in the Louvre in 1849 and that of the Salon de la Paix +in the hôtel de ville in 1853. He died on the 13th of August 1863, +and in August 1864 an exhibition of his works was opened on +the Boulevard des Italiens. It contained 174 pictures, many of +them of large dimensions, and 303 drawings, showing immense +perseverance as well as energy and versatility. As a colourist, +and a romantic painter, he now ranks among the greatest of +French artists.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also A. Robaut, <i>Delacroix</i> (1885); E. Dargenty, <i>Delacroix par +lui-même</i> (1885); G. Moreau, <i>Delacroix et son œuvre</i> (1893); Dorothy +Bussy, <i>Eugène Delacroix</i> (1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DE LA GARDIE, MAGNUS GABRIEL,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1622-1686), +Swedish statesman, the best-known member of an ancient family +of French origin (the D’Escouperies of Languedoc) which had +been settled in Sweden since the 14th century. After a careful +education, completed by the usual grand tour, Magnus learned +the art of war under Gustavus Horn, and during the reign of +Christina (1644-1654), whose prime favourite he became, though +the liaison was innocent enough, he was raised to the highest +offices in the state and loaded with distinctions. In 1646 he was +sent at the head of an extraordinary mission to France, and on his +return married the queen’s cousin Marie Euphrosyne of Zweibrücken, +who, being but a poor princess, benefited greatly by her +wedding with the richest of the Swedish magnates. Immediately +afterwards, De la Gardie was made a senator, governor-general of +Saxony during the last stages of the Thirty Years’ War, and, in +1652, lord high treasurer. In 1653 he fell into disgrace and had +to withdraw from court. During the reign of Charles X. (1654-1660) +he was employed in the Baltic provinces both as a civilian +and a soldier, although in the latter capacity he gave the martial +king but little satisfaction. Charles X. nevertheless, in his last +will, appointed De la Gardie grand-chancellor and a member of +the council of regency which ruled Sweden during the minority +of Charles XI. (1660-1672). During this period De la Gardie was +the ruling spirit of the government and represented the party of +warlike adventure as opposed to the party of peace and economy +led by Counts Bonde and Brahe (<i>qq.v.</i>). After a severe struggle +De la Gardie’s party finally prevailed, and its triumph was +marked by that general decline of personal and political morality +which has given to this regency its unenviable reputation. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page942" id="page942"></a>942</span> +It was De la Gardie who first made Sweden the obsequious +hireling of the foreign power which had the longest purse. The +beginning of this shameful “subsidy policy” was the treaty of +Fontainebleau, 1661, by a secret paragraph of which Sweden, +in exchange for a considerable sum of money, undertook to +support the French candidate on the first vacancy of the Polish +throne. It was not, however, till the 14th of April 1672 that +Sweden, by the treaty of Stockholm, became a regular “mercenarius +Galliae,” pledging herself, in return for 400,000 <i>écus</i> per +annum in peace and 600,000 in war time, to attack with 16,000 +men those German princes who might be disposed to assist +Holland. The early disasters of the unlucky war of 1675-1679 +were rightly attributed to the carelessness, extravagance, procrastination +and general incompetence of De la Gardie and his +high aristocratic colleagues. In 1675 a special commission was +appointed to inquire into their conduct, and on the 27th of May +1682 it decided that the regents and the senate were solely +responsible for dilapidations of the realm, the compensation due +by them to the crown being assessed at 4,000,000 <i>daler</i> or £500,000. +De la Gardie was treated with relative leniency, but he “received +permission to retire to his estates for the rest of his life” and died +there in comparative poverty, a mere shadow of his former +magnificent self. The best sides of his character were his brilliant +social gifts and his intense devotion to literature and art.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Martin Veibull, <i>Sveriges Storhetstid</i> (Stockholm, 1881); <i>Sv. +Hist.</i> iv.; Robert Nisbet Bain, <i>Scandinavia</i> (Cambridge, 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELAGOA BAY<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (Port. for the bay “of the lagoon”), an inlet +of the Indian Ocean on the east coast of South Africa, between +25° 40′ and 26° 20′ S., with a length from north to south of over +70 m. and a breadth of about 20 m. The bay is the northern +termination of the series of lagoons which line the coast from +Saint Lucia Bay. The opening is toward the N.E. The southern +part of the bay is formed by a peninsula, called the Inyak +peninsula, which on its inner or western side affords safe +anchorage. At its N.W. point is Port Melville. North of the +peninsula is Inyak Island, and beyond it a smaller island +known as Elephant’s Island.</p> + +<p>In spite of a bar at the entrance and a number of shallows +within, Delagoa Bay forms a valuable harbour, accessible to +large vessels at all seasons of the year. The surrounding country +is low and very unhealthy, but the island of Inyak has a height +of 240 ft., and is used as a sanatorium. A river 12 to 18 ft. deep, +known as the Manhissa or Komati, enters the bay at its northern +end; several smaller streams, the Matolla, the Umbelozi, and +the Tembi, from the Lebombo Mountains, meet towards the +middle of the bay in the estuary called by the Portuguese the +Espirito Santo, but generally known as the English river; and +the Maputa, which has its headwaters in the Drakensberg, enters +in the south, as also does the Umfusi river. These rivers are the +haunts of the hippopotamus and the crocodile.</p> + +<p>The bay was discovered by the Portuguese navigator Antonio +de Campo, one of Vasco da Gama’s companions, in 1502, and +the Portuguese post of Lourenço Marques was established not +long after on the north side of the English river. In 1720 the +Dutch East India Company built a fort and “factory” on the +spot where Lourenço Marques now stands; but in 1730 the +settlement was abandoned. Thereafter the Portuguese had—intermittently—trading +stations in the Espirito Santo. These +stations were protected by small forts, usually incapable, however, +of withstanding attacks by the natives. In 1823 Captain (afterwards +Vice-Admiral) W. F. W. Owen, of the British navy, finding +that the Portuguese exercised no jurisdiction south of the +settlement of Lourenço Marques, concluded treaties of cession +with native chiefs, hoisted the British flag, and appropriated the +country from the English river southwards; but when he visited +the bay again in 1824 he found that the Portuguese, disregarding +the British treaties, had concluded others with the natives, and +had endeavoured (unsuccessfully) to take military possession of +the country. Captain Owen rehoisted the British flag, but the +sovereignty of either power was left undecided till the claims of +the Transvaal Republic rendered a solution of the question +urgent. In the meantime Great Britain had taken no steps to +exercise authority on the spot, while the ravages of Zulu hordes +confined Portuguese authority to the limits of their fort. In +1835 Boers, under a leader named Orich, had attempted to form +a settlement on the bay, which is the natural outlet for the +Transvaal; and in 1868 the Transvaal president, Marthinus +Pretorius, claimed the country on each side of the Maputa down +to the sea. In the following year, however, the Transvaal +acknowledged Portugal’s sovereignty over the bay. In 1861 +Captain Bickford, R.N., had declared Inyak and Elephant +islands British territory; an act protested against by the +Lisbon authorities. In 1872 the dispute between Great Britain +and Portugal was submitted to the arbitration of M. Thiers, the +French president; and on the 19th of April 1875 his successor, +Marshal MacMahon, declared in favour of the Portuguese. It +had been previously agreed by Great Britain and Portugal that +the right of pre-emption in case of sale or cession should be given +to the unsuccessful claimant to the bay. Portuguese authority +over the interior was not established until some time after the +MacMahon award; nominally the country south of the Manhissa +river was ceded to them by the Matshangana chief Umzila in +1861. In 1889 another dispute arose between Portugal and Great +Britain in consequence of the seizure by the Portuguese of the +railway running from the bay to the Transvaal. This dispute was +referred to arbitration, and in 1900 Portugal was condemned to +pay nearly £1,000,000 in compensation to the shareholders in the +railway company. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lourenço Marques</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gazaland</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For an account of the Delagoa Bay arbitration proceedings see Sir +E. Hertslet, <i>The Map of Africa by Treaty</i>, iii. 991-998 (London, +1909). Consult also the British blue-book, <i>Delagoa Bay, Correspondence +respecting the Claims of Her Majesty’s Government</i> (London, 1875); +L. van Deventer, <i>La Hollande et la Baie Delagoa</i> (The Hague, 1883); +G. McC. Theal, <i>The Portuguese in South Africa</i> (London, 1896), and +<i>History of South Africa since September 1795</i>, vol. v. (London, 1908). +<i>The Narrative of Voyages to explore the shores of Africa ... performed +... under direction of Captain W. F. W. Owen, R.N.</i> (London, +1833) contains much interesting information concerning the district +in the early part of the 19th century.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELAMBRE, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (1749-1822), French +astronomer, was born at Amiens on the 19th of September +1749. His college course, begun at Amiens under the abbé +Jacques Delille, was finished in Paris, where he took a scholarship +at the college of Plessis. Despite extreme penury, he then +continued to study indefatigably ancient and modern languages, +history and literature, finally turning his attention to mathematics +and astronomy. In 1771 he became tutor to the son of +M. d’Assy, receiver-general of finances; and while acting in this +capacity, attended the lectures of J. J. Lalande, who, struck with +his remarkable acquirements, induced M. d’Assy in 1788 to install +an observatory for his benefit at his own residence. Here +Delambre observed and computed almost uninterruptedly, and +in 1790 obtained for his Tables of Uranus the prize offered by the +academy of sciences, of which body he was elected a member two +years later. He was admitted to the Institute on its organization +in 1795, and became, in 1803, perpetual secretary to its mathematical +section. He, moreover, belonged from 1795 to the +bureau of longitudes. From 1792 to 1799 he was occupied with +the measurement of the arc of the meridian extending from +Dunkirk to Barcelona, and published a detailed account of the +operations in <i>Base du système métrique</i> (3 vols., 1806, 1807, 1810), +for which he was awarded in 1810 the decennial prize of the +Institute. The first consul nominated him inspector-general of +studies; he succeeded Lalande in 1807 as professor of astronomy +at the Collège de France, and filled the office of treasurer to the +imperial university from 1808 until its suppression in 1815. +Delambre died at Paris on the 19th of August 1822. His last +years were devoted to researches into the history of science, +resulting in the successive publication of: <i>Histoire de l’astronomie +ancienne</i> (2 vols., 1817); <i>Histoire de l’astronomie au moyen âge</i> +(1819); <i>Histoire de l’astronomie moderne</i> (2 vols., 1821); and +<i>Histoire de l’astronomie au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, issued in 1827 under +the care of C. L. Mathieu. These books show marvellous erudition; +but some of the judgments expressed in them are warped +by prejudice; they are diffuse in style and overloaded with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page943" id="page943"></a>943</span> +computations. He wrote besides: <i>Tables écliptiques des satellites +de Jupiter</i>, inserted in the third edition of J. J. Lalande’s <i>Astronomie</i> +(1792), and republished in an improved form by the +bureau of longitudes in 1817; <i>Méthodes analytiques pour la +détermination d’un arc du méridien</i> (1799); <i>Tables du soleil +(publiées par le bureau des longitudes)</i> (1806); <i>Rapport historique +sur les progrès des sciences mathématiques depuis l’an 1789</i> (1810); +<i>Abrégé d’astronomie</i> (1813); <i>Astronomie théorique et pratique</i> +(1814); &c.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. B. J. Fourier’s “Éloge” in <i>Mémoires de l’acad. des sciences</i>, +t. iv.; Ch. Dupin, <i>Revue encyclopédique</i>, t. xvi. (1822); <i>Biog. universelle</i>, +t. lxii. (C. L. Mathieu); Max. Marie, <i>Hist. des sciences</i>, x. 31; +R. Grant, <i>Hist. of Physical Astr.</i> pp. 96, 142, 165; R. Wolf, +<i>Geschichte der Astronomie</i>, p. 779, &c.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELAMERE<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">De la Mer</span>), <b>GEORGE BOOTH,</b> 1st <span class="sc">Baron</span> +(1622-1684), son of William Booth, a member of an ancient +family settled at Dunham Massey in Cheshire, and of Vere, +daughter and co-heir of Sir Thomas Egerton, was born in August +1622. He took an active part in the Civil War with his grandfather, +Sir George Booth, on the parliamentary side. He was +returned for Cheshire to the Long Parliament in 1645 and to +Cromwell’s parliaments of 1654 and 1656. In 1655 he was +appointed military commissioner for Cheshire and treasurer at +war. He was one of the excluded members who tried and failed +to regain their seats after the fall of Richard Cromwell in 1659. +He had for some time been regarded by the royalists as a well-wisher +to their cause, and was described to the king in May 1659 +as “very considerable in his country, a presbyterian in opinion, +yet so moral a man.... I think your Majesty may safely [rely] +on him and his promises which are considerable and hearty.”<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +He now became one of the chief leaders of the new “royalists” +who at this time united with the cavaliers to effect the restoration. +A rising was arranged for the 5th of August in several +districts, and Booth took charge of operations in Cheshire, +Lancashire and North Wales. He got possession of Chester on +the 19th, issued a proclamation declaring that arms had been +taken up “in vindication of the freedom of parliament, of the +known laws, liberty and property,” and marched towards York. +The plot, however, was known to Thurloe. It had entirely failed +in other parts of the country, and Lambert advancing with his +forces defeated Booth’s men at Nantwich Bridge. Booth himself +escaped disguised as a woman, but was discovered at Newport +Pagnell on the 23rd in the act of shaving, and was imprisoned +in the Tower. He was, however, soon liberated, took his seat in +the parliament of 1659-1660, and was one of the twelve members +deputed to carry the message of the Commons to Charles II. at +the Hague. In July 1660 he received a grant of £10,000, having +refused the larger sum of £20,000 at first offered to him, and on +the 20th of April 1661, on the occasion of the coronation, he was +created Baron Delamere, with a licence to create six new knights. +The same year he was appointed <i>custos rotulorum</i> of Cheshire. +In later years he showed himself strongly antagonistic to the +reactionary policy of the government. He died on the 8th of +August 1684, and was buried at Bowdon. He married (1) Lady +Catherine Clinton, daughter and co-heir of Theophilus, 4th earl +of Lincoln, by whom he had one daughter; and (2) Lady +Elizabeth Grey, daughter of Henry, 1st earl of Stamford, by +whom, besides five daughters, he had seven sons, the second of +whom, Henry, succeeded him in the title and estates and was +created earl of Warrington. The earldom became extinct on the +death of the latter’s son, the 2nd earl, without male issue, in 1758, +and the barony of Delamere terminated in the person of the 4th +baron in 1770; the title was revived in 1821 in the Cholmondeley +family.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Clarendon, <i>State Papers</i>, iii. 472.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DE LAND,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> a town and the county-seat of Volusia county, +Florida, U.S.A., 111 m. by rail S. of Jacksonville, 20 m. from the +Atlantic coast and 4 m. from the St John’s river. Pop. (1900) +1449; (1910) 2812. De Land is served by the Atlantic Coast +Line and by steamboats on the St John’s river. It has a fine +winter climate, with an average temperature of 60° F., has +sulphur springs, and is a health and winter resort. There is a +starch factory here; and the surrounding country is devoted to +fruit-growing. De Land is the seat of the John B. Stetson +University (co-educational), an undenominational institution +under Baptist control, founded in 1884, as an academy, by +Henry A. De Land, a manufacturer of Fairport, New York, and +in 1887 incorporated under the name of De Land University, +which was changed in 1889 to the present name, in honour of +John Batterson Stetson (1830-1906), a Philadelphia manufacturer +of hats, who during his life gave nearly $500,000 to +the institution. The university includes a college of liberal arts, +a department of law, a school of technology, an academy, a +normal school, a model school, a business college and a school of +music. De Land was founded in 1876 by H. A. De Land, above +mentioned, who built a public school here in 1877 and a high +school in 1883.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELANE, JOHN THADEUS<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> (1817-1879), editor of <i>The Times</i> +(London), was born on the 11th of October 1817 in London. He +was the second son of Mr W. F. A. Delane, a barrister, of an +old Irish family, who about 1832 was appointed by Mr Walter +financial manager of <i>The Times</i>. While still a boy he attracted +Mr Walter’s attention, and it was always intended that he should +find work on the paper. He received a good general education at +private schools and King’s College, London, and also at Magdalen +Hall, Oxford; after taking his degree in 1840 he at once began +work on the paper, though later he read for the bar, being called +in 1847. In 1841 he succeeded Thomas Barnes as editor, a post +which he occupied for thirty-six years. He from the first obtained +the best introductions into society and the chief political circles, +and had a position there such as no journalist had previously +enjoyed, using his opportunities with a sure intuition for the way +in which events would move. His staff included some of the +most brilliant men of the day, who worked together with a +common ideal. The result to the paper, which in those days +had hardly any real competitor in English journalism, was an +excellence of information which gave it great power. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Newspapers</a></span>.) +Delane was a man of many interests and great judgment; +capable of long application and concentrated attention, +with power to seize always on the main point at issue, and rapidly +master the essential facts in the most complicated affair. His +general policy was to keep the paper a national organ of opinion +above party, but with a tendency to sympathize with the Liberal +movements of the day. He admired Palmerston and respected +Lord Aberdeen, and was of considerable use to both; and it was +Lord Aberdeen himself who, in 1845, told him of the impending +repeal of the Corn Laws, an incident round which many incorrect +stories have gathered. The history, however, of the events +during the thirteen administrations, between 1841 and 1877, in +which <i>The Times</i>, and therefore Delane, played an important +part cannot here be recapitulated. In 1877 his health gave way, +and he retired from the editorship; and on the 22nd of November +1879 he died at Ascot.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A biography by his nephew, Arthur Irwin Dasent, was published +in 1908.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELANY, MARY GRANVILLE<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1700-1788), an Englishwoman +of literary tastes, was born at Coulston, Wilts, on the +14th of May 1700. She was a niece of the 1st Lord Lansdowne. +In 1717 or 1718 she was unhappily married to Alexander +Pendarves, a rich old Cornish landowner, who died in 1724. +During a visit to Ireland she met Dean Swift and his intimate +friend, the Irish divine, Patrick Delany, whose second wife she +became in 1743. After his death in 1768 she passed all her +summers with her bosom friend the dowager duchess of Portland—Prior’s +“Peggy”—and when the latter died George III. and +Queen Charlotte, whose affection for their “dearest Mrs Delany” +seems to have been most genuine, gave her a small house at +Windsor and a pension of £300 a year. Fanny Burney (Madame +D’Arblay) was introduced to her in 1783, and frequently visited +her at her London home and at Windsor, and owed to her friendship +her court appointment. At this time Mrs Delany was a +charming and sweet old lady, with a reputation for cutting out +and making the ingenious “paper mosaiks” now in the British +Museum; she had known every one worth knowing in her day, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page944" id="page944"></a>944</span> +had corresponded with Swift and Young, and left an interesting +picture of the polite but commonplace English society of the +18th century in her six volumes of <i>Autobiography and Letters</i>. +Burke calls her “a real fine lady”—“the model of an accomplished +woman of former times.” She died on the 15th of April +1788.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DE LA REY, JACOBUS HERCULES<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (1847-  ), Boer soldier, +was born in the Lichtenburg district, and in his youth and early +manhood saw much service in savage warfare. In 1893 he +entered the Volksraad of the South African Republic, and was +an active supporter of the policy of General Joubert. At the +outbreak of the war with Great Britain in 1899 De La Rey was +made a general, and he was engaged in the western campaign +against Lord Methuen and Lord Roberts. He won his first great +success at Nitral’s Nek on the 11th of July 1900, where he +compelled the surrender of a strong English detachment. In +the second or guerrilla stage of the war De La Rey became one of +the most conspicuously successful of the Boer leaders. He was +assistant to General Louis Botha and a member of the government, +with charge of operations in the western Transvaal. The +principal actions in which he was successful (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Transvaal</a></span>: +<i>History</i>) were Nooitgedacht, Vlakfontein and the defeat and +capture of Lord Methuen at Klerksdorp (March 7, 1902). The +British general was severely wounded in the action, and De La +Rey released him at once, being unable to afford him proper +medical assistance. This humanity and courtesy marked De +La Rey’s conduct throughout the war, and even more than his +military skill and daring earned for him the esteem of his enemies. +After the conclusion of peace De La Rey, who had borne a +prominent part in the negotiations, visited Europe with the +other generals, with the intention of raising funds to enable the +Boers to resettle their country. In December 1903 he went on a +mission to India, and induced the whole of the Boer prisoners of +war detained at Ahmednagar to accept the new order of things +and to take the oath of allegiance. In February 1907 General +De La Rey was returned unopposed as member for Ventersdorp +in the legislative assembly of the first Transvaal parliament under +self-government.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DE LA RIVE, AUGUSTE ARTHUR<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (1801-1873), Swiss +physicist, was born at Geneva on the 9th of October 1801. He +was the son of Charles Gaspard de la Rive (1770-1834), who +studied medicine at Edinburgh, and after practising for a few +years in London, became professor of pharmaceutical chemistry +at the academy of Geneva in 1802 and rector in 1823. After +a brilliant career as a student, he was appointed at the age of +twenty-two to the chair of natural philosophy in the academy +of Geneva. For some years after his appointment he devoted +himself specially, with François Marcet (1803-1883), to the +investigation of the specific heat of gases, and to observations +for determining the temperature of the earth’s crust. Electrical +studies, however, engaged most of his attention, especially in +connexion with the theory of the voltaic cell and the electric +discharge in rarefied gases. His researches on the last-mentioned +subject led him to form a new theory of the aurora borealis. +In 1840 he described a process for the electro-gilding of silver and +brass, for which in the following year he received a prize of 3000 +francs from the French Academy of Sciences. Between 1854 +and 1858 he published a <i>Traité de l’électricité théorique et appliquée</i>, +which was translated into several languages. De la Rive’s birth +and fortune gave him considerable social and political influence. +He was distinguished for his hospitality to literary and scientific +men, and for his interest in the welfare and independence of his +native country. In 1860, when the annexation of Savoy and Nice +had led the Genevese to fear French aggression, de la Rive was +sent by his fellow-citizens on a special embassy to England, and +succeeded in securing a declaration from the English government, +which was communicated privately to that of France, that any +attack upon Geneva would be regarded as a <i>casus belli</i>. On the +occasion of this visit the university of Oxford conferred upon de +la Rive the honorary degree of D.C.L. When on his way to pass +the winter at Cannes he died suddenly at Marseilles on the 27th +of November 1873.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Lucien de la Rive</span>, born at Geneva on the 3rd of +April 1834, published papers on various mathematical and +physical subjects, and with Édouard Sarasin carried out investigations +on the propagation of electric waves.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELAROCHE, HIPPOLYTE,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> commonly known as <span class="sc">Paul</span> +(1797-1856), French painter, was born in Paris on the 17th of July +1797. His father was an expert who had made a fortune, to some +extent, by negotiating and cataloguing, buying and selling. He +was proud of his son’s talent, and able to forward his artistic +education. The master selected was Gros, then painting life-size +histories, and surrounded by many pupils. In no haste to make +an appearance in the Salon, his first exhibited picture was a large +one, “Josabeth saving Joas” (1822). This picture led to his acquaintance +with Géricault and Delacroix, with whom he remained +on the most friendly terms, the three forming the central group +of a numerous body of historical painters, such as perhaps never +before lived in one locality and at one time.</p> + +<p>From 1822 the record of his life is to be found in the successive +works coming from his hand. He visited Italy in 1838 and 1843, +when his father-in-law, Horace Vernet, was director of the French +Academy. His studio in Paris was in the rue Mazarine, where he +never spent a day without some good result, his hand being sure +and his knowledge great. His subjects, definitely expressed and +popular in their manner of treatment, illustrating certain views +of history dear to partisans, yet romantic in their general interest, +were painted with a firm, solid, smooth surface, which gave an +appearance of the highest finish. This solidity, found also on the +canvas of Vernet, Scheffer, Leopold Robert and Ingres, was the +manner of the day. It repudiates the technical charm of texture +and variety of handling which the English school inherited as a +tradition from the time of Reynolds; but it is more easily understood +by the world at large, since a picture so executed depends +for its interest rather on the history, scene in nature or object +depicted, than on the executive skill, which may or may not be +critically appreciated. We may add that his point of view of +the historical characters which he treated is not always just. +“Cromwell lifting the Coffin-lid and looking at the Body of +Charles” is an incident only to be excused by an improbable +tradition; but “The King in the Guard-Room,” with villainous +roundhead soldiers blowing tobacco smoke in his patient face, +is a libel on the Puritans; and “Queen Elizabeth dying on the +Ground,” like a she-dragon no one dares to touch, is sensational; +while the “Execution of Lady Jane Grey” is represented as taking +place in a dungeon. Nothing can be more incorrect than this last +as a reading of English history, yet we forget the inaccuracy in +admiration of the treatment which represents Lady Jane, with +bandaged sight, feeling for the block, her maids covering their +faces, and none with their eyes visible among the many figures. +On the other hand, “Strafford led to Execution,” when Laud +stretches his lawn-covered arms out of the small high window +of his cell to give him a blessing as he passes along the corridor, +is perfect; and the splendid scene of Richelieu in his gorgeous +barge, preceding the boat containing Cinq-Mars and De Thou +carried to execution by their guards, is perhaps the most dramatic +semi-historical work ever done. “The Princes in the Tower” +must also be mentioned as a very complete creation; and the +“Young female Martyr floating dead on the Tiber” is so pathetic +that criticism feels hard-hearted and ashamed before it. As a +realization of a page of authentic history, again, no picture can +surpass the “Assassination of the duc de Guise at Blois.” The +expression of the murdered man stretched out by the side of the +bed, the conspirators all massed together towards the door and +far from the body, show exact study as well as insight into human +nature. This work was exhibited in his meridian time, 1835; +and in the same year he exhibited the “Head of an Angel,” a +study from Horace Vernet’s young daughter Louise, his love for +whom was the absorbing passion of his life, and from the shock of +whose death, in 1845, it is said he never quite recovered. By far +his finest productions after her death are of the most serious +character, a sequence of small elaborate pictures of incidents in +the Passion. Two of these, the Virgin and the other Maries, with +the apostles Peter and John, within a nearly dark apartment, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page945" id="page945"></a>945</span> +hearing the crowd as it passes haling Christ to Calvary, and St +John conducting the Virgin home again after all is over, are +beyond all praise as exhibiting the divine story from a simply +human point of view. They are pure and elevated, and also +dramatic and painful. Delaroche was not troubled by ideals, +and had no affectation of them. His sound but hard execution +allowed no mystery to intervene between him and his <i>motif</i>, +which was always intelligible to the million, so that he escaped all +the waste of energy that painters who try to be poets on canvas +suffer. Thus it is that essentially the same treatment was applied +by him to the characters of distant historical times, the founders +of the Christian religion, and the real people of his own day, +such as “Napoleon at Fontainebleau,” or “Napoleon at St +Helena,” or “Marie Antoinette leaving the Convention” after +her sentence.</p> + +<p>In 1837 Delaroche received the commission for the great picture, +27 mètres long, in the hemicycle of the lecture theatre of the École +des Beaux Arts. This represents the great artists of the modern +ages assembled in groups on either hand of a central elevation of +white marble steps, on the topmost of which are three thrones +filled by the architects and sculptors of the Parthenon. To +supply the female element in this vast composition he introduced +the genii or muses, who symbolize or reign over the arts, +leaning against the balustrade of the steps, beautiful and queenly +figures with a certain antique perfection of form, but not informed +by any wonderful or profound expression. The portrait figures +are nearly all unexceptionable and admirable. This great and +successful work is on the wall itself, an inner wall however, and is +executed in oil. It was finished in 1841, and considerably injured +by a fire which occurred in 1855, which injury he immediately +set himself to remedy (finished by Robert-Fleury); but he died +before he had well begun, on the 4th of November 1856.</p> + +<p>Personally Delaroche exercised even a greater influence than +by his works. Though short and not powerfully made, he impressed +every one as rather tall than otherwise; his physiognomy +was accentuated and firm, and his fine forehead gave him the +air of a minister of state.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Rees, <i>Delaroche</i> (London, 1880).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. B. Sc.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELARUE, GERVAIS<a name="ar162a" id="ar162a"></a></span> (1751-1835), French historical investigator, +formerly regarded as one of the chief authorities on +Norman and Anglo-Norman literature, was a native of Caen. +He received his education at the university of that town, and was +ultimately raised to the rank of professor. His first historical +enterprise was interrupted by the French Revolution, which +forced him to take refuge in England, where he took the opportunity +of examining a vast mass of original documents in the +Tower and elsewhere, and received much encouragement, from +Sir Walter Scott among others. From England he passed over to +Holland, still in prosecution of his favourite task; and there he +remained till in 1798 he returned to France. The rest of his life +was spent in his native town, where he was chosen principal of +his university. While in England he had been elected a member +of the Royal Society of Antiquaries; and in his own country he +was made a corresponding member of the Institute, and was +enrolled in the Legion of Honour. Besides numerous articles +in the <i>Memoirs of the Royal Society of London</i>, the <i>Mémoires de +l’Institut</i>, the <i>Mémoires de la Société d’Agriculture de Caen</i>, and +in other periodical collections, he published separately <i>Essais +historiques sur les Bardes, les Jongleurs, et les Trouvères normands +et anglo-normands</i> (3 vols., 1834), and <i>Recherches historiques sur +la Prairie de Caen</i> (1837); and after his death appeared <i>Mémoires +historiques sur le palinod de Caen</i> (1841), <i>Recherches sur la +tapisserie de Bayeux</i> (1841), and <i>Nouveaux Essais historiques +sur la ville de Caen</i> (1842). In all his writings he displays a +strong partiality for everything Norman, and rates the Norman +influence on French and English literature as of the very highest +moment.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DE LA RUE, WARREN<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (1815-1889), British astronomer and +chemist, son of Thomas De la Rue, the founder of the large firm +of stationers of that name in London, was born in Guernsey on +the 18th of January 1815. Having completed his education in +Paris, he entered his father’s business, but devoted his leisure +hours to chemical and electrical researches, and between 1836 and +1848 published several papers on these subjects. Attracted to +astronomy by the influence of James Nasmyth, he constructed +in 1850 a 13-in. reflecting telescope, mounted first at Canonbury, +later at Cranford, Middlesex, and with its aid executed many +drawings of the celestial bodies of singular beauty and fidelity. +His chief title to fame, however, is his pioneering work in the +application of the art of photography to astronomical research. +In 1851 his attention was drawn to a daguerreotype of the moon +by G. P. Bond, shown at the great exhibition of that year. +Excited to emulation and employing the more rapid wet-collodion +process, he succeeded before long in obtaining exquisitely defined +lunar pictures, which remained unsurpassed until the appearance +of the Rutherfurd photographs in 1865. In 1854 he turned his +attention to solar physics, and for the purpose of obtaining a +daily photographic representation of the state of the solar surface +he devised the photo-heliograph, described in his report to the +British Association, “On Celestial Photography in England” +(1859), and in his Bakerian Lecture (<i>Phil. Trans.</i> vol. clii. pp. +333-416). Regular work with this instrument, inaugurated at +Kew by De la Rue in 1858, was carried on there for fourteen years; +and was continued at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, from +1873 to 1882. The results obtained in the years 1862-1866 were +discussed in two memoirs, entitled “Researches on Solar Physics,” +published by De la Rue, in conjunction with Professor Balfour +Stewart and Mr B. Loewy, in the <i>Phil. Trans.</i> (vol. clix. pp. 1-110, +and vol. clx. pp. 389-496). In 1860 De la Rue took the photo-heliograph +to Spain for the purpose of photographing the total +solar eclipse which occurred on the 18th of July of that year. +This expedition formed the subject of the Bakerian Lecture +already referred to. The photographs obtained on that occasion +proved beyond doubt the solar character of the prominences or +red flames, seen around the limb of the moon during a solar +eclipse. In 1873 De la Rue gave up active work in astronomy, +and presented most of his astronomical instruments to the +university observatory, Oxford. Subsequently, in the year 1887, +he provided the same observatory with a 13-in. refractor to +enable it to take part in the International Photographic Survey +of the Heavens. With Dr Hugo Müller as his collaborator he +published several papers of a chemical character between the +years 1856 and 1862, and investigated, 1868-1883, the discharge +of electricity through gases by means of a battery of 14,600 +chloride of silver cells. He was twice president of the Chemical +Society, and also of the Royal Astronomical Society (1864-1866). +In 1862 he received the gold medal of the latter society, and in +1864 a Royal medal from the Royal Society, for his observations +on the total eclipse of the sun in 1860, and for his improvements +in astronomical photography. He died in London on the 19th +of April 1889.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Soc.</i> l. 155; <i>Journ. Chem. Soc.</i> +lvii. 441; <i>Nature</i>, xl. 26; <i>The Times</i> (April 22, 1889); Royal +Society, <i>Catalogue of Scientific Papers</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELATOR,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> in Roman history, properly one who gave notice +(<i>deferre</i>) to the treasury officials of moneys that had become due +to the imperial fisc. This special meaning was extended to those +who lodged information as to punishable offences, and further, to +those who brought a public accusation (whether true or not) +against any person (especially with the object of getting money). +Although the word <i>delator</i> itself, for “common informer,” is +confined to imperial times, the right of public accusation had +long been in existence. When exercised from patriotic and disinterested +motives, its effects were beneficial; but the moment +the principle of reward was introduced, this was no longer the case. +Sometimes the accuser was rewarded with the rights of citizenship, +a place in the senate, or a share of the property of the +accused. At the end of the republican period, Cicero (<i>De +Officiis</i>, ii. 14) expresses his opinion that such accusations should +be undertaken only in the interests of the state or for other urgent +reasons. Under the empire the system degenerated into an abuse, +which reached its height during the reign of Tiberius, although +the delators continued to exercise their activity till the reign +of Theodosius. They were drawn from all classes of society,—patricians, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page946" id="page946"></a>946</span> +knights, freedmen, slaves, philosophers, literary men, +and, above all, lawyers. The objects of their attacks were the +wealthy, all possible rivals of the emperor, and those whose +conduct implied a reproach against the imperial mode of life. +Special opportunities were afforded by the law of majestas, +which (originally directed against attacks on the ruler by word +or deed) came to include all kinds of accusations with which it +really had nothing to do; indeed, according to Tacitus, a charge +of treason was regularly added to all criminal charges. The +chief motive for these accusations was no doubt the desire of +amassing wealth,<a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> since by the law of majestas one-fourth of the +goods of the accused, even if he committed suicide in order to +avoid confiscation (which was always carried out in the case +of those condemned to capital punishment), was assured to the +accuser (who was hence called <i>quadruplator</i>). Pliny and Martial +mention instances of enormous fortunes amassed by those who +carried on this hateful calling. But it was not without its dangers. +If the delator lost his case or refused to carry it through, he was +liable to the same penalties as the accused; he was exposed to +the risk of vengeance at the hands of the proscribed in the event +of their return, or of their relatives; while emperors like Tiberius +would have no scruples about banishing or putting out of the +way those of his creatures for whom he had no further use, and +who might have proved dangerous to himself. Under the better +emperors a reaction set in, and the severest penalties were +inflicted upon the delators. Titus drove into exile or reduced +to slavery those who had served Nero, after they had first been +flogged in the amphitheatre. The abuse naturally reappeared +under a man like Domitian; the delators, with whom Vespasian +had not interfered, although he had abolished trials for majestas, +were again banished by Trajan, and threatened with capital +punishment in an edict of Constantine; but, as has been said, +the evil, which was an almost necessary accompaniment of +autocracy, lasted till the end of the 4th century.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Mayor’s note on Juvenal iv. 48 for ancient authorities; +C. Merivale, <i>Hist. of the Romans under the Empire</i>, chap. 44; +W. Rein, <i>Criminalrecht der Römer</i> (1842); T. Mommsen, <i>Römisches +Strafrecht</i> (1899); Kleinfeller in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> “Delatores, genus hominum publico exitio repertum ... per +praemia eliciebantur” (Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, iv. 30).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELAUNAY, ELIE<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (1828-1891), French painter, was born at +Nantes and studied under Flandrin and at the École des Beaux +Arts. He worked in the classicist manner of Ingres until, after +winning the Prix de Rome, he went to Italy in 1856, and +abandoned the ideal of Raphaelesque perfection for the sincerity +and severity of the quattrocentists. As a pure and firm +draughtsman he stands second only to Ingres. After his return +from Rome he was entrusted with many important commissions +for decorative paintings, such as the frescoes in the church of St +Nicholas at Nantes; the three panels of “Apollo,” “Orpheus” +and “Amphion” at the Paris opera-house; and twelve paintings +for the great hall of the council of state in the Palais Royal. His +“Scenes from the Life of St Geneviève,” which he designed for +the Pantheon, remained unfinished at his death. The Luxembourg +Museum has his famous “Plague in Rome” and a nude +figure of “Diana”; and the Nantes Museum, the “Lesson on +the Flute.” In the last decade of his life he achieved great +popularity as a portrait painter.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELAUNAY, LOUIS ARSÈNE<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (1826-1903), French actor, +was born in Paris, the son of a wine-seller. He studied at the +Conservatoire, and made his first formal appearance on the stage +in 1845, in <i>Tartuffe</i> at the Odéon. After three years at this house +he made his début at the Comédie Française as Dorante in +Corneille’s <i>Le Menteur</i>, and began a long and brilliant career in +young lover parts. He continued to act as <i>jeune premier</i> until he +was sixty, his grace, marvellous diction and passion enchanting +his audiences. It was especially in the plays of Alfred de Musset +that his gifts found their happiest expression. In the thirty-seven +years during which he was a member of the Comédie Française, +Delaunay took or created nearly two hundred parts. He retired +in 1887, having been made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour +in 1883.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELAVIGNE, JEAN FRANÇOIS CASIMIR<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1793-1843), French +poet and dramatist, was born on the 4th of April 1793 at Havre. +His father sent him at an early age to Paris, there to be educated +at the Lycée Napoléon. Constitutionally of an ardent and sympathetic +temperament, he enlarged his outlook by extensive +miscellaneous reading. On the 20th of March 1811 the empress +Marie Louise gave birth to a son, named in his very cradle king +of Rome. This event was celebrated by Delavigne in a <i>Dithyrambe +sur la naissance du roi de Rome</i>, which secured for him a +sinecure in the revenue office.</p> + +<p>About this time he competed twice for an academy prize, but +without success. Delavigne, inspired by the catastrophe of 1815, +wrote two impassioned poems, the first entitled Waterloo, the +second, <i>Dévastation du musée</i>, both written in the heat of patriotic +enthusiasm, and teeming with popular political allusions. A +third, but of inferior merit, <i>Sur le besoin de s’unir après le départ +des étrangers</i>, was afterwards added. These stirring pieces, +termed by him <i>Messéniennes</i>, sounded a keynote which found +an echo in the hearts of all. Twenty-five thousand copies were +sold; Delavigne was famous. He was appointed to an honorary +librarianship, with no duties to discharge. In 1819 his play +<i>Les vêpres Siciliennes</i> was performed at the Odéon, then just +rebuilt; it had previously been refused for the Théâtre Français. +On the night of the first representation, which was warmly +received, Picard, the manager, threw himself into the arms of +his elated friend, exclaiming, “You have saved us! You are +the founder of the second French Theatre.” This success was +followed up by the production of the <i>Comédiens</i> (1820), a poor +play, with little plot, and the <i>Paria</i> (1821), with still less, but +containing some well-written choruses. The latter piece obtained +a longer lease of life than its intrinsic literary merits warranted, +on account of the popularity of the political opinions freely +expressed in it—so freely expressed, indeed, that the displeasure +of the king was incurred, and Delavigne lost his post. But Louis +Philippe, duke of Orleans, willing to gain the people’s good +wishes by complimenting their favourite, wrote to him as follows: +“The thunder has descended on your house; I offer you an +apartment in mine.” Accordingly Delavigne became librarian +at the Palais Royal, a position retained during the remainder of +his life. It was here that he wrote the <i>École des vieillards</i> (1823), +his best comedy, which gained his election to the Academy in +1825. To this period also belong <i>La Princesse Aurélie</i> (1828), +and <i>Marino Faliero</i> (1829), a drama in the romantic style.</p> + +<p>For his success as a writer Delavigne was in no small measure +indebted to the stirring nature of the times in which he lived. +The <i>Messéniennes</i>, which first introduced him to universal +notice, had their origin in the excitement consequent on the +occupation of France by the allies in 1815. Another crisis in his +life and in the history of his country, the revolution of 1830, +stimulated him to the production of a second masterpiece, <i>La +Parisienne</i>. This song, set to music by Auber, was on the lips +of every Frenchman, and rivalled in popularity the <i>Marseillaise</i>. +A companion piece, <i>La Varsovienne</i>, was written for the Poles, +by whom it was sung on the march to battle. Other works of +Delavigne followed each other in rapid succession—<i>Louis XI</i> +(1832), <i>Les Enfants d’Édouard</i> (1833), <i>Don Juan d’Autriche</i> +(1835), <i>Une Famille au temps du Luther</i> (1836), <i>La Popularité</i> +(1838), <i>La Fille du Cid</i> (1839), <i>Le Conseiller rapporteur</i> (1840), +and <i>Charles VI</i> (1843), an opera partly written by his brother. +In 1843 he quitted Paris to seek in Italy the health his labours +had cost him. At Lyons his strength altogether gave way, and +he died on the 11th of December.</p> + +<p>By many of his own time Delavigne was looked upon as +unsurpassed and unsurpassable. Every one bought and read +his works. But the applause of the moment was gained at the +sacrifice of lasting fame. As a writer he had many excellences. +He expressed himself in a terse and vigorous style. The poet of +reason rather than of imagination, he recognized his own province, +and was rarely tempted to flights of fancy beyond his powers. +He wrote always as he would have spoken, from sincere conviction. +In private life he was in every way estimable,—upright, +amiable, devoid of all jealousy, and generous to a fault.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page947" id="page947"></a>947</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Poésies</i> and his <i>Théâtre</i> were published in 1863. His <i>Œuvres +complètes</i> (new edition, 1855) contains a biographical notice by his +brother, Germain Delavigne, who is best known as a librettist +in opera. See also Sainte-Beuve, <i>Portraits littéraires</i>, vol. v.; +A. Favrot, <i>Étude sur Casimir Delavigne</i> (1894); and F. Vuacheux, +<i>Casimir Delavigne</i> (1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELAWARE,<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> a South Atlantic state of the United States of +America, one of the thirteen original states, situated between +38° 27′ and 39° 50′ N. lat. and between 75° 2′ and 75° 47′ W. +long. (For map see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Maryland</a></span>.) It is bounded N. and N.W. +by Pennsylvania, E. by the Delaware river and Delaware Bay, +which separate it from New Jersey, and by the Atlantic Ocean; +S. and W. by Maryland. With the exception of Rhode Island +it is the smallest state in the Union, its area being 2370 sq. m., +of which 405 sq. m. are water surface.</p> + +<p><i>Physical Features.</i>—Delaware lies on the Atlantic coastal plain, +and is for the most part level and relatively low, its average +elevation above the sea being about 50 ft. It is situated in the +eastern part of the peninsula formed by Chesapeake Bay and the +estuary of the Delaware river. In the extreme N. the country is +rolling, with moderately high hills, moderately deep valleys and +rapid streams. West of Wilmington there rises a ridge which +crosses the state in a north-westerly direction and forms a watershed +between Christiana and Brandywine creeks, its highest +elevation above sea-level being 280 ft. South of the Christiana +there begins another elevation, sandy and marshy, which extends +almost the entire length of the state from N.W. to S.E., and forms +a second water-parting. The streams that drain the state are +small and insignificant. Those of the N. flow into Brandywine +and Christiana creeks, whose estuary into Delaware river forms +Wilmington harbour; those of the S.W. have a common outlet +in the Nanticoke river of Maryland; those of the E. empty into +Delaware Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. The principal harbours +are those of Wilmington, New Castle and Lewes. The shore of +the bay is marshy, that of the Atlantic is sandy. In Kent county +there are more than 60,000 acres of tidal marshland, some of +which has been reclaimed by means of dykes; Cypress Swamp +in the extreme S. has an area of 50,000 acres. The soils of the N. +are clays, sometimes mixed with loam; those of the central part +are mainly loams; while those of the S. are sands.</p> + +<p>Minerals are found only in the N. part of the state. Those of +economic value are kaolin, mined chiefly in the vicinity of +Hockessin, New Castle county, the static kaolin product being +exceeded in 1903 only by that of Pennsylvania among the states +of the United States; granite, used for road-making and rough +construction work, found near Wilmington; and brick and tile +clays; but the value of their total product in 1902 was less +than $500,000. In 1906 the total mineral product was valued +at $814,126, of which $237,768 represented clay products and +$146,346 stone. In 1902 only 2.2% of the wage-earners were +engaged in mining.</p> + +<p>The forests, which once afforded excellent timber, including +white oak for shipbuilding, have been greatly reduced by constant +cutting; in 1900 it was estimated that 700 sq. m. were +wooded, but practically none of this stand was of commercial +importance. The fisheries, chiefly oyster, sturgeon and shad, +yield an annual product valued at about $250,000.</p> + +<p>The proximity of the Delaware and Chesapeake bays help to +give Delaware a mild and temperate climate. The mean annual +temperature is approximately 55° F., ranging from 52° in the S. +to 56° in the N., and the extremes of heat and cold are 103° in +the summer and -17° in the winter. The annual rainfall, greater +on the coast than inland, ranges from 40 to 45 in.</p> + +<p><i>Industry and Trade.</i>—Delaware is pre-eminently an agricultural +state. In 1900 85% of its total land surface was enclosed +in farms—a slight decline since 1880. Seven-tenths of this was +improved land, and the expenditure per farm for fertilizers, +greater in 1890 than the average of the Atlantic states, approximated +$55 per farm in 1900. In 1899 Delaware spent more per +acre for fertilizers than any of the other states except New +Jersey, Rhode Island and Maryland. The average size of farms, +as in the other states, has declined, falling from 124.6 acres in +1880 to 110.1 acres in 1900. A large proportion of farms (49.7%) +were operated by the owners, and the prevailing form of tenantry +was the share system by which 42.5% of the farms were cultivated, +while 8.24% of the farms were operated by negroes; these +represented less than 4% of the total value of farm property, +the average value of farms operated by negroes being $17 per +acre, that of farms operated by whites, $23 per acre. The total +value of farm products in 1900 was $9,190,777, an increase of +30% over that of 1890, while the cultivation of cereals suffered +on account of the competition of the western states. Indian corn +and wheat form the two largest crops, their product in 1900 being +respectively 24% and 52% greater than in 1890; but these +crops when compared with those of other states are relatively +unimportant. In 1906 the acreage of Indian corn was 196,472 +acres with a yield of 5,894,160 bushels valued at $2,475,547, and +the acreage of wheat was 121,745 acres with a yield of 1,947,920 +bushels valued at $1,383,023. The value of the fruit crop, for +which Delaware has long been noted, also increased during the +same decade, but disease and frost caused a marked decline in +the production of peaches, a loss balanced by an increased +production of apples, pears and other orchard fruits. Large +quantities of small fruits, particularly of strawberries, raspberries +and blackberries, are produced, the southern portion of Sussex +county being particularly favourable for strawberry culture. +The vicissitudes of fruit raising have also caused increasing +attention to be paid to market gardening, dairying and stock +raising, particularly to market gardening, an industry which is +favoured by the proximity of large cities. The same influence +also explains, partly at least, the decrease (of 13%) in the value +of farm property between 1890 and 1900.</p> + +<p>The development of manufacturing in Delaware has not been +so extensive as its favourable situation relative to the other +states, the facilities for water and railway transportation, and the +proximity of the coal and iron fields of Pennsylvania, would seem +to warrant. In 1905 the wage-earners engaged in manufacturing +(under the factory system) numbered 18,475, and the total +capital invested in manufacturing was $50,925,630; the gross +value of products was $41,160,276; the net value (deducting +the value of material purchased in partly manufactured form) +was $16,276,470. The principal industry was the manufacture +of iron and steel products, which, including steel and rolling +mills, car, foundry and machine shops, and shipyards, represented +more than 30% of the total capital, and approximately +25% of the total gross product of the manufactures in the state. +The tanning, currying and finishing of leather ranks second in +importance, with a gross product ($10,250,842) 9% greater than +that of 1900, and constituting about one-fourth of the gross +factory product of the state in 1905; and the manufacture of +food products ranked third, the value of the products of the fruit +canning and preserving industry having more than doubled in +the decade 1890-1900, but falling off a little more than 7% in +1900-1905. The manufacture of paper and wood pulp showed +an increased product in 1905 19.1% greater than in 1900; and +flour and grist mill products were valued in 1905 43.6% higher +than in 1900. In the grand total of manufactured products, +however, the state showed in 1905 a decrease of 4% from 1900. +The great manufacturing centre is Wilmington, where in 1905 +almost two-thirds of the capital was invested, and nearly three-fourths +of the product was turned out. There is much manufacturing +also at New Castle.</p> + +<p>Delaware has good facilities for transportation. Its railway +mileage in January 1907 was 333.6 m; the Philadelphia, +Baltimore & Washington (Pennsylvania system), the Baltimore +& Philadelphia (Baltimore & Ohio system), and the Wilmington +& Northern (Philadelphia & Reading system) cross the northern +part of the state, while the Delaware railway (leased by the +Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington) runs the length of +the state below Wilmington, and another line, the Maryland, +Delaware & Virginia (controlled by the Baltimore, Chesapeake & +Atlantic railway, which is related to the Pennsylvania system), +connects Lewes, Del., with Love Point, Md., on the Chesapeake +Bay. There is no state railway commission, and the farmers of +southern Delaware have suffered from excessive freight rates. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page948" id="page948"></a>948</span> +The Delaware & Chesapeake Canal (13½ m. long, 66 ft. wide +and 10 ft. deep) crosses the N. part of the state, connecting +Delaware river and Chesapeake Bay, and thus affords transportation +by water from Baltimore to Philadelphia. The canal +was completed in 1829; in 1907 a commission appointed by +the president to report on a route for a waterway between +Chesapeake and Delaware bays selected the route of this canal. +The states of Maryland and Delaware aided in its construction, +and in 1828 the national government also made an appropriation. +Wilmington is a customs district in which New Castle and +Lewes are included; but its trade is largely coastwise. Rehoboth +and Indian River bays are navigable for vessels of less than 6 ft. +draft. Opposite Lewes is the Delaware Breakwater (begun in +1818 and completed in 1869, at a cost of more than $2,000,000), +which forms a harbour 16 ft. deep. In 1897-1901 the United +States government constructed a harbour of refuge, formed by a +second breakwater 2¼ m. N. of the existing one; its protected +anchorage is 552 acres and the cost was more than $2,090,000. +The harbour is about equidistant from New York, Philadelphia, +and the capes of Chesapeake Bay, and is used chiefly by vessels +awaiting orders to ports for discharge or landing. The national +government also made appropriations for opening an inland +waterway from Lewes to Chincoteague Bay, Virginia, for improving +Wilmington harbour, and for making navigable several +of the larger streams of the state.</p> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The population in 1880 was 146,608; in 1890, +168,493, an increase of 14.9%; in 1900, 184,735, a further increase +of 9.6%; in 1910, 202,322. The rate of increase before 1850 +was considerably smaller than the rate after that date. Of the +population in 1900, 92.5% was native born and 7.5% was +foreign-born. The negro population was 30,697, or 16.6% of the +total. In Indian River Hundred, Sussex county, there formerly +lived a community of people,—many of whom are of the fair +Caucasian type,—called “Indians” or “Moors”; they are now +quite generally dispersed throughout the state, especially in +Kent and Sussex counties. Their origin is unknown, but according +to local tradition they are the descendants of some Moorish +sailors who were cast ashore many years ago in a shipwreck; +their own tradition is that they are descended from the children +of an Irish mother and a negro father, these children having +intermarried with Indians of the Nanticoke tribe. They have, +where practicable, separate churches and schools, the latter +receiving state aid. The urban population of Delaware (<i>i.e.</i> of +Wilmington, the only city having more than 5000 inhabitants) +was, in 1900, 41.4% of the state’s population. There were +thirty-five incorporated cities and towns. The largest of these +was the city of Wilmington, with 76,508 inhabitants. The city +next in size, New Castle, had a population of 3380, while the +largest town, Dover, the capital of the state, had 3329. The +total number of communicants of all denominations in 1906 was +71,251,—32,402 Methodists, 24,228 Roman Catholics, 5200 +Presbyterians, 3796 Protestant Episcopalians, and 2921 Baptists.</p> + +<p><i>Government.</i>—The constitution by which Delaware is governed +was adopted in 1897. Like the previous constitutions of 1776, +1792 and 1831, it was promulgated by a constitutional convention +without submission to the people for ratification, and amendments +may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of each house in two +consecutive legislatures. Its character is distinctly democratic. +The property qualification of state senators and the restriction +of suffrage to those who have paid county or poll taxes are +abolished; but suffrage is limited to male adults who can read +the state constitution in English, and can write their names, +unless physically disqualified, and who have registered. In 1907 +an amendment to the constitution was adopted, which struck +out from the instrument the clause requiring the payment of +a registration fee of one dollar by each elector. Important innovations +in the constitution of 1897 are the office of lieutenant-governor, +and the veto power of the governor which may extend +to parts and clauses of appropriation bills, but a bill may be +passed over his veto by a three-fifths vote of each house of +the legislature, and a bill becomes a law if not returned to the +legislature within ten days after its reception by the governor, +unless the session of the legislature shall have expired in the +meantime. The governor’s regular term in office is four years, +and he is ineligible for a third term. All his appointments to +offices where the salary is more than $500 must be confirmed by +the senate; all pardons must be approved by a board of pardons. +Representation in the legislature is according to districts, members +of the lower house being chosen for two, and members of the +upper house for four years. Members of the lower house must be +at least twenty-four years of age, members of the senate at least +twenty-seven; members of both houses must at the time of their +election have been citizens of the state for at least three years. +In November 1906 the people of the state voted (17,248 for; +2162 against) in favour of the provision of a system of advisory +initiative and advisory referendum; and in March 1907 the +general assembly passed an act providing initiative and referendum +in the municipal affairs in the city of Wilmington. The +organization of the judiciary is similar to that under the old +English system. Six judges—a chancellor, a chief justice, and +four associate justices—of whom there shall be at least one +resident in each of the three counties, and not more than three +shall belong to the same political party, are appointed by the +governor, with the consent of the senate, for a term of twelve +years. A certain number of them hold courts of chancery, +general sessions, oyer and terminer, and an orphans’ court; the +six together constitute the supreme court, but the judge from +whose decision appeal is made may not hear the appealed case +unless the appeal is made at his own instance. Bribery may be +punished by fine, imprisonment and disfranchisement for ten +years. Corporations cannot be created by a special act of the +legislature, and no corporation may issue stock except for an +equivalent value of money, labour or property. In order to +attract capital to the state, the legislature has reduced the taxes +on corporations, has forbidden the repeal of charters, and has +given permission for the organization of corporations with both +the power and name of trust companies. Legislative divorces are +forbidden by the constitution, and a statute of 1901 subjects +wife-beaters to corporal punishment. Although punishment by +whipping and by standing in the pillory was prohibited by an act +of Congress in 1839, in so far as the Federal government had +jurisdiction, both these forms of punishment were retained in +Delaware, and standing in the pillory was prescribed by statute +as a punishment for a number of offences, including various kinds +of larceny and forgery, highway robbery, and even pretending +“to exercise the art of witchcraft, fortune-telling or dealing with +spirits,” at least until 1893. In 1905, by a law approved on the +20th of March, the pillory was abolished. The whipping-post was +in 1908 still maintained in Delaware, and whipping continued to +be prescribed as a punishment for a variety of offences, although +in 1889 a law was passed which prescribed that “hereafter no +female convicted of any crime in this state shall be whipped or +made to stand in the pillory,” and a law passed in 1883 prescribed +that “in case of conviction of larceny, when the prisoner is of +tender years, or is charged for the first time (being shown to have +before had a good character), the court may in its discretion omit +from the sentence the infliction of lashes.” An old law still on +the statute-books when the edition of the revised statutes was +issued in 1893, prescribes that “the punishment of whipping +shall be inflicted publicly by strokes on the bare back, well laid +on.”</p> + +<p>The unit of local government is the “hundred,” which corresponds +to the township of Pennsylvania. The employment of +children under fourteen years of age in factories is forbidden by +statute. Divorces are granted for adultery, desertion for three +years, habitual drunkenness, impotence at the time of marriage, +fraud, lack of marriageable age (eighteen for males, sixteen for +females), and failure of husband to provide for his wife during +three consecutive years. The marriages of whites with negroes +and of insane persons are null; but the children of the married +insane are legitimate.</p> + +<p>In 1908 the state debt was $816,785, and the assets in bonds, +railway mortgages and bank stocks exceeded the liabilities by +$717,779. Besides the income from interest and dividends +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page949" id="page949"></a>949</span> +on investments, the state revenues are derived from taxes on +licences, on commissions to public officers, on railway, telegraph +and telephone, express, and banking companies, and to a slight +extent from taxes on collateral inheritance.</p> + +<p><i>Education.</i>—The charitable and penal administration of +Delaware is not well developed. There is a state hospital for +the insane at Farnhurst. Other dependent citizens are cared for +in the institutions of other states at public expense. In 1899 +a county workhouse was established in New Castle county, in +which persons under sentence must labour eight hours a day, pay +being allowed for extra hours, and a diminution of sentence for +good behaviour. At Wilmington is the Ferris industrial school +for boys, a private reformatory institution to which New Castle +county gives $146 for each boy; and the Delaware industrial +school for girls, also at Wilmington, receives financial support +from both county and state.</p> + +<p>The educational system of the state has been considerably +improved within recent years. The maintenance of a system of +public schools is rendered compulsory by the state constitution, +and a new compulsory school law came into effect in 1907. The +first public school law, passed in 1829, was based largely on the +principle of “local option,” each school district being left free +to determine the character of its own school or even to decide, +if it wished, against having any school at all. The system thus +established proved to be very unsatisfactory, and a new school +law in 1875 brought about a greater degree of uniformity +and centralization through its provisions for the appointment +of a state superintendent of free schools and a state board of +education. In 1888, however, the state superintendency was +abolished, and county superintendencies were created instead, +the legislature thus returning, in a measure, to the old system of +local control. Centralization was again secured, in 1898, by the +passage of a law reorganizing and increasing the powers of the +state board of education. The state school fund, ranging from +about $150,000 to $160,000 a year, is apportioned among the +school districts, according to the number of teachers employed, +and is used exclusively for teachers’ salaries and the supplying +of free text-books. This fund is supplemented by local taxation. +No discrimination is allowed on account of race or colour; but +separate schools are provided for white and coloured children. +Delaware College (non-sectarian) at Newark, founded in 1833 as +Newark College and rechartered, after suspension from 1859 to +1870, under the present name, as a state institution, derives +most of its financial support from the United States Land Grant +of 1862 and the supplementary appropriation of 1890, and is +the seat of an agricultural experiment station, established in +1888 under the so-called “Hatch Bill” of 1887. In 1906-1907 +Delaware College had 20 instructors and 130 students. The +college is a part of the free school system of Delaware, and tuition +is free to all students from the state. There is an agricultural +college for negroes at Dover; this college receives one-fifth of +the appropriation made by the so-called “new Morrill Bill” of +1890.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Delaware river and bay were first explored on behalf +of the Dutch by Henry Hudson in 1609, and more thoroughly +in 1615-1616 by Cornelius Hendrikson, whose reports did much +to cause the incorporation of the Dutch West India Company. +The first settlement on Delaware soil was made under the auspices +of members of this company in 1631 near the site of the present +Lewes. The leaders, one of whom was Captain David P. de Vries, +wished “to plant a colony for the cultivation of grain and tobacco +as well as to carry on the whale fishery in that region.” The +settlement, however, was soon completely destroyed by the +Indians. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lewes</a></span>.) A more successful effort at colonization +was made under the auspices of the South Company of Sweden, +a corporation organized in 1624 as the “Australian Company,” +by William Usselinx, who had also been the chief organizer of +the Dutch West India Company, and now secured a charter +or <i>manifest</i> from Gustavus Adolphus. The privileges of the +company were extended to Germans in 1633, and about 1640 +the Dutch members were bought out. In 1638 Peter Minuit on +behalf of this company established a settlement at what is now +Wilmington, naming it, in honour of the infant queen Christina, +Christinaham, and naming the entire territory, bought by Minuit +from the Minquas Indians and extending indefinitely westward +from the Delaware river between Bombay Hook and the mouth +of the Schuylkill river, “New Sweden.” This territory was +subsequently considerably enlarged. In 1642 mature plans for +colonization were adopted. A new company, officially known +as the West India, American, or New Sweden Company, but like +its predecessor popularly known as the South Company, was +chartered, and a governor, Johan Printz (<i>c.</i> 1600-1663) was sent +out by the crown. He arrived early in 1643 and subsequently +established settlements on the island of Tinicum, near the present +Chester, Pennsylvania, at the mouth of Salem Creek, New Jersey, +and near the mouth of the Schuylkill river. Friction had soon +arisen with New Netherland, although, owing to their common +dislike of the English, the Swedes and the Dutch had maintained +a formal friendship. In 1651, however, Peter Stuyvesant, +governor of New Netherland, and more aggressive than his predecessors, +built Fort Casimir, near what is now New Castle. +In 1654 Printz’s successor, Johan Claudius Rising, who had +arrived from Sweden with a large number of colonists, expelled +the Dutch from Fort Casimir. In retaliation, Stuyvesant, in +1655, with seven vessels and as many hundred men, recaptured +the fort and also captured Fort Christina (Wilmington). New +Sweden thus passed into the control of the Dutch, and became +a dependency of New Netherland. In 1656, however, the Dutch +West India Company sold part of what had been New Sweden to +the city of Amsterdam, which in the following year established +a settlement called “New Amstel” at Fort Casimir (New Castle). +This settlement was badly administered and made little progress.</p> + +<p>In 1663 the whole of the Delaware country came under the +jurisdiction of the city of Amsterdam, but in the following year +this territory, with New Netherland, was seized by the English. +For a brief interval, in 1673-1674, the Dutch were again in control, +but in the latter year, by the treaty of Westminster, the “three +counties on the Delaware” again became part of the English +possessions in America held by the duke of York, later James II. +His formal grant from Charles II. was not received until March +1683. In order that no other settlements should encroach upon +his centre of government, New Castle, the northern boundary was +determined by drawing an arc of a circle, 12 m. in radius, and +with New Castle as the centre. This accounts for the present +curved boundary line between Delaware and Pennsylvania. +Previously, however, in August 1680, the duke of York had +leased this territory for 10,000 years to William Penn, to whom +he conveyed it by a deed of feoffment in August 1682; but +differences in race and religion, economic rivalry between New +Castle and the Pennsylvania towns, and petty political quarrels +over representation and office holding, similar to those in the +other American colonies, were so intense that Penn in 1691 +appointed a special deputy governor for the “lower counties.” +Although reunited with the “province” of Pennsylvania in +1693, the so-called “territories” or “lower counties” secured a +separate legislature in 1704, and a separate executive council in +1710; the governor of Pennsylvania, however, was the chief +executive until 1776. A protracted boundary dispute with Maryland, +which colony at first claimed the whole of Delaware under +Lord Baltimore’s charter, was not settled until 1767, when the +present line separating Delaware and Maryland was adopted. +In the War of Independence Delaware furnished only one +regiment to the American army, but that was one of the best in +the service. One of its companies carried a number of gamecocks +said to have been the brood of a blue hen; hence the +soldiers, and later the people of the state, have been popularly +known as the “Blue Hen’s Chickens.”</p> + +<p>In 1776 a state government was organized, representative of +the Delaware state, the term “State of Delaware” being first +adopted in the constitution of 1792. One of the peculiarities of +the government was that in addition to the regular executive, +legislative and judicial departments there was a privy council +without whose approval the governor’s power was little more +than nominal. In 1786 Delaware was one of the five states +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page950" id="page950"></a>950</span> +whose delegates attended the Annapolis Convention (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Annapolis</a></span>, +Maryland), and it was the first (on the 7th of December +1787) to ratify the Federal constitution. From then until 1850 +it was controlled by the Federalist or Whig parties. In 1850 the +Democrats, who had before then elected a few governors and +United States senators, secured control of the entire administration—a +control unarrested, except in 1863, until the last decade +of the 19th century. Although it was a slave state, the majority +of the people of Delaware opposed secession in 1861, and the +legislature promptly answered President Lincoln’s call to arms; +yet, while 14,000 of the 40,000 males between the ages of fourteen +and sixty served in the Union army, there were many sympathizers +with the Confederacy in the southern part of the state.</p> + +<p>In 1866, 1867 and 1869, respectively, the legislature refused to +ratify the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to +the Federal constitution. The provision of the state constitution +that restricted suffrage to those who had paid county or poll +taxes and made the tax lists the basis for the lists of qualified +voters, opened the way for the disfranchisement of many negroes +by fraudulent means. Consequently the levy court of New +Castle county was indicted in the United States circuit court +in 1872, and one of its members was convicted. Again in 1880 +the circuit court, by virtue of the Federal statute of 1872 on +elections, appointed supervisors of elections in Delaware. The +negro vote has steadily increased in importance, and in 1900 +was approximately one-fifth of the total vote of the state. In +1901 the legislature ratified the three amendments rejected in +former years. Another political problem has been that of +representation. According to the constitution of 1831 the unit +of representation in the legislature was the county; inasmuch +as the population of New Castle county has exceeded after 1870 +that of both Kent and Sussex, the inequality became a cause of +discontent. This is partly eradicated by the new constitution of +1897, which reapportioned representation according to electoral +districts, so that New Castle has seven senators and fifteen +representatives, while each of the other counties has seven +senators and ten representatives.</p> + +<p>In 1889 the Republicans for the first time since the Civil War +secured a majority in the legislature, and elected Anthony J. +Higgins to the United States Senate. In that year a capitalist +and promoter, J. Edward Addicks (b. 1841, in Pennsylvania), +became a citizen of the state, and after securing for himself the +control of the Wilmington gas supply, systematically set about +building up a personal “machine” that would secure his election +to the national Senate as a Republican. His purpose was +thwarted in 1893, when a Democratic majority chose, for a second +term, George Gray (b. 1840), who from 1879 to 1885 had been the +attorney-general of the state and subsequently was a member +of the Spanish-American Peace Commission at Paris in 1898 and +became a judge of the United States circuit court, third judicial +circuit, in 1899. Mr Addicks was an avowed candidate in 1895, +but the opposition of the Regular Republicans, who accused +him of corruption and who held the balance of power, prevented +an election. In 1897, the legislature being again Democratic, +Richard R. Kenney (b. 1856) was chosen to fill the vacancy +for the remainder of the unexpired term. Meanwhile the two +Republican factions continued to oppose one another, and both +sent delegates to the national party convention in 1896, the +“regular” delegation being seated. The expiration of Senator +Gray’s term in 1899 left a vacancy, but although the Republicans +again had a clear majority the resolution of the Regulars prevented +the Union Republicans, as the supporters of Addicks +called themselves, from seating their patron. Both the Regular +and Union factions sent delegations to the national party convention +in 1900, where the refusal of the Regulars to compromise +led to the recognition of the Union delegates. Despite this +apparent abandonment of their cause by the national organization, +the Regulars continued their opposition, the state being +wholly without representation in the Senate from the expiration +of Senator Kenney’s term in 1901 until 1903, when a compromise +was effected whereby two Republicans, one of each faction, +were chosen, one condition being that Addicks should not be the +candidate of the Union Republicans. Both factions were recognized +by the national convention of 1904, but the legislature of +1905 adjourned without being able to fill a vacancy in the Senate +which had again occurred. The deadlock, however, was broken +at the special session of the legislature called in 1906, and in June +of that year Henry A. Du Pont was elected senator.</p> + +<div class="f90"> +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Governors of Delaware</span></p> + +<p class="center">I. <i>Swedish.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Peter Minuit</td> <td class="tcc">1638-1640</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Peter Hollander</td> <td class="tcc">1640-1643</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Johan Printz</td> <td class="tcc">1643-1653</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Johan Papegoga (acting)</td> <td class="tcc">1653-1654</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Johan Claudius Rising</td> <td class="tcc">1654-1655</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center">II. <i>Dutch.</i></p> + +<p class="center">(Same as for New York.)</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">III. <i>English.</i></p> + +<p class="center">(Same as New York until 1682.)<br /> + (Same as Pennsylvania 1682-1776.)</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Presidents of Delaware</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">John McKinley</td> <td class="tcc">1776-1778</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Caesar Rodney</td> <td class="tcc">1778-1781</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John Dickinson</td> <td class="tcc">1781-1783</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Nicholas Van Dyke</td> <td class="tcc">1783-1786</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Thomas Collins</td> <td class="tcc">1786-1789</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Governors</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Joshua Clayton</td> <td class="tcl">1789-1796 Federalist</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Gunning Bedford</td> <td class="tcl">1796-1797   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Daniel Rogers<a name="fa1q" id="fa1q" href="#ft1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a></td> <td class="tcl">1797-1799   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Richard Bassett</td> <td class="tcl">1799-1801   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">James Sykes<a name="fa2q" id="fa2q" href="#ft2q"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td> <td class="tcl">1801-1802   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">David Hall</td> <td class="tcl">1802-1805 Federalist</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Nathaniel Mitchell</td> <td class="tcl">1805-1808   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">George Truett</td> <td class="tcl">1808-1811   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Joseph Haslett</td> <td class="tcl">1811-1814   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Daniel Rodney</td> <td class="tcl">1814-1817   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John Clarke</td> <td class="tcl">1817-1820   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Henry Malleston<a name="fa3q" id="fa3q" href="#ft3q"><span class="sp">3</span></a></td> <td class="tcl">1820      ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Jacob Stout<a name="fa4q" id="fa4q" href="#ft4q"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> <td class="tcl">1820-1821   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John Collins</td> <td class="tcl">1821-1822 Democratic-Republican</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Caleb Rodney<a name="fa5q" id="fa5q" href="#ft5q"><span class="sp">5</span></a></td> <td class="tcl">1822      ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Joseph Haslett</td> <td class="tcl">1822-1823 Democratic-Republican</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Charles Thomas<a name="fa6q" id="fa6q" href="#ft6q"><span class="sp">6</span></a></td> <td class="tcl">1823-1824   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Samuel Paynter</td> <td class="tcl">1824-1827 Federalist</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Charles Polk</td> <td class="tcl">1827-1830   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">David Hazzard</td> <td class="tcl">1830-1833 American-Republican</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Caleb P. Bennett</td> <td class="tcl">1833-1836 Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Charles Polk<a name="fa7q" id="fa7q" href="#ft7q"><span class="sp">7</span></a></td> <td class="tcl">1836-1837   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cornelius P. Comegys</td> <td class="tcl">1837-1841 Whig</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">William B. Cooper</td> <td class="tcl">1841-1845  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Thomas Stockton</td> <td class="tcl">1845-1846  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Joseph Maul<a name="fa8q" id="fa8q" href="#ft8q"><span class="sp">8</span></a></td> <td class="tcl">1846     ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">William Temple<a name="fa9q" id="fa9q" href="#ft9q"><span class="sp">9</span></a></td> <td class="tcl">1846-1847  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">William Tharp</td> <td class="tcl">1847-1851 Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">William H. Ross</td> <td class="tcl">1851-1855   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Peter F. Causey</td> <td class="tcl">1855-1859 Whig-Know-Nothing</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">William Burton</td> <td class="tcl">1859-1863 Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">William Cannon</td> <td class="tcl">1863-1865 Republican</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Gove Saulsbury<a name="fa10q" id="fa10q" href="#ft10q"><span class="sp">10</span></a></td> <td class="tcl">1865-1871 Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">James Ponder</td> <td class="tcl">1871-1875   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John P. Cockran</td> <td class="tcl">1875-1879   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John W. Hall</td> <td class="tcl">1879-1883   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Charles C. Stockley</td> <td class="tcl">1883-1887   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Benjamin T. Biggs</td> <td class="tcl">1887-1891   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Robert J. Reynolds</td> <td class="tcl">1891-1895   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Joshua H. Marvil</td> <td class="tcl">1895 Republican</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">William T. Watson<a name="fa11q" id="fa11q" href="#ft11q"><span class="sp">11</span></a></td> <td class="tcl">1895-1897 Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ebe W. Tunnell</td> <td class="tcl">1897-1901   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John Hunn</td> <td class="tcl">1901-1905 Republican “</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Preston Lea</td> <td class="tcl">1905-1909   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Simeon S. Pennewill</td> <td class="tcl">1909      ”</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page951" id="page951"></a>951</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Information about manufactures, mining and +agriculture may be found in the reports of the <i>Twelfth Census of the +United States</i>, especially <i>Bulletins 69</i> and <i>100</i>. The Agricultural +Experiment Station, at Newark, publishes in its <i>Annual Report</i> a +record of temperature and rainfall. For law and administration see +<i>Constitution of Delaware</i> (Dover, 1899) and the <i>Revised Code</i> of +1852, amended 1893 (Wilmington, 1893). For education see L. B. +Powell, <i>History of Education in Delaware</i> (Washington, 1893), and a +sketch in the <i>Annual Report</i> for 1902 of the United States Commissioner +of Education. The most elaborate history is that of John +Thomas Scharf, <i>History of the State of Delaware</i> (2 vols., Philadelphia, +1888); the second volume is entirely biographical. Claes T. Odhner’s +brief sketch, <i>Kolonien Nya Sveriges Grundläggning, 1637-1642</i> +(Stockholm, 1876; English translation in the <i>Pennsylvania Magazine +of History and Biography</i>, vol. iii.), and Carl K. S. Sprinchorn’s +<i>Kolonien Nya Sveriges Historia</i> (1878; English translation in the +<i>Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography</i>, vols. vii. and viii.) +are based, in part, on documents in the Swedish Royal Archives +and at the universities of Upsala and Lund, which were unknown to +Benjamin Ferris (<i>History of the Original Settlements of the Delaware</i>, +Wilmington, 1846) and Francis Vincent (<i>History of the State of +Delaware</i>, Philadelphia, 1870), which ends with the English occupation +in 1664. In vol. iv. of Justin Winsor’s <i>Narrative and Critical +History of America</i> (Boston, 1884) there is an excellent chapter by +Gregory B. Keen on “New Sweden, or the Swedes on the Delaware,” +to which a bibliographical chapter is appended. The <i>Papers</i> +of the Historical Society of Delaware (1879 seq.) contain valuable +material. In part ii. of the <i>Report of the Superintendent of the U.S. +Coast and Geodetic Survey</i> for 1893 (Washington, 1905) there is +“A Historical Account of the Boundary Line between the States +of Pennsylvania and Delaware, by W. C. Hodgkins.” The colonial +records are preserved with those of New York and Pennsylvania; +only one volume of the State Records has been published, and +<i>Minutes of the Council of Delaware State, 1776-1792</i> (Dover, 1886). +For political conditions since the Civil War see vol. 141 of the +<i>North American Review</i>, vol. 32 of the <i>Forum</i>, and vol. 73 of the +<i>Outlook</i>—all published in New York.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1q" id="ft1q" href="#fa1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Speaker of the senate. Filled unexpired term of Gunning +Bedford (d. 1797).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2q" id="ft2q" href="#fa2q"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Speaker of senate. Filled unexpired term of Richard Bassett, +who resigned 1801.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3q" id="ft3q" href="#fa3q"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Died before he was inaugurated.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4q" id="ft4q" href="#fa4q"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Speaker of the senate.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5q" id="ft5q" href="#fa5q"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Speaker of the senate, John Collins dying in 1822.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6q" id="ft6q" href="#fa6q"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Speaker of senate, Haslett dying in 1823.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7q" id="ft7q" href="#fa7q"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Speaker of senate.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8q" id="ft8q" href="#fa8q"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Speaker of senate, Stockton dying in 1846.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9q" id="ft9q" href="#fa9q"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Speaker of senate, Maul dying in 1846.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10q" id="ft10q" href="#fa10q"><span class="fn">10</span></a> As speaker of the senate filled the unexpired term of Cannon +(d. 1865), and then became governor in 1867.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11q" id="ft11q" href="#fa11q"><span class="fn">11</span></a> President of senate, Marvil dying in 1895.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELAWARE,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Delaware county, +Ohio, U.S.A., on the Olentangy (or Whetstone) river, near the +centre of the state. Pop. (1890) 8224; (1900) 7940 (572 being +foreign-born and 432 negroes); (1910) 9076. Delaware is served +by the Pennsylvania, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St +Louis (New York Central system), and the Hocking Valley +railways, and by two interurban lines. The city is built on +rolling ground about 900 ft. above sea-level. There are many +sulphur and iron springs in the vicinity. Delaware is the seat of +the Ohio Wesleyan University (co-educational), founded by the +Ohio Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1841, and +opened as a college in 1844; it includes a college of liberal arts +(1844), an academic department (1841), a school of music (1877), +a school of fine arts (1877), a school of oratory (1894), a business +school (1895), and a college of medicine (the Cleveland College +of Physicians and Surgeons, at Cleveland, Ohio; founded as the +Charity Hospital Medical College in 1863, and the medical department +of the university of Wooster until 1896, when, under its +present name, it became a part of Ohio Wesleyan University). +In 1877 the Ohio Wesleyan female college, established at Delaware +in 1853, was incorporated in the university. In 1907-1908 the +university had 122 instructors, 1178 students and a library of +55,395 volumes. At Delaware, also, are the state industrial +school for girls, a Carnegie library, the Edwards Young Men’s +Christian Association building and a city hospital. The city +has railway shops and foundries, and manufactures furniture, +carriages, tile, cigars and gas engines. Delaware was laid out in +1808 and was first incorporated in 1815. It was the birthplace +of Rutherford B. Hayes, president of the United States from +1877 to 1881.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELAWARE INDIANS,<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> the English name for the Leni Lenape, +a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian stock. When +first discovered by the whites the tribe was settled on the banks +of the Delaware river. The French called them Loups (wolves) +from their chief totemic division. Early in the 17th century the +Dutch began trading with them. Subsequently William Penn +bought large tracts of land from them, and war followed, the +Delawares alleging they had been defrauded; but, with the +assistance of the Six Nations, the whites forced them back west +of the Alleghenies. In 1789 they were placed on a reservation in +Ohio and subsequently in 1818 were moved to Missouri. Various +removals followed, until in 1866 they accepted lands in the Indian +territory (Oklahoma) and gave up the tribal relation. They +have remained there and now number some 1700.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELAWARE RIVER,<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> a stream of the Atlantic slope of the +United States, meeting tide-water at Trenton, New Jersey, 130 m. +above its mouth. Its total length, from the head of the longest +branch to the capes, is 410 m., and above the head of the bay its +length is 360 m. It constitutes in part the boundary between +Pennsylvania and New York, the boundary between New +Jersey and Pennsylvania, and, for a few miles, the boundary +between Delaware and New Jersey. The main, west or Mohawk +branch rises in Schoharie county, N.Y., about 1886 ft. above +the sea, and flows tortuously through the plateau in a deep +trough until it emerges from the Catskills. Other branches rise +in Greene and Delaware counties. In the upper portion of its +course the varied scenery of its hilly and wooded banks is +exquisitely beautiful. After leaving the mountains and plateau, +the river flows down broad Appalachian valleys, skirts the +Kittatinny range, which it crosses at Delaware Water-Gap, +between nearly vertical walls of sandstone, and passes through a +quiet and charming country of farm and forest, diversified with +plateaus and escarpments, until it crosses the Appalachian +plain and enters the hills again at Easton, Pa. From this point +it is flanked at intervals by fine hills, and in places by cliffs, +of which the finest are the Hockamixon Rocks, 3 m. long and +above 200 ft. high. At Trenton there is a fall of 8 ft. Below +Trenton the river becomes a broad, sluggish inlet of the sea, with +many marshes along its side, widening steadily into its great +estuary, Delaware Bay. Its main tributaries in New York are +Mongaup and Neversink rivers and Callicoon Creek; from Pennsylvania, +Lackawaxen, Lehigh and Schuylkill rivers; and from +New Jersey, Rancocas Creek and Musconetcong and Maurice +rivers. Commerce was once important on the upper river, but +only before the beginning of railway competition (1857). The +Delaware division of the Pennsylvania Canal, running parallel +with the river from Easton to Bristol, was opened in 1830. A +canal from Trenton to New Brunswick unites the waters of the +Delaware and Raritan rivers; the Morris and the Delaware and +Hudson canals connect the Delaware and Hudson rivers; and +the Delaware and Chesapeake canal joins the waters of the +Delaware with those of the Chesapeake Bay. The mean tides +below Philadelphia are about 6 ft. The magnitude of the +commerce of Philadelphia has made the improvements of the +river below that port of great importance. Small improvements +were attempted by Pennsylvania as early as 1771, but apparently +never by New Jersey. The ice floods at Easton are normally +10 to 20 ft., and in 1841 attained a height of 35 ft. These floods +constitute a serious difficulty in the improvement of the lower +river. In the “project of 1885” the United States government +undertook systematically the formation of a 26-ft. channel +600 ft. wide from Philadelphia to deep water in Delaware Bay; +$1,532,688.81 was expended—about $200,000 of that amount +for maintenance—before the 1885 project was superseded by a +paragraph of the River and Harbor Act of the 3rd of March +1899, which provided for a 30-ft. channel 600 ft. wide from +Philadelphia to the deep water of the bay. In 1899 the project +of 1885 had been completed except for three shoal stretches, +whose total length, measured on the range lines, was 4<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> m. +The project of 1899, estimated to cost $5,810,000, was not +completed at the close of the fiscal year (June 30) 1907, when +$4,936,550.63 had been expended by the Federal government +on the work; in 1905 the state of Pennsylvania appropriated +$750,000 for improvement of the river in Pennsylvania, south +of Philadelphia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELAWARE WATER-GAP,<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> a borough and summer resort of +Monroe county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Delaware river, +about 108 m. N. of Philadelphia and about 88 m. W. by N. of +New York. Pop. (1890) 467; (1900) 469. It is served directly +by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, and by the Belvidere +division of the Pennsylvania railways; along the river on the +opposite side (in New Jersey) runs the New York, Susquehanna +& Western railway, and the borough is connected with Stroudsburg, +Pa. (about 3 m. W. by N.) by an electric line. The borough +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page952" id="page952"></a>952</span> +was named from the neighbouring gorge, which is noted for the +picturesqueness of its scenery, especially in winter, when the ice +piles up in the river, sometimes to a height of 20 ft. Here the +river cuts through the Kittatinny (Blue) Ridge to its base. On +the New Jersey side is Mt. Tammany (about 1600 ft.); on +the Pennsylvania side, Mt. Minsi (about 1500 ft.); the elevation +of the river here is about 300 ft. The gap (about 2 m. long) +through the mountain is the result of erosion by the waters of a +great river which flowed northwards acting along a line of faulting +at right angles to the strike of the tilted rock formations. +The scenery and the delightful climate have made the place a +popular summer resort. The borough was incorporated in 1889.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L. W. Brodhead, <i>The Delaware Water-Gap</i> (Philadelphia, +2nd ed., 1870).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DE LA WARR,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Delaware</span>, an English barony, the holders +of which are descended from Roger de la Warr of Isfield, Sussex, +who was summoned to parliament as a baron in 1299 and +the following years. He died about 1320; his great-grandson +Roger, to whom the French king John surrendered at the battle +of Poitiers, died in 1370; and the male line of the family became +extinct on the death of Thomas, 5th baron, in 1426.</p> + +<p>The 5th baron’s half-sister Joan married Thomas West, 1st +Lord West (d. 1405), and in 1415 her second son Reginald +(1394-1451) succeeded his brother Thomas as 3rd Lord West. +After the death of his uncle Thomas, 5th Baron De La Warr, +whose estates he inherited, Reginald was summoned to parliament +as Baron La Warr, and he is thus the second founder of the +family. His grandson was Thomas, 3rd (or 8th) baron (d. 1525), +a courtier during the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII.; +and the latter’s son was Thomas, 4th (or 9th) baron (<i>c.</i> 1472-1554). +The younger Thomas was a very prominent person +during the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. After serving +with the English army in France in 1513 and being present at the +Field of the Cloth of Gold, he rebuilt the house at Halnaker in +Sussex, which he had obtained by marriage, and here in 1526 he +entertained Henry VIII. “with great cheer.” He disliked the +ecclesiastical changes introduced by the king, and he was one of +the peers who tried Anne Boleyn; later he showed some eagerness +to stand well with Thomas Cromwell, but this did not prevent +his arrest in 1538. He is said to have denounced “the plucking +down of abbeys,” and he certainly consorted with many suspected +persons. But he was soon released and pardoned, although he +was obliged to hand over Halnaker to Henry VIII., receiving +instead the estate of Wherwell in Hampshire. He died without +children in September 1554, when his baronies of De La Warr and +West fell into abeyance. His monument may still be seen in the +church at Broadwater, Sussex.</p> + +<p>He had settled his estates on his nephew William West (<i>c.</i> 1519-1595), +who then tried to bring about his uncle’s death by poison; +for this reason he was disabled by act of parliament (1549) from +succeeding to his honours. However, in 1563 he was restored, +and in 1570 was created by patent Baron De La Warr. This +was obviously a new creation, but in 1596 his son Thomas +(<i>c.</i> 1556-1602) claimed precedency in the baronage as the holder +of the ancient barony of De La Warr. His claim was admitted, +and accordingly his son and successor, next mentioned, is called +the 3rd or the 12th baron.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Thomas West</span>, 3rd or 12th Baron De La Warr (1577-1618), +British soldier and colonial governor in America, was born on +the 9th of July 1577, probably at Wherwell, Hampshire, where +he was baptized. He was educated at Queen’s College, Oxford, +where he did not complete his course, but subsequently (1605) +received the degree of M.A. In 1597 he was elected member of +parliament for Lymington, and subsequently fought in Holland +and in Ireland under the earl of Essex, being knighted for bravery +in battle in 1599. He was imprisoned for complicity in Essex’s +revolt (1600-1601), but was soon released and exonerated. In +1602 he succeeded to his father’s title and estates and became +a privy councillor. Becoming interested in schemes for the +colonization of America, he was chosen a member of the council +of the Virginia Company in 1609, and in the same year was +appointed governor and captain-general of Virginia for life. +Sailing in March 1610 with three ships, 150 settlers and supplies, +he himself bearing the greater part of the expense of the expedition, +he arrived at Jamestown on the 10th of June, in time to +intercept the colonists who had embarked for England and were +abandoning the enterprise. Lord De La Warr’s rule was strict +but just; he constructed two forts near the mouth of the James +river, rebuilt Jamestown, and in general brought order out of +chaos. In March 1611 he returned to London, where he published +at the request of the company’s council, his <i>Relation</i> of the +condition of affairs in Virginia (reprinted 1859 and 1868). He +remained in England until 1618, when the news of the tyrannical +rule of the deputy, Samuel Argall, led him to start again for +Virginia. He embarked in April, but died en route on the 7th of +June 1618, and was buried at sea. The Delaware river and the +state of Delaware were named in his honour.</p> + +<p>A younger brother, Francis (1586-c. 1634), was prominent in +the affairs of Virginia, and in 1627-1628 was president of the +council, and acting-governor of the colony.</p> + +<p>In 1761 the 3rd or 12th baron’s descendant, John, 7th or 16th +Baron De La Warr (1693-1766), was created Viscount Cantelupe +and 1st Earl De La Warr. He was a prominent figure in the +House of Lords, at first as a supporter of Sir Robert Walpole. +He also served in the British army and fought at Dettingen, +and was made governor of Guernsey in 1752.</p> + +<p>George John West, 5th earl (1791-1869), married Elizabeth, +sister and heiress of George John Frederick Sackville, 4th duke +of Dorset, who was created Baroness Buckhurst in 1864; consequently +in 1843 he and his sons took the name of Sackville-West. +The earl was twice lord chamberlain to Queen Victoria, and he is +celebrated as “Fair Euryalus” in the <i>Childish Recollections</i> of +his schoolfellow, Lord Byron. His son Charles Richard (1815-1873), +6th earl, served in the first Sikh war and in the Crimea; +and being unmarried was succeeded by his brother Reginald +(1817-1896) as 7th Earl De La Warr. Having inherited his +mother’s barony of Buckhurst on her death in 1870, he retained +this title along with the barony and earldom of De La Warr, +although the patent had contained a proviso that it should be +kept separate from these dignities. In 1896 the 7th earl’s son, +Gilbert George Reginald Sackville-West (b. 1869), became 8th +earl De La Warr.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. E. C(okayne), <i>Complete Peerage</i> (1887-1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELBRÜCK, HANS<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (1848-  ), German historian, was born at +Bergen on the island of Rügen on the 11th of November 1848, +and studied at the universities of Heidelberg and Bonn. As a +soldier he fought in the Franco-German War, after which he was +for some years tutor to one of the princes of the German imperial +family. In 1885 he became professor of modern history in the +university of Berlin, and he was a member of the German +Reichstag from 1884 to 1890. Delbrück’s writings are chiefly +concerned with the history of the art of war, his most ambitious +work being his <i>Geschichte der Kriegskunst im Rahmen der politischen +Geschichte</i> (first section, <i>Das Altertum</i>, 1900; second, +<i>Römer und Germanen</i>, 1902; third, <i>Das Mittelalter</i>, 1907). +Among his other works are: <i>Die Perserkriege und die Burgunderkriege</i> +(Berlin, 1887); <i>Historische und politische Aufsätze</i> (1886); +<i>Erinnerungen, Aufsätze und Reden</i> (1902); <i>Die Strategie des +Perikles erläutert durch die Strategie Friedrichs des Grossen</i> (1890); +<i>Die Polenfrage</i> (1894); and <i>Das Leben des Feldmarschalls Grafen +Neithardt von Gneisenau</i> (1882 and 1894). Delbrück began in +1883 to edit the <i>Preussische Jahrbücher</i>, in which he has written +many articles, including one on “General Wolseley über Napoleon, +Wellington und Gneisenau,” and he has contributed to the +<i>Europäischer Geschichtskalender</i> of H. Schulthess.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELBRÜCK, MARTIN FRIEDRICH RUDOLF VON,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> Prussian +statesman (1817-1903), was born at Berlin on the 16th of April +1817. On completing his legal studies he entered the service of +the state in 1837; and after holding a series of minor posts was +transferred in 1848 to the ministry of commerce, which was to +be the sphere of his real life’s work. Both Germany and Austria +had realized the influence of commercial upon political union. +Delbrück in 1851 induced Hanover, Oldenburg and Schaumburg-Lippe +to join the Zollverein; and the southern states, which had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page953" id="page953"></a>953</span> +agreed to admit Austria to the union, found themselves forced in +1853 to renew the old union, from which Austria was excluded. +Delbrück now began, with the support of Bismarck, to apply +the principles of free trade to Prussian fiscal policy. In 1862 he +concluded an important commercial treaty with France. In +1867 he became the first president of the chancery of the North +German Confederation, and represented Bismarck on the federal +tariff council (<i>Zollbundesrath</i>), a position of political as well as +fiscal importance owing to the presence in the council of representatives +of the southern states. In 1868 he became a Prussian +minister without portfolio. In October 1870, when the union of +Germany under Prussian headship became a practical question, +Delbrück was chosen to go on a mission to the South German +states, and contributed greatly to the agreements concluded at +Versailles in November. In 1871 he became president of the +newly constituted <i>Reichskanzleramt</i>. Delbrück, however, began +to feel himself uneasy under Bismarck’s leanings towards +protection and state control. On the introduction of Bismarck’s +plan for the acquisition of the railways by the state, Delbrück +resigned office, nominally on the ground of ill-health (June 1, +1876). In 1879 he opposed in the <i>Reichstag</i> the new protectionist +tariff, and on the failure of his efforts retired definitely from +public life. In 1896 he received from the emperor the order of +the Black Eagle. He died at Berlin on the 1st of February 1903.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELCASSÉ, THÉOPHILE<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (1852-  ), French statesman, was +born at Pamiers, in the department of Ariège, on the 1st of March +1852. He wrote articles on foreign affairs for the <i>République +française</i> and <i>Paris</i>, and in 1888 was elected <i>conseiller général</i> of +his native department, standing as “un disciple fidèle de Gambetta.” +In the following year he entered the chamber as deputy +for Foix. He was appointed under-secretary for the colonies in +the second Ribot cabinet (January to April 1893), and retained +his post in the Dupuy cabinet till its fall in December 1893. +It was largely owing to his efforts that the French colonial office +was made a separate department with a minister at its head, and +to this office he was appointed in the second Dupuy cabinet (May +1894 to January 1895). He gave a great impetus to French +colonial enterprise, especially in West Africa, where he organized +the newly acquired colony of Dahomey, and despatched the +Liotard mission to the Upper Ubangi. While in opposition he +devoted special attention to naval affairs, and in speeches that +attracted much notice declared that the function of the French +navy was to secure and develop colonial enterprise, deprecated +all attempts to rival the British fleet, and advocated the construction +of commerce destroyers as France’s best reply to England. +On the formation of the second Brisson cabinet in June 1898 he +succeeded M. Hanotaux at the foreign office, and retained that +post under the subsequent premierships of MM. Dupuy, Waldeck-Rousseau, +Combes and Rouvier. In 1898 he had to deal with the +delicate situation caused by Captain Marchand’s occupation of +Fashoda, for which, as he admitted in a speech in the chamber on +the 23rd of January 1899, he accepted full responsibility, since it +arose directly out of the Liotard expedition, which he had himself +organized while minister for the colonies; and in March 1899 he +concluded an agreement with Great Britain by which the difficulty +was finally adjusted, and France consolidated her vast colonial +empire in North-West Africa. In the same year he acted as +mediator between the United States and Spain, and brought +the peace negotiations to a successful conclusion. He introduced +greater cordiality into the relations of France with Italy: +at the same time he adhered firmly to the alliance with Russia, +and in August 1899 made a visit to St Petersburg, which he +repeated in April 1901. In June 1900 he made an arrangement +with Spain, fixing the long-disputed boundaries of the French +and Spanish possessions in West Africa. Finally he concluded +with England the important Agreements of 1904 covering colonial +and other questions which had long been a matter of dispute, +especially concerning Egypt, Newfoundland and Morocco. +Suspicion of the growing <i>entente</i> between France and England +soon arose on the part of Germany, and in 1905 German assertiveness +was shown in a crisis which was forced on in the matter of +the French activity in Morocco (<i>q.v.</i>), in which the handling of +French policy by M. Delcassé personally was a sore point with +Germany. The situation became acute in April, and was only +relieved by M. Delcassé’s resignation of office. He retired into +private life, but in 1908 was warmly welcomed on a visit to +England, where the closest relations now existed with France.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEL CREDERE<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (Ital. “of belief” or “trust”). A “del +credere agent,” in English law, is one who, selling goods for his +principal on credit, undertakes for an additional commission to +sell only to persons who are absolutely solvent. His position +is thus that of a surety who is liable to his principal should the +vendee make default. The agreement between him and his +principal need not be reduced to or evidenced by writing, for +his undertaking is not a guarantee within the Statute of Frauds. +See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Broker</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guarantee</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELESCLUZE, LOUIS CHARLES<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (1809-1871), French +journalist, was born at Dreux on the 2nd of October 1809. +Having studied law in Paris, he early developed a strong democratic +bent, and played a part in the July revolution of 1830. +He became a member of various republican societies, and in +1836 was forced to take refuge in Belgium, where he devoted +himself to republican journalism. Returning in 1840 he settled +in Valenciennes, and after the revolution of 1848 removed to +Paris, where he started a newspaper called <i>La Révolution démocratique +et sociale</i>. His zeal so far outran his discretion that he +was twice imprisoned and fined, his paper was suppressed and +he himself fled to England, where he continued his journalistic +work. He was arrested in Paris in 1853, and deported to French +Guiana. Released under the amnesty of 1859, he returned +to France with health shattered but energies unimpaired. His +next venture was the publication of the <i>Réveil</i>, a radical organ +upholding the principles of the <i>Association internationale des +travailleurs</i>, known as the “<i>Internationale</i>.” This journal, +which brought him three condemnations, fine and imprisonment +in one year, shared the fate of his Paris sheet, and its founder +again fled to Belgium. In 1871 he was elected to the National +Assembly, becoming afterwards a member of the Paris commune. +At the siege of Paris he fought with reckless courage, and met +his death on the last of the barricades (May 1871). He wrote an +account of his imprisonment in Guiana, <i>De Paris à Cayenne, +Journal d’un transporté</i> (Paris, 1869).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELESSE, ACHILLE ERNEST OSCAR JOSEPH<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (1817-1881), +French geologist and mineralogist, was born at Metz on the 3rd +of February 1817. At the age of twenty he entered the École +Polytechnique, and subsequently passed through the École des +Mines. In 1845 he was appointed to the chair of mineralogy +and geology at Besançon; in 1850 to the chair of geology at the +Sorbonne in Paris; and in 1864 professor of agriculture at the +École des Mines. In 1878 he became inspector-general of mines. +In early years as <i>ingénieur des mines</i> he investigated and described +various new minerals; he proceeded afterwards to the study of +rocks, devising new methods for their determination, and giving +particular descriptions of melaphyre, arkose, porphyry, syenite, +&c. The igneous rocks of the Vosges, and those of the Alps, +Corsica, &c., and the subject of metamorphism occupied his +attention. He also prepared in 1858 geological and hydrological +maps of Paris—with reference to the underground water, similar +maps of the departments of the Seine and Seine-et-Marne, and an +agronomic map of the Seine-et-Marne (1880), in which he showed +the relation which exists between the physical and chemical +characters of the soil and the geological structure. His annual +<i>Revue des progrès de géologie</i>, undertaken with the assistance +(1860-1865) of Auguste Laugel and afterwards (1865-1878) of +Albert de Lapparent, was carried on from 1860 to 1880. His +observations on the lithology of the deposits accumulated beneath +the sea were of special interest and importance. His separate +publications were: <i>Recherches sur l’origine des roches</i> (Paris, +1865); <i>Étude sur le métamorphisme des roches</i> (1869); <i>Lithologie +des mers de France et des mers principales du globe</i> (2 vols. and +atlas, 1871). He died at Paris on the 24th of March 1881.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELESSERT, JULES PAUL BENJAMIN<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1773-1847), French +banker, was born at Lyons on the 14th of February 1773, the +son of Étienne Delessert (1735-1816), the founder of the first +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page954" id="page954"></a>954</span> +fire insurance company and the first discount bank in France. +Young Delessert was travelling in England when the Revolution +broke out in France, but he hastened back to join the Paris +National Guard in 1790, becoming an officer of artillery in 1793. +His father bought him out of the army, however, in 1795 in order +to entrust him with the management of his bank. Gifted with +remarkable energy, he started many commercial enterprises, +founding the first cotton factory at Passy in 1801, and a sugar +factory in 1802, for which he was created a baron of the empire. +He sat in the chamber of deputies for many years, and was a +strong advocate for many humane measures, notably the suppression +of the “Tours” or revolving box at the foundling +hospital, the suppression of the death penalty, and the improvement +of the penitentiary system. He was made regent of the +Bank of France in 1802, and was also member of, and, indeed, +founder of many, learned and philanthropic societies. He +founded the first savings bank in France, and maintained a keen +interest in it until his death in 1847. He was also an ardent +botanist and conchologist; his botanical library embraced +30,000 volumes, of which he published a catalogue—<i>Musée +botanique de M. Delessert</i> (1845). He also wrote <i>Des avantages +de la caisse d’épargne et de prévoyance</i> (1835), <i>Mémoire sur un +projet de bibliothéque royale</i> (1836), <i>Le Guide de bonheur</i> (1839), and +<i>Recueil de coquilles décrites par Lamarck</i> (1841-1842).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELFICO, MELCHIORRE<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (1744-1835), Italian economist, was +born at Teramo in the Abruzzi on the 1st of August 1744, and +was educated at Naples. He devoted himself specially to the +study of jurisprudence and political economy, and his numerous +publications exercised great practical influence in the correction +and extinction of many abuses. Under Joseph Bonaparte +Delfico was made a councillor of state, an office which he held +until the restoration of Ferdinand IV., when he was appointed +president of the commission of archives, from which he retired +in 1825. He died at Teramo on the 21st of June 1835. His more +important works were: <i>Saggio filosofico sul matrimonio</i> (1774); +<i>Memoria sul Tribunale della Grascia e sulle leggi economiche nelle +provincie confinanti del regno</i> (1785), which led to the abolition +in Naples of the most vexatious and absurd restrictions on the +sale and exportation of agricultural produce; <i>Riflessioni su la +vendita dei feudi</i> (1790) and <i>Lettera a Sua Ecc. il sig. Duca di +Cantalupo</i> (1795), which brought about the abolition of feudal +rights over landed property and their sale; <i>Ricerche sul vero +carattere della giurisprudenza Romana e dei suoi cultori</i> (1791); +<i>Pensieri su la storia e su l’ incertezza ed inutilità della medesima</i> +(1806), both on the early history of Rome.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Mozzetti, <i>Degli studii, delle opere e delle virtù di Melchiorre +Delfico</i>; Tipaldo’s <i>Biographia degli Italiani illustri</i> (vol. ii.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELFT,<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> a town of Holland in the province of South Holland, +on the Schie, 5 m. by rail S.E. by S. of the Hague, with which +it is also connected by steam-tramway. Pop. (1900) 31,582. +It is a quiet, typically Dutch town, with its old brick houses and +tree-bordered canals. The Prinsenhof, previously a monastery, +was converted into a residence for the counts of Orange in 1575; +it was here that William the Silent was assassinated. It is now +used as a William of Orange Museum. The New Church, +formerly the church of St Ursula (14th century), is the burial place +of the princes of Orange. It is remarkable for its fine tower and +chime of bells, and contains the splendid allegorical monument +of William the Silent, executed by Hendrik de Keyser and his +son Pieter about 1621, and the tomb of Hugo Grotius, born in +Delft in 1583, whose statue, erected in 1886, stands in the +market-place outside the church. The Old Church, founded +in the 11th century, but in its present form dating from 1476, +contains the monuments of two famous admirals of the 17th +century, Martin van Tromp and Piet Hein, as well as the tomb +of the naturalist Leeuwenhoek, born at Delft in 1632. In +the town hall (1618) are some corporation pictures, portraits +of the counts of Orange and Nassau, including several by Michiel +van Mierevelt (1567-1641), one of the earliest Dutch portrait +painters, and with his son Pieter (1595-1623), a native of Delft. +There are also a Roman Catholic church (1882) and a synagogue. +Two important educational establishments are the Indian +Institute for the education of civil service students for the +colonies, to which is attached an ethnographical museum; +and the Royal Polytechnic school, which almost ranks as a +university, and teaches, among other sciences, that of diking. +A fine collection of mechanical models is connected with the +polytechnic school. Among other buildings are the modern +“Phoenix” club-house of the students; the hospital, containing +some anatomical pictures, including one by the two Mierevelts +(1617); a lunatic asylum; the Van Renswoude orphanage, the +theatre, a school of design, the powder magazine and the state +arsenal, originally a warehouse of the East India Company, and +now used as a manufactory of artillery stores.</p> + +<p>The name of Delft is most intimately associated with the manufacture +of the beautiful faience pottery for which it was once +famous. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span>.) This industry was imported from +Haarlem towards the end of the 16th century, and achieved an +unrivalled position in the second half of the following century; +but it did not survive the French occupation at the end of the +18th century. It has, however, been revived in modern times +under the name of “New Delft.” Other branches of industry +are carpet-weaving, distilling, oil and oil-cake manufacture, +dyeing, cooperage and the manufacture of arms and bullets. +There is also an important butter and cheese market.</p> + +<p>Delft was founded in 1075 by Godfrey III., duke of Lower +Lorraine, after his conquest of Holland, and came subsequently +into the hands of the counts of Holland. In 1246 it received +a charter from Count William II. (see C. Hegel, <i>Städte und +Gilden</i>, ii. 251). In 1536 it was almost totally destroyed by +fire, and in 1654 largely ruined by the explosion of a powder +magazine.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELHI,<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> <span class="sc">Dehli</span> or <span class="sc">Dilli</span>, the ancient capital of the Mogul +empire in India, and a modern city which gives its name to a +district and division of British India. The city of Delhi is situated +in 28° 38′ N., 77° 13′ E., very nearly due north of Cape +Comorin, and practically in a latitudinal line with the more +ancient cities of Cairo and Canton. It lies in the south-east +corner of the province of the Punjab, to which it was added in +1858, and abuts on the right bank of the river Jumna. Though +Lahore, the more ancient city, remains the official capital of the +Punjab, Delhi is historically more famous, and is now more +important as a commercial and railway centre.</p> + +<p>Though the remains of earlier cities are scattered round Delhi +over an area estimated to cover some 45 sq. m., modern Delhi +dates only from the middle of the 17th century, when Shah +Jahan rebuilt the city on its present site, adding the title +Shah-jahanabad from his own name. It extends for nearly +2¼ m. along the right bank of the Jumna from the Water +bastion to the Wellesley bastion in the south-east corner, nearly +one-third of the frontage being occupied by the river wall of the +palace. The northern wall, famous in the siege of Delhi in 1857, +extends three-quarters of a mile from the Water bastion to the +Shah, commonly known as the Mori, bastion; the length of +the west wall from this bastion to the Ajmere gate is 1¼ m. +and of the south wall to the Wellesley bastion again almost +exactly the same distance, the whole land circuit being +thus 3¼ m. The complete circuit of Delhi is 5½ m. In the +north wall is situated the famous Kashmir gate, while the +Mori or Drain gate, which was built by a Mahratta governor, +has now been removed. In the west wall are the Farash +Khana and Ajmere gates, while the Kabul and Lahore gates +have been removed. In the south wall are the Turkman and +Delhi gates. The gates on the river side of the city included +the Khairati and Rajghat, the Calcutta and Nigambod—both +removed; the Kela gate, and the Badar Rao gate, now closed. +The great wall of Delhi, which was constructed by Shah Jahan, +was strengthened by the English by the addition of a ditch and +glacis, after Delhi was captured by Lord Lake in 1803; and its +strength was turned against the British at the time of the Mutiny. +The imperial palace (1638-1648), now known as the “Fort,” +is situated on the east of the city, and abuts directly on the river. +It consists at present of bare and ugly British barracks, among +which are scattered exquisite gems of oriental architecture. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page955" id="page955"></a>955</span> +two most famous among its buildings are the Diwan-i-Am or +Hall of Public Audience, and the Diwan-i-Khas or Hall of +Private Audience. The Diwan-i-Am is a splendid building +measuring 100 ft. by 60 ft., and was formerly plastered with +chunam and overlaid with gold. The most striking effect now +lies in its engrailed arches. It was in the recess in the back +wall of this hall that the famous Peacock Throne used to stand, +“so called from its having the figures of two peacocks standing +behind it, their tails being expanded and the whole so inlaid with +sapphires, rubies, emeralds, pearls and other precious stones of +appropriate colours as to represent life.” Tavernier, the French +jeweller, who saw Delhi in 1665, describes the throne as of the +shape of a bed, 6 ft. by 4 ft., supported by four golden feet, +20 to 25 in. high, from the bars above which rose twelve columns +to support the canopy; the bars were decorated with crosses +of rubies and emeralds, and also with diamonds and pearls. In +all there were 108 large rubies on the throne, and 116 emeralds, +but many of the latter had flaws. The twelve columns supporting +the canopy were decorated with rows of splendid pearls, and +Tavernier considered these to be the most valuable part of the +throne. The whole was valued at £6,000,000. This throne was +carried off by the Persian invader Nadir Shah in 1739, and has +been rumoured to exist still in the Treasure House of the Shah +of Persia; but Lord Curzon, who examined the thrones there, +says that nothing now exists of it, except perhaps some portions +worked up in a modern Persian throne. The Diwan-i-Khas +is smaller than the Diwan-i-Am, and consists of a pavilion of +white marble, in the interior of which the art of the Moguls +reached the perfection of its jewel-like decoration. On a marble +platform rises a marble pavilion, the flat-coned roof of which +is supported on a double row of marble pillars. The inner face +of the arches, with the spandrils and the pilasters which support +them, are covered with flowers and foliage of delicate design and +dainty execution, crusted in green serpentine, blue <i>lapis lazuli</i> +and red and purple porphyry. During the lapse of years many of +these stones were picked from their setting, and the silver ceiling +of flowered patterns was pillaged by the Mahrattas; but the +inlaid work was restored as far as possible by Lord Curzon. It is +in this hall that the famous inscription “If a paradise be on the +face of the earth, it is this, it is this, it is this,” still exists. It is +given in Persian characters twice in the panels over the narrow +arches at the ends of the middle hall, beginning from the east on +the north side, and from the west at the south side. At the time +of the Delhi Durbar held in January 1903 to celebrate the +proclamation of Edward VII. as emperor of India these two +halls were used as a dancing-room and supper-room, and their +full beauty was brought out by the electric light shining through +their marble grille-work.</p> + +<p>The native city of Delhi is like most other cities in India, a +huddle of mean houses in mean streets, diversified with splendid +mosques. The Chandni Chauk (“silver street”), the principal +street of Delhi, which was once supposed to be the richest street +in the world, has fallen from its high estate, though it is still a +broad and imposing avenue with a double row of trees running +down the centre. During the course of its history it was four times +sacked, by Nadir Shah, Timur, Ahmad Shah and the Mahrattas, +and its roadway has many times run with blood. Now it is the +abode of the jewellers and ivory-workers of Delhi, but the jewels +are seldom valuable and the carving has lost much of its old +delicacy. A short distance south of the Chandni Chauk the Jama +Masjid, or Great Mosque, rises boldly from a small rocky eminence. +It was erected in 1648-1650, two years after the royal palace, +by Shah Jahan. Its front court, 450 ft. square, and surrounded +by a cloister open on both sides, is paved with granite inlaid with +marble, and commands a fine view of the city. The mosque itself, +a splendid structure forming an oblong 261 ft. in length, is +approached by a magnificent flight of stone steps. Three domes +of white marble rise from its roof, with two tall minarets at the +front corners. The interior of the mosque is paved throughout, +and the walls and roof are lined, with white marble. Two other +mosques in Delhi itself deserve passing notice, the Kala Masjid +or Black Mosque, which was built about 1380 in the reign of +Feroz Shah, and the Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque, a tiny building +added to the palace by Aurangzeb, as the emperor’s private +place of prayer. It is only 60 ft. square, and the domes alone +are seen above the red sandstone walls until the opening of two +small fine brass gates.</p> + +<p>To the west and north-west of Delhi considerable suburbs +cluster beyond the walls. Here are the tombs of the imperial +family. That of Humayun, the second of the Mogul dynasty, is +a noble building of rose-coloured sandstone inlaid with white +marble. It lies about 3 m. from the city, in a terraced garden, +the whole surrounded by an embattled wall, with towers and four +gateways. In the centre stands a platform about 20 ft. high by +200 ft. square, supported by arches and ascended by four flights +of steps. Above, rises the mausoleum, also a square, with a great +dome of white marble in the centre. About a mile to the west +is another burying-ground, or collection of tombs and small +mosques, some of them very beautiful. The most remarkable +is perhaps the little chapel in honour of a celebrated Mussulman +saint, Nizam-ud-din, near whose shrine the members of the +imperial family, up to the time of the Mutiny, lie buried, each +in a small enclosure surrounded by lattice-work of white marble.</p> + +<p>Still farther away, some 10 m. south of the modern city, amid +the ruins of old Delhi, stands the Kutb Minar, which is supposed +to be the most perfect tower in the world, and one of the seven +architectural wonders of India. The Minar was begun by Kutb-ud-din +Aibak about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1200. The two top storeys were rebuilt +by Feroz Shah. It consists of five storeys of red sandstone and +white marble. The purplish red of the sandstone at the base is +finely modulated, through a pale pink in the second storey, to +a dark orange at the summit, which harmonizes with the blue of +an Indian sky. Dark bands of Arabic writing round the three +lower storeys contrast with the red sandstone. The height of the +column is 238 ft. The plinth is a polygon of twenty sides. The +basement storey has the same number of faces formed into convex +flutes which are alternately angular and semicircular. The next +has semicircular flutes, and in the third they are all angular. +Then rises a plain storey, and above it soars a partially fluted +storey, the shaft of which is adorned with bands of marble and +red sandstone. A bold projecting balcony, richly ornamented, +runs round each storey. After six centuries the column is almost +as fresh as on the day it was finished. It stands in the south-east +corner of the outer court of the mosque erected by Kutb-ud-din +immediately after his capture of Delhi in 1193. The design of +this mosque is Mahommedan, but the wonderfully delicate +ornamentation of its western façade and other remaining parts +is Hindu. In the inner courtyard of the mosque stands the Iron +Pillar, which is probably the most ancient monument in the +neighbourhood of Delhi, dating from about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400. It consists +of a solid shaft of wrought iron some 16 in. in diameter and 23 ft. +8 in. in height, with an inscription eulogizing Chandragupta +Vikramaditya. It was brought, probably from Muttra, by +Anang Pal, a Rajput chief of the Tomaras, who erected it here +in 1052.<a name="fa1r" id="fa1r" href="#ft1r"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>Among the modern buildings of Delhi may be mentioned the +Residency, now occupied by a government high school, and +the Protestant church of St James, built at a coast of £10,000 by +Colonel Skinner, an officer well known in the history of the East +India Company. About half-way down the Chandni Chauk is a +high clock-tower. Near it is the town hall, with museum and +library. Behind the Chandni Chauk, to the north, lie the Queen’s +Gardens; beyond them the “city lines” stretch away as far +as the well-known rocky ridge, about a mile outside the town. +From the summit of this ridge the view of the station and city +is very picturesque. The principal local institution until 1877 was +the Delhi College, founded in 1792. It was at first exclusively +an oriental school, supported by the voluntary contributions +of Mahommedan gentlemen, and managed by a committee of the +subscribers. In 1829 an English department was added to it; +and in 1855 the institution was placed under the control of +the Educational Department. In the Mutiny of 1857 the old +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page956" id="page956"></a>956</span> +college was plundered of a very valuable oriental library, and +the building completely destroyed. A new college was founded in +1858, and was affiliated to the university of Calcutta in 1864. +The old college attained to great celebrity as an educational +institution, and produced many excellent scholars, but it was +abolished in 1877, in order to concentrate the grant available for +higher-class education upon the Punjab University at Lahore.</p> + +<p>The Ridge, famous as the British base during the siege of Delhi +during the Mutiny, in 1857, is a last outcrop of the Aravalli Hills +which rises in a steep escarpment some 60 ft. above the city. At +its nearest point on the right of the British position, where the +Mutiny Memorial now stands, the Ridge is only 1200 yds. from +the walls of Delhi; at the Flagstaff Tower in the centre of the +position it is a mile and a half away; and at the left near the +river nearly two miles and a half. It was behind the Ridge at +this point that the main portion of the British camp was pitched. +The Mutiny Memorial, which was erected by the army before +Delhi, is a rather poor specimen of a Gothic spire in red sandstone, +while the memorial tablets are of inferior marble. Next to the +Ridge the point of most interest to every English visitor to Delhi +is Nicholson’s grave, which lies surrounded by an iron railing in +the Kashmir gate cemetery. The Kashmir gate itself bears a +slab recording the gallant deed of the party under Lieutenants +D. C. Home and P. Salkeld, who blew in the gate in broad daylight +on the day that Delhi was taken by assault.</p> + +<p>The population of Delhi according to the census of 1901 was +208,575, of whom 88,460 were Mahommedans and 114,417 were +Hindus. The city is served by five different railways, the East +Indian, the Oudh & Rohilkhand, the Rajputana-Malwa & +Bombay-Baroda, the Southern Punjab, and the North-Western, +and occupies a central position, being 940 m. from Karachi, 950 +from Calcutta, and 960 from Bombay. Owing to the advantages +it enjoys as a trade centre, Delhi is recovering much of the +prominence which it lost at the time of the Mutiny. It has +spinning-mills and other mills worked by steam. The principal +manufactures are gold and silver filigree work and embroidery, +jewelry, muslins, shawls, glazed pottery and wood-carving.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Delhi</span> has an area of 1290 sq. m. It consists +of a strip of territory on the right or west bank of the Jumna +river, 75 m. in length, and varying from 15 to 233 m. in breadth. +Most of the district consists of hard and stony soil, depending +upon irrigation, which is supplied by the Western Jumna canal, +the Ali Mardan canal and the Agra canal. The principal crops +are wheat, barley, sugar-cane and cotton.</p> + +<p>When Lord Lake broke the Mahratta power in 1803, and +the emperor was taken under the protection of the East India +Company, the present districts of Delhi and Hissar were assigned +for the maintenance of the royal family, and were administered +by a British resident. In 1832 the office of resident was +abolished, and the tract was annexed to the North-Western +Provinces. After the Mutiny in 1858 it was separated from +the North-Western Provinces and annexed to the Punjab. The +population in 1901 was 689,039.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">Division of Delhi</span> stretches from Simla to Rajputana, +and is much broken up by native states. It comprises the seven +districts of Hissar, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Delhi, Karnal, Umballa +and Simla. Its total area is 15,393 sq. m., and in 1901 the +population was 4,587,092.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—According to legends, which may or may not have +a substantial basis, Delhi or its immediate neighbourhood has +from time immemorial been the site of a capital city. The +neighbouring village of Indarpat preserves the name of Indraprashta, +the semi-mythical city founded, according to the Sanscrit +epic <i>Mahabharata</i>, by Yudisthira and his brothers, the five +Pandavas. Whatever its dim predecessors may have been, +however, the actual history of Delhi dates no further back than +the 11th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, when Anangapala (Anang Pal), a chief of +the Tomara clan, built the Red Fort, in which the Kutb Minar +now stands; in 1052 the same chief removed the famous Iron +Pillar from its original position, probably at Muttra, and set it +up among a group of temples of which the materials were afterwards +used by the Mussulmans for the construction of the great +Kutb Mosque. About the middle of the 12th century the Tomara +dynasty was overthrown by Vigraha-raja (Visala-deva, Bisal +Deo), the Chauhan king of Ajmere, who from inscribed records +discovered of late years appears to have been a man of considerable +culture (see V. A. Smith, <i>Early Hist. of India</i>, ed. 1908, +p. 356). His nephew and successor was Prithwi-raja (Prithiraj, +or Rai Pithora), lord of Sambhar, Delhi and Ajmere, whose fame +as lover and warrior still lives in popular story. He was the last +Hindu ruler of Delhi. In 1191 came the invasion of Mahommed +of Ghor. Defeated on this occasion, Mahommed returned two +years later, overthrew the Hindus, and captured and put to +death Prithwi-raja. Delhi became henceforth the capital of +the Mahommedan Indian empire, Kutb-ud-din (the general and +slave of Mahommed of Ghor) being left in command. His +dynasty is known as that of the slave kings, and it is to them that +old Delhi owes its grandest remains, among them Kutb Mosque +and the Kutb Minar. The slave dynasty retained the throne +till 1290, when it was subverted by Jalal-ud-din Khilji. The +most remarkable monarch of this dynasty was Ala-ud-din, during +whose reign Delhi was twice exposed to attack from invading +hordes of Moguls. On the first occasion Ala-ud-din defeated +them under the walls of his capital; on the second, after encamping +for two months in the neighbourhood of the city, they retired +without a battle. The house of Khilji came to an end in 1321, +and was followed by that of Tughlak. Hitherto the Pathan kings +had been content with the ancient Hindu capital, altered and +adorned to suit their tastes. But one of the first acts of the +founder of the new dynasty, Ghias-ud-din Tughlak, was to erect +a new capital about 4 m. farther to the east, which he called +Tughlakabad. The ruins of his fort remain, and the eye can still +trace the streets and lanes of the long deserted city. Ghias-ud-din +was succeeded by his son Mahommed b. Tughlak, who reigned +from 1325 to 1351, and is described by Elphinstone as “one of +the most accomplished princes and most furious tyrants that +ever adorned or disgraced human nature.” Under this monarch +the Delhi of the Tughlak dynasty attained its utmost growth. +His successor Feroz Shah Tughlak transferred the capital to a +new town which he founded some miles off, on the north of the +Kutb, and to which he gave his own name, Ferozabad. In 1398, +during the reign of Mahmud Tughlak, occurred the Tatar +invasion of Timurlane. The king fled to Gujarat, his army was +defeated under the walls of Delhi, and the city surrendered. The +town, notwithstanding a promise of protection, was plundered +and burned; the citizens were massacred. The invaders at last +retired, leaving Delhi without a government, and almost without +inhabitants. At length Mahmud Tughlak regained a fragment +of his former kingdom, but on his death in 1412 the family became +extinct. He was succeeded by the Sayyid dynasty, which held +Delhi and a few miles of surrounding territory till 1444, when it +gave way to the house of Lodi, during whose rule the capital was +removed to Agra. In 1526 Baber, sixth in descent from Timurlane, +invaded India, defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi at the battle +of Panipat, entered Delhi, was proclaimed emperor, and finally +put an end to the Afghan empire. Baber’s capital was at Agra, +but his son and successor, Humayun, removed it to Delhi. In +1540 Humayun was defeated and expelled by Sher Shah, who +entirely rebuilt the city, enclosing and fortifying it with a new +wall. In his time Delhi extended from where Humayun’s tomb +now is to near the southern gate of the modern city. In 1555 +Humayun, with the assistance of Persia, regained the throne; +but he died within six months, and was succeeded by his son, +the illustrious Akbar.</p> + +<p>During Akbar’s reign and that of his son Jahangir, the capital +was either at Agra or at Lahore, and Delhi once more fell into +decay. Between 1638 and 1658, however, Shah Jahan rebuilt it +almost in its present form; and his city remains substantially the +Delhi of the present time. The imperial palace, the Jama Masjid +or Great Mosque, and the restoration of what is now the western +Jumna canal, are the work of Shah Jahan. The Mogul empire +rapidly expanded during the reigns of Akbar and his successors +down to Aurungzeb, when it attained its climax. After the death +of the latter monarch, in 1707, came the decline. Insurrections +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page957" id="page957"></a>957</span> +and civil wars on the part of the Hindu tributary chiefs, +Sikhs and Mahrattas, broke out. Aurungzeb’s successors became +the helpless instruments of conflicting chiefs. His grandson, +Jahandar Shah, was, in 1713, deposed and strangled after a reign +of one year; and Farrakhsiyyar, the next in succession, met with +the same fate in 1719. He was succeeded by Mahommed Shah, +in whose reign the Mahratta forces first made their appearance +before the gates of Delhi, in 1736. Three years later the Persian +monarch, Nadir Shah, after defeating the Mogul army at Karnal, +entered Delhi in triumph. While engaged in levying a heavy +contribution, the Persian troops were attacked by the populace, +and many of them were killed. Nadir Shah, after vainly attempting +to stay the tumult, at last gave orders for a general massacre +of the inhabitants. For fifty-eight days Nadir Shah remained in +Delhi, and when he left he carried with him a treasure in money +amounting, at the lowest computation, to eight or nine millions +sterling, besides jewels of inestimable value, and other property +to the amount of several millions more.</p> + +<p>From this time (1740) the decline of the empire proceeded +unchecked and with increased rapidity. In 1771 Shah Alam, the +son of Alamgir II., was nominally raised to the throne by the +Mahrattas, the real sovereignty resting with the Mahratta chief, +Sindhia. An attempt of the puppet emperor to shake himself +clear of the Mahrattas, in which he was defeated in 1788, led to a +permanent Mahratta garrison being stationed at Delhi. From +this date, the king remained a cipher in the hands of Sindhia, +who treated him with studied neglect, until the 8th of September +1803, when Lord Lake overthrew the Mahrattas under the walls +of Delhi, entered the city, and took the king under the protection +of the British. Delhi, once more attacked by a Mahratta army +under the Mahratta chief Holkar in 1804, was gallantly defended +by Colonel Ochterlony, the British resident, who held out against +overwhelming odds for eight days, until relieved by Lord Lake. +From this date a new era in the history of Delhi began. A pension +of £120,000 per annum was allowed to the king, with exclusive +jurisdiction over the palace, and the titular sovereignty as before; +but the city, together with the Delhi territory, passed under +British administration.</p> + +<p>Fifty-three years of quiet prosperity for Delhi were brought to +a close by the Mutiny of 1857. Its capture by the mutineers, its +siege, and its subsequent recapture by the British have been +often told, and nothing beyond a short notice is called for here. +The outbreak at Meerut occurred on the night of the 10th of +May 1857. Immediately after the murder of their officers, the +rebel soldiery set out for Delhi, about 35 m. distant, and on +the following morning entered the city, where they were joined +by the city mob. Mr Fraser, the commissioner, Mr Hutchinson, +the collector, Captain Douglas, the commandant of the palace +guards, and the Rev. Mr Jennings, the residency chaplain, were +at once murdered, as were also most of the civil and non-official +residents whose houses were situated within the city walls. The +British troops in cantonments consisted of three regiments of +native infantry and a battery of artillery. These cast in their lot +with the mutineers, and commenced by killing their officers. +The Delhi magazine, then the largest in the north-west of India, +was in the charge of Lieutenant Willoughby, with whom were two +other officers and six non-commissioned officers. The magazine +was attacked by the mutineers, but the little band defended to +the last the enormous accumulation of munitions of war stored +there, and, when further defence was hopeless, fired the magazine. +Five of the nine were killed by the explosion, and Lieutenant +Willoughby subsequently died of his injuries; the remaining +three succeeded in making their escape. The occupation of Delhi +by the rebels was the signal for risings in almost every military +station in North-Western India. The revolted soldiery with one +accord thronged towards Delhi, and in a short time the city was +garrisoned by a rebel army variously estimated at from 50,000 to +70,000 disciplined men. The pensioned king, Bahadur Shah, was +proclaimed emperor; his sons were appointed to various military +commands. About fifty Europeans and Eurasians, nearly all +females, who had been captured in trying to escape from the town +on the day of the outbreak, were confined in a stifling chamber +of the palace for fifteen days; they were then brought out and +massacred in the court-yard.</p> + +<p>The siege which followed forms one of the memorable incidents +of the British history of India. On the 8th June, four weeks after +the outbreak, Sir H. Barnard, who had succeeded as commander-in-chief +on the death of General Anson, routed the mutineers with +a handful of Europeans and Sikhs, after a severe action at Badliki-Serai, +and encamped upon the Ridge that overlooks the city. +The force was too weak to capture the city, and he had no siege +train or heavy guns. All that could be done was to hold the +position till the arrival of reinforcements and of a siege train. +During the next three months the little British force on the Ridge +were rather the besieged than the besiegers. Almost daily sallies, +which often turned into pitched battles, were made by the rebels +upon the over-worked handful of Europeans, Sikhs and Gurkhas. +A great struggle took place on the centenary of the battle of +Plassey (June 23), and another on the 25th of August; but on +both occasions the mutineers were repulsed with heavy loss. +General Barnard died of cholera in July, and was succeeded by +General Archdale Wilson. Meanwhile reinforcements and siege +artillery gradually arrived, and early in September it was resolved +to make the assault. The first of the heavy batteries opened fire +on the 8th of September, and on the 13th a practicable breach was +reported.</p> + +<p>On the morning of the 14th Sept. the assault was delivered, +the points of attack being the Kashmir bastion, the Water +bastion, the Kashmir gate, and the Lahore gate. The assault +was thoroughly successful, although the column which was to +enter the city by the Lahore gate sustained a temporary check. +The whole eastern part of the city was retaken, but at a cost of +66 officers and 1104 men killed and wounded, out of the total +strength of 9866. Fighting continued more or less during the +next six days, and it was not till the 20th of September that the +entire city and palace were occupied, and the reconquest of Delhi +was complete. During the siege, the British force sustained a +loss of 1012 officers and men killed, and 3837 wounded. Among +the killed was General John Nicholson, the leader of one of the +storming parties, who was shot through the body in the act of +leading his men, in the first day’s fighting. He lived, however, +to learn that the whole city had been recaptured, and died on the +23rd of September. On the flight of the mutineers, the king and +several members of the royal family took refuge at Humayun’s +tomb. On receiving a promise that his life would be spared, +the last of the house of Timur surrendered to Major Hodson; he +was afterwards banished to Rangoon. Delhi, thus reconquered, +remained for some months under military authority. Owing to +the murder of several European soldiers who strayed from the +lines, the native population was expelled the city. Hindus were +soon afterwards readmitted, but for some time Mahommedans +were rigorously excluded. Delhi was made over to the civil +authorities in January 1858, but it was not till 1861 that the civil +courts were regularly reopened. The shattered walls of the +Kashmir gateway, and the bastions of the northern face of the +city, still bear the marks of the cannonade of September 1857. +Since that date Delhi has settled down into a prosperous commercial +town, and a great railway centre. The lines which start +from it to the north, south, east and west bring into its bazaars +the trade of many districts. But the romance of antiquity still +lingers around it, and Delhi was selected for the scene of the +Imperial Proclamation on the 1st of January 1877, and for the +great Durbar held in January 1903 for the proclamation of King +Edward VII. as emperor of India.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The best modern account of the city is <i>Delhi, Past +and Present</i> (1901), by H. C. Fanshawe, a former commissioner of +Delhi. Other authoritative works are <i>Cities of India</i> (1903) and <i>The +Mutiny Papers</i> (1893), both by G. W. Forrest, and <i>Forty-one Years in +India</i> (1897), by Lord Roberts; while some impressionistic sketches +will be found in <i>Enchanted India</i> (1899), by Prince Bojidar Karageorgevitch. +See also the chapter on Delhi in H. G. Keene, <i>Hist. of +Hindustan ... to the fall of the Mughol Empire</i> (1885). For the +Delhi Durbar of 1903 see Stephen Wheeler, <i>Hist. of the Delhi Coronation +Durbar</i>, compiled from official papers by order of the viceroy of +India (London, 1904), which contains numerous portraits and other +illustrations.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1r" id="ft1r" href="#fa1r"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See the paper by V. A. Smith in the <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic +Soc.</i> (1897), p. 13.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page958" id="page958"></a>958</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELIA,<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> a festival of Apollo held every five years at the great +panegyris in Delos (Homeric <i>Hymn to Apollo</i>, 147). It included +athletic and musical contests, at which the prize was a branch of +the sacred palm. This festival was said to have been established +by Theseus on his way back from Crete. Its celebration gradually +fell into abeyance and was not revived till 426 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when the +Athenians purified the island and took so prominent a part in the +maintenance of the Delia that it came to be regarded almost as +an Athenian festival (Thucydides iii. 104). Ceremonial embassies +(<span class="grk" title="theôriai">θεωρίαι</span>) from all the Greek cities were present.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Gilbert, <i>Deliaca</i> (1869); J. A. Lebègue, <i>Recherches sur Délos</i> +(1876); A. Mommsen, <i>Feste der Stadt Athen</i> (1898); E. Pfuhl, +<i>De Atheniensium pompis sacris</i> (1900); G. F. Schömann, <i>Griechische +Altertümer</i> (4th ed., 1897-1902); P. Stengel, <i>Die griechischen +Kultusaltertümer</i> (1898); T. Homolle in Daremberg and Saglio’s +<i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELIAN LEAGUE,<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Confederacy of Delos</span>, the name given +to a confederation of Greek states under the leadership of Athens, +with its headquarters at Delos, founded in 478 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> shortly after +the final repulse of the expedition of the Persians under Xerxes I. +This confederacy, which after many modifications and vicissitudes +was finally broken up by the capture of Athens by Sparta +in 404, was revived in 378-7 (the “Second Athenian Confederacy”) +as a protection against Spartan aggression, and lasted, +at least formally, until the victory of Philip II. of Macedon at +Chaeronea. These two confederations have an interest quite out +of proportion to the significance of the detailed events which form +their history. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: <i>Ancient History</i>.) They are the first +two examples of which we have detailed knowledge of a serious +attempt at united action on the part of a large number of self-governing +states at a relatively high level of conscious political +development. The first league, moreover, in its later period +affords the first example in recorded history of self-conscious +imperialism in which the subordinate units enjoyed a specified +local autonomy with an organized system, financial, military and +judicial. The second league is further interesting as the precursor +of the Achaean and Aetolian Leagues.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Several causes contributed to the formation of the +first Confederacy of Delos. During the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Sparta +had come to be regarded as the chief power, not only in the Peloponnese, +but also in Greece as a whole, including the islands of +the Aegean. The Persian invasions of Darius and Xerxes, with the +consequent importance of maritime strength and the capacity +for distant enterprise, as compared with that of purely military +superiority in the Greek peninsula, caused a considerable loss of +prestige which Sparta was unwilling to recognize. Moreover, it +chanced that at the time the Spartan leaders were not men +of strong character or general ability. Pausanias, the victor of +Plataea, soon showed himself destitute of the high qualities +which the situation demanded. Personal cupidity, discourtesy +to the allies, and a tendency to adopt the style and manners of +oriental princes, combined to alienate from him the sympathies +of the Ionian allies, who realized that, had it not been for the +Athenians, the battle of Salamis would never have been even +fought, and Greece would probably have become a Persian +satrapy. The Athenian contingent which was sent to aid +Pausanias in the task of driving the Persians finally out of the +Thraceward towns was under the command of the Athenians, +Aristides and Cimon, men of tact and probity. It is not, therefore, +surprising that when Pausanias was recalled to Sparta on +the charge of treasonable overtures to the Persians, the Ionian +allies appealed to the Athenians on the grounds of kinship and +urgent necessity, and that when Sparta sent out Dorcis to supersede +Pausanias he found Aristides in unquestioned command of +the allied fleet. To some extent the Spartans were undoubtedly +relieved, in that it no longer fell to them to organize distant +expeditions to Asia Minor, and this feeling was strengthened +about the same time by the treacherous conduct of their king +Leotychides (<i>q.v.</i>) in Thessaly. In any case the inelastic quality +of the Spartan system was unable to adapt itself to the spirit of +the new age. To Aristides was mainly due the organization of the +new league and the adjustment of the contributions of the various +allies in ships or in money. His assessment, of the details of +which we know nothing, was so fair that it remained popular long +after the league of autonomous allies had become an Athenian +empire. The general affairs of the league were managed by a +synod which met periodically in the temple of Apollo and Artemis +at Delos, the ancient centre sanctified by the common worship +of the Ionians. In this synod the allies met on an equality under +the presidency of Athens. Among its first subjects of deliberation +must have been the ratification of Aristides’ assessment. +Thucydides lays emphasis on the fact that in these meetings +Athens as head of the league had no more than presidential +authority, and the other members were called <span class="grk" title="summachoi">σύμμαχοι</span> (allies), +a word, however, of ambiguous meaning and capable of including +both free and subject allies. The only other fact preserved by +Thucydides is that Athens appointed a board called the Hellenotamiae +(<span class="grk" title="tamias">ταμίας</span>, steward) to watch over and administer the +treasury of the league, which for some twenty years was kept +at Delos, and to receive the contributions (<span class="grk" title="phoros">φόρος</span>) of the allies +who paid in money.</p> + +<p>The league was, therefore, specifically a free confederation of +autonomous Ionian cities founded as a protection against the +common danger which threatened the Aegean basin, and led +by Athens in virtue of her predominant naval power as exhibited +in the war against Xerxes. Its organization, adopted by the +common synod, was the product of the new democratic ideal +embodied in the Cleisthenic reforms, as interpreted by a just +and moderate exponent. It is one of the few examples of free +corporate action on the part of the ancient Greek cities, whose +centrifugal yearning for independence so often proved fatal to +the Hellenic world. It is, therefore, a profound mistake to regard +the history of the league during the first twenty years of its +existence as that of an Athenian empire. Thucydides expressly +describes the predominance of Athens as <span class="grk" title="hêgemonia">ἡγεμονία</span> (leadership, +headship), not as <span class="grk" title="archê">ἀρχή</span> (empire), and the attempts made by +Athenian orators during the second period of the Peloponnesian +War to prove that the attitude of Athens had not altered since +the time of Aristides are manifestly unsuccessful.</p> + +<p>Of the first ten years of the league’s history we know practically +nothing, save that it was a period of steady, successful activity +against the few remaining Persian strongholds in Thrace and the +Aegean (Herod, i. 106-107, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cimon</a></span>). In these years +the Athenian sailors reached a high pitch of training, and by +their successes strengthened that corporate pride which had been +born at Salamis. On the other hand, it naturally came to pass +that certain of the allies became weary of incessant warfare and +looked for a period of commercial prosperity. Athens, as the +chosen leader, and supported no doubt by the synod, enforced +the contributions of ships and money according to the assessment. +Gradually the allies began to weary of personal service +and persuaded the synod to accept a money commutation. The +Ionians were naturally averse from prolonged warfare, and in +the prosperity which must have followed the final rout of the +Persians and the freeing of the Aegean from the pirates (a very +important feature in the league’s policy) a money contribution +was only a trifling burden. The result was, however, extremely +bad for the allies, whose status in the league necessarily became +lower in relation to that of Athens, while at the same time their +military and naval resources correspondingly diminished. Athens +became more and more powerful, and could afford to disregard +the authority of the synod. Another new feature appeared +in the employment of coercion against cities which desired to +secede. Athens might fairly insist that the protection of the +Aegean would become impossible if some of the chief islands were +liable to be used as piratical strongholds, and further that it was +only right that all should contribute in some way to the security +which all enjoyed. The result was that, in the cases of Naxos +and Thasos, for instance, the league’s resources were employed +not against the Persians but against recalcitrant Greek islands, +and that the Greek ideal of separate autonomy was outraged. +Shortly after the capture of Naxos (<i>c.</i> 467 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) Cimon proceeded +with a fleet of 300 ships (only 100 from the allies) to the south-western +and southern coasts of Asia Minor. Having driven the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page959" id="page959"></a>959</span> +Persians out of Greek towns in Lycia and Caria, he met and +routed the Persians on land and sea at the mouth of the Eurymedon +in Pamphylía. In 463 after a siege of more than two years +the Athenians captured Thasos, with which they had quarrelled +over mining rights in the Strymon valley. It is said (Thuc. i. 101) +that Thasos had appealed for aid to Sparta, and that the latter +was prevented from responding only by earthquake and the +Helot revolt. But this is both unproved and improbable. +Sparta had so far no quarrel with Athens. Athens thus became +mistress of the Aegean, while the synod at Delos had become +practically, if not theoretically, powerless. It was at this time +that Cimon (<i>q.v.</i>), who had striven to maintain a balance between +Sparta, the chief military, and Athens, the chief naval power, +was successfully attacked by Ephialtes and Pericles. During the +ensuing years, apart from a brief return to the Cimonian policy, +the resources of the league, or, as it has now become, the +Athenian empire, were directed not so much against Persia +as against Sparta, Corinth, Aegina and Boeotia. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sparta</a></span>, &c.) A few points only need be dealt with here. The first +years of the land war brought the Athenian empire to its zenith. +Apart from Thessaly, it included all Greece outside the Peloponnese. +At the same time, however, the Athenian expedition +against the Persians in Egypt ended in a disastrous defeat, and +for a time the Athenians returned to a philo-Laconian policy, +perhaps under the direction of Cimon (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cimon</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pericles</a></span>). +Peace was made with Sparta, and, if we are to believe 4th-century +orators, a treaty, the Peace of Callias or of Cimon, was +concluded between the Great King and Athens in 449 after the +death of Cimon before the walls of Citium in Cyprus. The +meaning of this so-called Peace of Callias is doubtful. Owing to +the silence of Thucydides and other reasons, many scholars +regard it as merely a cessation of hostilities (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cimon</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Callias</a></span>, where authorities are quoted). At all events, it is +significant of the success of the main object of the Delian League, +the Athenians resigning Cyprus and Egypt, while Persia recognized +the freedom of the maritime Greeks of Asia Minor.</p> + +<p>During this period the power of Athens over her allies had +increased, though we do not know anything of the process by +which this was brought about. Chios, Lesbos and Samos alone +furnished ships; all the rest had commuted for a money payment. +This meant that the synod was quite powerless. Moreover +in 454 (probably) the changed relations were crystallized by +the transference (proposed by the Samians) of the treasury to +Athens (<i>Corp. Inscr. Attic.</i> i. 260). Thus in 448 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Athens was +not only mistress of a maritime empire, but ruled over Megara, +Boeotia, Phocis, Locris, Achaea and Troezen, <i>i.e.</i> over so-called +allies who were strangers to the old pan-Ionian assembly and +to the policy of the league, and was practically equal to Sparta +on land. An important event must be referred probably to the +year 451,—the law of Pericles, by which citizenship (including +the right to vote in the Ecclesia and to sit on paid juries) was +restricted to those who could prove themselves the children of an +Athenian father and mother (<span class="grk" title="ex amphoin astoin">ἐξ ἀμφοῖν ἀστοῖν</span>). This measure +must have had a detrimental effect on the allies, who thus saw +themselves excluded still further from recognition as equal +partners in a league (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pericles</a></span>). The natural result of all +these causes was that a feeling of antipathy rose against Athens +in the minds of those to whom autonomy was the breath of life, +and the fundamental tendency of the Greeks to disruption was +soon to prove more powerful than the forces at the disposal of +Athens. The first to secede were the land powers of Greece +proper, whose subordination Athens had endeavoured to +guarantee by supporting the democratic parties in the various +states. Gradually the exiled oligarchs combined; with the defeat +of Tolmides at Coroneia, Boeotia was finally lost to the empire, +and the loss of Phocis, Locris and Megara was the immediate +sequel. Against these losses the retention of Euboea, Nisaea +and Pegae was no compensation; the land empire was irretrievably +lost.</p> + +<p>The next important event is the revolt of Samos, which had +quarrelled with Miletus over the city of Priene. The Samians +refused the arbitration of Athens. The island was conquered +with great difficulty by the whole force of the league, and from the +fact that the tribute of the Thracian cities and those in Hellespontine +district was increased between 439 and 436 we must +probably infer that Athens had to deal with a widespread feeling +of discontent about this period. It is, however, equally noticeable +on the one hand that the main body of the allies was not +affected, and on the other that the Peloponnesian League on +the advice of Corinth officially recognized the right of Athens to +deal with her rebellious subject allies, and refused to give help +to the Samians.</p> + +<p>The succeeding events which led to the Peloponnesian War and +the final disruption of the league are discussed in other articles. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>: <i>History</i>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peloponnesian War</a></span>.) Two important +events alone call for special notice. The first is the +raising of the allies’ tribute in 425 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by a certain Thudippus, +presumably a henchman of Cleon. The fact, though not +mentioned by Thucydides, was inferred from Aristophanes +(<i>Wasps</i>, 660), Andocides (<i>de Pace</i>, § 9), Plutarch (<i>Aristides</i>, +c. 24), and pseudo-Andocides (<i>Alcibiad.</i> 11); it was proved by +the discovery of the assessment list of 425-4 (Hicks and Hill, +<i>Inscrip.</i> 64). The second event belongs to 411, after the failure of +the Sicilian expedition. In that year the tribute of the allies +was commuted for a 5% tax on all imports and exports by sea. +This tax, which must have tended to equalize the Athenian +merchants with those of the allied cities, probably came into force +gradually, for beside the new collectors called <span class="grk" title="poristai">πορισταί</span> we still +find Hellenotamiae (<i>C.I.A.</i> iv. [i.] p. 34).</p> + +<p><i>The Tribute.</i>—Only a few problems can be discussed of the many +which are raised by the insufficient and conflicting evidence at +our disposal. In the first place there is the question of the +tribute. Thucydides is almost certainly wrong in saying that the +amount of the original tribute was 460 talents (about £106,000); +this figure cannot have been reached for at least twelve, probably +twenty years, when new members had been enrolled (Lycia, +Caria, Eion, Lampsacus). Similarly he is probably wrong, or at +all events includes items of which the tribute lists take no account, +when he says that it amounted to 600 talents at the beginning +of the Peloponnesian War. The moderation of the assessment is +shown not only by the fact that it was paid so long without +objection, but also by the individual items. Even in 425 Naxos +and Andros paid only 15 talents, while Athens had just raised +an <i>eisphora</i> (income tax) from her own citizens of 200 talents. +Moreover it would seem that a tribute which yielded less than +the 5% tax of 411 could not have been unreasonable.</p> + +<p>The number of tributaries is given by Aristophanes as 1000, +but this is greatly in excess of those named in the tribute lists. +Some authorities give 200; others put it as high as 290. The +difficulty is increased by the fact that in some cases several towns +were grouped together in one payment (<span class="grk" title="synteleis">συντελεῖς</span>). These were +grouped into five main geographical divisions (from 443 to 436; +afterwards four, Caria being merged in Ionia). Each division +was represented by two elective assessment commissioners +(<span class="grk" title="taktai">τακταί</span>), who assisted the Boulē at Athens in the quadrennial +division of the tribute. Each city sent in its own assessment +before the <span class="grk" title="taktai">τακταί</span>, who presented it to the Boulē. If there was +any difference of opinion the matter was referred to the Ecclesia +for settlement. In the Ecclesia a private citizen might propose +another assessment, or the case might be referred to the law +courts. The records of the tribute are preserved in the so-called +quota lists, which give the names of the cities and the proportion, +one-sixtieth, of their several tributes, which was paid to Athens. +No tribute was paid by members of a <i>cleruchy</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), as we find +from the fact that the tribute of a city always decreased when +a cleruchy was planted in it. This highly organized financial +system must have been gradually evolved, and no doubt +reached its perfection only after the treasury was transferred +to Athens.</p> + +<p><i>Government and Jurisdiction.</i>—There is much difference of +opinion among scholars regarding the attitude of imperial Athens +towards her allies. Grote maintained that on the whole the +allies had little ground for complaint; but in so doing he rather +seems to leave out of account the Greek’s dislike of external +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page960" id="page960"></a>960</span> +discipline. The very fact that the hegemony had become an +empire was enough to make the new system highly offensive to +the allies. No very strong argument can be based on the paucity +of actual revolts. The indolent Ionians had seen the result of +secession at Naxos and rebellion at Thasos; the Athenian fleet +was perpetually on guard in the Aegean. On the other hand +among the mainland cities revolt was frequent; they were +ready to rebel <span class="grk" title="kai para dynamin">καὶ παρὰ δύναμιν</span>. Therefore, even though +Athenian domination may have been highly salutary in its +effects, there can be no doubt that the allies did not regard it +with affection.</p> + +<p>To judge only by the negative evidence of the decree of +Aristoteles which records the terms of alliance of the second +confederacy (below), we gather that in the later period at least of +the first league’s history the Athenians had interfered with the +local autonomy of the allies in various ways—an inference which +is confirmed by the terms of “alliance” which Athens imposed on +Erythrae, Chalcis and Miletus. Though it appears that Athens +made individual agreements with various states, and therefore +that we cannot regard as general rules the terms laid down in +those which we possess, it is undeniable that the Athenians +planted garrisons under permanent Athenian officers (<span class="grk" title="phrourarchoi">φρούραρχοι</span>) +in some cities. Moreover the practice among Athenian settlers +of acquiring land in the allied districts must have been vexatious +to the allies, the more so as all important cases between Athenians +and citizens of allied cities were brought to Athens. Even on the +assumption that the Athenian dicasteries were scrupulously fair +in their awards, it must have been peculiarly galling to the +self-respect of the allies and inconvenient to individuals to +be compelled to carry cases to Athens and Athenian juries. +Furthermore we gather from the Aristoteles inscription and +from the 4th-century orators that Athens imposed democratic +constitutions on her allies; indeed Isocrates (<i>Paneg.</i>, 106) takes +credit for Athens on this ground, and the charter of Erythrae +confirms the view (cf. Arist. <i>Polit.</i>, viii., vi. 9 1307 b 20; Thuc. +viii. 21, 48, 64, 65). Even though we admit that Chios, Lesbos +and Samos (up to 440) retained their oligarchic governments +and that Selymbria, at a time (409 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) when the empire was +<i>in extremis</i>, was permitted to choose its own constitution, there +can be no doubt that, from whatever motive and with whatever +result, Athens did exercise over many of her allies an +authority which extended to the most intimate concerns of local +administration.</p> + +<p>Thus the great attempt on the part of Athens to lead a harmonious +league of free Greek states for the good of Hellas degenerated +into an empire which proved intolerable to the autonomous states +of Greece. Her failure was due partly to the commercial jealousy +of Corinth working on the dull antipathy of Sparta, partly to the +hatred of compromise and discipline which was fatally characteristic +of Greece and especially of Ionian Greece, and partly also to +the lack of tact and restraint shown by Athens and her representatives +in her relations with the allies.</p> + +<p><i>The Second League.</i>—The conditions which led to the second +Athenian or Delian Confederacy were fundamentally different, +not only in virtue of the fact that the allies had learned from +experience the dangers to which such a league was liable, but +because the enemy was no longer an oriental power of whose +future action there could be no certain anticipation, but Sparta, +whose ambitious projects since the fall of Athens had shown +that there could be no safety for the smaller states save in combination.</p> + +<p>There can be no reasonable doubt that as soon as the +Athenians began to recover from the paralysing effect of the +victory of Lysander and the internal troubles in which they were +involved by the government of the Thirty, their thoughts turned +to the possibility of recovering their lost empire. The first step +in the direction was the recovery of their sea-power, which was +effected by the victory of Conon at Cnidus (August 394 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). +Gradually individual cities which had formed part of the Athenian +empire returned to their alliance with Athens, until the Spartans +had lost Rhodes, Cos, Nisyrus, Teos, Chios, Mytilene, Ephesus, +Erythrae, Lemnos, Imbros, Scyros, Eretria, Melos, Cythera, +Carpathus and Delos. Sparta had only Sestos and Abydos of all +that she had won by the battle of Aegospotami. At the same +time no systematic constructive attempt at a renewal of empire +can as yet be detected. Athenian relations were with individual +states only, and the terms of alliance were various. Moreover, +whereas Persia had been for several years aiding Athens against +Sparta, the revolt of the Athenian ally Evagoras (<i>q.v.</i>) of Cyprus +set them at enmity, and with the secession of Ephesus, Cnidus and +Samos in 391 and the civil war in Rhodes, the star of Sparta +seemed again to be in the ascendant. But the whole position +was changed by the successes of Thrasybulus, who brought over +the Odrysian king Medocus and Seuthes of the Propontis to +the Athenian alliance, set up a democracy in Byzantium and +reimposed the old 10% duty on goods from the Black Sea. +Many of the island towns subsequently came over, and from +inscriptions at Clazomenae (<i>C.I.A.</i> ii. 14<i>b</i>) and Thasos (<i>C.I.A.</i> +iv. 11<i>b</i>) we learn that Thrasybulus evidently was deliberately +aiming at a renewal of the empire, though the circumstances +leading to his death at Aspendus when seeking to raise money +suggest that he had no general backing in Athens.</p> + +<p>The peace of Antalcidas or the King’s Peace (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antalcidas</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sparta</a></span>) in 386 was a blow to Athens in the interests of Persia +and Sparta. Antalcidas compelled the Athenians to give their +assent to it only by making himself master of the Hellespont by +stratagem with the aid of Dionysius the Elder of Syracuse. By +this peace all the Greek cities on the mainland of Asia with the +islands of Cyprus and Clazomenae were recognized as Persian, +all other cities except Imbros, Lemnos and Scyros as autonomous. +Directly, this arrangement prevented an Athenian +empire; indirectly, it caused the sacrificed cities and their +kinsmen on the islands to look upon Athens as their protector. +The gross selfishness of the Spartans, herein exemplified, was +emphasized by their capture of the Theban citadel, and, after +their expulsion, by the raid upon Attica in time of peace by +the Spartan Sphodrias, and his immunity from punishment at +Sparta (summer of 378 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The Athenians at once invited their +allies to a conference, and the Second Athenian Confederacy was +formed in the archonship of Nausinicus on the basis of the +famous decree of Aristoteles. Those who attended the conference +were probably Athens, Chios, Mytilene, Methymna, Rhodes, +Byzantium, Thebes, the latter of which joined Athens soon after +the Sphodrias raid. In the spring of 377 invitations were sent +out to the maritime cities. Some time in that year Tenedos, +Chios, Chalcis in Euboea, and probably the Euboean cities +Eretria, Carystus and Arethusa gave in their adherence, followed +by Perinthus, Peparethus, Sciathus and other maritime cities.</p> + +<p>At this point Sparta was roused to a sense of the significance of +the new confederacy, and the Athenian corn supply was threatened +by a Spartan fleet of sixty triremes. The Athenians immediately +fitted out a fleet under Chabrias, who gained a decisive victory +over the Spartans between Naxos and Paros (battle of Naxos +376 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), both of which were added to the league. Proceeding +northwards in 375 Chabrias brought over a large number of the +Thraceward towns, including Abdera, Thasos and Samothrace. +It is interesting to notice that a garrison was placed in Abdera +in direct contravention of the terms of the new confederacy +(Meyer, <i>Gesch. d. Alt.</i>, v. 394). About the same time the successes +of Timotheus in the west resulted in the addition to the league of +Corcyra and the cities of Cephallenia, and his moderation induced +the Acarnanians and Alcetas, the Molossian king, to follow their +example. Once again Sparta sent out a fleet, but Timotheus in +spite of financial embarrassment held his ground. By this time, +however, the alliance between Thebes and Athens was growing +weaker, and Athens, being short of money, concluded a peace +with Sparta (probably in July 374), by which the peace of +Antalcidas was confirmed and the two states recognized each +other as mistress of sea and land respectively. Trouble, however, +soon arose over Zacynthus, and the Spartans not only sent help +to the Zacynthian oligarchs but even besieged Corcyra (373). +Timotheus was sent to relieve the island, but shortness of +money compelled him to search for new allies, and he spent the +summer of 373 in persuading Jason of Pherae (if he had not +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page961" id="page961"></a>961</span> +already joined), and certain towns in Thrace, the Chersonese, the +Propontis and the Aegean to enrol themselves. This delay in +sending help to Corcyra was rightly or wrongly condemned by +the Athenians, who dismissed Timotheus in favour of Iphicrates. +The expedition which followed produced negative successes, but +the absence of any positive success and the pressure of financial +difficulty, coupled with the defection of Jason (probably before +371), and the high-handed action of Thebes in destroying +Plataea (373), induced Athens to renew the peace with Sparta +which Timotheus had broken. With the support of Persia an +agreement was made by a congress at Sparta on the basis of +the autonomy of the cities, Amphipolis and the Chersonese being +granted to Athens. The Thebans at first accepted the terms, but +on the day after, realizing that they were thus balked of their +pan-Boeotian ambition, withdrew and finally severed themselves +from the league.</p> + +<p>The peace of 371 may be regarded as the conclusion of the first +distinct period in the league’s existence. The original purpose +of the league—the protection of the allies from the ambitions of +Sparta—was achieved. Athens was recognized as mistress of the +sea; Sparta as the chief land power. The inherent weakness of +the coalition had, however, become apparent. The enthusiasm +of the allies (numbering about seventy) waned rapidly before the +financial exigencies of successive campaigns, and it is abundantly +clear that Thebes had no interest save the extension of her +power in Boeotia. Though her secession, therefore, meant very +little loss of strength, there were not wanting signs that the +league was not destined to remain a power in the land.</p> + +<p>The remaining history may be broken up into two periods, the +first from 371 to 357, the second from 357 to 338. Throughout +these two periods, which saw the decline and final dissolution of +the alliance, there is very little specific evidence for its existence. +The events seem to belong to the histories of the several cities, +and examples of corporate action are few and uncertain. None +the less the known facts justify a large number of inferences as to +the significance of events which are on the surface merely a part +of the individual foreign policy of Athens.</p> + +<p><i>Period 371-357.</i>—The first event in this period was the battle +of Leuctra (July 371), in which, no doubt to the surprise of Athens, +Thebes temporarily asserted itself as the chief land power in +Greece. To counterbalance the new power Athens very rashly +plunged into Peloponnesian politics with the ulterior object of +inducing the states which had formerly recognized the hegemony +of Sparta to transfer their allegiance to the Delian League. It +seems that all the states adopted this policy with the exception +of Sparta (probably) and Elis. The policy of Athens was mistaken +for two reasons: (1) Sparta was not entirely humiliated, and +(2) alliance with the land powers of Peloponnese was incalculably +dangerous, inasmuch as it involved Athens in enterprises which +could not awake the enthusiasm of her maritime allies. This new +coalition naturally alarmed Sparta, which at once made overtures +to Athens on the ground of their common danger from Thebes. +The alliance was concluded in 369. About the same time +Iphicrates was sent to take possession of Amphipolis according +to the treaty of 371. Some success in Macedonia roused the +hostility of Thebes, and the subsequent attempts on Amphipolis +caused the Chalcidians to declare against the league. It would +appear that the old suspicion of the allies was now thoroughly +awakened, and we find Athens making great efforts to conciliate +Mytilene by honorific decrees (Hicks and Hill, 109). This +suspicion, which was due primarily, no doubt, to the agreement +with Sparta, would find confirmation in the subsequent exchange +of compliments with Dionysius I. of Syracuse, Sparta’s ally, who +with his sons received the Athenian citizenship. It is not clear +that the allies officially approved this new friendship; it is +certain that it was actually distasteful to them. The same +dislike would be roused by the Athenian alliance with Alexander +of Pherae (368-367). The maritime allies naturally had no desire +to be involved in the quarrels of Sicily, Thessaly and the +Peloponnese.</p> + +<p>In 367 Athens and Thebes sent rival ambassadors to Persia, +with the result that Athens was actually ordered to abandon her +claim to Amphipolis, and to remove her navy from the high seas. +The claim to Amphipolis was subsequently affirmed, but the +Greek states declined to obey the order of Persia. In 366 Athens +lost Oropus, a blow which she endeavoured to repair by forming +an alliance with Arcadia and by an attack on Corinth. At the +same time certain of the Peloponnesian states made peace with +Thebes, and some hold that Athens joined this peace (Meyer, +<i>Gesch. d. Alt.</i> v. 449). Timotheus was sent in 366-365 to make +a demonstration against Persia. Finding Samos in the hands of +Cyprothemis, a servant of the satrap Tigranes, he laid siege to it, +captured it after a ten months’ siege and established a cleruchy. +Though Samos was not apparently one of the allies, this latter +action could not but remind the allies of the very dangers which +the second confederacy had set out to avoid.</p> + +<p>The next important event was the serious attempt on the part +of Epaminondas to challenge the Athenian naval supremacy. +Though Timotheus held his ground the confederacy was undoubtedly +weakened. In 362 Athens joined in the opposition +to the Theban expedition which ended in the battle of Mantineia +(July). In the next year the Athenian generals failed in the north +in their attempt to control the Hellespont. In Thessaly Alexander +of Pherae became hostile and after several successes even attacked +the Peiraeus. Chares was ordered to make reprisals, but instead +sailed to Corcyra, where he made the mistake of siding with +the oligarchs. The last event of the period was a success, the +recovery of Euboea (357), which was once more added to the +league.</p> + +<p>During these fourteen years the policy of Athens towards her +maritime allies was, as we have seen, shortsighted and inconsistent. +Alliances with various land powers, and an inability +to understand the true relations which alone could unite the +league, combined to alienate the allies, who could discover no +reason for the expenditure of their contributions on protecting +Sparta or Corinth against Thebes. The <span class="grk" title="Synedrion">Συνέδριον</span> of the league +is found taking action in several instances, but there is evidence +(cf. the expedition of Epaminondas in 363) that there was ground +for suspecting disloyalty in many quarters. On the other hand, +though the Athenian fleet became stronger and several cities +were captured, the league itself did not gain any important +voluntary adherents. The generals were compelled to support +their forces by plunder or out of their private resources, and, +frequently failing, diverted their efforts from the pressing needs +of the allies to purely Athenian objects.</p> + +<p><i>Period 357-338.</i>—The latent discontent of the allies was soon +fanned into hostility by the intrigues of Mausolus, prince of +Cardia, who was anxious to extend his kingdom. Chios, Rhodes, +Cos, Byzantium, Erythrae and probably other cities were in +revolt by the spring of 356, and their attacks on loyal members +of the confederacy compelled Athens to take the offensive. +Chabrias had already been killed in an attack on Chios in the +previous autumn, and the fleet was under the command of +Timotheus, Iphicrates and Chares, who sailed against Byzantium. +The enemy sailed north from Samos and in a battle off Embata +(between Erythrae and Chios) defeated Chares, who, without the +consent of his colleagues, had ventured to engage them in a +storm. The more cautious generals were accused of corruption +in not supporting Chares. Iphicrates was acquitted and +Timotheus condemned. Chares sought to replenish his resources +by aiding the Phrygian satrap Artabazus against Artaxerxes +Ochus, but a threat from the Persian court caused the Athenians +to recall him, and peace was made by which Athens recognized +the independence of the revolted towns. The league was further +weakened by the secession of Corcyra, and by 355 was reduced to +Athens, Euboea and a few islands. By this time, moreover, +Philip II. of Macedon had begun his career of conquest, and had +shattered an embryonic alliance between the league and certain +princes of Thrace (Cetriporis), Paeonia (Lyppeius) and Illyria +(Grabus). In 355 his advance temporarily ceased, but, as we +learn from Isocrates and Xenophon, the financial exhaustion of +the league was such that its destruction was only a matter of +time. Resuming operations in 354, Philip, in spite of temporary +checks at the hands of Chares, and the spasmodic opposition of a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page962" id="page962"></a>962</span> +few barbarian chiefs, took from the league all its Thracian and +Macedonian cities (Abdera, Maronea, Neapolis, Methone.) In +352-351 Philip actually received help from former members of +the confederacy. In 351 Charidemus, Chares and Phocion were +sent to oppose him, and we find that the contributions of the +Lesbian cities were assigned to them for supplies, but no successes +were gained. In 349 Euboea and Olynthus were lost to the league, +of which indeed nothing remained but an empty form, in spite +of the facts that the expelled Olynthians appealed to it in 348 +and that Mytilene rejoined in 347. In 346 the peace of Philocrates +was made between the league and Philip on terms which +were accepted by the Athenian Boulē. It is very remarkable +that, in spite of the powerlessness of the confederacy, the last recorded +event in its history is the steady loyalty of Tenedos, which +gave money to Athens about 340 (Hicks and Hill, 146). The +victory of Philip at Chaeronea in 338 finally destroyed the league.</p> + +<p>In spite of the precautions taken by the allies to prevent the +domination of Athens at their expense, the policy of the league was +almost throughout directed rather in the interests of Athens. +Founded with the specific object of thwarting the ambitious +designs of Sparta, it was plunged by Athens into enterprises of an +entirely different character which exhausted the resources of the +allies without benefiting them in any respect. There is no doubt +that, with very few exceptions, the cities were held to their +allegiance solely by the superior force of the Athenian navy. +The few instances of its action show that the <span class="grk" title="Synedrion">Συνέδριον</span> was +practically only a tool in the hands of Athens.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—<i>The First League.</i>—The general histories of Greece, +especially those of A. Holm (Eng. trans., London, 1894), G. Busolt +(2nd ed., Gotha, 1893), J. Beloch (Strassburg, 1893 foll.), and G. Grote +(the one-vol. ed. of 1907 has some further notes on later evidence). +E. Meyer’s <i>Gesch. des Altertums</i> (Stuttgart, 1892 foll.) and +<i>Forschungen</i> (Halle, 1892 foll.) are of the greatest value. For inscriptions, +G. F. Hill, <i>Sources of Greek History</i>, 478-431 (2nd ed., +1907); E. L. Hicks and G. F. Hill, <i>Greek Hist. Inscr.</i> (Oxford, 1901). +On the tribute see also U. Köhler in <i>Abhandlungen d. Berliner +Akademie</i> (1869) and U. Pedroli, “I Tributi degli alleati d’ Atene” in +Beloch’s <i>Studi di storia antica</i>. See also articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aristides</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Themistocles</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pericles</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cimon</a></span>, &c., and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: <i>History</i>, with +works quoted. For the last years of the league see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peloponnesian +War</a></span>.</p> + +<p><i>The Second League.</i>—The chief modern works are G. Busolt, “Der +zweite athenische Bund” in <i>Neue Jahrbücher für classische Philologie</i> +(supp. vol. vii., 1873-1875, pp. 641-866), and F. H. Marshall, <i>The +Second Athenian Confederacy</i> (1905), one of the Cambridge Historical +Essays (No. xiii.). The latter is based on Busolt’s monograph and +includes subsequent epigraphic evidence, with a full list of authorities. +For inscriptions see Hicks and Hill, <i>op. cit.</i>, and the <i>Inscriptiones +Atticae</i>, vol. ii. pt. 5. The meagre data given by ancient writers +are collected by Busolt and Marshall.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. M. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELIBES, CLÉMENT PHILIBERT LÉO<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (1836-1891), French +composer, was born at Saint Germain du Val on the 21st of +February 1836. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire under +Adolphe Charles Adam, through whose influence he became +accompanist at the Théâtre Lyrique. His first essay in dramatic +composition was his <i>Deux sous de charbon</i> (1853), and during +several years he produced a number of operettas. His cantata +<i>Alger</i> was heard at the Paris opera in 1865. Having become +second chorus master at the Grand Opéra, he wrote the music of a +ballet entitled <i>La Source</i> for this theatre, in collaboration with +Minkous, a Polish composer. La Source was produced with great +success in 1866. The composer returned to the operetta style +with <i>Malbrouk s’en va-t-en guerre</i>,—written in collaboration with +Georges Bizet, Émile Jonas and Legouix, and given at the +Théâtre de l’Athénée in 1867. Two years later came <i>L’Écossais +de Chatou</i>, a one-act piece, and <i>La Cour du roi Pétaud</i>, a three-act +opera-bouffe. The ballet <i>Coppélia</i> was produced at the Grand +Opéra on the 25th of May 1870 with enormous success.</p> + +<p>Delibes gave up his post as second chorus master at the Grand +Opéra in 1872 when he married the daughter of Mademoiselle +Denain, formerly an actress at the Comédie Française. In this +year he published a collection of graceful melodies including <i>Myrto</i>, +<i>Les Filles de Cadiz</i>, <i>Bonjour</i>, <i>Suzon</i> and others. His first important +dramatic work was <i>Le Roi l’a dit</i>, a charming comic opera, produced +on the 24th of May 1873 at the Opéra Comique. Three +years later, on the 14th of June 1876, <i>Sylvia</i>, a ballet in three acts, +one of the composer’s most delightful works, was produced at the +Grand Opéra. This was followed by <i>La Mort d’Orphée</i>, a grand +scena produced at the Trocadéro concerts in 1878; by <i>Jean de +Nivelle</i>, a three-act opera brought out at the Opéra Comique on +the 8th of March 1880; and by <i>Lakmé</i>, an opera in three acts +produced at the same theatre on the 14th of April 1883. Lakmé +has remained his most popular opera. The composer died in +Paris on the 16th of January 1891, leaving <i>Kassya</i>, a four-act +opera, in an unfinished state. This work was completed by +E. Guiraud, and produced at the Opéra Comique on the 21st of +March 1893. In 1877 Delibes became a chevalier of the Legion +of Honour; in 1881 he became a professor of advanced composition +at the Conservatoire; in 1884 he took the place of +Victor Massé at the Institut de France.</p> + +<p>Leo Delibes was a typically French composer. His music is +light, graceful and refined. He excelled in ballet music, and +<i>Sylvia</i> may well be considered a masterpiece. His operas are +constructed on a conventional pattern. The harmonic texture, +however, is modern, and the melodic invention abundant, while +the orchestral treatment is invariably excellent.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELILAH,<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> in the Bible, the heroine of Samson’s last love-story +and the cause of his downfall (Judg. xvi.). She was a Philistine +of Sorek (mod. Sūrīk), west of Zorah, and when her countrymen +offered her an enormous bribe to betray him, she set to work to +find out the source of his strength. Thrice Samson scoffingly +told her how he might be bound, and thrice he readily broke the +bonds with which she had fettered him in his sleep; seven green +bow-strings, new ropes, and even the braiding of his hair into +the frame of the loom failed to secure him. At length he disclosed +the secret of his power. Delilah put him to sleep upon her lap, +called in a man to shave off his seven locks, and this time he was +easily captured. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samson</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELILLE, JACQUES<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (1738-1813), French poet, was born on +the 22nd of June 1738 at Aigue-Perse in Auvergne. He was +an illegitimate child, and was descended by his mother from +the chancellor De l’Hôpital. He was educated at the college +of Lisieux in Paris and became an elementary teacher. He +gradually acquired a reputation as a poet by his epistles, in which +things are not called by their ordinary names but are hinted at by +elaborate periphrases. Sugar becomes “le miel américain que +du suc des roseaux exprima l’Africain.” The publication (1769) +of his translation of the <i>Georgics</i> of Virgil made him famous. +Voltaire recommended the poet for the next vacant place in the +Academy. He was at once elected a member, but was not +admitted until 1774 owing to the opposition of the king, who +alleged that he was too young. In his <i>Jardins, ou l’art d’embellir +les paysages</i> (1782) he made good his pretensions as an original +poet. In 1786 he made a journey to Constantinople in the train +of the ambassador M. de Choiseul-Gouffier.</p> + +<p>Delille had become professor of Latin poetry at the Collège +da France, and abbot of Saint-Sévérin, when the outbreak of the +Revolution reduced him to poverty. He purchased his personal +safety by professing his adherence to revolutionary doctrine, but +eventually quitted Paris, and retired to St Dié, where he completed +his translation of the <i>Aeneid</i>. He emigrated first to Basel +and then to Glairesse in Switzerland. Here he finished his <i>Homme +des champs</i>, and his poem on the <i>Trois règnes de la nature</i>. His +next place of refuge was in Germany, where he composed his +<i>La Pitié</i>; and finally, he passed some time in London, chiefly +employed in translating <i>Paradise Lost</i>. In 1802 he was able +to return to Paris, where, although nearly blind, he resumed +his professorship and his chair at the Academy, but lived in +retirement. He fortunately did not outlive the vogue of the +descriptive poems which were his special province, and died on +the 1st of May 1813.</p> + +<p>Delille left behind him little prose. His preface to the translation +of the <i>Georgics</i> is an able essay, and contains many excellent +hints on the art and difficulties of translation. He wrote the +article “La Bruyère” in the <i>Biographie universelle</i>. The following +is the list of his poetical works:—<i>Les Géorgiques de Virgile, +traduites en vers français</i> (Paris, 1769, 1782, 1785, 1809); <i>Les +Jardins</i>, en quatre chants (1780; new edition, Paris, 1801); +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page963" id="page963"></a>963</span> +<i>L’Homme des champs, ou les Géorgiques françaises</i> (Strassburg, +1802); <i>Poésies fugitives</i> (1802); <i>Dithyrambe sur l’immortalité de +l’âme, suivi du passage du Saint Gothard</i>, poëme traduit de +l’Anglais de Madame la duchesse de Devonshire (1802); <i>La Pitié</i>, +poëme en quatre chants (Paris, 1802); <i>L’Énéide de Virgile, +traduite en vers français</i> (4 vols., 1804); <i>Le Paradis perdu</i> +(3 vols., 1804); <i>L’Imagination</i>, poëme en huit chants (2 vols., +1806); <i>Les trois règnes de la nature</i> (2 vols., 1808); <i>La Conversation</i> +(1812). A collection given under the title of <i>Poésies diverses</i> +(1801) was disavowed by Delille.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Œuvres</i> (16 vols.) were published in 1824. See Sainte-Beuve, +<i>Portraits littéraires</i>, vol. ii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELIRIUM<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (a Latin medical term for madness, from <i>delirare</i>, +to be mad, literally to wander from the <i>lira</i>, or furrow), a +temporary form of brain disorder, generally occurring in connexion +with some special form of bodily disease. It may vary +in intensity from slight and occasional wandering of the mind and +incoherence of expression, to fixed delusions and violent maniacal +excitement, and again it may be associated with more or less of +coma or insensibility. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Insanity</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neuropathology</a></span>.) +Delirium is apt to occur in most diseases of an acute nature, such +as fevers or inflammatory affections, in injuries affecting the +brain, in blood diseases, in conditions of exhaustion, and as the +result of the action of certain specific poisons, such as opium, +Indian hemp, belladonna, chloroform and alcohol.</p> + +<p>Delirium tremens is one of a train of symptoms of what is +termed in medical nomenclature acute alcoholism, or excessive +indulgence in alcohol. It must, however, be observed that this +disorder, although arising in this manner, rarely comes on as the +result of a single debauch in a person unaccustomed to the abuse +of stimulants, but generally occurs in cases where the nervous +system has been already subjected for a length of time to the +poisonous action of alcohol, so that the complaint might be more +properly regarded as acute supervening on chronic alcoholism. +It is equally to be borne in mind that many habitual drunkards +never suffer from delirium tremens.</p> + +<p>It was long supposed, and is indeed still believed by some, that +delirium tremens only comes on when the supply of alcohol has +been suddenly cut off; but this view is now generally rejected, +and there is abundant evidence to show that the attack comes on +while the patient is still continuing to drink. Even in those cases +where several days have elapsed between the cessation from +drinking and the seizure, it will be found that in the interval the +premonitory symptoms of delirium tremens have shown themselves, +one of which is aversion to drink as well as food—the +attack being in most instances preceded by marked derangement +of the digestive functions. Occasionally the attack is precipitated +in persons predisposed to it by the occurrence of some acute +disease, such as pneumonia, by accidents, such as burns, also by +severe mental strain, and by the deprivation of food, even where +the supply of alcohol is less than would have been likely to +produce it otherwise. Where, on the other hand, the quantity +of alcohol taken has been very large, the attack is sometimes +ushered in by fits of an epileptiform character.</p> + +<p>One of the earliest indications of the approaching attack of +delirium tremens is sleeplessness, any rest the patient may +obtain being troubled by unpleasant or terrifying dreams. +During the day there is observed a certain restlessness and +irritability of manner, with trembling of the hands and a thick +or tremulous articulation. The skin is perspiring, the countenance +oppressed-looking and flushed, the pulse rapid and feeble, and +there is evidence of considerable bodily prostration. These +symptoms increase each day and night for a few days, and then +the characteristic delirium is superadded. The patient is in a +state of mental confusion, talks incessantly and incoherently, +has a distressed and agitated or perplexed appearance, and a +vague notion that he is pursued by some one seeking to injure +him. His delusions are usually of transient character, but he +is constantly troubled with visual hallucinations in the form of +disagreeable animals or insects which he imagines he sees all about +him. He looks suspiciously around him, turns over his pillows, +and ransacks his bedclothes for some fancied object he supposes +to be concealed there. There is constant restlessness, a common +form of delusion being that he is not in his own house, but +imprisoned in some apartment from which he is anxious to escape +to return home. In these circumstances he is ever wishing to get +out of bed and out of doors, and, although in general he may be +persuaded to return to bed, he is soon desiring to get up again. +The trembling of the muscles from which the name of the disease +is derived is a prominent but not invariable symptom. It is +most marked in the muscles of the hands and arms and in the +tongue. The character of the delirium is seldom wild or noisy, +but is much more commonly a combination of busy restlessness +and indefinite fear. When spoken to, the patient can answer +correctly enough, but immediately thereafter relapses into his +former condition of incoherence. Occasionally maniacal symptoms +develop themselves, the patient becoming dangerously +violent, and the case thus assuming a much graver aspect than +one of simple delirium tremens.</p> + +<p>In most cases the symptoms undergo abatement in from three +to six days, the cessation of the attack being marked by the +occurrence of sound sleep, from which the patient awakes in his +right mind, although in a state of great physical prostration, and +in great measure if not entirely oblivious of his condition during +his illness.</p> + +<p>Although generally the termination of an attack of delirium +tremens is in recovery, it occasionally proves fatal by the supervention +of coma and convulsions, or acute mania, or by exhaustion, +more especially when any acute bodily disease is associated +with the attack. In certain instances delirium tremens is but the +beginning of serious and permanent impairment of intellect, as +is not infrequently observed in confirmed drunkards who have +suffered from frequent attacks of this disease. The theory +once widely accepted, that delirium tremens was the result of the +too sudden breaking off from indulgence in alcohol, led to its +treatment by regular and often large doses of stimulants, a +practice fraught with mischievous results, since however much +the delirium appeared to be thus calmed for the time, the continuous +supply of the poison which was the original source of +the disease inflicted serious damage upon the brain, and led in +many instances to the subsequent development of insanity. The +former system of prescribing large doses of opium, with the +view of procuring sleep at all hazards, was no less pernicious. +In addition to these methods of treatment, mechanical restraint +of the patient was the common practice.</p> + +<p>The views of the disease which now prevail, recognizing the +delirium as the effect at once of the poisonous action of alcohol +upon the brain and of the want of food, encourage reliance to be +placed for its cure upon the entire withdrawal, in most instances, +of stimulants, and the liberal administration of light nutriment, +in addition to quietness and gentle but firm control, without +mechanical restraint. In mild attacks this is frequently all that +is required. In more severe cases, where there is great restlessness, +sedatives have to be resorted to, and many substances +have been recommended for the purpose. Opiates administered +in small quantity, and preferably by hypodermic injection, are +undoubtedly of value; and chloral, either alone or in conjunction +with bromide of potassium, often answers even better. +Such remedies, however, should be administered with great +caution, and only under medical supervision.</p> + +<p>Stimulants may be called for where the delirium assumes the +low or adynamic form, and the patient tends to sink from exhaustion, +or when the attack is complicated with some other disease. +Such cases are, however, in the highest degree exceptional, and +do not affect the general principle of treatment already referred +to, which inculcates the entire withdrawal of stimulants in the +treatment of ordinary attacks of delirium tremens.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELISLE, JOSEPH NICOLAS<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (1688-1768), French astronomer, +was born at Paris on the 4th of April 1688. Attracted to astronomy +by the solar eclipse of the 12th of May 1706, he obtained +permission in 1710 to lodge in the dome of the Luxembourg, +procured some instruments, and there observed the total eclipse +of the 22nd of May 1724. He proposed in 1715 the “diffraction-theory” +of the sun’s corona, visited England and was received +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page964" id="page964"></a>964</span> +into the Royal Society in 1724, and left Paris for St Petersburg +on a summons from the empress Catherine, towards the end +of 1725. Having founded an observatory there, he returned to +Paris in 1747, was appointed geographical astronomer to the +naval department with a salary of 3000 livres, and installed +an observatory in the Hôtel Cluny. Charles Messier and +J. J. Lalande were among his pupils. He died of apoplexy at +Paris on the 12th of September 1768. Delisle is chiefly remembered +as the author of a method for observing the transits of +Venus and Mercury by instants of contacts. First proposed by +him in a letter to J. Cassini in 1743, it was afterwards perfected, +and has been extensively employed. As a preliminary to the +transit of Mercury in 1743, which he personally observed, he +issued a map of the world showing the varied circumstances of its +occurrence. Besides many papers communicated to the academy +of sciences, of which he became a member in 1714, he published +<i>Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire et au progrès de l’astronomie</i> (St +Petersburg, 1738), in which he gave the first method for determining +the heliocentric co-ordinates of sun-spots; <i>Mémoire sur les +nouvelles découvertes au nord de la mer du sud</i> (Paris, 1752), &c.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Mémoires de l’acad. des sciences</i> (Paris, 1768), <i>Histoire</i>, p. 167 +(G. de Fouchy); J. B. J. Delambre, <i>Hist. de l’astronomie au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> +siècle</i>, pp. 319, 533; Max. Marie, <i>Hist. des sciences</i>, vii. 254; Lalande, +Bibl. astr. p. 385; and <i>Le Nécrologe des hommes célèbres de France</i> +(1770). The records of Delisle’s observations at St Petersburg are +preserved in manuscript at the Pulkowa observatory. A report upon +them was presented to the St Petersburg academy of sciences by +O. Struve in 1848, and those relating to occultations of the Pleiades +were discussed by Carl Linsser in 1864. See also S. Newcomb, +<i>Washington Observations</i> for 1875, app. ii. pp. 176-189.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELISLE, LÉOPOLD VICTOR<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (1826-  ), French bibliophile +and historian, was born at Valognes (Manche) on the 24th of +October 1826. At the École des Chartes, where his career was +remarkably brilliant, his valedictory thesis was an <i>Essai sur les +revenus publics en Normandie au XII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1849), and it was +to the history of his native province that he devoted his early +works. Of these the <i>Études sur la condition de la classe agricole et +l’état de l’agriculture en Normandie au moyen âge</i> (1851), condensing +an enormous mass of facts drawn from the local archives, was +reprinted in 1905 without change, and remains authoritative. +In November 1852 he entered the manuscript department of the +Bibliothèque Impériale (Nationale), of which in 1874 he became +the official head in succession to Jules Taschereau. He was +already known as the compiler of several invaluable inventories +of its manuscripts. When the French government decided on +printing a general catalogue of the printed books in the Bibliothèque, +Delisle became responsible for this great undertaking +and took an active part in the work; in the preface to the first +volume (1897) he gave a detailed history of the library and its +management. Under his administration the library was enriched +with numerous gifts, legacies and acquisitions, notably by the +purchase of a part of the Ashburnham MSS. Delisle proved that +the bulk of the MSS. of French origin which Lord Ashburnham +had bought in France, particularly those bought from the bookseller +Barrois, had been purloined by Count Libri, inspector-general +of libraries under King Louis Philippe, and he procured +the repurchase of the MSS. for the library, afterwards preparing +a catalogue of them entitled <i>Catalogue des MSS. des fonds Libri +et Barrois</i> (1888), the preface of which gives the history of the +whole transaction. He was elected member of the Académie des +Inscriptions et Belles Lettres in 1859, and became a member of +the staff of the <i>Recueil des historiens de la France</i>, collaborating in +vols. xxii. (1865) and xxiii. (1876) and editing vol. xxiv. (1904), +which is valuable for the social history of France in the 13th +century. The jubilee of his fifty years’ association with the +Bibliothèque Nationale was celebrated on the 8th of March 1903. +After his retirement (February 21, 1905) he brought out in two +volumes a catalogue and description of the printed books and +MSS. in the Musée Condé at Chantilly, left by the due d’Aumale +to the French Institute. He produced many valuable official +reports and catalogues and a great number of memoirs and monographs +on points connected with palaeography and the study of +history and archaeology (see his <i>Mélanges de paléographie et de +bibliographie</i> (1880) with atlas; and his articles in the <i>Album +paléographique</i> (1887). Of his purely historical works special +mention must be made of his <i>Mémoire sur les actes d’Innocent III</i> +(1857), and his <i>Mémoire sur les opérations financières des Templiers</i> +(1889), a collection of documents of the highest value for economic +history. The thirty-second volume of the <i>Histoire littéraire de la +France</i>, which was partly his work, is of great importance for the +study of 13th and 14th century Latin chronicles. Delisle was +undoubtedly the most learned man in Europe with regard to the +middle ages; and his knowledge of diplomatics, palaeography +and printing was profound. His output of work, in catalogues, +&c., was enormous, and his services to the Bibliothèque Nationale +in this respect cannot be overestimated. His wife, a daughter +of Eugène Burnouf, was for many years his collaborator.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Bibliographie des travaux de L. Delisle</i> (1902), by Paul Lacombe, +may be consulted for a full list of his numerous works.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELITZSCH, FRANZ<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (1813-1890), German Lutheran theologian +and orientalist, of Jewish descent, was born at Leipzig on +the 23rd of February 1813. He studied theology and oriental +languages in the university of his native town, and in 1850 was +appointed professor ordinarius of theology at Erlangen, where +the school of theologians became almost as famous as that of +Tübingen. In 1867 he accepted a call to Leipzig, where he died +on the 4th of March 1890. Delitzsch was a strict Lutheran. +“By the banner of our Lutheran confession let us stand,” he said +in 1888; “folding ourselves in it, let us die” (T. K. Cheyne, +<i>Founders</i>, p. 160). Greatly interested in the Jews, he longed +ardently for their conversion to Christianity; and with a view +to this he edited the periodical <i>Saat auf Hoffnung</i> from 1863, +revived the “Institutum Judaicum” in 1880, founded a Jewish +missionary college for the training of theologians, and translated +the <i>New Testament</i> into Hebrew. He acquired such a mastery +of post-biblical, rabbinic and talmudic literature that he has +been called the “Christian Talmudist.” Though never an +advanced critic, his article on Daniel in the second edition of +Herzog’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, his <i>New Commentary on Genesis</i> and +the fourth edition of his <i>Isaiah</i> show that as years went on his +sympathy with higher criticism increased—so much so indeed +that Prof. Cheyne has included him among its founders.</p> + +<p>He wrote a number of very valuable commentaries on +<i>Habakkuk</i> (1843), <i>Genesis</i> (1852, 4th ed. 1872), <i>Neuer Kommentar +über die Genesis</i> (1887, Eng. trans. 1888, &c.), <i>Psalms</i> +(4th ed. 1883, Eng. trans. 1886, &c.), <i>Job</i> (2nd ed., 1876), +<i>Isaiah</i> (4th ed. 1889, Eng. trans. 1890, &c.), <i>Proverbs</i> (1873), +<i>Epistle to the Hebrews</i> (1857, Eng. trans. 1865, &c.), <i>Song +of Songs and Ecclesiastes</i> (4th ed., 1875). Other works are +<i>Geschichte der jüd. Poesie</i> (1836); <i>Jesus und Hillel</i> (1867, 3rd ed. +1879); <i>Handwerkerleben zur Zeit Jesu</i> (1868, 3rd ed. 1878, Eng. +trans. in the “Unit Library,” 1902); <i>Ein Tag in Kapernaum</i> +(1871, 3rd ed. 1886); <i>Poesieen aus vormuhammedanischer Zeit</i> +(1874); <i>Iris, Farbenstudien und Blumenstücke</i> (1888, Eng. +trans. 1889); <i>Messianische Weissagungen in geschichtlicher Folge</i> +(1890, 2nd ed. 1898). His Hebrew <i>New Testament</i> reached its +eleventh edition in 1891, and his popular devotional work <i>Das +Sakrament des wahren Leibes und Blutes Jesu Christi</i> its seventh +edition in 1886.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Friedrich Delitzsch</span> (b. 1850), became well known +as professor of Assyriology in Berlin, and the author of many +books of great research and learning, especially on oriental +philology. Among other works of importance he wrote <i>Wo lag +das Paradies?</i> (1881), and <i>Babel und Bibel</i> (1902, 1903, Eng. +trans. 1903).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELITZSCH,<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Saxony, on the Lober, an affluent of the Mulde, 12 m. north of +Leipzig at the junction of the railways, Bitterfeld-Leipzig +and Halle-Cottbus. Pop. (1905) 10,479. Its public buildings +comprise an old castle of the 14th century now used as a female +penitentiary, a Roman Catholic and three Protestant churches, +a normal college (<i>Schullehrerseminar</i>) established in 1873 and +several other educational institutions. Besides <i>Kuhschwanz</i>, a +peculiar kind of beer, it manufactures tobacco, cigars, shoes and +hosiery; and coal-mining is carried on in the neighbourhood, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page965" id="page965"></a>965</span> +It was the birthplace of the naturalist Christian Gottfried +Ehrenberg (1795-1876), and the political economist Hermann +Schulze-Delitzsch (1808-1883), to the latter of whom a statue +has been erected. Originally a settlement of the Sorbian Wends, +and in the 12th century part of the possessions of the bishops +of Merseburg, Delitzsch ultimately passed to the Saxe-Merseburg +family, and, on their extinction in 1738, was incorporated with +Electoral Saxony.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELIUS, NIKOLAUS<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (1813-1888), German philologist and +Shakespearean scholar, was born at Bremen on the 19th of +September 1813. He was educated at Bonn and Berlin, and took +the degree of doctor in philosophy in 1838. After travelling for +some time in England, France and Germany, he returned to Bonn +in 1846, where in 1855 he was appointed professor of Sanskrit, +Provençal and English literature, a post he held until his death, +which took place at Bonn on the 18th of November 1888. His +greatest literary achievement was his scholarly edition of +Shakespeare (1854-1861). He also edited Wace’s <i>St Nicholas</i> +(1850), a volume of Provençal songs (1853), and published a +<i>Shakspere-Lexikon</i> (1852). His original works include: <i>Über +das englische Theaterwesen zu Shaksperes Zeit</i> (1853), <i>Gedichte</i> +(1853), <i>Der sardinische Dialekt des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts</i> (1868), +and <i>Abhandlungen zu Shakspere</i> (two series, 1878 and 1888). As +a critic of Shakespeare’s text he stands in the first rank.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the biographical notice by J. Schipper in <i>Englische Studien</i>, +vol. 14.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELLA BELLA, STEFANO<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (1610-1664), Italian engraver, was +born at Florence. He was apprenticed to a goldsmith; but some +prints of Callot having fallen into his hands, he began to turn his +attention entirely towards engraving, and studied the art under +Canta Gallina, who had also been the instructor of Callot. By +the liberality of Lorenzo de’ Medici he was enabled to spend +three years in study at Rome. In 1642 he went to Paris, where +Cardinal Richelieu engaged him to go to Arras and make drawings +of the siege and taking of that town by the royal army. After +residing a considerable time at Paris he returned to Florence, +where he obtained a pension from the grand duke, whose son, +Cosmo, he instructed in drawing. His productions were very +numerous, amounting to over 1400 separate pieces.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELLA CASA, GIOVANNI<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> (1503-1556), Italian poet, was born +at Mugillo, in Tuscany, in 1503. He studied at Bologna, Florence +and Rome, and by his learning attracted the patronage of +Alexander Farnese, who, as Pope Paul III., made him nuncio +to Florence, where he received the honour of being elected a +member of the celebrated academy, and then to Naples, where his +oratorical ability brought him considerable success. His reward +was the archbishopric of Benevento, and it was believed that it +was only his openly licentious poem, <i>Capitoli del forno</i>, and the +fact that the French court seemed to desire his elevation, which +prevented him from being raised to a still higher dignity. He +died in 1556. Casa is chiefly remarkable as the leader of a reaction +in lyric poetry against the universal imitation of Petrarch, and +as the originator of a style, which, if less soft and elegant, was +more nervous and majestic than that which it replaced. His +prose writings gained great reputation in their own day, and long +afterwards, but are disfigured by apparent straining after effect, +and by frequent puerility and circumlocution. The principal +are—in Italian, the famous <i>Il Galateo</i> (1558), a treatise of +manners, which has been translated into several languages, and +in Latin, <i>De officiis</i>, and translations from Thucydides, Plato +and Aristotle.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A complete edition of his works was published at Florence in 1707, +to which is prefixed a life by Casotti. The best edition is that of +Venice, 1752.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELLA COLLE, RAFFAELLINO<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span>, Italian painter, was born at +Colle, near Borgo San Sepolcro, in Tuscany, about 1490. A pupil +of Raphael, whom he is held to have assisted in the Farnesina +and the Vatican, Della Colle, after his master’s death, was the +assistant of his chief scholar, Giulio Romano, at Rome and +afterwards at Mantua. In 1536, on the occasion of the entry of +Charles V. into Florence, he took service in that city under +Vasari. In his later years Della Colle resided at Borgo San +Sepolcro, where he kept a school of design; among his many +pupils of note may be mentioned Gherardi and Vecchi. His +works, which are to be found at Urbino, at Perugia, at Pesaro +and at Gubbio, are fine examples of the Roman school of +Raphael. The best are a painting of the Almighty supported +by angels, a Resurrection and an Assumption, all preserved +in churches at Borgo San Sepolcro.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELLA GHERARDESCA, UGOLINO<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1220-1289), count of +Donoratico, was the head of the powerful family of Gherardesca, +the chief Ghibelline house of Pisa. His alliance with the Visconti, +the leaders of the Guelph faction, through the marriage of his +sister with Giovanni Visconti, judge of Gallura, aroused the +suspicions of his party, and the Ghibellines being then predominant +in Pisa, the disorders in the city caused by Ugolino and +Visconti in 1271-1274 led to the arrest of the former and the +banishment of the latter. Visconti died soon afterwards, and +Ugolino, no longer regarded as dangerous, was liberated and +banished. But he immediately began to intrigue with the Guelph +towns opposed to Pisa, and with the help of Charles I. of Anjou +(<i>q.v.</i>) attacked his native city and forced it to make peace on +humiliating terms, pardoning him and all the other Guelph +exiles. He lived quietly in Pisa for some years, although working +all the time to extend his influence. War having broken out +between Pisa and Genoa in 1284, Count Ugolino was given the +command of a division of the Pisan fleet. It was by his +flight—usually attributed to treachery—that the fortunes of the day +were decided and the Pisans totally defeated at La Meloria +(October 1284). But the political ability which he afterwards +displayed led to his being appointed <i>podestà</i> for a year and +<i>capitano del popolo</i> for ten years. Florence and Lucca took +advantage of the Pisan defeat to attack the republic, but +Ugolino succeeded in pacifying them by ceding certain castles. +He was however less anxious to make peace with Genoa, for +the return of the Pisan prisoners, including most of the leading +Ghibellines, would have diminished his power. He was now the +most influential man in Pisa, and was preparing to establish his +absolute sovereignty, when for some reason not clearly understood +he was forced to share his power with his nephew Nino Visconti, +son of Giovanni. The duumvirate did not last, and the count +and Nino soon quarrelled. Then Ugolino tried to consolidate +his position by entering into negotiations with the archbishop, +Ruggieri degli Ubaldini, the leader of the Ghibellines. But that +party having revived once more, the archbishop obliged both +Nino and Ugolino to leave the city, and had himself elected +<i>podestà</i> and <i>capitano del popolo</i>. However, he allowed Ugolino +to return soon afterwards, and was even ready to divide the +government of the city with him, although he refused to admit +his armed followers. The count, determined to be sole master, +attempted to get his followers into the city by way of the Arno, +and Ruggieri, realizing the danger, aroused the citizens, accusing +Ugolino of treachery for having ceded the castles, and after a +day’s street fighting (July 1, 1288), Gherardesca was captured +and immured together with his sons Gaddo and Uguccione, and +his grandsons Nino (surnamed <i>il Brigata</i>) and Anselmuccio, in +the Muda, a tower belonging to the Gualandi family; here they +were detained for nine months, and then starved to death.</p> + +<p>The historic details of the episode are still involved in some +obscurity, and although mentioned by Villani and other writers, +it owes its fame entirely to Dante, who placed Ugolino and +Ruggieri in the second ring (<i>Antenora</i>) of the lowest circle of the +<i>Inferno</i> (canto xxxii. 124-140 and xxxiii. 1-90). This terrible +but magnificent passage, which includes “thirty lines unequalled +by any other thirty lines in the whole dominion of poetry” +(Landor), has been paraphrased by Chaucer in the “Monk’s +Tale” and more recently by Shelley. But the reason why Dante +placed Ugolino among the traitors is not by any means clear, as +the flight from La Meloria was not regarded as treachery by any +writer earlier than the 16th century, although G. del Noce, in +<i>Il Conte U. della Gherardesca</i> (Città di Castello, 1894), states that +that was the only motive; Bartoli, in vol. vi. of his <i>Storia della +Letteratura italiana</i>, suggests Ugolino’s alliance with the Ghibellines +as the motive. The cession of the castles was not treachery +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page966" id="page966"></a>966</span> +but an act of necessity, owing to the desperate conditions of +Pisa.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Besides the above-quoted works see P. Tronci, +<i>Annali Pisani</i> (2 vols., Pisa, 1868-1871); S. de Sismondi, <i>Histoire +des républiques italiennes</i> (Brussels, 1838); also the various annotated +editions of Dante, especially W. W. Vernon’s <i>Readings from the +Inferno</i>, vol. ii. (2nd ed., London, 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELLA PORTA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1538-1615), +Italian natural philosopher, was born of a noble and ancient +family at Naples about the year 1538. He travelled extensively +not only in Italy but also in France and Spain, and he was still a +youth when he published <i>Magia naturalis, sive de miraculis rerum +naturalium lib. IV.</i> (1558), the first draft of his <i>Magia naturalis</i>, +in twenty books, published in 1589. He founded in Naples the +Academia Secretorum Naturae, otherwise known as the Accademia +dei Oziosi; and in 1610 he became a member of the Accademia +dei Lincei at Rome. He died at Naples on the 4th of February +1615.</p> + +<p>The following is a list of his principal writings:—<i>De miraculis +rerum naturalium</i>, in four books (1558); <i>De furtivis litterarum +notis</i>, in five books (1563, and frequently afterwards, entitling +him to high rank among the early writers on cryptography); +<i>Phytognomonica</i> (1583, a bulky treatise on the physiology of +plants as then understood); <i>Magia naturalis</i> (1589, and often +reprinted); <i>De humana physiognomonia</i>, in six books (1591); +<i>Villa</i>, in twelve books (1592, an interesting practical treatise on +farming, gardening and arboriculture, based upon his own observations +at his country-seat near Naples); <i>De refractione, optices +parte</i>, in nine books (1593); <i>Pneumatica</i>, in three books (1601); +<i>De coelesti physiognomonia</i>, in six books (1601); <i>Elementa +curvilinea</i> (1601); <i>De distillatione</i>, in nine books (1604); <i>De +munitione</i>, in three books (1608); and <i>De aëris transmutationibus</i>, +in four books (1609). He also wrote several Italian comedies +<i>Olimpia</i> (1589); <i>La Fantesca</i> (1592); <i>La Trappolaria</i> (1597); +<i>I’ Due Fratelli rivali</i> (1601); <i>La Sorella</i> (1607); <i>La Chiappinaria</i> +(1609); <i>La Carbonaria</i> (1628); <i>La Cintia</i> (1628). Among all +the above-mentioned works the chief interest attaches to the +<i>Magia naturalis</i>, in which a strange medley of subjects is discussed, +including the reproduction of animals, the transmutation +of metals, pyrotechny, domestic economy, statics, hunting, the +preparation of perfumes. In book xvii. he describes a number +of optical experiments, including a description of the camera +obscura (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELLA QUERCIA,<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Della Fonte</span>, <b>JACOPO</b> (1374-1438), +Italian sculptor, was born at Siena. He was the son of a goldsmith +of repute, Pietro d’Agnolo, to whom he doubtless owed +much of his training. There are no records of his early life until +the year 1394, when he made an equestrian statue of Gian +Tedesco. He is next heard of at Florence in 1402, when he was +one of six artists who submitted designs for the great gates of the +baptistery, in which competition Ghiberti was the victor. From +Florence he seems to have gone to Lucca, where in 1406 he +executed one of his finest works, the monument of Ilaria del +Caretto, wife of Paolo Guinigi. It is uncertain if he visited +Ferrara in 1408; but at the end of that year he was engaged +in negotiations which resulted in his acceptance of the commission +for the famous Fonte Gaia, at Siena, early in 1409. This +work was not seriously begun by him until 1414, and was only +finished in 1419. In 1858 the remains of the fountain were +removed to the Opera del Duomo, where they are now preserved; +a copy of the original by Sarrocchi being erected on the site. +After another visit to Lucca in 1422, he returned to Siena, and +in March 1425 undertook the contract for the doors of S. Petronio, +Bologna. He is known, in following years, to have been to Milan, +Verona, Ferrara and Venice; but the rest of his life was chiefly +divided between his native city and Bologna. In 1430 he finished +the great font of S. Giovanni at Siena, which he had begun in +1417, contributing himself only one of the bas-reliefs, “Zacharias +in the Temple,” the others being by Ghiberti, Donatello and +other sculptors. Among the work known to have been done by +Jacopo, may be mentioned also the reliefs of the <i>predella</i> of the +altar of S. Frediano at Lucca (1422); and the Bentivoglio monument +which was unfinished at the time of his death on the 20th +of October 1438. Jacopo della Quercia’s work exercised a powerful +influence on that of the artists of the later Italian Renaissance. +He himself reflects not a little of the Gothic spirit, admirably +intermixed with some of the best qualities of neo-classicism. +He was an artist whose powers have hardly yet received the +recognition they undoubtedly deserve.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Cornelius, <i>Jacopo della Quercia: eine Kunsthistorische +Studie</i> (1896), and works relating generally to the arts in Siena.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. F. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELLA ROBBIA,<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> the name of a family of great distinction in +the annals of Florentine art. Its members are enumerated in +chronological order below.<a name="fa1s" id="fa1s" href="#ft1s"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>I. <span class="sc">Luca della Robbia</span> (1399 or 1400<a name="fa2s" id="fa2s" href="#ft2s"><span class="sp">2</span></a>-1482) was the son of a +Florentine named Simone di Marco della Robbia. According to +Vasari, whose account of Luca’s early life is little to be trusted, +he was apprenticed to the silversmith Leonardo di Ser Giovanni, +who from 1355 to 1371 was working on the grand silver altar +frontal for the cathedral at Pistoia (<i>q.v.</i>); this, however, appears +doubtful from the great age which it would give to Leonardo, and +it is more probable that Luca was the pupil of Ghiberti. During +the early part of his life Luca executed many important and +exceedingly beautiful pieces of sculpture in marble and bronze. +In technical skill he was quite the equal of Ghiberti, and, while +possessing all Donatello’s vigour, dramatic power and originality, +he very frequently excelled him in grace of attitude and soft +beauty of expression. No sculptured work of the great 15th +century ever surpassed the singing gallery which Luca made for +the cathedral at Florence between 1431 and 1440, with its ten +magnificent panels of singing angels and dancing boys, far exceeding +in beauty those which Donatello in 1433 sculptured for the +opposite gallery in the same choir. This splendid work is now +to be found in the Museo del Duomo. The general effect of the +whole can also be seen at the Victoria and Albert Museum, where +a complete cast is fixed to the wall. The same museum possesses +a study in <i>gesso duro</i> for one of the panels, which appears to be +the original sketch by Luca’s own hand.</p> + +<p>In May 1437 Luca received a commission from the signoria of +Florence to execute five reliefs for the north side of the campanile, +to complete the series begun by Giotto and Andrea Pisano. These +panels are so much in the earlier style of Giotto that we must +conclude that he had left drawings from which Luca worked. +They have representative figures chosen to typify grammar, +logic, philosophy, music, and science,—the last represented by +Euclid and Ptolemy.<a name="fa3s" id="fa3s" href="#ft3s"><span class="sp">3</span></a> In 1438 Luca in association with Donatello +received an order for two marble altars for chapels in the +cathedral. The reliefs from one of them—St Peter’s Deliverance +from Prison and his Crucifixion—are now in the Bargello. It +is probable that these altars were never finished. A tabernacle +for the host, made by Luca in 1442, is now at Peretola, near +Florence, in the church of S. Maria. A document in the archives +of S. Maria Nuova at Florence shows that he received for this 700 +florins 1 lira 16 soldi (about £1400 of modern money). In 1437 +Donatello received a commission to cast a bronze door for one of +the sacristies of the cathedral; but, as he delayed to execute this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page967" id="page967"></a>967</span> +order, the work was handed over to Luca on the 28th of February +1446, with Michelozzo and Maso di Bartolomeo as his assistants. +Part of this wonderful door was cast in 1448, and the last two +panels were finished by Luca in 1467, with bronze which was +supplied to him by Verrocchio.<a name="fa4s" id="fa4s" href="#ft4s"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The door is divided into ten +square panels, with small heads in the style of Ghiberti projecting +from the framing. The two top subjects are the Madonna and +Child and the Baptist, next come the four Evangelists, and below +are the four Latin Doctors, each subject with attendant angels. +The whole is modelled with perfect grace and dignified simplicity; +the heads throughout are full of life, and the treatment of the +drapery in broad simple folds is worthy of a Greek sculptor of the +best period of Hellenic art. These exquisite reliefs are perfect +models of plastic art, and are quite free from the over-elaboration +and too pictorial style of Ghiberti. Fig. 1 shows one of the panels.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:485px; height:493px" src="images/img967.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Bronze Relief of one of the Latin Doctors, from the +sacristy door in the cathedral of Florence, by Luca.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The most important existing work in marble by Luca (executed +in 1454-1456) is the tomb of Benozzo Federighi, bishop of +Fiesole, originally placed in the church of S. Pancrazio at Florence, +but removed to S. Francesco di Paola on the Bellosguardo road +outside the city in 1783. In 1898 it was again removed to the +church of SS. Trinita in Florence. A very beautiful effigy of the +bishop in a restful pose lies on a sarcophagus sculptured with +graceful reliefs of angels holding a wreath which contains the +inscription. Above are three-quarter length figures of Christ +between St John and the Virgin, of conventional type. The +whole is surrounded by a rectangular frame formed of painted +tiles of exquisite beauty, but out of keeping with the memorial. +On each tile is painted, with enamel pigments, a bunch of flowers +and fruit in brilliant realistic colours, the loveliness of which +is very hard to describe. Though the bunch of flowers on each is +painted on one slab, the ground of each tile is formed of separate +pieces, fitted together like a kind of mosaic, probably because the +pigment of the ground required a different degree of heat in firing +from that needed for the enamel painting of the centre. The few +other works of this class which exist do not approach the beauty +of this early essay in tile painting, on which Luca evidently put +forth his utmost skill and patience.</p> + +<p>In the latter part of his life Luca was mainly occupied with the +production of terra-cotta reliefs covered with enamel, a process +which he improved upon, but did not invent, as Vasari asserts. +The <i>rationale</i> of this process was to cover the clay relief with an +enamel formed of the ordinary ingredients of glass (<i>marzacotto</i>), +made white and opaque by oxide of tin. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span>: <i>Italian +Majolica</i>.) Though Luca was not the inventor of the process, +yet he extended its application to fine sculptured work in terra-cotta, +so that it is not unnaturally known now as Della Robbia +ware; it must, however, be remembered that by far the majority +of these reliefs which in Italy and elsewhere are ascribed to Luca +are really the work of some of the younger members of the family +or of the <i>atelier</i> which they founded. Comparatively few exist +which can with certainty be ascribed to Luca himself. Among +the earliest of these are medallions of the four Evangelists in the +vault of Brunelleschi’s Pazzi chapel in S. Croce. These fine reliefs +are coloured with various metallic oxides in different shades of +blue, green, purple, yellow and black. It has often been asserted +that the very polychromatic reliefs belong to Andrea or his sons, +and that Luca’s were all in pure white, or in white and blue; this, +however, is not the case; colours were used as freely by Luca as +by his successors. A relief in the Victoria and Albert Museum +furnishes a striking example of this and is of especial value from +its great size, and also because its date is known. This is an +enormous medallion containing the arms of René of Anjou and +other heraldic devices; it is surrounded by a splendidly modelled +wreath of fruit and flowers, especially apples, lemons, oranges +and fir cones, all of which are brilliantly coloured. This medallion +was set up on the façade of the Pazzi Palace to commemorate +René’s visit to Florence in 1442. Other reliefs by Luca, also in +glazed terra-cotta, are those of the Ascension and Resurrection +in the tympani of the doors of the sacristies in the cathedral, +executed in 1443 and 1446. Other existing works of Luca in +Florence are the tympanum reliefs of the Madonna between two +Angels in the Via dell’ Agnolo, a work of exquisite beauty, and +another formerly over the door of S. Pierino del Mercato Vecchio, +but now removed to the Bargello (No. 29). The only existing +statues by Luca are two lovely enamelled figures of kneeling +angels holding candlesticks, now in the canons’ sacristy.<a name="fa5s" id="fa5s" href="#ft5s"><span class="sp">5</span></a> A +very fine work by Luca, executed between 1449 and 1452, is the +tympanum relief of the Madonna and four Monastic Saints over +the door of S. Domenico at Urbino.<a name="fa6s" id="fa6s" href="#ft6s"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Luca also made the four +coloured medallions of the Virtues set in the vault over the tomb +of the young cardinal-prince of Portugal in a side chapel of +S. Miniato in Florence (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rossellino</a></span>). By Luca also are +various polychromatic medallions outside Or San Michele.<a name="fa7s" id="fa7s" href="#ft7s"><span class="sp">7</span></a> One +of his chief decorative works which no longer exists was a small +library or study for Piero de’ Medici, wholly lined with enamelled +plaques and reliefs.<a name="fa8s" id="fa8s" href="#ft8s"><span class="sp">8</span></a> The Victoria and Albert Museum possesses +twelve circular plaques of majolica ware painted in blue and white +with the Occupations of the Months; these have been attributed +to Luca, under the idea that they formed part of the decoration of +this room, but their real origin is doubtful.</p> + +<p>In 1471 Luca was elected president of the Florentine Gild of +Sculptors, but he refused this great honour on account of his age +and infirmity. It shows, however, the very high estimation in +which he was held by his contemporaries. He died on the 20th +of February 1482, leaving his property to his nephews Andrea and +Simone.<a name="fa9s" id="fa9s" href="#ft9s"><span class="sp">9</span></a> His chief pupil was his nephew Andrea, and Agostino +di Duccio, who executed many pieces of sculpture at Rimini, and +the graceful but mannered marble reliefs of angels on the façade +of S. Bernardino at Perugia, may have been one of his assistants.<a name="fa10s" id="fa10s" href="#ft10s"><span class="sp">10</span></a> +Vasari calls this Agostino Luca’s brother, but he was not related +to him at all.</p> + +<p>II. <span class="sc">Andrea della Robbia</span> (1435-1525), the nephew and pupil +of Luca, carried on the production of the enamelled reliefs on a +much larger scale than his uncle had ever done; he also extended +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page968" id="page968"></a>968</span> +its application to various architectural uses, such as friezes and to +the making of lavabos (lavatories), fountains and large retables. +The result of this was that, though the finest reliefs from the +workshop of Andrea were but little if at all inferior to those from +the hand of Luca, yet some of them, turned out by pupils and +assistants, reached only a lower standard of merit. Only one +work in marble by Andrea is known, namely, an altar in S. Maria +delle Grazie near Arezzo, mentioned by Vasari (ed. Milanesi, ii. +p. 179), and still well preserved.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:475px; height:665px" src="images/img968.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Enamelled Clay Relief of Virgin and Child, by Andrea.</td></tr></table> + +<p>One variety of method was introduced by Andrea in his +enamelled work; sometimes he omitted the enamel on the face +and hands (nude parts) of his figures, especially in those cases +where he had treated the heads in a realistic manner; as, for +example, in the noble tympanum relief of the meeting of St +Domenic and St Francis in the loggia of the Florentine hospital of +S. Paolo,—a design suggested by a fresco of Fra Angelico’s in the +cloister of St Mark’s. One of the most remarkable works by +Andrea is the series of medallions with reliefs of Infants in white +on a blue ground set on the front of the foundling hospital at +Florence. These lovely child-figures are modelled with wonderful +skill and variety, no two being alike. Andrea produced, for +gilds and private persons, a large number of reliefs of the +Madonna and Child varied with much invention, and all of +extreme beauty of pose and sweetness of expression. These are +frequently framed with realistic yet decorative garlands of fruit +and flowers painted with coloured enamels, while the main relief +is left white. Fig. 2 shows a good example of these smaller +works. The hospital of S. Paolo, near S. Maria Novella, has also +a number of fine medallions with reliefs of saints, two of Christ +Healing the Sick, and two fine portraits, under which are white +plaques inscribed—“<span class="scs">DALL ANNO 1451 ALL ANNO 1495</span>”<a name="fa11s" id="fa11s" href="#ft11s"><span class="sp">11</span></a>; the +first of these dates is the year when the hospital was rebuilt +owing to a papal brief sent to the archbishop of Florence. Arezzo +possesses a number of fine enamelled works by Andrea and his +sons—a retable in the cathedral with God holding the Crucified +Christ, surrounded by angels, and below, kneeling figures of +S. Donato and S. Bernardino; also in the chapel of the Campo +Santo is a fine relief of the Madonna and Child with four saints +at the sides. In S. Maria in Grado is a very noble retable with +angels holding a crown over a standing figure of the Madonna; +a number of small figures of worshippers take refuge in the folds +of the Virgin’s mantle, a favourite motive for sculpture dedicated +by gilds or other corporate bodies. Perhaps the finest collection +of works of this class is at La Verna, not far from Arezzo (see +Vasari, ed. Milanesi, ii. p. 179). The best of these, three large +retables with representations of the Annunciation, the Crucifixion, +and the Madonna giving her Girdle to St Thomas, are probably +the work of Andrea himself, the others being by his sons. In +1489 Andrea made a beautiful relief of the Virgin and two Angels, +now over the archive-room door in the Florentine Opera del +Duomo; for this he was paid twenty gold florins (see Cavallucci, +<i>S. Maria del Fiore</i>). In the same year he modelled the fine +tympanum relief over a door of Prato cathedral, with a half-length +figure of the Madonna between St Stephen and St +Lawrence, surrounded by a frame of angels’ heads.</p> + +<p>In 1491 he was still working at Prato, where many of his +best reliefs still exist. A fine bust of S. Lino exists over the side +door of the cathedral at Volterra, which is attributed to Andrea. +Other late works of known date are a magnificent bust of the +Protonotary Almadiano, made in 1510 for the church of S. +Giovanni de’ Fiorentini at Viterbo, now preserved in the Palazzo +Communale there, and a medallion of the Virgin in Glory, surrounded +by angels, made in 1505 for Pistoia cathedral.<a name="fa12s" id="fa12s" href="#ft12s"><span class="sp">12</span></a> The +latest work attributed to Andrea, though apparently only a +workshop production of 1515, is a relief representing the Adoration +of the Magi, made for a little church, St Maria, in Pian di +Mugnone, near Florence.<a name="fa13s" id="fa13s" href="#ft13s"><span class="sp">13</span></a> Portions of this work are still in the +church, but some fragments of it are at Oxford.</p> + +<p>III., IV. Five of Andrea’s seven sons worked with their father, +and after his death carried on the Robbia fabrique; the dates +of their birth are shown in the table on p. 838 <i>ante</i>. Early in +life two of them came under the influence of Savonarola, and took +monastic orders at his Dominican convent; these were <span class="sc">Marco</span>, +who adopted the name of Fra Luca, and <span class="sc">Paolo</span>, called Fra +Ambrogio. One relief by the latter, a Nativity with four life-sized +figures of rather poor work, is in the Cappella degli Spagnuoli +in the Sienese convent of S. Spirito; a MS. in the convent +archives records that it was made in 1504.</p> + +<p>V. The chief existing work known to be by the second <span class="sc">Luca</span><a name="fa14s" id="fa14s" href="#ft14s"><span class="sp">14</span></a> +is the very rich and beautiful tile pavement in the uppermost +story of Raphael’s loggie at the Vatican, finely designed and +painted in harmonious majolica colours. This was made by Luca +at Raphael’s request and under his supervision in 1518.<a name="fa15s" id="fa15s" href="#ft15s"><span class="sp">15</span></a> It is +still in very fine preservation.</p> + +<p>VI. <span class="sc">Giovanni della Robbia</span> (1460-1529?) during a great +part of his life worked as assistant to his father, Andrea, and in +many cases the enamelled sculpture of the two cannot be distinguished. +Some of Giovanni’s independent works are of great +merit, especially the earlier ones; during the latter part of his +life his reliefs deteriorated in style, owing mainly to the universal +decadence of the time. A very large number of pieces of Robbia +ware which are attributed to Andrea, and even to the elder Luca, +were really by the hand of Giovanni. One of his finest works is a +large retable at Volterra in the church of S. Girolamo, dated 1501; +it represents the Last Judgment, and is remarkable for the fine +modelling of the figures, especially that of the archangel Michael, +and a nude kneeling figure of a youth who has just risen from his +tomb. Quite equal in beauty to anything of his father’s, from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page969" id="page969"></a>969</span> +whom the design of the figures was probably taken, is the washing-fountain +in the sacristy of S. Maria Novella at Florence, made in +1497.<a name="fa16s" id="fa16s" href="#ft16s"><span class="sp">16</span></a> It is a large arched recess with a view of the seashore, +not very decorative in style, painted on majolica tiles at the back. +There are also two very beautiful painted majolica panels of fruit-trees +let into the lower part. In the tympanum of the arch is a +very lovely white relief of the Madonna between two Adoring +Angels (see fig. 3). Long coloured garlands of fruit and flowers +are held by nude boys reclining on the top of the arch and others +standing on the cornice. All this part is of enamelled clay, but +the basin of the fountain is of white marble. Neither Luca nor +Andrea was in the habit of signing his work, but Giovanni often +did so, usually adding the date, probably because other potters +had begun to imitate the Robbia ware.<a name="fa17s" id="fa17s" href="#ft17s"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:493px; height:449px" src="images/img969.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Relief of Madonna and Angels in the tympanum of the +lavabo (S. Maria Novella, Florence), by Giovanni.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Giovanni lacked the original talent of Luca and Andrea, and +so he not only copied their work but even reproduced in clay the +marble sculpture of Pollaiuolo, Da Settignano, Verrocchio and +others. A relief by him, evidently taken from Mino da Fiesole, +exists in the Palazzo Castracane Staccoli. Among the very +numerous other works of Giovanni are a relief in the wall of a +suppressed convent in the Via Nazionale at Florence, and two +reliefs in the Bargello dated 1521 and 1522. That dated 1521 is +a many-coloured relief of the Nativity, and was taken from the +church of S. Girolamo in Florence; it is a too pictorial work, +marred by the use of many different planes. Its predella has a +small relief of the Adoration of the Magi, and is inscribed “Hoc +opus fecit Ioaes Andee de Robia, ac a posuit hoc in tempore die +ultima lulli ANO. DNI. M.D. XXI.” At Pisa in the Campo Santo is a +relief in Giovanni’s later and poorer manner dated 1520; it is a +Madonna surrounded by angels, with saints below—the whole +overcrowded with figures and ornaments. Giovanni’s largest and +perhaps finest work is the polychromatic frieze on the outside of +the Del Ceppo hospital at Pistoia, for which he received various +sums of money between 1525 and 1529, as is recorded in documents +which still exist among the archives of the hospital.<a name="fa18s" id="fa18s" href="#ft18s"><span class="sp">18</span></a> The subjects +of this frieze are the Seven Works of Mercy, forming a continuous +band of sculpture in high relief, well modelled and designed in a +very broad sculpturesque way, but disfigured by the crudeness +of some of its colouring. Six of these reliefs are by Giovanni, +namely, Clothing the Naked, Washing the Feet of Pilgrims, +Visiting the Sick, Visiting Prisoners, Burying the Dead, and +Feeding the Hungry. The seventh, Giving drink to the Thirsty, +was made by Filippo Paladini of Pistoia in 1585; this last is +simply made of painted stucco. The large figures of the virtues +placed between the scenes, and the medallions between the +pillars, are the work of assistants or imitators.</p> + +<p>A large octagonal font of enamelled clay, with pilasters at the +angles and panels between them with scenes from the life of the +Baptist, in the church of S. Leonardo at Cerreto Guidi, is a work +of the school of Giovanni; the reliefs are pictorial in style and +coarse in execution. Giovanni’s chief pupil was a man named +Benedetto Buglioni (1461-1521), and a pupil of his, one Santi +Buglioni (b. 1494), entered the Robbia workshops in 1521, and +assisted in the later works of Giovanni.</p> + +<p>VII. <span class="sc">Girolamo della Robbia</span> (1488-1566), another of +Andrea’s sons, was an architect and a sculptor in marble and +bronze as well as in enamelled clay. During the first part of his +life he, like his brothers, worked with his father, but in 1528 he +went to France and spent nearly forty years in the service of the +French Royal family. Francis I. employed him to build a palace +in the Bois de Boulogne called the Château de Madrid. This was +a large well-designed building, four storeys high, two of them +having open loggie in the Italian fashion. Girolamo decorated +it richly with terra-cotta medallions, friezes and other architectural +features.<a name="fa19s" id="fa19s" href="#ft19s"><span class="sp">19</span></a> For this purpose he set up kilns at Suresnes. +Though the palace itself has been destroyed, drawings of it +exist.<a name="fa20s" id="fa20s" href="#ft20s"><span class="sp">20</span></a></p> + +<p>The best collections of Robbia ware are in the Florentine +Bargello, Accademia and Museo del Duomo; the Victoria and +Albert Museum (the finest out of Italy); the Louvre, the +Cluny and the Berlin Museums; while fine examples are to be +found in New York, Boston, St Petersburg and Vienna. Many +fine specimens exist in private collections in England, France, +Germany and the United States. The greater part of the Robbia +work still remains in the churches and other buildings of Italy, +especially in Florence, Fiesole, Arezzo, La Verna, Volterra, +Barga, Montepulciano, Lucca, Pistoia, Prato and Siena.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—H. Barbet de Jouy, <i>Les della Robbia</i> (Paris, 1855); +W. Bode, <i>Die Künstlerfamilie della Robbia</i> (Leipzig, 1878); “Luca +della Robbia ed i suoi precursori in Firenze,” <i>Arch. stor. dell’ arte</i> +(1899); “Über Luca della Robbia,” <i>Sitzungsbericht von der Berliner +kunstgeschichtlichen Gesellschaft</i> (1896); <i>Florentiner Bildhauer der +Renaissance</i> (Berlin, 1902); G. Carocci, <i>I Dintorni de Firenze</i> +(Florence, 1881); “Il Monumento di Benozzo Federighi,” <i>Arte e +Storia</i> (1894); “Opere Robbiane poco noti,” <i>Arte e storia</i> (1898, +1899); Cavallucci et Molinier, <i>Les della Robbia</i> (Paris, 1884); +Maud Crutwell, <i>Luca and Andrea della Robbia and their Successors</i> +(London, 1902); A. du Cerceau, <i>Les plus excellents bastiments +de France</i> (Paris, 1586); G. Milanesi, <i>Le Vite scritte da Vasari</i> +(Florence, 1878); M. Reymond, <i>Les della Robbia</i> (Florence, 1897); +<i>La Sculpture Florentine</i> (Florence, 1898); I. B. Supino, <i>Catalogo +del R. Museo di Firenze</i> (Rome 1898); Vasari (see Milanesi’s +edition).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. M.; W. B.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1s" id="ft1s" href="#fa1s"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Genealogical tree of Della Robbia sculptors:—</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:529px; height:234px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img966.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p><a name="ft2s" id="ft2s" href="#fa2s"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Not 1388, as Vasari says. See a document printed by Gaye, +<i>Carteggio inedito</i>, i. pp. 182-186.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3s" id="ft3s" href="#fa3s"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Vasari is not quite right in his account of these reliefs: he speaks +of Euclid and Ptolemy as being in different panels.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4s" id="ft4s" href="#fa4s"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See Cavallucci, <i>S. Maria del Fiore</i>, pt. ii. p. 137.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5s" id="ft5s" href="#fa5s"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The Victoria and Albert Museum possesses what seem to be fine +replicas of these statues.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6s" id="ft6s" href="#fa6s"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The document in which the order for this and the price paid for +it are recorded is published by Yriarte, <i>Gaz. d. beaux arts</i>, xxiv. +p. 143.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7s" id="ft7s" href="#fa7s"><span class="fn">7</span></a> One of these medallions, that of the Physicians, is now removed +to the inside of the church.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8s" id="ft8s" href="#fa8s"><span class="fn">8</span></a> It is fully described by Filarete in his <i>Trattato dell’ architectura</i>, +written in 1464, and therefore was finished before that date; see also +Vasari, ed. Milanesi (Florence, 1880), ii. p. 174.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9s" id="ft9s" href="#fa9s"><span class="fn">9</span></a> His will, dated 19th February 1471, is published by Gaye, <i>Cart. +ined.</i> i. p. 185.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10s" id="ft10s" href="#fa10s"><span class="fn">10</span></a> In the works of Perkins and others on Italian sculpture these +Perugian reliefs are wrongly stated to be of enamelled clay.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11s" id="ft11s" href="#fa11s"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Professor Marquand has discovered, beneath 1451, the inscription +Prete Benino, and, under 1495, De Benini; probably the names of +the governors of the hospital at these dates.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12s" id="ft12s" href="#fa12s"><span class="fn">12</span></a> See Gualandi, <i>Memorie risguardanti le belle arti</i> (Bologna, 1845), +vi. pp. 33-35, where original documents are printed recording the +dates and prices paid for these and other works of Andrea.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13s" id="ft13s" href="#fa13s"><span class="fn">13</span></a> See a document printed by Milanesi in his Vasari, ii. p. 180.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14s" id="ft14s" href="#fa14s"><span class="fn">14</span></a> It appears certain that this Luca was a layman and not the Fra +Luca referred to above.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15s" id="ft15s" href="#fa15s"><span class="fn">15</span></a> It is illustrated by Gruner, <i>Fresco Decorations of Italy</i> (London, +1854), pl. iv.; see also Müntz, <i>Raphaël, sa vie</i>, &c. (Paris, 1881), +p. 452, note i., and Vasari, ed. Milanesi, ii. p. 182.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16s" id="ft16s" href="#fa16s"><span class="fn">16</span></a> See a document printed by Milanesi in his Vasari, ii. 193.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17s" id="ft17s" href="#fa17s"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Examples of these imitations are a retable in S. Lucchese near +Poggibonsi dated 1514, another of the Madonna and Saints at Monte +San Savino of 1525, and a third in the Capuchin church of Arceria +near Sinigaglia; they are all inferior to the best works of the Robbia +family, though some of them may have been made by assistants +trained in the Robbia workshops.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18s" id="ft18s" href="#fa18s"><span class="fn">18</span></a> The hospital itself was begun in 1514.</p> + +<p><a name="ft19s" id="ft19s" href="#fa19s"><span class="fn">19</span></a> The Sèvres Museum possesses some fragments of these decorations.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20s" id="ft20s" href="#fa20s"><span class="fn">20</span></a> See Laborde, <i>Château de Madrid</i> (Paris, 1853), and <i>Comptes des +bâtiments du roi</i> (Paris, 1877-1880), in which a full account is given +of Girolamo’s work in connexion with this palace.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELMEDIGO,<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> a Cretan Jewish family, of whom the following +are the most important:</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Elijah Delmedigo</span> (1460-1497), philosopher, taught in several +Italian centres of learning. He translated some of Averroes’ +commentaries into Latin at the instigation of Pico di Mirandola. +In the sphere of religion, Delmedigo represents the tendency +to depart from the scholastic attitude in which religion and +philosophy were identified. His most important work was +devoted to this end; it was entitled <i>Behinath ha-Dath</i> (Investigation +of Religion).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Joseph Solomon Delmedigo</span> (1591-1655), pupil of Galileo, +wrote many books on science and philosophy, and bore a considerable +part in initiating the critical movement in Judaism. +He belonged to the sceptical school, and though his positive +contributions to literature were not of lasting worth, Graetz +includes him among the important formative influences within +the synagogue of the 17th century.</p> +<div class="author">(I. A.)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page970" id="page970"></a>970</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELMENHORST,<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> a town of Germany, grand duchy of Oldenburg, +on the Delme, 8 m. by rail W. from Bremen, at the junction +of a line to Vechta. Pop. (1905) 20,147. It has a Protestant +and a Roman Catholic church, and is the seat of considerable +industries; notably wool-combing, weaving, jute-spinning and +the manufacture of linoleum. Delmenhorst was founded in 1230, +and from 1247 to 1679, when it was destroyed by the French, was +protected by a strong castle.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELOLME, JEAN LOUIS<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (1740-1806), Swiss jurist and constitutional +writer, was born at Geneva in 1740. He studied for +the bar, and had begun to practise when he was obliged to +emigrate on account of a pamphlet entitled <i>Examen de trois parts +de droit</i>, which gave offence to the authorities of the town. He +took refuge in England, where he lived for several years on the +meagre and precarious income derived from occasional contributions +to various journals. In 1775 he found himself compelled +to accept aid from a charitable society to enable him to return +home. He died at Sewen, a village in the canton of Schwyz, +on the 16th of July 1806.</p> + +<p>During his protracted exile in England Delolme made a careful +study of the English constitution, the results of which he +published in his <i>Constitution de l’Angleterre</i> (Amsterdam, 1771), +of which an enlarged and improved edition in English appeared in +1772, and was several times reprinted. The work excited much +interest as containing many acute observations on the causes +of the excellence of the English constitution as compared with +that of other countries. It is, however, wanting in breadth of +view, being written before the period when constitutional +questions were treated in a scientific manner. Along with a +translation of Hume’s <i>History of England</i> it supplied the +<i>philosophes</i> with most of their ideas about the English constitution. +It thus was used somewhat as a political pamphlet. +Several editions were published after the author’s death. +Delolme also wrote in English <i>Parallel between the English +Government and the former Government of Sweden</i> (1772); A +<i>History of the Flagellants</i> (1782), based upon a work of Boileau’s; +<i>An Essay on the Union of Scotland with England</i> (1787), and one +or two smaller works.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELONEY<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Delone</span>), <b>THOMAS,</b> English ballad-writer and +pamphleteer, produced his earliest indisputable work in 1586, +and died about 1600. In 1596 Thomas Nashe, in his <i>Have with +you to Saffron Walden</i>, wrote: “Thomas Deloney, the ballating +silk-weaver, hath rime enough for all myracles, and wit to make +a Garland of Good Will more than the premisses ... and this +deare yeare, together with the silencing of his looms, scarce that, +he being constrained to betake himself to carded ale; whence it +proceedeth that since Candlemas, or his jigge, John for the king, +not one merrie dittie will come from him, but, the Thunderbolt +against Swearers,—Repent, England, Repent—and, the strange +Judgements of God.” In 1588 the coming of the Armada +inspired him for three broadsides, which were reprinted (1860) +by J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps. They are entitled “The Queenes +visiting of the Campe at Tilsburie with her entertainment there,” +“A Joyful new Ballad, declaring the happie obtaining of the +great Galleazzo ...,” and “A new Ballet of the straunge and +Most cruell Whippes which the Spaniards had prepared.” A +collection of <i>Strange Histories</i> (1607) consists of historical ballads +by Deloney, with some poems from other hands. This collection, +known in later and enlarged editions as <i>The Royal Garland of +Love and Delight</i> and <i>The Garland of Delight</i>, contains the ballad +of Fair Rosamond. J. H. Dixon in his preface to <i>The Garland of +Good Will</i> (Percy Society, 1851) ascribes to Deloney <i>The Blind +Beggar of Bednall Green</i>, and <i>The Pleasant and sweet History of +Patient Grissel</i>, in prose, with the whole of the <i>Garland of Good +Will</i>, including some poems such as “The Spanish Lady’s Love” +generally supposed to be by other hands. His other works include +<i>The Gentle Craft</i> (1597) in praise of shoemakers, <i>The Pleasant +Historie of John Winchecombe</i> (8th ed., 1619), and <i>Thomas of +Reading or the Sixe Worthie Yeomen of the West</i> (earliest extant +edition, 1612). Kempe, the actor, jeers at these histories in his +<i>Nine Daies Wonder</i>, but they were very popular, being reprinted +as penny chap-books.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DE LONG, GEORGE WASHINGTON<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (1844-1881), American +explorer, was born in New York city on the 22nd of August 1844. +He graduated at the U.S. Naval Academy in 1865, and spent the +next fourteen years in naval service in various parts of the world, +attaining the rank of lieutenant in 1869, and lieutenant-commander +in 1879. In 1873 he took part in the voyage of the +“Juniata,” sent to search for and relieve the American Arctic +expedition under Hall in the “Polaris,” commanding a steam +launch which was sent out from Upernivik, Greenland, to make +a thorough search of Melville Bay. On his return to New York +the same year he proposed to James Gordon Bennett, of <i>The New +York Herald</i>, that the latter should fit out a Polar expedition. +It was not until 1879 that the final arrangements were made, +the “Pandora,” a yacht which had already made two Arctic +voyages under Sir Allen Young, being purchased and rechristened +the “Jeannette” for this voyage. The story of this expedition +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Polar Regions</a></span>) is chiefly remarkable on account of the long +and helpless drifting of the “Jeannette” with the polar ice-pack +in which she was caught (September 5, 1879) and by which +she was finally crushed and sunk on the 13th of June 1881. The +members of the expedition set out in three boats, one of which +was lost in a gale, while another boat-load under De Long died +from starvation after reaching the mouth of the Lena river. He +was the last survivor of his party. His journal, in which he made +regular entries up to the day on which he died (October 30, +1881) was edited by his wife and published in 1883 under the +title <i>Voyage of the “Jeannette”</i>; and an account of the search +which was made for him and his comrades by his heroic companion +George W. Melville, who was chief engineer of the expedition +and commanded the third of the retreating parties, was +published a year later under the title of <i>In the Lena Delta</i>. The +fate of the “Jeannette” was still more remarkable in its sequel. +Three years after she had sunk several articles belonging to her +crew were found on an ice-floe near Julianshaab on the south-west +coast of Greenland; thus adding fresh evidence to the +theory of a continuous ocean current passing across the unknown +Polar regions, which was to be finally demonstrated by Nansen’s +voyage in the “Fram.” By direction of the United States +government, the remains of De Long and his companions were +brought home and interred with honour in his native city.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELORME, MARION<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1613-1650), French courtesan, was +the daughter of Jean de Lou, sieur de l’Orme, president of the +treasurers of France in Champagne, and of Marie Chastelain. +She was born at her father’s château near Champaubert. Initiated +into the philosophy of pleasure by the epicurean and atheist +Jacques Vallée, sieur Desbarreaux, she soon left him for Cinq +Mars, at that time at the height of his popularity, and succeeded, +it is said, in marrying him in secret. From this time Marion +Delorme’s salon became one of the most brilliant centres of +elegant Parisian society. After the execution of Cinq Mars she +is said to have numbered among her lovers Charles de St Evremond +(1610-1703) the wit and littérateur, Buckingham (Villiers), the +great Condé, and even Cardinal Richelieu. Under the Fronde +her salon became a meeting place for the disaffected, and Mazarin +is said to have sent to arrest her when she suddenly died. Her +last years have been adorned with considerable legend (cf. Merecourt, +<i>Confessions de Marie Delorme</i>, Paris, 1856). It seems +established that she died in 1650. But she was believed to have +lived until 1706 or even 1741, after having had the most +fantastic adventures, including marriage with an English lord, +and an old age spent in poverty in Paris. Her name has been +popularized by various authors, especially by Alfred de Vigny +in his novel <i>Cinq Mars</i>, by Victor Hugo in the drama <i>Marion +Delorme</i>, and by G. Bottesini in an opera of the same title.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See P. J. Jacob, <i>Marion Delorme et Ninon Lenclos</i> (Paris, 1859); +J. Peladan, <i>Histoire et légende de Marion de Lorme</i> (Paris, 1882).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DE L’ORME, PHILIBERT<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1510-1570), French architect, one +of the great masters of the Renaissance, was born at Lyons, the +son of Jehan de L’Orme, who practised the same art and brought +his son up to it. At an early age Philibert was sent to Italy to +study (1533-1536) and was employed there by Pope Paul III. +Returning to France he was patronized by Cardinal du Bellay +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page971" id="page971"></a>971</span> +at Lyons, and was sent by him about 1540 to Paris, where he began +the Château de St Maur, and enjoyed royal favour; in 1545 he +was made architect to Francis I. and given the charge of works +in Brittany. In 1548 Henry II. gave him the supervision of +Fontainebleau, Saint-Germain and the other royal buildings; +but on his death (1559) Philibert fell into disgrace. Under +Charles IX., however, he returned to favour, and was employed +to construct the Tuileries, in collaboration with Jean Brillant. +He died in Paris on the 8th of January 1570. Much of his work +has disappeared, but his fame remains. An ardent humanist and +student of the antique, he yet vindicated resolutely the French +tradition in opposition to Italian tendencies; he was a man +of independent mind and +a vigorous originality. His +masterpiece was the Château +d’Anet (1552-1559), built for +Diane de Poitiers, the plans +of which are preserved in Du +Cerceau’s <i>Plus excellens bastimens +de France</i>, though part +of the building alone remains; +and his designs for the Tuileries +(also given by Du +Cerceau), begun by Catherine +de’ Medici in 1565, were +magnificent. His work is also +seen at Chenonceaux and +other famous châteaux; and +his tomb of Francis I. at St +Denis remains a perfect specimen +of his art. He wrote two +books on architecture (1561 +and 1567).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Marius Vachon, <i>Philibert +de L’Orme</i> (1887); Chevalier, +<i>Lettres et devis relatifs à la construction +de Chenonceaux</i> (1864); +Pfror, <i>Monographie du château +d’Anet</i> (1867); Herbet, <i>Travaux +de P. de L’Orme à Fontainebleau</i> +(1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELOS<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> (mod. <i>Mikra Dili</i>, +or Little Delos, to distinguish +it from Megali Dili, or Great +Delos), an island in the +Aegean, the smallest but most +famous of the Cyclades, and, +according to the ancient belief, +the spot round which the group arranged itself in a nearly +circular form. It is a rugged mass of granite, about 3 m. long +and 1 m. to ½ m. broad, about ½ m. E. of Megali Dili or +Rheneia, and 2 m. W. of Myconus. Towards the centre it rises +to its greatest height of 350 ft. in the steep and rocky peak of +Mount Cynthus, which, though overtopped by several eminences +in the neighbouring islands, is very conspicuous from the surrounding +sea. It is now completely destitute of trees, but it +abounds with brushwood of lentisk and cistus, and here and there +affords a patch of corn-land to the occasional sower from Myconus.</p> + +<p>I. <i>Archaeology.</i>—Excavations have been made by the French +School at Athens upon the island of Delos since 1877, chiefly +by Th. Homolle. They have proceeded slowly but systematically, +and the method adopted, though scientific and economical, +left the site in some apparent confusion, but the débris have more +recently been cleared away to a considerable extent. The complete +plan of the sacred precinct of Apollo has been recovered, as +well as those of a considerable portion of the commercial quarter +of Hellenistic and Roman times, of the theatre, of the temples +of the foreign gods, of the temples on the top of Mount Cynthus, +and of several very interesting private houses. Numerous works +of sculpture of all periods have been found, and also a very +extensive series of inscriptions, some of them throwing much +light upon the subject of temple administration in Greece.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:823px; height:685px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img971.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">The most convenient place for landing is protected by an ancient +mole; it faces the channel between Delos and Rheneia, and is +about opposite the most northerly of the two little islands now +called <span class="grk" title="Rheumatiari">Ῥευματιάρι</span>. From this side the sacred precinct of Apollo +is approached by an avenue flanked by porticoes, that upon the +seaside bearing the name of Philip V. of Macedon, who dedicated +it about 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> This avenue must have formed the usual +approach for sacred embassies and processions; but it is probable +that the space to the south was not convenient for marshalling +them, since Nicias, on the occasion of his famous embassy, built +a bridge from the island of Hecate (the Greater Rhevmatiari) +to Delos, in order that the imposing Athenian procession might +not miss its full effect. Facing the avenue were the propylaea +that formed the chief entrance of the precinct of Apollo. They +consisted of a gate faced on the outside with a projecting portico of +four columns, on the inside with two columns <i>in antis</i>. Through +this one entered a large open space, filled with votive offerings +and containing a large exedra. The sacred road continued its +course to the north-east corner of this open space, with the +precinct of Artemis on its west side, and, on its east side, a terrace +on which stood three temples. The southernmost of these was +the temple of Apollo, but only its back was visible from this side. +Though there is no evidence to show to whom the other two were +dedicated, the fact that they faced west seems to imply that they +were either dedicated to heroes or minor deities, or that they were +treasuries. Beyond them a road branches to the right, sweeping +round in a broad curve to the space in front of the temple of +Apollo. The outer side of this curve is bounded by a row of +treasuries, similar to those found at Delphi and Olympia, and +serving to house the more costly offerings of various islands or +cities. The space to the east and south of the temple of Apollo +could also be approached directly from the propylaea of entrance, +by turning to the right through a passage-like building with a +porch at either end. Just to the north of this may be seen the +basis of the colossal statue of Apollo dedicated by the Naxians, +with its well-known archaic inscription; two large fragments of +the statue itself may still be seen a little farther to the north.</p> + +<p>The temple of Apollo forms the centre of the whole precinct, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page972" id="page972"></a>972</span> +which it dominates by the height of its steps as well as of the +terrace already mentioned; its position must have been more +commanding in ancient times than it is now that heaps of earth +and débris cover so much of the level. The temple was of Doric +style, with six columns at the front and back and thirteen at the +sides; it was built early in the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; little if any +traces have been found of the earlier building which it superseded. +Its sculptural decoration appears to have been but +scanty; the metopes were plain. The groups which ornamented, +as acroteria, the two gables of the temple have been in part +recovered, and may now be seen in the national museum at +Athens; at the one end was Boreas carrying off Oreithyia, at the +other Eos and Cephalus, the centre in each case being occupied +by the winged figure that stood out against the sky—a variation +on the winged Victories that often occupy the same position on +temples.</p> + +<p>To the east of the space in front of the temple was an oblong +building of two chambers, with a colonnade on each side but not +in front; this may have been the Prytaneum or some other +official building; beyond it is the most interesting and characteristic +of all the monuments of Delphi. This is a long narrow hall, +running from north to south, and entered by a portico at its +south end. At the north end was the famous altar, built out of +the horns of the victims, which was sometimes reckoned among +the seven wonders of the world. The rest of the room is taken +up by a paved space, surrounded by a narrow gangway; and on +this it is supposed that the <span class="grk" title="geranos">γέρανος</span> or stork-dance took place. +The most remarkable architectural feature of the building is the +partition that separated the altar from this long gallery; it +consists of two columns between <i>antae</i>, with capitals of a very +peculiar form, consisting of the fore parts of bulls set back to +back; from these the whole building is sometimes called the +sanctuary of the bulls. Beyond it, on the east, was a sacred +wood filling the space up to the wall of the precinct; and at the +south end of this was a small open space with the altar of Zeus +Polieus.</p> + +<p>At the north of the precinct was a broad road, flanked with +votive offerings and exedrae, and along the boundary were +porticoes and chambers intended for the reception of the <span class="grk" title="theôriai">θεωρίαι</span> +or sacred embassies; there are two entrances on this side, each +of them through extensive propylaea.</p> + +<p>At the north-west corner of the precinct is a building of limestone, +the <span class="grk" title="pôrinos oikos">πώρινος οἶκος</span> often mentioned in the inventories of +the treasures of the Delian shrine. South of it is the precinct of +Artemis, containing within it the old temple of the goddess; +her more recent temple was to the south of her precinct, opening +not into it but into the open space entered through the southern +propylaea of the precinct of Apollo. The older temple is +mentioned in some of the inventories as “the temple in which +were the seven statues”; and close beside it was found a series of +archaic draped female statues, which was the most important +of its kind until the discovery of the finer and better preserved set +from the Athenian Acropolis.</p> + +<p>Within the precinct there were found many statues and other +works of art, and a very large number of inscriptions, some of +them giving inventories of the votive offerings and accounts of the +administration of the temple and its property. The latter are +of considerable interest, and give full information as to the +sources of the revenue and its financial administration.</p> + +<p>Outside the precinct of Apollo, on the south, was an open +place; between this and the precinct was a house for the priests, +and within it, in a kind of court, a set of small structures that may +perhaps be identified as the tombs of the Hyperborean maidens. +Just to the east was the temple of Dionysus, which is of peculiar +plan, and faces the open place; on the other side of it is a large +rectangular court, surrounded by colonnades and chambers which +served as offices, the whole forming a sort of commercial +exchange; in the middle of it was a temple dedicated to +Aphrodite and Hermes.</p> + +<p>To the north of the precinct of Apollo, between it and the +sacred lake, there are very extensive ruins of the commercial +town of Delos; these have been only partially cleared, but have +yielded a good many inscriptions and other antiquities. The +most extensive building is a very large court surrounded by +chambers, a sort of club or exchange. Beyond this, on the way +to the east coast, are the remains of the new and the old palaestra, +also partially excavated.</p> + +<p>The shore of the channel facing Rheneia is lined with docks and +warehouses, and behind them, as well as elsewhere in the island, +there have been found several private houses of the 2nd or 3rd +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Each of these consists of a single court surrounded +by columns and often paved with mosaic; various chambers +open out of the court, including usually one of large proportions, +the <span class="grk" title="andrôn">ἀνδρών</span> or dining-room for guests.</p> + +<p>The theatre, which is set in the lower slope of Mount Cynthus, +has the wings of the auditorium supported by massive substructures. +The most interesting feature is the <i>scena</i>, which is +unique in plan; it consisted of an oblong building of two storeys, +surrounded on all sides by a low portico or terrace reaching to the +level of the first floor. This was supported by pillars, set closer +together along the front than at the sides and back. An inscription +found in the theatre showed that this portico, or at least the +front portion of it, was called the proscenium or logeum, two +terms of which the identity was previously disputed.</p> + +<p>On the summit of Mount Cynthus, above the primitive cave-temple +which has always been visible, there have been found +the remains of a small precinct dedicated to Zeus Cynthius and +Athena Cynthia. Some way down the slope of the hill, between +the cave-temple and the ravine of the Inopus, is a terrace with +the temples of the foreign gods, Isis and Serapis, and a small +odeum.</p> + +<p>II. <i>History.</i>—Many alternative names for Delos are given by +tradition; one of these, Ortygia, is elsewhere also assigned to an +island sacred to Artemis. Of the various traditions that were +current among the ancient Greeks regarding the origin of Delos, +the most popular describes it as drifting through the Aegean till +moored by Zeus as a refuge for the wandering Leto. It supplied +a birthplace to Apollo and Artemis, who were born beneath a +palm tree beside its sacred lake, and became for ever sacred to +these twin deities. The island first appears in history as the seat +of a great Ionic festival to which the various Ionic states, including +Athens, were accustomed annually to despatch a sacred +embassy, or Theoria, at the anniversary of the birth of the god +on the 7th of Thargelion (about May). In the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +the influence of the Delian Apollo was at its height; Polycrates +of Samos dedicated the neighbouring island of Rheneia to his +service and Peisistratus of Athens caused all the area within sight +of the temple to be cleared of the tombs by which its sanctity was +impaired. After the Persian wars, the predominance of Athens +led to the transformation of the Delian amphictyony into the +Athenian empire. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Delian League</a></span>.) In 426 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, in connexion +with a reorganization of the festival, which henceforth was +celebrated in the third year of every Olympiad, the Athenians +instituted a more elaborate lustration, caused every tomb to be +removed from the island, and established a law that ever after +any one who was about to die or to give birth to a child should +be at once conveyed from its shores. And even this was not +accounted sufficient, for in 422 they expelled all its secular +inhabitants, who were, however, permitted to return in the +following year. At the close of the Peloponnesian War the +Spartans gave to the people of Delos the management of their +own affairs; but the Athenian predominance was soon after +restored, and survived an appeal to the amphictyony of Delphi in +345 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> During Macedonian times, from 322 to 166 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Delos +again became independent; during this period the shrine was +enriched by offerings from all quarters, and the temple and +its possessions were administered by officials called <span class="grk" title="hieropoioi">ἱεροποιοί</span>. +After 166 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Romans restored the control of Delian worship +to Athens, but granted to the island various commercial +privileges which brought it great prosperity. In 87 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Menophanes, +the general of Mithradates VI. of Pontus, sacked the +island, which had remained faithful to Rome. From this blow +it never recovered; the Athenian control was resumed in 42 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +but Pausanias (viii. 33. 2) mentions Delos as deserted but for a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page973" id="page973"></a>973</span> +few Athenian officials; and several epigrams of the 1st or 2nd +century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> attest the same fact, though the temple and worship +were probably kept up until the official extinction of the ancient +religion. A museum has now been built to contain the antiquities +found in the excavations; otherwise Delos is now uninhabited, +though during the summer months a few shepherds cross over +with their flocks from Myconus or Rheneia. As a religious centre +it is replaced by Tenos and as a commercial centre by the +flourishing port of Syra.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lebègue, <i>Recherches sur Délos</i> (Paris, 1876). Numerous +articles in the <i>Bulletin de correspondance hellénique</i> record the various +discoveries at Delos as they were made. See also Th. Homolle, <i>Les +Archives de l’intendance sacrée à Délos</i> (with plan). The best consecutive +account is given in the <i>Guide Joanne, Grèce</i>, ii. 443-464. +For history, see Sir R. C. Jebb, <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, +i. (1889), pp. 7-62. For works of art found at Delos see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek +Art</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Gr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DE LOUTHERBOURG, PHILIP JAMES<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> (1740-1812), English +artist, was born at Strassburg on the 31st of October 1740, where +his father, the representative of a Polish family, practised +miniature painting; but he spent the greater part of his life in +London, where he was naturalized, and exerted a considerable +influence on the scenery of the English stage, as well as on the +artists of the following generation. De Loutherbourg was +intended for the Lutheran ministry, and was educated at the +university of Strassburg. As the calling, however, was foreign +to his nature, he insisted on being a painter, and placed himself +under Vanloo in Paris. The result was an immediate and +precocious development of his powers, and he became a figure in +the fashionable society of that day. In 1767 he was elected into +the French Academy below the age required by the law of the +institution, and painted landscapes, sea storms, battles, all of +which had a celebrity above those of the specialists then working +in Paris. His début was made by the exhibition of twelve +pictures, including “Storm at Sunset,” “Night,” “Morning after +Rain.” He is next found travelling in Switzerland, Germany and +Italy, distinguishing himself as much by mechanical inventions +as by painting. One of these, showing quite new effects produced +in a model theatre, was the wonder of the day. The exhibition +of lights behind canvas representing the moon and stars, the +illusory appearance of running water produced by clear blue +sheets of metal and gauze, with loose threads of silver, and so on, +were his devices. In 1771 he came to London, and was employed +by Garrick, who offered him £500 a year to apply his inventions +to Drury Lane, and to superintend the scene-painting, which he +did with complete success, making a new era in the adjuncts of +the stage. Garrick’s own piece, the <i>Christmas Tale</i>, and the +pantomime, 1781-1782, introduced the novelties to the public, +and the delight not only of the masses, but of Reynolds and the +artists, was unbounded. The green trees gradually became +russet, the moon rose and lit the edges of passing clouds, and all +the world was captivated by effects we now take little notice of. +A still greater triumph awaited him on his opening an entertainment +called the “Eidophusicon,” which showed the rise, progress +and result of a storm at sea—that which destroyed the great +Indiaman, the “Halsewell,”—and the Fallen Angels raising the +Palace of Pandemonium. De Loutherbourg has been called the +inventor of the panorama, but this honour does not belong to +him, although it first appeared about the same time as the +eidophusicon. The first panorama was painted and exhibited +by Robert Barker.</p> + +<p>All this mechanism did not prevent De Loutherbourg from +painting. “Lord Howe’s Victory off Ushant” (1794), and other +large naval pictures were commissioned for Greenwich Hospital +Gallery, where they still remain. His finest work was the +“Destruction of the Armada.” He painted also the Great Fire +of London, and several historical works, one of these being the +“Attack of the Combined Armies on Valenciennes” (1793). He +was made R.A., in addition to other distinctions, in 1781, shortly +after which date we find an entirely new mental impulse taking +possession of him. He joined Balsamo, comte de Cagliostro, and +travelled about with this extraordinary person—leaving him, +however, before his condemnation to death. We do not hear +that Mesmer had attracted De Loutherbourg, nor do we find +an exact record of his connexion with Cagliostro. A pamphlet +published in 1789, <i>A List of a few Cures performed by Mr and Mrs +De Loutherbourg without Medicine</i>, shows that he had taken up +faith-healing, and there is a story that a successful projection of +the philosopher’s stone was only spoiled by the breaking of +the crucible by a relative. He died on the 11th of March 1812. +His publications are few—some sets of etchings, and <i>English +Scenery</i> (1805).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELPHI<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> (the Pytho of Homer and Herodotus; in Boeotian +inscriptions <span class="grk" title="Belphoi">Βελφοί</span>, on coins <span class="grk" title="Dalphoi">Δαλφοί</span>), a place in ancient Greece in +the territory of Phocis, famous as the seat of the most important +temple and oracle of Apollo. It was situated about 6 m. inland +from the shores of the Corinthian Gulf, in a rugged and romantic +glen, closed on the N. by the steep wall-like under-cliffs of Mount +Parnassus known as the Phaedriades or Shining Rocks, on the E. +and W. by two minor ridges or spurs, and on the S. by the +irregular heights of Mount Cirphis. Between the two mountains +the Pleistus flowed from east to west, and opposite the town +received the brooklet of the Castalian fountain, which rose in a +deep gorge in the centre of the Parnassian cliff. About 7 m. to +the north, on the side of Mount Parnassus, was the famous +Corycian cave, a large grotto in the limestone rock, which afforded +the people of Delphi a refuge during the Persian invasion. It is +now called in the district the Sarant’ Aulai or Forty Courts, and +is said to be capable of holding 3000 people.</p> + +<p>I. <i>The Site.</i>—The site of Delphi was occupied by the modern +village of Castri until it was bought by the French government +in 1891, and the peasant proprietors expropriated and transferred +to the new village of Castri, a little farther to the west. Excavations +had been made previously in some parts of the precinct; +for example, the portico of the Athenians was laid bare in 1860. +The systematic clearing of the site began in the spring of 1892, +and it was rapidly cleared of earth by means of a light railway. +The plan of the precinct is now easily traced, and with the help of +Pausanias many of the buildings have been identified.</p> + +<p>The ancient wall running east and west, commonly known as +the Hellenico, has been found extant in its whole length, and the +two boundary walls running up the hill at each end of it, traced. +In the eastern of these was the main entrance by which Pausanias +went in along the Sacred Way. This paved road is easily +recognized as it zigzags up the hill, with treasuries and the bases +of various offerings facing it on both sides. It mounts first westwards +to an open space, then turns eastwards till it reaches the +eastern end of the terrace wall that supports the temple, and then +turns again and curves up north and then west towards the +temple. Above this, approached by a stair, are the Lesche and +the theatre, occupying respectively the north-east and north-west +corner of the precinct. On a higher level still, a little to +the west, is the stadium. There are several narrow paths and +stairs that cut off the zigzags of the Sacred Way.</p> + +<p>In describing the monuments discovered by the French +excavators, the simplest plan is to follow the route of Pausanias. +Outside the entrance is a large paved court of Roman date, +flanked by a colonnade. On the north side of the Sacred Way, +close to the main entrance, stood the offering dedicated by the +Lacedaemonians after the battle of Aegospotami. It was a large +quadrangular building of conglomerate, with a back wall faced +with stucco, and stood open to the road. On a stepped pedestal +facing the open stood the statues of the gods and the admirals, +perhaps in rows above one another.</p> + +<p>The statues of the Epigoni stood on a semicircular basis on the +south side of the way. Opposite them stood another semicircular +basis which carried the statues of the Argive kings, +whose names are cut on the pedestal in archaic characters, +reading from right to left. Farther west was the Sicyonian +treasury on the south of the way. It was in the form of a small +Doric temple <i>in antis</i>, and had its entrance on the east. The +present foundations are built of architectural fragments, probably +from an earlier building of circular form on the same site. The +sculptures from this treasury are in the museum, as are the other +sculptures found on the site. These sculptures, which are in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page974" id="page974"></a>974</span> +rough limestone, most likely belong to the earlier building, as +their surface is in a better state of preservation than could be +possible if they had been long exposed to the air. The earlier +treasury was probably destroyed either by earthquake or by the +percolation of water through the terracing.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:900px; height:693px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img974.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">The Cnidian treasury stands on the south side of the way +farther west. This building was originally surmised by the +excavators to be the treasury of Siphnos, but further evidence +led them to change their opinion. The treasury was raised on +a quadrangular structure, supported on its south side by the +Hellenico, and built of tufa. The lower courses are left rough and +were most likely hidden. A small Ionic temple of marble with +two caryatids between antae stood on this substructure. The +sculpture from this treasury, which ornamented its frieze and +pediment, is of great interest in the history of the development of +the art, and the fragments of architectural mouldings are of great +delicacy and beauty. The whole work is perhaps the most +perfect example we possess of the transitional style of the early +5th century. Standing back somewhat from the path just as it +bends round up the hill is the Theban treasury. Farther north, +where the path turns again, is the Athenian treasury. This +structure, which was in the form of a small Doric temple <i>in antis</i>, +appears to have suffered from the building above it having been +shaken down by an earthquake. It has now been rebuilt with +the original blocks. There can be no doubt about the identity of +the building, for the basis on which it stands bears the remains +of the dedicatory inscription, stating that it was erected from +the spoils of Marathon. Almost all the sculptured metopes are +in the museum, and are of the highest interest to the student +of archaic art. The famous inscriptions with hymns to Apollo +accompanied by musical notation were found on stones belonging +to this treasury.</p> + +<p>Above the Athenian treasury is an open space, in which is a +rock which has been identified as the Sybil’s rock. It has steps +hewn in it, and has a cleft. The ground round it has been left +rough like the space on the Acropolis at Athens identified as the +ancient altar of Athena. Here too was placed the curious column, +with many flutes and an Ionic capital, on which stood the colossal +sphinx, dedicated by the Naxians, that has been pieced together +and placed in the museum.</p> + +<p>A little farther on, but below the Sacred Way, is another open +space, of circular form, which is perhaps the <span class="grk" title="halôs">ἅλως</span> or sacred +threshing-floor on which the drama of the slaying of the Python +by Apollo was periodically performed. Opposite this space, and +backed against the beautifully jointed polygonal wall which +has for some time been known, and which supports the terrace +on which the temple stands, is the colonnade of the Athenians. +A dedicatory inscription runs along the face of the top step, and +has been the subject +of much dispute. +Both the forms of +the letters and the +style of the architecture +show that the +colonnade cannot +date, as Pausanias +says, from the time +of the Peloponnesian +War; Th. +Homolle now assigns +it to the end +of the 6th century. +The polygonal terrace +wall at the +back, on being +cleared, proves to +be covered with +inscriptions, most +of them concerning +the manumission of +slaves.</p> + +<p>After rounding +the east end of the +terrace wall, the +Sacred Way turns +northward, leaving +the Great Altar, +dedicated by the +Chians, on the left. +After passing the +altar, it turns to the +left again at right +angles, and so enters +the space in front +of the temple. Remains of offerings found in this region include +those dedicated by the Cyrenians and by the Corinthians. The +site of the temple itself carries the remains of successive structures. +Of that built by the Alcmaeonids in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +considerable remains have been found, some in the foundations +of the later temple and some lying where they were thrown by +the earthquake. The sculptures found have been assigned to this +building, probably to the gables, as they are archaic in character, +and show a remarkable resemblance to the sculptures from the +pediment of the early temple of Athena at Athens. The existing +foundations are these of the temple built in the 4th century. +They give no certain information as to the sacred cleft and other +matters relating to the oracle. Though there are great hollow +spaces in the structure of the foundations, these appear merely +to have been intended to save material, and not to have been put +to any religious or other use. Up in the north-eastern corner of +the precinct, standing at the foot of the cliffs, are the remains +of the interesting Cnidian Lesche or Clubhouse. It was a long +narrow building accessible only from the south, and the famous +paintings were probably disposed around the walls so as to meet +in the middle of the north side. Some scanty fragments of the +lower part of the frescoed walls have survived; but they are not +enough to give any information as to the work of Polygnotus.</p> + +<p>At the north-western corner of the precinct is the theatre, one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page975" id="page975"></a>975</span> +of the best preserved in Greece. The foundations of the stage are +extant, as well as the orchestra, and the walls and seats of the +auditorium. There are thirty-three tiers of seats in seven sets, +and a paved diazoma. The sculptures from the stage front, now +in the museum, have the labours of Heracles as their subject. +The date of the theatre is probably early 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>The stadium lies, as Pausanias says, in the highest part of the +city to the north-west. It stands on a narrow plateau of ground +supported on the south-east by a terrace wall. The seats have +been cleared, and are in a state of extraordinary preservation. +A few of those at the east end are hewn in the rock. No trace of +the marble seats mentioned by Pausanias has been found, but +they have probably been carried off for lime or building, as they +could easily be removed. An immense number of inscriptions +have been found in the excavations, and many works of art, +including a bronze charioteer, which is one of the most admirable +statues preserved from ancient times.</p> + +<p>II. <i>History.</i>—Our information as to the oracle at Delphi and +the manner in which it was consulted is somewhat confused; +there probably was considerable variation at different periods. +The tale of a hole from which intoxicating “mephitic” vapour +arose has no early authority, nor is it scientifically probable +(see A. P. Oppé in <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, xxiv. 214). The +questions had to be given in writing, and the responses were +uttered by the Pythian priestess, in early times a maiden, later +a woman over fifty attired as a maiden. After chewing the sacred +bay and drinking of the spring Cassotis, which was conducted +into the temple by artificial channels, she took her seat on the +sacred tripod in the inner shrine. Her utterances were reduced +to verse and edited by the prophets and the “holy men” (<span class="grk" title="hosioi">ὅσιοι</span>). +For the influence and history of the oracle see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oracle</a></span>.</p> + +<p>Delphi also contained the “Omphalos,” a sacred stone bound +with fillets, supposed to mark the centre of the earth. It was +said Zeus had started two eagles from the opposite extremities +and they met there. Other tales said the stone was the one given +by Rhea to Cronus as a substitute for Zeus.</p> + +<p>For the history of the Delphic Amphictyony see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Amphictyony</a></span>. +The oracle at Delphi was asserted by tradition to have +existed before the introduction of the Apolline worship and to +have belonged to the goddess Earth (Ge or Gaia). The Homeric +Hymn to Apollo evidently combines two different versions, one +of the approach of Apollo from the north by land, and the +other of the introduction of his votaries from Crete. The +earliest stone temple was said to have been built by Trophonius +and Agamedes. This was destroyed by fire in 548 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and +the contract for rebuilding was undertaken by the exiled +Alcmaeonidae from Athens, who generously substituted marble +on the eastern front for the poros specified (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cleisthenes</a></span>, +<i>ad init.</i>). Portions of the pediments of this temple have been +found in the excavations; but no sign has been found of the +pediments mentioned by Pausanias, representing on the east +Apollo and the Muses, and on the west Dionysus and the +Thyiades (Bacchantes), and designed by Praxias, the pupil of +Calanias. The temple which was seen by Pausanias, and of +which the foundations were found by the excavators, was the +one of which the building is recorded in inscriptions of the 4th +century. A raid on Delphi attempted by the Persians in 480 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +was said to have been frustrated by the god himself, by means of +a storm or earthquake which hurled rocks down on the invaders; +a similar tale is told of the raid of the Gauls in 279 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> But the +sacrilege thus escaped at the hands of foreign invaders was +inflicted by the Phocian defenders of Delphi during the Sacred +War, 356-346 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when many of the precious votive offerings +were melted down. The Phocians were condemned to replace +their value to the amount of 10,000 talents, which they paid in +instalments. In 86 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the sanctuary and its treasures were put +under contribution by L. Cornelius Sulla for the payment of his +soldiers; Nero removed no fewer than 500 bronze statues from +the sacred precincts; Constantine the Great enriched his new +city by the sacred tripod and its support of intertwined snakes +dedicated by the Greek cities after the battle of Plataea. This +still exists, with its inscription, in the Hippodrome at Constantinople. +Julian afterwards sent Oribasius to restore the temple; +but the oracle responded to the emperor’s enthusiasm with +nothing but a wail over the glory that had departed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Provisional accounts of the excavations have appeared during the +excavations in the <i>Bulletin de correspondance hellénique</i>. A summary +is given in J. G. Frazer, <i>Pausanias</i>, vol. v. The official account +is entitled <i>Fouilles de Delphes</i>. For history see Hiller von Gärtringen +in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie, s.v.</i> “Delphi.” For cult see +L. R. Farnell, <i>Cults of the Creek States</i>, iv. 179-218. For the works +of art discovered see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Gr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELPHINIA,<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> a festival of Apollo Delphinius held annually on +the 6th (or 7th) of the month Munychion (April) at Athens. +All that is known of the ceremonies is that a number of girls +proceeded to his temple (Delphinium) carrying suppliants’ +branches and seeking to propitiate Apollo, probably as a god +having influence on the sea. It was at this time of year that +navigation began again after the storms of winter. According +to the story in Plutarch (<i>Theseus</i>, 18), Theseus, before setting out +to Crete to slay the Minotaur, repaired to the Delphinium and +deposited, on his own behalf and that of his companions on whom +the lot had fallen, an offering to Apollo, consisting of a branch of +consecrated olive, bound about with white wool; after which +he prayed to the god and set sail. The sending of the maidens +to propitiate the god during the Delphinia commemorates this +event in the life of Theseus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Mommsen, <i>Festeder Stadt Athen</i> (1898); L. Preller, <i>Griechische +Mythologie</i> (4th ed., 1887); P. Stengel, <i>Die griechische Kultusaltertümer</i> +(1898); Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>; +G. F. Schömann, <i>Griechische Altertümer</i> (4th ed., 1897-1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELPHINUS<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> (“<span class="sc">The Dolphin</span>”), in astronomy, a constellation +of the northern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and Aratus (3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); and catalogued by Ptolemy +(10 stars), Tycho Brahe (10 stars), and Hevelius (14 stars), +Γ <i>Delphini</i> is a double star: a yellowish of magnitude 4, and a +bluish of magnitude 5.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELTA<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> (from the shape of the Gr. letter Δ, delta, originally +used of the mouth of the Nile), a tract of land enclosed by the +diverging branches of a river’s mouth and the seacoast, and +traversed by other branches of the stream. This triangular tract +is formed from the fine silt brought down in suspension by +a muddy river and deposited when the river reaches the sea. +When tidal currents are feeble, the delta frequently advances +some distance seawards, forming a local prolongation of the +coast.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELUC, JEAN ANDRÉ<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> (1727-1817), Swiss geologist and +meteorologist, born at Geneva on the 8th of February 1727, was +descended from a family which had emigrated from Lucca and +settled at Geneva in the 15th century. His father, François +Deluc, was the author of some publications in refutation of +Mandeville and other rationalistic writers, which are best known +through Rousseau’s humorous account of his ennui in reading +them; and he gave his son an excellent education, chiefly in +mathematics and natural science. On completing it he engaged +in commerce, which principally occupied the first forty-six years +of his life, without any other interruption than that which was +occasioned by some journeys of business into the neighbouring +countries, and a few scientific excursions among the Alps. +During these, however, he collected by degrees, in conjunction +with his brother Guillaume Antoine, a splendid museum of mineralogy +and of natural history in general, which was afterwards +increased by his nephew J. André Deluc (1763-1847), who was +also a writer on geology. He at the same time took a prominent +part in politics. In 1768 he was sent to Paris on an embassy +to the duc de Choiseul, whose friendship he succeeded in gaining. +In 1770 he was nominated one of the Council of Two Hundred. +Three years later unexpected reverses in business made it advisable +for him to quit his native town, which he only revisited +once for a few days. The change was welcome in so far as it +set him entirely free for scientific pursuits, and it was with +little regret that he removed to England in 1773. He was made +a fellow of the Royal Society in the same year, and received the +appointment of reader to Queen Charlotte, which he continued +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page976" id="page976"></a>976</span> +to hold for forty-four years, and which afforded him both leisure +and a competent income. In the latter part of his life he obtained +leave to make several tours in Switzerland, France, Holland and +Germany. In Germany he passed the six years from 1798 to +1804; and after his return he undertook a geological tour +through England. When he was at Göttingen, in the beginning +of his German tour, he received the compliment of being +appointed honorary professor of philosophy and geology in that +university; but he never entered upon the active duties of a +professorship. He was also a correspondent of the Academy +of Sciences at Paris, and a member of several other scientific +associations. He died at Windsor on the 7th of November 1817.</p> + +<p>His favourite studies were geology and meteorology. The +situation of his native country had naturally led him to contemplate +the peculiarities of the earth’s structure, and the properties +of the atmosphere, as particularly displayed in mountainous +countries, and as subservient to the measurement of heights. +According to Cuvier, he ranked among the first geologists of his +age. His principal geological work, <i>Lettres physiques et morales +sur les montagnes el sur l’histoire de la terre et de l’homme</i>, first +published in 1778, and in a more complete form in 1779, was +dedicated to Queen Charlotte. It dealt with the appearance of +mountains and the antiquity of the human race, explained the +six days of the Mosaic creation as so many epochs preceding the +actual state of the globe, and attributed the deluge to the filling +up of cavities supposed to have been left void in the interior of +the earth. He published later an important series of volumes +on geological travels in the north of Europe (1810), in England +(1811), and in France, Switzerland and Germany (1813). These +were translated into English.</p> + +<p>Deluc’s original experiments relating to meteorology were +valuable to the natural philosopher; and he discovered many +facts of considerable importance relating to heat and moisture. +He noticed the disappearance of heat in the thawing of ice about +the same time that J. Black founded on it his ingenious hypothesis +of latent heat. He ascertained that water was more dense about +40° F. (4° C.) than at the temperature of freezing, expanding +equally on each side of the maximum; and he was the originator +of the theory, afterward readvanced by John Dalton, that the +quantity of aqueous vapour contained in any space is independent +of the presence or density of the air, or of any other +elastic fluid.</p> + +<p>His <i>Recherches sur les modifications de l’atmosphère</i> (2 vols. +4to, Geneva, 1772; 2nd ed., 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1784) contains +many accurate and ingenious experiments upon moisture, +evaporation and the indications of hygrometers and thermometers, +applied to the barometer employed in determining +heights. In the <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1773, appeared his account of a +new hygrometer, which resembled a mercurial thermometer, +with an ivory bulb, which expanded by moisture, and caused the +mercury to descend. The first correct rules ever published for +measuring heights by the barometer were those he gave in the +<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1771, p. 158. His <i>Lettres sur l’histoire physique de +la terre</i> (8vo, Paris, 1798), addressed to Professor Blumenbach, +contains an essay on the existence of a General Principle of +Morality. It also gives an interesting account of some conversations +of the author with Voltaire and Rousseau. Deluc was +an ardent admirer of Bacon, on whose writings he published two +works—<i>Bacon tel qu’il est</i> (8vo, Berlin, 1800), showing the bad +faith of the French translator, who had omitted many passages +favourable to revealed religion, and <i>Précis de la philosophie de +Bacon</i> (2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1802), giving an interesting view of the +progress of natural science. <i>Lettres sur le Christianisme</i> (Berlin +and Hanover, 1801, 1803) was a controversial correspondence +with Dr Teller of Berlin in regard to the Mosaic cosmogony. +His <i>Traité élémentaire de géologie</i> (8vo, Paris, 1809, also in English, +by de la Fite, the same year) was principally intended as a +refutation of the Vulcanian system of Hutton and Playfair, who +deduced the changes of the earth’s structure from the operation +of fire, and attributed a higher antiquity to the present state of +the continents than is required in the Neptunian system adopted +by Deluc after D. Dolomieu. He sent to the Royal Society, in +1809, a long paper on separating the chemical from the electrical +effect of the pile, with a description of the electric column and +aerial electroscope, in which he advanced opinions so little in +unison with the latest discoveries of the day, that the council +deemed it inexpedient to admit them into the <i>Transactions</i>. +The paper was afterwards published in Nicholson’s <i>Journal</i> +(xxvi.), and the dry column described in it was constructed by +various experimental philosophers. This dry pile or electric +column has been regarded as his chief discovery.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Many other of his papers on subjects kindred to those already +mentioned are to be found in the <i>Transactions</i> and in the <i>Philosophical +Magazine</i>. See <i>Philosophical Magazine</i> (November 1817).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELUGE, THE<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> (through the Fr. from Lat. <i>diluvium</i>, flood, +<i>diluere</i>, to wash away), a great flood or submersion of the earth (so +far as the earth was known to the narrators), or of heaven and +earth, or simply of heaven, by which, according to primitive and +semi-primitive races, chaos was restored. It is, of course, not +meant that all the current flood stories, as they stand, answer to +this description. There are flood stories which, at first sight, +may plausibly be held to be only exaggerated accounts of some +ancient historical occurrences. The probability of such traditions +being handed down is, however, extremely slight. If some flood +stories are apparently local, and almost or quite without mythical +colouring, it may be because the original myth-makers had a +very narrow conception of the earth, and because in the lapse of +time the original mythic elements had dwindled or even disappeared. +The relics of the traditional story may then have been +adapted by scribes and priests to a new theory. Many deluge +stories may in this way have degenerated. It is at any rate +undeniable that flood stories of the type described above, and +even with similar minor details, are fairly common. A conspectus +of illustrative flood stories from different parts of the +world would throw great light on the problems before us; see +the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cosmogony</a></span>, especially for the North American tales, +which show clearly enough that the deluge is properly a second +creation, and that the serpent is as truly connected with the +second chaos as with the first. One of them, too, gives a striking +parallel to the Babylonian name Ḫasis-andra (the Very Wise), +whence comes the corrupt form Xisuthrus; the deluge hero +of the Hare Indians is called Kunyan, “the intelligent.” +Polynesia also gives us most welcome assistance, for its flood +stories still present clear traces of the primitive imagination that +the sky was a great blue sea, on which the sun, moon and stars +(or constellations) were voyagers. Greece too supplies some +stimulus to thought, nor are Iran and Egypt as unproductive +as some have supposed. But the only pauses that we can allow +ourselves are in Hindustan, Babylonia and Canaan. The +peoples of these three countries, which are religiously so prominent +in antiquity, have naturally connected their name equally +with thoughts about earth production and earth destruction.</p> + +<p>The Indian tradition exists in several forms.<a name="fa1t" id="fa1t" href="#ft1t"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The earliest is +preserved in the Satapatha Brahmana. It is there related that +Manu, the first man, the son of the sun-god Vivasvat, +found, in bathing, a small fish, which asked to be +<span class="sidenote">Indian Tradition.</span> +tended, and in reward promised to save him in the +coming flood. The fish grew, and at last had to be carried to the +sea, where it revealed to Manu the time of the flood, and bade +him construct a ship for his deliverance. When the time came, +Manu, unaccompanied, went on board; the grateful fish towed +the ship through the water to the summit of the northern +mountain, where it bade Manu bind the vessel to a tree. Gradually, +as the waters fell, Manu descended the mountain; he then +sacrificed and prayed. In a year’s time his prayer was granted. +A woman appeared, who called herself his daughter Idā (goddess +of fertility). It is neither stated, nor even hinted, that sin was +the cause of the flood.</p> + +<p>Another version occurs in the great epic, the Mahābhārata. +The lacunae of the earlier story are here supplied. Manu, for +instance, embarks with the seven “rishis” or wise men, and +takes with him all kinds of seed. The fish announces himself as +the God Brahman, and enables Manu to create both gods and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page977" id="page977"></a>977</span> +men. A third account is given in the Bhāgavata Purāna. It +contains the details of the announcement of the flood seven +days beforehand (cf. Gen. vii. 4) and of the taking of pairs of +all kinds of animals (cf. Gen. vi. 19), besides the seeds of plants +(as the epic; cf. Gen. vi. 21). This story, however, is a late +composition, not earlier than the 12th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> A first +glance at these stories is somewhat bewildering. We shall +return, however, to this problem later with a good hope of +mastering it.</p> + +<p>The Israelite (Biblical) and the Babylonian deluge-stories +remain to be considered. Neither need be described here in +detail; for the former see Gen. vi. 5-ix. 17, and for the +latter <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gilgamesh</a></span>. As most students are aware, the +<span class="sidenote">Israelite and Babylonian.</span> +Biblical deluge-story is composite, being made up of +two narratives, the few lacunae in which are due to the +ancient redactor who worked them together.<a name="fa2t" id="fa2t" href="#ft2t"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The narrators +are conventionally known as J. (= the Yahwist, from the divine +name Yahweh) and P. (= the Priestly Writer) respectively. It +is important to notice that P., though chronologically later than +J., reproduces certain elements which must be archaic. For +instance, while J. speaks only of a rain-storm, P. states that “all +the fountains of the great ocean were broken up, and the windows +of heaven opened” (Gen. vii. 11), <i>i.e.</i> the lower and the upper +waters met together and produced the deluge. It is also P. who +tells the story of the appointment of the rainbow (Gen ix. 12-17), +which is evidently ancient, though only paralleled in a Lithuanian +flood-story, and near it we find the divine declaration (Gen. ix. +2-6) that the golden age of universal peace (cf. Gen. i. 29, 30), +already sadly tarnished, is over.<a name="fa3t" id="fa3t" href="#ft3t"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Surely this too has a touch of +the archaic; nor can we err in connecting it with the tradition +of man’s first home in Paradise, where no enemy could come, +because, in the original form of the tradition, Paradise was the +abode of God. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paradise</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>The Babylonian tradition exists in two main forms,<a name="fa4t" id="fa4t" href="#ft4t"><span class="sp">4</span></a> nor can +we affirm that the shorter form, due to Berōssus, is superseded +by the larger one in the Gilgamesh epic, for it communicates +four important points: (1) Xisuthrus, the hero +<span class="sidenote">Berōssus: four points.</span> +of the deluge, was also the tenth Babylonian king; cf. +Noah, in P., the tenth patriarch as well as the survivor +from the deluge; (2) the destination of Xisuthrus is said to be +“to the gods,” a statement which virtually records his divine +character. In accordance with this, the final reward of the hero +is declared to be “living with the gods.” This suggests that +Noah (?) may originally have been represented as a supernatural +man, a demigod. True, Gen. ix. 20, 21 is not consistent with +this, but it is very possible that Noah was substituted by a +scribe’s error for Enoch,<a name="fa5t" id="fa5t" href="#ft5t"><span class="sp">5</span></a> who, like Xisuthrus, “walked with +God (learning the heavenly wisdom) and disappeared, for God +had taken him” (Gen. v. 22, 24); (3) the birds, when sent out +by Xisuthrus the second time, return with mud on their feet. +This detail reminds us of points in some archaic North American +myths which probably supply the key to its meaning;<a name="fa6t" id="fa6t" href="#ft6t"><span class="sp">6</span></a> (4) in +the time of Berōssus the mountain on which the ark grounded +was considered to be in Armenia.</p> + +<p>We pass on to the relation of J. and P. to the Babylonian story. +(1) The polytheistic colouring of the latter contrasts strongly with +the far simpler religious views of J. and P. Note the +capricious character of the god Bel who sends the +<span class="sidenote">Details on relation of Israelite story to Babylonian.</span> +deluge, while at the end of the story the catastrophe +is represented as a judgment upon human sins. It is the +latter view which is adopted by J. and P. We cannot, +however, infer from this that the narratives which +doubtless underlie J. and P. were directly taken from some such +story as that in the Gilgamesh epic. The theory of an indirect +and unconscious borrowing on the part of the Israelitish compilers +will satisfy all the conditions of the case. (2) In the general +scheme the three accounts very nearly agree, for J. must originally +have contained directions as to the building of the vessel, +and a notice that the ark grounded on a certain mountain. +P.’s omission of the sacrifice at the close seems to be arbitrary. +His theory of religious history forbade a reference to an altar +so early, but his document must have contained it. J. expressly +mentions it (Gen. viii. 20, 21), though not in such an original +way as the cuneiform text. (3) As to the directions for building +the ship (epic) or chest (J. and P.). Here the Babylonian story +and P. have a strong general resemblance; note, <i>e.g.</i>, the mention +of bitumen in both. Whether the Hebrew reference to a chest +(<i>tēbah</i>) is, or is not, more archaic than the Babylonian reference +to a ship (<i>elippu</i>) is a question which admits of different answers. +(4) As to the material cause of the deluge. According to P. (see +above) the water came both from above and from below; J. +only speaks of continuous rain. The Gilgamesh epic, however, +mentions besides thunder, lightning and rain, a hurricane which +drove the sea upon the land. We can hardly regard this as more +original than P.’s representation. (5) As to the extent of the flood. +From the opening of the story in the epic we should naturally +infer that only a single S. Babylonian city was affected. The +sequel, however, implies that the flood extended all over Babylonia +and the region of Niṣir. More than this can hardly be +claimed. Similarly the earlier story which underlies J. and P. +need only have referred to the region of the myth-framers, <i>i.e.</i> +either Canaan or N. Arabia. (6) As to the duration of the flood +the traditions differ. P. reckons it at 365 days, <i>i.e.</i> a solar year, +which is parallel to the 365 years of the life of Enoch (who, as +we have seen, may have been the original hero of the flood). It +is probable (see below) that P.’s ultimate authority, far back in +the centuries, represented the deluge as a celestial occurrence. +The origin of J.’s story is not quite so clear, owing to the lacunae +in the narrative. If the text may be followed, this narrator made +the flood last forty days and nights, after which two periods of +seven days elapse, and then the patriarch leaves the ark. The +epic shortens the duration of the flood to seven days, after which +the ship remains another seven days (more strictly six full days) +on the mountain of the land of Niṣir (P., the mountains of Ararat; +J., unrecorded). (7) As to the despatch of the birds. J. begins, +the epic closes, with the raven. Clearly the epic is more original. +Besides, one of the two missions of the dove is evidently +superfluous. Dove, swallow, raven, as in the epic, must be +more primitive than raven, dove, dove.</p> + +<p>That the Hebrew deluge-story in both its forms has been at +least indirectly influenced by the Babylonian is obvious. We +cannot indeed reconstruct the form either of the Canaanitish +(or N. Arabian) story, which was recast partly at least under the +influence of a recast Babylonian myth, nor can we conjecture +where the sanctuary was, the priests of which, yielding to a +popular impulse, adopted and modified the fascinating story. +But the fact of the ultimate Babylonian origin of the Israelitish +narratives cannot seriously be questioned. The Canaanites or the +N. Arabians handed on at least a portion of their myths to the +Israelites, and the creation and deluge stories were among these. +That the Israelitish priests gradually recast them is an easy and +altogether satisfactory conjecture.</p> + +<p>It remains to ask, What is the history and significance of the +deluge-myth? The question carries us into far-off times. We +have no version of the Babylonian myth which goes +back to about 2100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, while its text was apparently +<span class="sidenote">History and significance of deluge-myths.</span> +derived from a still older tablet. But even this is not +primitive; behind it there must have been a much +shorter and simpler myth. The recast represented by +the existing versions of the myth must have been produced partly +by the insertion, partly by the omission or modification, of mythic +details, and by the application to the story thus produced of a +particular mythic theory respecting the celestial world. The +shorter myth referred to may—if we take hints from the very +primitive myths of N. America—have run somewhat thus, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page978" id="page978"></a>978</span> +omitting minor details: “The earth (a small enough earth, +doubtless) and its inhabitants proved so imperfect that the +beneficent superhuman Being, who had created it, or perhaps +another such Being, determined to remake it. He, therefore, +summoned the serpent or dragon who controlled the cosmic +ocean, and had been subjugated at creation, to overwhelm the +earth, after which the creator remade it better,<a name="fa7t" id="fa7t" href="#ft7t"><span class="sp">7</span></a> and the survivor +and his family became the ancestors of a new human race.”</p> + +<p>This, however, is only one possible representation. It may +have been said that the serpent of his own accord, not having +been killed by the creator, maliciously flooded the earth (cf. the +Algonquian myth), but was again overcome in battle, or that the +serpent, after filling the earth with violence and wrong, was at +length slain by the Good Being, and that his blood, streaming, +out, produced a deluge.<a name="fa8t" id="fa8t" href="#ft8t"><span class="sp">8</span></a> In any case it is unnatural to hold that +the first flood (that which preceded creation) had a dragon, but +not the second. An old cuneiform text, recopied late, however, +appears to call the year of the deluge (<i>i.e.</i> of what we here +call the second flood) “the year of the raging (or red-shining) +serpent,”<a name="fa9t" id="fa9t" href="#ft9t"><span class="sp">9</span></a> and certainly the N. American myths distinctly +connect serpents with the deluges.</p> + +<p>Among the probable minor details (omitted above) of the +presumed shorter and older myth we may include: (1) the +warning of “Very-Wise,”<a name="fa10t" id="fa10t" href="#ft10t"><span class="sp">10</span></a> either by friendly animals or by a +dream; (2) the construction of a chest to contain “Very-Wise,” +his wife and his sons, together with animals;<a name="fa11t" id="fa11t" href="#ft11t"><span class="sp">11</span></a> (3) the despatch of +three birds with a special object (see below); (4) the landing of +the survivors on a mountain. As to (1), Berōssus suggests that the +notice came to Xisuthrus in a dream; in the Indian myth it is the +sacred fish which warns Manu. In the archaic N. American +myths, however, it is some animal which gives the notice—an +eagle or a coyote (a kind of wolf). As to (2), nothing is more +common than the story of a divine child cast into the sea in a +box.<a name="fa12t" id="fa12t" href="#ft12t"><span class="sp">12</span></a> The ship-motive is also found,<a name="fa13t" id="fa13t" href="#ft13t"><span class="sp">13</span></a> but it is not too rash to +assume that the box-motive is the earlier, and, in accordance with +the parallels, that the hero of the deluge was originally a god or a +demigod. The translation of the hero to be with the gods is a +transparent modification of the original tradition. As to (3), the +original object of sending out the birds was probably not to find +out where dry land was, but to use them as helpers in the work +of re-creation. Take the story of the Tlatlasik Indians, where +the diving-bird (one of three sent out) comes back with a branch +of a fir-tree, out of which O’meatl made mountains, earth and +heaven;<a name="fa14t" id="fa14t" href="#ft14t"><span class="sp">14</span></a> so, too, the Caingangs relate<a name="fa15t" id="fa15t" href="#ft15t"><span class="sp">15</span></a> that those who escaped +from the flood, as they tarried on a mountain, heard the song of +the <i>saracura</i> birds, who came carrying earth in baskets, and +threw it into the waters, which slowly subsided. As to (4), the +mountain would naturally be thought of as a place of refuge +even in the old, simple flood-story. But when Babylonian +mythology effected an entrance, the mountain would receive a +new and much grander significance. It would then come to represent +the summit of that great and most holy mountain, which, +save by the special favour of the gods, no human eye has seen.</p> + +<p>That a didactic element entered the deluge-tradition but slowly, +may be surmised, not only from the genuinely old N. American +stories, but from the inconsistent statements, to which Jastrow +has already referred, in the Babylonian story. We may imagine +that between the creation and the deluge some great and wise +Being had initiated the early men, not only in the necessary arts +of life, but in the “ways” that were pleasing to the heavenly +powers. The Babylonians apparently think of neglected sacrifices, +the Australians of a desecrated mystery as the cause of the flood. +Some such violation of a sacred rule is the origin that naturally +occurs to an adapter or expander of primitive myths.</p> + +<p>And now as to the application of the celestial mythic theory to +the early deluge-story. In the agricultural stage it was natural +that men should take a deeper interest than before in +the appearance of the sky, and especially of the sun +<span class="sidenote">Celestial myth theory.</span> +and moon, and of the constellations, even though an +astrological science or quasi-science would very slowly, +if at all, grow up. That the Polynesian myths (which show no +vestige of science) originally referred to the supposed celestial +ocean, seems to be plain. Schirren<a name="fa16t" id="fa16t" href="#ft16t"><span class="sp">16</span></a> regarded the New Zealand +cosmogonies as myths of sunrise, and the deluge-stories as myths +of sunset. We may at any rate plausibly hold, with the article +“Deluge” (by Cheyne) in the ninth edition of this work<a name="fa17t" id="fa17t" href="#ft17t"><span class="sp">17</span></a> (1877), +that the deluge-stories of Polynesia and early Babylonia (we may +now probably add India) were accommodated to an imaginative +conception of the sun and moon as voyagers on the celestial +ocean. “When this story had been told and retold a long time, +rationalism suggested that the sea was not in heaven but on +earth, and observation of the damage wrought in winter by +excessive rains and the inundations of great rivers suggested the +introduction of corresponding details into the new earthly deluge-myth.” +“This accounts for the strongly mythological character +of Par-napishti (Ut-napishti) in Babylonia and Maui in New +Zealand, who are in fact solar personages. Enoch, too, must +be classed in this category, his perfect righteousness and superhuman +wisdom now first become intelligible. Moreover, we now +comprehend how the goddess Sabitu (the guardian of the entrance +to the sea) can say to Gilgamesh (himself a solar personage), +‘Shamash the mighty (<i>i.e.</i> the sun-god) has crossed the sea; +besides (?) Shamash, who can cross it?’ For though the sea +in the epic is no doubt the earth-circling ocean, it was hardly this +in the myth from which the words were taken.”<a name="fa18t" id="fa18t" href="#ft18t"><span class="sp">18</span></a> And, what is +still more important, we can understand better how, in the +Gilgamesh epic (lines 115-116), the gods, after cowering like dogs, +go up to the “heaven of Ana.” They, too, fear the deluge, and +only in the highest heaven can they feel themselves secure.</p> + +<p>Such an explanation seems indispensable if the wide influence +of the Babylonian form of the deluge-myth is to be accounted for. +As Gunkel well remarks,<a name="fa19t" id="fa19t" href="#ft19t"><span class="sp">19</span></a> neither the tenacity and self-propagating +character of this myth, nor the solemn utterance of Yahweh +(who corresponds to the Babylonian Marduk) in Gen. viii. 21<i>b</i> (J.) +and ix. 8-17 (P.) can be understood, if the deluge-story is nothing +more than an exaggerated account of a historical, earthly occurrence. +We, therefore, venture to hold that it is an insufficient +account to give of the story in the Gilgamesh epic that it is a +combination of a local tradition of the destruction of a single city +with a myth of the destruction of mankind—a myth exaggerated +in its present form, but based on accurate knowledge of the yearly +recurring phenomenon of the overflow of the Euphrates.<a name="fa20t" id="fa20t" href="#ft20t"><span class="sp">20</span></a> There +are no doubt points in the story as it now stands which indicate a +composite origin, but it is probable that even the tradition which +apparently limits the destruction to a single city, equally with +many other local flood-stories, has a basis in what we may fairly +call a celestial myth.</p> + +<p>We can now return with some confidence to the Indian deluge-story. +It is unlikely that so richly gifted a race as the Aryans of +India should not have produced their own flood-story +out of the same primeval germs which grew up into the +<span class="sidenote">Indian myth reconsidered.</span> +earliest Babylonian flood-story,<a name="fa21t" id="fa21t" href="#ft21t"><span class="sp">21</span></a> and almost inconceivable +that in its second form the Indian story should not +have become adapted to what may be called the celestial mythic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page979" id="page979"></a>979</span> +theory. The phrase “the northern mountain” for the place +where the ship grounded may quite well be the name of an earthly +substitute (the epic has “the highest summit of the Himalaya”) +for the mythic mountain of heaven. Nor is it unimportant that +Manu is the son of the sun-god, and that the phrase “the seven +rishis” in classical Sanskrit is a designation of the seven stars of +the Great Bear. For such problems all that we can hope for is +a probable solution. The opposite view<a name="fa22t" id="fa22t" href="#ft22t"><span class="sp">22</span></a> that the deluge is a +historical occurrence implies a self-propagating power in early +tradition which is not justified by critical research, and leaves +out of sight many important facts revealed by comparative study.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a conspectus of deluge-stories see Andree, <i>Die Flutsagen, +ethnographisch betrachtet</i> (1891), by a competent anthropologist; +E. Suess, <i>Face of the Earth</i>, i. 17 (1904); also Elwood Worcester, +<i>Genesis in the Light of Modern Knowledge</i> (New York, 1901), Appendix +ii., in tabular form, from Schwarz’s <i>Sintfluth und Völkerwanderungen</i>. +Dr Worcester’s work is popular, but based on well-chosen authorities. +The article “Flood” in Hastings’ <i>D. B.</i> is comprehensive; it represents +the difficult view that flood-stories, &c., are generally highly-coloured +traditions of genuine facts.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. K. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1t" id="ft1t" href="#fa1t"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Muir, <i>Sanscrit Texts</i>, i. 182, 206 ff.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2t" id="ft2t" href="#fa2t"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Cf. Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, <i>The Hexateuch</i>, ii. 9, +where the documents are printed separately in a tabular form.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3t" id="ft3t" href="#fa3t"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Isa. xi. 6-8 prophesies that one day this idyllic state shall be +restored.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4t" id="ft4t" href="#fa4t"><span class="fn">4</span></a> For a discussion of the Babylonian version of the Deluge Legend, +recently discovered among the tablets from Nippur, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nippur</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5t" id="ft5t" href="#fa5t"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The genealogy in Gen. v. is hardly in its original form. Enoch is +probably misplaced, and Noah inserted in error.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6t" id="ft6t" href="#fa6t"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Cf. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cosmogony</a></span>, and Cheyne’s <i>Traditions and Beliefs of Ancient +Israel</i> (on deluge-story).</p> + +<p><a name="ft7t" id="ft7t" href="#fa7t"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Cf. the myths of the Pawnees and the Quichés of Guatemala.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8t" id="ft8t" href="#fa8t"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See the cuneiform text described in <i>KAT</i><span class="sp">3</span>, pp. 498-499.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9t" id="ft9t" href="#fa9t"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Zimmern, <i>KAT</i><span class="sp">3</span>, p. 554.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10t" id="ft10t" href="#fa10t"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> Atraḫasīs (Xisuthrus).</p> + +<p><a name="ft11t" id="ft11t" href="#fa11t"><span class="fn">11</span></a> To have omitted the animals would have been an offence against +primitive views of kinship.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12t" id="ft12t" href="#fa12t"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Usener, <i>Die Sintflutsagen</i>, pp. 80-108, 115-127.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13t" id="ft13t" href="#fa13t"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Ib. p. 254.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14t" id="ft14t" href="#fa14t"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Stucken, <i>Astralmythen</i>, pp. 233-234.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15t" id="ft15t" href="#fa15t"><span class="fn">15</span></a> <i>Amer. Journ. of Folklore</i>, xviii. 223 ff.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16t" id="ft16t" href="#fa16t"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Schirren, <i>Wandersagen der Neuseeländer</i> (1856), p. 193.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17t" id="ft17t" href="#fa17t"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Referring for Polynesia to Gerland in Waitz-Gerland, <i>Anthropologie +der Naturvölker</i>, vi. 270-273 (1872). After a long interval, +this theory has been taken up by Zimmern, <i>KAT</i>³, p. 355, and by +Jensen, <i>Das Gilgamesch-Epos</i> (1906), p. 120; Winckler (<i>AOF</i>, 3rd +series, i. 96) also speaks of the deluge as a “celestial occurrence.” +For other forms of this view see Jeremias, <i>ATAO</i>, pp. 134-136; +Usener, p. 239.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18t" id="ft18t" href="#fa18t"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Cheyne, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> cols. 1063-1064.</p> + +<p><a name="ft19t" id="ft19t" href="#fa19t"><span class="fn">19</span></a> <i>Genesis</i>, p. 67.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20t" id="ft20t" href="#fa20t"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Jastrow, <i>Religion of Babylonia and Assyria</i> (1898), pp. 502, 506.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21t" id="ft21t" href="#fa21t"><span class="fn">21</span></a> The view here adopted is that of Lindner and Usener. On the +opposite side are Zimmern, Tiele, Jensen, Oldenberg, Nöldeke, +Stucken, Lenormant.</p> + +<p><a name="ft22t" id="ft22t" href="#fa22t"><span class="fn">22</span></a> Held by Franz Delitzsch, Dillmann and Lenormant.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DELYANNI, THEODOROS<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> (1826-1905), Greek statesman, was +born at Kalavryta, Peloponnesus, in 1826. He studied law at +Athens, and in 1843 entered the ministry of the interior, of which +department he became permanent secretary in 1859. In 1862, +on the deposition of King Otho, he became minister for foreign +affairs in the provisional government. In 1867 he was minister at +Paris. On his return to Athens he became a member of successive +cabinets in various capacities, and rapidly collected a party +around him consisting of those who opposed his great rival, +Tricoupi. In the so-called “Oecumenical Ministry” of 1877 he +voted for war with Turkey, and on its fall he entered the cabinet +of Koumoundoros as minister for foreign affairs. He was a +representative of Greece at the Berlin Congress in 1878. From +this time forward, and particularly after 1882, when Tricoupi +again came into power at the head of a strong party, the duel +between these two statesmen was the leading feature of Greek +politics. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: <i>History</i>.) Delyanni first formed a cabinet +in 1885; but his warlike policy, the aim of which was, by threatening +Turkey, to force the powers to make concessions in order +to avoid the risk of a European war, ended in failure. For the +powers, in order to stop his excessive armaments, eventually +blockaded the Peiraeus and other ports, and this brought about +his downfall. He returned to power in 1890, with a radical +programme, but his failure to deal with the financial crisis produced +a conflict between him and the king, and his disrespectful +attitude resulted in his summary dismissal in 1892. Delyanni, +by his demagogic behaviour, evidently expected the public to +side with him; but at the elections he was badly beaten. In +1895, however, he again became prime minister, and was at the +head of affairs during the Cretan crisis and the opening of the +war with Turkey in 1897. The humiliating defeat which ensued—though +Delyanni himself had been led into the disastrous war +policy to some extent against his will—caused his fall in April +1897, the king again dismissing him from office when he declined +to resign. Delyanni kept his own seat at the election of 1899, +but his following dwindled to small dimensions. He quickly +recovered his influence, however, and he was again president of +the council and minister of the interior when, on the 13th of +June 1905, he was murdered in revenge for the rigorous measures +taken by him against gambling houses.</p> + +<p>The main fault of Delyanni as a statesman was that he was +unable to grasp the truth that the prosperity of a state depends +on its adapting its ambitions to its means. Yet, in his vast +projects, which the powers were never likely to endorse, and +without their endorsement were vain, he represented the real +wishes and aspirations of his countrymen, and his death was the +occasion for an extraordinary demonstration of popular grief. +He died in extreme poverty, and a pension was voted to the two +nieces who lived with him.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEMADES<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 380-318 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Athenian orator and demagogue. +He was originally of humble position, and was employed at one +time as a common sailor, but he rose partly by his eloquence and +partly by his unscrupulous character to a prominent position +at Athens. He espoused the cause of Philip in the war against +Olynthus, and was thus brought into bitter and life-long enmity +with Demosthenes, whom he at first supported. He fought against +the Macedonians in the battle of Chaeroneia, and was taken +prisoner. Having made a favourable impression upon Philip, +he was released together with his fellow-captives, and was instrumental +in bringing about a treaty of peace between Macedonia +and Athens. He continued to be a favourite of Alexander, and, +prompted by a bribe, saved Demosthenes and the other obnoxious +Athenian orators from his vengeance. It was also chiefly owing +to him that Alexander, after the destruction of Thebes, treated +Athens so leniently. His conduct in supporting the Macedonian +cause, yet receiving any bribes that were offered by the opposite +party, caused him to be heavily fined more than once; and +he was finally deprived of his civil rights. He was reinstated +(322) on the approach of Antipater, to whom he was sent as +ambassador. Before setting out he persuaded the citizens to +pass sentence of death upon Demosthenes and his followers, who +had fled from Athens. The result of his embassy was the conclusion +of a peace greatly to the disadvantage of the Athenians. +In 318 (or earlier), having been detected in an intrigue with +Perdiccas, Antipater’s opponent, he was put to death by Antipater +at Pella, when entrusted with another mission by the Athenians. +Demades was avaricious and unscrupulous; but he was a highly +gifted and practised orator.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A fragment of a speech (<span class="grk" title="Peri dôdekaetias">Περὶ δωδεκαετίας</span>), bearing his name, in +which he defends his conduct, is to be found in C. Müller’s <i>Oratores +Attici</i>, ii. 438, but its genuineness is exceedingly doubtful.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEMAGOGUE<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="dêmagôgos">δημαγωγός</span>, from <span class="grk" title="agein">ἄγειν</span>, to lead, and <span class="grk" title="dêmos">δῆμος</span>, +the people), a leader of the popular as opposed to any other +party. Being particularly used with an invidious sense of a +mob leader or orator, one who for his own political ends panders +to the passions and prejudices of the people, the word has come +to mean an unprincipled agitator.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEMANTOID,<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> the name given by Nils Gustaf Nordenskiöld +to a green garnet, found in the Urals and used as a gem stone. +As it possesses high refractive and dispersive power, it presents +when properly cut great brilliancy and “fire,” and the name has +reference to its diamond-like appearance. It is sometimes known +as “Uralian emerald,” a rather unfortunate name inasmuch as +true emerald is found in the Urals, whilst it not infrequently +passes in trade as olivine. Demantoid is regarded as a lime-iron +garnet, coloured probably by a small proportion of chromium. +The colour varies in different specimens from a vivid green to a +dull yellowish-green, or even to a brown. The specific gravity +of an emerald-green demantoid was found to be 3.849, and that +of a greenish-yellow specimen 3.854 (A. H. Church). The hardness +is only 6.5, or lower even than that of quartz—a character +rather adverse to the use of demantoid as a gem. This mineral +was originally discovered as pebbles in the gold-washings at +Nizhne Tagilsk in the Ural Mountains, and was afterwards +found in the stream called Bobrovka, in the Sysertsk district +on the western slope of the Urals. It occurs not only as +pebbles but in the form of granular nodules in a serpentine +rock, and occasionally, though very rarely, shows traces of +crystal faces.</p> +<div class="author">(F. W. R.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEMARATUS<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> (Doric <span class="grk" title="Damaratos">Δαμάρατος</span>, Ionic <span class="grk" title="Dêmarêtos">Δημάρητος</span>), king of +Sparta of the Eurypontid line, successor of his father Ariston. He +is known chiefly for his opposition to his colleague Cleomenes I. +(<i>q.v.</i>) in his attempts to make Isagoras tyrant in Athens and +afterwards to punish Aegina for medizing. He did his utmost to +bring Cleomenes into disfavour at home. Thereupon Cleomenes +urged Leotychides, a relative and personal enemy of Demaratus, +to claim the throne on the ground that the latter was not really +the son of Ariston but of Agetus, his mother’s first husband. The +Delphic oracle, under the influence of Cleomenes’ bribes, pronounced +in favour of Leotychides, who became king (491 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). +Soon afterwards Demaratus fled to Darius, who gave him the +cities of Pergamum, Teuthrania and Halisarna, where his descendants +were still ruling at the beginning of the 4th century +(Xen. <i>Anabasis</i>, ii. 1. 3, vii. 8. 17; <i>Hellenica</i>, iii. 1. 6); to these +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page980" id="page980"></a>980</span> +Gambreum should perhaps be added (Athenaeus i. 29 f). He +accompanied Xerxes on his expedition to Greece, but the stories +told of the warning and advice which on several occasions he +addressed to the king are scarcely historical.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Herodotus v. 75, vi. 50-70, vii.; later writers either reproduce +or embellish his narrative (Pausanias iii. 4, 3-5, 7, 7-8; +Diodorus xi. 6; Polyaenus ii. 20; Seneca, <i>De beneficiis</i>, vi. 31, 4-12). +The story that he took part in the attack on Argos which was +repulsed by Telesilla, the poetess, and the Argive women, can +hardly be true (Plutarch, <i>Mul. virt.</i> 4; Polyaenus, <i>Strat.</i> viii. 33; +G. Busolt, <i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, ii.<span class="sp">2</span> 563, note 4).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. N. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEMERARA,<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> one of the three settlements of British Guiana, +taking its name from the river Demerara. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guiana</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEMESNE<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Demeine</span>, <span class="sc">Demain</span>, <span class="sc">Domain</span>, &c.),<a name="fa1u" id="fa1u" href="#ft1u"><span class="sp">1</span></a> that portion of +the lands of a manor not granted out in freehold tenancy, but +(<i>a</i>) retained by the lord of the manor for his own use and occupation +or (<i>b</i>) let out as tenemental land to his retainers or “villani.” +This demesne land, originally held at the will of the lord, in course +of time came to acquire fixity of tenure, and developed into the +modern copyhold (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manor</a></span>). It is from demesne as used +in sense (<i>a</i>) that the modern restricted use of the word comes, +<i>i.e.</i> land immediately surrounding the mansion or dwelling-house, +the park or chase. <i>Demesne of the crown</i>, or royal demesne, was +that part of the crown lands not granted out to feudal tenants, +but which remained under the management of stewards appointed +by the crown. These crown lands, since the accession +of George III., have been appropriated by parliament, the +sovereign receiving in return a fixed annual sum (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Civil +List</a></span>). <i>Ancient demesne</i> signified lands or manors vested in the +king at the time of the Norman Conquest. There were special +privileges surrounding tenancies of these lands, such as freedom +from tolls and duties, exemption from danegeld and amercement, +from sitting on juries, &c. Hence, the phrase “ancient +demesne” came to be applied to the tenure by which the lands +were held. Land held in ancient demesne is sometimes also +called customary freehold. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Copyhold</a></span>.)</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1u" id="ft1u" href="#fa1u"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The form “demesne” is an Anglo-French spelling of the Old Fr. +<i>demeine</i> or <i>demaine</i>, belonging to a lord, from Med. Lat. <i>dominicus</i>, +<i>dominus</i>, lord; <i>dominicum</i> in Med. Lat. meant <i>proprietas</i> (see Du +Cange). From the later Fr. <i>domaine</i>, which approaches more nearly +the original Lat., comes the other Eng. form “domain,” which is +chiefly used in a non-legal sense of any tract of country or district +under the rule of any specific sovereign state, &c. “Domain” is, +however, the form kept in the legal phrase “Eminent Domain” +(<i>q.v.</i>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEMETER,<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> in Greek mythology, daughter of Cronus and +Rhea and sister of Zeus, goddess of agriculture and civilized life. +Her name has been explained as (1) “grain-mother,” from <span class="grk" title="dêai">δηαί</span>, +the Cretan form of <span class="grk" title="xeiai">ζειαί</span>, “barley,” or (2) “earth-mother,” or +rather “mother earth,” <span class="grk" title="dâ">δᾶ</span> being regarded as the Doric form of <span class="grk" title="lê">λῆ</span>. +She is rarely mentioned in Homer, nor is she included amongst +the Olympian gods.</p> + +<p>The central fact of her cult was the story of her daughter +Persephone (Proserpine), a favourite subject in classical poetry. +According to the Homeric <i>Hymn to Demeter</i>, Persephone, while +gathering flowers on the Nysian plain (probably here a purely +mythical locality), was carried off by Hades (Pluto), the god +of the lower world, with the connivance of Zeus (see also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Proserpine</a></span>). The incident has been assigned to various other +localities—Crete, Eleusis, and Enna in Sicily, the last being most +generally adopted. This rape is supposed to point to an original +<span class="grk" title="ieros lamos">ἰερὸς λάμος</span>, an annual holy marriage of a god and goddess of +vegetation. Wandering over the earth in search of her daughter, +Demeter learns from Helios the truth about her disappearance. +In the form of an old woman named Deo (= the “seeker,” or +simply a diminutive form), she comes to the house of Celeus +at Eleusis, where she is hospitably received. Having revealed +herself to the Eleusinians, she departs, in her wrath having +visited the earth with a great dearth. At last Zeus appeases +her by allowing her daughter to spend two-thirds of the year with +her in the upper world. Demeter then returns to Olympus, but +before her final departure from earth, in token of her gratitude, +she instructs the rulers of Eleusis in the art of agriculture and +in the solemnities and rites whereby she desires in future to +be honoured.</p> + +<p>Those who were initiated into the mysteries of Eleusis found a +deep meaning in the myth, which was held to teach the principle +of a future life, founded on the return of Persephone to the upper +world, or rather on the process of nature by which seed sown in +the ground must first die and rot before it can yield new life +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mystery</a></span>). At Eleusis, Demeter was venerated as the +introducer of all the blessings which agriculture brings in its +train—fixed dwelling-places, civil order, marriage and a peaceful +life; hence her name <i>Thesmophoros</i>, “the bringer of law and +order,” and the festival <i>Thesmophoria</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). J. G. Frazer takes +the epithet to mean “bearer of the sacred objects deposited on +the altar”; L. R. Farnell (<i>Cults of the Greek States</i>, iii. 106) +suggests “the bringer of treasure or riches,” as appropriate to the +goddess of corn and of the lower world; others refer the name +to “the law of wedlock” (<span class="grk" title="thesmos lektroio">θεσμὸς λέκτροιο</span>, Odyssey, xxiii. 296, +where, however, D. B. Monro translates “place, situation”). +At Eleusis also, Triptolemus (<i>q.v.</i>), the son of Celeus, who was +said to have invented the plough and to have been sent by +Demeter round the world to diffuse the knowledge of agriculture, +had a temple and threshing-floor.</p> + +<p>In the agrarian legends of Iasion and Erysichthon, Demeter +also plays an important part. Iasion (or Iasius), a beautiful +youth, inspired her with love for him in a thrice-ploughed field +in Crete, the fruit of their union being Plutus (wealth). According +to Homer (<i>Odyssey</i>, v. 128) he was slain by Zeus with a +thunderbolt. The story is compared by Frazer (<i>Golden Bough</i>, +2nd ed., ii. 217) with the west Prussian custom of the mock +birth of a child on the harvest-field, the object being to ensure +a plentiful crop for the coming year. It seems to point to the +supersession of a primitive local Cretan divinity by Demeter, and +the adoption of agriculture by the inhabitants, bringing wealth +in its train in the form of the fruits of the earth, both vegetable +and mineral. Some scholars, identifying Iasion with Jason (<i>q.v.</i>), +regard Thessaly as the original home of the legend, and the union +with Demeter as the <span class="grk" title="ieros gamos">ἱερὸς γάμος</span> of mother earth with a health +god. Erysichthon (“tearer up of the earth”), son of Triopas or +Myrmidon, having cut down the trees in a grove sacred to +the goddess, was punished by her with terrible hunger +(Callimachus, <i>Hymn to Demeter</i>; Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> viii. 738-878). +Perhaps Erysichthon may be explained as the personification of +the labourer, who by the systematic cultivation and tilling of the +soil endeavours to force the crops, instead of allowing them to +mature unmolested as in the good old times. Tearing up the +soil with the plough is regarded as an invasion of the domain +of the earth-mother, punished by the all-devouring hunger for +wealth, that increases with increasing produce. According to +another view, Erysichthon is the destroyer of trees, who wastes +away as the plant itself loses its vigour. It is possible that the +story may originally have been connected with tree-worship. +Here again, as in the case of Iasion, a conflict between an older +and a younger cult seems to be alluded to (for the numerous +interpretations see O. Crusius <i>s.v.</i> in Roscher’s <i>Lexikon</i>).</p> + +<p>It is as a corn-goddess that Demeter appears in Homer and +Hesiod, and numerous epithets from various sources (see +Bruchmann, <i>Epitheta Deorum</i>, supplement to Roscher’s <i>Lexikon</i>, +i. 2) attest her character as such. The name <span class="grk" title="Ioulô">Ἰουλώ</span> (? at Delos), +from <span class="grk" title="ioulos">ἱουλος</span>, “corn-sheaf,” has been regarded as identifying the +goddess with the sheaf, and as proving that the cult of Demeter +originated in the worship of the corn-mother or corn-spirit, the +last sheaf having a more or less divine character for the primitive +husbandman. According to this view, the prototypes of Demeter +and Persephone are the corn-mother and harvest maiden of +northern Europe, the corn-fetishes of the field (Frazer, <i>Golden +Bough</i>, 2nd ed., ii. 217, 222; but see Farnell, <i>Cults</i>, iii. 35). +The influence of Demeter, however, was not limited to corn, but +extended to vegetation generally and all the fruits of the earth, +with the curious exception of the bean, the use of which was +forbidden at Eleusis, and for the protection of which a special +patron was invented. In this wider sense Demeter is akin to Ge, +with whom she has several epithets in common, and is sometimes +identified with Rhea-Cybele; thus Pindar speaks of Demeter +<span class="grk" title="chalkokrotos">χαλκοκρότος</span> (“brass-rattling”), an epithet obviously more +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page981" id="page981"></a>981</span> +suitable to the Asiatic than to the Greek earth-goddess. Although +the goddess of agriculture is naturally inclined to peace and +averse from war, the memory of the time when her land was won +and kept by the sword still lingers in the epithets <span class="grk" title="chrysaoros">χρυσάορος</span> and +<span class="grk" title="xiphêphoros">ξιφηφόρος</span> and in the name Triptolemus, which probably means +“thrice fighter” rather than “thrice plougher.”</p> + +<p>Another important aspect of Demeter was that of a divinity +of the under-world; as such she is <span class="grk" title="chthonia">χθονία</span> at Sparta and especially +at Hermione in Argolis, where she had a celebrated temple, +said to have been founded by Clymenus (one of the names of +Hades-Pluto) and his sister Chthonia, the children of Phoroneus, +an Argive hero. Here there was said to be a descent into the +lower world, and local tradition made it the scene of the rape +of Persephone. At the festival Chthonia, a cow (representing, +according to Mannhardt, the spirit of vegetation), which voluntarily +presented itself, was sacrificed by three old women. Those +joining in the procession wore garlands of hyacinth, which seems +to attribute a chthonian character to the ceremony, although it +may also have been connected with agriculture (see S. Wide, +<i>De Sacris Troezeniorum, Hermionensium, Epidauriorum</i>, Upsala, +1888). The striking use of the term <span class="grk" title="dêmêtreioi">δημήτρειοι</span> in the sense of +“the dead” may be noted in this connexion.</p> + +<p>The remarkable epithets, <span class="grk" title="Erinys">Ἐρινύς</span> and <span class="grk" title="Melaina">Μέλαινα</span>, as applied +to Demeter, were both localized in Arcadia, the first at Thelpusa +(or rather Onkeion close by), the second at Phigalia (see +W. Immerwahr, <i>Die Kulte und Mythen Arkadiens</i>, i. 1891). +According to the Thelpusan story, Demeter, during her wanderings +in search of Persephone, changed herself into a mare to avoid the +persecution of Poseidon. The god, however, assumed the form +of a stallion, and the fruit of the union was a daughter of mystic +name and the horse Areion (or Erion). Demeter, at first enraged, +afterwards calmed down, and washed herself in the river Ladon +by way of purification. Demeter “the angry” (<span class="grk" title="erinys">ἐρινύς</span>) became +Demeter “the bather” (<span class="grk" title="lousia">λουσία</span>). An almost identical story was +current in the neighbourhood of Tilphossa, a Boeotian spring. +In the Phigalian legend, no mention is made of the horse Areion, +but only of the daughter, who is called Despoina (mistress), +a title common to all divinities connected with the under-world. +Demeter, clad in black (hence <span class="grk" title="melaina">μέλαινα</span>) in token of mourning +for her daughter and wrath with Poseidon, retired into a cave. +During that time the earth bore no fruit, and the inhabitants of +the world were threatened with starvation. At last Pan, the old +god of Arcadia, discovered her hiding-place, and informed Zeus, +who sent the Moirae (Fates) to fetch her out. The cave, still +called Mavrospēlya (“black cave”), was ever afterwards regarded +as sacred to Demeter, and in it, according to information given to +Pausanias, there had been set up an image of the goddess, a +female form seated on a rock, but with a horse’s head and mane, +to which were attached snakes and other wild animals. It was +clothed in a black garment reaching to the feet, and held in one +hand a dolphin, in the other a dove. The image was destroyed +by fire, replaced by the sculptor Onatas from inspiration in a +dream, but disappeared again before the time of Pausanias.</p> + +<p>Both <span class="grk" title="melaina">μέλαινα</span> and <span class="grk" title="erinus">ἐρινύς</span>, according to Farnell, are epithets of +Demeter as an earth-goddess of the under-world. The first has +been explained as referring to the gloom of her abode, or the +blackness of the withered corn. The second, according to Max +Müller and A. Kuhn, is the etymological equivalent of the +Sanskrit Saranyu, who, having turned herself into a mare, is +pursued by Vivasvat, and becomes the mother of the two Asvins, +the Indian Dioscuri, the Indian and Greek myths being regarded +as identical. According to Farnell, the meaning of the epithet +is to be looked for in the original conception of Erinys, which was +that of an earth-goddess akin to Ge, thus naturally associated +with Demeter, rather than that of a wrathful avenging deity.</p> + +<p>Various interpretations have been given of the horse-headed +form of the Black Demeter: (1) that the horse was one of the +forms of the corn-spirit in ancient Greece; (2) that it was an +animal “devoted” to the chthonian goddess; (3) that it is +totemistic; (4) that the form was adopted from Poseidon +Hippios, who is frequently associated with the earth-goddess and +is said to have received the name Hippios first at Thelpusa, in +order that Demeter might figure as the mother of Areion (for a +discussion of the whole subject see Farnell, <i>Cults</i>, iii. pp. 50-62). +The union of Poseidon and Demeter is thus explained by Mannhardt. +As the waves of the sea are fancifully compared to horses, +so a field of corn, waving in the breeze, may be said to represent +the wedding of the sea-god and the corn-goddess. In any case +the association of Poseidon, representing the fertilizing element +of moisture, with Demeter, who causes the plants and seeds to +grow, is quite natural, and seems to have been widespread.</p> + +<p>Demeter also appears as a goddess of health, of birth and of +marriage; and a certain number of political and ethnic titles +is assigned to her. Of the latter the most noteworthy are: +<span class="grk" title="Panachaia">Παναχαία</span> at Aegium in Achaea, pointing to some connexion with +the Achaean league; <span class="grk" title="Achaia">Ἀχαία</span>,<a name="fa1v" id="fa1v" href="#ft1v"><span class="sp">1</span></a> “the Achaean goddess,” unless it +refers to the “sorrow” of the goddess for the loss of her daughter +(cf. <span class="grk" title="Achea">Ἀχέα</span> in Boeotia); and, most important of all, <span class="grk" title="Amphiktyonis">Ἀμφικτυονίς</span>, +at Anthela near Thermopylae, as patron-goddess of the Amphictyonic +league, subsequently so well known in connexion with the +temple at Delphi.</p> + +<p>The Eleusinia and Thesmophoria are discussed elsewhere, but +brief mention may here be made of certain agrarian festivals held +in honour of Demeter.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Haloa</i>, obviously connected with <span class="grk" title="halôs">ἅλως</span> (“threshing-floor”), +begun at Athens and finished at Eleusis, where there was a +threshing-floor of Triptolemus, in the month Poseideon +(December). This date, which is confirmed by historical and +epigraphical evidence, seems inappropriate, and it is suggested +(A. Mommsen, <i>Feste der Stadt Athen</i>, p. 365 foll.) that the festival, +originally held in autumn, was subsequently placed later, so as +to synchronize with the winter Dionysia. Dionysus, as the god +of vines, and (in a special procession) Poseidon <span class="grk" title="phytalmios">φυτάλμιος</span> (“god +of vegetation”) were associated with Demeter. In addition to +being a harvest festival, marked by the ordinary popular rejoicings, +the Haloa had a religious character. The <span class="grk" title="aparchai">ἀπαρχαί</span> (“first +fruits”) were conveyed to Eleusis, where sacrifice was offered +by a priestess, men being prohibited from undertaking the duty. +A <span class="grk" title="teletê">τελετή</span> (“initiatory ceremony”) of women by a woman also +took place at Eleusis, characterized by obscene jests and the +use of phallic emblems. The sacramental meal on this occasion +consisted of the produce of land and sea, certain things (pomegranates, +honey, eggs) being forbidden for mystical reasons. +Although the offerings at the festival were bloodless, the ceremony +of the presentation of the <span class="grk" title="aparchai">ἀπαρχαί</span> was probably accompanied +by animal sacrifice (Farnell, Foucart); Mommsen, however, +considers the offerings to have been pastry imitations. Certain +games (<span class="grk" title="patrios agôn">πάτριος ἀγών</span>), of which nothing is known, terminated the +proceedings. In Roman imperial times the ephebi had to deliver +a speech at the Haloa.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Chloeia</i> or <i>Chloia</i>, the festival of the corn beginning to +sprout, held at Eleusis in the early spring (Anthesterion) in +honour of Demeter Chloë, “the green,” the goddess of growing +vegetation. This is to be distinguished from the later sacrifice +of a ram to the same goddess on the 6th of the month Thargelion, +probably intended as an act of propitiation. It has been identified +with the <i>Procharisteria</i> (sometimes called <i>Proschaireteria</i>), +another spring festival, but this is doubtful. The scholiast on +Pindar (Ol. ix. 150) mentions an Athenian harvest festival +<i>Eucharisteria</i>.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Proërosia</i>, at which prayers were offered for an abundant +harvest, before the land was ploughed for sowing. It was also +called <i>Proarcturia</i>, an indication that it was held before the rising +of Arcturus. According to the traditional account, when Greece +was threatened with famine, the Delphic oracle ordered first-fruits +to be brought to Athens from all parts of the country, +which were to be offered by the Athenians to the goddess Deo on +behalf of all the contributors. The most important part of the +festival was the three sacred ploughings—the Athenian <span class="grk" title="hypo +polin">ὑπὸ πόλιν</span>, the Eleusinian on the Rharian plain, the Scirian (a +compromise between Athens and Eleusis). The festival itself +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page982" id="page982"></a>982</span> +took place, probably some time in September, at Eleusis. In +later times the ephebi also took part in the Proërosia.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Thalysia</i>, a thanksgiving festival, held in autumn after the +harvest in the island of Cos (see Theocritus vii.).</p> + +<p>5. The name of Demeter is also associated with the +<i>Scirophoria</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athena</a></span>). It is considered probable that +the festival was originally held in honour of Athena, but that +the growing importance of the Eleusinia caused it to be attached +to Demeter and Kore.</p> + +<p>The attributes of Demeter are chiefly connected with her +character as goddess of agriculture and vegetation—ears of corn, +the poppy, the mystic basket (<i>calathus</i>) filled with flowers, corn +and fruit of all kinds, the pomegranate being especially common. +Of animals, the cow and the pig are her favourites, the latter +owing to its productivity and the cathartic properties of its +blood. The crane is associated with her as an indicator of the +weather. As a chthonian divinity she is accompanied by a +snake; the myrtle, asphodel and narcissus (which Persephone +was gathering when carried off by Hades) also are sacred to her.</p> + +<p>In Greek art, Demeter is made to resemble Hera, only more +matronly and of milder expression; her form is broader and +fuller. She is sometimes riding in a chariot drawn by horses or +dragons, sometimes walking, sometimes seated upon a throne, +alone or with her daughter. The Demeter of Cnidus in the +British Museum, of the school of Praxiteles, apparently shows her +mourning for the loss of her daughter. The article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>, +fig. 67 (pl. iv.), gives a probable representation of Demeter (or +her priestess) from the stone of a vault in a Crimean grave.</p> + +<p>The Romans identified Demeter with their own Ceres (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L. Preller, <i>Demeter und Persephone</i> (1837); P. R. Förster, +<i>Der Raub und die Rückkehr der Persephone</i> (1874), in which considerable +space is devoted to the representations of the myth in art; +W. Mannhardt, <i>Mythologische Forschungen</i> (1884); J. E. Harrison, +<i>Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion</i> (1903); L. Dyer, <i>The +Gods in Greece</i> (1891); J. G. Frazer, <i>The Golden Bough</i> (2nd ed.), +ii. 168-222; L. Preller, <i>Griechische Mythologie</i> (4th ed., by C. Robert); +O. Kern in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, iv. pt. 2 (1901); +L. Bloch in Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>; O. Gruppe, <i>Griechische +Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte</i>, ii. (1907); L. R. Farnell, <i>Cults +of the Greek States</i>, iii. (1907); article “Ceres” by F. Lenormant in +Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. F.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1v" id="ft1v" href="#fa1v"><span class="fn">1</span></a> O. Gruppe (<i>Griechische Mythologie</i>, ii. 1177, note 1) considers it +“certain” that <span class="grk" title="Achaia = Achelôia">Ἀχαία = Ἀχελωία</span>, although he is unable to explain +the form.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEMETRIA,<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> a Greek festival in honour of Demeter, held at +seed-time, and lasting ten days. Nothing is known of it beyond +the fact that the men who took part in it lashed one another with +whips of bark (<span class="grk" title="morotton">μόροττον</span>), while the women made obscene jests. +It is even doubtful whether it was a particular festival at all or +only another name for the Eleusinia or Thesmophoria. The +Dionysia also were called Demetria in honour of Demetrius +Poliorcetes, upon whom divine honours were conferred by the +Athenians.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hesychius, <i>s.v.</i> <span class="grk" title="morotton">μόροττον</span>; Pollux i. 37; Diod. Sic. v. 4; Plutarch, +<i>Demetrius</i>, 12; Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEMETRIUS,<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> king of Bactria, was the son of the Graeco-Bactrian +king Euthydemus, for whom he negotiated a peace with +Antiochus the Great in 206 (Polyb. xi. 34). Soon afterwards he +crossed the Hindu Kush and began the invasion of India (Strabo +xi. 516); he conquered the Punjab and the valley of the Indus +down to the sea and to Gujerat. The town Sangala, a town of the +Kathaeans in the Punjab (Arrian v. 22, 2 ff.), he named after his +father Euthydemia (Ptol. vii. 1, 46). That his power extended +into Arachosia (Afghanistan) is proved by the name of a town +Demetrias near Kandahar (Isidor. Charac. 19, cf. Strabo xi. 516). +On his coins he wears an elephant’s skin with trunk and teeth on +his head; on bronze coins, which have also an Indian legend in +Kharoshti letters (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bactria</a></span>), he calls himself the unvanquished +king (<span class="grk" title="Basileôs anikêtou Dêmêtriou">Βασιλέως ἀνικήτου Δημητρίου</span>). One of his coins has +already the square form used in India instead of the circular. +Eventually he was defeated by the usurper Eucratides (<i>q.v.</i>), who +meanwhile had risen to great power in Bactria. About his death +we know nothing; his young son Euthydemus II. (known only +from coins) can have ruled only a short time.</p> +<div class="author">(Ed. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEMETRIUS,<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> the name of two kings of Macedonia.</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">Demetrius I.</span> (337-283 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), surnamed <i>Poliorcetes</i> +(“Besieger”), son of Antigonus Cyclops and Stratonice. At +the age of twenty-two he was left by his father to defend Syria +against Ptolemy the son of Lagus; he was totally defeated near +Gaza (312), but soon partially repaired his loss by a victory in the +neighbourhood of Myus. After an unsuccessful expedition against +Babylon, and several campaigns against Ptolemy on the coasts of +Cilicia and Cyprus, Demetrius sailed with a fleet of 250 ships to +Athens. He freed the city from the power of Cassander and +Ptolemy, expelled the garrison which had been stationed there +under Demetrius of Phalerum, and besieged and took Munychia +(307). After these victories he was worshipped by the Athenians +as a tutelary deity under the title of <i>Soter</i> (“Preserver”). In +the campaign of 306 against Ptolemy he defeated Menelaus +(the brother of Ptolemy) in Cyprus, and completely destroyed the +naval power of Egypt. In 305 he endeavoured to punish the +Rhodians for having deserted his cause; and his ingenuity in +devising new instruments of siege, in his unsuccessful attempt +to reduce the capital, gained him the appellation of Poliorcetes. +He returned a second time to Greece as liberator. But his +licentiousness and extravagance made the Athenians regret the +government of Cassander. He soon, however, roused the jealousy +of the successors of Alexander; and Seleucus, Cassander and +Lysimachus united to destroy Antigonus and his son. The hostile +armies met at Ipsus in Phrygia (301). Antigonus was killed in +the battle, and Demetrius, after sustaining a severe loss, retired +to Ephesus. This reverse of fortune raised up many enemies +against him; and the Athenians refused even to admit him into +their city. But he soon afterwards ravaged the territory of +Lysimachus, and effected a reconciliation with Seleucus, to whom +he gave his daughter Stratonice in marriage. Athens was at this +time oppressed by the tyranny of Lachares; but Demetrius, +after a protracted blockade, gained possession of the city (294) +and pardoned the inhabitants their former misconduct. In the +same year he established himself on the throne of Macedonia by +the murder of Alexander, the son of Cassander. But here he was +continually threatened by Pyrrhus, who took advantage of his +occasional absence to ravage the defenceless part of his kingdom +(Plutarch, <i>Pyrrhus</i>, 7 ff.); and at length the combined forces of +Pyrrhus, Ptolemy and Lysimachus, assisted by the disaffected +among his own subjects, obliged him to leave Macedonia after he +had sat on the throne for six years (294-288). He passed into +Asia, and attacked some of the provinces of Lysimachus with +varying success; but famine and pestilence destroyed the greater +part of his army, and he solicited Seleucus for support and assistance. +But before he reached Syria hostilities broke out; and +after he had gained some advantages over his son-in-law, +Demetrius was totally forsaken by his troops on the field of battle, +and surrendered his person to Seleucus. His son Antigonus +offered all his possessions, and even his person, in order to procure +his father’s liberty; but all proved unavailing, and Demetrius +died in the fifty-fourth year of his age, after a confinement of +three years (283). His remains were given to Antigonus, +honoured with a splendid funeral at Corinth, and thence conveyed +to Demetrias. His posterity remained in possession of the +Macedonian throne till the time of Perseus, who was conquered +by the Romans.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life</i> by Plutarch; Diod. Sic. xix. xx.; Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, +<i>Antigonos von Karystos</i>; De Sanctis, <i>Contributi alla storia +Ateniese</i> in Beloch’s <i>Studi di storia antica</i> (1893); Fergusson in +Lehmann’s <i>Beiträge z. alt. Gesch.</i> (<i>Klio</i>) vol. v. (1905); also authorities +under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Macedonian Empire</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Demetrius II.</span>, son of Antigonus Gonatas, reigned from +239 to 229 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He had already during his father’s lifetime +distinguished himself by defeating Alexander of Epirus at Derdia +and so saving Macedonia (about 260?). On his accession he had +to face a coalition which the two great leagues, usually rivals, +the Aetolian and Achaean, formed against the Macedonian +power. He succeeded in dealing this coalition severe blows, +wresting Boeotia from their alliance. The revolution in Epirus, +which substituted a republican league for the monarchy, gravely +weakened his position. Demetrius had also to defend Macedonia +against the wild peoples of the north. A battle with the Dardanians +turned out disastrously, and he died shortly afterwards, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page983" id="page983"></a>983</span> +leaving Philip, his son by Chryseïs, still a child. Former wives +of Demetrius were Stratonice, the daughter of the Seleucid king +Antiochus I., Phthia the daughter of Alexander of Epirus, and +Nicaea, the widow of his cousin Alexander. The chronology of +these marriages is a matter of dispute.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Thirlwall, <i>History of Greece</i>, vol. viii. (1847); Ad. Holm, <i>Griech. +Gesch.</i> vol. iv. (1894); B. Niese, <i>Gesch. d. griech. u. maked. Staaten</i>, +vol. ii. (1899); J. Beloch, <i>Griech. Gesch.</i> vol. iii. (1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. R. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEMETRIUS,<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> the name of three kings of Syria.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Demetrius I.</span> (d. 150 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), surnamed <i>Soter</i>, was sent to Rome +as a hostage during the reign of his father, Seleucus IV. Philopator, +but after his father’s death in 175 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he escaped from confinement, +and established himself on the Syrian throne (162 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +after overthrowing and murdering King Antiochus V. Eupator. +He acquired his surname of <i>Soter</i>, or <i>Saviour</i>, from the +Babylonians, whom he delivered from the tyranny of the Median +satrap, Timarchus, and is famous in Jewish history for his contests +with the Maccabees. Hated for his vices, Demetrius fell in battle +against the usurper, Alexander Balas, in 150 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<p><span class="sc">Demetrius II.</span> (d. 125 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), surnamed <i>Nicator</i>, son of +Demetrius I., fled to Crete after the death of his father, but about +147 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he returned to Syria, and with the help of Ptolemy VII. +Philometor, king of Egypt, regained his father’s throne. In +140 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he marched against Mithradates, king of Parthia, but +was taken prisoner by treachery, and remained in captivity for +ten years, regaining his throne about 129 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> on the death of his +brother, Antiochus VII., who had usurped it. His cruelties and +vices, however, caused him to be greatly detested, and during +another civil war he was defeated in a battle at Damascus, and +killed near Tyre, possibly at the instigation of his wife, a daughter +of Ptolemy VII., who was indignant at his subsequent marriage +with a daughter of the Parthian king, Mithradates. His successor +was his son, Antiochus VIII. Grypus.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Demetrius III.</span> (d. 88 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), called <i>Euergetes</i> and <i>Philometor</i>, +was the son of Antiochus VIII. Grypus. By the assistance of +Ptolemy X. Lathyrus, king of Egypt, he recovered part of his +Syrian dominions from Antiochus X. Eusebes, and held his court +at Damascus. In attempting to dethrone his brother, Philip +Epiphanes, he was defeated by the Arabs and Parthians, was +taken prisoner, and kept in confinement in Parthia by King +Mithradates until his death in 88 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEMETRIUS,<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span> a Greek sculptor of the early part of the 4th +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, who is said by ancient critics to have been notable +for the life-like realism of his statues. His portrait of Pellichus, +a Corinthian general, “with fat paunch and bald head, wearing +a cloak which leaves him half exposed, with some of the hairs of +his head flowing in the wind, and prominent veins,” was admired +by Lucian. He was contrasted with Cresilas (<i>q.v.</i>), an idealizing +sculptor of the generation before. Since however the peculiarities +mentioned by Lucian do not appear in Greek portraits before +the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and since the Greek art of the 4th century +consistently idealizes, there would seem to be a difficulty to +explain. The date of Demetrius above given is confirmed by +inscriptions found on the Athenian Acropolis.</p> +<div class="author">(P. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEMETRIUS,<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> a Cynic philosopher, born at Sunium, who lived +partly at Corinth and later in Rome during the reigns of Caligula, +Nero and Vespasian. He was an intimate friend of Thrasea +Paetus and Seneca, and was held in the highest estimation for his +consistent disregard of creature comfort in the pursuit of virtue. +His contempt for worldly prosperity is shown by his reply to +Caligula who, wishing to gain his friendship, sent him a large +present. He replied, “If Caligula had intended to bribe me, he +should have offered me his crown.” Vespasian banished him, +but Demetrius laughed at the punishment and mocked the +emperor’s anger. He reached the logical conclusion of Cynicism +in attaching no real importance to scientific data.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEMETRIUS DONSKOI<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span><a name="fa1w" id="fa1w" href="#ft1w"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (1350-1389), grand duke of Vladimir +and Moscow, son of the grand duke Ivan Ivanovich by his second +consort Aleksandra, was placed on the grand-ducal throne of +Vladimir by the Tatar khan in 1362, and married the princess +Eudoxia of Nizhniy Novgorod in 1364. It was now that Moscow +was first fortified by a strong wall, or <i>kreml</i> (citadel), and the +grand duke began “to bring all the other princes under his will.” +Michael, prince of Tver, appealed however for help to Olgierd, +grand duke of Lithuania, who appeared before Moscow with his +army and compelled Demetrius to make restitution to the prince +of Tver (1369). The war between Tver and Vladimir continued +intermittently for some years, and both the Tatars and the +Lithuanians took an active part in it. Demetrius was generally +successful in what was really a contention for the supremacy. +In 1371 he won over the khan by a personal visit to the Horde, +<span class="correction" title="amended from add">and</span> in 1372 he defeated the Lithuanians at Lyubutsk. Demetrius +then formed a league of all the Russian princes against the Tatars +and in 1380 encountered them on the plain of Kulikovo, between +the rivers Nepryadvaya and Don, where he completely routed +them, the grand khan Mamai perishing in his flight from the field. +But now Toktamish, the deputy of Tamerlane, suddenly appeared +in the Horde and organized a punitive expedition against +Demetrius. Moscow was taken by treachery, and the Russian +lands were again subdued by the Tatars (1381). Nevertheless, +while compelled to submit to the Horde, Demetrius maintained +his hegemony over Tver, Novgorod and the other recalcitrant +Russian principalities, and even held his own against the Lithuanian +grand dukes, so that by his last testament he was able to +leave not only his ancestral possessions but his grand-dukedom +also to his son Basil. Demetrius was one of the greatest of the +north Russian grand dukes. He was not merely a cautious and +tactful statesman, but also a valiant and capable captain, in +striking contrast to most of the princes of his house.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sergyei Solovev, <i>History of Russia</i> (Rus.), vols, i.-ii. (St +Petersburg, 1857), &c.; Nikolai Savelev, <i>Demetrius Ivanovich +Donskoi</i> (Rus.), (Moscow, 1837).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1w" id="ft1w" href="#fa1w"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Of the Don.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEMETRIUS PHALEREUS<a name="ar232" id="ar232"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 345-283 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Attic orator, +statesman and philosopher, born at Phalerum, was a pupil of +Theophrastus and an adherent of the Peripatetic school. He +governed the city of Athens as representative of Cassander (<i>q.v.</i>) +for ten years from 317. It is said that he so won the hearts of +the people that 360 statues were erected in his honour; but +opinions are divided as to the character of his rule. On the +restoration of the old democracy by Demetrius Poliorcetes, he +was condemned to death by the fickle Athenians and obliged to +leave the city. He escaped to Egypt, where he was protected by +Ptolemy Lagus, to whom he is said to have suggested the foundation +of the Alexandrian library. Having incurred the displeasure +of Lagus’s successor Philadelphus, Demetrius was banished to +Upper Egypt, where he died (according to some, voluntarily) +from the bite of an asp. Demetrius composed a large number of +works on poetry, history, politics, rhetoric and accounts of +embassies, all of which are lost.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The treatise <span class="grk" title="Peri Hermêneias">Περὶ Ἑρμηνείας</span> (on rhetorical expression), which is +often ascribed to him, is probably the work of a later Alexandrian +(1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>) of the same name; it has been edited by +L. Radermacher (1901) and W. Rhys Roberts (1902), the last-named +providing English translation, introduction, notes, glossary and +complete bibliography. Fragments in C. Müller, <i>Frag. Hist. Graec.</i> +ii. p. 362. See A. Holm, <i>History of Greece</i> (Eng. trans.), iv. 60.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEMETRIUS, PSEUDO-<a name="ar233" id="ar233"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">False</span>), the name by which three +Muscovite princes and pretenders, who claimed to be Demetrius, +son of Ivan the Terrible, are known in history. The real +Demetrius had been murdered, while still a child, in 1591, at +Uglich, his widowed mother’s appanage.</p> + +<p>1. In the reign of Tsar Boris Godunov (1598-1605), the first +of these pretenders, whose origin is still obscure, emigrated to +Lithuania and persuaded many of the magnates there of his +tsarish birth, and consequently of his right to the Muscovite +throne. His real name seems to have been Yury or Gregory, and +he was the grandson of Bogdan Otrepev, a Galician boyar, and +a tool in the hands of Tsar Boris Godunov’s enemies. He first +appears in history <i>circa</i> 1600, when his learning and assurance +seem to have greatly impressed the Muscovite patriarch Job. +Tsar Boris, however, ordered him to be seized and examined, +whereupon he fled to Prince Constantine Ostrogsky at Ostrog, +and subsequently entered the service of another Lithuanian, +Prince Wisniwiecki, who accepted him for what he pretended +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page984" id="page984"></a>984</span> +to be and tried to enlist the sympathy of the Polish king, +Sigismund III., in his favour. The king refused to support him +officially, but his cause was taken up, as a speculation, by the +Polish magnate Yury Mniszek, whose daughter Marina he afterwards +wedded and crowned as his tsaritsa. The Jesuits also seem +to have believed in the man, who was evidently an unconscious +impostor brought up from his youth to believe that he was the +real Demetrius; numerous fugitives from Moscow also acknowledged +him, and finally he set out, at the head of an army of Polish +and Lithuanian volunteers, Cossacks and Muscovite fugitives, +to drive out the Godunovs, after being received into the Church +of Rome. At the beginning of 1604 he was invited to Cracow, +where Sigismund presented him to the papal nuncio Rangoni. +His public conversion took place on the 17th of April. In October +the false Demetrius crossed the Russian frontier, and shortly +afterwards routed a large Muscovite army beneath the walls of +Novgorod-Syeversk. The sudden death of Tsar Boris (April 13, +1605) removed the last barrier to the further progress of the +pretender. The principal Russian army, under P. F. Basmanov, +at once went over to him (May 7); on the 20th of June he made +his triumphal entry into Moscow, and on the 21st of July he was +crowned tsar by a new patriarch of his own choosing, the Greek +Isidore. He at once proceeded to introduce a whole series of +political and economical reforms. From all accounts, he must +have been a man of original genius and extraordinary resource. +He did his best to relieve the burdens of the peasantry; he formed +the project of a grand alliance between the emperor, the pope, +Venice, Poland and Muscovy against the Turk; he displayed an +amazing toleration in religious matters which made people suspect +that he was a crypto-Arian; and far from being, as was expected, +the tool of Poland and the pope, he maintained from the first a +dignified and independent attitude. But his extravagant opinion +of his own authority (he lost no time in styling himself emperor), +and his predilection for Western civilization, alarmed the ultra-conservative +boyars (the people were always on his side), and a +conspiracy was formed against him, headed by Basil Shuisky, +whose life he had saved a few months previously. A favourable +opportunity for the conspirators presented itself on the 8th of +May 1606, when Demetrius was married to Marina Mniszek. +Taking advantage of the hostility of the Muscovites towards the +Polish regiments which had escorted Marina to Moscow and there +committed some excesses, the boyars urged the citizens to rise +against the Poles, while they themselves attacked and slew +Demetrius in the Kreml on the night of the 17th of May.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sergyei Solovev, <i>History of Russia</i> (Rus.), vol. viii. (St Petersburg, +1857, &c.); Nikolai Kostomarov, <i>Historical Monographs</i> (Rus.) +vols, iv.-vi. (St Petersburg, 1863, &c.); Orest Levitsky, <i>The First +False Demetrius as the Propagandist of Catholicism in Russia</i> (Rus.) +(St Petersburg, 1886); Paul Pierling, <i>Rome et Demetrius</i> (Paris, +1878); R. N. Bain, <i>Poland and Russia</i>, cap. 10 (Cambridge, 1907).</p> +</div> + +<p>2. The second pretender, called “the thief of Tushino,” first +appeared on the scene <i>circa</i> 1607 at Starodub. He is supposed to +have been either a priest’s son or a converted Jew, and was highly +educated, relatively to the times he lived in, knowing as he did +the Russian and Polish languages and being somewhat of an +expert in liturgical matters. He pretended at first to be the +Muscovite boyarin Nagi; but confessed, under torture, that he +was Demetrius Ivanovich, whereupon he was taken at his word +and joined by thousands of Cossacks, Poles and Muscovites. He +speedily captured Karachev, Bryansk and other towns; was +reinforced by the Poles; and in the spring of 1608 advanced +upon Moscow, routing the army of Tsar Basil Shuisky, at Bolkhov, +on his way. Liberal promises of the wholesale confiscation of +the estates of the boyars drew the common people to him, and he +entrenched himself at the village of Tushino, twelve versts from +the capital, which he converted into an armed camp, collecting +therein 7000 Polish soldiers, 10,000 Cossacks and 10,000 of the +rabble. In the course of the year he captured Marina Mniszek, +who acknowledged him to be her husband (subsequently quieting +her conscience by privately marrying this impostor, who in no +way resembled her first husband), and brought him the support +of the Lithuanian magnates Mniszek and Sapieha so that his +forces soon exceeded 100,000 men. He raised to the rank of +patriarch another illustrious captive, Philaret Romanov, and +won over the towns of Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Vologda, Kashin +and other places to his allegiance. But a series of subsequent +disasters, and the arrival of King Sigismund III. at Sinolensk, +induced him to fly his camp disguised as a peasant and go to +Kostroma, where Marina joined him and he lived once more in +regal state. He also made another but unsuccessful attack on +Moscow, and, supported by the Don Cossacks, recovered a hold +over all south-eastern Russia. He was killed, while half drunk, +on the 11th of December 1610, by a Tatar whom he had flogged.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sergyei Solovev, <i>History of Russia</i> (Rus.) vol. viii. (St Petersburg, +1657, &c.).</p> +</div> + +<p>3. The third, a still more enigmatical person than his predecessors, +supposed to have been a deacon called Siderka, +appeared suddenly, “from, behind the river Yanza,” in the +Ingrian town of Ivangorod (Narva), proclaiming himself the +tsarevich Demetrius Ivanovich, on the 28th of March 1611. +The Cossacks, ravaging the environs of Moscow, acknowledged +him as tsar on the 2nd of March 1612, and under threat of +vengeance in case of non-compliance, the gentry of Pskov also +kissed the cross to “the thief of Pskov,” as he was usually nicknamed. +On the 18th of May 1612 he fled from Pskov, was +seized and delivered up to the authorities at Moscow, and there +executed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sergyei Solovev, <i>History of Russia</i> (Rus.), vol. viii. (St Petersburg, +1857, &c.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DEMIDOV,<a name="ar234" id="ar234"></a></span> the name of a famous Russian family, founded by +Nikita Demidov (b. <i>c.</i> 1665), who was originally a blacksmith +serf. He made his fortune by his skill in the manufacture of +weapons, and established an iron foundry for the government. +Peter the Great, with whom he was a favourite, ennobled him +in 1720. His son, Akinfiy Demidov (d. <i>c.</i> 1740), increased his +inherited wealth by the discovery and working of gold, silver and +copper mines. The latter’s nephew, Paul Grigoryevich Demidov +(1738-1821), was a great traveller who was a benefactor of +Russian scientific education; he founded an annual prize for +Russian literature, awarded by the Academy of Sciences. +Paul’s nephew, Nikolay Nikitich Demidov (1774-1828), raised +and commanded a regiment to oppose Napoleon’s invasion, and +carried on the accumulation of the family wealth from mining; +he contributed liberally to the erection of four bridges in St +Petersburg, and to the propagation of scientific culture in Moscow. +Paul’s son, Anatoli Demidov (1812-1870), was a well-known +traveller and patron of art; he married Princess Mathilde, +daughter of Jerome Bonaparte.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 7, Slice 10, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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