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diff --git a/38892.txt b/38892.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f5b6f18 --- /dev/null +++ b/38892.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19110 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 7, Slice 10, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 7, Slice 10 + "David, St" to "Demidov" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 15, 2012 [EBook #38892] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 7 SL 10 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE DAVIS, HENRY WINTER: "The War of Ormuzd and Ahriman in the + Nineteenth Century (1853), in which he combated the Southern + contention that slavery was a divine institution." 'Nineteenth' + amended from 'Ninteenth'. + + ARTICLE DEAD SEA: "Among these may be mentioned 880 (1) the + explanation of a remarkable line of white foam that extends along + the axis of the lake almost every morning--supposed by Blanckenhorn + ..." 'almost' amended from 'amost'. + + ARTICLE DECEMVIRI: "... the name applied by the Romans to any + official commission of ten." 'commission' amended from 'commision'. + + ARTICLE DEJAZET, PAULINE VIRGINIE: "French actress, born in Paris + on the 30th of August 1798, made her first appearance on the stage + at the age of five." 'August' amended from 'Ausust'. + + ARTICLE DEKKER, EDWARD DOUWES: "He was ardent, provocative, perhaps + a little hysterical, but he made himself heard all over Europe." + 'himself' amended from 'himelf'. + + ARTICLE DEKKER, JEREMIAS DE: "(Klaagliederen van Jeremias), which + was followed by translations and imitations of Horace, Juvenal and + other Latin poets." 'Klaagliederen' amended from 'Klaagliedern'. + + ARTICLE DELABORDE, HENRI FRANCOIS: "Against Sir Arthur Wellesley's + English army he fought the skillful brilliant rear-guard action of + Rolica." 'skillful' amended from 'skilful'. + + ARTICLE DEMETRIUS DONSKOI: "In 1371 he won over the khan by a + personal visit to the Horde, and in 1372 he defeated the + Lithuanians at Lyubutsk." 'and' amended from 'add'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME VII, SLICE X + + David, St to Demidov + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + DAVID, ST DEERFIELD + DAVID I. DEER PARK + DAVID II. DEFAMATION + DAVID (Welsh princes) DEFAULT + DAVID, FELICIEN DEFEASANCE + DAVID, GERARD DEFENCE + DAVID, JACQUES LOUIS DEFENDANT + DAVID, PIERRE JEAN DEFENDER OF THE FAITH + DAVIDISTS DEFERENT + DAVIDSON, ANDREW BRUCE DEFFAND, MARIE ANNE DE VICHY-CHAMROND + DAVIDSON, JOHN DEFIANCE + DAVIDSON, RANDALL THOMAS DEFILE + DAVIDSON, SAMUEL DEFINITION + DAVIDSON, THOMAS DEFOE, DANIEL + DAVIES, DAVID CHARLES DEGAS, HILAIRE GERMAIN EDGARD + DAVIES, SIR JOHN DE GEER, LOUIS GERHARD + DAVIES, JOHN DEGGENDORF + DAVIES, SIR LOUIS HENRY DE HAAS, MAURITZ FREDERICK HENDRICK + DAVIES, RICHARD DEHRA + DAVILA, ENRICO CATERINO DEHRA DUN + DAVIS, ANDREW JACKSON DEIOCES + DAVIS, CHARLES HOWARD DEIOTARUS + DAVIS, CUSHMAN KELLOGG DEIR + DAVIS, HENRY WILLIAM BANKS DEIRA + DAVIS, HENRY WINTER DEISM + DAVIS, JEFFERSON DEISTER + DAVIS, JOHN DEJAZET, PAULINE VIRGINIE + DAVIS, THOMAS OSBORNE DE KALB + DAVISON, WILLIAM DE KEYSER, THOMAS + DAVIS STRAIT DEKKER, EDWARD DOUWES + DAVITT, MICHAEL DEKKER, JEREMIAS DE + DAVOS DEKKER, THOMAS + DAVOUT, LOUIS NICOLAS DE LA BECHE, SIR HENRY THOMAS + DAVY, SIR HUMPHRY DELABORDE, HENRI FRANCOIS + DAWARI DELACROIX, FERDINAND VICTOR EUGENE + DAWES, HENRY LAURENS DE LA GARDIE, MAGNUS GABRIEL + DAWES, RICHARD DELAGOA BAY + DAWISON, BOGUMIL DELAMBRE, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH + DAWKINS, WILLIAM BOYD DELAMERE, GEORGE BOOTH + DAWLISH DE LAND + DAWN DELANE, JOHN THADEUS + DAWSON, GEORGE DELANY, MARY GRANVILLE + DAWSON, SIR JOHN WILLIAM DE LA REY, JACOBUS HERCULES + DAWSON CITY DE LA RIVE, AUGUSTE ARTHUR + DAX DELAROCHE, HIPPOLYTE + DAY, JOHN DELARUE, GERVAIS + DAY, THOMAS DE LA RUE, WARREN + DAY DELATOR + DAYLESFORD DELAUNAY, ELIE + DAYTON (Kentucky, U.S.A.) DELAUNAY, LOUIS ARSENE + DAYTON (Ohio, U.S.A.) DELAVIGNE, JEAN FRANCOIS CASIMIR + DEACON DELAWARE (state of the U.S.) + DEACONESS DELAWARE (city) + DEAD SEA DELAWARE INDIANS + DEADWOOD DELAWARE RIVER + DEAF AND DUMB DELAWARE WATER-GAP + DEAK, FRANCIS DE LA WARR + DEAL (municipal borough) DELBRUCK, HANS + DEAL (part or portion) DELBRUCK, MARTIN FRIEDRICH RUDOLF VON + DEAN DELCASSE, THEOPHILE + DEAN, FOREST OF DEL CREDERE + DEANE, RICHARD DELESCLUZE, LOUIS CHARLES + DEANE, SILAS DELESSE, ACHILLE ERNEST OSCAR JOSEPH + DEATH DELESSERT, JULES PAUL BENJAMIN + DEATH-WARNING DELFICO, MELCHIORRE + DEATH-WATCH DELFT + DE BARY, HEINRICH ANTON DELHI + DEBENTURES and DEBENTURE STOCK DELIA + DEBORAH DELIAN LEAGUE + DEBRECZEN DELIBES, CLEMENT PHILIBERT LEO + DEBT DELILAH + DEBUSSY, CLAUDE ACHILLE DELILLE, JACQUES + DECADE DELIRIUM + DECAEN, CHARLES MATHIEU ISIDORE DELISLE, JOSEPH NICOLAS + DECALOGUE DELISLE, LEOPOLD VICTOR + DE CAMP, JOSEPH DELITZSCH, FRANZ + DECAMPS, ALEXANDRE GABRIEL DELITZSCH + DECAPOLIS DELIUS, NIKOLAUS + DECASTYLE DELLA BELLA, STEFANO + DECATUR, STEPHEN DELLA CASA, GIOVANNI + DECATUR DELLA COLLE, RAFFAELLINO + DECAZES, ELIE DELLA GHERARDESCA, UGOLINO + DECAZEVILLE DELLA PORTA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA + DECCAN DELLA QUERCIA, JACOPO + DECELEA DELLA ROBBIA + DECEMBER DELMEDIGO + DECEMVIRI DELMENHORST + DECHEN, ERNST HEINRICH KARL VON DELOLME, JEAN LOUIS + DECIDUOUS DELONEY, THOMAS + DECIMAL COINAGE DE LONG, GEORGE WASHINGTON + DECIUS, GAIUS MESSIUS TRAJANUS DELORME, MARION + DECIZE DE L'ORME, PHILIBERT + DECKER, SIR MATTHEW DELOS + DECKER, PIERRE DE DE LOUTHERBOURG, PHILIP JAMES + DECLARATION DELPHI + DECLARATION OF PARIS DELPHINIA + DECLARATOR DELPHINUS + DECLINATION DELTA + DECOLOURIZING DELUC, JEAN ANDRE + DECORATED PERIOD DELUGE, THE + DE COSTA, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN DELYANNI, THEODOROS + DE COSTER, CHARLES HENRI DEMADES + DECOY DEMAGOGUE + DECREE DEMANTOID + DECRETALS DEMARATUS + DECURIO DEMERARA + DEDEAGATCH DEMESNE + DEDHAM DEMETER + DEDICATION DEMETRIA + DE DONIS CONDITIONALIBUS DEMETRIUS (king of Bactria) + DEDUCTION DEMETRIUS (kings of Macedonia) + DEE, JOHN DEMETRIUS (kings of Syria) + DEE (river of Wales) DEMETRIUS (Greek sculptor) + DEE (river of Scotland) DEMETRIUS (Cynic philosopher) + DEED DEMETRIUS DONSKOI + DEEMS, CHARLES (ALEXANDER) FORCE DEMETRIUS PHALEREUS + DEER DEMETRIUS, PSEUDO- + DEMIDOV + + + + +DAVID, ST (_Dewi, Sant_), the national and tutelar saint of Wales, whose +annual festival, known as "St David's Day," falls on the 1st of March. +Few historical facts are known regarding the saint's life and actions, +and the dates both of his birth and death are purely conjectural, +although there is reason to suppose he was born about the year 500 and +died at a great age towards the close of the 6th century. According to +his various biographers he was the son of Sandde, a prince of the line +of Cunedda, his mother being Non, who ranks as a Cymric saint. He seems +to have taken a prominent part in the celebrated synod of +Llanddewi-Brefi (see CARDIGANSHIRE), and to have presided at the +so-called "Synod of Victory," held some years later at Caerleon-on-Usk. +At some date unknown, St David, as _penescoli_ or primate of South +Wales, moved the seat of ecclesiastical government from Caerleon to the +remote headland of Mynyw, or Menevia, which has ever since, under the +name of St David's (_Ty-Dewi_), remained the cathedral city of the +western see. St David founded numerous churches throughout all parts of +South Wales, of which fifty-three still recall his name, but apparently +he never penetrated farther north than the region of Powys, although he +seems to have visited Cornwall. With the passing of time the saint's +fame increased, and his shrine at St David's became a notable place of +pilgrimage, so that by the time of the Norman conquest his importance +and sanctity were fully recognized, and at Henry I.'s request he was +formally canonized by Pope Calixtus II. about 1120. + + Of the many biographies of St David, the earliest known is that of + Rhyddmarch, or Ricemarchus (c. 1090), one of the last British bishops + of St David's, from whose work Giraldus Cambrensis (q.v.) chiefly + compiled his extravagant life of the saint. + + + + +DAVID I. (1084-1153), king of Scotland, the youngest son of Malcolm +Canmore and (Saint) Margaret, sister of Edgar Aetheling, was born in +1084. He married in 1113 Matilda, daughter and heiress of Waltheof, earl +of Northumbria, and thus became possessed of the earldom of Huntingdon. +On the death of Edgar, king of Scotland, in 1107, the territories of the +Scottish crown were divided in accordance with the terms of his will +between his two brothers, Alexander and David. Alexander, together with +the crown, received Scotland north of the Forth and Clyde, David the +southern district with the title of earl of Cumbria. The death of +Alexander I. in 1124 gave David possession of the whole. In 1127, in the +character of an English baron, he swore fealty to Matilda as heiress to +her father Henry I., and when the usurper Stephen ousted her in 1135 +David vindicated her cause in arms and invaded England. But Stephen +marched north with a great army, whereupon David made peace. The peace, +however, was not kept. After threatening an invasion in 1137, David +marched into England in 1138, but sustained a crushing defeat on Cutton +Moor in the engagement known as the battle of the Standard. He returned +to Carlisle, and soon afterwards concluded peace. In 1141 he joined +Matilda in London and accompanied her to Winchester, but after a narrow +escape from capture he returned to Scotland. Henceforth he remained in +his own kingdom and devoted himself to its political and ecclesiastical +reorganization. A devoted son of the church, he founded five bishoprics +and many monasteries. In secular politics he energetically forwarded the +process of feudalization which had been initiated by his immediate +predecessors. He died at Carlisle on the 24th of May 1153. + + + + +DAVID II. (1324-1371), king of Scotland, son of King Robert the Bruce by +his second wife, Elizabeth de Burgh (d. 1327), was born at Dunfermline +on the 5th of March 1324. In accordance with the terms of the treaty of +Northampton he was married in July 1328 to Joanna (d. 1362), daughter of +the English king, Edward II., and became king of Scotland on his +father's death in June 1329, being crowned at Scone in November 1331. +Owing to the victory of Edward III. of England and his protege, Edward +Baliol, at Halidon Hill in July 1333, David and his queen were sent for +safety into France, reaching Boulogne in May 1334, and being received +very graciously by the French king, Philip VI. Little is known about the +life of the Scottish king in France, except that Chateau Gaillard was +given to him for a residence, and that he was present at the bloodless +meeting of the English and French armies at Vironfosse in October 1339. +Meanwhile his representatives had obtained the upper hand in Scotland, +and David was thus enabled to return to his kingdom in June 1341, when +he took the reins of government into his own hands. In 1346 he invaded +England in the interests of France, but was defeated and taken prisoner +at the battle of Neville's Cross in October of this year, and remained +in England for eleven years, living principally in London and at Odiham +in Hampshire. His imprisonment was not a rigorous one, and negotiations +for his release were soon begun. Eventually, in October 1357, after +several interruptions, a treaty was signed at Berwick by which the +Scottish estates undertook to pay 100,000 marks as a ransom for their +king. David, who had probably recognized Edward III. as his feudal +superior, returned at once to Scotland; but owing to the poverty of the +kingdom it was found impossible to raise the ransom. A few instalments +were paid, but the king sought to get rid of the liability by offering +to make Edward III., or one of his sons, his successor in Scotland. In +1364 the Scottish parliament indignantly rejected a proposal to make +Lionel, duke of Clarence, the next king; but David treated secretly with +Edward III. over this matter, after he had suppressed a rising of some +of his unruly nobles. The king died in Edinburgh Castle on the 22nd of +February 1371. His second wife was Margaret, widow of Sir John Logie, +whom he divorced in 1369; but he left no children, and was succeeded by +his nephew, Robert II. David was a weak and incapable ruler, without a +spark of his father's patriotic spirit. + + See Andrew of Wyntoun, _The orygynale cronykil of Scotland_, edited by + D. Laing (Edinburgh, 1872-1879); John of Fordun, _Chronica gentis + Scotorum_, edited by W. F. Skene (Edinburgh, 1871-1872); J. H. Burton, + _History of Scotland_, vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1905); and A. Lang, + _History of Scotland_, vol. i. (Edinburgh, 1900). + + + + +DAVID, the name of three Welsh princes. + +DAVID I. (d. 1203), a son of Prince Owen Gwynedd (d. 1169), came into +prominence as a leader of the Welsh during the expedition of Henry II. +in 1157. In 1170 he became lord of Gwynedd (i.e. the district around +Snowdon), but some regarded him as a bastard, and Gwynedd was also +claimed by other members of his family. After fighting with varying +fortunes he sought an ally in the English king, whom he supported during +the baronial rising in 1173; then after this event he married Henry's +half-sister Emma. But his enemies increased in power, and about 1194 he +was driven from Wales by the partisans of his half-brother Llewelyn ab +Iorwerth. The chronicler Benedictus Abbas calls David _rex_, and +Rhuddlan castle was probably the centre of his vague authority. + +DAVID II. (c. 1208-1246) was a son of the great Welsh prince, Llewelyn +ab Iorwerth, and through his mother Joanna was a grandson of King John. +He married an English lady, Isabella de Braose, and, having been +recognized as his father's heir both by Henry III. and by the Welsh +lords, he had to face the hostility of his half-brother Gruffydd, whom +he seized and imprisoned in 1239. When Llewelyn died in April 1240, +David, who had already taken some part in the duties of government, was +acknowledged as a prince of North Wales, doing homage to Henry III. at +Gloucester. However, he was soon at variance with the English king, who +appears to have espoused the cause of the captive Gruffydd. Henry's +Welsh campaign in 1241 was bloodless but decisive. Gruffydd was +surrendered to him; David went to London and made a full submission, but +two or three years later he was warring against some English barons on +the borders. To check the English king he opened negotiations with +Innocent IV., doubtless hoping that the pope would recognize Wales as an +independent state, but here, as on the field of battle, Henry III. was +too strong for him. Just after Henry's second campaign in Wales the +prince died in March 1246. + +DAVID III. (d. 1283) was a son of Gruffydd and thus a nephew of David +II. His life was mainly spent in fighting against his brother, the +reigning prince, Llewelyn ab Gruffydd. His first revolt took place in +1254 or 1255, and after a second about eight years later he took refuge +in England, returning to Wales when Henry III. made peace with Llewelyn +in 1267. Then about 1274 the same process was repeated. David attended +Edward I. during the Welsh expedition of 1277, receiving from the +English king lands in North Wales; but in 1282 he made peace with +Llewelyn and suddenly attacked the English garrisons, a proceeding which +led to Edward's final conquest of Wales. After Llewelyn's death in +December 1282 David maintained the last struggle of the Welsh for +independence. All his efforts, however, were vain; in June 1283 he was +betrayed to Edward, was tried by a special court and sentenced to death, +and was executed with great barbarity at Shrewsbury in October 1283. As +the last native prince of Wales, David's praises have been sung by the +Welsh bards, but his character was not attractive, and a Welsh historian +says "his life was the bane of Wales." + + + + +DAVID, FELICIEN (1810-1876), French composer, was born on the 13th of +April 1810 at Cadenet, in the department of Vaucluse. As a child he +showed unusual musical precocity, and being early left an orphan he was +admitted into the choir of Saint Sauveur at Aix. He was for a time +employed in an attorney's office, but quitted his service to become +_chef d'orchestre_ in the theatre at Aix, and chapel-master at Saint +Sauveur. Then he went to Paris, being provided with L100 a year by a +rich uncle. After having studied for a while at the Paris Conservatoire, +he joined the sect of Saint Simonians, and in 1833 travelled in the East +in order to preach the new doctrine. After three years' absence, during +which Constantinople and Smyrna were visited and some time was spent in +Egypt, he returned to France and published a collection of _Oriental +Melodies_. For several years he worked in retirement, and wrote two +symphonies, some chamber music and songs. On the 8th of December 1844 he +suddenly leapt into fame through the extraordinary success obtained by +his symphonic ode _Le Desert_, which was produced at the Conservatoire. +In this work David had struck out a new line. He had attempted in simple +strains to evoke the majestic stillness of the desert. Notwithstanding +its title of "symphonic ode," _Le Desert_ has little in common with the +symphonic style. What distinguishes it is a certain naivete of +expression and an effective oriental colouring. In this last respect +David may be looked upon as the precursor of a whole army of composers. +His succeeding works, _Moise au Sinai_ (1846), _Christophe Colomb_ +(1847), _L'Eden_ (1848), scarcely bore out the promise shown in _Le +Desert_, although the second of these compositions was successful at the +time of its production. David now turned his attention to the theatre, +and produced the following operas in succession: _La Perle du Bresil_ +(1851), _Herculanum_ (1859), _Lalla-Roukh_ (1862), _Le Saphir_ (1865). +Of these, _Lalla-Roukh_ is the one which has obtained the greatest +success. In 1868 he gained the award of the French Institute for the +biennial prize given by the emperor; and in 1869 he was made librarian +at the Conservatoire instead of Berlioz, whom subsequently he succeeded +as a member of the Institute. He died at Saint-Germain-en-Laye on the +29th of August 1876. If David can scarcely be placed in the first rank +of French composers, he nevertheless deserves the consideration due to a +sincere artist, who was undoubtedly inspired by lofty ideals. At a time +when the works of Berlioz were still unappreciated by the majority of +people, David succeeded in making the public take interest in music of a +picturesque and descriptive kind. Thus he may be considered as one of +the pioneers of modern French musical art. + + + + +DAVID, GERARD [GHEERAERT DAVIT], (?-1523), Netherlands painter, born at +Oudewater in Holland between 1450 and 1460, was the last great master of +the Bruges school. He was only rescued from complete oblivion in +1860-1863 by Mr W. J. H. Weale, whose researches in the archives of +Bruges brought to the light the main facts of the master's life. We have +now documentary evidence that David came to Bruges in 1483, presumably +from Haarlem, where he had formed his early style under the tuition of +Ouwater; that he joined the gild of St Luke at Bruges in 1484 and became +dean of the gild in 1501; that he married in 1496 Cornelia Cnoop, +daughter of the dean of the Goldsmiths' gild; became one of the leading +citizens of the town; died on the 13th of August 1523; and was buried in +the Church of Our Lady at Bruges. In his early work he had followed the +Haarlem tradition as represented by Dirck Bouts, Ouwater and Geertgen of +Haarlem, but already gave evidence of his superior power as colourist. +To this early period belong the "St John" of the Kaufmann collection in +Berlin, and Mr Salting's "St Jerome." In Bruges he applied himself to +the study and the copying of the masterpieces by the Van Eycks, Van der +Weyden, and Van der Goes, and came under the direct influence of the +master whom he followed most closely, Hans Memlinc. From him he acquired +the soulful intensity of expression, the increased realism in the +rendering of the human form and the orderly architectonic arrangement of +the figures. Yet another master was to influence him later in life when, +in 1515, he visited Antwerp and became impressed with the life and +movement of Quentin Matsys, who had introduced a more intimate and more +human conception of sacred themes. David's "Pieta" in the National +Gallery, and the "Descent from the Cross," in the Cavallo collection, +Paris (Guildhall, 1906), were painted under this influence and are +remarkable for their dramatic movement. But the works on which David's +fame will ever rest most securely are the great altar-pieces executed by +him before his visit to Antwerp--the "Marriage of St Catherine," at the +National Gallery; the triptych of the "Madonna Enthroned and Saints" of +the Brignole-Sale collection in Genoa; the "Annunciation" of the +Sigmaringen collection; and, above all, the "Madonna with Angels and +Saints" which he painted gratuitously for the Carmelite Nuns of Sion at +Bruges, and which is now in the Rouen museum. Only a few of his works +have remained in Bruges--"The Judgment of Cambyses," "The Flaying of +Sisamnes" and the "Baptism of Christ" in the Town museum, and the +"Transfiguration" in the Church of Our Lady. The rest were scattered all +over the world, and to this may be due the oblivion into which his very +name had fallen--partly to this, and partly to the fact that with all +the beauty and soulfulness of his work he had no new page to add to the +history of the progressive development of art, and even in his best work +only gave new variations of the tunes sung by his great precursors and +contemporaries. That he is worthy to rank among the masters was only +revealed to the world when a considerable number of his paintings were +assembled at Bruges on the occasion of the exhibition of early Flemish +masters in 1902. At the time of his death the glory of Bruges, and also +of the Bruges school, was on the wane, and Antwerp had taken the +leadership in art as in political and commercial importance. Of David's +pupils in Bruges, only Isenbrandt, A. Cornelis and Ambrosius Benson +achieved importance. Among other Flemish painters Joachim Patinir and +Mabuse were to some degree influenced by him. + + Eberhard Freiherr von Bodenhausen published in 1905 a very + comprehensive monograph on _Gerard David and his School_ (Munich, F. + Bruckmann), together with a _catalogue raisonne_ of his works, which, + after careful sifting, are reduced to the number of forty-three. + (P. G. K.) + + + + +DAVID, JACQUES LOUIS (1748-1825), French painter, was born in Paris on +the 30th of April 1748. His father was killed in a duel, when the boy +was but nine years old. His education was begun at the College des +Quatre Nations, where he obtained a smattering of the classics; but, his +artistic talent being already obvious, he was soon placed by his +guardian in the studio of Francois Boucher. Boucher speedily realized +that his own erotic style did not suit the lad's genius, and recommended +him to J. M. Vien, the pioneer of the classical reaction in painting. +Under him David studied for some years, and, after several attempts to +win the _prix de Rome_, at last succeeded in 1775, with his "Loves of +Antiochus and Stratonice." Vien, who had just been appointed director of +the French Academy at Rome, carried the youth with him to that city. The +classical reaction was now in full tide; Winckelmann was writing, +Raphael Mengs painting; and the treasures of the Vatican galleries +helped to confirm David in a taste already moulded by so many kindred +influences. This severely classical spirit inspired his first important +painting, "_Date obolum Belisario_," exhibited at Paris in 1780. The +picture exactly suited the temper of the times, and was an immense +success. It was followed by others, painted on the same principles, but +with greater perfection of art: "The Grief of Andromache" (1783), "The +Oath of the Horatii" (Salon, 1785), "The Death of Socrates," "Love of +Paris and Helen" (1788), "Brutus" (1789). In the French drama an +unimaginative imitation of ancient models had long prevailed; even in +art Poussin and Le Sueur were successful by expressing a bias in the +same direction; and in the first years of the revolutionary movement the +fashion of imitating the ancients even in dress and manners went to the +most extravagant length. At this very time David returned to Paris; he +was now painter to the king, Louis XVI., who had been the purchaser of +his principal works, and his popularity was soon immense. At the +outbreak of the Revolution in 1789, David was carried away by the flood +of enthusiasm that made all the intellect of France believe in a new era +of equality and emancipation from all the ills of life. + +The success of his sketch for the picture of the "Oath of the Tennis +Court," and his pronounced republicanism, secured David's election to +the Convention in September 1792, by the _Section du Museum_, and he +quickly distinguished himself by the defence of two French artists in +Rome who had fallen into the merciless hands of the Inquisition. As, in +this matter, the behaviour of the authorities of the French Academy in +Rome had been dictated by the tradition of subservience to authority, he +used his influence to get it suppressed. In the January following his +election into the Convention his vote was given for the king's death. +Thus the man who was so greatly indebted to the Roman academy and to +Louis XVI. assisted in the destruction of both, no doubt in obedience to +a principle, like the act of Brutus in condemning his sons--a subject he +painted with all his powers. Cato and stoicism were the order of the +day. Hitherto the actor had walked the stage in modern dress. Brutus had +been applauded in red-heeled shoes and _culottes jarretees_; but Talma, +advised by David, appeared in toga and sandals before an enthusiastic +audience. At this period of his life Mademoiselle de Noailles persuaded +him to paint a sacred subject, with Christ as the hero. When the picture +was done, the Saviour was found to be another Cato. "I told you so," he +replied to the expostulations of the lady, "there is no inspiration in +Christianity now!" David's revolutionary ideas, which led to his +election to the presidency of the Convention and to the committee of +general security, inspired his pictures "Last Moments of Lepelletier de +Saint-Fargeau" and "Marat Assassinated." He also arranged the programme +of the principal republican festivals. When Napoleon rose to power David +became his enthusiastic admirer. His picture of Napoleon on horseback +pointing the way to Italy is now in Berlin. During this period he also +painted the "Rape of the Sabines" and "Leonidas at Thermopylae." +Appointed painter to the emperor, David produced the two notable +pictures "The Coronation" (of Josephine) and the "Distribution of the +Eagles." + +On the return of the Bourbons the painter was exiled with the other +remaining regicides, and retired to Brussels, where he again returned to +classical subjects: "Amor quitting Psyche," "Mars disarmed by Venus," +&c. He rejected the offer, made through Baron Humboldt, of the office of +minister of fine arts at Berlin, and remained at Brussels till his death +on the 29th of December 1825. His end was true to his whole career and +to his nationality. While dying, a print of the Leonidas, one of his +favourite subjects, was submitted to him. After vaguely looking at it a +long time, "_Il n'y a que moi qui pouvais concevoir la tete de +Leonidas_," he whispered, and died. His friends and his party thought to +carry the body back to his beloved Paris for burial, but the government +of the day arrested the procession at the frontier, an act which caused +some scandal, and furnished the occasion of a terrible song of +Beranger's. + +It is difficult for a generation which has witnessed another complete +revolution in the standards of artistic taste to realize the secret of +David's immense popularity in his own day. His style is severely +academic, his colour lacking in richness and warmth, his execution hard +and uninteresting in its very perfection. Subjects and treatment alike +are inspired by the passing fashion of an age which had deceived itself +into believing that it was living and moving in the spirit of classical +antiquity. The inevitable reaction of the romantic movement made the +masterpieces, which had filled the men of the Revolution with +enthusiasm, seem cold and lifeless to those who had been taught to +expect in art that atmosphere of mystery which in nature is everywhere +present. Yet David was a great artist, and exercised in his day and +generation a great influence. His pictures are magnificent in their +composition and their draughtsmanship; and his keen observation and +insight into character are evident, especially in his portraits, notably +of Madame Recamier, of the Conventional Gerard and of Boissy d'Anglas. + + See E. J. Delecluze, _Louis David, son ecole et son temps_ (Paris, + 1855), and _Le Peintre Louis David. Souvenirs et documents inedits_, + by J. L. Jules David, the painter's grandson (Paris, 1880). + + + + +DAVID, PIERRE JEAN (1789-1856), usually called David d'Angers, French +sculptor, was born at Angers on the 12th of March 1789. His father was a +sculptor, or rather a carver, but he had thrown aside the mallet and +taken the musket, fighting against the Chouans of La Vendee. He returned +to his trade at the end of the civil war, to find his customers gone, so +that young David was born into poverty. As the boy grew up his father +wished to force him into some more lucrative and certain way of life. At +last he succeeded in surmounting the opposition to his becoming a +sculptor, and in his eighteenth year left for Paris to study the art +upon a capital of eleven francs. After struggling against want for a +year and a half, he succeeded in taking the prize at the Ecole des +Beaux-Arts. An annuity of 600 francs (L24) was granted by the +municipality of his native town in 1809, and in 1811 David's +"Epaminondas" gained the _prix de Rome_. He spent five years in Rome, +during which his enthusiasm for the works of Canova was often excessive. + +Returning from Rome about the time of the restoration of the Bourbons, +he would not remain in the neighbourhood of the Tuileries, which swarmed +with foreign conquerors and returned royalists, and accordingly went to +London. Here Flaxman and others visited upon him the sins of David the +painter, to whom he was erroneously supposed to be related. With great +difficulty he made his way to Paris again, where a comparatively +prosperous career opened upon him. His medallions and busts were in much +request, and orders for monumental works also came to him. One of the +best of these was that of Gutenberg at Strassburg; but those he himself +valued most were the statue of Barra, a drummer boy who continued to +beat his drum till the moment of death in the war in La Vendee, and the +monument to the Greek liberator Bozzaris, consisting in a young female +figure called "Reviving Greece," of which Victor Hugo said: "It is +difficult to see anything more beautiful in the world; this statue joins +the grandeur of Pheidias to the expressive manner of Puget." David's +busts and medallions were very numerous, and among his sitters may be +found not only the illustrious men and women of France, but many others +both of England and Germany--countries which he visited professionally +in 1827 and 1829. His medallions, it is affirmed, number 500. He died on +the 4th of January 1856. David's fame rests firmly on his pediment of +the Pantheon, his monument to General Gobert in Pere Lachaise and his +marble "Philopoemen" in the Louvre. In the Musee David at Angers is an +almost complete collection of his works either in the form of copies or +in the original moulds. As an example of his benevolence of character +may be mentioned his rushing off to the sickbed of Rouget de Lisle, the +author of the "Marseillaise Hymn," modelling and carving him in marble +without delay, making a lottery of the work, and sending to the poet in +the extremity of need the seventy-two pounds which resulted from the +sale. + + See H. Jouin, _David d'Angers et ses relations litteraires_ (1890); + _Lettres de P. J. David d'Angers a Louis Dupre_ (Paris, 1891); + _Collection de portraits des contemporains d'apres les medaillons de + P. J. David_ (Paris, 1838). + + + + +DAVIDISTS, a fancy name rather than a recognized designation for three +religious sects. It has been applied (1) to the followers (if he had +any) of David of Dinant, in Belgium, the teacher or pupil of Amalric +(Amaury) of Bena, both of whom taught apparently a species of pantheism. +David's _Quaterni_, or _Quaternuli_, condemned and burnt at Paris +(1209), is a lost book, known only by references in Albertus Magnus and +Thomas Aquinas. Its author would have been burnt had he not fled. The +name has been given (2) to the followers of David George or Joris +(q.v.), and (3) to the followers of Francis David (1510-1579), the +apostle of Transylvanian unitarianism. (See SOCINUS, UNITARIANISM.) + + + + +DAVIDSON, ANDREW BRUCE (1831-1902), Scottish divine, was born in 1831 at +Kirkhill in Aberdeenshire, where his father Andrew Davidson had a farm. +The Davidsons belonged to the congregation of James Robertson +(1803-1860) of Ellon, one of the ministers of Strathbogie Presbytery, +which in the controversy which led to the disruption, resisted the +"dangerous claims of the established church to self-government." When +the disruption came the principles at stake were keenly canvassed in +Ellon, and eventually Andrew Davidson, senior, went with the Free +Church. In 1845 the boy, who had been a "herd" on the farm, went for six +months to the grammar school at Aberdeen and was there prepared for a +university bursary, which was sufficient to pay his fees, but no more. +During his four years at the university his mother supplied him +fortnightly with provisions from the farm; sometimes she walked the +whole twenty miles from Kirkhill and handed the coach fee to her son. He +graduated in 1849. At the university he had acquired a distrust of +philosophy, and found it difficult to choose between mathematical and +linguistic studies. A Free Church school having been opened in Ellon, he +became master there for three years. Here he developed special aptitude +for linguistic and philological studies. Besides Hebrew he taught +himself French, German, Dutch, Italian and Spanish. In November 1852 he +entered New College, Edinburgh. There he took the four years' +theological course, and was licensed in 1856. For two years he preached +occasionally and took vacancies. In 1858 the New College authorities +appointed him assistant to the professor of Hebrew. He taught during the +winter, and in the long vacation continued his preparation for his life +work. One year he worked in Germany under Ewald, another year he went to +Syria to study Arabic. In 1862 he published the first part of a +commentary on Job. It was never finished and deals only with one-third +of the book, but it is recognized as the first really scientific +commentary on the Old Testament in the English language. In 1863 he was +appointed by the general assembly professor of oriental languages at New +College. He was junior colleague of Dr John Duncan (Rabbi Duncan) till +1870, and then for thirty years sole professor. He was a member of the +Old Testament revision committee, and his work was recognized by several +honorary distinctions, LL.D. (Aberdeen), D.D. (Edinburgh), Litt.D. +(Cambridge). Among his students were Professors Elmslie, Skinner, Harper +of Melbourne, Walker of Belfast, George Adam Smith of Glasgow and W. +Robertson Smith. He understood it to be the first duty of an exegete to +ascertain the meaning of the writer, and he showed that this could be +done by the use of grammar and history and the historical imagination. +He supplied guidance when it was much needed as to the methods and +results of the higher criticism. Being a master of its methods, but very +cautious in accepting assertions about its results, he secured attention +early in the Free Church for scientific criticism, and yet threw the +whole weight of his learning and his caustic wit into the argument +against critical extravagance. He had thought himself into the ideas and +points of view of the Hebrews, and his work in Old Testament theology is +unrivalled. He excels as an expositor of the governing Hebrew ideas such +as holiness, righteousness, Spirit of God, Messianism. In 1897 he was +chosen moderator of the general assembly, but his health prevented his +accepting the post. He died, unmarried, on the 26th of January 1902. + + Besides the commentary on Job he published a book on the _Hebrew + Accents_, the only Scottish performance of the kind since the days of + Thomas Boston. His _Introductory Hebrew Grammar_ has been widely + adopted as a class-book in theological colleges. His _Hebrew Syntax_ + has the same admirable clearness, precision and teaching quality. His + _Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews_ is one of a series of + handbooks for Bible classes. These were followed by commentaries on + Job, Ezekiel, Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah, in the Cambridge series; + and a Bible-class primer on _The Exile and Restoration_. His lectures + on _Old Testament Prophecy_ were published after his death by + Professor J. A. Paterson. The _Theology of the Old Testament_ in the + "International Theological Library" is a posthumous volume edited by + Professor Salmond. "Isaiah" in the _Temple Bible_ was finished, but + not revised, when he died; and he also had in hand the volume on + Isaiah for the _International Critical Commentary_; to which must be + added a mass of articles contributed to _The Imperial Bible + Dictionary_, _The Encyclopaedia Britannica_, and the chief religious + reviews. Various articles in Dr Hastings' _Bible Dictionary_ were by + Davidson, especially the article "God." Two volumes of sermons, _The + Called of God_, and _Waiting upon God_, were published from MS. after + Davidson's death. + + + + +DAVIDSON, JOHN (1857-1909), British poet, playwright and novelist, son +of the Rev. Alexander Davidson, a minister of the Evangelical Union, was +born at Barrhead, Renfrewshire, Scotland, on the 11th of April 1857. +After a schooling at the Highlanders' Academy, Greenock, at the age of +thirteen he was set to work in that town, by helping in a sugar factory +laboratory and then in the town analyst's office; and at fifteen he went +back to his old school as a pupil-teacher. In 1876 he studied for a +session at Edinburgh University, and then went as a master to various +Scotch schools till 1890, varying his experiences in 1884 by being a +clerk in a Glasgow thread firm. He had married in 1885, and meanwhile +his literary inclinations had shown themselves, without attracting any +public success, in the publication of his poetical and fantastic plays, +_Bruce_ (1886), _Smith; a tragic farce_ (1888) and _Scaramouch in Naxos_ +(1889). Determining at all costs to follow his literary vocation, he +went to London in 1890, but at first had a hard struggle. There his +prose-romance _Perfervid_ (1890) was published, one of the most original +and fascinating stories of "young blood" and child adventure ever +written, but for some reason it did not catch the public; and a sort of +sequel in _The Great Men_ (1891) met no better fate. He contributed, +however, to newspapers and became known among literary journalists, and +his volume of verse _In a Music-Hall_ (1891) prepared the way for the +genuine success two years later of his _Fleet Street Eclogues_ (1893), +which sounded a new and vigorous note and at once established his +position among the younger generation of poets. He subsequently produced +several more books in prose, romantic stories like _Baptist Lake_ (1894) +and _Earl Lavender_ (1895), and an admirable piece of descriptive +landscape writing in _A Random Itinerary_ (1894); but his acceptance as +a poet gave a more emphatic impulse to his work in verse, and most +attention was given to the increasing proof of his powers shown in his +_Ballads and Songs_ (1894), _Second Series of Fleet Street Eclogues_ +(1895), _New Ballads_ (1896), _The Last Ballad, &c._ (1898), all full of +remarkably fresh and unconventional beauty. In spite of the strangely +neglected genius of this early _Perfervid_, it is accordingly as a +writer of verse rather than of prose-fiction that he occupies a leading +place, with a decided character of his own, in recent English +literature, his revival of a modernized ballad form being a considerable +achievement in itself, and his poems being packed with fine thought, +robust and masterful in expression and imagery. Meanwhile in 1896 he +produced an English verse adaptation, in _For the Crown_ (acted by +Forbes Robertson and Mrs Patrick Campbell), of Francois Coppee's drama +_Pour la couronne_, which had considerable success and was revived in +1905; and he wrote several other literary plays, remarkable none the +less for dramatic qualities,--_Godfrida_ (1898), _Self's the Man_ +(1901), _The Knight of the Maypole_ (1902) and _The Theatrocrat_ (1905), +in the last of which a tendency to be extraordinary is rather too +manifest. This tendency was not absent from his volume of _Holiday and +Other Poems_ (1906), containing many fine things, together with an +"essay on blank verse" illustrated from his own compositions, the +outspoken criticisms of a writer of admitted originality and insight, +but not devoid of eccentric volubility. But if the identification of +"eccentricity" and "greatness" by Cosmo Mortimer in Mr Davidson's own +_Perfervid_ sometimes obtrudes itself on the memory in considering his +more peculiarly "robust" and somewhat volcanic deliverances, no such +objection can detract from the genuine inspiration of his best work, in +which the true poetic afflatus is unmistakable. This is to be found in +his poems published from 1893 to 1898, five years during which his +reputation steadily and deservedly grew,--the _Fleet Street Eclogues_, +with their passionate modern criticism of life combined with their +breath of rural beauty, and such intense ballads as those "Of a Nun," +and "Of Heaven and Hell." In his ethical and didactic utterances, _The +Testament of a Vivisector_ and _The Testament of a Man Forbid_ (1901), +_The Testament of an Empire Builder_ (1902), _Mammon and his Message_ +(1908), &c., the fine quality of the verse is wedded with a certain +fervid satirical journalism of subject, less admirable than the +detachment of thought in the earlier volumes. In later years he lived at +Penzance, provided with a small Civil List pension, but otherwise badly +off, for his writings brought in very little money. On March 23rd, 1909, +he disappeared, in circumstances pointing to suicide, and six months +later his body was found in the sea. + + See an article by Filson Young on "The New Poetry," in the + _Fortnightly Review_, January 1909. + + + + +DAVIDSON, RANDALL THOMAS (1848- ), archbishop of Canterbury, son of +Henry Davidson, of Muirhouse, Edinburgh, was born in Edinburgh and +educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Oxford. He took orders in 1874 +and held a curacy at Dartford, in Kent, till 1877, when he became +resident chaplain and private secretary to Dr Tait, archbishop of +Canterbury, a position which he occupied till Dr Tait's death, and +retained for a short time (1882-1883) under his successor Dr Benson. He +married in 1878 Edith, the second daughter of Archbishop Tait, whose +_Life_ he eventually wrote (1891). In 1882 he became honorary chaplain +and sub-almoner to Queen Victoria, and in the following year was +appointed dean of Windsor, and domestic chaplain to the queen. His +advice upon state matters was constantly sought by the queen and greatly +valued. From 1891 to 1903 he was clerk of the closet, first to Queen +Victoria and afterwards to King Edward VII. He was made bishop of +Rochester in 1891, and was translated to Winchester in 1895. In 1903 he +succeeded Temple as archbishop of Canterbury. The new archbishop, +without being one of the English divines who have made notable +contributions to theological learning, already had a great reputation +for ecclesiastical statesmanship; and in subsequent years his diplomatic +abilities found ample scope in dealing not only with the difficulties +caused in the church by doctrinal questions, but pre-eminently with the +education crisis, and with the new problems arising in the enlarged +Anglican Communion. As the chief representative of the Church of England +in the House of Lords, his firmness, combined with broadmindedness, in +regard to the attitude of the nonconformists towards denominational +education, made his influence widely felt. In 1904 he visited Canada and +the United States, and was present at the triennial general convention +of the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States and Canada. In +1908 he presided at the Pan-Anglican congress held in London, and at the +Lambeth conference which followed. He had edited in 1889 _The Lambeth +Conferences_, an historical account of the conferences of 1867, 1878 and +1888, giving the official reports and resolutions, and the sermons +preached on these occasions. + + + + +DAVIDSON, SAMUEL (1807-1898), Irish biblical scholar, was born near +Ballymena in Ireland. He was educated at the Royal College of Belfast, +entered the Presbyterian ministry in 1835, and was appointed professor +of biblical criticism at his own college. Becoming a Congregationalist, +he accepted in 1842 the chair of biblical criticism, literature and +oriental languages at the Lancashire Independent College at Manchester; +but he was obliged to resign in 1857, being brought into collision with +the college authorities by the publication of an introduction to the Old +Testament entitled _The Text of the Old Testament, and the +Interpretation of the Bible_, written for a new edition of Horne's +_Introduction to the Sacred Scripture_. Its liberal tendencies caused +him to be accused of unsound views, and a most exhaustive report +prepared by the Lancashire College committee was followed by numerous +pamphlets for and against. After his resignation a fund of L3000 was +subscribed as a testimonial by his friends. In 1862 he removed to London +to become scripture examiner in London University, and he spent the rest +of his life in literary work. He died on the 1st of April 1898. Davidson +was a member of the Old Testament Revision Committee. Among his +principal works are:--_Sacred Hermeneutics Developed and Applied_ +(1843), rewritten and republished as _A Treatise on Biblical Criticism_ +(1852), _Lectures on Ecclesiastical Polity_ (1848), _An Introduction to +the New Testament_ (1848-1851), _The Hebrew Text of the Old Testament +Revised_ (1855), _Introduction to the Old Testament_ (1862), _On a Fresh +Revision of the Old Testament_ (1873), _The Canon of the Bible_ (1877), +_The Doctrine of Last Things in the New Testament_ (1883), besides +translations of the New Testament from Von Tischendorf's text, +Gieseler's _Ecclesiastical History_ (1846) and Furst's _Hebrew and +Chaldee Lexicon_. + + + + +DAVIDSON, THOMAS (1817-1885), British palaeontologist, was born in +Edinburgh on the 17th of May 1817. His parents possessed considerable +landed property in Midlothian. Educated partly in the university at +Edinburgh and partly in France, Italy and Switzerland, and early +acquiring an interest in natural history, he benefited greatly by +acquaintance with foreign languages and literature, and with men of +science in different countries. He was induced in 1837, through the +influence of Leopold von Buch, to devote his special attention to the +brachiopoda, and in course of time he became the highest authority on +this group. The great task of his life was the _Monograph of British +Fossil Brachiopoda_, published by the Palaeontographical Society +(1850-1886). This work, with supplements, comprises six quarto volumes +with more than 200 plates drawn on stone by the author. He also prepared +an exhaustive memoir on "Recent Brachiopoda," published by the Linnean +Society. He was elected F.R.S. in 1857. He was awarded in 1865 the +Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London, and in 1870 a Royal +medal by the Royal Society; and in 1882 the degree of LL.D. was +conferred upon him by the university of St Andrews. He died at Brighton +on the 14th of October 1885, bequeathing his fine collection of recent +and fossil brachiopoda to the British Museum. + + See biography with portrait and list of papers in _Geol. Mag._ for + 1871, p. 145. + + + + +DAVIES, DAVID CHARLES (1826-1891), Welsh nonconformist divine, was born +at Aberystwyth on the 11th of May 1826, his father being a merchant and +a pioneer of Welsh Methodism, his mother a niece of Thomas Charles +(q.v.) of Bala. He was educated in his native town by a noted +schoolmaster, John Evans, at Bala College, and at University College, +London, where he graduated B.A. in 1847 and M.A. (in mathematics) in +1849. He had already begun to preach, and after an evangelistic tour in +South Wales supplied the pulpit of the English presbyterian church at +Newtown for six months, and settled as pastor of the bilingual church at +Builth in 1851. He returned to this charge after a pastorate at +Liverpool (1853-1856), left it again in 1858 for Newtown, and went in +May 1859 to the Welsh church at Jewin Crescent, London. Here he remained +until 1876, and from that date till 1882, although living at Bangor for +reasons of health, had the chief oversight of the church. In 1888 he +accepted the principalship of the Calvinistic Methodist College at +Trevecca in Brecknockshire. His work here was successful, but short; he +died at Bangor on the 26th of September 1891, and was buried at +Aberystwyth. + +Though Davies stood somewhat apart from the main currents of thought +both without and within his church, and was largely unknown to English +audiences or readers, he exercised a strong influence on Welsh life and +thought in the 19th century. He was a serious student, especially of +anti-theistic positions, a good speaker, and a frequent contributor to +Welsh theological journals. Several of his articles have been collected +and published, the most noteworthy being expositions on _The First +Epistle of John_ (1889), _Ephesians_ (2 vols., 1896, 1901), _Psalms_ +(1897), _Romans_ (1902); and _The Atonement and Intercession of Christ_ +(1899, English trans. by D. E. Jenkins, 1901). + + + + +DAVIES, SIR JOHN (1569-1626), English philosophical poet, was baptized +on the 16th of April 1569, at Tisbury, Wiltshire, where his parents +lived at the manor-house of Chicksgrove. He was educated at Winchester +College, and became a commoner of Queen's College, Oxford, in 1585. In +1588 he entered the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar in 1595. In +his general onslaught on literature in 1599 the archbishop of Canterbury +ordered to be burnt the notorious and now excessively rare volume, _All +Ovid's Elegies, 3 Bookes, by C. M. Epigrams by J. D._ (Middleburgh, +1598?), which contained posthumous work by Marlowe. The epigrams by +Davies, although not devoid of wit, were coarse enough to deserve their +fate. It is probable that they were earlier in date of composition than +the charming fragment entitled _Orchestra_ (1596), written in praise of +dancing. The poet, in the person of Antinous, tries to induce Penelope +to dance by arguing that all harmonious natural processes partake of the +nature of a conscious and well-ordered dance. He closes his argument by +foreshadowing in a magic mirror the revels of the court of Cynthia +(Elizabeth). _Orchestra_ was dedicated to the author's "very friend, +Master Richard Martin," but in the next year the friends quarrelled, and +Davies was expelled from the society for having struck Martin with a +cudgel in the hall of the Middle Temple. He spent the year after his +expulsion at Oxford in the composition of his philosophical poem on the +nature of the soul and its immortality--_Nosce teipsum_ (1599). The +style of the work was entirely novel; and the stanza in which it was +written--the decasyllabic quatrain with alternate rhymes--had never been +so effectively handled. Its force, eloquence and ingenuity, the orderly +and lucid arrangement of its matter, place it among the finest of +English didactic poems. In 1599 he also published a volume of twenty-six +graceful acrostics on the words _Elisabetha Regina_, entitled _Hymns to +Astraea_. He produced no more poetry except his contributions to Francis +Davison's _Poetical Rhapsody_ (1608). These were two dialogues which had +been written as entertainments for the queen, and "Yet other Twelve +Wonders of the World," satirical epigrams on the courtier, the divine, +the maid, &c., and "A Hymn in praise of Music." Ten sonnets to Philomel +are signed J. D., and are assigned to Davies (_Poetical Rhapsody_, ed. +A. H. Bullen, 1890). In 1601 Davies was restored to his position at the +bar, after making his apologies to Martin, and in the same year he sat +for Corfe Castle in parliament. James I. received the author of _Nosce +teipsum_ with great favour, and sent him (1603) to Ireland as +solicitor-general, conferring the honour of knighthood upon him in the +same year. In 1606 he was promoted to be attorney-general for Ireland, +and created serjeant-at-arms. Of the difficulties in the way of the +prosecution of his work, and his untiring industry in overcoming them, +there is abundant evidence in his letters to Cecil preserved in the +_State Papers on Ireland_. One of his chief aims was to establish the +Protestant religion firmly in Ireland, and he took strict measures to +enforce the law for attendance at church. With the same end in view he +took an active part in the "plantation" of Ulster. In 1612 he published +his prose _Discoverie of the true causes why Ireland was never entirely +subdued untill the beginning of his Majestie's happie raigne_.[1] In the +same year he entered the Irish parliament as member for Fermanagh, and +was elected speaker after a scene of disorder in which the Catholic +nominee, Sir John Everard, who had been installed, was forcibly ejected. +In the capacity of speaker he delivered an excellent address reviewing +previous Irish parliaments. He resigned his Irish offices in 1619, and +sat in the English parliament of 1621 for Newcastle-under-Lyme. With Sir +Robert Cotton he was one of the founders of the Society of Antiquaries. +He was appointed lord chief justice in 1626, but died suddenly (December +8th) before he could enter on the office. He had married (1609) Eleanor +Touchet, daughter of George, Baron Audley. She developed eccentricity, +verging on madness, and wrote several fanatical books on prophecy. + + In 1615 Davies published at Dublin _Le Primer Discours des Cases et + Matters in Ley resolues et adjudges en les Courts del Roy en cest + Realme_ (reprinted 1628). He issued an edition of his poems in 1622. + His prose publications were mainly posthumous. _The Question + concerning Impositions, Tonnage, Poundage ..._ was printed in 1656, + and four of the tracts relating to Ireland, with an account of Davies + and his services to that country, were edited by G. Chalmers in 1786. + His works were edited by Dr A. B. Grosart (3 vols. 1869-1876), with a + full biography, for the Fuller Worthies Library. + + He is not to be confounded with another poet, JOHN DAVIES of Hereford + (1565?-1618), among whose numerous volumes of verse may be mentioned + _Mirum in modum_ (1602), _Microcosmus_ (1603), _The Holy Roode_ + (1609), _Wittes Pilgrimage_ (c. 1610), _The Scourge of Folly_ (c. + 1611), _The Muses Sacrifice_ (1612) and _Wittes Bedlam_ (1607); his + _Scourge of Folly_ contains verses addressed to many of his + contemporaries, to Shakespeare among others; he also wrote _A Select + Second Husband for Sir Thomas Overbury's Wife_ (1616), and _The + Writing Schoolmaster_ (earliest known edition, 1633); his works were + collected by Dr A. B. Grosart (2 vols., 1873) for the Chertsey + Worthies Library. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Edited by Henry Morley in his _Ireland under Elizabeth and James + I._ (1890). + + + + +DAVIES (DAVISIUS), JOHN (1679-1732), English classical scholar and +critic, was born in London on the 22nd of April 1679. He was educated at +Charterhouse and Queens' College, Cambridge, of which society he was +elected fellow (July 7th, 1701). He subsequently became rector of Fen +Ditton, prebendary of Ely, and president of his college. He died on the +7th of March 1731-1732, and was buried in the college chapel. Davies was +considered one of the best commentators on Cicero, his attention being +chiefly devoted to the philosophical works of that author. Amongst these +he edited the _Tusculanae disputationes_ (1709), _De natura deorum_ +(1718), _De divinatione_ and _De fato_ (1725), _Academica_ (1725), _De +legibus_ (1727), _De finibus_ (1728). His nearly finished notes on the +_De officiis_ he bequeathed to Dr Richard Mead, with a view to their +publication. Mead, finding himself unable to carry out the undertaking, +transferred the notes to Thomas Bentley (nephew of the famous Richard +Bentley), by whose carelessness they were burnt. Davies's editions, +which were intended to supplement those of Graevius, show great learning +and an extensive knowledge of the history and systems of philosophy, but +he allows himself too much licence in the matter of emendation. He also +edited Maximus of Tyre's _Dissertationes_ (1703); the works of Caesar +(1706); the _Octavius_ of Minucius Felix (1707); the _Epitome divinarum +institutionum_ of Lactantius (1718). Although on intimate terms with +Richard Bentley, he found himself unable to agree with the great scholar +in regard to his dispute with Trinity College. + + + + +DAVIES, SIR LOUIS HENRY (1845- ), Canadian politician and jurist, was +born in Prince Edward Island in 1845, of Huguenot descent. From 1869 to +1879 he took part in local politics, and was premier from 1876-1879; in +1882 he entered the Canadian parliament as a Liberal, and from 1896 to +1901 was minister of marine and fisheries. In the latter year he became +one of the judges of the supreme court of Canada. In 1877 he was counsel +for Great Britain before the Anglo-American fisheries arbitration at +Halifax; in 1897 he was a joint delegate to Washington with Sir Wilfrid +Laurier on the Bering Sea seal question; and in 1898-1899 a member of +the Anglo-American joint high commission at Quebec. + + + + +DAVIES, RICHARD (c. 1505-1581), Welsh bishop and scholar, was born in +North Wales, and was educated at New Inn Hall, Oxford, becoming vicar of +Burnham, Buckinghamshire, in 1550. Being a reformer he took refuge at +Geneva during the reign of Mary, returning to England and to parochial +work after the accession of Elizabeth in 1558. His connexion with Wales +was renewed almost at once; for, after serving on a commission which +visited the Welsh dioceses, he was, in January 1560, consecrated bishop +of St Asaph, whence he was translated, early in 1561, to the bishopric +of St Davids. As a bishop Davies was an earnest reformer, very +industrious, active and liberal, but not very scrupulous with regard to +the property of the church. He was a member of the council of Wales, was +very friendly with Matthew Parker, archbishop of Canterbury, and was +regarded both by Parker and by William Cecil, Lord Burghley, as a +trustworthy adviser on Welsh concerns. Another of the bishop's friends +was Walter Devereux, first earl of Essex. Assisting William Salisbury, +Davies took part in translating the New Testament into Welsh, and also +did some work on the Welsh translation of the Book of Common Prayer. He +helped to revise the "Bishops' Bible" of 1568, being himself responsible +for the book of Deuteronomy, and the second book of Samuel. He died on +the 7th of November 1581, and was buried in Abergwili church. + + + + +DAVILA, ENRICO CATERINO (1576-1631), Italian historian, was descended +from a Spanish noble family. His immediate ancestors had been constables +of the kingdom of Cyprus for the Venetian republic since 1464. But in +1570 the island was taken by the Turks; and Antonio Davila, the father +of the historian, had to leave it, despoiled of all he possessed. He +travelled into Spain and France, and finally returned to Padua, and at +Sacco on the 30th of October 1576 his youngest son, Enrico Caterino, was +born. About 1583 Antonio took this son to France, where he became a page +in the service of Catherine de' Medici, wife of King Henry II. In due +time he entered the military service, and fought through the civil wars +until the peace in 1598. He then returned to Padua, where, and +subsequently at Parma, he led a studious life until, when war broke out, +he entered the service of the republic of Venice and served with +distinction in the field. But during the whole of this active life, many +details of which are very interesting as illustrative of the life and +manners of the time, he never lost sight of a design which he had formed +at a very early period, of writing the history of those civil wars in +France in which he had borne a part, and during which he had had so many +opportunities of closely observing the leading personages and events. +This work was completed about 1630, and was offered in vain by the +author to all the publishers in Venice. At last one Tommaso Baglioni, +who had no work for his presses, undertook to print the manuscript, on +condition that he should be free to leave off if more promising work +offered itself. The printing of the _Istoria delle guerre civili di +Francia_ was, however, completed, and the success and sale of the work +were immediate and enormous. Over two hundred editions followed, of +which perhaps the best is the one published in Paris in 1644. Davila was +murdered, while on his way to take possession of the government of +Cremona for Venice in July 1631, by a ruffian, with whom some dispute +seems to have arisen concerning the furnishing of the relays of horses +ordered for his use by the Venetian government. + + The _Istoria_ was translated into French by G. Baudouin (Paris, 1642); + into Spanish by Varen de Soto (Madrid, 1651, and Antwerp, 1686); into + English by W. Aylesbury (London, 1647), and by Charles Cotterel + (London, 1666), and into Latin by Pietro Francesco Cornazzano (Rome, + 1745). The best account of the life of Davila is that by Apostolo + Zeno, prefixed to an edition of the history printed at Venice in 2 + vols. in 1733. Peter Bayle is severe on certain historical + inaccuracies of Davila, and it is true that Davila must be read with + due remembrance of the fact that he was not only a Catholic but the + especial protege of Catherine de' Medici, but it is not to be + forgotten that Bayle was as strongly Protestant. + + + + +DAVIS, ANDREW JACKSON (1826-1910), American spiritualist, was born at +Blooming Grove, Orange county, New York, on the 11th of August 1826. He +had little education, though probably much more than he and his friends +pretended. In 1843 he heard lectures in Poughkeepsie on "animal +magnetism," as the phenomena of hypnotism was then termed, and found +that he had remarkable clairvoyant powers; and in the following year he +had, he said, spiritual messages telling him of his life work. For the +next three years (1844-1847) he practised magnetic healing with much +success; and in 1847 he published _The Principles of Nature_, _Her +Divine Revelations_, and a _Voice to Mankind_, which in 1845 he had +dictated while in a trance to his "scribe," William Fishbough. He +lectured with little success and returned to writing (or "dictating") +books, publishing about thirty in all, including _The Great Harmonia_ +(1850-1861), an "encyclopaedia" in six volumes; _The Philosophy of +Special Providences_ (1850), which with its evident rehash of old +arguments against special providences and miracles would seem to show +that Davis's inspiration was literary; _The Magic Staff: an +Autobiography_ (1857), which was supplemented by _Arabula: or the Divine +Guest, Containing a New Collection of New Gospels_ (1867), the gospels +being those "according to" St Confucius, St John (G. Whittier), St +Gabriel (Derzhavin), St Octavius (Frothingham), St Gerrit (Smith), St +Emma (Hardinge), St Ralph (W. Emerson), St Seiden (J. Finney), St +Theodore (Parker), &c.; and _A Stellar Key to the Summer Land_ (1868) +and _Views of Our Heavenly Home_ (1878), each with illustrative +diagrams. Davis was much influenced by Swedenborg and by the Shakers, +who reprinted his panegyric of Ann Lee in an official _Sketch of Shakers +and Shakerism_ (1884). + + + + +DAVIS, CHARLES HOWARD (1857- ), American landscape painter, was born at +East Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 2nd of February 1857. A pupil of +the schools of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, he was sent to Paris in +1880. Having studied at the Academy Julian under Lefebvre and Boulanger, +he went to Barbizon and painted much in the forest of Fontainebleau +under the traditions of the "men of thirty." He became a full member of +the National Academy of Design in 1906, and received many awards, +including a silver medal at the Paris Exhibition of 1889. He is +represented by important works in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New +York; the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington; the Pennsylvania Academy, +Philadelphia, and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. + + + + +DAVIS, CUSHMAN KELLOGG (1838-1900), American political leader and +lawyer, was born in Henderson, New York, on the 16th of June 1838. He +was taken by his parents to Wisconsin Territory in the year of his +birth, and was educated at Carroll College, Waukesha, Wisconsin, and at +the university of Michigan, from which he graduated in 1857. After +studying law in the office of Alexander W. Randall, he was admitted to +the bar in 1860. During the Civil War, as a first lieutenant of Federal +volunteers, he served in the western campaigns of 1862 and 1863, and in +1864 was an aide to General Willis A. Gorman (1814-1876). Resigning his +commission (1864) on account of ill-health, he soon settled in St Paul, +Minnesota, where he practised law in partnership with General Gorman, +and soon became prominent both at the bar and, as a Republican, in +politics. He served in the state House of Representatives in 1867, +1868-1873 was United States district attorney for Minnesota. In +1874-1876 he was governor of the state, and from 1887 until his death +was a member of the United States Senate. In the Senate he was one of +the acknowledged leaders of his party, an able and frequent speaker and +a committee worker of great industry. In March 1897 he became chairman +of the committee on foreign relations at a time when its work was +peculiarly influential in shaping American foreign policy. His extensive +knowledge of international law, and his tact and diplomacy, enabled him +to render services of the utmost importance in connexion with the +Spanish-American War, and he was one of the peace commissioners who +negotiated and signed the treaty of Paris by which the war was +terminated. He died at St Paul on the 27th of November 1900. Few public +men in the United States since the Civil War have combined skill in +diplomacy, constructive statesmanship, talent for political +organization, oratorical ability and broad culture to such a degree as +Senator Davis. In addition to various speeches and public addresses, he +published an essay entitled _The Law of Shakespeare_ (1899). + + + + +DAVIS, HENRY WILLIAM BANKS (1833- ), English painter, received his art +training in the Royal Academy schools, where he was awarded two silver +medals. He was elected an associate of the Academy in 1873, and +academician in 1877. He made a considerable reputation as an +accomplished painter of quiet pastoral subjects and carefully elaborated +landscapes with cattle. His pictures, "Returning to the Fold" (1880), +and "Approaching Night" (1899), bought for the Chantrey Fund Collection, +are now in the National Gallery of British Art (Tate Gallery). + + + + +DAVIS, HENRY WINTER (1817-1865), American political leader, was born at +Annapolis, Maryland, on the 16th of August 1817. His father, Rev Henry +Lyon Davis (1775-1836), was a prominent Protestant Episcopal clergyman +of Maryland, and for some years president of St John's College at +Annapolis. The son graduated at Kenyon College, Gambier, Ohio, in 1837, +and from the law department of the university of Virginia in 1841, and +began the practice of law in Alexandria, Virginia, but in 1850 removed +to Baltimore, Maryland, where he won a high position at the bar. Early +becoming imbued with strong anti-slavery views, though by inheritance he +was himself a slave holder, he began political life as a Whig, but when +the Whig party disintegrated, he became an "American" or "Know-Nothing," +and as such served in the national House of Representatives from 1855 to +1861. By his independent course in Congress he won the respect and +esteem of all political groups. In the contest over the speakership at +the opening of the Thirty-Sixth Congress (1859) he voted with the +Republicans, thereby incurring a vote of censure from the Maryland +legislature, which called upon him to resign. In 1860, not being quite +ready to ally himself wholly with the Republican party, he declined to +be a candidate for the Republican nomination for the vice-presidency, +and supported the Bell and Everett ticket. He was himself defeated in +this year for re-election to Congress. In the winter of 1860-1861 he was +active on behalf of compromise measures. Finally, after President +Lincoln's election, he became a Republican, and as such was re-elected +in 1862 to the national House of Representatives, in which he at once +became one of the most radical and aggressive members, his views +commanding especial attention owing to his being one of the few +representatives from a slave state. From December 1863 to March 1865 he +was chairman of the committee on foreign affairs; as such, in 1864, he +was unwilling to leave the delicate questions concerning the French +occupation of Mexico entirely in the hands of the president and his +secretary of state, and brought in a report very hostile to France, +which was adopted in the House, but fortunately, as it proved later, was +not adopted by the Senate. With other radical Republicans Davis was a +bitter opponent of Lincoln's plan for the reconstruction of the Southern +States, and on the 15th of February 1864 he reported from committee a +bill placing the process of reconstruction under the control of +Congress, and stipulating that the Confederate States, before resuming +their former status in the Union, must disfranchise all important civil +and military officers of the Confederacy, abolish slavery, and repudiate +all debts incurred by or with the sanction of the Confederate +government. In his speech supporting this measure Davis declared that +until Congress should "recognize a government established under its +auspices, there is no government in the rebel states save the authority +of Congress." The bill--the first formal expression by Congress with +regard to Reconstruction--did not pass both Houses until the closing +hours of the session, and failed to receive the approval of the +president, who on the 8th of July issued a proclamation defining his +position. Soon afterwards, on the 5th of August 1864, Davis joined +Benjamin F. Wade of Ohio, who had piloted the bill through the Senate, +in issuing the so-called "Wade-Davis Manifesto," which violently +denounced President Lincoln for encroaching on the domain of Congress +and insinuated that the presidential policy would leave slavery +unimpaired in the reconstructed states. In a debate in Congress some +months later he declared, "When I came into Congress ten years ago this +was a government of law. I have lived to see it a government of personal +will." He was one of the radical leaders who preferred Fremont to +Lincoln in 1864, but subsequently withdrew his opposition and supported +the President for re-election. He early favoured the enlistment of +negroes, and in July 1865 publicly advocated the extension of the +suffrage to them. He was not a candidate for re-election to Congress in +1864, and died in Baltimore, Maryland, on the 30th of December 1865. +Davis was a man of scholarly tastes, an orator of unusual ability and +great eloquence, tireless and fearless in fighting political battles, +but impulsive to the verge of rashness, impractical, tactless and +autocratic. He wrote an elaborate political work entitled _The War of +Ormuzd and Ahriman in the Nineteenth Century_ (1853), in which he +combated the Southern contention that slavery was a divine institution. + + See _The Speeches of Henry Winter Davis_ (New York, 1867), to which is + prefixed an oration on his life and character delivered in the House + of Representatives by Senator J. A. J. Creswell of Maryland. + + + + +DAVIS, JEFFERSON (1808-1889), American soldier and statesman, president +of the Confederate states in the American Civil War, was born on the 3rd +of June 1808 at what is now the village of Fairview, in that part of +Christian county, Kentucky, which was later organized as Todd county. +His father, Samuel Davis (1756-1824), who served in the War of +Independence, was of Welsh, and his mother, Jane Cook, of Scotch-Irish +descent; during his infancy the family moved to Wilkinson county, +Mississippi. Jefferson Davis was educated at Transylvania University +(Lexington, Kentucky) and at the United States Military Academy at West +Point. From the latter he graduated in July 1828, and became by brevet a +second lieutenant of infantry. He was assigned for duty to Jefferson +Barracks at St Louis, and on reaching this post was ordered to Fort +Crawford, near Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin. In 1833 he took part in the +closing scenes of the Black Hawk War, was present at the capture of +Black Hawk, and was sent to Dixon, Illinois, to muster into service some +volunteers from that state. Their captain was Abraham Lincoln, and +Lieutenant Davis is said to have administered to him his first oath of +allegiance. In June 1835 he resigned from the army, married Miss Knox +Taylor, daughter of Colonel (later General) Zachary Taylor, and became a +cotton planter in Warren county, Miss. In September of the same year, +while visiting in Louisiana to escape the fever, his wife died of it and +Davis himself was dangerously ill. For the next few months he travelled +to regain his health; and in the spring of 1836 returned to his cotton +plantation, where for several years he devoted his time largely to +reading political philosophy, political economy, public law and the +English classics, and by careful management of his estate he acquired +considerable wealth. In 1843 Davis entered the field of politics as a +Democrat, and exhibited great power as a public speaker. In 1844 he was +chosen as a presidential elector on the Polk and Dallas ticket; in +February 1845 he married Miss Varina Howell (1826-1906) of Mississippi +(a granddaughter of Governor Richard Howell of New Jersey), and in the +same year became a Democratic representative in Congress. From the +beginning of his political career he advocated a strict construction of +the Federal constitution. He was an ardent admirer of John C. Calhoun, +and eventually became his successor as the leader of the South. In his +rare speeches in the House of Representatives he clearly defined his +position in regard to states rights, which he consistently held ever +afterwards. During his first session, war with Mexico was declared, and +he resigned his seat in June 1846 to take command of the first regiment +raised in his state--the Mississippi Rifles. He served in the Northern +Campaign under his father-in-law, General Taylor, and was greatly +distinguished for gallantry and soldierly conduct at Monterey and +particularly at Buena Vista, where he was severely wounded early in the +engagement, but continued in command of his regiment until victory +crowned the American arms. While still in the field he was appointed +(May 1847) by President Polk to be brigadier-general of volunteers; but +this appointment Davis declined, on the ground, as he afterwards said, +"that volunteers are militia and the Constitution reserves to the state +the appointment of all militia officers." Afterwards, Davis himself, as +president of the Confederate States, was to appoint many volunteer +officers. + +Upon his return to his home late in 1847 he was appointed to fill a +vacancy in the United States Senate, and in 1850 he was elected for a +full term of six years. He resigned in 1851, but was again elected in +1857, and continued as a member from that year until the secession of +his State in 1861. As a senator he stood in the front rank in a body +distinguished for ability; his purity of character and courteous manner, +together with his intellectual gifts, won him the esteem of all parties; +and he became more and more the leader of the Southern Democrats. He +was, however, possessed of a logical rather than an intuitive mind. In +his famous speech in the Senate on the 12th of July 1848, on the +question of establishing a government for Oregon Territory, he held that +a slave should be treated by the Federal government on the same basis as +any other property, and therefore that it was the duty of Congress to +protect the owner's right to his slave in whatever state or territory of +the Union that slave might be. In the debates on the Compromise Measures +of 1850 he took an active part, strongly opposing these measures, while +Henry Stuart Foote (1800-1880), the other Mississippi senator, was one +of their leading advocates. But although still holding to the theory +expounded in his July speech of 1848, he was now ready with the proposal +that slavery might be prohibited north of latitude 36 deg. 30' N. +provided it should not be interfered with in any territory south of that +line. He resigned from the Senate in 1851 to become a candidate of the +Democratic States-Rights party for the governorship of his state against +Foote, the candidate of the Union Democrats. In the campaign he held, in +opposition to the wishes of the more radical members of his party, that +although secession might be resorted to as a last alternative the +circumstances were not yet such as to justify it. A temporary loss of +eyesight interfered with his canvass, and he was defeated by a small +majority (1009), the campaign having been watched with the greatest +interest throughout the country. In 1853 he accepted the position of +secretary of war in the cabinet of President Pierce, and for four years +performed the duties of the office with great distinction and with +lasting benefit to the nation. He organized the engineer companies which +explored and reported on the several proposed routes for a railway +connecting the Mississippi valley with the Pacific Ocean; he effected +the enlargement of the army, and made material changes in its equipment +of arms and ammunition, utilizing the latest improvements; he made his +appointments of subordinates on their merits, regardless of party +considerations; he revised the system of tactics, perfected the signal +corps service, and enlarged the coast and frontier defences of the +country. During all this time he was on terms of intimate friendship +with the president, over whom he undoubtedly exerted a powerful, but +probably not, as is often said, a dominating influence; for instance he +is generally supposed to have won the president's support for the +Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. After the passage of this bill, Davis, who +as secretary of war had control of the United States troops in Kansas, +sympathized strongly with the pro-slavery party there. At the end of his +service in the cabinet, he was returned to the Senate. To his insistence +in 1860 that the Democratic party should support his claim to the +protection of slavery in the territories by the Federal government, the +disruption of that party was in large measure due. At the same time he +practically told the Senate that the South would secede in the event of +the election of a radical Republican to the presidency; and on the 10th +of January 1861, not long after the election of Lincoln, he argued +before that body the constitutional right of secession and declared that +the treatment of the South had become such that it could no longer +remain in the Union without being degraded. When his state had passed +the ordinance of secession he resigned his seat, and his speech on the +21st of January was a clear and able statement of the position taken by +his state, and a most pathetic farewell to his associates. + +On the 25th of January 1861 Davis was commissioned major-general of the +forces Mississippi was raising in view of the threatened conflict. On +the 9th of February he received the unanimous vote of the Provisional +Congress of the seceded states as president of the "Confederate States +of America." He was inaugurated on the 18th of February, was +subsequently, after the adoption of the permanent constitution, +regularly elected by popular vote, for a term of six years, and on the +22nd of February 1862 was again inaugurated. He had not sought the +office, preferring service in the field. His brilliant career, both as a +civilian and as a soldier, drew all eyes to him as best fitted to guide +the fortunes of the new Confederacy, and with a deep sense of the +responsibility he obeyed the call. He heartily approved of the peace +conference, which attempted to draw up a plan of reconciliation between +the two sections, but whose failure made war inevitable. Montgomery, in +Alabama, was the first Confederate capital, but after Virginia joined +her sister states, the seat of government was removed to Richmond, on +the 29th of May 1861. How Davis--of whom W. E. Gladstone, in the early +days of English sympathy with the South, said that he had "made a +nation"--bore himself in his most responsible position during the +gigantic conflict which ensued, cannot here be related in detail. (See +CONFEDERATE STATES; and AMERICAN CIVIL WAR.) In the shortest time he +organized and put into the field one of the finest bodies of soldiers of +which history has record. Factories sprang up in the South in a few +months, supplying the army with arms and munitions of war, and the +energy of the president was everywhere apparent. That he committed +serious errors, his warmest admirers will hardly deny. Unfortunately his +firmness developed into obstinacy, and exhibited itself in continued +confidence in officers who had proved to be failures, and in dislike of +some of his ablest generals. He committed the great mistake, too, of +directing the movements of distant armies from the seat of government, +though those armies were under able generals. This naturally caused +great dissatisfaction, and more than once resulted in irreparable +disaster. Moreover, he was not, like Lincoln, a great manager of men; he +often acted without tact; he was charged with being domineering and +autocratic, and at various times he was seriously hampered by the +meddling of the Confederate Congress and the opposition of such men as +the vice-president, A. H. Stephens, Governor Joseph E. Brown of Georgia, +and Governor Zebulon Vance of North Carolina. + +During the winter of 1864-1865 the resources of the government showed +such exhaustion that it was apparent that the end would come with the +opening of the spring campaign. This was clearly stated in the reports +of the heads of departments and of General Lee. President Davis, +however, acted as if he was assured of ultimate success. He sent Duncan +F. Kenner as special commissioner to the courts of England and France to +obtain recognition of the Confederacy on condition of the abolition of +slavery. When a conference was held in Hampton Roads on the 3rd of +February 1865 between President Lincoln and Secretary Seward on the one +side, and A. H. Stephens, R. M. T. Hunter, and Judge James A. Campbell, +representing President Davis, on the other, he instructed his +representatives to insist on the recognition of the Confederacy as a +condition to any arrangement for the termination of the war. This +defeated the object of the conference, and deprived the South of terms +which would have been more beneficial than those imposed by the +conqueror when the end came a few weeks later. The last days of the +Confederate Congress were spent in recriminations between that body and +President Davis, and the popularity with which he commenced his +administration had almost entirely vanished. In January 1865 the +Congress proposed to supersede the president and make General Lee +dictator,--a suggestion, however, to which the Confederate commander +refused to listen. + +After the surrender of the armies of Lee and Johnston in April 1865, +President Davis attempted to make his way, through Georgia, across the +Mississippi, in the vain hope of continuing the war with the forces of +Generals Smith and Magruder. He was taken prisoner on the 10th of May by +Federal troops near Irwinville, Irwin county, Georgia, and was brought +back to Old Point, Virginia, in order to be confined in prison at +Fortress Monroe. In prison he was chained and treated with great +severity. He was indicted for treason by a Virginia grand jury, +persistent efforts were made to connect him with the assassination of +President Lincoln, he was unjustly charged with having deliberately and +wilfully caused the sufferings and deaths of Union prisoners at +Andersonville and for two years he was denied trial or bail. Such +treatment aroused the sympathy of the Southern people, who regarded him +as a martyr to their cause, and in a great measure restored him to that +place in their esteem which by the close of the war he had lost. It also +aroused a general feeling in the North, and when finally he was admitted +to bail (in May 1867), Horace Greeley, Gerrit Smith, and others in that +section who had been his political opponents, became his sureties. +Charles O'Conor, a leader of the New York bar, volunteered to act as his +counsel. With him was associated Robert Ould of Richmond, a lawyer of +great ability. They moved to quash the indictment on which he was +brought to trial. Chief Justice Chase and Judge John C. Underwood +constituted the United States circuit court sitting for Virginia before +which the case was brought in December 1868; the court was divided, the +chief justice voting to sustain the motion and Underwood to overrule it. +The matter was thereupon certified to the Supreme Court of the United +States, but as the general amnesty of the 25th of December 1868 included +Davis, an order of _nolle prosequi_ was entered in February 1869, and +Davis and his bondsmen were thereupon released. After his release he +visited Europe, and spent the last years of his life in retirement, +during which he wrote his _Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government_ +(2 vols., 1881). In these volumes he attempted to vindicate his +administration, and in so doing he attacked the records of those +generals he disliked. He also wrote a _Short History of the Confederate +States of America_ (1890). He died on the 6th of December 1889, at New +Orleans, leaving a widow and two daughters--Margaret, who married J. A. +Hayes in 1877, and Varina Anne (1864-1898), better known as "Winnie" +Davis, the "daughter of the Confederacy," who was the author of several +books, including _A Sketch of the Life of Robert Emmet_ (1888), a novel, +_The Veiled Doctor_ (1895), and _A Romance of Summer Seas_ (1898). A +monument to her, designed by George J. Zolnay, and erected by the +Daughters of the Confederacy, was unveiled in Hollywood cemetery, +Richmond, Va., on the 9th of November 1899. Mrs Davis, who exerted a +marked influence over her husband, survived him many years, passed the +last years of her life in New York City, and died there on the 16th of +October 1906. + + AUTHORITIES.--Several biographies and memoirs of Davis have been + published, of which the best are: _Jefferson Davis, Ex-President of + the Confederate States_ (2 vols., New York, 1890), by his widow; F. H. + Alfriend's _Life of Jefferson Davis_ (Cincinnati, 1868), which + defended him from the charges of incompetence and despotism brought + against him; E. A. Pollard's _Life of Jefferson Davis, with a Secret + History of the Southern Confederacy_ (Philadelphia, 1869), a somewhat + partisan arraignment by a prominent Southern journalist; and W. E. + Dodd's _Jefferson Davis_ (Philadelphia, 1907), which embodies the + results of recent historical research. _The Prison Life of Jefferson + Davis_ (New York, 1866) by John J. Craven (d. 1893), a Federal army + surgeon who was Davis's physician at Fortress Monroe, was long + popular; it gives a vivid and sympathetic picture of Mr Davis as a + prisoner, but its authenticity and accuracy have been questioned. + (W. W. H.*; N. D. M.) + + + + +DAVIS (or DAVYS), JOHN (1550?-1605), one of the chief English navigators +and explorers under Elizabeth, especially in Polar regions, was born at +Sandridge near Dartmouth about 1550. From a boy he was a sailor, and +early made several voyages with Adrian Gilbert; both the Gilbert and +Raleigh families were Devonians of his own neighbourhood, and through +life he seems to have profited by their friendship. In January 1583 he +appears to have broached his design of a north-west passage to +Walsingham and John Dee; various consultations followed; and in 1585 he +started on his first north-western expedition. On this he began by +striking the ice-bound east shore of Greenland, which he followed south +to Cape Farewell; thence he turned north once more and coasted the west +Greenland littoral some way, till, finding the sea free from ice, he +shaped a "course for China" by the north-west. In 66 deg. N., however, +he fell in with Baffin Land, and though he pushed some way up Cumberland +Sound, and professed to recognize in this the "hoped strait," he now +turned back (end of August). He tried again in 1586 and 1587; in the +last voyage he pushed through the straits still named after him into +Baffin's Bay, coasting west Greenland to 73 deg. N., almost to +Upernavik, and thence making a last effort to find a passage westward +along the north of America. Many points in Arctic latitudes (Cumberland +Sound, Cape Walsingham, Exeter Sound, &c.) retain names given them by +Davis, who ranks with Baffin and Hudson as the greatest of early Arctic +explorers and, like Frobisher, narrowly missed the discovery of Hudson's +Bay via Hudson's Straits (the "Furious Overfall" of Davis). In 1588 he +seems to have commanded the "Black Dog" against the Spanish Armada; in +1589 he joined the earl of Cumberland off the Azores; and in 1591 he +accompanied Thomas Cavendish on his last voyage, with the special +purpose, as he tells us, of searching "that north-west discovery upon +the back parts of America." After the rest of Cavendish's expedition +returned unsuccessful, he continued to attempt on his own account the +passage of the Strait of Magellan; though defeated here by foul weather, +he discovered the Falkland Islands. The passage home was extremely +disastrous, and he brought back only fourteen of his seventy-six men. +After his return in 1593 he published a valuable treatise on practical +navigation in _The Seaman's Secrets_ (1594), and a more theoretical work +in _The World's Hydrographical Description_ (1595). His invention of +back-staff and double quadrant (called a "Davis Quadrant" after him) +held the field among English seamen till long after Hadley's reflecting +quadrant had been introduced. In 1596-1597 Davis seems to have sailed +with Raleigh (as master of Sir Walter's own ship) to Cadiz and the +Azores; and in 1598-1600 he accompanied a Dutch expedition to the East +Indies as pilot, sailing from Flushing, returning to Middleburg, and +narrowly escaping destruction from treachery at Achin in Sumatra. In +1601-1603 he accompanied Sir James Lancaster as first pilot on his +voyage in the service of the East India Company; and in December 1604 he +sailed again for the same destination as pilot to Sir Edward Michelborne +(or Michelbourn). On this journey he was killed by Japanese pirates off +Bintang near Sumatra. + + _A Traverse Book made by John Davis in 1587_, an _Account of his + Second Voyage in 1586_, and a _Report of Master John Davis of his + three voyages made for the Discovery of the North West Passage_ were + printed in Hakluyt's collection. Davis himself published _The Seaman's + Secrets, divided into two Parts_ (London, 1594), _The World's + Hydrographical Description ... whereby appears that there is a short + and speedy Passage into the South Seas, to China, Molucca, Philippina, + and India, by Northerly Navigation_ (London, 1595). Various references + to Davis are in the _Calendars of State Papers, Domestic_ (1591-1594), + and _East Indies_ (1513-1616). See also _Voyages and Works of John + Davis_, edited by A. H. Markham (London, Hakluyt Society, 1880), and + the article "John Davys" by Sir J. K. Laughton in the _Dictionary of + National Biography_. (C. R. B.) + + + + +DAVIS, THOMAS OSBORNE (1814-1845), Irish poet and journalist, was born +at Mallow, Co. Cork, on the 14th of October 1814. His father, James +Thomas Davis, a surgeon in the royal artillery, who died in the month of +his son's birth, belonged to an English family of Welsh extraction, and +his mother, Mary Atkins, belonged to a Protestant Anglo-Irish family. +Davis graduated B.A. at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1836, and was called +to the bar two years later. Brought up in an English and Tory circle, he +was led to adopt nationalist views by the study of Irish history, a +complicated subject in which text-books and the ordinary guides to +knowledge were then lacking. In 1840 he made a speech appealing to Irish +sentiment before the college historical society, which had been +reorganized in 1839. With a view to indoctrinating the Irish people with +the idea of nationality he joined John Blake Dillon in editing the +_Dublin Morning Register_. The proprietor very soon dismissed him, and +Davis saw that his propaganda would be ineffective if he continued to +stand outside the national organization. He therefore announced himself +a follower of Daniel O'Connell, and became an energetic worker (1841) on +the committee of the repeal association. He helped Dillon and Charles +Gavan Duffy to found the weekly newspaper, _The Nation_, the first +number of which appeared on the 15th of October 1842. The paper was +chiefly written by these three promoters, and its concentrated purpose +and vigorous writing soon attracted attention. Davis, who had never +written verse, was induced to attempt it for the new undertaking. The +"Lament of Owen Roe O'Neill" was printed in the sixth number, and was +followed by a series of lyrics that take a high place in Irish national +poetry--"The Battle of Fontenoy," "The Geraldines," "Maire Bhan a Stoir" +and many others. Davis contemplated a history of Ireland, an edition of +the speeches of Irish orators, one volume of which appeared, and a life +of Wolfe Tone. These projects remained incomplete, but Davis's +determination and continuous zeal made their mark on his party. +Differences arose between O'Connell and the young writers of _The +Nation_, and as time went on became more pronounced. Davis was accused +of being anti-Catholic, and was systematically attacked by O'Connell's +followers. But he differed, said Sir Charles Gavan Duffy, from earlier +and later Irish tribunes, "by a perfectly genuine desire to remain +unknown, and reap neither recognition nor reward for his work." His +early death from scarlet fever (September 15th, 1845) deprived "Young +Ireland" of its most striking personality. + + His _Poems_ and his _Literary and Historical Essays_ were collected in + 1846. There is an edition of his prose writings (1889) in the _Camelot + Classics_. See the monograph on _Thomas Davis_ by Sir Charles Gavan + Duffy (1890, abridged ed. 1896), and the same writer's _Young Ireland_ + (revised edition, 1896). + + + + +DAVISON, WILLIAM (c. 1541-1608), secretary to Queen Elizabeth, was of +Scottish descent, and in 1566 acted as secretary to Henry Killigrew (d. +1603), when he was sent into Scotland by Elizabeth on a mission to Mary, +queen of Scots. Remaining in that country for about ten years, Davison +then went twice to the Netherlands on diplomatic business, returning to +England in 1586 to defend the hasty conduct of his friend, Robert +Dudley, earl of Leicester. In the same year he became member of +parliament for Knaresborough, a privy councillor, and assistant to +Elizabeth's secretary, Thomas Walsingham; but he soon appears to have +acted rather as the colleague than the subordinate of Walsingham. He was +a member of the commission appointed to try Mary, queen of Scots, +although he took no part in its proceedings. When sentence was passed +upon Mary the warrant for her execution was entrusted to Davison, who, +after some delay, obtained the queen's signature. On this occasion, and +also in subsequent interviews with her secretary, Elizabeth suggested +that Mary should be executed in some more secret fashion, and her +conversation afforded ample proof that she disliked to take upon herself +any responsibility for the death of her rival. Meanwhile, the privy +council having been summoned by Lord Burghley, it was decided to carry +out the sentence at once, and Mary was beheaded on the 8th of February +1587. When the news of the execution reached Elizabeth she was extremely +indignant, and her wrath was chiefly directed against Davison, who, she +asserted, had disobeyed her instructions not to part with the warrant. +The secretary was arrested and thrown into prison, but, although he +defended himself vigorously, he did not say anything about the queen's +wish to get rid of Mary by assassination. Charged before the Star +Chamber with misprision and contempt, he was acquitted of evil +intention, but was sentenced to pay a fine of 10,000 marks, and to +imprisonment during the queen's pleasure; but owing to the exertions of +several influential men he was released in 1589. The queen, however, +refused to employ him again in her service, and he retired to Stepney, +where he died in December 1608. Davison appears to have been an +industrious and outspoken man, and was undoubtedly made the scapegoat +for the queen's pusillanimous conduct. By his wife, Catherine Spelman, +he had a family of four sons and two daughters. Two of his sons, Francis +and Walter, obtained some celebrity as poets. + + Many state papers written by him, and many of his letters, are extant + in various collections of manuscripts. See Sir N. H. Nicolas, _Life of + W. Davison_ (London, 1823); J. A. Froude, _History of England_ + (London, 1881 fol.); _Calendar of State Papers 1580-1609_; and + _Correspondence of Leicester during his Government of the Low + Countries_, edited by J. Bruce (London, 1844). + + + + +DAVIS STRAIT, the broad strait which separates Greenland from North +America, and connects Baffin Bay with the open Atlantic. At its +narrowest point, which occurs just where the Arctic Circle crosses it, +it is nearly 200 m. wide. This part is also the shallowest, a sounding +of 112 fathoms being found in the centre, whereas the depth increases +rapidly both to north and to south. Along the western shore (Baffin +Land) a cold current passes southward; but along the east there is a +warm northward stream, and there are a few Danish settlements on the +Greenland coast. The strait takes its name from the explorer John Davis. + + + + +DAVITT, MICHAEL (1846-1906), Irish Nationalist politician, son of a +peasant farmer in Co. Mayo, was born on the 25th of March 1846. His +father was evicted for non-payment of rent in 1851, and migrated to +Lancashire, where at the age of ten the boy began work in a cotton mill +at Haslingden. In 1857 he lost his right arm by a machinery accident, +and he had to get employment as a newsboy and printer's "devil." He +drifted into the ranks of the Fenian brotherhood in 1865, and in 1870 he +was arrested for treason-felony in arranging for sending fire-arms into +Ireland, and was sentenced to fifteen years' penal servitude. After +seven years he was released on ticket of leave. He at once rejoined the +"Irish Republican Brotherhood," and went to the United States, where his +mother, herself of American birth, had settled with the rest of the +family, in order to concert plans with the Fenian leaders there. +Returning to Ireland he helped C. S. Parnell to start the Land League in +1879, and his violent speeches resulted in his re-arrest and consignment +to Portland by Sir William Harcourt, then home secretary. He was +released in 1882, but was again prosecuted for seditious speeches in +1883, and suffered three months' imprisonment. He had been elected to +parliament for Meath as a Nationalist in 1882, but being a convict was +disqualified to sit. He was included as one of the respondents before +the Parnell Commission (1888-1890) and spoke for five days in his own +defence, but his prominent association with the revolutionary Irish +schemes was fully established. (See PARNELL.) He took the +anti-Parnellite side in 1890, and in 1892 was elected to parliament for +North Meath, but was unseated on petition. He was then returned for +North-East Cork, but had to vacate his seat through bankruptcy, caused +by the costs in the North Meath petition. In 1895 he was elected for +West Mayo, but retired before the dissolution in 1900. He died on the +31st of May 1906, in Dublin. A sincere but embittered Nationalist, +anti-English to the backbone, anti-clerical, and sceptical as to the +value of the purely parliamentary agitation for Home Rule, Davitt was a +notable representative of the survival of the Irish "physical force" +party, and a strong link with the extremists in America. In later years +his Socialistic Radicalism connected him closely with the Labour party. +He wrote constantly in American and colonial journals, and published +some books, always with the strongest bias against English methods; but +his force of character earned him at least the respect of those who +could make calm allowance for an open enemy of the established order, +and a higher meed of admiration from those who sympathized with his +objects or were not in a position to be threatened by them. + + + + +DAVOS (Romonsch _Tavau_, a name variously explained as meaning a sheep +pasture or simply "behind"), a mountain valley in the Swiss canton of +the Grisons, lying east of Coire (whence it is 40 m. distant by rail), +and north-west of the Lower Engadine (accessible at Sus in 18 m. by +road). It contains two main villages, 2 m. from each other, Dorfli and +Platz (the chief hamlet), which are 5015 ft. above the sea-level, and +had a population in 1900 of 8089, a figure exceeded in the Grisons only +by the capital Coire. Of the population 5391 were Protestants, 2564 +Romanists, and 81 Jews; while 6048 were German-speaking and 486 +Romonsch-speaking. In 1860 the population was only 1705, rising to 2002 +in 1870, to 2865 in 1880, to 3891 in 1888, and to 8089 in 1890. This +steady increase is due to the fact that the valley is now much +frequented in winter by consumptive patients, as its position, sheltered +from cold winds and exposed to brilliant sunshine in the daytime, has a +most beneficial effect on invalids in the first stages of that terrible +disease. A local doctor, by name Spengler, first noticed this fact about +1865, and the valley soon became famous. It is now provided with +excellent hotels, sanatoria, &c., but as lately as 1860 there was only +one inn there, housed in the 16th-century _Rathhaus_ (town hall), which +is still adorned by the heads of wolves shot in the neighbourhood. At +the north end of the valley is the fine lake of Davos, used for skating +in the winter, while from Platz the splendidly engineered +_Landwasserstrasse_ leads (20 m.) down to the Alvaneubad station on the +Albula railway from Coire to the Engadine. + +We first hear of Tavaus or Tavauns in 1160 and 1213, as a mountain +pasture or "alp." It was then in the hands of a Romonsch-speaking +population, as is shown by many surviving field names. But, some time +between 1260 and 1282, a colony of German-speaking persons from the +Upper Valais (first mentioned in 1289) was planted there by its lord, +Walter von Vaz, so that it has long been a Teutonic island in the midst +of a Romonsch-speaking population. Historically it is associated with +the Prattigau or Landquart valley to the north, as it was the most +important village of the region, and in 1436 became the capital of the +League of the Ten Jurisdictions. (See GRISONS.) It formerly contained +many iron mines, and belonged from 1477 to 1649 to the Austrian +Habsburgs. In 1779 Davos was visited and described by Archdeacon W. +Coxe. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +DAVOUT, LOUIS NICOLAS, duke of Auerstadt and prince of Eckmuhl +(1770-1823), marshal of France, was born at Annoux (Yonne) on the 10th +of May 1770. His name is also, less correctly, spelt Davout and Davoust. +He entered the French army as a sub-lieutenant in 1788, and on the +outbreak of the Revolution he embraced its principles. He was _chef de +bataillon_ in a volunteer corps in the campaign of 1792, and +distinguished himself at Neerwinden in the following spring. He had just +been promoted general of brigade when he was removed from the active +list as being of noble birth. He served, however, in the campaigns of +1794-1797 on the Rhine, and accompanied Desaix in the Egyptian +expedition of Bonaparte. On his return he took part in the campaign of +Marengo under Napoleon, who placed the greatest confidence in his +abilities, made him a general of division soon after Marengo, and in +1801 gave him a command in the consular guard. At the accession of +Napoleon as emperor, Davout was one of the generals who were created +marshals of France. As commander of the III. corps of the _Grande Armee_ +Davout rendered the greatest services. At Austerlitz, after a forced +march of forty-eight hours, the III. corps bore the brunt of the allies' +attack. In the Jena campaign Davout with a single corps fought and won +the brilliant victory of Auerstadt against the main Prussian army. (See +NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.) He took part, and added to his renown, in the +campaign of Eylau and Friedland. Napoleon left him as governor-general +in the grand-duchy of Warsaw when the treaty of Tilsit put an end to the +war (1807), and in 1808 created him duke of Auerstadt. In the war of +1809 Davout took a brilliant part in the actions which culminated in the +victory of Eckmuhl, and had an important share in the battle of Wagram +(q.v.). He was created prince of Eckmuhl about this time. It was Davout +who was entrusted by Napoleon with the task of organizing the "corps of +observation of the Elbe," which was in reality the gigantic army with +which the emperor invaded Russia in 1812. In this Davout commanded the +I. corps, over 70,000 strong, and defeated the Russians at Mohilev +before he joined the main army, with which he continued throughout the +campaign and the retreat from Moscow. In 1813 he commanded the Hamburg +military district, and defended Hamburg, a city ill fortified and +provisioned, and full of disaffection, through a long siege, only +surrendering the place on the direct order of Louis XVIII. after the +fall of Napoleon in 1814. + +Davout's military character was on this, as on many other occasions, +interpreted as cruel and rapacious, and he had to defend himself against +many attacks upon his conduct at Hamburg. He was a stern disciplinarian, +almost the only one of the marshals who exacted rigid and precise +obedience from his troops, and consequently his corps was more +trustworthy and exact in the performance of its duty than any other. +Thus, in the earlier days of the _Grande Armee_, it was always the III. +corps which was entrusted with the most difficult part of the work in +hand. The same criterion is to be applied to his conduct of civil +affairs. His rapacity was in reality Napoleon's, for he gave the same +undeviating obedience to superior orders which he enforced in his own +subordinates. As for his military talents, he was admitted by his +contemporaries and by later judgment to be one of the ablest, perhaps +the ablest, of all Napoleon's marshals. On the first restoration he +retired into private life, openly displaying his hostility to the +Bourbons, and when Napoleon returned from Elba; Davout at once joined +him. Appointed minister of war, he reorganized the French army as far as +the limited time available permitted, and he was so far indispensable to +the war department that Napoleon kept him at Paris during the Waterloo +campaign. To what degree his skill and bravery would have altered the +fortunes of the campaign of 1815 can only be surmised, but it has been +made a ground of criticism against Napoleon that he did not avail +himself in the field of the services of the best general he then +possessed. Davout directed the gallant, but hopeless, defence of Paris +after Waterloo, and was deprived of his marshalate and his titles at the +second restoration. When some of his subordinate generals were +proscribed, he demanded to be held responsible for their acts, as +executed under his orders, and he endeavoured to prevent the +condemnation of Ney. After a time the hostility of the Bourbons towards +Davout died away, and he was reconciled to the monarchy. In 1817 his +rank and titles were restored, and in 1819 he became a member of the +chamber of peers. He died at Paris on the 1st of June 1823. + + See the marquise de Blocqueville, _Le Marechal Davout raconte par les + siens et lui-meme_ (Paris, 1870-1880, 1887); Chenier, _Davout, duc + d'Auerstadt_ (Paris, 1866). + + + + +DAVY, SIR HUMPHRY, Bart. (1778-1829), English chemist, was born on the +17th of December 1778 at or near Penzance in Cornwall. During his school +days at the grammar schools of Penzance and Truro he showed few signs of +a taste for scientific pursuits or indeed of any special zeal for +knowledge or of ability beyond a certain skill in making verse +translations from the classics and in story-telling. But when in 1794 +his father, Robert Davy, died, leaving a widow and five children in +embarrassed circumstances, he awoke to his responsibilities as the +eldest son, and becoming apprentice to a surgeon-apothecary at Penzance +set to work on a systematic and remarkably wide course of +self-instruction which he mapped out for himself in preparation for a +career in medicine. Beginning with metaphysics and ethics and passing on +to mathematics, he turned to chemistry at the end of 1797, and within a +few months of reading Nicholson's and Lavoisier's treatises on that +science had produced a new theory of light and heat. About the same time +he made the acquaintance of two men of scientific attainments--Gregory +Watt (1777-1804), a son of James Watt, and Davies Giddy, afterwards +Gilbert (1767-1839), who was president of the Royal Society from 1827 to +1831. By the latter he was recommended to Dr Thomas Beddoes, who was in +1798 establishing his Medical Pneumatic Institution at Bristol for +investigating the medicinal properties of various gases. Here Davy, +released from his indentures, was installed as superintendent towards +the end of 1798. Early next year two papers from his pen were published +in Beddoes' _West Country Contributions_--one "On Heat, Light and the +Combinations of Light, with a new Theory of Respiration and Observations +on the Chemistry of Life," and the other "On the Generation of +Phosoxygen (Oxygen gas) and the Causes of the Colours of Organic +Beings." These contain an account of the well-known experiment in which +he sought to establish the immateriality of heat by showing its +generation through the friction of two pieces of ice in an exhausted +vessel, and further attempt to prove that light is "matter of a peculiar +kind," and that oxygen gas, being a compound of this matter with a +simple substance, would more properly be termed phosoxygen. Founded on +faulty experiments and reasoning, the views he expressed were either +ignored or ridiculed; and it was long before he bitterly regretted the +temerity with which he had published his hasty generalizations. + +One of his first discoveries at the Pneumatic Institution on the 9th of +April 1799 was that pure nitrous oxide (laughing gas) is perfectly +respirable, and he narrates that on the next day he became "absolutely +intoxicated" through breathing sixteen quarts of it for "near seven +minutes." This discovery brought both him and the Pneumatic Institution +into prominence. The gas itself was inhaled by Southey and Coleridge +among other distinguished people, and promised to become fashionable, +while further research yielded Davy material for his _Researches, +Chemical and Philosophical, chiefly concerning Nitrous Oxide_, published +in 1800, which secured his reputation as a chemist. Soon afterwards, +Count Rumford, requiring a lecturer on chemistry for the recently +established Royal Institution in London, opened negotiations with him, +and on the 16th of February 1801 he was engaged as assistant lecturer in +chemistry and director of the laboratory. Ten weeks later, having "given +satisfactory proofs of his talents" in a course of lectures on +galvanism, he was appointed lecturer, and his promotion to be professor +followed on the 31st of May 1802. One of the first tasks imposed on him +by the managers was the delivery of a course of lectures on the chemical +principles of tanning, and he was given leave of absence for July, +August and September 1801 in order to acquaint himself practically with +the subject. The main facts he discovered from his experiments in this +connexion were described before the Royal Society in 1803. In 1802 the +board of agriculture requested him to direct his attention to +agricultural subjects; and in 1803, with the acquiescence of the Royal +Institution, he gave his first course of lectures on agricultural +chemistry and continued them for ten successive years, ultimately +publishing their substance as _Elements of Agricultural Chemistry_ in +1813. But his chief interest at the Royal Institution was with +electro-chemistry. Galvanic phenomena had already engaged his attention +before he left Bristol, but in London he had at his disposal a large +battery which gave him much greater opportunities. His first +communication to the Royal Society, read in June 1801, related to +galvanic combinations formed with single metallic plates and fluids, and +showed that an electric cell might be constructed with a single metal +and two fluids, provided one of the fluids was capable of oxidizing one +surface of the metal; previous piles had consisted of two different +metals, or of one plate of metal and the other of charcoal, with an +interposed fluid. Five years later he delivered before the Royal Society +his first Bakerian lecture, "On some Chemical Agencies of Electricity," +which J. J. Berzelius described as one of the most remarkable memoirs in +the history of chemical theory. He summed up his results in the general +statement that "hydrogen, the alkaline substances, the metals and +certain metallic oxides are attracted by negatively electrified metallic +surfaces, and repelled by positively electrified metallic surfaces; and +contrariwise, that oxygen and acid substances are attracted by +positively electrified metallic surfaces and repelled by negatively +electrified metallic surfaces; and these attractive and repulsive forces +are sufficiently energetic to destroy or suspend the usual operation of +elective affinity." He also sketched a theory of chemical affinity on +the facts he had discovered, and concluded by suggesting that the +electric decomposition of neutral salts might in some cases admit of +economical applications and lead to the isolation of the true elements +of bodies. A year after this paper, which gained him from the French +Institute the medal offered by Napoleon for the best experiment made +each year on galvanism, he described in his second Bakerian lecture the +electrolytic preparation of potassium and sodium, effected in October +1807 by the aid of his battery. According to his cousin, Edmund Davy,[1] +then his laboratory assistant, he was so delighted with this achievement +that he danced about the room in ecstasy. Four days after reading his +lecture his health broke down, and severe illness kept him from his +professional duties until March 1808. As soon as he was able to work +again he attempted to obtain the metals of the alkaline earths by the +same methods as he had used for those of the fixed alkalis, but they +eluded his efforts and he only succeeded in preparing them as amalgams +with mercury, by a process due to Berzelius. His attempts to decompose +"alumine, silica, zircone and glucine" were still less fortunate. At the +end of 1808 he read his third Bakerian lecture, one of the longest of +his papers but not one of the best. In it he disproved the idea advanced +by Gay Lussac that potassium was a compound of hydrogen, not an element; +but on the other hand he cast doubts on the elementary character of +phosphorus, sulphur and carbon, though on this point he afterwards +corrected himself. He also described the preparation of boron, for which +at first he proposed the name boracium, on the impression that it was a +metal. About this time a voluntary subscription among the members of the +Royal Institution put him in possession of a new galvanic battery of +2000 double plates, with a surface equal to 128,000 sq. in., to replace +the old one, which had become unserviceable. His fourth Bakerian +lecture, in November 1809, gave further proofs of the elementary nature +of potassium, and described the properties of telluretted hydrogen. Next +year, in a paper read in July and in his fifth Bakerian lecture in +November, he argued that oxymuriatic acid, contrary to his previous +belief, was a simple body, and proposed for it the name "chlorine." + +Davy's reputation was now at its zenith. As a lecturer he could command +an audience of little less than 1000 in the theatre of the Royal +Institution, and his fame had spread far outside London. In 1810, at the +invitation of the Dublin Society, he gave a course of lectures on +electro-chemical science, and in the following year he again lectured in +Dublin, on chemistry and geology, receiving large fees at both visits. +During his second visit Trinity College conferred upon him the honorary +degree of LL.D., the only university distinction he ever received. On +the 8th of April 1812 he was knighted by the prince regent; on the 9th +he gave his farewell lecture as professor of chemistry at the Royal +Institution; and on the 11th he was married to Mrs Apreece, daughter and +heiress of Charles Kerr of Kelso, and a distant connexion of Sir Walter +Scott. A few months after his marriage he published the first and only +volume of his _Elements of Chemical Philosophy_, with a dedication to +his wife, and was also re-elected professor of chemistry at the Royal +Institution, though he would not pledge himself to deliver lectures, +explaining that he wished to be free from the routine of lecturing in +order to have more time for original work. Towards the end of the year +he began to investigate chloride of nitrogen, which had just been +discovered by P. L. Dulong, but was obliged to suspend his inquiries +during the winter on account of injury to his eye caused by an explosion +of that substance. In the spring of 1813 he was engaged on the chemistry +of fluorine, and though he failed to isolate the element, he reached +accurate conclusions regarding its nature and properties. In October he +started with his wife for a continental tour, and with them, as +"assistant in experiments and writing," went Michael Faraday, who in the +previous March had been engaged as assistant in the Royal Institution +laboratory. Having obtained permission from the French emperor to travel +in France, he went first to Paris, where during his two months' stay +every honour was accorded him, including election as a corresponding +member of the first class of the Institute. He does not, however, seem +to have reciprocated the courtesy of his French hosts, but gave offence +by the brusqueness of his manner, though his supercilious bearing, +according to his biographer, Dr Paris, was to be ascribed less to any +conscious superiority than to an "ungraceful timidity which he could +never conquer." Nor was his action in regard to iodine calculated to +conciliate. That substance, recently discovered in Paris, was attracting +the attention of French chemists when he stepped in and, after a short +examination with his portable chemical laboratory, detected its +resemblance to chlorine and pronounced it an "undecompounded body." +Towards the end of December he left for Italy. At Genoa he investigated +the electricity of the torpedo-fish, and at Florence, by the aid of the +great burning-glass in the Accademia del Cimento, he effected the +combustion of the diamond in oxygen and decided that, beyond containing +a little hydrogen, it consisted of pure carbon. Then he went to Rome and +Naples and visited Vesuvius and Pompeii, called on Volta at Milan, spent +the summer in Geneva, and returning to Rome occupied the winter with an +inquiry into the composition of ancient colours. + +A few months after his return, through Germany, to London in 1815, he +was induced to take up the question of constructing a miner's safety +lamp. Experiments with samples of fire-damp sent from Newcastle soon +taught him that "explosive mixtures of mine-damp will not pass through +small apertures or tubes"; and in a paper read before the Royal Society +on the 9th of November he showed that metallic tubes, being better +conductors of heat, were superior to glass ones, and explained that the +heat lost by contact with a large cooling surface brought the +temperature of the first portions of gas exploded below that required +for the firing of the other portions. Two further papers read in January +1816 explained the employment of wire gauze instead of narrow tubes, and +later in the year the safety lamps were brought into use in the mines. A +large collection of the different models made by Davy in the course of +his inquiries is in the possession of the Royal Institution. He took out +no patent for his invention, and in recognition of his disinterestedness +the Newcastle coal-owners in September 1817 presented him with a +dinner-service of silver plate.[2] + +In 1818, when he was created a baronet, he was commissioned by the +British government to examine the papyri of Herculaneum in the +Neapolitan museum, and he did not arrive back in England till June 1820. +In November of that year the Royal Society, of which he had become a +fellow in 1803, and acted as secretary from 1807 to 1812, chose him as +their president, but his personal qualities were not such as to make him +very successful in that office, especially in comparison with the tact +and firmness of his predecessor, Sir Joseph Banks. In 1821 he was busy +with electrical experiments and in 1822 with investigations of the +fluids contained in the cavities of crystals in rocks. In 1823, when +Faraday liquefied chlorine, he read a paper which suggested the +application of liquids formed by the condensation of gases as mechanical +agents. In the same year the admiralty consulted the Royal Society as to +a means of preserving the copper sheathing of ships from corrosion and +keeping it smooth, and he suggested that the copper would be preserved +if it were rendered negatively electrical, as would be done by fixing +"protectors" of zinc to the sheeting. This method was tried on several +ships, but it was found that the bottoms became extremely foul from +accumulations of seaweed and shellfish. For this reason the admiralty +decided against the plan, much to the inventor's annoyance, especially +as orders to remove the protectors already fitted were issued in June +1825, immediately after he had announced to the Royal Society the full +success of his remedy. + +In 1826 Davy's health, which showed signs of failure in 1823, had so +declined that he could with difficulty indulge in his favourite sports +of fishing and shooting, and early in 1827, after a slight attack of +paralysis, he was ordered abroad. After a short stay at Ravenna he +removed to Salzburg, whence, his illness continuing, he sent in his +resignation as president of the Royal Society. In the autumn he returned +to England and spent his time in writing his _Salmonia or Days of +Flyfishing_, an imitation of _The Compleat Angler_. In the spring of +1828 he again left England for Illyria, and in the winter fixed his +residence at Rome, whence he sent to the Royal Society his "Remarks on +the Electricity of the Torpedo," written at Trieste in October. This, +with the exception of a posthumous work, _Consolations in Travel, or the +Last Days of a Philosopher_ (1830), was the final production of his pen. +On the 20th of February 1829 he suffered a second attack of paralysis +which rendered his right side quite powerless, but under the care of his +brother, Dr John Davy (1791-1868), he rallied sufficiently to be removed +to Geneva, where he died on the 29th of May. + +Of a sanguine, somewhat irritable temperament, Davy displayed +characteristic enthusiasm and energy in all his pursuits. As is shown by +his verses and sometimes by his prose, his mind was highly imaginative; +the poet Coleridge declared that if he "had not been the first chemist, +he would have been the first poet of his age," and Southey said that "he +had all the elements of a poet; he only wanted the art." In spite of his +ungainly exterior and peculiar manner, his happy gifts of exposition and +illustration won him extraordinary popularity as a lecturer, his +experiments were ingenious and rapidly performed, and Coleridge went to +hear him "to increase his stock of metaphors." The dominating ambition +of his life was to achieve fame, but though that sometimes betrayed him +into petty jealousy, it did not leave him insensible to the claims on +his knowledge of the "cause of humanity," to use a phrase often employed +by him in connexion with his invention of the miners' lamp. Of the +smaller observances of etiquette he was careless, and his frankness of +disposition sometimes exposed him to annoyances which he might have +avoided by the exercise of ordinary tact. + + See Dr J. A. Paris, _The Life of Sir Humphry Davy_ (1831), vol. ii. of + which on pp. 450-456 gives a list of his publications. Dr John Davy, + _Memoirs of Sir Humphry Davy_ (1836); Collected Works (with shorter + memoir, 1839); _Fragmentary Remains, Literary and Scientific_ (1858). + T. E. Thorpe, _Humphry Davy, Poet and Philosopher_ (1896). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Edmund Davy (1785-1857) became professor of chemistry at Cork + Institution in 1813, and at the Royal Dublin Society in 1826. His + son, Edmund William Davy (born in 1826), was appointed professor of + medicine in the Royal College, Dublin, in 1870. + + [2] Davy's will directed that this service, after Lady Davy's death, + should pass to his brother, Dr John Davy, on whose decease, if he had + no heirs who could make use of it, it was to be melted and sold, the + proceeds going to the Royal Society "to found a medal to be given + annually for the most important discovery in chemistry anywhere made + in Europe or Anglo-America." The silver produced L736, and the + interest on that sum is expended on the Davy medal, which was awarded + for the first time in 1877, to Bunsen and Kirchhoff for their + discovery of spectrum analysis. + + + + +DAWARI, or DAURI, a Pathan tribe on the Waziri border of the North-West +Frontier Province of India. The Dawaris inhabit the Tochi Valley (q.v.), +otherwise known as Dawar or Daur, and are a homogeneous tribe of +considerable size, numbering 5200 fighting men. Though surrounded on all +four sides by a Waziri population they bear little resemblance to +Waziris. They are an agricultural and the Waziris a pastoral race, and +they are much richer than their neighbours. They thrive on a rich +sedimentary soil copiously irrigated in the midst of a country where +cultivable land of any kind is scarce and water in general hardly to be +obtained. But they pay a heavy tax in health and well-being for the +possession of their fertile acres. Fevers and other ravaging diseases +are bred in the wet sodden lands of the Tochi Valley, lying at the +bottom of a deep depression exposed to the burning rays of the sun; and +the effects of these ailments may be clearly traced in the drawn or +bloated features and the shrunken or swollen limbs of nearly every +Dawari that has passed middle life. They have an evil name for +indolence, drug-eating and unnatural vices, and are morally the lowest +of the Afghan races; but in spite of these defects, and of the contempt +with which they are regarded by the other Afghan tribes, they have held +their own for centuries against the warlike and hardy Waziris. The +secret of this is that the Dawaris stand together, and the Waziris do +not, while the weaker race is gifted with infinite patience and tenacity +of purpose. With the advent of British government, however, the Dawaris +are now secured in the possession of their ancestral lands. + + See J. G. Lorimer, _Grammar and Vocabulary of Waziri Pushtu_ (1902). + + + + +DAWES, HENRY LAURENS (1816-1903), American lawyer, was born at +Cummington, Massachusetts, on the 30th of October 1816. After graduating +at Yale in 1839, he taught for a time at Greenfield, Mass., and also +edited _The Greenfield Gazette_. In 1842 he was admitted to the bar and +began the practice of law at North Adams, where for a time he conducted +_The Transcript_. He served in the Massachusetts House of +Representatives in 1848-1849 and in 1852, in the state Senate in 1850, +and in the Massachusetts constitutional convention in 1853. From 1853 to +1857 he was United States district attorney for the western district of +Massachusetts; and from 1857-1875 he was a Republican member of the +national House of Representatives. In 1875 he succeeded Charles Sumner +as senator from Massachusetts, serving until 1893. During this long +period of legislative activity he served in the House on the committees +on elections, ways and means, and appropriations, took a prominent part +in the anti-slavery and reconstruction measures during and after the +Civil War, in tariff legislation, and in the establishment of a fish +commission and the inauguration of daily weather reports. In the Senate +he was chairman of the committee on Indian affairs, and gave much +attention to the enactment of laws for the benefit of the Indians. On +leaving the Senate, in 1893, he became chairman of the Commission to the +Five Civilized Tribes (sometimes called the Dawes Indian Commission), +and served in this capacity for ten years, negotiating with the tribes +for the extinction of the communal title to their land and for the +dissolution of the tribal governments, with the object of making the +tribes a constituent part of the United States.[1] Dawes died at +Pittsfield, Mass., on the 5th of February 1903. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The commission completed its labours on the 1st of July 1905, + after having allotted 20,000,000 acres of land among 90,000 Indians + and absorbed the five Indian governments into the national system. + The "five tribes" were the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek and + Seminole Indians. + + + + +DAWES, RICHARD (1708-1766), English classical scholar, was born in or +near Market Bosworth. He was educated at the town grammar school under +Anthony Blackwall, and at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, of which society +he was elected fellow in 1731. His peculiar habits and outspoken +language made him unpopular. His health broke down in consequence of his +sedentary life, and it is said that he took to bell-ringing at Great St +Mary's as a restorative. He was a bitter enemy of Bentley, who he +declared knew nothing of Greek except from indexes. In 1738 Dawes was +appointed to the mastership of the grammar school, Newcastle-on-Tyne, +combined with that of St Mary's hospital. From all accounts his mind +appears to have become unhinged; his eccentricities of conduct and +continual disputes with his governing body ruined the school, and +finally, in 1749, he resigned his post and retired to Heworth, where he +chiefly amused himself with boating. He died on the 21st of March 1766. +Dawes was not a prolific writer. The book on which his fame rests is his +_Miscellanea critica_ (1745), which gained the commendation of such +distinguished continental scholars as L. C. Valckenaer and J. J. Reiske. +The _Miscellanea_, which was re-edited by T. Burgess (1781), G. C. +Harles (1800) and T. Kidd (1817), for many years enjoyed a high +reputation, and although some of the "canons" have been proved untenable +and few can be accepted universally, it will always remain an honourable +and enduring monument of English scholarship. + + See J. Hodgson, _An Account of the Life and Writings of Richard Dawes_ + (1828); H. R. Luard in _Dict. of Nat. Biog._; J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of + Classical Scholarship_, ii. 415. + + + + +DAWISON, BOGUMIL (1818-1872), German actor, was born at Warsaw, of +Jewish parents, and at the age of nineteen went on the stage. In 1839 he +received an appointment to the theatre at Lemberg in Galicia. In 1847 he +played at Hamburg with marked success, was from 1849 to 1854 a member of +the Burg theatre in Vienna, and then became connected with the Dresden +court theatre. In 1864 he was given a life engagement, but resigned his +appointment, and after starring through Germany visited the United +States in 1866. He died in Dresden on the 1st of February 1872. Dawison +was considered in Germany an actor of a new type; a leading critic wrote +that he and Marie Seebach "swept like fresh gales over dusty tradition, +and brushing aside the monotony of declamation gave to their roles more +character and vivacity than had hitherto been known on the German +stage." His chief parts were Mephistopheles, Franz Moor, Mark Antony, +Hamlet, Charles V., Richard III. and King Lear. + + + + +DAWKINS, WILLIAM BOYD (1838- ), English geologist and archaeologist, +was born at Buttington vicarage near Welshpool, Montgomeryshire, on the +26th of December 1838. Educated at Rossall School and Oxford, he joined +the Geological Survey in 1862, and in 1869 became curator of the +Manchester museum, a post which he retained till 1890. He was appointed +professor of geology and palaeontology in Owens College, Manchester, in +1874. He paid special attention to the question of the existence of coal +in Kent, and in 1882 was selected by the Channel tunnel committee to +make a special survey of the French and English coasts. He was also +employed in the scheme of a tunnel beneath the Humber. His chief +distinctions, however, were won in the realms of anthropology by his +researches into the lives of the cave-dwellers of prehistoric times, +labours which have borne fruit in his books _Cave-hunting_ (1874); +_Early Man in Britain_ (1880); _British Pleistocene Mammalia_ +(1866-1887). He became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1867, and acted +as president of the anthropological section of the British Association +in 1882 and of the geological section in 1888. + + + + +DAWLISH, a watering-place in the Ashburton parliamentary division of +Devonshire, England, on the English Channel, near the outflow of the +Exe, 12 m. S. of Exeter by the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban +district (1901) 4003. It lies on a cove sheltered by two projecting +headlands. A small stream which flows through the town is lined on both +sides by pleasure-grounds. Dawlish owes its prosperity to the visitors +attracted, in spring and early summer, by the warm climate and excellent +bathing. An annual pleasure fair is held on Easter Monday, and a regatta +in August or September. Until its sale in the 19th century, the site of +Dawlish belonged to Exeter cathedral, having been given to the chapter +by Leofric, bishop of Exeter, in 1050. + + + + +DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier "dawing" or "dawning," from +an old verb "daw," O. Eng. _dagian_, to become day; cf. Dutch _dagen_, +and Ger. _tagen_), the time when light appears (daws) in the sky in the +morning. The dawn colours appear in the reverse order of the sunset +colours and are due to the same cause. When the sun is lowest in both +cases the colour is deep red; this gradually changes through orange to +gold and brilliant yellow as the sun approaches the horizon. These +colours follow each other in order of refrangibility, reproducing all +the colours of the spectrum in order except the blue rays which are +scattered in the sky. The colours of the dawn are purer and colder than +the sunset colours since there is less dust and moisture in the +atmosphere and less consequent sifting of light rays. + + + + +DAWSON, GEORGE (1821-1876), English nonconformist divine, was born in +London on the 24th of February 1821, and was educated at Marischal +College, Aberdeen, and at the university of Glasgow. In 1843 he accepted +the pastorate of the Baptist church at Rickmansworth, and in 1844 a +similar charge at Mount Zion, Birmingham, where he attracted large +congregations by his eloquence and his unconventional views. Desiring +freedom from any definite creed, he left the Baptist church and became +minister of the "Church of the Saviour," a building erected for him by +his supporters. Here he exercised a stimulating and varied ministry for +nearly thirty years, gathering round him a congregation of all types and +especially of such as found the dogmas of the age distasteful. He had +much sympathy with the Unitarian position, but was not himself a +Unitarian. Indeed he had no fixed standpoint, and discussed truths and +principles from various aspects. His sermons, though not particularly +speculative, were unconventional and quickening. He was the friend of +Carlyle and Emerson, and did much to popularize their teachings, his +influence being conspicuous, especially in his demand for a high ethical +standard in everyday life and his insistence on the Christianization of +citizenship. He was warmly supported by Dr R. W. Dale, and by J. T. +Bunce, editor of _The Birmingham Daily Post_. Both Dawson and Dale were +disqualified as ministers from seats on the town council, but both +served on the Birmingham school board. Dawson also lectured on English +literature at the Midland Institute and helped to found the Shakespeare +Memorial library in Birmingham. He died suddenly at King's Norton on the +30th of November 1876. Four volumes of _Sermons_, two of _Prayers_ and +two of _Biographical Lectures_ were published after his death. + + See _Life_ by H. W. Crosskey (1876) and an article by R. W. Dale in + _The Nineteenth Century_ (August 1877). + + + + +DAWSON, SIR JOHN WILLIAM (1820-1899), Canadian geologist, was bom at +Pictou, Nova Scotia, on the 30th of October 1820. Of Scottish descent, +he went to Edinburgh to complete his education, and graduated at the +university in 1842, having gained a knowledge of geology and natural +history from Robert Jameson. On his return to Nova Scotia in 1842 he +accompanied Sir Charles Lyell on his first visit to that territory. +Subsequently he was appointed to the post of superintendent of education +(1850-1853); at the same time he entered zealously into the geology of +the country, making a special study of the fossil forests of the +coal-measures. From these strata, in company with Lyell (during his +second visit) in 1852, he obtained the first remains of an +"air-breathing reptile" named _Dendrerpeton_. He also described the +fossil plants of the Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous rocks of +Canada for the Geological Survey of that country (1871-1873). From 1855 +to 1893 he was professor of geology and principal of M'Gill University, +Montreal, an institution which under his influence attained a high +reputation. He was elected F.R.S. in 1862. When the Royal Society of +Canada was constituted he was the first to occupy the presidential +chair, and he also acted as president of the British Association at its +meeting at Birmingham in 1886, and of the American Association for the +Advancement of Science. Sir William Dawson's name is especially +associated with the _Eozoon canadense_, which in 1864 he described as an +organism having the structure of a foraminifer. It was found in the +Laurentian rocks, regarded as the oldest known geological system. His +views on the subject were contested at the time, and have since been +disproved, the so-called organism being now regarded as a mineral +structure. He was created C.M.G. in 1881, and was knighted in 1884. In +his books on geological subjects he maintained a distinctly theological +attitude, declining to admit the descent or evolution of man from brute +ancestors, and holding that the human species only made its appearance +on this earth within quite recent times. Besides many memoirs in the +Transactions of learned societies, he published _Acadian Geology: The +geological structure, organic remains and mineral resources of Nova +Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island_ (1855; ed. 3, 1878); +_Air-breathers of the Coal Period_ (1863); _The Story of the Earth and +Man_ (1873; ed. 6, 1880); _The Dawn of Life_ (1875); _Fossil Men and +their Modern Representatives_ (1880); _Geological History of Plants_ +(1888); _The Canadian Ice Age_ (1894). He died on the 20th of November +1899. + +His son, GEORGE MERCER DAWSON (1849-1901), was born at Pictou on the 1st +of August 1849, and received his education at M'Gill University and the +Royal School of Mines, London, where he had a brilliant career. In 1873 +he was appointed geologist and naturalist to the North American boundary +commission, and two years later he joined the staff of the geological +survey of Canada, of which he became assistant director in 1883, and +director in 1895. He was in charge of the Canadian government's Yukon +expedition in 1887, and his name is permanently written in Dawson City, +of gold-bearing fame. As one of the Bering Sea Commissioners he spent +the summer of 1891 investigating the facts of the seal fisheries on the +northern coasts of Asia and America. For his services there, and at the +subsequent arbitration in Paris, he was made a C.M.G. He was elected +F.R.S. in 1891, and in the same year was awarded the Bigsby medal by the +Geological Society of London. He was president of the Royal Society of +Canada in 1893. He died on the 2nd of March 1901. He was the author of +many scientific papers and reports, especially on the surface geology +and glacial phenomena of the northern and western parts of Canada. + + + + +DAWSON CITY, or DAWSON, the capital of the Yukon territory, Canada, on +the right bank of the Yukon river, and in the middle of the Klondyke +gold region, of which it is the distributing centre. It is situated in +beautiful mountainous country, 1400 ft. above the sea, and 1500 m. from +the mouth of the Yukon river. It is reached by a fleet of river +steamers, and has telegraphic communication. Founded in 1896, its +population soon reached over 20,000 at the height of the gold rush; in +1901 it was officially returned as 9142, and is now not more than 5000. +The temperature varies from 90 deg. F. in summer to 50 deg. below zero +in winter. It possesses three opera-houses and numerous hotels, and is a +typical mining town, though even at first there was much less +lawlessness than is usually the case in such cities. + + + + +DAX, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the +department of Landes, 92 m. S.S.W, of Bordeaux, on the Southern railway +between that city and Bayonne. Pop. (1906) 8585. The town lies on the +left bank of the Adour, a stone bridge uniting it to its suburb of Le +Sablar on the right bank. It has remains of ancient Gallo-Roman +fortifications, now converted into a promenade. The most remarkable +building in the town is the church of Notre-Dame, once a cathedral; it +was rebuilt from 1656 to 1719, but still preserves a sacristy, a porch +and a fine sculptured doorway of the 13th century. The church of St +Vincent, to the south-west of the town, derives its name from the first +bishop, whose tomb it contains. The church of St Paul-les-Dax, a suburb +on the right bank of the Adour, belongs mainly to the 15th century, and +has a Romanesque apse adorned with curious bas-reliefs. On a hill to the +west of Dax stands a tower built in memory of the sailor and scientist +Jean Charles Borda, born there in 1733; a statue was erected to him in +the town in 1891. Dax, which is well known as a winter resort, owes much +of its importance to its thermal waters and mud-baths (the deposit of +the Adour), which are efficacious in cases of rheumatism, neuralgia and +other disorders. The best-known spring is the Fontaine Chaude, which +issues into a basin 160 ft. wide in the centre of the town. The +principal of numerous bathing establishments are the Grands Thermes, the +Bains Sales, adjoining a casino, and the Baignots, which fringe the +Adour and are surrounded by gardens. Dax has a sub-prefecture, tribunals +of first instance and of commerce, a communal college, a training +college and a library. It has salt workings, tanneries, saw-mills, +manufactures of soap and corks; commerce is chiefly in the pine wood, +resin and cork of the Landes, in mules, cattle, horses and poultry. + +Dax (_Aquae Tarbellicae_, _Aquae Augustae_, later _D'Acqs_) was the +capital of the Tarbelli under the Roman domination, when its waters were +already famous. Later it was the seat of a viscounty, which in the 11th +century passed to the viscounts of Bearn, and in 1177 was annexed by +Richard Coeur de Lion to Gascony. The bishopric, founded in the 3rd +century, was in 1801 attached to that of Aire. + + + + +DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?), English dramatist, was born at Cawston, Norfolk, +in 1574, and educated at Ely. He became a sizar of Caius College, +Cambridge, in 1592, but was expelled in the next year for stealing a +book. He became one of Henslowe's playwrights, collaborating with Henry +Chettle, William Haughton, Thomas Dekker, Richard Hathway and Wentworth +Smith, but his almost incessant activity seems to have left him poor +enough, to judge by the small loans, of five shillings and even two +shillings, that he obtained from Henslowe. The first play in which Day +appears as part-author is _The Conquest of Brute, with the finding of +the Bath_ (1598), which, with most of his journeyman's work, is lost. A +drama dealing with the early years of the reign of Henry VI., _The Blind +Beggar of Bednal Green_ (acted 1600, printed 1659), written in +collaboration with Chettle, is his earliest extant work. It bore the +sub-title of _The Merry Humor of Tom Strowd, the Norfolk Yeoman_, and +was so popular that second and third parts, by Day and Haughton, were +produced in the next year. _The Ile of Guls_ (printed 1606), a prose +comedy founded upon Sir Philip Sidney's _Arcadia_, contains in its light +dialogue much satire to which the key is now lost, but Mr Swinburne +notes in Manasses's burlesque of a Puritan sermon a curious anticipation +of the eloquence of Mr Chadband in _Bleak House_. In 1607 Day produced, +in conjunction with William Rowley and George Wilkins, _The Travailes of +the Three English Brothers_, which detailed the adventures of Sir +Thomas, Sir Anthony and Robert Shirley. + +_The Parliament of Bees_ is the work on which Day's reputation chiefly +rests. This exquisite and unique drama, or rather masque, is entirely +occupied with "the doings, the births, the wars, the wooings" of bees, +expressed in a style at once most singular and most charming. The bees +hold a parliament under Prorex, the Master Bee, and various complaints +are preferred against the humble-bee, the wasp, the drone and other +offenders. This satirical allegory of affairs ends with a royal progress +of Oberon, who distributes justice to all. The piece contains much for +which parallel passages are found in Dekker's _Wonder of a Kingdom_ +(1636) and Samuel Rowley's (or Dekker's) _Noble Soldier_ (printed 1634). +There is no earlier known edition of _The Parliament of Bees_ than that +in 1641, but a persistent tradition has assigned the piece to 1607. In +1608 Day published two comedies, _Law Trickes, or Who Would have Thought +it?_ and _Humour out of Breath_. The date of his death is unknown, but +an elegy on him by John Tatham, the city poet, was published in 1640. +The six dramas by John Day which we possess show a delicate fancy and +dainty inventiveness all his own. He preserved, in a great measure, the +dramatic tradition of John Lyly, and affected a kind of subdued +euphuism. _The Maydes Metamorphosis_ (1600), once supposed to be a +posthumous work of Lyly's, may be an early work of Day's. It possesses, +at all events, many of his marked characteristics. His prose +_Peregrinatic Scholastica or Learninges Pilgrimage_, dating from his +later years, was printed by Mr A. H. Bullen from a MS. of Day's. +Considerations partly based on this work have suggested that he had a +share in the anonymous _Pilgrimage to Parnassus_ and the _Return from +Parnassus_. The beauty and ingenuity of _The Parliament of Bees_ were +noted and warmly extolled by Charles Lamb; and Day's work has since +found many admirers. + + His works, edited by A. H. Bullen, were printed at the Chiswick Press + in 1881. The same editor included _The Maydes Metamorphosis_ in vol. + i. of his _Collection of Old Plays_. _The Parliament of Bees_ and + _Humour out of Breath_ were printed in _Nero and other Plays_ (Mermaid + Series, 1888), with an introduction by Arthur Symons. An appreciation + by Mr A. C. Swinburne appeared in _The Nineteenth Century_ (October + 1897). + + + + +DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789), British author, was born in London on the 22nd +of June 1748. He is famous as the writer of _Sandford and Merton_ +(1783-1789), a book for the young, which, though quaintly didactic and +often ridiculous, has had considerable educational value as inculcating +manliness and independence. Day was educated at the Charterhouse and at +Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and became a great admirer of J. J. +Rousseau and his doctrine of the ideal state of nature. Having +independent means he devoted himself to a life of study and +philanthropy. His views on marriage were typical of the man. He brought +up two foundlings, one of whom he hoped eventually to marry. They were +educated on the severest principles, but neither acquired the high +quality of stoicism which he had looked for. After several proposals of +marriage to other ladies had been rejected, he married an heiress who +agreed with his ascetic programme of life. He finally settled at +Ottershaw in Surrey and took to farming on philanthropic principles. He +had many curious and impracticable theories, among them one that all +animals could be managed by kindness, and while riding an unbroken colt +he was thrown near Wargrave and killed on the 28th of September 1789. +His poem _The Dying Negro_, published in 1773, struck the keynote of the +anti-slavery movement. It is also obvious from his other works, such as +_The Devoted Legions_ (1776) and _The Desolation of America_ (1777), +that he strongly sympathized with the Americans during their War of +Independence. + + + + +DAY (O. Eng. _daeg_, Ger. _Tag_; according to the _New English +Dictionary_, "in no way related to the Lat. _dies_"), in astronomy, the +interval of time in which a revolution of the earth on its axis is +performed. Days are distinguished as solar, sidereal or lunar, according +as the revolution is taken relatively to the sun, the stars or the moon. +The solar day is the fundamental unit of time, not only in daily life +but in astronomical practice. In the latter case, being determined by +observations of the sun, it is taken to begin with the passage of the +mean sun over the meridian of the place, or at mean noon, while the +civil day begins at midnight. A vigorous effort was made during the last +fifteen years of the 19th century to bring the two uses into harmony by +beginning the astronomical day at midnight. In some isolated cases this +has been done; but the general consensus of astronomers has been against +it, the day as used in astronomy being only a measure of time, and +having no relation to the period of daily repose. The time when the day +shall begin is purely a matter of convenience. The present practice +being the dominant one from the time of Ptolemy until the present, it +was felt that the confusion in the combination of past and present +astronomical observations, and the doubts and difficulties in using the +astronomical ephemerides, formed a decisive argument against any change. + +The question of a possible variability in the length of the day is one +of fundamental importance. One necessary effect of the tidal retardation +of the earth's rotation is gradually to increase this length. It is +remarkable that the discussion of ancient eclipses of the moon, and +their comparison with modern observations, show only a small and rather +doubtful change, amounting perhaps to less than one-hundredth of a +second per century. As this amount seems to be markedly less than that +which would be expected from the cause in question, it is probable that +some other cause tends to accelerate the earth's rotation and so to +shorten the day. The moon's apparent mean motion in longitude seems also +to indicate slow periodic changes in the earth's rotation; but these are +not confirmed by transits of Mercury, which ought also to indicate them. +(See MOON and TIDES.) (S. N.) + +_Legal Aspects._--In law, a day may be either a _dies naturalis_ or +natural day, or a _dies artificialis_ or artificial day. A natural day +includes all the twenty-four hours from midnight to midnight. Fractions +of the day are disregarded to avoid dispute, though sometimes the law +will consider fractions, as where it is necessary to show the first of +two acts. In cases where action must be taken for preserving or +asserting a right, a day would mean the natural day of twenty-four +hours, but on the other hand, as in cases of survivorship, for +testamentary or other purposes, it would suffice if a person survived +for even the smallest portion of the last day necessary. + +When a statute directs any act to be done within so many days, these +words mean _clear days_, i.e. a number of perfect intervening days, not +counting the terminal days: if the statute says nothing about Sunday, +the days mentioned mean consecutive days and include Sundays. Under some +statutes (e.g. the Parliamentary Elections Act 1868, the Corrupt and +Illegal Practices Prevention Act 1883) Sundays and holidays are excluded +in reckoning days, and consequently all the Sundays, &c., of a +prescribed sequence of days would be eliminated. So also, by custom, the +word "day" may be understood in some special sense. In bills of lading +and charter parties, when "days" or "running days" are spoken of without +qualification, they usually mean consecutive days, and Sundays and +holidays are counted, but when there is some qualification, as where a +charter party required a cargo "to be discharged in fourteen days," +"days" will mean _working days_. Working days, again, vary in different +ports, and the custom of the port will decide in each case what are +working days. In English charter parties, unless the contrary is +expressed, Christmas day and other recognized holidays are included as +working days. A _weather working day_, a term sometimes used in charter +parties, means a day when work is not prevented by the weather, and +unless so provided for, a day on which work was rendered impossible by +bad weather would still be counted as a working day. _Lay days_, which +are days given to the charterer in a charter party either to load or +unload without paying for the use of the ship, are days of the week, not +periods of twenty-four hours. + +_Days of Grace._--When a bill of exchange is not payable at sight or on +demand, certain days (called days of grace, from being originally a +gratuitous favour) are added to the time of payment as fixed by the +bill, and the bill is then due and payable on the last day of grace. In +the United Kingdom, by the Bills of Exchange Act 1882, three days are +allowed as days of grace, but when the last day of grace falls on +Sunday, Christmas day, Good Friday or a day appointed by royal +proclamation as a public fast or thanksgiving day, the bill is due and +payable on the preceding business day. If the last day of grace is a +bank holiday (other than Christmas day or Good Friday), or when the last +day of grace is a Sunday, and the second day of grace is a bank holiday, +the bill is due and payable on the succeeding business day. Days of +grace (_dies non_) are in existence practically among English-speaking +peoples only. They were abolished by the French Code (Code de Commerce, +Liv. i. tit. 8, art. 135), and by most, if not all, of the European +codes since framed. + +_Civil Days._--An artificial or civil day is, to a certain extent, +difficult to define; it "may be regarded as a convenient term to signify +all the various kinds of 'day' known in legal proceedings other than the +natural day." (_Ency. English Law_, tit. "Day"). The Jews, Chaldeans and +Babylonians began the day at the rising of the sun; the Athenians at the +fall; the Umbri in Italy began at midday; the Egyptians and Romans at +midnight; and in England, the United States and most of the countries of +Europe the Roman civil day still prevails, the day usually commencing as +soon as the clock begins to strike 12 P.M. of the preceding day. + +In England the period of the civil day may also vary under different +statutes. In criminal law the day formerly commenced at sunrise and +extended to sunset, but by the Larceny Act 1861 the day is that period +between six in the morning and nine in the evening. The same period of +time comprises a day under the Housing of the Working Classes Act 1885 +and the Public Health (London) Act 1891, but under the Public Health +(Scotland) Act 1897 "day" is the period between 9 A.M. and 6 P.M. By an +act of 1845, regulating the labour of children in print-works, "day" is +defined as from 6 A.M. to 10 P.M. Daytime, within which distress for +rent must be made, is from sunrise to sunset (_Tulton_ v. _Darke_, 1860, +2 L.T. 361). An obligation to pay money on a certain day is +theoretically discharged if the money is paid before midnight of the day +on which it falls due, but custom has so far modified this that the law +requires reasonable hours to be observed. If, for instance, payment has +to be made at a bank or place of business, it must be within business +hours. + +When an act of parliament is expressed to come into operation on a +certain day, it is to be construed as coming into operation on the +expiration of the previous day (Interpretation Act 1889, S 36; Statutes +[Definition of Time] Act 1880). + +Under the orders of the supreme court the word "day" has two meanings. +For purposes of personal service of writs, it means any time of the day +or night on week-days, but excludes the time from twelve midnight on +Saturday till twelve midnight on Sunday. For purposes of service not +required to be personal, it means before six o'clock on any week-day +except Saturday, and before 2 P.M. on Saturday. + +_Closed Days_, i.e. Sunday, Christmas day and Good Friday, are excluded +from all fixtures of time less than six days: otherwise they are +included, unless the last day of the time fixed falls on one of those +days (R.S.C., O. lxiv.). + +_American Practice._--In the United States a day is the space of time +between midnight and midnight. The law pays no regard to fractions of a +day except to prevent injustice. A "day's work" is by statute in New +York fixed at eight hours for all employees except farm and domestic +servants, and for employees on railroads at ten hours (Laws 1897, ch. +415). In the recording acts relating to real property, fractions of a +day are of the utmost importance, and all deeds, mortgages and other +instruments affecting the property, take precedence in the order in +which they were filed for record. Days of grace are abolished in many of +the seventeen states in which the Negotiable Instruments law has been +enacted. Sundays and public holidays are usually excluded in computing +time if they are the last day within which the act was to be done. +General public holidays throughout the United States are Christmas, +Thanksgiving (last Thursday in November) and Independence (July 4th) +days and Washington's birthday (February 22nd). The several states have +also certain local public holidays. (See also MONTH; TIME.) + (T. A. I.) + + + + +DAYLESFORD, a town of Talbot county, Victoria, Australia, 74 m. by rail +N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 3384. It lies on the flank of the Great +Dividing Range, at an elevation of 2030 ft. On Wombat Hill are beautiful +public gardens commanding extensive views, and a fine convent of the +Presentation Order. Much wheat is grown in the district, and +gold-mining, both quartz and alluvial, is carried on. Daylesford has an +important mining school. Near the town are the Hepburn mineral springs +and a number of beautiful waterfalls, and 6 m. from it is Mount +Franklin, an extinct volcano. + + + + +DAYTON, a city of Campbell county, Kentucky, U.S.A., on the S. bank of +the Ohio river, opposite Cincinnati, and adjoining Bellevue and Newport, +Ky. Pop. (1890) 4264; (1900) 6104 including 655 foreign-born and 63 +negroes; (1910) 6979. It is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio railway at +Newport, of which it is a suburb, largely residential. It has +manufactories of watch-cases and pianos, and whisky distilleries. In +the city is the Speers Memorial hospital. Dayton was settled and +incorporated in 1849. + + + + +DAYTON, a city and the county-seat of Montgomery county, Ohio, U.S.A., +at the confluence of Wolf Creek, Stillwater river and Mad river with the +Great Miami, 57 m. N.N.E. of Cincinnati and about 70 m. W.S.W. of +Columbus. Pop. (1890) 61,220; (1900) 85,333; (1910) 116,577. In 1900 +there were 10,053 foreign-born and 3387 negroes; of the foreign-born +6820 were Germans and 1253 Irish. Dayton is served by the Erie, the +Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, +Chicago & St Louis, the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, and the Dayton & +Union railways, by ten interurban electric railways, centring here, and +by the Miami & Erie Canal. The city extends more than 5 m. from E. to +W., and 3(1/2) m. from N. to S., lies for the most part on level ground +at an elevation of about 740 ft. above sea-level, and numerous good, +hard gravel roads radiate from it in all directions through the +surrounding country, a fertile farming region which abounds in +limestone, used in the construction of public and private buildings. +Among the more prominent buildings are the court-house--the portion +first erected being designed after the Parthenon--the Steele high +school, St Mary's college, Notre Dame academy, the Memorial Building, +the Arcade Building, Reibold Building, the Algonquin Hotel, the post +office, the public library (containing about 75,000 volumes), the Young +Men's Christian Association building and several churches. At Dayton are +the Union Biblical seminary, a theological school of the United Brethren +in Christ, and the publishing house of the same denomination. By an +agreement made in 1907 the school of theology of Ursinus College +(Collegeville, Pennsylvania; the theological school since 1898 had been +in Philadelphia) and the Heidelberg Theological seminary (Tiffin, Ohio) +united to form the Central Theological seminary of the German Reformed +Church, which was established in Dayton in 1908. The boulevard and park +along the river add attractiveness to the city. Among the charitable +institutions are the Dayton state hospital (for the insane), the Miami +Valley and the St Elizabeth hospitals, the Christian Deaconess, the +Widows' and the Children's homes, and the Door of Hope (for homeless +girls); and 1 m. W. of the city is the central branch of the National +Home for disabled volunteer soldiers, with its beautifully ornamented +grounds, about 1 sq. m. in extent. The Mad river is made to furnish good +water-power by means of a hydraulic canal which takes its water through +the city, and Dayton's manufactures are extensive and varied, the +establishments of the National Cash Register Company employing in 1907 +about 4000 wage-earners. This company is widely known for its "welfare +work" on behalf of its operatives. Baths, lunch-rooms, rest-rooms, +clubs, lectures, schools and kindergartens have been supplied, and the +company has also cultivated domestic pride by offering prizes for the +best-kept gardens, &c. From April to July 1901 there was a strike in the +already thoroughly unionized factories; complaint was made of the +hectoring of union men by a certain foreman, the use in toilet-rooms of +towels laundered in non-union shops (the company replied by allowing the +men to supply towels themselves), the use on doors of springs not +union-made (these were removed by the company), and especially the +discharge of four men whom the company refused to reinstate. The company +was victorious in the strike, and the factory became an "open shop." In +addition to cash registers, the city's manufactured products include +agricultural implements, clay-working machinery, cotton-seed and linseed +oil machinery, filters, turbines, railway cars (the large Barney-Smith +car works employed 1800 men in 1905), carriages and wagons, +sewing-machines (the Davis Sewing Machine Co.), automobiles, clothing, +flour, malt liquors, paper, furniture, tobacco and soap. The total value +of the manufactured product, under the "factory system," was $31,015,293 +in 1900 and $39,596,773 in 1905. Dayton's site was purchased in 1795 +from John Cleves Symmes by a party of Revolutionary soldiers, and it was +laid out as a town in 1796 by Israel Ludlow (one of the owners), by whom +it was named in honour of Jonathan Dayton (1760-1824), a soldier in the +War of Independence, a member of Congress from New Jersey in 1791-1799, +and a United States senator in 1799-1805. It was made the county-seat in +1803, was incorporated as a town in 1805, grew rapidly after the opening +of the canal in 1828, and in 1841 was chartered as a city. + + + + +DEACON (Gr. [Greek: diakonos], minister, servant), the name given to a +particular minister or officer of the Christian Church. The status and +functions of the office have varied in different ages and in different +branches of Christendom. + +(a) _The Ancient Church._--The office of deacon is almost as old as +Christianity itself, though it is impossible to fix the moment at which +it came into existence. Tradition connects its origin with the +appointment of "the Seven" recorded in Acts vi. This connexion, however, +is questioned by a large and increasing number of modern scholars, on +the ground that "the Seven" are not called deacons in the New Testament +and do not seem to have been identified with them till the time of +Irenaeus (A.D. 180). The first definite reference to the diaconate +occurs in St Paul's Epistle to the Philippians (i. 1), where the +officers of the Church are described as "bishops and deacons"--though it +is not unlikely that earlier allusions are to be found in 1 Cor. xii. 28 +and Romans xii. 7. In the pastoral epistles the office seems to have +become a permanent institution of the Church, and special qualifications +are laid down for those who hold it (1 Tim. iii. 8). By the time of +Ignatius (A.D. 110) the "three orders" of the ministry were definitely +established, the deacon being the lowest of the three and subordinate to +the bishop and the presbyters. The inclusion of deacons in the "three +orders" which were regarded as essential to the existence of a true +Church sharply distinguished them from the lower ranks of the ministry, +and gave them a status and position of importance in the ancient Church. + +The functions attaching to the office varied at different times. In the +apostolic age the duties of deacons were naturally vague and undefined. +They were "helpers" or "servants" of the Church in a general way and +served in any capacity that was required of them. With the growth of the +episcopate, however, the deacons became the immediate ministers of the +bishop. Their duties included the supervision of Church property, the +management of Church finances, the visitation of the sick, the +distribution of alms and the care of widows and orphans. They were also +required to watch over the souls of the flock and report to the bishop +the cases of those who had sinned or were in need of spiritual help. +"You deacons," says the Apostolical Constitutions (4th century), "ought +to keep watch over all who need watching or are in distress, and let the +bishop know." With the growth of hospitals and other charitable +institutions, however, the functions of deacons became considerably +curtailed. The social work of the Church was transferred to others, and +little by little the deacons sank in importance until at last they came +to be regarded merely as subordinate officers of public worship, a +position which they hold in the Roman Church to-day, where their duties +are confined to such acts as the following:--censing the officiating +priest and the choir, laying the corporal on the altar, handing the +paten or cup to the priest, receiving from him the pyx and giving it to +the subdeacon, putting the mitre on the archbishop's head (when he is +present) and laying his pall upon the altar. + +(b) _The Church of England._--The traditionary position of the diaconate +as one of the "three orders" is here maintained. Deacons may conduct any +of the ordinary services in the church, but are not permitted to +pronounce the absolution or consecrate the elements for the Eucharist. +In practice the office has become a stepping-stone to the priesthood, +the deacon corresponding to the licentiate in the Presbyterian Church. +Candidates for the office must have attained the age of twenty-three and +must satisfy the bishop with regard to their intellectual, moral and +spiritual fitness. The functions of the office are defined in the +Ordinal--"to assist the priest in divine service and specially when he +ministereth the Holy Communion, to read Holy Scriptures and Homilies in +the church, to instruct the youth in the catechism, to baptize in the +absence of the priest, to preach if he be admitted thereto by the +bishop, and furthermore to search for the sick, poor and impotent +people and intimate their estates and names to the curate." + +(c) _Churches of the Congregational Order._--In these (which of course +include Baptists) the diaconate is a body of laymen appointed by the +members of the church to act as a management committee and to assist the +minister in the work of the church. There is no general rule as to the +number of deacons, though the traditionary number of seven is often +kept, nor as to the frequency of election, each church making its own +arrangements in this respect. The deacons superintend the financial +affairs of the church, co-operate with the minister in the various +branches of his work, assist in the visitation of the sick, attend to +the church property and generally supervise the activities of the +church. + + See Thomassinus, _Vetus ac nova disciplina_, pars i. lib. i. c. 51 f. + and lib. ii. c. 29 f. (Lugdunum, 1706); J. N. Seidl, _Der Diakonat in + der katholischen Kirche_ (Regensburg, 1884); R. Sohm, _Kirchenrecht_, + i. 121-137 (Leipzig, 1892); F. J. A. Hort, _The Christian Ecclesia_ + (London, 1897). + + + + +DEACONESS ([Greek: he diakonos] or [Greek: diakonissa], servant, +minister), the name given to a woman set apart for special service in +the Christian Church. The origin and early history of the office are +veiled in obscurity. It is quite certain that from the 3rd century +onward there existed in the Eastern Church an order of women, known as +deaconesses, who filled a position analogous to that of deacons. They +are quite distinct from the somewhat similar orders of "virgins" and +"widows," who belonged to a lower plane in the ecclesiastical system. +The order is recognized in the canons of the councils of Nicaea (325) +and Chalcedon (451), and is frequently mentioned in the writings of +Chrysostom (some of whose letters are addressed to deaconesses at +Constantinople), Epiphanius, Basil, and indeed most of the more +important Fathers of the 4th and 5th centuries. Deaconesses, upon +entering their office, were ordained much in the same way as deacons, +but the ordination conveyed no sacerdotal powers or authority. +Epiphanius says quite distinctly that they were woman-elders and not +priestesses in any sense of the term, and that their mission was not to +interfere with the functions allotted to priests but simply to perform +certain offices in connexion with the care of women. Several specimens +of the ordination service for deaconesses have been preserved (see +Cecilia Robinson, _The Ministry of Deaconesses_, London, 1878, appendix +B, p. 197). The functions of the deaconess were as follows: (1) To +assist at the baptism of women, especially in connexion with the +anointing of the body which in the ancient Church always preceded +immersion; (2) to visit the women of the Church in their homes and to +minister to the needs of the sick and afflicted; (3) according to the +Apostolical Constitutions they acted as door-keepers in the church, +received women as they entered and conducted them to their allotted +seats. In the Western Church, on the other hand, we hear nothing of the +order till the 4th century, when an attempt seems to have been made to +introduce it into Gaul. Much opposition, however, was encountered, and +the movement was condemned by the council of Orange in 441 and the +council of Epaone in 517. In spite of the prohibition the institution +made some headway, and traces of it are found later in Italy, but it +never became as popular in the West as it was in the East. In the middle +ages the order fell into abeyance in both divisions of the Church, the +abbess taking the place of the deaconess. Whether deaconesses, in the +later sense of the term, existed before 250 is a disputed point. The +evidence is scanty and by no means decisive. There are only three +passages which bear upon the question at all. (i) Romans xvi. 1: Phoebe +is called [Greek: he diakonos], but it is quite uncertain whether the +word is used in its technical sense. (ii) 1 Tim. iii. 11: after stating +the qualifications necessary for deacons the writer adds, "Women in like +manner must be grave--not slanderers," &c.; the Authorized Version took +the passage as referring to deacons' wives, but many scholars think that +by "women" deaconesses are meant. (iii) In Pliny's famous letter to +Trajan respecting the Christians of Bithynia mention is made of two +Christian maidservants "_quae ministrae dicebantur_"; whether +_ministrae_ is equivalent to [Greek: diakonoi], as is often supposed, is +dubious. On the whole the evidence does not seem sufficient to prove +the contention that an order of deaconesses--in the ecclesiastical sense +of the term--existed from the apostolic age. + +In modern times several attempts have been made to revive the order of +deaconesses. In 1833 Pastor Fleidner founded "an order of deaconesses +for the Rhenish provinces of Westphalia" at Kaiserswerth. The original +aim of the institution was to train nurses for hospital work, but its +scope was afterwards extended and it trained its members for teaching +and parish work as well. Kaiserswerth became the parent of many similar +institutions in different parts of the continent. A few years later, in +1847, Miss Sellon formed for the first time a sisterhood at Devonport in +connexion with the Church of England. Her example was gradually followed +in other parts of the country, and in 1898 there were over two thousand +women living together in different sisterhoods. The members of these +institutions do not represent the ecclesiastical deaconesses, however, +since they are not ministers set apart by the Church; and the +sisterhoods are merely voluntary associations of women banded together +for spiritual fellowship and common service. In 1861 Bishop Tait set +apart Miss Elizabeth Ferard as a deaconess by the laying on of hands, +and she became the first president of the London Deaconess Institution. +Other dioceses gradually adopted the innovation. It has received the +sanction of Convocation, and the Lambeth Conference in 1897 declared +that it "recognized with thankfulness the revival of the office of +deaconess," though at the same time it protested against the +indiscriminate use of the title and laid it down emphatically that the +name must be restricted to those who had been definitely set apart by +the bishop for the position and were working under the direct +supervision and control of the ecclesiastical authority in the parish. + + In addition to Miss Robinson's book cited above, see _Church Quarterly + Review_, xlvii. 302 ff., art. "On the Early History and Modern Revival + of Deaconesses" (London, 1899), and the works there referred to; D. + Latas, [Greek: Christianike Archaiologia], i. 163-171 (Athens, 1883); + _Testamentum Domini_, ed. Rahmani (Mainz, 1899); L. Zscharnack, _Der + Dienst der Frau in den ersten Jahrhunderten der chr. Kirche_ (1902). + + + + +DEAD SEA, a lake in Palestine occupying the deepest part of the valley +running along the line of a great "fault" that has been traced from the +Gulf of Akaba (at the head of the Red Sea) to Hermon. This fracture was +caused after the end of the Eocene period by the earth-movement which +resulted in the raising of the whole region out of the sea. Level for +level, the more ancient rocks are on the eastward side of the lake: the +cretaceous limestones that surmount the older volcanic substrata come +down on the western side to the water's edge, while on the eastern side +they are raised between 3000 and 4000 feet above it. In the Pleistocene +period the whole of this depression was filled with water forming a lake +about 200 m. long north to south, whose waters were about the same level +as that of the Mediterranean Sea. With the diminishing rainfall and +increased temperature that followed that period the effects of +evaporation gradually surpassed the precipitation, and the waters of the +lake slowly diminished to about the extent which they still display. + +The length of the sea is 47 m., and its maximum breadth is about 9(1/2) +m.; its area is about 340 sq. m. It lies nearly north and south. Its +surface being 1289-1300 ft. below the level of the Mediterranean Sea, it +has of course no outlet. It is bounded on the north by the broad valley +of the Jordan; on the east by the rapidly rising terraces which +culminate in the Moabite plateau, 3100 ft. above the level of the lake; +on the south by the desert of the Arabah, which rises to the watershed +between the Dead and the Red Sea--65(1/2) m. from the former, 46(1/2) +from the latter; height 660 ft.--and on the west by the Judean mountains +which attain a height of 3300 ft. On the east side a peninsula, El-Lisan +("the tongue"), of white calcareous marl with beds of salt and gypsum, +divides the sea into two unequal parts: this peninsula is about 50 ft. +high, and is connected by a narrow strip of marshland with the shore. +Its northern and southern extremities have been named Cape Costigan and +Cape Molyneux, in memory of two explorers who were among the first in +modern times to navigate the sea and succumbed to the consequent fever +and exhaustion. North of the peninsula the lake has a maximum depth of +1278 ft.; south of it the water is nowhere more than 12 ft., and in some +places only 3 ft. The surface level of the lake varies with the season, +and recent observations taken on behalf of the Palestine Exploration +Fund seem to show that there are probably cyclical variations also +(ultimately dependent on the rainfall), the nature and periodicity of +which there are as yet no sufficient data to determine. In 1858 there +was a small island near the north end rising 10 or 12 ft. above the +surface and connected with the shore by a causeway; this has been +submerged since 1892; and owing to the gradual rise of level within +these years the fords south of the Lisan, and the pathway which formerly +rounded the Ras Feshkhah, are now no longer passable. + +The slopes on each side of the sea are furrowed with watercourses, some +of them perennial, others winter torrents only. The chief affluents of +the sea are as follows:--on the north, Jordan and 'Ain es-Suweimeh; on +the east Wadis Ghuweir, Zerka Ma'in (Callirrhoe), Mojib (Arnon), +Ed-Dera'a, and el-Hesi; on the west, Wadis Muhawat and Seyal, 'Ain Jidi +(En-Gedi), Wadi el Merabbah, 'Ain Ghuweir, Wadi el-Nar, 'Ain Feshkhah. +The quantity of water poured daily into the sea is not less than +6,000,000 tons, all of which has to be carried off by evaporation. The +consequence of the ancient evaporation, by which the great Pleistocene +lake was reduced to its present modest dimensions, and of the ceaseless +modern daily evaporation, is the impregnation of the waters of the lake +with salts and other mineral substances to a remarkable degree. Ocean +water contains on an average 4-6% of salts: Dead Sea water contains 25%. +The following analysis, by Dr Bernays, gives the contents of the water +more accurately:-- + +Specific gravity 1.1528 at 15.5 deg. C. + + Calcium carbonate 70.00 grains + Calcium sulphate 163.39 + Magnesium nitrate 175.01 + Potassium chloride 1089.06 + Sodium chloride 5106.00 + Calcium chloride 594.46 + Magnesium chloride 7388.21 + Magnesium bromide 345.80 + Iron and aluminium oxides 10.50 + Organic matter, water of crystallization, loss 317.57 + -------- + Total residue per gallon 15260.00 + +The density of the water averages 1.166. It increases from north to +south, and with the depth. The increase is at first rapid, then, after +reaching a certain point, becomes more uniform. At 300 metres its +density is 1.253. The boiling point is 221 deg. F. To the quantity of +solid matter suspended in its water the Dead Sea owes, beside its +saltness, its buoyancy and its poisonous properties. The human body +floats on the surface without exertion. Owing principally to the large +proportion of chloride and bromide of magnesia no animal life can exist +in its water. Fish, which abound in the Jordan and in the brackish +spring-fed lagoons that exist in one or two places around its shores +(such as 'Ain Feshkhah), die in a very short time if introduced into the +main waters of the lake. The only animal life reported from the lake has +been some tetanus and other bacilli said to have been found in its mud; +but this discovery has not been confirmed. To the chloride of calcium is +due the smooth and oily feeling of the water, and to the chloride of +magnesia its disagreeable taste. In Roman times curative properties were +ascribed to the waters: Mukaddasi (A.D. 985) asserts that people +assembled to drink it on a feast day in August. The salt of the Dead Sea +is collected and sold in Jerusalem; smuggling of salt (which in Turkey +is a government monopoly) is a regular occupation of the Bedouin. The +bitumen which floats to shore is also collected. The origin of this +bitumen is disputed: it was supposed to be derived from subaqueous +strata of bituminous marl and rose to the surface when loosened by +earthquakes. It is, however, now more generally believed that it exists +in the breccia of some of the valleys on the west side of the lake, +which is washed into the sea and submerged, till the small stones by +which it is sunk are loosened and fall out, when the bitumen rises to +the surface. + +_History._--The earliest references to the sea or its basin are in the +patriarchal narratives of Lot and Abraham, the most striking being the +destruction of the neighbouring cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. (See +SODOM.) The biblical name is the Salt Sea, the Sea of the Arabah (the +south end of the Jordan valley), or the East Sea. The name in Josephus +is _Asphaltites_, referring to the bituminous deposits above alluded to. +The modern name is Bahr Lut or "Sea of Lot"--a name hardly to be +explained as a survival of a vague tradition of the patriarch, but more +probably due to the literary influences of the Hebrew Scriptures and the +Koran filtering through to the modern inhabitants or their ancestors. +The name Dead Sea first appears in late Greek writers, as Pausanias and +Galen. At En-Gedi on its western bank David for a while took refuge. +South of it is the stronghold of Masada, built by Jonathan Maccabaeus +and fortified by Herod in 42 B.C., where the last stand of the Jews was +made against the Romans after the fall of Jerusalem, and where the +garrison, when the defences were breached, slew themselves rather than +fall into Roman hands. + +The sea has been but little navigated. Tacitus and Josephus mention +boats on the lake, and boats are shown upon it in the Madeba mosaic. The +navigation dues formed part of the revenue of the lords of Kerak under +the crusaders. In modern times navigation is practically _nil_. The +lake, with the whole Jericho plain, is claimed as the personal property +of the sultan. + +The medieval travellers brought home many strange legends of the sea and +its peculiarities--some absurd, others with a basis of fact. The absence +of sea-birds, due to the absence of fish, probably accounts for the +story that no birds could fly over it. The absence of vegetation on its +shores, due to the scanty rainfall and general want of fresh +water--except in the neighbourhood of springs like 'Ain Feshkhah and +'Ain Jidi, where a luxuriant subtropical vegetation is found--accounts +for the story that no plant could live in the poisonous air which broods +over the sea. The mists, due to the great heat and excessive +evaporation, and the noxious miasmata, especially of the southern +region, were exaggerated into the noisome vapours that the "black and +stinking" waters ever exhaled. The judgment on Sodom and Gomorrah (which +of course they believed to be _under_ the waters of the lake, in +accordance with the absurd theory first found in Josephus and still +often repeated) blinded these good pilgrims to the ever-fresh beauty of +this most lovely lake, whose blue and sparkling waters lie deep between +rocks and precipices of unsurpassable grandeur. The play of brilliant +colours and of ever-changing contrasts of light and shade on those +rugged mountain-sides and on the surface of the sea itself might have +been expected to appeal to the most prosaic. The surface of the sea is +generally smooth (seldom, however, absolutely inert as the pilgrims +represented it), but is frequently raised by the north winds into waves, +which, owing to the weight and density of the water, are often of great +force. + +The first to navigate the sea in modern times was an Irish traveller, +Costigan by name, in August and September 1835. Owing largely to the +folly of his Greek servant, who, without his master's knowledge, threw +overboard the drinking-water to lighten the boat, the explorer after +circumnavigating the sea reached Jericho in an exhausted condition, and +was there attacked by a severe fever. The greatest difficulty was +experienced in obtaining assistance for him, but he was ultimately +conveyed on camel-back to Jerusalem, where he died; his grave is in the +Franciscan cemetery there. His fate was shared by his successor, a +British naval officer, Lieutenant Molyneux (1847), whose party was +attacked and robbed by Bedouins. W. F. Lynch, an American explorer +(1848), equipped by the United States government, was more successful, +and he may claim to be the first who examined its shores and sounded its +depths. Since his time the duc de Luynes, Lartet, Wilson, Hull, +Blanckenhorn, Gautier, Libbey, Masterman and Schmidt, to name but a few, +have made contributions to our knowledge of this lake; but still many +problems present themselves for solution. Among these may be mentioned +(1) the explanation of a remarkable line of white foam that extends +along the axis of the lake almost every morning--supposed by +Blanckenhorn to mark the line of a fissure, thermal and asphaltic, under +the bed of the lake, but otherwise explained as a consequence of the +current of the Jordan, which is not completely expended till it reaches +the Lisan, or as a result of the mingling of the salt water with the +brackish spring water especially along the western shore; (2) a +northward current that has been observed along the east coast; (3) +various disturbances of level, due possibly to differences of barometric +pressure; (4) some apparently electrical phenomena that have been +observed in the valley. Before we can be said to know all that we might +regarding this most interesting of lakes further extensive scientific +observations are necessary; but these are extremely difficult owing to +the impossibility of maintaining self-registering instruments in a +region practically closed to Europeans for nearly half the year by the +stifling heat, and inhabited only by Bedouins, who are the worst kind of +ignorant, thievish and mischievous savages. (R. A. S. M.) + + + + +DEADWOOD, a city and the county-seat of Lawrence county, South Dakota, +U.S.A., about 180 m. W. of Pierre. Pop. (1890) 2366; (1900) 3498, of +whom 707 were foreign-born; (1905) 4364; (1910) 3653. It is served by +the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy and the Chicago & North-Western +railways. It lies on hilly ground in the canyon of Whitewood Creek at an +elevation of about 4530 ft. Deadwood is the commercial centre of the +Black Hills. About it are several gold mines (including the well-known +Home-stake mine), characterized by the low grade of their ores (which +range from $2 to $8 per ton), by their vast quantity, and by the ease of +mining and of extracting the metal. The ore contains free gold, which is +extracted by the simple process of stamping and amalgamation, and +refractory values, extracted by the cyaniding process. Several hundred +tons of ore are treated thus in Deadwood and its environs daily, and its +stamp mills are exceeded in size only by those of the Treadwell mine in +S.E. Alaska, and by those on the Rand in South Africa. The discovery of +gold here was made known in June 1875, and in February 1877 the United +States government, after having purchased the land from the Sioux +Indians, opened the place for legal settlement. + + + + +DEAF AND DUMB.[1] The term "deaf" is frequently applied to those who are +deficient in hearing power in any degree, however slight, as well as to +people who are unable to detect the loudest sounds by means of the +auditory organs. It is impossible to draw a hard and fast line between +the deaf and the hearing at any particular point. For the purposes of +this article, however, that denotation which is generally accepted by +educators of the deaf may be given to the term. This makes it refer to +those who are so far handicapped as to be incapable of instruction by +the ordinary means of the ear in a class of those possessing normal +hearing. Paradoxical though it may seem, it is yet true to say that +"dumbness" in our sense of the word does not, strictly speaking, exist, +though the term "dumb" may, for all practical purposes, fairly be +applied to many of the deaf even after they are supposed to have learnt +how to speak. Oral teachers now confess that it is not worth while to +try to teach more than a large percentage of the deaf to speak at all. +We are not concerned with aphasia, stammering or such inability to +articulate as may be due to malformation of the vocal organs. In the +case of the deaf and dumb, as these words are generally understood, +dumbness is merely the result of ignorance in the use of the voice, this +ignorance being due to the deafness. The vocal organs are perfect. The +deaf man can laugh, shout, and in fact utter any and every sound that +the normal person can. But he does not speak English (if that happens to +be his nationality) for the same reason that a French child does not, +which is that he has never heard it. There is in fact no more a priori +reason why an English baby, born in England, should talk English than +that it should talk any other language. English may be correctly +described as its "mother tongue," but not its _natural_ language; the +only reason why one person speaks English and another Russian is that +each imitated that particular language which he heard in infancy. This +imitation depends upon the ability to hear. Hence if one has never +heard, or has lost hearing in early childhood, he has never been able to +imitate that language which his parents and others used, and the +condition of so-called dumbness is added to his deafness. From this it +follows that if the sense of hearing be not lost till the child has +learnt to speak fluently, the ability to speak is unaffected by the +calamity of deafness, except that after many years the voice is likely +to become high-pitched, or too guttural, or peculiar in some other +respect, owing to the absence of the control usually exercised by the +ear. It also follows that, to a certain extent, the art of speech can be +taught the deaf person even though he were born deaf. Theoretically, he +is capable of talking just as well as his hearing brother, for the +organs of speech are as perfect in one as in the other, except that they +suffer from lack of exercise in the case of the deaf man. Practically, +he can never speak perfectly, for even if he were made to attempt +articulation as soon as he is discovered to be deaf, the fact that the +ear, the natural guide of the voice, is useless, lays upon him a +handicap which can never be wiped out. He can never hear the tone of his +teacher's voice nor of his own; he can only see small and, in many +instances, scarcely discernible movements of the lips, tongue, nose, +cheeks and throat in those who are endeavouring to teach him to speak, +and he can never hope to succeed in speech through the instrumentality +of such unsatisfactory appeals to his eye as perfectly as the hearing +child can with the ideal adaptation of the voice to the ear. Sound +appeals to the ear, not the eye, and those who have to rely upon the +latter to imitate speech must suffer by comparison. + +Deafness then, in our sense, means the incapacity to be instructed by +means of the ear in the normal way, and dumbness means only that +ignorance of how to speak one's mother tongue which is the effect of the +deafness. + +Of such deaf people many can hear sound to some extent. Dr Kerr Love +quotes several authorities (_Deaf Mutism_, pp. 58 ff.) to show that 50 +or 60% are absolutely deaf, while 25% can detect loud sounds such as +shouting close to the ear, and the rest can distinguish vowels or even +words. He himself thinks that not more than 15 or 20% are totally +deaf--sometimes only 7 or 8%; that ability to hear speech exists in +about one in four, while ten or fifteen in each hundred are only +semi-deaf. He rightly warns against the use of tuning forks or other +instruments held on the bones of the head as tests of hearing, because +the vibration which is felt, not heard, may very often be mistaken for +sound. + +Dr Edward M. Gallaudet, president of the Columbia Institution for the +Deaf in Washington, D.C., suggests the following terms for use in +dividing the whole class of the deaf into its main sections, though it +is obviously impossible to split them up into perfectly defined +subdivisions, where, as a matter of fact, you have each degree of +deafness and dumbness shading into the next:--the _speaking deaf_, _the +semi-speaking deaf_, the _mute deaf_ (or _deaf-mute_), the _speaking +semi-deaf_, the _mute semi-deaf_, the _hearing mute_ and the _hearing +semi-mute_. He points out that the last two classes are usually persons +of feeble mental power. We should exclude these altogether from the +list, since their hearing is, presumably, perfect, and should add the +_semi-speaking semi-deaf_ before the mute semi-deaf. This would give two +main divisions--those who cannot hear at all, and those who have partial +hearing--with three subsections in each main division--those who speak, +those who have partial speech and those who do not speak at all. Where +the hearing is perfect it is paradoxical to class a person with the +deaf, and the dumbness in such a case is due (where there is no +malformation of the vocal organs) to inability of the mind to pay +attention to, and imitate, what the ear really hears. In such cases this +mental weakness is generally shown in other ways besides that of not +hearing sounds. Probably no sign will be given of recognizing persons or +objects around; there will be in fact, a general incapacity of the +whole body and senses. It is incorrect to designate such persons as deaf +and feeble-minded or deaf and idiotic, because in many cases their +organs of hearing are as perfect as are other organs of their body, and +they are no more deaf than blind, though they may pay no attention to +what they hear any more than to what they see. They are simply weak in +intellect, and this is shown by the disuse of any and all of their +senses; hence it is incorrect to classify them according to one, and one +only, of the evidences of this mental weakness. + + _Extent of Deafness._--The following table shows the number of deaf + and dumb persons in the United Kingdom at successive censuses:-- + + +------+-----------------------------------------+ + | | NUMBER OF DEAF AND DUMB PERSONS. | + | YEAR.+---------+---------+----------+----------+ + | | United | England | Scotland.| Ireland. | + | |Kingdom. |& Wales. | | | + +------+---------+---------+----------+----------+ + | 1851 | 17,649 | 10,314 | 2155 | 5180 | + | 1861 | 20,224 | 12,236 | 2335 | 5653 | + | 1871 | 19,159 | 11,518 | 2087 | 5554 | + | 1881 | 20,573 | 13,295 | 2142 | 5136 | + | 1891 | 20,781 | 14,192 | 2125 | 4464 | + | 1901 | 21,855 | 15,246 | 2638 | 3971 | + +------+---------+---------+----------+----------+ + + From this we find that the proportion of deaf and dumb to the + population has been as follows:-- + + +------+-----------------------------------------------+ + | | PROPORTION OF DEAF AND DUMB TO THE POPULATION.| + | YEAR.+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | United | England | Scotland. | Ireland. | + | | Kingdom. | & Wales. | | | + +------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 1851 | 1 in 1550 | 1 in 1739 | 1 in 1340 | 1 in 1264 | + | 1861 | 1 in 1430 | 1 in 1639 | 1 in 1310 | 1 in 1025 | + | 1871 | 1 in 1642 | 1 in 1972 | 1 in 1610 | 1 in 974 | + | 1881 | 1 in 1694 | 1 in 1953 | 1 in 1745 | 1 in 1008 | + | 1891 | 1 in 1814 | 1 in 2040 | 1 in 1893 | 1 in 1053 | + | 1901 | 1 in 1897 | 1 in 2132 | 1 in 1694 | 1 in 1122 | + +------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + + There has, therefore, been on the whole a steady decrease of those + described as "deaf and dumb" in proportion to the population in Great + Britain and Ireland. But in the census for 1901, in addition to the + 15,246 returned as "deaf and dumb" in England and Wales, 18,507 were + entered as being "deaf," 2433 of whom were described as having been + "deaf from childhood." + + Mr B. H. Payne, the principal of the Royal Cambrian Institution, + Swansea, makes the following remarks upon these figures:-- + + "The natural conclusion, of course, is that there has been a large + increase, relative as well as absolute, of the class in which we are + interested, which we call the deaf, and which includes the deaf and + dumb. Indeed, the number, large as it is, cannot be considered as + complete, for the schedules did not require persons who were only deaf + to state their infirmity, and, though many did so, it may be presumed + that more did not. + + "On the other hand, circumstances exist which may reasonably be held + to modify the conclusion that there has been a large relative increase + of the deaf. The spread of education, the development of local + government, and an improved system of registration, may have had the + effect of procuring fuller enumeration and more appropriate + classification than heretofore, while 1368 persons described simply as + dumb, and who therefore probably belong, not to the deaf, but to the + feeble-minded and aphasic classes, are included in the 'deaf and dumb' + total. It is also to be noted that some of those who described + themselves as 'deaf' though not born so may have been educated in the + ordinary way before they lost their hearing, and are therefore outside + the sphere of the operation of schools for the deaf. + + "In connexion with the census of 1891, it has been remarked in the + report of the institution that no provision was made in the schedules + for distinguishing the congenital from the non-congenital deaf, and + that it was desirable to draw such a distinction. To ascertain the + relative increase or decrease of one or the other section of the class + would contribute to our knowledge of the incidence of known causes of + deafness or to the confirmation or discovery of other causes, and so + far indicate the appropriate measures of prevention, while such an + inquiry as that recommended has, besides, a certain bearing upon + educational views. + + "The exact number of 'deaf and dumb' and 'deaf' children who are of + school age cannot be ascertained from the census tables, which give + the numbers in quinquennial age-groups, while the school age is seven + to sixteen. It is a pity that in this respect the functions of the + census department are not co-ordinated with those of the Board of + Education." + + John Hitz, the superintendent of the Volta Bureau for the Increase of + Knowledge Relating to the Deaf, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., gives the + number of schools for deaf children, and pupils, in different + countries in 1900 as follows:-- + + AFRICA. + + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+ + | Country. | Schools.| Teachers.| Pupils. | + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+ + | Algeria | 1 | 3 | 37 | + | Egypt | 1 | 2 | 6 | + | Cape Colony | 4 | 9* | 77 | + | Natal | 1 | 2 | 7 | + | +---------+----------+---------+ + | | 7 | 16* | 127 | + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+ + * Incomplete. + + ASIA. + + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+ + | Country. | Schools.| Teachers.| Pupils. | + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+ + | China | 3 | 10 | 43 | + | India | 3 | 13 | 73 | + | Japan | 3 | 24 | 337 | + | +---------+----------+---------+ + | | 9 | 47 | 453 | + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+ + + AUSTRALASIA. + + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+ + | Country. | Schools.| Teachers.| Pupils. | + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+ + | Australia | 6 | 41 | 282 | + | New Zealand | 1 | 5 | 50 | + | +---------+----------+---------+ + | | 7 | 46 | 332 | + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+ + + EUROPE. + + +------------------+---------+----------+---------+ + | Country. | Schools.| Teachers.| Pupils. | + +------------------+---------+----------+---------+ + | Austria-Hungary | 38 | 291 | 2440 | + | Belgium | 12 | 181 | 1265 | + | Denmark | 5 | 57 | 348 | + | France | 71 | 598 | 4098 | + | Germany | 99 | 798 | 6497 | + | Great Britain | 95 | 462 | 4222 | + | Italy | 47 | 234 | 2519 | + | Luxemburg | 1 | 3 | 22 | + | Netherlands | 3 | 74 | 473 | + | Norway | 5 | 54 | 309 | + | Portugal | 2 | 9 | 64 | + | Rumania | 1 | 3 | 46 | + | Russia, Finland, | | | | + | Livonia | 34 | 118 | 1719 | + | Servia | 2 | 2* | 26* | + | Spain | 11 | 60 | 462 | + | Sweden | 9 | 124 | 726 | + | Switzerland | 14 | 84 | 650 | + | Turkey | 1 | | | + | +---------+----------+---------| + | | 450 | 3152 |25,886 | + +------------------+---------+----------+---------+ + * Incomplete. + + NORTH AMERICA. + + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+ + | Country. | Schools.| Teachers.| Pupils. | + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+ + | Canada | 7 | 130 | 768 | + | United States | 126 | 1347 | 10,946 | + | Mexico | 1 | 13 | 46 | + | Cuba | 1 | | | + | +---------+----------+---------+ + | | 135 | 1490 | 11,760 | + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+ + + SOUTH AMERICA. + + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+ + | Country. | Schools.| Teachers.| Pupils. | + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+ + | Argentine | 4 | 18 | 133 | + | Brazil | 1 | 9 | 35 | + | Chile | 1 | 7 | 61 | + | Uruguay | 1 | | | + | +---------+----------+---------+ + | | 7 | 34 | 229 | + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+ + + SUMMARY. + + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+ + | Country. | Schools.| Teachers.| Pupils. | + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+ + |Africa | 7 | 16 | 127 | + |Asia | 9 | 47 | 453 | + |Australia | 7 | 46 | 332 | + |Europe | 450 | 3152 | 25,886 | + |North America | 135 | 1490 | 11,760 | + |South America | 7 | 34 | 229 | + | +---------+----------+---------+ + | | 615 | 4785 | 38,787 | + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+ + + These figures refer only to deaf children who are actually under + instruction, not to the whole deaf population. + + While it is gratifying to find that so much is being done in the way + of educating this class of the community, the number of schools in + most parts of the world is still lamentably inadequate. For instance, + taking the school age as from seven to sixteen, which is now made + compulsory by Act of Parliament in Great Britain, and assuming that + 20% of the deaf population are of that age, as they are in England, + there should be 40,000 deaf pupils under instruction in India alone, + whereas there are but seventy-three. There are 200,000 deaf of all + ages in India. And what an enormous total should be in schools in + China instead of forty-three! The whole of the rest of Asia, with the + exception of Japan, has apparently not a single school. There must be + many thousands of thousands of deaf (hundreds of thousands, if not + thousands of thousands of whom are of school age) in that continent, + unless indeed they are destroyed, which is not impossible. What are we + to say of Africa, where only 100 pupils are being taught; of South + America, with its paltry 200, and Australia's 300? To come to Europe + itself, Russia should have many times more pupils than her 1700. Even + in Great Britain the education of the deaf was not made compulsory + till 1893, and there are many still evading the law and growing up + uneducated. Mr Payne of Swansea estimated (_Institution Report_, + 1903-1904) from the 1901 census, that there must be approximately 204 + deaf of school age in South Wales and Monmouthshire, while only 144 + were accounted for in all the schools in that district according to Dr + Hitz's statistics. + + Dr Kerr Love (_Deaf Mutism_, p. 217) gives the following table, which + shows the number of deaf people in proportion to the population in the + countries named:-- + + Switzerland 1 in 408 + Austria " 765 + Hungary " 792 + Sweden " 977 + Prussia " 981 + Finland " 981 + Canada " 1003 + Norway " 1052 + Germany (exclusive of Prussia) " 1074 + Portugal " 1333 + Ireland " 1398* + India " 1459 + United States " 1514 + Denmark " 1538 + Greece " 1548 + France " 1600 + Italy " 1862 + Scotland " 1885* + Cape Colony " 1904 + England " 2043* + Spain " 2178 + Belgium " 2247 + Australasia " 2692 + Holland " 2985 + Ceylon " 4328 + + * The figures for England, Scotland and Ireland, according to the + 1901 census, are different and have been given above. + + According to a tabular statement of British and Colonial schools, June + 1899, the proportion of those born deaf to those who lost hearing + after birth was, at that time and in those countries, 2126 to 1251, as + far as returns had been made. Several schools had, however, failed to + give statistics. These figures show a proportion of nearly 59% + congenitally deaf persons to over 41% whose deafness is acquired. + Professor Fay, whose monumental work, _Marriages of the Deaf in + America_, deserves particular attention, mentions (p. 38) that of + 23,931 persons who attended American schools for the deaf up to the + year 1890, 9842, or 41%, were reported as congenitally deaf, and + 14,089, or 59%, as adventitiously deaf,--figures which exactly reverse + those just quoted. The classification of deafness acquired in infancy + with congenital deafness by some other authorities (giving rise to the + rather absurd term "toto-congenital" to describe the latter) is + unscientific. There is reason for the opinion that the non-congenital, + even when hearing has been lost in early infancy, acquire language + better, and it is a mistake from any point of view to include them in + the born deaf. + + Other statistics vary very much as to the proportion of born deaf, + some being as low as a quarter, and some as high as three-quarters, of + the whole class. We can only say, speaking of both sides of the + Atlantic, and counterbalancing one period with another, that the + general average appears to be about 50% for each. Probably the + percentage varies in different places for definite reasons, which we + shall now briefly consider. + +_Causes of Deafness._--These may be considered in two divisions, +pre-natal and post-natal. + +1. _Pre-Natal._--A small percentage of these is due, it seems, to +malformation of some portion of the auditory apparatus. Another +percentage is known to represent the children of the intermarriage of +blood relations. Dr Kerr Love (_Deaf Mutism_, p. 117) gives statistics +from thirteen British institutions which show that on a general average +at least 8% of the congenitally deaf are the offspring of such +marriages. Besides this, little is known. Beyond all doubt a much larger +percentage of deaf children are the offspring of marriages in which one +or both partners were born deaf than of ordinary marriages. But +inquiries into such phenomena have generally been directed towards +tracing deafness and not consanguinity, or at least the inquirer has +rarely troubled to make sure whether the grandparents or +great-grandparents on either side were relations or not. Such +investigations rarely go beyond ascertaining if the parents were related +to each other, though we have proof that a certain tendency towards any +particular abnormality may not exhibit itself in every generation of the +family in question. To give an illustration, suppose that G is a deaf +man. Several inquirers may trace back to the preceding generation F, and +to the grandparents E, and even to the great-grandparents D, in search +of an ancestor who is deaf, and such they may discover in the third +generation D. But probably not one of these several inquirers will ask G +if any of his grandparents or great-grandparents married a cousin, for +instance, though they may ask if his father did. To continue this +hypothetical case, the investigators will again trace back along the +family tree to generations C, B and A in search of an original _deaf_ +ancestor, on whose shoulders they seek to lay the blame of both D's and +G's deafness. Not finding any such, they will again content themselves +with asking if D's parents (generation C) were blood relations or not, +and, receiving an answer in the negative, desist from further inquiry in +this direction, assuming that D's deafness is the original cause of G's +deafness. They do not, we fear, inquire if any grandparents or +great-grandparents (hearing people) were related, with the same +persistency as they ask if any were deaf. The search for deafness is +pushed through several generations, the search for consanguinity is only +extended to one generation. Perhaps if it were carried further, it would +be discovered that A married his niece, and there lay the secret of the +deafness in both D and G. In other words, the deafness in D is not the +cause of that in G, but the deafness in both D and G are effects of the +consanguineous marriage in A. All this is, however, merely by way of +suggestion. We submit that if deafness in one generation may be followed +by deafness two or even three generations later, while the tendency to +deafness exists, but does not appear, in the intermediate generations, +it is only logical to inquire if deafness in the first discoverable +instance in a family may not be caused by consanguinity, the effect of +which is not seen for two or three generations in a similar manner. +Moreover it is probable that consanguinity in parents or grandparents +may often be denied. An exhaustive investigation along these lines is +desirable, for we believe that congenital deafness would be proved to be +due to consanguinity in hearing people, if the search were pushed far +enough back and the truth were told, in a far greater percentage of +cases than is now suspected. This is not disproved by quoting numbers of +cases where no deafness follows consanguinity in any generation, for +resulting weakness may be shown (where it exists) in many other ways +than by deafness. + +This theory receives support from the statistics quoted by Dr Kerr Love +(_Deaf Mutism_, p. 132), where the percentage of defective children +resulting from the consanguineous marriages of hearing people increases +in almost exact proportion to the nearness of affinity of the parents. +It is further borne out by statistics of the duchy of Nassau, and of +Berlin, both quoted by Dr Kerr Love (pp. 119, 120). These show 1 deaf +person in 1397 Roman Catholics, 1101 Evangelicals and 508 Jews in the +former case, and 1 in 3000 Roman Catholics, 2000 Protestants and 400 +Jews in the latter. When we are told that "Roman Catholics prohibit +marriages between persons who are near blood relations, Protestants view +such marriages as permissible, and Jews encourage intermarriage with +blood relations," these figures become suggestive. We find the same +greater tendency to deafness in thinly-populated and out-of-the-way +districts and countries where, owing to the circle of acquaintances +being limited, people are more likely to marry relations. + + With regard to the question of marriages of the deaf, Professor Edward + Allen Fay's work is so complete that the results of his six years' + labour are particularly worthy of notice, for, as the introduction + states, the book is a "collection of records of marriages of the deaf + far larger than all previous collections put together," and it deals + in detail with 4471 such marriages. The summary of statistics is as + follows (_Marriages of the Deaf in America_, p. 134):-- + + +----------------------+-----------------+------------+--------------------+ + | | NUMBER OF | NUMBER OF | PERCENTAGE. | + | | MARRIAGES. | CHILDREN. | | + | MARRIAGES +------+----------+------+-----+----------+---------+ + | OF THE DEAF. | |Resulting | | |Marriages | | + | |Total.| in deaf |Total.|Deaf.|resulting | Deaf | + | | |offspring.| | | in deaf |children.| + | | | | | |offspring.| | + +----------------------+------+----------+------+-----+----------+---------+ + | One or both partners | | | | | | | + | deaf | 3078 | 300 | 6782 | 588 | 9.7 | 8.6 | + | Both partners deaf | 2377 | 220 | 5072 | 429 | 9.2 | 8.4 | + | One partner deaf, | | | | | | | + | the other hearing | 599 | 75 | 1532 | 151 | 12.5 | 9.8 | + | One or both partners | | | | | | | + | congenitally deaf, | 1477 | 194 | 3401 | 413 | 13.1 | 12.1 | + | One or both partners | | | | | | | + | adventitiously deaf | 2212 | 124 | 4701 | 199 | 5.6 | 4.2 | + | Both partners | | | | | | | + | congenitally deaf | 335 | 83 | 779 | 202 | 24.7 | 25.9 | + | One partner | | | | | | | + | congenitally deaf, | | | | | | | + | the other | | | | | | | + | adventitiously deaf | 814 | 66 | 1820 | 119 | 8.1 | 6.5 | + | Both partners | | | | | | | + | adventitiously deaf | 845 | 30 | 1720 | 40 | 3.5 | 2.3 | + | One partner | | | | | | | + | congenitally deaf, | | | | | | | + | the other hearing | 191 | 28 | 528 | 63 | 14.6 | 11.9 | + | One partner | | | | | | | + | adventitiously deaf,| | | | | | | + | the other hearing | 310 | 10 | 713 | 16 | 3.2 | 2.2 | + | Both partners had | | | | | | | + | deaf relatives | 437 | 103 | 1060 | 222 | 23.5 | 20.9 | + | One partner had deaf | | | | | | | + | relatives, the other| | | | | | | + | had not | 541 | 36 | 1210 | 78 | 6.6 | 6.4 | + | Neither partner had | | | | | | | + | deaf relatives | 471 | 11 | 1044 | 13 | 2.3 | 1.2 | + | Both partners | | | | | | | + | congenitally deaf; | | | | | | | + | both had deaf | | | | | | | + | relatives | 172 | 49 | 429 | 130 | 28.4 | 30.3 | + | Both partners | | | | | | | + | congenitally deaf; | | | | | | | + | one had deaf | | | | | | | + | relatives, the other| | | | | | | + | had not | 49 | 8 | 105 | 21 | 16.3 | 20.0 | + | Both partners | | | | | | | + | congenitally deaf; | | | | | | | + | neither had deaf | | | | | | | + | relatives | 14 | 1 | 24 | 1 | 7.1 | 4.1 | + | Both partners | | | | | | | + | adventitiously deaf;| | | | | | | + | both had deaf | | | | | | | + | relatives. | 57 | 10 | 114 | 11 | 17.5 | 9.6 | + | Both partners | | | | | | | + | adventitiously deaf;| | | | | | | + | one had deaf | | | | | | | + | relatives, the other| | | | | | | + | had not | 167 | 7 | 357 | 10 | 4.1 | 2.8 | + | Both partners | | | | | | | + | adventitiously deaf;| | | | | | | + | neither had deaf | | | | | | | + | relatives | 284 | 2 | 550 | 2 | 0.7 | 0.3 | + | Partners | | | | | | | + | consanguineous | 31 | 14 | 100 | 30 | 45.1 | 30.0 | + +----------------------+------+----------+------+-----+----------+---------+ + + One point deserves special attention in the above list. It is that + where there are no deaf relatives (i.e. where there has not been a + history of deafness in the family) only one child out of twenty-four + is deaf, even when the parents were both born deaf themselves. Where + there were deaf relatives already in the family on both sides, and the + parents were born deaf, the percentage of deaf children is seven and a + half times as great. This seems to show that there are causes of + congenital deafness which are, comparatively speaking, unlikely to be + transmitted to future generations, while other causes of congenital + deafness are so liable to be perpetuated that one child in every three + is deaf. We conjecture that one original cause of congenital deafness + which reappears in a family is consanguinity--for instance, the + intermarriage of first or second cousins (hearing people) in some + previous generation. Out of the 2245 deaf persons who were born deaf, + 269 had parents who were blood relations, according to Fay. And + perhaps many more refrained from acknowledging the fact. Eleven had + grandparents who were cousins. This theory calls for investigation, + and while the marriage of deaf people is not encouraged, it is fair to + ask those who so strenuously oppose such unions whether they may not + be spending their energies on trying to check an effect instead of a + cause, and if that cause may not really be consanguinity,--witness the + percentage of deaf people among Roman Catholics, Protestants and Jews + before noticed. On the principle that prevention is better than cure + it is the intermarriage of cousins and other relations which should be + discouraged. The marriage of deaf people is inadvisable where there + has been deafness in the family in former generations, but the same + warning applies to all the other members of that family, for the + hearing members are as likely to transmit the defect of which deafness + is a symptom as the deaf members are. We are more concerned to + discover the primary cause of the defect, and take steps to prevent + the latter from occurring at all. Those who have no dissuasions for + hearing people, who might perhaps cause the misery, and only give + counsel to those among the transmitters of it who happen to be deaf, + are acting in a manner which is hardly logical. + +2. _Post-Natal._--We have collected and grouped the stated causes of +deafness in those partners of the marriages in America noticed by Fay. +About a hundred and thirty did not mention how they lost hearing. Any +errors in this calculation must be less than 1% at most, and can make no +material difference. In some cases two or more diseases are given as the +cause of deafness. In such cases where one is a very common cause of +deafness, and the other is unusual, the former is credited with being +the reason for the defect. Where both are common, we have divided the +cases between them in a rough proportion. + + Scarlet fever 973; scarlatina 3; scarlet rash 2 978 + + Spotted fever 260; meningitis 92; spinal meningitis 76; + cerebro-spinal meningitis 70; spinal fever 28; spinal + disease 8; congestion of spine 2 536 + + Brain fever 309; inflammation of brain 62; congestion of + brain 30; disease in brain 3 404 + + Typhoid 127; "fever" (unspecified) 117; typhus 17; + intermittent fever 14; bilious fever 11; other fevers 14 300 + + Gatherings, inflammations, in head; ulcers, disease, sores, + risings, &c., all but 22 being explicitly stated to be in + head or ears 276 + + "Sickness" 167; "illness" 49; "disease" 8; no definite + specification 12 236 + + Measles 191 + + Colds 101; colds in head, &c. 35; catarrh 19; catarrhal + fevers 10; chills, &c. 17 182 + + Whooping cough 77; diphtheria 34; lung fever, and various + diseases of lungs and throat 60 171 + + Falls 143 + + Fits and convulsions 58; spasms 18; teething 16 92 + + Scrofula 35; mumps 25; swellings on neck 2 62 + + Many various and unusual causes 60 + + Smallpox 8; chickenpox 6, cholera, &c. 7; canker, &c. 11; + erysipelas 13 45 + + Paralysis, &c. 12; nerve diseases 12; fright 8; palsy 3 35 + + Hydrocephalus 14; dropsy on brain or in head 17; dropsy 2 33 + + Various accidents, blows, kicks, &c. 31 + + Quinine 22; other medicines 7 29 + ---- + Total 3804 + ---- + +We have counted a hundred and thirty of those who were returned as +having lost hearing who were also stated to be the offspring of +consanguineous marriages. + + Dr Kerr Love (_Deaf Mutism_, p. 150) gives the following list compiled + from the registers of British institutions:-- + + Scarlet fever 331 + Miscellaneous causes 175 + Teething, convulsions, &c. 171 + Meningitis, brain fever, &c. 166 + Measles 138 + Falls and accidents 122 + Enteric and other fevers 119 + Disease, illness, &c. 37 + Whooping cough 33 + Suppurative ear diseases 18 + Syphilis 2 + ---- + 1312 + + Unknown causes 98 + + The same writer quotes Hartmann's table, compiled in 1880 from + continental statistics, as follows:-- + + Cerebral affections, inflammations, + convulsions 644 + Cerebro-spinal meningitis 295 + Typhus 260 + Scarlatina 205 + Measles 84 + Ear disease, proper 77 + Lesions of the head 70 + Other diseases 354 + ---- + 1989 + +There appears to be no cure for deafness that is other than partial; but +with the advance of science preventive treatment is expected to be +efficacious in scarlet fever, measles, &c. + + +_Condition of the Deaf._ + +1. _In Childhood._--It is difficult to impress people with two facts in +connexion with teaching language to the average child who was born deaf, +or lost hearing in early infancy. One is the necessity of the +undertaking, and the other is that this necessity is not due to mental +deficiency in the pupil. To the born deaf-mute in an English-speaking +country English is a foreign language. His inability to speak is due to +his never having heard that tongue which his mother uses. The same +reason holds good for his entire ignorance of that language. The hearing +child does not know a word of English when he is born, and never would +learn it if taken away from where it is spoken. He learns English +unconsciously by imitating what he hears. The deaf child never hears +English, and so he never learns it till he goes to school. Here he has +to start learning English--or whatever is the language of his native +land--in the same way as a hearing boy learns a foreign language. + +But another reason exists which renders his task much more difficult +than that of a normal English schoolboy learning, say, German. The +latter has two channels of information, the eye and the ear; the deaf +boy has only one, the eye. The hearing boy learns German by what he +hears of it in class as well as by reading it; the deaf boy can only +learn by what he sees. It is as if you tried to fill two cisterns of the +same capacity with two inlets to one and only one inlet to the other; +supposing the inlets to be the same size, the former will fill twice as +fast. So it is in the case of the hearing boy as compared with his deaf +brother. The cerebral capacity and quality are the same, but in one case +one of the avenues to the brain is closed, and consequently the +development is less rapid. Moreover, the thoughts are precisely those +which would be expected in people who form them only from what they see. +We were often asked by our deaf playmates in our childhood such +questions (in signs) as "What does the cat say?"--"The dog talks, does +he not?"--"Is the rainbow very hot on the roof of that house?" They have +often told us such things as that they used to think someone went to the +end of the earth and climbed up the sky to light the stars, and to pour +down rain through a sieve. + +But there is yet a third disadvantage for the already handicapped deaf +boy. He has no other language to build upon, while the other has his +mother tongue with which to compare the foreign language he is learning. +The latter already has a general idea of sentences and clauses, of tense +and mood, of gender, number and case, of substantives, verbs and +prepositions; and he knows that one language must form some sort of +parallel to another. He is already prepared to find a subject, predicate +and object, in the sentence of a foreign language, even when he knows +not a word of any but his own mother tongue. If he is told that a +certain word in German is an adjective, he understands what its function +is, even when he has yet to learn the meaning of the word. All this goes +for nothing in the case of the deaf pupil. The very elementary fact that +certain words denote certain objects--that there is such a class of word +as substantives--comes as a revelation to most deaf children. They have +to begin at seven laboriously and artificially to learn what an ordinary +baby has unconsciously and naturally discovered at the age of two. +English, spoken, written, printed or finger-spelled, is no more natural, +comprehensible or easy of acquirement to the deaf than is Chinese. The +manual alphabet is simply one way of expressing the vernacular on the +fingers; it is no more the deaf-mute's "natural" language than speech or +writing, and if he cannot express himself by the latter modes of +communicating, he cannot by spelling on the fingers. The last is simply +a case of _vicaria linguae manus_. None of these are languages in +themselves; whether you use pen or type, hand or voice, you are but +adopting one or other method of expressing one and the same +tongue--English or whatever it may be, that of a "people of a strange +speech and of a hard language, whose words they cannot understand." The +deaf child's natural mode of communication--more natural to him than any +verbal language is to hearing people--is the world-wide, natural +language of signs. + +2. _Natural Language of the Deaf._--We have just called signs a natural +language. While a purist might properly object to this adjective being +applied to all signs, yet it is not an unfair term to use as regards +this method of conversing as a whole, even in the United States, where +signs, being to a great extent the French signs invented by de l'Epee, +are more artificial than in England. The old story, by the way, of the +pupil of de l'Epee failing to write more than "hand, breast," as +describing what an incredulous investigator did when he laid his hand on +his breast, proves nothing. In all probability he had no idea that he +was expected to describe an action, and thought that he was being asked +the names of certain parts of the body. The hand was held out to him and +he wrote "hand." Then the breast was indicated by placing the hand on +it, and he wrote "breast." Moreover, the artificial element is much less +pronounced than is supposed by most of those who are loudest in their +condemnation of signs, there being almost invariably an obvious +connexion between the sign and idea. These critics are generally people +whose acquaintance with the subject is rather limited, and the +thermometer of whose zeal in waging war against gestures generally falls +in proportion as the photometer of their knowledge about them shows an +increasing light. We may go still further and point out that to object +to any sign on the ground of artificiality _per se_, is to strain at the +gnat and to swallow the camel, for English itself is one of the most +artificial languages in existence, and certainly is more open to such an +objection than signs. If we apply the same test to English that is +applied to signs by those who would rule out any which they suppose +cannot come under the head of natural gesture or pantomime, what +fraction of our so-called natural language should we have left? For a +spoken word to be "natural" in this sense it must be onomatopoetic, and +what infinitesimal percentage of English words are such? A foreigner, +unacquainted with the language, could not glean the drift of a +conversation in English, except perhaps a trifle from the tone of the +voices and more from the natural signs used--the smiles and frowns, the +expressions of the faces, the play of eyes, lips, hands and whole body. +The only words he could possibly understand without such aids are some +such onomatopoetic words as the cries of animals--"mew," "chirrup," &c., +and a few more like "bang" or "swish." + +The reason why we insist emphatically upon the importance of teaching +English in schools for the deaf in English-speaking countries, is, +firstly, because that is the language which the pupil will be called +upon to use in his intercourse with his fellow-men after he leaves +school, and secondly, because, if his grasp of that tongue only be +sufficient and his interest in books be properly aroused, he can go on +educating himself in after-life by means of reading. Time tables are +overcrowded with kindergarten, clay modelling, wood-carving, carpentry, +and other things which are excellent in themselves. But there is not +time for everything, and these are not as important in the case of the +deaf pupil as language. Putting aside the question of religion and moral +training, we consider the flooding of their minds with general +knowledge, and the teaching of English to enable them to express their +thoughts to their neighbours, to be of paramount importance, so +paramount that all other branches of education in their turn pale into +insignificance by comparison with these, while the question of methods +of instruction should be subservient to these main ends. Too many make +speech in itself an end. This is a mistake. Speech is not in itself +English; it is only one way of expressing that language. And we are +little concerned to inquire by what means the deaf pupil expresses +himself in English so long as he does so express himself, whether by +speech or writing, or as he does so express himself, whether by speech +or writing or finger-spelling--for if he can finger-spell he can write. +It is not the mere fact that he can make certain sounds or write certain +letters or form the alphabet on his hands that should signify. It is the +actual language that he uses, whatever be the means, and the thoughts +that are enshrined in the language, that should be our criterion when +judging of his education. + +The importance of English is insisted upon because to place the deaf +child in touch with his English-speaking fellow-men we must teach him +their language, and also because he can thereby educate himself by means +of books if, and when, he has a sufficient command of that language. The +reason is not because the vernacular is actually superior to signs as a +means of conversation. The sign language is quite equal to the +vernacular as a means of expression. The former is as much our mother +tongue, if we may say so, as the latter; we used one language as soon as +the other, in our earliest infancy; and, after a lifelong experience of +both, we affirm that signs are a more beautiful language than English, +and provide possibilities of a wealth of expression which English does +not possess, and which probably no other language possesses. + +That others whose knowledge of signs is lifelong hold similar opinions +is shown by the following extract from _The Deaf and their +Possibilities_, by Dr Gallaudet:-- + + "Thinking that the question may arise in the minds of some, 'Does the + sign language give the deaf, when used in public addresses, all that + speech affords to the hearing?' I will say that my experience and + observation lead me to answer with a decided affirmative. On occasions + almost without number it has been my privilege to interpret, through + signs to the deaf, addresses given in speech; I have addressed + hundreds of assemblages of deaf persons in the college, in schools I + have visited, and elsewhere, using signs for the original expression + of thought; I have seen many more lectures and public debates given + originally in signs; I have seen conventions of deaf-mutes in which no + word was spoken, and yet all the forms of parliamentary proceedings + were observed, and the most earnest, and even excited, discussions + were carried on. I have seen the ordinances of religion administered, + and the full service of the Church rendered in signs; and all this + with the assurance growing out of my complete understanding of the + language--a knowledge which dates from my earliest childhood--that for + all the purposes enumerated gestural expression is in no respect + inferior, and is in many respects superior, to oral, verbal utterance + as a means of communicating ideas." + +The following is an analysis of the sign language given by Mr Payne of +the Swansea Institution, together with his explanatory notes:-- + +"_Analysis of the Sign Language._ + + I. Facial expression. + + /1. Sympathetic \ + II. Gesture < 2. Representative (= Natural signs | Conventional + \3. Systematic (a) Arbitrary signs > especially in + (b) Grammatical signs / shortened form. + III. Mimic action. + + IV. Pantomime. + + + "_Observations._--People speak of 'manual signs.' Of course there are + signs which are made with the hands only, as there are others which + are labial, &c. But the sign language is comprehensive, and at times + the whole frame is engaged in its use. A late American teacher could + and did 'sign' a story to his pupils with his hands behind him. Facial + expression plays an important part in the language. Sympathetic + gestures are individualistic and spontaneous, and are sometimes + unconsciously made. The speaker, feeling that words are inadequate, + reinforces them with gesture. Arbitrary signs are, e.g., drumming with + three separated fingers on the chin for 'uncle.' Grammatical signs are + those which are used for inflections, parts of speech, or letters as + in the manual alphabet, and some numerical signs, though other + numerals may be classed as natural; also signs for sounds, and even + labial signs. Signs, whether natural or arbitrary, which gain + acceptance, especially if they are shortened, are 'conventional.' + 'Mimic action' refers, e.g., to the sign for sawing, the side of one + hand being passed to and fro over the side or back of the + other.'Pantomime' means, e.g., when the signer pretends to hang up his + hat and coat, roll up his sleeves, kneel on his board, guide the saw + with his thumb, saw through, wipe his forehead, &c." + +Illustrations of one style of numerical signs are given below. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +Units are signified with the palm turned inwards; tens with the palm +turned outwards; hundreds with the fingers downwards; thousands with the +left hand to the right shoulder; millions with the hand near the +forehead. For 12, sign 10 outwards and 2 inwards, and so on up to 19. 21 += 2 outwards, 1 inwards, and so on up to 30. 146 = 1 downwards, 4 +outwards, 6 inwards. 207,837 = 2 downwards, 7 inwards (both at +shoulder), 8 downwards, 3 outwards, 7 inwards. 599,126,345 = 5 +downwards, 9 outwards, 9 inwards (all near forehead); 1 downwards, 2 +outwards, 6 inwards (all at shoulder); 3 downwards, 4 outwards, 5 +inwards (in front of chest). + +Only the third, and a few of the second, subdivision of the second +section of the above classes of signs can be excluded when talking of +signs as being the deaf-mute's natural language. In fact we hesitate to +call representative gesture--e.g. the horns and action of milking for +"cow," the smelling at something grasped in the hand for "flower," +&c.--conventional at all, except when shortened as the usual sign for +"cat" is, for instance, from the sign for whiskers _plus_ stroking the +fur on back and tail _plus_ the action of a cat licking its paw and +washing its face, to the sign for whiskers only. + +The deaf child expresses himself in the sign language of his own accord. +The supposition that in manual or combined schools generally they "teach +them signs" is incorrect, except that perhaps occasionally a few pupils +may be drilled and their signs polished for a dramatic rendering of a +poem at a prize distribution or public meeting, which is no more +"teaching them signs" than training hearing children to recite the same +poem orally and polishing their rendering of it is teaching them +English. If the deaf boy meets with some one who will use gesture to +him, a new sign will be invented as occasion requires by one or other to +express a new idea, and if it be a good one is tacitly adopted to +express that idea, and so an entire language is built up. It follows +that in different localities signs will differ to a great extent, but +one who is accustomed to signing can readily see the connexion and +understand what is meant even when the signs are partly novel to him. We +are sometimes asked if we can make a deaf child understand abstract +ideas by this language. Our answer is that we can, if a hearing child of +no greater age and intelligence can understand the same ideas in +English. Signs are particularly the best means of conveying religious +truths to the deaf. If you wish to appeal to him, to impress him, to +reach his heart and his sympathies (and, incidentally, to offer the best +possible substitute for music), use his own eloquent language of signs. +We have conversed by signs with deaf people from all parts of the +British Isles, from France, Norway and Sweden, Poland, Finland, Italy, +Russia, Turkey, the United States, and found that they are indeed a +world-wide means of communication, even when we wandered on to most +unusual and abstract subjects. Deaf people in America converse with Red +Indians with ease thereby, which shows how natural the generality of +even de l'Epee signs are. The sign language is everybody's natural +language, not only the deaf-mute's. + + Addison (_Deaf Mutism_, p. 283) quotes John Bulwer as follows:--"What + though you (the deaf and dumb) cannot express your minds in those + verbal contrivances of man's invention: yet you want not speech who + have your whole body for a tongue, having a language which is more + natural and significant, which is common to you with us, to wit, + gesture, the general and universal language of human nature." The same + writer says further on (p. 297): "The same process of growth goes on + alike with the signs of the deaf and dumb as with the spoken words of + the hearing. Arnold, than whom no stronger advocate of the oral method + exists, recognizes this in his comment on this principle of the German + school, for he writes: 'It is much to be regretted that teachers + should indulge in unqualified assertions of the impossibility of + deaf-mutes attaining to clear conceptions and abstract thinking by + signs or mimic gestures. Facts are against them.' Again, Graham Bell, + who is generally considered an opponent of the sign system, says: 'I + think that if we have the mental condition of the child alone in view + without reference to language, no language will reach the mind like + the language of signs; it is the method of reaching the mind of the + deaf child.'" + + The opinions of the deaf themselves, from all parts of the world, are + practically unanimous on this question. In the words of Dr Smith, + president of the World's Congress of the Deaf held at St Louis, + Missouri, in 1904, under the auspices of the National Association of + the Deaf, U.S.A., "the educated deaf have a right to be heard in these + matters, and they must and shall be heard." A portion may be quoted of + the resolutions passed at that congress of 570 of the best-informed + deaf the world has ever seen, at least scores, if not hundreds, of + them holding degrees, and being as well educated as the vast majority + of teachers of the deaf in England: "Resolved, that the oral method, + which withholds from the congenitally and quasi-congenitally deaf the + use of the language of signs outside the schoolroom, robs the children + of their birthright; that those champions of the oral method, who have + been carrying on a warfare, both overt and covert, against the use of + the language of signs by the adult deaf, are not friends of the deaf; + and that, in our opinion, it is the duty of every teacher of the deaf, + no matter what method he or she uses, to have a working command of the + sign language." + +It is often urged as an objection to the use of signs that those who use +them think in them, and that their English (or other vernacular +language) suffers in consequence. There is, however, no more objection +to thinking in signs than to thinking in any other language, and as to +the second objection, facts are against such a statement. The +best-educated deaf in the world, as a class, are in America, and the +American deaf sign almost to a man. It is true that at first a beginner +in school may, when at a loss how to express himself in words, render +his thoughts in sign-English, if we may use the expression, just as a +schoolboy will sometimes put Latin words in the English order. That is, +the deaf pupil puts the word in the natural order of the signs, which is +really the logical order, and is much nearer the Latin sequence of words +than the English. But, firstly, if he had always been forbidden to use +signs he would not express himself in English any better in that +particular instance; he would simply not attempt to express himself at +all,--so he loses nothing, at least; and secondly, it is perfectly easy +to teach him in a very short time that each language has its own idiom +and that the thought is expressed in a different order in each. + +Of the deaf child's moral condition nothing more need be said than that +it is at first exactly that of his hearing brother, and his development +therein depends entirely upon whether he is trained to the same degree. +The need of this is great. He is quite as capable of religious and moral +instruction, and benefits as much by what he receives of it. Happiness +is a noticeable feature of the character of the deaf when they are +allowed to mix with each other. The charge of bad temper can usually be +sustained only when the fault is on the side of those with whom they +live. For instance, the latter often talk in the presence of the deaf +person without saying a word to him, and if he then shows irritation, +which is not often in any case, it is no more to be wondered at than if +a hearing person resents whispering or other secret communication in his +presence. + +3. _Social Status, &c._--From the 1901 census "Summary Tables" we gather +the following facts concerning the occupations of the deaf, aged ten and +upwards, in England and Wales. About half of the total number, taking +males and females together (13,450), are engaged in occupations--6665. +The rest--6785--are retired or unoccupied. Of the former, the following +table given below shows the distribution:-- + + In general or local government work (clerks, messengers, &c.) 11 + In professional occupations and subordinate services 87 + In domestic offices or services 788 + In commercial occupations 12 + In work connected with conveyance of men, goods or messages 144 + In agriculture 568 + In fishing 3 + In and about mines and quarries, &c. 151 + In work connected with metals, machines, implements, &c. 503 + In work connected with precious metals, jewels, games, &c. 46 + In building and works of construction 485 + In work connected with wood, furniture, fittings and decorations 470 + In work connected with brick, cement, pottery and glass 153 + In work connected with chemicals, oil, soap, &c. 46 + In work connected with skins, hair and feathers 137 + In work connected with paper, prints, books, &c. 238 + In work connected with textile fabrics 407 + In work connected with dress 1829 + In work connected with food, tobacco, drink and lodging 194 + In work connected with gas, water and electric supply, and + sanitary service 22 + Other general and undefined workers and dealers 371 + ---- + Total 6665 + + Among those in professional occupations are a clergyman, five law + clerks, ten schoolmasters, teachers, &c., thirty-seven painters, + engravers and sculptors, and seven photographers. Of those not engaged + in occupations, 235 have retired from business, and 245 are living on + their own means. Probably a very large number of the remainder were + out of work or engaged in odd jobs at the time of the census; it would + certainly be incorrect to take the words "Without specified + occupations or unoccupied" to mean that those classified as such were + permanently unable to support themselves. + + The commonest occupations of men are bootmaking (555), tailoring + (429), farm-labouring (287), general labouring (257), carpentry (195), + cabinet-making (142), painting, decorating and glazing (95), + French-polishing (88), harness-making, &c. (80). + + The commonest occupations of women are dressmaking (484), domestic + service (367), laundry and washing service (230), tailoring (170), + shirtmaking, &c. (81), charing (79). + + In Munich there are about sixty deaf artists, especially painters and + sculptors. In Germany and Austria generally, deaf lithographers, + xylographers and photographers are well employed, as are bookbinders + in Leipzig in particular, and labourers in the provinces. + + In France there are several deaf writers, journalists, &c., two + principals of schools, an architect, a score or so of painters, + several of whom are ladies, nine sculptors, and a few engravers, + photographers, proof-readers, &c. + + Italy boasts deaf wood-carvers, sculptors, painters, and architects + graduating from the universities and academies of fine arts with + prizes and medals; also type-setters, pressmen, carvers of coral, + ivory and precious stones. + + Two gentlemen in the office of the Norwegian government are deaf, as + are four in the engraving department of the land survey; one is a + master-lithographer, another a master-printer, a third a civil + engineer, and the rest are engaged in the usual trades, as are those + in Sweden. + +The deaf form societies of their own to guard their interests, for +social intercourse and other purposes. In England there is the British +Deaf and Dumb Association; in America the National Association of the +Deaf and many lesser societies; Germany has no fewer than 150 such +associations, some of which are athletic clubs, benefit societies, +dramatic clubs, and so forth. The central Federation is the largest +German association. France has the National Union of Deaf-Mutes and +others, many being benefit clubs. Italy has some societies; Sweden has +eight. + +In the United States there are no fewer than fifty-three publications +devoted to the interests of the deaf, most of them being school +magazines published in the institutions themselves. Great Britain and +Ireland have six, four of them being school magazines. France, Germany, +Sweden, Hungary have several, and Finland, Russia, Norway, Denmark and +Austria are represented. Canada has three. + +There are many Church and other missions to the deaf in England and +abroad, which are much needed owing to the difficulty the average deaf +person has in understanding the archaic language of both Bible and +Prayer-book. Until they have this explained to them it is useless to +place these books in their hands, and even where they are well-educated +and can follow the services, they fail to get the sermon. Chaplains and +missioners engage in all branches of pastoral work among them, and also +try to find them employment, interpret for them where necessary, and +interview people on their behalf. + +The difficulty of obtaining employment for the deaf has been increased +in Great Britain by the Employers' Liability and Workmen's Compensation +Acts, for masters are afraid--needlessly, as facts show--to employ them, +under the impression that they are more liable to accidents owing to +their affliction. + +The new After-Care Committees of the London County Council are a late +confession of a need which other bodies have long endeavoured to supply. +Education should be a development of the whole nature of the child. The +board of education in England provides for intellectual, industrial and +physical training, but does not take cognizance of those parts of +education which are far more important--the social, moral and spiritual. +Some teachers, both oral and manual, do an incalculable amount of good +at the cost of great self-sacrifice and in face of much discouragement. +They deserve the highest praise for so doing, and such work needs to be +carried on after their pupils leave school. + + +_Education._ + +_History._[2]--"Who hath made man's mouth? or who maketh a man dumb, or +deaf, or seeing, or blind? Is it not I the Lord?" (Ex. iv. 11). Such is +the first known reference to the deaf. But the significance of this +statement was not realized by the ancients, who mercilessly destroyed +all the defective, the deaf among the rest. Greek and Roman custom +demanded their death, and they were thrown into the river, or otherwise +killed, without causing any comment but that so many encumbrances had +been removed. They were regarded as being on a mental level with idiots +and utterly incapable of helping themselves. In later times Roman law +forbade those who were deaf and dumb from birth to make a will or +bequest, placing them under the care of guardians who were responsible +for them to the state; though if a deaf person had lost hearing after +having been educated, and could either speak or write, he retained his +rights. Herodotus refers to a deaf son of Croesus, whom he declares to +have suddenly recovered his speech upon seeing his father about to be +killed. Gellius makes a similar statement with reference to a certain +athlete. Hippocrates was in advance of Aristotle when he realized that +deaf-mutes did not speak simply because they did not know how to; for +the last-named seems to have considered that some defect of the +intellect was the cause of their inability to utter articulate sounds. +Pliny the elder and Messalla Corvinus mention deaf-mutes who could +paint. + +The true mental condition of the deaf was realized, however, by few, if +any, before the time of Christ. He, as He opened the ears of the deaf +man and loosened his tongue, talked to him in his own language, the +language of signs. + +St Augustine erred amazingly when he declared that the deaf could have +no faith, since "faith comes by hearing only." The Talmud, on the other +hand, recognized that they could be taught, and were therefore not +idiotic. + +It is, however, with those who attempted to educate the deaf that we are +here chiefly concerned. The first to call for notice is St John of +Beverley. The Venerable Bede tells how this bishop made a mute speak and +was credited with having performed a miracle in so doing. Probably it +was nothing more than the first attempt to teach by the oral method, and +the greatest credit is due to him for being so far in advance of his +times as to try to instruct his pupil at all. Bede himself invented a +system of counting on the hands; and also a "manual speech," as he +called it,--using his numerals to indicate the number of the letter of +the alphabet; thus, the sign for "seven" would also signify the letter +"g," and so forth. But we do not know that he intended this alphabet for +the use of the deaf. + +It is not until the 16th century that we hear much of anybody else who +was interested in the deaf, but at this date we find Girolamo Cardan +stating that they can be instructed by writing, after they have been +shown the signification of words, since their mental power is unaffected +by their inability to hear. + +Pedro Ponce de Leon (c. 1520-1584), a Spanish Benedictine monk, is more +worthy of notice, as he, to use his own words, taught the deaf "to +speak, read, write, reckon, pray, serve at the altar, know Christian +doctrine, and confess with a loud voice." Some he taught languages and +science. That he was successful was proved by other witness than his +own, for Panduro, Valles and de Morales all give details of his work, +the last-named giving an account by one of Ponce's pupils of his +education. De Morales says further that Ponce de Leon addressed his +scholars either by signs or writing, and that the reply came by speech. +It appears that this master committed his methods to writing. Though +this work is lost it is probable that his system was put into practice +by Juan Pablo Bonet. This Spaniard successfully instructed a brother of +his master the constable of Castile, who had lost hearing at the age of +two. His method corresponded in a great measure to that which is now +called the combined system, for, in the work which he wrote, he shows +how the deaf can be taught to speak by reducing the letters to their +phonetic value, and also urges that finger-spelling and writing should +be used. The connexion between all three, he goes on to say, should be +shown the pupils, but the manual alphabet should be mastered first. +Nouns he taught by pointing to the objects they represented; verbs he +expressed by pantomime; while the value of prepositions, adverbs and +interjections, as well as the tenses of verbs, he believed could be +learnt by repeated use. The pupil should be educated by interrogation, +conversation, and carefully graduated reading. The success of Bonet's +endeavours are borne witness to by Sir Kenelm Digby, who met the teacher +at Madrid. + +Bonifacio's work on signs, in which he uses every part of the body for +conversational purposes, may be mentioned before passing to John Bulwer, +the first Englishman to treat of teaching the deaf. In his three works, +_Philocophus_, _Chirologia_ and _Chironomia_, he enlarges upon Sir +Kenelm Digby's account, and argues about the possibility of teaching the +deaf by speech. But he seems to have had no practical experience of the +art. + +Dr John Wallis is more important, though it has been disputed whether he +was not indebted to his predecessors for some ideas. He taught by +writing and articulation. He took the trouble to classify to a certain +extent the various sounds, dividing both vowels and "open" consonants +into gutturals, palatals and labials. The "closed" consonants he +subdivided into mutes, semi-mutes and semi-vowels. Language, Wallis +maintained, should be taught when the pupil had first learned to write, +and the written characters should be associated with some sort of manual +alphabet. Names of things should be given first, and then the parts of +those things, e.g. "body" first, and then, under that, "head," "arm," +"foot," &c. Then the singular and plural should be given, then +possessives and possessive pronouns, followed by particles, other +pronouns and adjectives. These should be followed by the copulative +verb; after which should come the intransitive verb and its nominative +in the different tenses, and the transitive with its object in the same +way. Lastly, prepositions and conjunctions should be taught. All this, +Wallis held, ought to be done by writing as well as signing, for he did +not lose sight of the fact that "we must learn the pupil's language in +order to teach him ours." + +Dr William Holder, who read an essay before the Royal Society in +1668-1669 on the "Elements of Speech," added an appendix concerning the +deaf and dumb. He describes the organs of speech and their positions in +articulation, suggesting teaching the pupil the sounds in order of +simplicity, though he held that he must learn to write first. Afterwards +the pupil must associate the letters with a manual alphabet. Holder +notices that dumbness is due to the want of hearing, and therefore +speech can be acquired through watching the lips, though he admits the +task is a laborious one. He also urges the teacher to be patient and to +make the work as interesting to the pupil as possible. Command of +language, he maintains, will enable the deaf person to read a sentence +from the lips if he gets most of the words; for he will be able to +supply those he did not see, from his knowledge of English. + +Johan Baptist van Helmont treated of the work of the vocal organs. Amman +says that Van Helmont had discovered a manual alphabet and used it to +instruct the deaf, but had not attained very good results. + +George Sibscota published a work in 1670 called the _Deaf and Dumb Man's +Discourse_, in which he contradicts Aristotle's opinion that people are +dumb because of defects in the vocal organs; for they are, he believed, +dumb because never taught to speak. They can gain knowledge by sight, he +maintained; can write, converse by signs, speak and lip-read. Ramirez de +Carrion also taught the deaf to speak and write, as did P. Lana Terzi. + +About George Dalgarno more is known. He wrote, in 1680, his +_Didascalocophus_, or _Deaf-Mute's Preceptor_, in which he makes the +mistake of saying that the deaf have the advantage over the blind in +opportunities for learning language. The deaf can, in his opinion, be +taught to speak, and also to read the lips if the letters are very +distinct. They ought to read, write and spell on the fingers constantly, +but use no signs. Substantives are to be taught by associating them with +the things they represent; then adjectives should be joined to them. +Verbs should be taught by suiting the action to the words, and +associating the pronouns with them. Other parts of speech should be +given as opportunities of explaining them present themselves. Dalgarno +invented an alphabet, the letters being on the joints of the fingers and +palm of the left hand. + +John Conrad Amman published his _Dissertatio de Loquela_ in 1700. In the +first chapter he treats, among other things, of the nature of the breath +and voice and the organs of speech. In the second chapter he classifies +sounds into vowels, semi-vowels and consonants, and a detailed +description of each sound is given. The third chapter is devoted to +showing how to produce and control the voice, to utter each sound from +writing or from the lips, and to combine them into syllables and words. +It was only after the pupil had attained to considerable success in +articulation and lip-reading that Amman taught the meaning of words and +language; but the name of this teacher will long stand as that of one of +the most successful the world has known. + +Passing over Camerarius, Schott, Kerger (who began teaching language +sooner than Amman did, and depended more on writing and signs), Raphel +(who instructed three deaf daughters), Lasius, Arnoldi, Lucas, Vanin, de +Fay (himself deaf) and many others, we come to Giacobbo Rodriguez +Pereira, the pioneer of deaf-mute education in France, if we except de +Fay. Beginning his experience by instructing his deaf sister, he soon +attained to considerable success with two other pupils; his chief aim +being, as he said, to make them comprehend the meaning of, and express +their thoughts in, language. A commission of the French Academy of +Sciences, before whom he appeared, testified to the genuineness of his +achievements, noticing that he wrote and signed to his pupils, and +stating that he hoped to proceed to the instruction of lip-reading. +Pereira soon after came under the notice of the duc de Chaulnes, whose +deaf godson, Saboureaux de Fontenay, became his pupil; and in five years +this boy was well able to speak and read the lips. Pereira had several +other pupils. Probably kindness and affection were two of the secrets of +his success, for the love his scholars showed for him was unbounded. His +method is only partly known, but he used a manual alphabet which +indicated the pronunciation of the letters and some combinations. He +used reading and writing; but signs were only called to his aid when +absolutely necessary. Language he taught by founding it on action where +possible, abstract ideas being gradually developed in later stages of +the education. + +We now come to the abbe de l'Epee (q.v.). The all-important features in +this teacher's character and method were his intense devotion to his +scholars and their class, and the fact that he lived among them and +talked to them as one of themselves. Meeting with two girls who were +deaf, he started upon the task of instructing them, and soon had a +school of sixty pupils, supported entirely by himself. He spared himself +no expense and no trouble in doing his utmost to benefit the deaf, +learning Spanish for the sole purpose of reading Bonet's work, and +making this book and Amman's _Dissertatio de Loquela_ his guiding +lights. But de l'Epee was the first to attach great importance to signs; +and he used them, along with writing, until the pupil had some knowledge +of language before he passed on to articulation and lip-reading. To the +latter method, however, he never paid as much attention as he did to +instructing by signs and writing, and finally he abandoned it altogether +through lack of time and means. He laboured long on a dictionary of +signs, but never completed it. He was attacked by Pereira, who condemned +his method as being detrimental, and this was the beginning of the +disputes as to the merits of the different methods which have lasted to +the present day; but whatever opinions we may hold as to the best means +of instructing the deaf we cannot but admire the devoted teacher who +spent his life and his all in benefiting this class of the community. + +Samuel Heinicke first began his work in 1754 at Dresden, but in 1778 he +removed to Leipzig and started on the instruction of nine pupils. His +methods he kept secret; but we know that he taught orally, using signs +only when he considered them helpful, and spelling only to combine +ideas. He wrote two books and several articles on the subject of +educating the deaf, but it is from Walther and Fornari that we learn +most about his system. At first Heinicke laid stress on written +language, starting with the concrete and going on to the abstract; and +he only passed to oral instruction when the pupils could express +themselves in fairly correct language. Subsequently, however, he +expressed the opinion that speech should be the sole method of +instruction, and, strange to say, that by speech alone could thoughts be +fully expressed. + +Henry Baker became tutor to a deaf girl in 1720, and his success led to +the establishment of a private school in London. He also kept his system +a secret, but recently his work on lessons for the deaf was discovered, +from which we gather that he adopted writing, drawing, speech and +lip-reading as his course of instruction. The point to notice is that +after the primary stages Baker turned events of every-day life to use in +his teaching. His pupils went about with him, and he taught by +conversation upon what they saw in the streets,--an excellent method; +but it is a pity that such a good teacher had not the philanthropy to +make his methods known and to give the poorer deaf the benefit of them, +as de l'Epee did. + +A school was established in Edinburgh in 1760 by Thomas Braidwood, who +taught by the oral method. He taught the sounds first, then syllables, +and finally words, teaching their meaning. In 1783 Braidwood came to +Hackney, whence he moved to Old Kent Road, and in 1809 there were +seventy pupils in what was lately the Old Kent Road Institution. +Braidwood's method was practically a development of Wallis's. We must +regard him as the founder of the first public school for the deaf in +England. + +It was only at the beginning of the 19th century that a brighter day +dawned on the deaf as a class. With the sole exception of de l'Epee no +teacher had yet undertaken the instruction of a deaf child who could not +pay for it. Now things began to be different. Institutions were founded, +and their doors were opened to nearly all. + +Dr Watson, the first principal of the Old Kent Road "Asylum," taught by +articulation and lip-reading, reading and writing, explaining by signs +to some extent, but using pictures much more, according to Addison, and +composing a book of these for the use of his pupils. From Addison (_Deaf +Mutism_, pp. 248 ff.) we learn what developments followed. In Vienna, +Prague and Berlin, schools had been founded in rapid succession before +the 19th century dawned, and in 1810 the Edinburgh institution opened +its doors. Nine years later the Glasgow school was established and, +under the able guidance of Mr Duncan Anderson (after several other +headmasters had been tried) from 1831, taught pupils whose grasp of +English was equal to that of the very best educated deaf in England +to-day, as has been proved by conversation with the survivors. Mr +Anderson's great aim was to teach his pupils language, and we might look +almost in vain for a teacher in England to succeed as well with a whole +class in the beginning of the 20th century as he did in the middle of +the 19th. He wrote a dictionary, used pictures and signs to explain +English, and apparently paid little or no attention to most of the +numerous subjects attempted to-day in schools for the deaf, which, while +excellent in themselves, generally exclude what is far more important +from the curriculum. + +Addison further mentions Mr Baker of Doncaster, a contemporary of +Anderson, as having compiled many lesson books for deaf children which +came to be used in ordinary schools also, and Mr Scott of Exeter as +having, together with Baker, "exercised a profound influence on the +course of deaf-mute education in this country." "Written language," +explained by signs where necessary, was the watchword of these teachers. + +Moritz Hill is credited with being principally responsible for having +evolved the German, or "pure," oral method out of the experimental stage +to that at which it has arrived at the present day. Arnold of Riehen is +also honourably mentioned. + +The great "oral revival" now swept all before it. The German method was +enthusiastically welcomed in all parts of Europe, and at the Milan +conference in 1880 was almost unanimously adopted by teachers from all +countries. Those in high places countenanced it; educational authorities +awoke to the fact that the deaf needed special teaching, and came to the +conclusion that the "pure" oral method was the panacea that would +restore all the deaf to a complete equality with the hearing in any +conversation upon any subject that might be broached; many governments +suddenly took the deaf under the shelter of their own ample wings, and +the "bottomless pocket of the ratepayer," instead of the purse of the +charitable, became in many cases the fount of supply for what has been a +costly and by no means entirely satisfactory experiment in the history +of their education. The "pure" oral method has had a long and unique +trial in England in circumstances which other methods have never +enjoyed. + +Meanwhile in the United States Dr Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet was elected +in 1815 to go to Europe to inquire into the methods of educating the +deaf in vogue there. This was at a meeting held in the house of a +physician named Cogswell, in Hartford, Connecticut, and was the result +of the latter's discovery that eighty-four persons in the state besides +his own little girl were deaf. Henry Winter Syle, himself deaf, tells +how "four months were spent in learning that the doors of the British +schools were 'barred with gold, and opened but to golden keys,'" and +how, disappointed in England, Gallaudet met with a ready response to his +inquiries in Paris. With Laurent Clerc, a deaf teacher, he returned to +the United States in 1816, and the "Connecticut Asylum" was founded a +year after with seven pupils. The name was changed to "The American +Asylum" later, when it was enlarged. This was followed by the +Pennsylvania, New York and Kentucky institutions, with the second of +which the Peet family were connected. Dr Gallaudet married one of his +deaf pupils, Sophia Fowler, and, after a very happy married life, Mrs +Gallaudet accompanied her youngest son, Edward Miner Gallaudet, to the +Columbia institution for the Deaf and Dumb, Washington, D.C., founded in +1857 by Congress and largely supported by Amos Kendall, and to the +National Deaf Mute College, which was founded in 1864, was renamed the +Gallaudet College, in honour of Dr T. H. Gallaudet, in 1893, and with +the Kendall School (secondary), now forms the Columbia Institution. This +college is supported by Congress. + + The following account of the work done at the National Deaf-Mute + College at Washington is worth attention, as the results are unique, + and are often strangely ignored. + + Here is a statement of the course for the B.A. degree:-- + + First year: Algebra, grammar, punctuation, history of England, + composition, Latin grammar, Caesar. + + Second year: Algebra (from quadratics), geometry, composition, Caesar + (Gallic War), Cicero (Orations), Allen and Greenough's _Latin + Grammar_, Myer's _General History_, Goodwin's _Greek Grammar_ + (optional), Xenophon's _Anabasis_ (optional). + + Third year: Olney's or Loomis's _Plane and Spherical Trigonometry_, + Loomis's _Analytical Geometry_ (optional), Orton's _Zoology_, Gray's + _Botany_, Remsen's _Chemistry_, laboratory practice, Virgil's + _Aeneid_, Homer's _Iliad_ (optional), Meiklejohn's _History of English + Literature and Language_ (two books), Maertz's _English Literature_, + Hadley's _History_, original composition. + + Fourth year: Loomis's _Calculus_ (optional), Dana's _Mechanics_, + Gage's _Natural Philosophy_, Young's _Astronomy_, laboratory practice, + qualitative analysis, Steel's Hygienic _Physiology_, Edgren's _French + Grammar_, Super's _French Reader, Demosthenes on the Crown_ + (optional), Hart's _Composition and Rhetoric_, original composition, + Hill's-Jevon's _Elementary Logic_. + + Fifth year: Arnold's _Manual of English Literature_, Maertz's _English + Literature_, original composition, Guizot's _History of Civilization_, + Sheldon's _German Grammar_, Joynes's _German Reader_, LeConte's + _Geology_, Guyot's _Earth and Man_, Hill's _Elements of Psychology_, + Haven's _Moral Philosophy_, Butler's _Analogy_, Bascom's _Elements of + Beauty_, Perry's _Political Economy_, Gallaudet's _International Law_. + + Even in 1893 we were told that of the graduates of the college + "fifty-seven have been engaged in teaching, four have entered the + ministry; three have become editors and publishers of newspapers; + three others have taken positions connected with journalism; fifteen + have entered the civil service of the government,--one of these, who + had risen rapidly to a high and responsible position, resigned to + enter upon the practice of law in patent cases, in Cincinnati and + Chicago, and has been admitted to practise in the Supreme Court of the + United States; one is the official botanist of a state, who has + correspondents in several countries of Europe who have repeatedly + purchased his collections, and he has written papers upon seed tests + and related subjects which have been published and circulated by the + agricultural department; one, while filling a position as instructor + in a western institution, has rendered important service to the coast + survey as a microscopist, and one is engaged as an engraver in the + chief office of the survey; of three who became draughtsmen in + architects' offices, one is in successful practice as an architect on + his own account, which is also true of another, who completed his + preparation by a course of study in Europe; one has been repeatedly + elected recorder of deeds in a southern city, and two others are + recorders' clerks in the west; one was elected and still sits as a + city councilman; another has been elected city treasurer and is at + present cashier of a national bank; one has become eminent as a + practical chemist and assayer; two are members of the faculty of the + college, and two others are rendering valuable service as instructors + therein; some have gone into mercantile and other offices; some have + undertaken business on their own account; while not a few have chosen + agricultural and mechanical pursuits, in which the advantages of + thorough mental training will give them a superiority over those not + so well educated. Of those alluded to as having engaged in teaching, + one has been the principal of a flourishing institution in + Pennsylvania; one is now in his second year as principal of the Ohio + institution; one has been at the head of a day school in Cincinnati, + and later of the Colorado institution; a third has had charge of the + Oregon institution; a fourth is at the head of a day school in St + Louis; three others have respectively founded and are now at the head + of schools in New Mexico, North Dakota, and Evansville, Indiana, and + others have done pioneer work in establishing schools in Florida and + in Utah." + + Later years would unfold a similar tale of subsequent students; in + 1907 there were 134 in the college and 59 in the Kendall School. + + There is a normal department attached to the college, to which are + admitted six hearing young men and women for one year who are + recommended as being anxious to study methods of teaching the deaf and + likely to profit thereby. Their course of study for 1898-1899 included + careful training in the oral method, instruction in Bell's _Visible + Speech_, instruction in the anatomy of the vocal organs, lectures on + sound, observation of methods, oral and manual, in Kendall School, + lectures on various subjects connected with the deaf and their + education, lectures on pedagogy, lessons in the language of signs, + practical work with classes in Kendall School under the direction of + the teachers, correction of essays of the introductory class, &c. But + the greatest advantage of the year's course is that the half-dozen + hearing students live in the college, have their meals with the + hundred deaf, and mix with them all day long--if they wish it--in + social intercourse and recreation. We are very far indeed from saying + that one such year is sufficient to make a hearing man a qualified + teacher of the deaf, but the arrangement is based on the right + principle, and it sets his feet on the right path to learn how to + teach--so far as this art can be learned. The recent regulation of the + board of education in England, prohibiting hearing pupil teachers in + schools for the deaf, is deplorable, retrograde and inimical to the + best interests of the deaf. It shows a complete ignorance of their + needs. The younger a teacher begins to mix with that class the better + he will teach them. + +In 1886 a royal commission investigated the condition and education of +the deaf in Great Britain, and in 1889 issued its report. Some of the +recommendations most worthy of notice were that deaf children from seven +to sixteen years of age should be compelled to attend a day school or +institution, part, or the whole, of the expense being borne by the local +school authority; that technical instruction should be given, and that +all the children should be taught to speak and lip-read on the "pure" +oral method unless physically or mentally disqualified, those who had +partial hearing or remains of speech being entirely educated by that +method. To the last mentioned recommendation--concerning the method to +be adopted--two of the commissioners took exception, and another stated +his recognition of some advantage in the manual method. + +As a result of the report of the royal commission a bill was passed in +1893 making it compulsory for all deaf children to be educated. This was +to be done by the local education authority, either by providing day +classes or an institution for them, or by sending them to an already +existing institution, parents having the choice, within reasonable +limits, of the school to which the child should go. School-board classes +came into existence in almost every large town where there was no +institution, and sometimes where one existed. Those who uphold the +day-school system advance the arguments that the pupils are not, under +it, cut off from the influence of home life as they are in institutions; +that such influences are of great advantage; that this system permits +the deaf to mix freely with their hearing brethren, &c. The objections, +however, to this arrangement outweigh its possible advantages. The +latter, indeed, amount to little; for home influences in many cases, +especially in the poorer parts of the large cities, are not the best, +and communication with the hearing children who attend some of the day +schools may not be an unmixed blessing, nor is freedom to run wild on +the streets between school hours. But it may be urged further that it is +difficult, except in very large towns, to obtain a sufficient number of +deaf children attending a day school to classify them according to their +status, while it is more than one teacher can do to give sufficient +attention to several children, each at a different stage of instruction +from any other. Moreover, the deaf need more than mere school work; they +need training in morals and manners, and receive much less of it from +their parents than their hearing brothers and sisters. This can only be +given in an institution wherein they board and lodge as well as attend +classes. The existing institutions were from 1893 placed, by the act of +that date, either partly or wholly under the control of the school +board. They were put under the inspection of the government, and as long +as they fulfilled the requirements of the inspectors as regards +education, manual and physical training, outdoor recreation and suitable +class-room and dormitory accommodation, they might remain in the hands +of a committee who collected, or otherwise provided, one-third of the +total expenditure, and received two-thirds from public sources. Or else, +the institution might be surrendered entirely to the management of the +public school authority, and then the whole of the expenditure was to be +borne by that body. Extra government grants of five guineas per pupil +are now given for class work and manual or technical training. Such is +the state of things at the present day, except, of course, that the +school board has given place to the county council as local authority. + + Some teachers have asked for the children to be sent to school at the + age of five instead of seven. This savours of another confession that + the "pure" oral method had not done what was expected of it at first. + First, the demand was for the method itself; then came requests for + more teachers, so that, the classes being smaller, each pupil should + receive more attention; this meant more money, and so this was asked + for; then day schools would remedy the failure by giving the pupils + opportunities of talking with the public in general; then we were told + the teachers were unskilful; finally, more time is needed. And yet the + _language_ of the pupils is no better to-day than it was in 1881, even + though they were at school only four or five years then as opposed to + nine or ten now. + + + Foreign schools. + + To Addison's _Report on a Visit to some Continental Schools for the + Deaf_ (1904-1905) we are indebted for the following information. The + new school at Frankfort-on-Maine, accommodating forty or fifty + children at a cost of L40 to L50 per head, is modelled on the plan of + a family home. The main objects are to obtain good speech and + lip-reading and to use these colloquially; the work is very thorough + and the teaching very skilful. At Munich those of the hundred pupils + who have some hearing are separated from the others and taught by ear + as well as eye. At Vienna (Royal Institution) a small proportion of + the pupils are day scholars, as they are at Munich, and the teaching + is, of course, carried on by the oral method, as it is all over + Germany. Here, however, the teachers "think it impossible to educate + fully all deaf-mutes by the oral method only." In the Jews' Home at + Vienna the semi-deaf are taught by the acoustic method, and are not + allowed to see the teacher's lips at all. At Dresden, a large school + of 240 pupils, the director favours smaller institutions than his own, + considers the oral method possible for all but the "weak-minded deaf," + and divides his pupils into A, B and C divisions, according to + intellect. In the first division good speech is obtained. Saxony + boasts a home for deaf homeless women, grants premiums for deaf + apprentices, and trains its teachers of the deaf in the institution + itself--a good record and plan. In the royal institution at Berlin + Addison saw good lip-reading and thorough work, though the deaf in the + city--as in most of the schools--signed. The men in Berlin "like the + adult deaf generally, were all in favour of a combination of methods, + and condemned the pure oral theory as impracticable." At Hamburg, + again, "hand signs" were used at least for Sunday service. Schleswig + has two schools. Pupils are admitted first to the residential + institution, where they are instructed for a year, and are then + divided into A, B and C classes, "according to intellect." The lowest + class (C) remain at this institution for the rest of the eight years, + and a "certain amount of signing" is allowed in their instruction. A + and B classes are boarded out in the town and attend classes at a day + school specially built for them, being taught orally exclusively. + + In Denmark Addison saw what impressed him most. All the children of + school age go to Fredericia and remain for a year in the boarding + institution. They are then examined and the semi-deaf--29% of the + whole--are sent to Nyborg. The rest--all the totally deaf--remain + another year at Fredericia and are then divided into the A, B and C + divisions before mentioned, and on the same criterion--intellect. + Those in C--the lowest class, 28% of the totally deaf--are sent to + Copenhagen, where they are taught by the manual method, no oral work + being attempted. Those in B class, numbering 19% of the deaf, remain + in the residential institution in Fredericia and are taught orally, + while the best pupils--A class--are boarded out in the town and attend + a special day school. These form 26% of the deaf, and those with whom + they live encourage them to speak when out of as well as when in + school. The buildings and equipment generally are excellent. "Hand + signs" are used at Nyborg, indicating the position of the vocal organs + when speaking, and, as might be expected, the "lip"-reading is 90% + more correct when these symbols--infinitely more visible than most of + the movements of the vocal organs and face when speaking--are used at + the same time. The idea of these hand signs, by the way, corresponds + to that of Graham Bell's _Visible Speech_, in which a written symbol + is used to indicate the position of the vocal organs when uttering + each sound; it is a kind of phonetic writing which is to a slight + extent illustrative at the same time. We find natural signs of the + utmost value when teaching articulation, to describe the position of + the vocal organs. We give these details from Mr Addison's notes + because it is to Germany that so many look for guidance to-day, and it + is the home of the so-called "pure" oral method; while the system of + classification in Denmark into the four schools which are controlled + by one authority, struck him very favourably and so is given rather + fully. + + In France most of the schools are supported by charity, and the only + three government institutions are those at Paris for boys, with 263 + pupils lately, at Bordeaux for girls, having 225 inmates, and at + Chambery with 86 boys and 38 girls. In the great majority the method + of instruction is professedly pure oral. "But," said Henri Gaillard + (_Report, World's Congress of the Deaf_, Missouri, 1904), "this is + only in appearance. In reality all of the schools use the combined + method; only they are not willing to admit it, because the oral method + is the official method, imposed by the inspectors of the minister of + the interior." + + In Italy, again, we are told that the teachers sign in most of the + schools, which are professedly pure oral. + + In Sweden, schools for the deaf have ceased to depend, as they did up + to 1891, upon private benevolence. The system is generally the + combined, and in schools where the oral method is adopted the pupils + are divided into A, B and C divisions, as in Denmark and Dresden, in + the two latter divisions of which signs are allowed. In Norway the + method is the oral. + +_Methods of Teaching._--There have always been two principal methods of +teaching the deaf, and all education at the present time is carried on +by means of one or other or both of these. Where there is sufficient +hearing to be utilized, instruction is sometimes given thereby as well, +though this auricular method does not seem to make much headway, and +experience is not in favour of believing that the sense of hearing, +where a little exists, can be "cultivated" to any marked degree. It is +really impossible to draw hard and fast lines between these means of +instruction. One merges into another, and this other into the next; and +no two teachers will, or can, adopt exactly the same lines. It is not +desirable that they should, for much must be left to individuality. +Orders, rules, methods, should not be absolute laws. Observe them +generally, but dispense with them as circumstances, the pupil and +opportunity may require. Strong individuality, sympathy, enthusiasm, +long intercourse with the deaf, are needed in the teacher, and it is +surely obvious that every teacher should have a full command of all the +primary means of instruction to begin with, and not of one only. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The Manual Alphabet. (One-handed.) + +The Manual Alphabet. (Two-handed.)] + +Where deafness is absolute, or practically so, we have to seek for means +that will appeal to the eye instead of the ear. Of these, we have the +sign language, writing and printing, pictures, manual alphabets and +lip-reading. We have to choose which of these is to be used, if not all, +and which must be rejected, if any. Moreover, we have to decide how much +or how little one or another is to be adopted if we employ more than +one. Hence it is obvious that there may be many different systems and +subdivisions of systems. But the two main methods are the _manual_, +which generally depends upon all the above-mentioned means of appealing +to the eye except lip-reading, and the _oral_, which adopts what the +manual method rejects, uses writing and printing and perhaps pictures, +but excludes finger-spelling and (theoretically) signs. To these two we +must add a third means of instruction--the _combined system_--which +rejects no means of teaching, but uses all in most cases. The dual +method need hardly be called a separate method or system, for it implies +simply the use of the manual method for some pupils and of the oral for +others. Nor need we call the mother's (= intuitive or natural) a +separate method in the sense in which we are using the word here, for it +is rather a mode of procedure which can be applied manually or orally +indifferently. The same may be said of the grammatical "method"; also of +the "word method," which is really the "mother's." The "eclectic method" +is practically the combined system, or something between that and the +dual method, and hardly needs separate classification. + +Let us notice the manual method, the oral method, and the combined +system, considering with the last the "dual method." + + + Manual. + +The chief elements of the manual method are finger-spelling, reading and +writing and signing. These are used, that is to say, as means of +teaching English and imparting ideas. Signs are used to awaken the +child's thoughts, finger-spelling and writing are used to express these +thoughts in the vernacular. The latter are used to express English, the +former to explain English. + +We give two manual alphabets, the one-handed being used in America, on +the continent of Europe with some variations and additions, in Ireland, +and also to some extent in England; the two-handed in Great Britain, +Ireland and Australia. A speed of 130 words a minute can be attained +when spelling on the fingers. Words are quite readable at this speed. + +Although reading and writing are common to both methods, the manual and +oral, as a matter of fact they seem to be used considerably more in the +former than in the latter. + + + Oral. + +In the oral method articulation and lip-reading are chiefly relied upon; +reading and writing are also adopted. The phonetic values of the letters +are taught, not the names of the letters; for instance, the _sound_ of +the letter a in "hat" is taught instead of the _name_ of the letter +(long A), though of course the latter is taught where such is the proper +pronunciation, as in "hate." + +Here is a chart which was lately in use: + +_Articulation Sheets._ + + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | ANALYSIS OF THE VOWEL SOUNDS. | + +-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+ + | Long. | Middle. | Short. | Broad. | + +-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+ + |Diacritic Phonetic |Diacritic Phonetic |Diacritic Phonetic |Diacritic Phonetic | + | mark. spelling.| mark. spelling.| mark. spelling.| mark. spelling.| + +-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+ + | fat(e) = feit | far = far | f)at = fat | fall = /fawl | + | | | | \fol | + | me = /mee | | | | + | \mi | | m)et = met | | + | pin(e) = pain | | p)in = pin | | + | no = nou | move = muv | n)ot = not | | + | tub(e) = tiub | bull = bul | t)ub = tub | | + +-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+ + + Order in which the Vowel Sounds are to be taught. + + /Diacritic / a + | Mark < wall + | | || + 2 < \ aw, o + |Phonetic \ wol + \ Spelling / + + /Diacritic / a )o u )e e o i a u oe + | Mark | path hot blu(e) set see ton(e) pi(e) lat(e) mul(e) boy + | < || || || || || || || || || || + 1 < | a o u e i ou ai ei iu oi + | \ ee + |Phonetic \ path hot blu set si toun pai leit miul boi + \ Spelling / + + /Diacritic / )a )u i + | Mark < hat hut hit + 3 < | || || || + | \ a u i + |Phonetic \ hat hut hit + \ Spelling / + +The consonants are as follows, though the order of teaching them +varies:-- + +p; f; s; h; sh; v = _f_; th (thin; moth); _th_ (then; smooth); l; r; t; +k; b; d; g (go; egg); z = _s_; m; n; ch = tsh; j = dzh = g; ph = f; kc = +k; cs = s; q = kw; x = ks; ng; w = oo; wh = hw; y = e. + +The following mode of writing the sounds is now preferred by some as it +renders the diacritic marks unnecessary:-- + +_Middle, Broad and Long Vowel Sounds._ + + ar or oo ee er oa igh ai ew oi ou + aw ea ir o-e i-e a-e u-e oy ow + au ur ay + a-- + +_Short Vowel Sounds._ + + a o oo e i u + +_Consonants._ + + h p /ph\ t s th sh ch /k \ l r m n ng w + \f / \ck/ + b v d z _th_ zh / j \ g + \dzh/ + +These charts are given as examples of those used, but they vary in +different schools, as does the order of teaching the vowel and consonant +sounds and the combinations. The exact order is not important. Words are +made up by combining vowels and consonants as soon as the pupil can say +each sound separately. + +Here are extracts from the directions on articulation written by a +principal to the teacher of the lowest class, which show the method of +procedure:-- + + "(1) Produce the sound of a letter. Each pupil to reproduce, and write + it on the tablet. + + (2) Point to the letter on the tablet, and make each pupil say it. + + (3) The same with combinations of vowels and consonants. + + (4) Instead of tablet, each pupil to use rough exercise-book. + + (5) Write on tablet and make each pupil articulate from teacher's + writing. + + (6) When a combination is made of which a word may be made make all + write it in their books, thus:--'te--tea,' 'sho--show,' 'ov--of,' + 'nalz--nails,' &c. + + (7) When one pupil produces a combination correctly make the others + lip-read it from him. In this way make them exercise each other. + + (8) When they have a good many sounds and combinations written in + their books make them sit down and say them off their books as hearing + children do. + + (9) Make them say the sounds off the cards, and form combinations on + the cards for them to say. + + (10) Take each vowel separately and make each pupil use it before and + after each consonant. + + (11) Take each consonant and put it before and after each vowel. + + "The above will suggest other exercises to the teacher. + + "Give breathing exercises. Incite emulation as to deep breathing and + slow expiration. Never force the voice. Make the pupil speak out, but + do not let him strain either the voice or vocal organs. Do not force + the tongue, lips, or any organ into position more than you can help. + Do all as gently as possible. Register their progress. 'A' (as in + 'path'; 'father'). As 'A' is the basis of all the vowels, being most + like all, it is taken first. It is an open vowel. Do not make + grimaces, or exaggerate. If false sound be produced do not let the + pupil speak loudly; make him speak quietly. If nasal sound be produced + do not pinch the nose, but first take the back of the child's hand, + warmly breathe on it, or get a piece of glass, and let the child + breathe on it, or press the back of the tongue down. Show the child + that when you are saying 'a' your tongue lies flat or nearly so, and + you do not raise the back of the tongue. Prefix 'h' to 'a' and make + the pupil say 'ha' first, then 'a' alone. + + "'P.' If the child does not imitate at the first the teacher should + take the back of the hand and let the child feel the puff of air as + 'p' is formed on the lips. + + "'P' is produced by the volume of air brought into the cavity of the + mouth being, checked by the perfect closure of the lips, which are + then opened, and the accumulated air is propelled. The outburst of + this propelled air creates the sound of 'p.' Take the pupil to see + porridge boiling. Pretend to smoke. 'P' is taken first because it has + no vibration and is the most simple. The consonants should first be + joined to each vowel separately, and to prevent the pupils making an + after-sound the letters should be said with a pause between, _viz._ 'A + . . p,' and as they become more familiar with them, lessen the pause + until it is pronounced properly:--'ap.'" + +These directions, which are only brief examples of those given for one +particular subject in one particular class, will give an idea of the +mode of beginning to teach articulation and lip-reading. + + + Combined method. + +The combined system, as before mentioned, makes use of both the manual +and oral method, as well as the auricular, without any hard and fast +rule as regards the amount of instruction to be given by means of each, +but using more of one and less of another, or _vice versa_, according to +the aptitude of the child. It thus follows the sensible, obvious plan +of fitting the method to the child and not the unnatural one of forcing +the child to try to fit the method. + +The following is the way the same principal would teach language to +beginners by the combined system:-- + + "The letters p, q, b and d of the Roman text are to be taught first. + The pupils are to do them 9 in. long on the blackboard or tablet + first; then trace them on the frames; then on slips of paper with pen + and ink, or in rough exercise-book with pen and ink. + + "The whole of the Roman text is then to be taught in the same manner, + also the small and capital script. + + "When the English alphabet has been mastered in the above four forms + the pupil may proceed to the printing and writing of his own name. + Then his teacher's and class-mates' names. Then the names of other + persons and the places, things and actions with which he has to do in + his daily life. Every direction the teacher has to give in school and + out of school should be expressed in speech, writing or + finger-spelling, or by any two or all three means. Repetition of such + directions by the pupil enables him to learn words before he has + finished the alphabet. + + "All words to be spelled on one hand first; then two. When a few words + have been memorized, they should be written on slips of paper, then in + the exercise-books and dated. After this there should be further + repetition and exercising. The same course should be taken with + phrases and short sentences. Names of persons should be written on + cards and slips of paper and pinned to the chest. Names of things to + be affixed to them, or written on them. Names of apartments on cards + laid in the rooms. Where the object is not available use a picture, or + draw the outline and make pupil do the same. Never nod, or point, or + jerk the finger, or use any other gesture, without previously giving + the word, and when the latter is understood drop the gesture + altogether. + + "Never allow a single mistake to pass uncorrected, and make pupils + always learn the corrections. + + "Language should be a translation of life. It should proceed all day + long, out of school as well as in it. If spoken so much the better, + but finger-spelling is not a hindrance but a valuable help to its + acquisition. + + "In most language lessons, especially those exemplifying a particular + form of sentence, the pupils should: + + "(1) Correct each other's mistakes. Correct 'mistakes' designedly made + by the teacher. + + "(2) Teacher rubs out a word here and there on the blackboard or + tablet; pupils to supply them. + + "(3) Pupils to answer questions, giving the subject, predicate and + object of the sentence as required, e.g. 'A farmer ploughs the + ground.' 'Who ploughs the ground?' 'What does a farmer do?' 'What does + he plough?' Also additional and illustrative questions; e.g. 'Does the + ground plough the farmer?' 'Does a farmer plough the sea?' 'Does he + eat the ground?' &c. + + "The pupils should learn meanings or synonyms of unfamiliar words + before such words are signed. + + "(4) Teacher gives a word, and requires pupils to exemplify it in a + sentence, e.g. 'sows,' 'He sows the seed.' + + "(5) Let them give as many sentences as they can think of in the same + form. + + "Occurrences, incidents, objects, pictures, reading-books, newspaper + cuttings and correspondence should all be used." + + + The best system. + +The "pure" oral method, as before noticed, came with a bound into +popularity in the early seventies. Since then it has had everything in +its favour, but the results have been by no means entirely satisfactory, +and there is a marked tendency among advocates of this method to +withdraw from the extreme position formerly held. Opinion has gradually +veered round till they have come to seek for some sort of _via media_ +that shall embrace the good points of both methods. Some now suggest the +"dual method"--that those pupils who show no aptitude for oral training +shall be taught exclusively by the manual method and the rest by the +oral only. While this is a concession which is positively amazing when +compared with the title of the booklet containing utterances of the Abbe +Tarra, president of the Milan conference in 1880--"The _Pure_ Oral +Method the _Best_ for _All_ Deaf Children"!--yet we believe that in no +case should the instruction be given by the oral method alone, and that +the best system is the "combined." That the combined system is +detrimental to lip-reading has not much more than a fraction of truth in +it, for if the command of language is better the pupils can supply the +lacunae in their lip-reading from their better knowledge of English. It +is found that they have constantly to guess words and letters from the +context. Teach all by and through finger-spelling, reading, writing and +signing where necessary to explain the English, and teach those in whose +case it is worth it by articulation and lip-reading as well. Signs +should be used less and less in class work, and English more and more +exclusively as the pupil progresses--English in any and every form. A +proportion of teachers should be themselves deaf, as in America. They +are in perfect understanding and sympathy with their pupils, which is +not always the case with hearing teachers. Statistics which we collected +in London showed the following results of the education of 403 deaf +pupils after they had left school:-- + + Manual. Combined. Oral. + Quite satisfactory result 65% 51% 20% + Moderate success 29% 41% 35% + Unsatisfactory result 5% 7% 44% + +That the combined system should show to slightly less advantage than the +exclusively manual method is what we might perhaps expect, for the time +given to oral instruction means time taken from teaching language +speedily, the manual method being, we believe, the best of all for this. +But it may be worth while to lose a little in command of language for +the sake of gaining another means of expressing that language. Hence we +advocate the combined system, regarding speech as merely a means of +expressing English, as writing and finger-spelling are, and a good +sentence written or finger-spelled as being preferable to a poorer one +which is spoken, no matter how distinct the speech may be. It is no +answer to point to a few isolated cases where the oral method is +considered to have succeeded, for one success does not counterbalance a +failure if by another method you would have had two successes; and, +moreover, these oral successes would have been still greater +successes--we are taking language in any form as our criterion--had the +teacher fully known and judiciously used the manual method as well as +the oral. + + The _exclusive_ use of the oral method leads, generally speaking, to + comparative failure, for the following, among other, reasons:--(1) It + is a slow way of teaching English, the learning to speak the elements + of sound taking months at least, and seldom being fully mastered for + years. The "word method," by the way, starts at once with words + without taking their component phonetic elements separately; but it + has yet to be proved that any quicker progress is made by this means + of teaching speech than by the other. (2) Lip-reading is, to the deaf, + sign-reading with the disadvantage of being both microscopic and + partially hidden. The deaf hear nothing, they only partly _see_ tiny + movements of the vocal organs. Finger-spelling, writing, signing, are + incomparably more visible, while 130 words a minute can be attained by + finger-spelling, and read at that speed. (3) The signs--as they are to + the deaf--made by the vocal organs are entirely arbitrary, and have + not even a fraction of the redeeming feature of naturalness which + oralists demand in ordinary gestures. (4) Circumstances, such as + light, position of the speaker, &c., must be favourable for the + lip-reading to approach certainty. (5) Styles of speech vary, and it + is a constant experience that even pupils who comparatively easily + read their teacher's lips, to whose style of utterance they are + accustomed, fail to read other people's lips. (6) There is a great + similarity between certain sounds as seen on the lips, e.g. between + _t_ and _d_, _f_ and _v_, _p_ and _b_, _s_ and _z_, _k_ and _g_. Which + is meant has usually to be guessed from the context, and this requires + a certain amount of knowledge of language, which is the very thing + that is needed to be imparted. (7) The deliberate avoidance by the + teacher of the pupil's own language--signs--as an aid to teaching him + English. If a hearing boy does not understand the meaning of a French + word he looks it up in the dictionary and finds its English + equivalent. If the deaf boy does not understand a word in English, the + simplest, quickest, best way to explain it is, in most cases, to sign + it. (8) The distaste of the pupil for the method. This is common. (9) + The mechanical nature of the method. There is nothing to rouse his + interest nor to appeal to his imagination in it. (10) The temptation + to the teacher to use very simple phrases, owing to the difficulty the + pupil has in reading others from his lips. Consequently the pupil + comparatively seldom learns advanced language. + + Other means of educating the deaf in addition to the oral should have + a fair trial in modern conditions for the same length of time that the + oral method has been in operation. To consider pupils taught manually + in oral schools fair criteria of what can be done by the manual method + or combined system, when those pupils have confessedly been relegated + to the manual class because of "dulness" (as in the case of the C + divisions in Denmark and Dresden), is obviously unfair. This division, + moreover, assumes that the "pure" oral method is the best for the + brightest pupils. The comparing of oral pupils privately taught by a + tutor to themselves with manual pupils from an institution crippled + and hampered by need of funds, where they had to take their chance in + a class of twelve, and the comparison of oral pupils of twelve years' + standing with combined system pupils of four years', are also + obviously unfair. Reference may be made on this subject to Heidsiek's + remarkable articles on the question of education, which appeared in + the _American Annals of the Deaf_ from April 1899 to January 1900. + + The opinions of the deaf themselves as to the relative merits of the + methods of teaching also demand particular attention. The ignoring of + their expressed sentiments by those in authority is remarkable. In the + case of school children it might fairly be argued that they are too + young to know what is good for them, but with the adult deaf who have + had to learn the value of their education by bitter experience in the + battle of life it is otherwise. In Germany, the home of the "pure" + oral method, 800 deaf petitioned the emperor against that method. In + 1903 no fewer than 2671 of the adult deaf of Great Britain and Ireland + who had passed through the schools signed a petition in favour of the + combined system. The figures are remarkable, for children under + sixteen were excluded, those who had not been educated in schools for + the deaf were excluded, and the education of the deaf has only lately + been made compulsory, while many thousands who live scattered about + the country in isolation probably never even heard of the petition, + and so could not sign it. In America an overwhelming majority favour + the combined system, and it is in America that by far the best results + of education are to be seen. At the World's Congress of the Deaf at St + Louis in 1904 the combined system was upheld, as it was at Liege. From + France, Germany, Norway and Sweden, Finland, Italy, Russia, everywhere + in fact where they are educated, the deaf crowd upon us with + expressions of their emphatic conviction, repeated again and again, + that the combined system is what meets their needs best and brings + most happiness into their lives. The majority of deaf in every known + country which is in favour of this means of education is so great that + we venture to say that in no other section of the community could + there be shown such an overwhelming preponderance of opinion on one + side of any question which affects its well-being. In the case of the + rare exceptions, the pupil has almost always been brought up in the + strictest ignorance of the manual method, which he has been sedulously + taught to regard as clumsy and objectionable. + + +_The Blind Deaf._ + +In the summary tables (p. 283) of the 1901 British census the following +numbers are given of those suffering from other afflictions besides +deafness:-- + + 1. Blind and deaf and dumb 58 + 2. Blind and deaf 389 + 3. Blind, deaf and dumb and lunatic 5 + 4. Blind, deaf and lunatic 5 + 5. Deaf and dumb and lunatic 136 + 6. Deaf and lunatic 51 + 7. Blind, deaf and dumb and feeble-minded 5 + 8. Blind, deaf and feeble-minded 8 + 9. Deaf and dumb and feeble-minded 221 + 10. Deaf and feeble-minded 100 + +In addition to these, 2 are said to be blind, dumb and lunatic; 20 dumb +and lunatic; 3 blind, dumb and feeble-minded, and 222 dumb and +feeble-minded. These are certainly outside our province, which is the +deaf. The "dumbness" in these four classes is aphasia, due to some brain +defect. + +Of those in the list, classes 7, 8, 9 and 10 are (we are strongly of +opinion) incorrectly described, being, as we think, composed of those +who are simply feeble-minded as well as, in classes 7 and 8, blind. +Their so-called "deafness" is merely inability of the brain to notice +what the ear does actually hear and to govern the vocal organs to +produce articulate sound. Many of classes 9 and 10, however, may not be +"feeble-minded" at all, but only rather dull pupils whom their teachers +have failed to educate. + +It is safe to say that in some instances in classes 3, 4, 5 and 6 the +persons were only assumed to be deaf. Again, cases of deaf people who to +all appearance could not fairly be called insane but who may have had +violent temper or some slight eccentricity being relegated to an asylum +have come to our notice. A good teacher might accomplish much with some +of these described as lunatic in classes 5 and 6. Finally, classes 3 and +4 may have become lunatic owing to the loneliness and brooding +inseparable to a great extent from such terrible afflictions as +blindness and deafness combined. Probably the isolation became +intolerable, and if only they had had some one who understood them to +educate them their reason might have been saved. + +We are most concerned with the first two classes, and in considering +them have to take individual cases separately, as there is no regular +institution for them in Great Britain. + +Mr W. H. Illingworth, head master of the Blind School at Old Trafford, +Manchester, tells how David Maclean, a blind and deaf boy, was taught, +in the 1903 report of the conference of teachers of the deaf. The boy +lost both sight and hearing, but not before six years of age, which was +an advantage, and could still speak or whisper to some extent when +admitted to school. His teacher began with kindergarten and attempts at +proper voice-production. He gave the sound of "ah" and made David feel +his larynx. Then he tickled the boy under his arms, and when he laughed +made him feel his own larynx, so that the boy should notice the +similarity of the vibration. Then, acting on the theory that brain-waves +are to some extent transmittable, Mr Illingworth procured a hearing boy +as companion, and, ordering him to keep his mind fixed on the work and +to place one hand on David's shoulder, made him repeat what was +articulated. The blind-deaf boy's right hand was placed on Mr +Illingworth's larynx and the left on the companion's lips. Thus the +pupil felt the sound and the companion's imitation of it, and soon +reproduced it himself. From this syllables and words were formed by +degrees. The pupil knew the forms of some letters of the alphabet in the +Roman type before he lost sight and hearing, and the connexion between +them and the Braille characters and manual alphabet was the next step +achieved. This, and all the steps, were aided to a great extent by the +hearing and seeing boy companion's sympathetic influence and +concentration of mind, in Mr Illingworth's opinion. After this stage his +progress was comparatively quick and easy; he read from easy books in +Braille, and people spelled to him in the ordinary way by forming the +letters with their right hand on his left. + +From Mr B. H. Payne of Swansea comes the following account of how four +blind-deaf pupils were taught:-- + + "We have received four pupils who were deaf-mute and blind, one of + them being also without the sense of smell. One was born deaf, the + others having lost hearing in childhood. There was no essential + difference between the methods employed in their education and those + of 'sighted' deaf children. Free-arm writing of ordinary script was + taught on the blackboard, the teacher guiding the pupil's hand, or + another pupil guiding it over the teacher's pencilling. The script + alphabet was cut on a slate, and the pupil's pencil made to run in the + grooves. The one-hand alphabet, used with the left hand, was employed + to distinguish the letters so written. The script alphabet was also + formed in wire for him. The object was to enable the pupil when he had + gained language to write to friends and others who were unacquainted + with Braille, but the latter notation was taught to enable the pupil + to profit by the literature provided for the blind. Both one- and + two-hand alphabets were taught, the teacher forming the letters with + one of his own hands upon the pupil's hand. The name of the object + presented to the pupil was spelled and written repeatedly until he had + memorized it. Qualities were taught by comparison, and actions by + performance. The words 'Come with me' were spelled before he was + guided to any place, and other sentences were spelled as they would be + spoken to a 'hearing' child in appropriate associations. The blind + pupil followed with his hands the signs made by junior pupils who were + unacquainted with language, and in this way readily learned to sign + himself, the art being of advantage in stimulating and in forming the + mind, and explaining language to him. One of the pupils was confirmed, + and in preparation for the rite over 800 questions were put to him by + finger-spelling. His education was continued in Braille. The deaf-born + boy developed a fair voice, and could imitate sounds by placing his + hand on a speaker's mouth. Two of them had a keen sense of humour, and + would slyly move the finger to the muscles of their companion's face + to feel the smile with which a bit of pleasantry was responded to. In + connexion with the pupil who was confirmed, the vicar who examined him + declared that none of his questions had been answered better even by + candidates possessed of all their faculties than they were by this + blind-deaf boy." + +Mr W. M. Stone, principal of the Royal Blind School at West Craigmillar, +Edinburgh, gives this very interesting information: + + "We have five blind-deaf children at this institution, and all are + wonderfully clever and intelligent. In all cases the children + possessed hearing for a time and had some knowledge--very slight in + some cases--of language. The method of teaching is, first to teach + them the names of common objects on their fingers. A well-known object + is put in the child's hand and then the word is spelled on the + hand,--the child's hand of course. The child learns to associate these + signs--he does not know they are letters--with the object, and so he + learns a name. Other names are then given and similar names are + associated together, and by noticing the difference in the names the + child gradually grasps the idea of an alphabet. For instance, if he + learns the words cat, bat and mat, he will quickly distinguish that + the words are alike except in their initial letters. When in this way + language has been acquired he is taught the Braille system of reading + for the blind and his progress is now very rapid. This method may + appear very complicated and difficult, but in reality it is not so. + There are no institutions in Great Britain specially for the + blind-deaf, nor are there any in America. I do not know of any on the + continent. Our own blind children here are receiving the same + education as our other children, and in some ways are more advanced + than seeing and hearing children of their own ages. They not only + read, write and do arithmetic, but they do typewriting and much manual + work." + +Mr Addison mentions two deaf and blind pupils who were taught by the +late Mr Paterson of Manchester, and a third in the same school later on. +Another was taught in the asylum for the blind in Glasgow, though she +only lost hearing and became deaf at ten. + +Mr William Wade has written a monograph on the blind-deaf of America, in +the preface to which he points out, rightly, that the education of the +blind-deaf is not such a stupendous task as people imagine it to be. + + "It may not be amiss," he says, "to state the methods of teaching the + first steps to a deaf-blind pupil, that the public may see how + exceedingly simple the fundamental principles are, and it should be + remembered that those principles are exactly the same in the cases of + the deaf and of the deaf-blind, the only difference being in the + application--the deaf _see_, the deaf-blind _feel_. Some familiar, + tangible object--a doll, a cup, or what not--is given to the pupil, + and at the same time the name of the object is spelled into its hand + by the manual alphabet." (The one-hand alphabet is in vogue in + America.) "By patient persistence, the pupil comes to recognize the + manual spelling as a _name_ for a familiar object, when the next step + is taken--associating familiar acts with the corresponding manual + spelling. A continuation of this simple process gradually leads the + pupils to the comprehension of language as a means for communication + of thoughts." Mr Wade is right. Given a sympathetic, resourceful + teacher with strong individuality, common-sense, patience, and the + necessary amount of time, anything and everything in the way of + teaching them is not only possible but certain to be achieved. + Language,--give the deaf and the blind-deaf a working command of that + and everything else is easy. + +In the New York Institution for the Deaf ten blind-deaf pupils were +educated, up to the year 1901. Nearly all of these lost one or both +senses after they had been able to acquire some knowledge with their +aid. In the Perkins Institution for the Blind, Boston, five were taught. +It was here that Laura Bridgman was educated by Dr Samuel G. Howe +(q.v.); all honour is due to him for being the pioneer in attempting to +teach this class of the community, for she was the first blind-deaf +person to be taught. Many other schools for the deaf or blind have +admitted one or two pupils suffering from both afflictions. In all, +seventy cases are mentioned by Mr Wade of those who are quite blind and +deaf, and others of people who are partially so. The most interesting, +of course, of all these is Helen Keller, if we except Laura Bridgman, in +whose case the initial attempt to teach the blind-deaf was made. Helen +Keller was taught primarily by finger-spelling into her hand, and +signing (which she, of course, felt with her hands) where necessary. Her +first teacher was Miss Sullivan. The pupil "acquired language by +practice and habit rather than by study of rules and definitions." +Finger-spelling and books were the two great means of educating her at +all times. After her grasp of language had been brought to a high +standard, Miss Fuller gave her her first lessons in speech, and Miss +Sullivan continued them, the method being that of making the pupil feel +the vocal organs of the teacher. She learnt to speak well, and to tell +(with some assistance from finger-spelling) what some people say by +feeling their mouth. Her literary style became excellent; her studies +included French, German, Latin, Greek, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, +history, ancient and modern, and poetry and literature of every +description. Of course she had many tutors, but Miss Sullivan was "eyes +and ears" at all times, by acting as interpreter, and this patient +teacher had the satisfaction of seeing her pupil pass the entrance +examination of Harvard University. To all time the success attained in +educating Helen Keller will be a monument of what can be accomplished in +the most favourable conditions. (A. H. P.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The two words are common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. _taub_ + and _dumm_ (only in the sense of "stupid"), Dutch _doof_ and _dom_; + the original meaning seems to have been dull of perception, stupid, + obtuse, and the words may be ultimately related. The Gr. [Greek: + typhlos] blind, and [Greek: typhos], smoke, mist, probably show the + same base. + + [2] For our resume of the history we are indebted solely to Arnold + (_Education of Deaf Mutes, Teachers' Manual_) as far as the date of + the founding of the Old Kent Road Institution. + + + + +DEAK, FRANCIS (FERENCZ), (1803-1876), Hungarian statesman, was born at +Sojtor in the county of Zala, on the 17th of October 1803. He came of an +ancient and distinguished noble family, and was educated for the law at +Nagy-Kanizsa, Papa, Raab and Pest, and practised first as an advocate +and ultimately as a notary. His first case was the defence of a +notorious robber and murderer. His reputation in his own county was +quickly established, and when in 1833 his elder brother Antal, also a +man of extraordinary force of character, was obliged by ill-health to +relinquish his seat in the Hungarian parliament, the electors chose +Ferencz in his stead. He took an active part in the proceedings of the +diet at Pressburg and made the acquaintance of Odon Beothy and the other +Liberal leaders. No man owed less to external advantages. He was to all +appearance a simple country squire. His true greatness was never +exhibited in debate. It was in friendly talk, generally with a pipe in +his mouth and an anecdote on the tip of his tongue, that he exercised +his extraordinary influence over his fellows. Convinced from the first +of his disinterestedness and sincerity, and impressed by his penetrating +shrewdness and his instinctive faculty of always seizing the main point +and sticking to it, his hearers soon felt an absolute confidence in the +deputy from Zala county. Perhaps there is not another instance in +history in which a man who was neither a soldier, nor a diplomatist, nor +a writer, who appealed to no passion but patriotism, and who avoided +power with almost oriental indolence instead of seeking it, became, in +the course of a long life, the leader of a great party by sheer force of +intellect and moral superiority. + +During the diet of 1839-1840 Deak succeeded in bringing about an +understanding between a reactionary government, sadly in want of money, +and a Liberal opposition determined that the nation should have its +political privileges respected. "Let us put all jealousy on one side and +allow him the pre-eminence," wrote Szechenyi of Deak (April 30th, 1840). +Deak would not go to the diet of 1843-1844, though he had received a +mandate, because his election was the occasion of bloodshed in the +struggle between the Clericals who would have ousted him and the +Liberals who brought him in. In 1848, however, he accepted the post of +minister of justice offered to him by Louis Batthyany. He never ceased +to urge moderation in those stormy days, holding rather with Eotvos and +Batthyany than with Kossuth, and he went more than once to Vienna to +endeavour to effect a compromise between the Radicals and the court. But +when the ill-will of the Vienna government became patent, and the +sentiments of the king doubtful, he resigned together with Batthyany, +but without ceasing to be a member of the diet. He it was who drew up +the resolution of the Lower House in reply to the rescript of the +Austrian ministry demanding the repeal of the Hungarian constitution. It +was he who urged the Hungarian cabinet not to depart a hair's-breadth +from their legitimate position. He was one of the parliamentary +deputation which waited in vain upon Prince Windischgratz in his camp. +(See HUNGARY: _History_.) He then retired to his estate at Kehida. After +the war of independence he was tried by court-martial, but acquitted. + +During the years of repression he lived in complete retirement. He +rejected Schmerling's proposal that he should take part in the project +of judicial reform, but on the other hand he held completely aloof from +the widespread, secret revolutionary movements. After 1854 he spent the +greater part of his time at Pest, and his little room at the "Queen of +England" inn became the meeting-place for those patriots who in those +dark days looked to the wisdom of Deak for guidance. He used every +opportunity of stimulating the moral strength of the nation and keeping +its hopes alive. He invited the nation to contribute to the support of +the orphans of Vorosmarty when that great poet died. He drew up the +petition of the academy to the government, in which he defended the +maintenance of this asylum of the national language against Austrian +intervention. He trusted that, as had so often happened in the course of +Hungarian history, the weakness and blindness of the court would help +Hungary back to her constitutional rights. Armed resistance he +considered dangerous, but he was an immutable defender of the continuity +of the Hungarian constitution on the basis of the reforms of 1848. His +principles alienated him from the Kossuth faction, which looked for +salvation to a second war with Austria, engineered from abroad; but he +was equally opposed to the attitude of resignation taken up by the +followers of Szechenyi, who, according to Deak, always regarded the +world from a purely provincial point of view. + +The war of 1859 convinced the Austrian government, at last, of the +necessity of a reconciliation with Hungary; but the ensuing negotiations +were conducted not through Deak, but through the Magyar Conservatives. +In 1860 Deak rejected the October diploma (see HUNGARY: _History_), +which was simply a cast-back to the Maria Theresa system of 1747; but, +at the request of the government, he went to Vienna to set forth the +national demands. On this occasion he insisted on the re-establishment +of the constitution in its integrity as a _sine qua non_. Meanwhile, it +became more and more evident that the Conservative party had no standing +in the country. The majority of the deputies returned to the diet of +1861 were in favour of asserting their rights by a resolution of the +House, instead of petitioning for them by an address to the crown; hence +arose the two parties of the Addressers and the Resolutioners. The +_Patent_ of the 20th of February 1861 increased the uneasiness and +suspicion of the nation; but Deak, now one of the deputies for Pest, was +in favour of an address rather than of a resolution, and his great +speech on the subject (May 13th, 1861) converted the majority hostile to +an address into a majority for it. The object of the Addressers was to +make the responsibility for a rupture rest on the Austrian government. +Nevertheless, the court found the address so voted inadmissible; +whereupon, on Deak's motion, the Hungarian diet drew up a second address +vigorously defending the rights of the nation, and solemnly protesting +against the usurpations of the Austrian government. The speech which +Deak made on this occasion was his finest effort. Henceforth all Europe +identified his name with the cause of Hungary. The Magyar Conservatives +hereupon entered into negotiations with Deak, and the Austrian +government, more than ever convinced of the necessity of a +reconciliation, was ready to take the first step, if Hungary would take +the second and third. Deak now proposed that the sovereign himself +should break away from counsellors who had sought to oppress Hungary, +and should restore the constitution as a personal act. The worthy +response to this loyal invitation was the dismissal of the Schmerling +administration, the suspension of the February constitution and the +summoning of the coronation diet. Of that diet Deak was the +indispensable leader. Under his direction the Addressers and the +Resolutioners coalesced, and he was entrusted with the difficult and +delicate negotiations with the crown, which aimed at effecting a +compromise between the Pragmatic Sanction of 1719, which established the +indivisibility of the Habsburg monarchy, and the March decrees of 1848. +The committee of which he was president had completed its work, when the +war of 1866 broke out and all again became uncertain. + +After Koniggratz the extreme parties in Hungary hoped to extort still +more favourable terms from the emperor; but Deak remained true to +himself and to the constitutional principle. On the 18th of July he went +to Vienna, to urge the necessity of forming a responsible Magyar +ministry without delay. He offered the post of premier to Count Julius +Andrassy, but would not himself take any part in the administration. The +diet was resummoned on the 17th of November 1866 and, chiefly through +the efforts of Deak, the responsible ministry was formed (February 17th, +1867). There was still one fierce parliamentary struggle, in which Deak +defended the Composition (Ausgleich) of 1867, both against the +Kossuthites and against the Left-centre, which had detached itself from +his own party under the leadership of Kalman Tisza (q.v.). He, a simple +citizen, from pure patriotism, thus mediated between the crown and the +people, as the Hungarian palatines were wont to do in years gone by, and +it was the wish of the diet that Deak should exercise the functions of a +palatine at the solemn ceremony of the coronation. This honour he +refused, as he had refused every other reward and distinction. "It was +beyond the king's power to give him anything but a clasp of the hand." +His real recompense was the assurance of the prosperity and the +tranquillity of his country in the future, and the reconciliation of the +nation and its sovereign. The consciousness of these great services even +reconciled him to the loss of much of his popularity; for there can be +no doubt that a large part of the Hungarian nation regarded the +Composition of 1867 as a sort of surrender and blamed Deak as the author +of it. The Composition was the culminating point of Deak's political +activity; but as a party-leader he still exercised considerable +influence. He died at midnight of the 28th-29th of July 1876, after long +and painful sufferings. His funeral was celebrated with royal pomp on +the 3rd of February, and representatives from every part of Hungary +followed the "Sage" to the grave. A mausoleum was erected by national +subscription, and in 1887 a statue, overlooking the Danube, was erected +to his memory. + + See _Speeches_ (Hung.) ed. by Mano Konyi (Budapest, 1882); Z. + Ferenczi, _Life of Deak_ (Hung., Budapest, 1894); _Memorials of + Ferencz Deak_ (Hung., Budapest, 1889-1890); Ferencz Pulszky, + _Charakterskizze_ (Leipzig, 1876). (R. N. B.) + + + + +DEAL, a market town, seaport and municipal borough in the St Augustine's +parliamentary division of Kent, England, 8 m. N.E. by N. of Dover on the +South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 10,581. It consists of +three divisions--Lower Deal, on the coast; Middle Deal; and, about a +mile inland, though formerly on the coast, Upper Deal, which is the +oldest part. Though frequented as a seaside resort, the town derives its +importance mainly from its vicinity to the Downs, a fine anchorage, +between the shore and the Goodwin Sands, about 8 m. long and 6 m. wide, +in which large fleets of windbound vessels may lie in safety. The trade +consequently consists largely in the supply of provisions and naval +stores, which are conveyed to the ships in need of them by "hovellers," +as the boatmen are called all along the Kentish coast; the name is +probably a corruption of _hobeler_, anciently applied to light-horsemen +from the hobby or small horse which they rode. The Deal hovellers and +pilots are famous for their skill. Boat-building and a few other +industries are carried on. Among buildings the most remarkable are St +Leonard's church in Upper Deal, which dates from the Norman period; the +Baptist chapel in Lower Deal, founded by Captain Taverner, governor of +Deal Castle, in 1663; the military and naval hospital; and the barracks, +founded in 1795. The site of the old navy yard is occupied by villas; +and the esplanade, nearly four miles long, is provided with a promenade +pier. The golf-links is well known. At the south end of the town is Deal +Castle, erected by Henry VIII. in 1539, together with the castles of +Sandown, Walmer and Sandgate. They were built alike, and consisted of a +central keep surrounded by four lunettes. Sandown Castle, which stood +about a mile to the east of Deal Castle, was of interest as the prison +in which Colonel Hutchinson, the Puritan soldier, was confined, and is +said to have died, September 1664. It was removed on becoming endangered +by encroachments of the sea. The "captain" of Deal Castle is appointed +by the lord warden of the Cinque Ports. The town is governed by a mayor, +6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1111 acres. + +Deal is one of the possible sites of the landing-place of Julius Caesar +in Britain. Later in the period of Roman occupation the site was +inhabited, but apparently was not a port. In the Domesday Survey, Deal +(_Dola_, _Dale_, _Dele_) is mentioned among the possessions of the +canons of St Martin, Dover, as part of the hundreds of Bewsborough and +Cornilo; it seems, however, from early times to have been within the +liberty of the Cinque Ports as a member of Sandwich, but was not +continuously reckoned as a member until Henry VI., on the occasion of a +dispute as to its assessment, finally annexed it to their jurisdiction. + +In the time of Henry VIII. Deal was merely a fishing village standing +half-a-mile from the sea, but the growth of the English navy and the +increase of trade brought men-of-war and merchant ships in increased +numbers to the Downs. Deal began to grow in importance, and Lower or New +Deal was built along the shore. The prosperity of the town has ever +since depended almost entirely on its shipping trade. In 1699 the +inhabitants petitioned for incorporation, since previously the town had +been under the jurisdiction of Sandwich and governed by a deputy +appointed by the mayor of that town; William III. by his charter +incorporated the town under the title of mayor, jurats and commonalty of +Deal, and he also granted a market to be held on Tuesday and Saturday, +and fairs on the 25th and 26th of March, and on the 30th of September +and 1st of October, with a court of Pie Powder. The Cinque Ports were +first represented in the parliament of 1265; the two members returned by +Sandwich represented Sandwich, Deal and Walmer, until they were +disenfranchized by the act of 1885. + + + + +DEAL. (1) (A common Teutonic word for a part or portion, cf. Ger. +_Teil_, and the Eng. variant "dole"), a division or part, obsolete +except in such phrases as "a great deal" or "a good deal," where it +equals quantity or lot. From the verb "to deal," meaning primarily to +divide into parts, come such uses as for the giving out of cards to the +players in a game, or for a business transaction. (2) (Also a Teutonic +word, meaning a plank or board, cf. Ger. _Diele_, Dutch _deel_), +strictly a term in carpentry and joinery for a sawn plank, usually of +pine or fir, 9 in. wide and 2 to 4(1/2) in. thick. (See JOINERY.) The +word is also used more loosely of the timber from which such deals are +cut, thus "white deal" is used of the wood of the Norway spruce, and +"red deal" of the Scotch pine. + + + + +DEAN (Lat. _decanus_, derived from the Gr. [Greek: deka], ten), the +style of a certain functionary, primarily ecclesiastical. Whether the +term was first used among the secular clergy to signify the priest who +had a charge of inspection and superintendence over two parishes, or +among the regular clergy to signify the monk who in a monastery had +authority over ten other monks, appears doubtful. "Decurius" may be +found in early writers used to signify the same thing as "decanus," +which shows that the word and the idea signified by it were originally +borrowed from the old Roman military system. + +The earliest mention which occurs of an "archipresbyter" seems to be in +the fourth epistle of St Jerome to Rusticus, in which he says that a +cathedral church should possess one bishop, one archipresbyter and one +archdeacon. Liberatus also (_Breviar._ c. xiv.) speaks of the office of +archipresbyter in a manner which, as J. Bingham says, enables one to +understand what the nature of his duties and position was. And he thinks +that those are right who hold that the archipresbyters were the same as +the deans of English cathedral churches. E. Stillingfleet (_Irenic._ +part ii. c. 7) says of the archipresbyters that "the memory of them is +preserved still in cathedral churches, in the chapters there, where the +dean was nothing else but the archipresbyter; and both dean and +prebendaries were to be assistant to the bishop in the regulating the +church affairs belonging to the city, while the churches were contained +therein." Bingham, however, following Liberatus, describes the office of +the archipresbyter to have been next to that of the bishop, the head of +the presbyteral college, and the functions to have consisted in +administering all matters pertaining to the church in the absence of the +bishop. But this does not describe accurately the office of dean in an +English cathedral church. The dean is indeed second to the bishop in +rank and dignity, and he is the head of the presbyteral college or +chapter; but his functions in no wise consist in administering any +affairs in the absence of the bishop. There may be some matters +connected with the ordering of the internal arrangements of cathedral +churches, respecting which it may be considered a doubtful point whether +the authority of the bishop or that of the dean is supreme. But the +consideration of any such question leads at once to the due theoretical +distinction between the two. With regard to matters spiritual, properly +and strictly so called, the bishop is supreme in the cathedral as far +as--and no further than--he is supreme in his diocese generally. With +regard to matters material and temporal, as concerning the fabric of the +cathedral, the arrangement and conduct of the services, and the +management of the property of the chapter, &c., the dean (not excluding +the due authority of the other members of the chapter, but speaking with +reference to the bishop) is supreme. And the cases in which a doubt +might arise are those in which the material arrangements of the fabric +or of the services may be thought to involve doctrinal considerations. + +The Roman Catholic writers on the subject say that there are two sorts +of deans in the church--the deans of cathedral churches, and the rural +deans--as has continued to be the case in the English Church. And the +probability would seem to be that the former were the successors and +representatives of the monastic decurions, the latter of the inspectors +of "ten" parishes in the primitive secular church. It is thought by some +that the rural dean is the lineal successor of the _chorepiscopus_, who +in the early church was the assistant of the bishop, discharging most, +if not all, episcopal functions in the rural districts of the diocese. +But upon the whole the probability is otherwise. W. Beveridge, W. Cave, +Bingham and Basnage all hold that the _chorepiscopi_ were true bishops, +though Romanist theologians for the most part have maintained that they +were simple priests. But if the _chorepiscopus_ has any representative +in the church of the present day, it seems more likely that the +archdeacon is such rather than the dean. + +The ordinary use of the term dean, as regards secular bodies of persons, +would lead to the belief that the oldest member of a chapter had, as a +matter of right, or at least of usage, become the dean thereof. But +Bingham (lib. ii. chap. 18) very conclusively shows that such was at no +time the case; as is also further indicated by the maxim to the effect +that the dean must be selected from the body of the chapter--"_Unus de +gremio tantum potest eligi et promoveri ad decanatus dignitatem_." The +duties of the dean in a Roman Catholic cathedral are to preside over the +chapter, to declare the decisions to which the chapter may have in its +debates arrived by plurality of voices, to exercise inspection over the +choir, over the conduct of the capitular body, and over the discipline +and regulations of the church; and to celebrate divine service on +occasion of the greater festivals of the church in the absence or +inability of the bishop. With the exception of the last clause the same +statement may be made as to the duties and functions of the deans of +Church of England cathedral churches. + +Deans had also a place in the judicial system of the Lombard kings in +the 8th, 9th and 10th centuries. But the office indicated by that term, +so used, seems to have been a very subordinate one; and the name was in +all probability adopted with immediate reference to the etymological +meaning of the word,--a person having authority over ten (in this case +apparently) families. L. A. Muratori, in his _Italian Antiquities_, +speaks of the resemblance between the _saltarii_ or _sylvani_ and the +_decani_, and shows that the former had authority in the rural +districts, and the latter in towns, or at least in places where the +population was sufficiently close for them to have authority over ten +families. Nevertheless, a document cited by Muratori from the archives +of the canons of Modena, and dated in the year 813, recites the names of +several "deaneries" (_decania_), and thus shows that the authority of +the dean extended over a certain circumscription of territory. + +In the case of the "dean of the sacred college," the connexion between +the application of the term and the etymology of it is not so evident as +in the foregoing instances of its use; nor is it by any means clear how +and when the idea of seniority was first attached to the word. This +office is held by the oldest cardinal--i.e. he who has been longest in +the enjoyment of the purple, not he who is oldest in years,--who is +usually, but not necessarily or always, the bishop of Ostia and +Velletri. Perhaps the use of the word "dean," as signifying simply the +eldest member of any corporation or body of men, may have been first +adopted from its application to that high dignitary. The dean of the +sacred college is in the ecclesiastical hierarchy second to the pope +alone. His privileges and special functions are very many; a compendious +account of the principal of them may be found in the work of G. Moroni, +vol. xix. p. 168. + +There are four sorts of deans of whom the law of England takes notice. +(1) The dean and chapter are a council subordinate to the bishop, +assistant to him in matters spiritual relating to religion, and in +matters temporal relating to the temporalities of the bishopric. The +dean and chapter are a corporation, and the dean himself is a +corporation sole. Deans are said to be either of the old or of the new +foundation--the latter being those created and regulated after the +dissolution of the monasteries by Henry VIII. The deans of the old +foundation before the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1841 were elected +by the chapter on the king's _conge d'elire_; and the deans of the new +foundation (and, since the act, of the old foundation also) are +appointed by the king's letters patent. It was at one time held that a +layman might be dean; but since 1662 priest's orders are a necessary +qualification. Deaneries are sinecures in the old sense, i.e. they are +without cure of souls. The chapter formerly consisted of canons and +prebendaries, the dean being the head and an integral part of the +corporation. By the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1841, it is enacted +that "all the members of the chapter except the dean, in every +collegiate and cathedral church in England, and in the cathedral +churches of St David and Llandaff, shall be styled canons." By the same +act the dean is required to be in residence eight months, and the canons +three months, in every year. The bishop is visitor of the dean and +chapter. (2) A dean of peculiars is the chief of certain peculiar +churches or chapels. He "hath no chapter, yet is presentative, and hath +cure of souls; he hath a _peculiar_, and is not subject to the +visitation of the bishop of the diocese." The only instances of such +deaneries are Battle (Sussex), Bocking (Essex) and Stamford (Rutland). +The deans of Jersey and Guernsey have similar status. (3) The third dean +"hath no cure of souls, but hath a court and a _peculiar_, in which he +holdeth plea and jurisdiction of all such ecclesiastical matters as come +within his peculiar. Such is the dean of the arches, who is the judge of +the court of the arches, the chief court and consistory of the +archbishop of Canterbury, so called of Bow Church, where this court was +ever wont to be held." (See ARCHES, COURT OF.) The parish of Bow and +twelve others were within the peculiar jurisdiction of the archbishop in +spiritual causes, and exempted out of the bishop of London's +jurisdiction. They were in 1845 made part of the diocese of London. (4) +Rural deans are clergymen whose duty is described as being "to execute +the bishop's processes and to inspect the lives and manners of the +clergy and people within their jurisdiction." (See Phillimore's +_Ecclesiastical Law_.) + +In the colleges of the English universities one of the fellows usually +holds the office of "dean," and is specially charged with the +discipline, as distinguished from the teaching functions of the tutors. +In some universities the head of a faculty is called "dean," and in each +of these cases the word is used in a non-ecclesiastical and purely +titular sense. + + + + +DEAN, FOREST OF, a district in the west of Gloucestershire, England, +between the Severn and the Wye. It extends northward in an oval form +from the junction of these rivers, for a distance of 20 m., with an +extreme breadth of 10 m., and still retains its true forest character. +The surface is agreeably undulating, its elevation ranging from 120 to +nearly 1000 ft., and its sandy peat soil renders it most suitable for +the growth of timber, which is the cause of its having been a royal +forest from time immemorial. It is recorded that the commanders of the +Armada had orders not to leave in it a tree standing. In the reign of +Charles I. the forest contained 105,537 trees, and, straitened for +money, the king granted it to Sir John Wyntour for L10,000, and a fee +farm rent of L2000. The grant was cancelled by Cromwell; but at the +Restoration only 30,000 trees were left, and Wyntour, the Royalist +commander, having got another grant, destroyed all but 200 trees fit for +navy timber. In 1680 an act was passed to enclose 11,000 acres and plant +with oak and beech for supply of the dockyards; and the present forest, +though not containing very many gigantic oaks, has six "walks" covered +with timber in various stages of growth. + +The forest is locally governed by two crown-appointed deputy gavellers +to superintend the woods and mines, and four verderers elected by the +freeholders, whose office, since the extermination of the deer in 1850, +is almost purely honorary. From time immemorial all persons born in the +hundred of St Briavel's, who have worked a year and a day in a coal +mine, become "free miners," and may work coal in any part of the forest +not previously occupied. The forest laws were administered at the +Speech-House, a building of the 17th century in the heart of the forest, +where the verderers' court is still held. The district contains coal and +iron mines, and quarries of building-stone, which fortunately hardly +minimize its natural beauty. Near Coleford and Westbury pit workings of +the Roman period have been discovered, and the Romans drew large +supplies of iron from this district. The scenery is especially fine in +the high ground bordering the Wye (q.v.), opposite to Symond's Yat above +Monmouth, and Tintern above Chepstow. St Briavel's Castle, above +Tintern, was the headquarters of the forest officials from an early date +and was frequented by King John. It is a moated castle, of which the +north-west front remains, standing in a magnificent position high above +the Wye. + + See H. G. Nicholls, _Forest of Dean_ (London, 1858). + + + + +DEANE, RICHARD (1610-1653), British general-at-sea, major-general and +regicide, was a younger son of Edward Deane of Temple Guiting or Guyting +in Gloucestershire, where he was born, his baptism taking place on the +8th of July 1610. His family seems to have been strongly Puritan and was +related to many of those Buckinghamshire families who were prominent in +the parliamentary party. His uncle or great-uncle was Sir Richard Deane, +lord mayor of London, 1628-1629. Of Deane's early life nothing is +accurately known, but he seems to have had some sea training, possibly +on a ship-of-war. At the outbreak of the Civil War he joined the +parliamentary army as a volunteer in the artillery, a branch of the +service with which he was constantly and honourably associated. In 1644 +he held a command in the artillery under Essex in Cornwall and took part +in the surrender after Lostwithiel. Essex (_Letter to Sir Philip +Stapleton_, Rushworth Collection) calls him "an honest, judicious and +stout man," an estimate of Deane borne out by Clarendon's "bold and +excellent officer" (book xiv. cap. 27), and he was one of the few +officers concerned in the surrender who were retained at the remodelling +of the army. Appointed comptroller of the ordnance, he commanded the +artillery at Naseby and during Fairfax's campaign in the west of England +in 1645. In 1647 he was promoted colonel and given a regiment. In May of +that year Cromwell was made lord-general of the forces in Ireland by the +parliament, and Deane, as a supporter of Cromwell who had to be reckoned +with, was appointed his lieutenant of artillery. Cromwell refused to be +thus put out of the way, and Deane followed his example. When the war +broke out afresh in 1648 Deane went with Cromwell to Wales. As +brigadier-general his leading of the right wing at Preston contributed +greatly to the victory. On the entry of the army into London in 1648, +Deane superintended the seizure of treasure at the Guildhall and +Weavers' Hall the day after Pride "purged" the House of Commons, and +accompanied Cromwell to the consultations as to the "settlement of the +Kingdom" with Lenthall and Sir Thomas Widdrington, the keeper of the +great seal. He is rightly called by Sir J. K. Laughton (in the _Dict. of +Nat. Biog._) Cromwell's "trusted partisan," a character which he +maintained in the active and responsible part taken by him in the events +which led up to the trial and execution of the king. He was one of the +commissioners for the trial, and a member of the committee which +examined the witnesses. He signed the death warrant. + +Deane's capacities and activities were now required for the navy. In +1649 the office of lord high admiral was put into commission. The first +commissioners were Edward Popham, Robert Blake and Deane, with the title +of generals-at-sea. His command at sea was interrupted in 1651, when as +major-general he was brought back to the army and took part in the +battle of Worcester. Later he was made president of the commission for +the settlement of Scotland, with supreme command of the military and +naval forces. At the end of 1652 Deane returned to his command as +general-at-sea, where Monck had succeeded Popham, who had died in 1651. +In 1653 Deane was with Blake in command at the battle off Portland and +later took the most prominent and active part in the refitting of the +fleet on the reorganization of the naval service. At the outset of the +three days' battle off the North Foreland, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd of June +1653, Deane was killed. His body lay in state at Greenwich and after a +public funeral was buried in Henry VII.'s chapel at Westminster Abbey, +to be disinterred at the Restoration. + + See J. Bathurst Deane, _The Life of Richard Deane_ (1870). + + + + +DEANE, SILAS (1737-1789), American diplomat, was born in Groton, +Connecticut, on the 24th of December 1737. He graduated at Yale in 1758 +and in 1761 was admitted to the bar, but instead of practising became a +merchant at Wethersfield, Conn. He took an active part in the movements +in Connecticut preceding the War of Independence, and from 1774 to 1776 +was a delegate from Connecticut to the Continental Congress. Early in +1776 he was sent to France by Congress, in a semi-official capacity, as +a secret agent to induce the French government to lend its financial aid +to the colonies. Subsequently he became, with Benjamin Franklin and +Arthur Lee, one of the regularly accredited commissioners to France from +Congress. On arriving in Paris, Deane at once opened negotiations with +Vergennes and Beaumarchais, securing through the latter the shipment of +many vessel loads of arms and munitions of war to America. He also +enlisted the services of a number of Continental soldiers of fortune, +among whom were Lafayette, Baron Johann De Kalb and Thomas Conway. His +carelessness in keeping account of his receipts and expenditures, and +the differences between himself and Arthur Lee regarding the contracts +with Beaumarchais, eventually led, in November 1777, to his recall to +face charges, of which Lee's complaints formed the basis. Before +returning to America, however, he signed on the 6th of February 1778 the +treaties of amity and commerce and of alliance which he and the other +commissioners had successfully negotiated. In America he was defended by +John Jay and John Adams, and after stating his case to Congress was +allowed to return to Paris (1781) to settle his affairs. Differences +with various French officials led to his retirement to Holland, where he +remained until after the treaty of peace had been signed, when he +settled in England. The publication of some "intercepted" letters in +Rivington's _Royal Gazette_ in New York (1781), in which Deane declared +his belief that the struggle for independence was hopeless and +counselled a return to British allegiance, aroused such animosity +against him in America that for some years he remained in England. He +died on shipboard in Deal harbour, England, on the 23rd of September +1789 after having embarked for America on a Boston packet. No evidence +of his dishonesty was ever discovered, and Congress recognized the +validity of his claims by voting $37,000 to his heirs in 1842. He +published his defence in _An Address to the Free and Independent +Citizens of the United States of North America_ (Hartford, Conn., and +London, 1784). + + _The Correspondence of Silas Deane_ was published in the Connecticut + Historical Society's Collections, vol. ii.; and _The Deane Papers_, in + 5 vols., in the New York Historical Society's _Collections_ + (1887-1890). See also Winsor's _Narrative and Critical History_, vol. + vii. chap, i., and Wharton's _Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence + of the United States_ (6 vols., Washington, 1889). + + + + +DEATH, the permanent cessation of the vital functions in the bodies of +animals and plants, the end of life or act of dying. The word is the +English representative of the substantive common to Teutonic languages, +as "dead" is of the adjective, and "die" of the verb; the ultimate +origin is the pre-Teutonic verbal stem _dau_-; cf. Ger _Tod_, Dutch +_dood_, Swed. and Dan. _dod_. + +For the scientific aspects of the processes involved in life and its +cessation see BIOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, PATHOLOGY, and allied articles; and +for the consideration of the prolongation of life see LONGEVITY. Here it +is only necessary to deal with the more primitive views of death and +with certain legal aspects. + +_Ethnology._--To the savage, death from natural causes is inexplicable. +At all times and in all lands, if he reflects upon death at all, he +fails to understand it as a natural phenomenon; nor in its presence is +he awed or curious. Man in a primitive state has for his dead an almost +animal indifference. The researches of archaeologists prove that +Quaternary Man cared little what became of his fellow-creature's body. +And this lack of interest is found to-day as a general characteristic +of savages. The Goajiros of Venezuela bury their dead, they confess, +simply to get rid of them. The Galibis of Guiana, when asked the meaning +of their curious funeral ceremony, which consists in dancing on the +grave, replied that they did it to stamp down the earth. Fuegians, +Bushmen, Veddahs, show the same lack of concern and interest in the +memory of the dead. Even the Eskimos, conspicuous as they are for their +intelligence and sociability, save themselves the trouble of caring for +their sick and old by walling them up and leaving them to die in a +lonely hut; the Chukches stone or strangle them to death; some Indian +tribes give them over to tigers, and the Battas of Sumatra eat them. +This indifference is not dictated by any realization that death means +annihilation of the personality. The savage conception of a future state +is one that involves no real break in the continuity of life as he leads +it. If a man dies without being wounded he is considered to be the +victim of the sorcerers and the evil spirits with which they consort. +Throughout Africa the death of anyone is ascribed to the magicians of +some hostile tribe or to the malicious act of a neighbour. A culprit is +easily discovered either by an appeal to a local diviner or in torturing +some one into confession. In Australia it is the same. Mr Andrew Lang +says that "whenever a native dies, no matter how evident it may be that +death has been the result of natural causes, it is at once set down that +the defunct was bewitched." The Bechuanas and all Kaffir tribes believe +that death, even at an advanced age, if not from hunger or violence, is +due to witchcraft, and blood is required to expiate or avenge it. +Similar beliefs are found among the Papuans, and among the Indians of +both Americas. The history of witchcraft in Europe and its attendant +horrors, so vividly painted in Lecky's _Rise of Rationalism_, are but +echoes of this universal refusal of savage man to accept death as the +natural end of life. Even to-day the ignorant peasantry of many European +countries, Russia, Galicia and elsewhere, believe that all disease is +the work of demons, and that medicinal herbs owe their curative +properties to their being the materialized forms of benevolent spirits. + +This animistic tendency is a marked characteristic of primitive Man in +every land. The savage explains the processes of inanimate nature by +assuming that living beings or spirits, possessed of capacities similar +to his own, are within the inanimate object. The growth of a tree, the +spark struck from a flint, the devastating floods of a river, mean to +him the natural actions of beings within the tree, stone or water. And +thus too he explains to himself the phenomena of human life, believing +that each man has within him a mannikin or animal which dictates his +actions in life. This miniature man is the savage's conception of the +soul; sleep and trance being regarded as the temporary, death as the +permanent, absence of the soul. Each individual is thus deemed to have a +dual existence. This "subliminal" self (in modern terminology) has many +forms. The Hurons thought that it possessed head, body, arms and legs, +in fact that it was an exact miniature of a man. The Nootkas of British +Columbia regard it as a tiny man, living in the crown of the head. So +long as it stands erect, its possessor is well, but if it falls from its +position the misfortunes of ill-health and madness at once assail him. +The ancient Egyptian believed in the soul or "double." The inhabitants +of Nias, an island to the west of Sumatra, have the strange belief that +to everyone before birth is given the choice of a long and heavy or +short and light soul (a parallel belief may be found in early Greek +philosophy), and his choice determines the length of life. Sometimes the +soul is conceived as a bird. The Bororos of Brazil fancy that in that +shape the soul of a sleeper passes out of the body during night-time, +returning to him at his awakening. The Bella Coola Indians say the soul +is a bird enclosed in an egg and lives in the nape of the neck. If the +shell bursts and the soul flies away, the man must die. If however the +bird flies away, egg and all, then he faints or loses his reason. A +popular superstition in Bohemia assumes that the soul in the shape of a +white bird leaves the body by way of the mouth. Among the Battas of +Sumatra rice or grain is sprinkled on the head of a man who returns from +a dangerous enterprise, and in the latter case the grains are called +_padiruma tondi_, "means to make the soul (_tondi_) stay at home." In +Java the new-born babe is placed in a hen-coop, and the mother makes a +clucking noise, as if she were a hen, to attract the child's soul. It is +regarded by many savage peoples as highly dangerous to arouse a sleeper +suddenly, as his soul may not have time to return. Still more dangerous +is it to move a sleeper, for the soul on its return might not be able to +find the body. Flies and butterflies are forms which the souls are +believed by some races to take, and the Esthonians of the island of +Oesel think that the gusts of wind which whirl tornado-like through the +roads are the souls of old women seeking what they can find. + +But more widespread perhaps than any belief, from its simplicity +doubtless, is the idea that the body's shadow or reflexion is the soul. +The Basutos think that crocodiles can devour the shadow of a man cast on +the surface of water. In many parts of the world sorcerers are credited +with supernatural powers over a man by an attack on his shadow. The sick +man is considered to have lost his shadow or a part of it. Dante refers +to the shadowless spectre of Virgil, and the folklore of many European +countries affords examples of the prevalence of the superstition that a +man must be as careful of his shadow as of his body. In the same way the +reflexion-soul is thought to be subject to a malice of enemies or +attacks of beasts and has been the cause of superstitions which in one +form or another exist to-day. From the Fijian and Andaman islander who +exhibits abject terror at seeing himself in a glass or in water, to the +English or European peasant who covers up the mirrors or turns them to +the wall, upon a death occurring, lest an inmate of the house should see +his own face and have his own speedy demise thus prognosticated, the +idea holds its ground. It was probably the origin of the story of +Narcissus, and there is scarcely a race which is free from the haunting +dread. Lastly the soul is pictured as being a man's breath (_anima_), +and this again has come down to us in literature, evidenced by the fact +that the word "breath" has become a synonym for life itself. The "last +breath" has meant more than a mere metaphor. It expresses the savage +belief that there departs from the dying in the final expiration a +something tangible, capable of separate existence--the soul. Among the +Romans custom imposed a sacred duty on the nearest relative, usually the +heir, to inhale the "last breath" of the dying. Moreover the classics +bear evidence to the sanctity with which sentiment surrounded the last +kiss; Cicero, in his speech against Verres, saying "_Matres ab extremo +complexu liberum exclusae: quae nihil aliud orabant nisi ut filiorum +extremum spiritum ore excipere sibi liceret_." Virgil, too, refers in +the _Aeneid_, iv. 684, to the custom, which survives to-day as a +ceremonial practice among many savage and semi-civilized people. + +From the inability of the savage in all ages and in all lands to +comprehend death as a natural phenomenon, there results a tendency to +personify death, and myths are invented to account for its origin. +Sometimes it is a "taboo" which has been broken and gives Death power +over man. In New Zealand Maui, the divine hero of Polynesia, was not +properly baptized. In Australia a woman was told not to go near a tree +where a bat lived: she infringed the prohibition, the bat fluttered out, +and death resulted. The Ningphoos were dismissed from Paradise and +became mortal because one of them bathed in water which had been +"tabooed" (Dalton, p. 13). Other versions of the Death-myth in Polynesia +relate that Maui stole a march on Night as she slept, and would have +passed right through her to destroy her, but a little bird which sings +at sunset woke her, she destroyed Maui, and men lost immortality. In +India Yama, the god of Death, is assumed, like Maui, to have been the +first to "spy out the path to the other world." In the Solomon Islands +(_Jour. Anth. Inst._, February 1881) "Koevari was the author of death, +by resuming her cast-off skin." The same story is told in the Banks +Islands. The Greek myth (Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 90) alleged that +mortals lived "without ill diseases that give death to men" till the +cover was lifted from the box of Pandora. This personification of Death +has had as a consequence the introduction into the folklore of many +lands of stories, often humorous, of the tricks played on the Enemy of +Mankind. Thus Sisyphus fettered Death, keeping him prisoner till rescued +by Ares; in Venetian folklore Beppo ties him up in a bag for eighteen +months; while in Sicily an innkeeper corks him up in a bottle, and a +monk keeps him in his pouch for forty years. The German parallel is +Gambling Hansel, who kept Death up a tree for seven years. Such examples +might be multiplied unendingly, but enough has been said to show that +the attitude of civilized man towards the sphinx-riddle of his end has +been in part dictated and is even still influenced by the savage belief +that to die is unnatural. + +_Law--Registration._--The registration of burials in England goes back +to the time of Thomas Cromwell, who in 1538 instituted the keeping of +parish registers. Statutory measures were taken from time to time to +ensure the preservation of registers of burials, but it was not until +1836 (the Births and Deaths Registration Act) that the registration of +deaths became a national concern. Other acts dealing with death +registration were subsequently passed, and the whole law for England +consolidated by the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1874. By that +act, the registration of every death and the cause of the death is +compulsory. When a person dies in a house information of the death and +the particulars required to be registered must be given within five days +of the death to the registrar to the best of the person's knowledge and +belief by one of the following persons:--(1) The nearest relative of the +deceased present at the death, or in attendance during the last illness +of the deceased. If they fail, then (2) some other relative of the +deceased in the same sub-district (registrar's) as the deceased. In +default of relatives, (3) some person present at the death, or the +occupier of the house in which, to his knowledge, the death took place. +If all the above fail, (4) some inmate of the house, or the person +causing the body of the deceased to be buried. The person giving the +information must sign the register. Similarly, also, information must be +given concerning death where the deceased dies not in a house. + +Where written notice of the death, accompanied by a medical certificate +of the cause of death, is sent to the registrar, information must +nevertheless be given and the register signed within fourteen days after +the death by the person giving the notice or some other person as +required by the act. Failure to give information of death, or to comply +with the registrar's requisitions, entails a penalty not exceeding forty +shillings, and making false statements or certificates, or forging or +falsifying them, is punishable either summarily within six months, or on +indictment within three years of the offence. Before burial takes place +the clergyman or other person conducting the funeral or religious +service must have the registrar's certificate that the death of the +deceased person has been duly registered, or else a coroner's order or +warrant. Failing the certificate, the clergyman cannot refuse to bury, +but he must forthwith give notice in writing to the registrar. Failure +to do so within seven days involves a penalty not exceeding ten pounds. +Children must not be registered as still-born without a medical +certificate or a signed declaration from some one who would have been +required, if the child had been born alive, to give information +concerning the birth, that the child was still-born and that no medical +man was present at the birth, or a coroner's order. The registration of +deaths at sea is regulated by the act of 1874 together with the Merchant +Shipping Act 1894. See further BIRTH and BURIAL AND BURIAL ACTS. +Registers of death are, in law, evidence of the fact of death, and the +entry, or a certified copy of it, will be sufficient evidence without a +certificate of burial, although it is desirable that it should also be +produced. + +_Presumption of Death._--The fact of death may, in English law, be +proved not only by direct but by presumptive evidence. When a person +disappears, so that no direct proof of his whereabouts or death is +obtainable, death may be presumed at the expiration of seven years from +the period when the person was last heard of. It is always, however, a +matter of fact for the jury, and the onus of proving the death lies on +the party who asserts it. In Scotland, by the Presumption of Life +(Scotland) Act 1891, the presumption is statutory. In those cases where +people disappear under circumstances which create a strong probability +of death, the court may, for the purpose of probate or administration, +presume the death before the lapse of seven years. The question of +survivorship, where two or more persons are shown to have perished by +the same catastrophe, as in cases of shipwreck, has been much discussed. +It was at one time thought that there might be a presumption of +survivorship in favour of the younger as against the older, of the male +as against the female, &c. But it is now clear that there is no such +presumption (_In re Alston_, 1892, P. 142). This is also the rule in +most states of the American Union. The doctrine of survivorship +originated in the Roman Law, which had recourse to certain artificial +presumptions, where the particular circumstances connected with deaths +were unknown. Some of the systems founded on the civil law, as the +French code, have adopted certain rules of survivorship. + +_Civil Death_ is an expression used, in law, in contradistinction to +natural death. Formerly, a man was said to be dead in law (1) when he +entered a monastery and became professed in religion; (2) when he +abjured the realm; (3) when he was attainted of treason or felony. Since +the suppression of the monasteries there has been no legal establishment +for professed persons in England, and the first distinction has +therefore disappeared, though for long after the original reason had +ceased to make it necessary grants of life estates were usually made for +the terms of a man's _natural_ life. The act abolishing sanctuaries +(1623) did away with civil death by abjuration; and the Forfeiture Act +1870, that on attainder for treason or felony. + + For the tax levied on the estate of deceased persons, and sometimes + called "death duty," see SUCCESSION DUTY. + + For the statistics of the death-rate of the United Kingdom as compared + with that of the various European countries see UNITED KINGDOM. See + also the articles ANNUITY; CAPITAL PUNISHMENT; CREMATION; INSURANCE; + MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, &c. + + + + +DEATH-WARNING, a term used in psychical research for an intimation of +the death of another person received by other than the ordinary sensory +channels, i.e. by (1) a sensory hallucination or (2) a massive +sensation, both being of telepathic origin. (See TELEPATHY.) Both among +civilized and uncivilized peoples there is a widespread belief that the +apparition of a living person is an omen of death; but until the Society +of Psychical Research undertook the statistical examination of the +question, there were no data for estimating the value of the belief. In +1885 a collection of spontaneous cases and a discussion of the evidence +was published under the title _Phantasms of the Living_, and though the +standard of evidence was lower than at the present time, a substantial +body of testimony, including many striking cases, was there put forward. +In 1889 a further inquiry was undertaken, known as the "Census of +Hallucinations," which provided information as to the percentage of +individuals in the general population who, at some period of their +lives, while they were in a normal state of health, had had "a vivid +impression of seeing or being touched by a living being or inanimate +object, or of hearing a voice; which impression, so far as they could +discover, was not due to any external cause." To the census question +about 17,000 answers were received, and after making all deductions it +appeared that death coincidences numbered about 30 in 1300 cases of +recognized apparitions; or about 1 in 43, whereas if chance alone +operated the coincidences would have been in the proportion of 1 to +19,000. As a result of the inquiry the committee held it to be proved +that "between deaths and apparitions of the dying person a connexion +exists which is not due to chance alone." From an evidential point of +view the apparition is the most valuable class of death-warning, +inasmuch as recognition is more difficult in the case of an auditory +hallucination, even where it takes the form of spoken words; moreover, +auditory hallucinations coinciding with deaths may be mere knocks, +ringing of bells, &c.; tactile hallucinations are still more difficult +of recognition; and the hallucinations of smell which are sometimes +found as death-warnings rarely have anything to associate them specially +with the dead person. Occasionally the death-warning is in the form of +an apparition of some other person; it may also take the form of a +temporary feeling of intense depression or other massive sensation. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Podmore, Gurney and Myers, _Phantasms of the Living_ + (1885); for the Census Report see _Proceedings of the Society for + Psychical Research_, part xxvi.; see also F. Podmore, _Apparitions and + Thought Transference_. For a criticism of the results of the Census + see E. Parish, _Hallucinations and Illusions_ and _Zur Kritik des + telepathischen Beweismaterials_, and Mrs Sidgwick's refutation in + _Proc. S.P.R._ part xxxiii. 589-601. The _Journal of the S.P.R._ + contains the most striking spontaneous cases received from time to + time by the society. (N. W. T.) + + + + +DEATH-WATCH, a popular name applied to insects of two distinct families, +which burrow and live in old furniture and produce the mysterious +"ticking" vulgarly supposed to foretell the death of some inmate of the +house. The best known, because the largest, is a small beetle, _Anobium +striattum_, belonging to the family _Ptinidae_. The "ticking," in +reality a sexual call, like the chirp of a grasshopper, is produced by +the beetle rapidly striking its head against the hard and dry woodwork. +In the case of the smaller death-watches, some of the so-called +book-lice of the family _Psocidae_, the exact way in which the sound is +caused has not been satisfactorily explained. Indeed the ability of such +small and soft insects to give rise to audible sounds has been seriously +doubted; but it is impossible to ignore the positive evidence on the +point. The names _Atropos divinatoria_ and _Clothilla pulsatoria_, given +to two of the commoner forms, bear witness both to a belief in a causal +connexion between these insects and the ticking, and to the superstition +regarding the fateful significance of the sound. + + + + +DE BARY, HEINRICH ANTON (1831-1888), German botanist, was of Belgian +extraction, though his family had long been settled in Germany, and was +born on the 26th of January 1831, at Frankfort-on-Main. From 1849 to +1853 he studied medicine at Heidelberg, Marburg and Berlin. In 1853 he +settled at Frankfort as a surgeon. In 1854 he became privat-docent for +botany in Tubingen, and professor of botany at Freiburg in 1855. In 1867 +he migrated to Halle, and in 1872 to Strassburg, where he was the first +rector of the newly constituted university, and where he died on the +19th of January 1888. + +Although one of his largest and most important works was on the +_Comparative Anatomy of Ferns and Phanerogams_ (1877), and +notwithstanding his admirable acquaintance with systematic and field +botany generally, de Bary will always be remembered as the founder of +modern mycology. This branch of botany he completely revolutionized in +1866 by the publication of his celebrated _Morphologie und Physiologie +d. Pilze_, &c., a classic which he rewrote in 1884, and which has had a +world-wide influence on biology. His clear appreciation of the real +significance of symbiosis and the dual nature of lichens is one of his +most striking achievements, and in many ways he showed powers of +generalizing in regard to the evolution of organisms, which alone would +have made him a distinguished man. It was as an investigator of the then +mysterious Fungi, however, that de Bary stands out first and foremost +among the biologists of the 19th century. He not only laid bare the +complex facts of the life-history of many forms,--e.g. the Ustilagineae, +Peronosporeae, Uredineae and many Ascomycetes,--treating them from the +developmental point of view, in opposition to the then prevailing +anatomical method, but he insisted on the necessity of tracing the +evolution of each organism from spore to spore, and by his methods of +culture and accurate observation brought to light numerous facts +previously undreamt of. These his keen perception and insight +continually employed as the basis for hypotheses, which in turn he +tested with an experimental skill and critical faculty rarely equalled +and probably never surpassed. One of his most fruitful discoveries was +the true meaning of infection as a morphological and physiological +process. He traced this step by step in _Phytophthora_, _Cystopus_, +_Puccinia_, and other Fungi, and so placed before the world in a clear +light the significance of parasitism. He then showed by numerous +examples wherein lay the essential differences between a parasite and a +saprophyte; these were by no means clear in 1860-1870, though he himself +had recognized them as early as 1853, as is shown by his work, _Die +Brandpilze_. + +These researches led to the explanation of epidemic diseases, and de +Bary's contributions to this subject were fundamental, as witness his +classical work on the potato disease in 1861. They also led to his +striking discovery of _heteroecism_ (or _metoecism_) in the Uredineae, +the truth of which he demonstrated in wheat rust experimentally, and so +clearly that his classical example (1863) has always been confirmed by +subsequent observers, though much more has been discovered as to +details. It is difficult to estimate the relative importance of de +Bary's astoundingly accurate work on the sexuality of the Fungi. He not +only described the phenomena of sexuality in Peronosporeae and +Ascomycetes--_Eurotium_, _Erysiphe_, _Peziza_, &c.--but also established +the existence of parthenogenesis and apogamy on so firm a basis that it +is doubtful if all the combined workers who have succeeded him, and who +have brought forward contending hypotheses in opposition to his views, +have succeeded in shaking the doctrine he established before modern +cytological methods existed. In one case, at least (_Pyronema +confluens_), the most skilful investigations, with every modern +appliance, have shown that de Bary described the sexual organs and +process accurately. + +It is impossible here to mention all the discoveries made by de Bary. He +did much work on the Chytridieae, Ustilagineae, Exoasceae and +Phalloideae, as well as on that remarkable group the Myxomycetes, or, as +he himself termed them, _Mycetozoa_, almost every step of which was of +permanent value, and started lines of investigation which have proved +fruitful in the hands of his pupils. Nor must we overlook the important +contributions to algology contained in his earlier monograph on the +Conjugatae (1858), and investigations on Nostocaceae (1863), _Chara_ +(1871), _Acetabularia_ (1869), &c. De Bary seems to have held aloof from +the Bacteria for many years, but it was characteristic of the man that, +after working at them in order to include an account of the group in the +second edition of his book in 1884, he found opportunity to bring the +whole subject of bacteriology under the influence of his genius, the +outcome being his brilliant _Lectures on Bacteria_ in 1885. De Bary's +personal influence was immense. Every one of his numerous pupils was +enthusiastic in admiration of his kind nature and genial criticism, his +humorous sarcasm, and his profound insight, knowledge and originality. + + Memoirs of de Bary's life will be found in _Bot. Centralbl._ (1888), + xxxiv. 93, by Wilhelm; _Ber. d. d. bot. Ges._ vol. vi. (1888) p. + viii., by Reess, each with a list of his works; _Bot. Zeitung_ (1889), + vol. xlvii. No. 3, by Graf zu Soems-Laubach. (H. M. W.) + + + + +DEBENTURES and DEBENTURE STOCK. One of the many advantages incident to +incorporation under the English Companies Acts is found in the +facilities which such incorporation affords a trading concern for +borrowing on debentures or debenture stock. More than five hundred +millions of money are now invested in these forms of security. Borrowing +was not specifically dealt with by the Companies Acts prior to the act +of 1900, but that it was contemplated by the legislature is evident from +the provision in S 43 of the act of 1862 for a company keeping a +register of mortgages and charges. The policy of the legislature in +this, as in other matters connected with trading companies, was +apparently to leave the company to determine whether borrowing should or +should not form one of its objects. + +The first principle to be borne in mind is that a company cannot borrow +unless it is expressly or impliedly authorized to do so by its +memorandum of association. In the case of a _trading_ company borrowing +is impliedly authorized as a necessary incident of carrying on the +company's business. Thus a company established for the conveyance of +passengers and luggage by omnibuses, a company formed to buy and run +vessels between England and Australia, and a company whose objects +included discounting approved commercial bills, have all been held to be +trading companies with an incidental power of borrowing as such to a +reasonable amount. A building society, on the other hand, has no +inherent power of borrowing (though a limited statutory power was +conferred on such societies by the Building Societies Act 1874); nor has +a society formed not for gain but to promote art, science, religion, +charity or any other useful object. Public companies formed to carry out +some undertaking of public utility, such as docks, water works, or gas +works, and governed by the Companies Clauses Acts, have only limited +powers of borrowing. + +An implied power of borrowing, even when it attaches, is too +inconvenient to be relied on in practice, and an express power is always +now inserted in a joint stock company's memorandum of association. This +power is in the most general terms. It is left to the articles to define +the amount to be borrowed, the nature of the security, and the +conditions, if any,--such as the sanction of a general meeting of +shareholders,--on which the power is to be exercised. Under the +Companies Act 1908, S 87, a company cannot exercise any borrowing power +until it has fulfilled the conditions prescribed by the act entitling it +to commence business: one of which is that the company must have +obtained its "minimum subscription." A person who is proposing to lend +money to a company must be careful to acquaint himself with any +statutory regulations of this kind, and also to see (1) that the +memorandum and articles of association authorize borrowing, and (2) that +the borrowing limit is not being exceeded, for if it should turn out +that the borrowing was in excess of the company's powers and _ultra +vires_, the company cannot be bound, and the borrower's only remedy is +against the directors for breach of warranty of authority, or to be +surrogated to the rights of any creditors who may have been paid out of +the borrowed moneys. + +A company proposing to borrow usually issues a prospectus, similar to +the ordinary share prospectus, stating the amount of the issue, the +dates for payment, the particulars of the property to be comprised in +the security, the terms as to redemption, and so on, and inviting the +public to subscribe. Underwriting is also resorted to, as in the case of +shares, to ensure that the issue is taken up. There is no objection to a +company issuing debentures or debenture stock at a discount, as there is +to its issuing its shares at a discount. It must borrow on the best +terms its credit will enable it to obtain. A prospectus inviting +subscriptions for debentures or debenture stock comes within the terms +of the Directors' Liability Act 1890 (re-enacted in Companies Act 1908, +S 84), and persons who are parties to it have the onus cast upon them, +should the prospectus contain any misstatements, of showing that, at the +time when they issued the prospectus, they had reasonable grounds to +believe, and did in fact believe, that the statements in question were +true; otherwise they will be liable to pay compensation to any person +injured by the misstatements. A debenture prospectus is also within the +terms of the Companies Act 1908. It must be filed with the registrar of +joint stock companies (S 80) and must contain all the particulars +specified in S 81 of the act. (See COMPANY.) + +The usual mode of borrowing by a company is either on debentures or +debenture stock. Etymologically, debenture is merely the Latin word +_debentur_,--The first word in a document in common use by the crown in +early times admitting indebtedness to its servants or soldiers. This was +the germ of a security which has now, with the expansion of joint stock +company enterprise, grown into an instrument of considerable complexity. + +Debentures may be classified in various ways. From the point of view of +the security they are either (1) debentures (simply); (2) mortgage +debentures; (3) debenture bonds. In the debenture the security is a +floating charge. In the mortgage debenture there is also a floating +charge, but the property forming the principal part of the security is +conveyed by the company to trustees under a trust deed for the benefit +of the debenture-holders. In the debenture bond there is no security +proper: only the covenant for payment by the company. For purposes of +title and transfer, debentures are either "registered" or "to bearer." +For purposes of payment they are either "terminable" or "perpetual" (see +Companies Act 1908, S 103). + +_The Floating Debenture._--The form of debenture chiefly in use at the +present day is that secured by a floating charge. By it the company +covenants to pay to the holder thereof the sum secured by the debenture +on a specified day (usually ten or fifteen years after the date of +issue), or at such earlier date as the principal moneys become due under +the provisions of the security, and in the meantime the company +covenants to pay interest on the principal moneys until payment, or +until the security becomes enforceable under the conditions; and the +company further charges its undertaking and all its property, including +its uncalled capital, with the payment of the amount secured by the +debentures. Uncalled capital if included must be expressly mentioned, +because the word "property" by itself will not cover uncalled capital +which is only property potentially, i.e. when called up. This is the +body of the instrument; on its back is endorsed a series of conditions, +constituting the terms on which the debenture is issued. Thus the +debenture-holders are to rank _pari passu_ with one another against the +security; the debenture is to be transferable free from equities between +the company and the original holder; the charge is to be a floating +charge, and the debenture-holders' moneys are to become immediately +repayable and the charges enforceable in certain events: for instance, +if the interest is in arrear for (say) two or three months, or if a +winding-up order is made against the company, or a resolution for +winding-up is passed. Other events indicative of insolvency are +sometimes added in which payment is to be accelerated. The conditions +also provide for the mode and form of transfer of the debentures, the +death or bankruptcy of the holder, the place of payment, &c. The most +characteristic feature of the security--the floating charge--grew +naturally out of a charge on a company's undertaking as a going concern. +Such a charge could only be made practicable by leaving the company free +to deal with and dispose of its property in the ordinary course of its +business--to sell, mortgage, lease, and exchange it as if no charge +existed: and this is how the security works. The debenture-holders give +the directors an implied licence to deal with and dispose of the +property comprised in the security until the happening of any of the +events upon which the debenture-holders' money becomes under the +debenture conditions immediately repayable. Pending this the charge is +dormant. The licence extends, however, only to dealings in _the ordinary +course of business_. Payment by a company of its just debts is always in +the ordinary course of business, but satisfaction by execution levied +_in invitum_ is not. This floating form of security is found very +convenient both to the borrowing company and to the lender. The company +is not embarrassed by the charge, while the lender has a security +covering the whole assets for the time being, and can intervene at any +moment by obtaining a receiver if his security is imperilled, even +though none of the events in which the principal moneys are made payable +have happened. If any of them has happened, for instance default in +payment of interest, or a resolution by the company to wind up, the +payment of the principal moneys is accelerated, and a debenture-holder +can at once commence an action to obtain payment and to realize his +security. At times a proviso is inserted in the conditions endorsed on +the debenture, that the company is not to create any mortgage or charge +ranking in priority to or _pari passu_ with that contained in the +debentures. Very nice questions of priority have arisen under such a +clause. A floating charge created by a company within three months of +its being wound up will now be invalid under S 12 of the Companies Act +1908 unless the company is shown to have been solvent at the time, but +there is a saving clause for cash paid under the security and interest +at 5%. + +_Trust Deeds._--When the amount borrowed by a company is large, the +company commonly executes a trust deed by way of further security. The +object of such a trust deed is twofold: (1) it conveys specific property +to the trustees of the deed by way of legal mortgage (the charge +contained in the debentures is only an equitable security), and it +further charges all the remaining assets in favour of the +debenture-holders, with appropriate provisions for enabling them, in +certain events similar to those expressed in the debenture conditions, +to enforce the security, and for that purpose to enter into possession +and carry on the business, or to sell it and distribute the proceeds; +(2) it organizes the debenture-holders and constitutes in the trustees +of the deed a body of experienced business men who can watch over the +interests of the debenture-holders and take steps for their protection +if necessary. In particular it provides machinery for the calling of +meetings of debenture-holders by the trustees, and empowers a majority +of (say) two-thirds or three-fourths in number and value at such meeting +to bind the rest to any compromise or arrangement with the company which +such majorities may deem beneficial. This is found a very useful power, +and may save recourse to a scheme or arrangement first sanctioned under +the machinery of the Joint Stock Companies Arrangement Act 1870 +(Companies Act 1908, S 120). + +_Registration of Mortgages and Charges._--A company is bound, under the +Companies Act 1862, to keep a register of mortgages and charges, but the +register is only open for the inspection of persons who have actually +become creditors of the company, not of persons who may be thinking of +giving it credit, and the legislature recognizing its inadequacy +provided in the Companies Act 1900 (S 4 of act of 1908) for a public +register at Somerset House of all mortgages and charges of certain +specified classes by a company. If not registered within twenty-one days +from their creation such mortgages and charges are made void--so far as +they are securities--against the liquidator and any creditor of the +company, but the debenture-holders retain the rights of unsecured +creditors. An extension of the time for registering may be granted by +the court, but it will only be without prejudice to the rights of third +persons acquired before actual registration. These provisions for +registration as amended are contained in the Companies Act 1908 (S 93). + +_Debentures Registered and to Bearer._--Debentures are, for purposes of +title and transfer, of two kinds--(1) registered debentures, and (2) +debentures to bearer. Registered debentures are transferable only in the +books of the company. Debentures to bearer are negotiable instruments +and pass by delivery. Coupons for interest are attached. Sometimes +debentures to bearer are made exchangeable for registered debentures and +vice versa. + +_Redemption._--A company generally reserves to itself a right of +redeeming the security before the date fixed by the debenture for +repayment; and accordingly a power for that purpose is commonly inserted +in the conditions. But as debenture-holders, who have got a satisfactory +security, do not wish to be paid off, the right of redemption is often +qualified so as not to arise till (say) five years after issue, and a +premium of 5% is made payable by way of bonus to the redeemed +debenture-holder. Sometimes the number of debentures to be redeemed each +year is limited. The selection is made by drawings held in the presence +of the directors. A sinking fund is a convenient means frequently +resorted to for redemption of a debenture debt, and is especially +suitable where the security is of a wasting character, leaseholds, +mining property or a patent. Such a fund is formed by the company +setting apart a certain sum each year out of the profits of the company +after payment of interest on the debentures. Redeemed debentures may in +certain cases be reissued; see Companies Act 1908 (S 104). + +_Debenture Stock._--Debenture stock bears the same relation to +debentures that stock does to shares. "Debenture stock," as Lord Lindley +states (_Companies_, 5th ed., 195), "is merely borrowed capital +consolidated into one mass for the sake of convenience. Instead of each +lender having a separate bond or mortgage, he has a certificate +entitling him to a certain sum, being a portion of one large loan." This +sum is not uniform, as in the case of debentures, but variable. One +debenture-stockholder, for instance, may hold L20 of the debenture +stock, another L20,000. Debenture stock is usually issued in multiples +of L10 or sometimes of L1, and is made transferable in sums of any +amount not involving a fraction of L1. It is this divisibility of stock, +whether debenture or ordinary stock, into quantities of any amount, +which constitutes in fact its chief characteristic, and its convenience +from a business point of view. It facilitates dealing with the stock, +and also enables investors with only a small amount to invest to become +stockholders. The property comprised in this security is generally the +same as in the case of debentures. Debenture stock created by trading +companies differs in various particulars from debenture stock created by +public companies governed by the Companies Clauses Act. The debenture +stock of trading companies is created by a contract made between the +company and trustees for the debenture-stockholders. This contract is +known as a debenture-stockholders' trust deed, and is analogous in its +provisions to the trust deed above described as used to secure +debentures. By such a deed the company acknowledges its indebtedness to +the trustees, as representing the debenture-stockholders, to the amount +of the sum advanced, covenants to pay it, and conveys the property by +way of security to the trustees with all the requisite powers and +provisions for enabling them to enforce the security on default in +payment of interest by the company or on the happening of certain +specified events evidencing insolvency. The company further, in +pursuance of the contract, enters the names of the subsisting +stockholders in a register, and issues certificates for the amount of +their respective holdings. These certificates have, like debentures, the +conditions of the security indorsed on their back. Debenture stock is +also issued to bearer. A deed securing debenture stock requires an _ad +valorem_ stamp. + +_Debenture Scrip._--Debentures and debenture stock are usually made +payable in instalments, for example 10% on application, 10% on allotment +and the remainder at intervals of a few months. Until these payments are +complete the securities are not issued, but to enable the subscriber to +deal with his security pending completion the company issues to him an +interim scrip certificate acknowledging his title and exchangeable on +payment of the remaining instalments for debentures or debenture stock +certificates. If a subscriber for debentures made default in payment the +company could not compel him specifically to perform his contract, the +theory of law being that the company could get the loan elsewhere, but +this inconvenience is now removed (see S 105 of the Companies Act 1908). + +_Remedies._--When debenture-holders' security becomes enforceable there +are a variety of remedies open to them. These fall into two classes--(1) +remedies available without the aid of the court; (2) remedies available +only with the aid of the court. + +1. If there is a trust deed, the trustees may appoint a receiver of the +property comprised in the security, and they may also sell under the +powers contained in the deed, or under S 25 of the Conveyancing Act +1881. Sometimes, where there is no trust deed, similar powers--to +appoint a receiver and to sell--are inserted in the conditions indorsed +on the debentures. + +2. The remedies with the aid of the court are--(a) an action by one or +more debenture-holders on behalf of all for a receiver and to realize +the security; (b) an originating summons for sale or other relief, under +Rules of Supreme Court, 1883, O. lv. r. 5A; (c) an action for +foreclosure where the security is deficient (all the debenture-holders +must be parties to this proceeding); (d) a winding-up petition. Of these +modes of proceeding, the first is by far the most common and most +convenient. Immediately on the issue of the writ in the action the +plaintiff applies for the appointment of a receiver to protect the +security, or if the security comprises a going business, a receiver _and +manager_. In due course the action comes on for judgment, usually on +agreed minutes, when the court directs accounts and inquiries as to who +are the holders of the debentures, what is due to them, what property is +comprised in the security, and gives leave to any of the parties to +apply in chambers for a sale. If the company has gone into liquidation, +leave must be obtained to commence or continue the action, but such +leave in the case of debenture-holders is _ex debito justitiae_. A +debenture-holder action when the company is in winding up is always now +transferred to the judge having the control of the winding-up +proceedings. The administration of a company's assets in such actions by +debenture-holders (debenture-holders' liquidations, as they are called) +has of late encroached very much on the ordinary administration of +winding up, and it cannot be denied that great hardship is often +inflicted by the floating security on the company's unsecured creditors, +who find that everything belonging to the company, uncalled capital +included, has been pledged to the debenture-holders. The conventional +answer is that such creditors might and ought to have inspected the +company's register of mortgages and charges. The matter was fully +considered by the departmental board of trade committee which reported +in July 1906, but the committee, looking at the business convenience of +the floating charge, saw no reason for recommending an alteration in the +law. + +_Reconstruction._--When a company reconstructs, as it often does in +these days, the rights of debenture-holders have to be provided for. +Reconstructions are mainly of two kinds--(1) by arrangement, under the +Joint Stock Companies Arrangement Act 1870, amended in 1900 and 1907, +incorporated in act of 1908 (S 120), and (2) by sale and transfer of +assets, either under S 192 of the act of 1908, or under a power in the +company's memorandum of association. By the procedure provided under (1) +a petition for the sanction of the court to a scheme is presented, and +the court thereupon directs meetings of creditors, including +debenture-holders, to be held. A three-fourths majority in value of +debenture-holders present at the meeting in person or by proxy binds the +rest. Debenture-holders claiming to vote must produce their debentures +at or before the meeting. Under the other mode of reconstruction--sale +and transfer of assets--there is usually a novation, and the +debenture-holders accept the security of the new company in the shape of +debentures of equivalent value or--occasionally--of fully paid +preference shares. + +A point in this connexion, which involves some hardship to +debenture-holders, may here be adverted to. It is a not uncommon +practice for a solvent company to pass a resolution to wind up +voluntarily for the purpose of reconstructing. The effect of this is to +accelerate payment of the security, and the debenture-holders have to +accept their principal and interest only, parting with a good security +and perhaps a premium which would have accrued to them in a year or two. +The company is thus enabled by its own act to redeem the reluctant +debenture-holder on terms most advantageous to itself. To obviate this +hardship, it is now a usual thing in a debenture-holders' trust deed to +provide--the committee of the London Stock Exchange indeed require +it--that a premium shall be paid to the debenture-holders in the event +of the security becoming enforceable by a voluntary winding up with a +view to reconstruction. + +_Public Companies._--Public companies, i.e. companies incorporated by +special act of parliament for carrying on undertakings of public utility, +form a class distinct from trading companies. The borrowing powers of +these companies, the form of their debenture or debenture stock, and the +rights of the debenture-holders or debenture-stockholders, depend on the +conjoint operation of the companies' own special act and the Companies +Clauses Acts 1845, 1863 and 1869. The provisions of these acts as to +borrowing, being express, exclude any implicit power of borrowing. The +first two of the above acts relate to mortgages and bonds, the last to +debenture stock. The policy of the legislature in all these acts is the +same, namely, to give the greatest facilities for borrowing, and at the +same time to take care that undertakings of public utility which have +received legislative sanction shall not be broken up or destroyed, as +they would be if the mortgagees or debenture-holders were allowed the +ordinary rights of mortgagees for realizing their security by seizure and +sale. Hence the legislature has given them only "the fruit of the tree," +as Lord Cairns expressed it. The debenture-holders or the +debenture-stockholders may take the earnings of the company's undertaking +by obtaining the appointment of a receiver, but that is all they can do. +They cannot sell the undertaking or disorganize it by levying execution, +so long as the company is a going concern; but this protecting principle +of public policy will not be a bar to a debenture-holder, in his +character of creditor, presenting a petition to wind up the company, if +it is no longer able to fulfil its statutory objects. Railway companies +have further special legislation, which will be found in the Railway +Companies Powers Act 1864, the Railways Construction Facilities Act 1864 +and the Railway Securities Act 1866. + +_Municipal Corporations and County Councils._--These bodies are +authorized to borrow for their proper purposes on debentures and +debenture stock with the sanction of the Local Government Board. See the +Municipal Corporations Act 1882, the Local Authorities' Loans Act 1875, +and the Local Government (England and Wales) Act 1888. + +_United States._--In the United States there are two meanings of +debenture--(1) a bond not secured by mortgage; (2) a certificate that +the United States is indebted to a certain person or his assigns in a +certain sum on an audited account, or that it will refund a certain sum +paid for duties on imported goods, in case they are subsequently +exported. + + AUTHORITIES.--E. Manson, _Debentures and Debenture Stock_ (London, 2nd + ed., 1908); Simonson, _Debentures and Debenture Stock_ (London, 2nd + ed., 1902); Palmer, _Company Precedents (Debentures)_ (3rd ed., + London, 1907). (E. Ma.) + + + + +DEBORAH (Heb. for "bee"), the Israelite heroine in the Bible through +whose encouragement the Hebrews defeated the Canaanites under Sisera. +The account is preserved in Judges iv.-v., and the ode of victory (chap. +v.), known as the "Song of Deborah," is held to be one of the oldest +surviving specimens of Hebrew literature. Although the text of this _Te +Deum_ has suffered (especially in vv. 8-15) its value is without an +equal for its historical contents. It is not certain that the poem was +actually composed by Deborah (v. 1); ver. 7, which can be rendered +"until _thou_ didst arise, O Deborah," is indecisive. The poem consists +of a series of rapidly shifting scenes; the words are often obscure, but +the general drift of the whole can be easily followed. After the +exordium, the writer describes the approach of Yahweh from his seats in +Seir and Edom in the south to the help of his people--the language is +reminiscent of Ps. lxviii. 7 sqq., Hab. iii. 3 seq. 12 seq. In the days +of Shamgar the son of Anath the land had been insecure, the people were +disarmed, and neither shield nor spear was to be seen among their forty +thousand (cf. 1 Sam. xiii. 19-22, and for the number Josh. iv. 13). Then +follows, apparently, a summons to magnify Yahweh. After an apostrophe to +Deborah and Barak, the son of Abinoam, the meeting of the clans is +vividly portrayed. Ephraim, with Benjamin behind him (for the wording, +cf. Hos. v. 8), Machir (here the tribe of Manasseh) and Zebulun, +Issachar and Naphtali, pour down into the valley of the Kishon. Not all +the tribes were represented. Reuben was wavering, Gilead (i.e. Gad) +remained beyond the Jordan, and Dan's interests were apparently with the +sea-going Phoenicians (see DAN); their conduct is contrasted with the +reckless bravery of Zebulun and Naphtali. Judah is nowhere mentioned; it +lay outside the confederation. The Canaanite kings unite at Taanach by +Megiddo, an ancient battlefield probably to be identified with Lejjun. +The heavens joined the fight against Sisera (cf. the appeal in Josh. x. +12 seq.), a storm rages, and the enemy are swept away in the flood. +Meroz, presumably on the line of flight, is bitterly cursed for its +inaction: "they came not to the help of Yahweh." In vivid contrast to +this is the conduct of one of the Kenites: "blessed of all women is +Jael, of all the nomad women is she blessed." The poem recounts how the +fleeing king craves water, she gives him milk, and (as he drinks) she +fells him (perhaps with a tent-peg); "at her feet he sank down, he fell, +he lay, where he sank he lay overcome." The last scene paints the mother +of Sisera impatiently awaiting the king. Her attendants confidently +picture him dividing the booty--a maiden or two for each man, and richly +embroidered cloth for himself. With inimitable strength the poet +suddenly drops the curtain--"so perish thine enemies, all of them, +Yahweh! But let them that love him be as the sun when it rises in its +might." + +The historical background of this great event is unknown. The Israelite +confederation consists of central Palestine with the (east-Jordanic) +Machir, and the northern tribes with the exception of Dan and Asher. +This has suggested to some an invasion from the coast, or from the north +by way of the coast, since had Dan and Asher fallen into the hands of +the enemy, this would probably have been referred to in some way. Sisera +is scarcely a Semitic name; a "Hittite" origin has been suggested.[1] +Shamgar son of Anath seems equally foreign; the latter is the name of a +Syrian goddess and the former recalls Sangara, a Hittite chief of +Carchemish in the 9th century. The context suggests that Shamgar is a +foreign oppressor (ver. 6), but he appears to have been converted +subsequently into one of the "judges" of Israel (iii. 31), perhaps with +the idea of bringing their total up to twelve. + +The prose version (iv.) contains new and conflicting details. Deborah, +whose home is placed under "Deborah's palm" between Ramah and Bethel, +summons Barak from Kadesh-Naphtali to collect Naphtali and Zebulun, +10,000 strong, and to meet Sisera (who is here the general of a certain +Jabin, king of Hazor) at Mt. Tabor. But Sisera marches south to Kishon, +and after his defeat flees north through Israelite territory, past Hazor +to the neighbourhood of Kadesh. His death, moreover, is differently +described (iv. 21, v. 25-27), and Jael "who with inhospitable guile +smote Sisera sleeping" (Milton) is guilty of an act which has possibly +originated from a misunderstanding of the poem. In the prose narrative +Jabin has nothing to do with the fight, whereas in Josh. xi. he is at +the head of an alliance of north Canaanite kings who were defeated by +Joshua at the waters of Merom. It would seem that certain elements which +are inconsistent with the representation in Judg. v. belonged originally +to the other battle. Kadesh, for example, might be a natural +meeting-place for an attack upon Hazor, and the designation "Jabin's +general," applied to Sisera, is probably due to the attempt to harmonize +the two distinct stories. Moreover, Deborah, who is associated with the +tribe of Issachar (v. 15), appears to have been confused with Rebekah's +nurse, whose tomb lay near Bethel (Gen. xxxv. 5). Some more northerly +place seems to be required, and it has been pointed out that the name +corresponds with Daberath (modern Daburiyeh) at the foot of Tabor, on +the border of Zebulun and Issachar. At all events, to represent her as a +prophetess, judging the people of Israel (iv. 4 seq.), ill accords with +both the older account (v.) and the general situation reflected in the +earlier narratives in the book of Judges. + + For fuller details see G. A. Cooke, _History and Song of Deborah_ + (1892), the commentaries on Judges and the histories of Israel. + Cheyne, _Critica Biblica_, pp. 446-464, offers many new textual + emendations. Paton (_Syria and Palestine_, p. 158 sqq.) suggests that + the battle was against the Hittites (Sisera, a successor of Shamgar). + See also L. W. Batten, J_ourn. Bibl. Lit._ (1905) pp. 31-40 (who + regards Judg. v. and Josh. xi. as duplicates); Winckler, _Gesch. + Israels_, ii. 125-155; _Keilinschr. u. d. Alte Test._(^3) p. 218; and + Ed. Meyer, _Israeliten_, pp. 272 sqq., 487 sqq. (S. A. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The term "Hittite" is here used as a loose but convenient + designation for closely related groups of N. Syria; see HITTITES. + + + + +DEBRECZEN, a town of Hungary, capital of the county of Hajdu, 138 m. E. +of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 72,351. It is the principal Protestant +centre in Hungary, and bears the name of "Calvinistic Rome." Debreczen +is one of the largest towns of Hungary, and is situated in the midst of +a sandy but fertile plain. It consists of the inner old town, and +several suburbs, which stretch out irregularly into the plain. The walls +of the old town have given place to a broad boulevard and several open +commons, beautifully laid out. The most prominent of its public +buildings is the principal Protestant church, built at the beginning of +the 19th century, which ranks as the largest in the country, but has no +great architectural pretensions. In its immediate neighbourhood is the +Protestant Collegium, for theology and law, which is one of the most +frequented institutions of its kind in Hungary, being attended by over +two thousand students. This college was founded in 1531, and possesses a +rich library and other scientific collections. The town hall, the +Franciscan church, the Piarist monastery and college, and the theatre +are also worthy of mention. Amongst its educational establishments it +includes an agricultural academy. The industries of the town are +various, but none is of importance enough to give it the character of a +manufacturing centre. Its tobacco-pipes, sausages and soap are widely +known. It carries on an active trade in cattle, horses, corn and honey, +while four well-attended fairs are held annually. The municipality of +Debreczen owns between three hundred and four hundred square miles of +the adjoining country, which possesses all the characteristics of the +Hungarian _puszta_, and on which roam large herds of cattle. + +The town is of considerable antiquity, but owes its development to the +refugees who flocked from the villages plundered by the Turks in the +15th century. In 1552 it adopted the Protestant faith, and it had to +suffer in consequence, especially when it was captured in 1686 by the +imperial forces. In 1693 it was made a royal free city. In 1848-1849 it +formed a refuge for the national government and legislature when +Budapest fell into the hands of the Austrians; and it was in the great +Calvinist church that, on Kossuth's motion (April 14th, 1849) the +resolution was passed declaring the house of Habsburg to have forfeited +the crown of St Stephen. On the 3rd of July the town was captured by the +Russians. + + + + +DEBT (Lat. _debitum_, a thing owed), a definite sum due by one person to +another. It may be created by contract, by statute or by judgment. +Putting aside those created by statute, recoverable by civil process, +debts may be divided into three classes, (1) judgment debts, (2) +specialty debts, and (3) simple contract debts. As to judgment debts, it +is sufficient to say that, when by the judgment of a court of competent +jurisdiction an order is made that a sum of money be paid by one of two +parties to another, such a debt is not only enforceable by process of +court, but it can be sued upon as if it were an ordinary debt. A +specialty debt is created by deed or instrument under seal. Until 1869 +specialty debts had preference under English law over simple contract +debts in the event of the bankruptcy or death of the debtor, but this +was abolished by the Administration of Estates Act of that year. The +main difference now is that a specialty debt may, in general, be created +without consideration, as for example by a bond (a gratuitous promise +under seal), and that a right of action arising out of a specialty debt +is not barred if exercised any time within twenty years, whereas a right +of action arising out of a simple contract debt is barred unless +exercised within six years. (See LIMITATION, STATUTES OF.) Any other +debt than a judgment or specialty debt, whether evidenced by writing or +not, is a simple contract debt. There are also certain liabilities or +debts which, for the convenience of the remedy, have been made to appear +as though they sprang from contract, and are sometimes termed +quasi-contracts. Such would be an admission by one who is in account +with another that there is a balance due from him. Such an admission +implies a promise to pay when requested and creates an actionable +liability _ex contractu_. Or, when one person is compelled by law to +discharge the legal liabilities of another, he becomes the creditor of +the person for the money so paid. Again, where a person has received +money under circumstances which disentitle him to retain it, such as +receiving payment of an account twice over, it can generally be +recovered as a debt. + +At English common law debts and other choses in action were not +assignable (see CHOSE), but by the Judicature Act 1873 any absolute +assignment of any debt or other legal chose in action, of which express +notice in writing is given to the debtor, trustee or other person from +whom the assignor would have been entitled to receive or claim such +debt, is effectual in law. Debts do not, as a general rule, carry +interest, but such an obligation may arise either by agreement or by +mercantile usage or by statute. The discharge of a debt may take place +either by payment of the amount due, by accord and satisfaction, i.e. +acceptance of something else in discharge of the liability, by set-off +(q.v.), by release or under the law of bankruptcy (q.v.). It is the duty +of a debtor to pay a debt without waiting for any demand, and, unless +there is a place fixed on either by custom or agreement, he must seek +out his creditor for the purpose of paying him unless he is "beyond the +seas." Payment by a third person to the creditor is no discharge of a +debt, as a general rule, unless the debtor subsequently ratifies the +payment. When a debtor tenders the amount due to his creditor and the +creditor refuses to accept, the debt is not discharged, but if the +debtor is subsequently sued for the debt and continues willing and ready +to pay, and pays the amount tendered into court, he can recover his +costs in the action. A creditor is not bound to give change to the +debtor, whose duty it is to make tender in lawful money the whole amount +due, or more, without asking for change. (See PAYMENT.) A debtor takes +the risk if he makes payment through the post, unless the creditor has +requested or authorized that mode of payment. The payment of a debt is +sometimes secured by one person, called a surety, who makes himself +collaterally liable for the debt of the principal. (See GUARANTEE.) The +ordinary method of enforcing a debt is by action. Where the debt does +not exceed L100 the simplest procedure for its recovery is that of the +county court, but if the debt exceeds L100 the creditor must proceed in +the high court, unless the cause of action has arisen within the +jurisdiction of certain inferior courts, such as the mayor's court of +London, the Liverpool court of passage, &c. When judgment has been +obtained it may be enforced either by process (under certain conditions) +against the person of the debtor, by an execution against the debtor's +property, or, with the assistance of the court, by attaching any debt +owed to the debtor by a third person. Where a debtor has committed any +act of bankruptcy a creditor or creditors whose aggregate claims are not +less than L50 may proceed against him in bankruptcy (q.v.). Where the +debtor is a company or corporation registered under the companies acts, +the creditor may petition to have it wound up. (See COMPANY.) + +Imprisonment for debt, the evils of which have been so graphically +described by Dickens, was abolished in England by the Debtors Act 1869, +except in cases of default of payment of penalties, default by trustees +or solicitors and certain other cases. But in cases where a debt or +instalment is in arrear and it is proved to the satisfaction of the +court that the person making default either has or has had since the +date of the order or judgment the means to pay the sum in respect of +which he has made default and has refused or neglected to pay, he may be +committed to prison at the discretion of the judge for a period of not +more than forty-two days. In practice, a period of twenty-one days is +usually the maximum period ordered. Such an imprisonment does not +operate as a satisfaction or extinguishment of the debt, and no second +order of commitment can be made against him for the same debt, although +where the court has made an order or judgment for the payment of the +debt by instalments a power of committal arises on default of payment of +each instalment. In Ireland imprisonment for debt was abolished by the +Debtors Act (Ireland) 1872, and in Scotland by the Debtors (Scotland) +Act 1880. In France it was abolished in 1867, in Belgium in 1871, in +Switzerland and Norway in 1874, and in Italy in 1877. In the United +States imprisonment for debt was universal under the common law, but it +has been abolished in every state, except in certain cases, as where +there is any suspicion of fraud or where the debtor has an intention of +removing out of the state to avoid his debts. (See also CONTRACT; +BANKRUPTCY.) + + + + +DEBUSSY, CLAUDE ACHILLE (1862- ), French composer, was born at St +Germain-en-Laye on the 22nd of August 1862, and educated at the Paris +Conservatoire under Marmontel, Lavignac, Massenet and Guiraud. There +between 1874 and 1884 he gained many prizes for solfege, pianoforte +playing, accompanying, counterpoint and fugue, and, in the last-named +year, the coveted Grand Prix de Rome by means of his cantata _L'Enfant +prodigue_. In this composition already were thought to be noticeable the +germs of unusual and "new" talent, though in the light of later +developments it is not very easy to discern them, for then Debussy had +not come under the influence which ultimately turned his mind to the +system he afterwards used, not only with peculiar distinction but also +with particular individual and complete success. Nevertheless, the mind +had clearly been prepared by nature for the reception of this influence +when it should arise; for, in order to fulfil that condition of the Prix +de Rome which entails the submitting periodically of compositions to the +judges, Debussy sent to them his symphonic suite _Printemps_, to which +the judges took exception on the ground of its formlessness. Following +in the wake of _Printemps_ came _La damoiselle elue_ for solo, female +voice and orchestra--a setting of a French version of Rossetti's "The +Blessed Damosel"--which in the eyes of the judges was even more +unorthodox than its predecessor, though, be it said, fault was found as +much with the libretto as with the music. Both works were denied the +customary public performance. + +The Rome period over, Debussy returned to Paris, whence shortly he went +to Russia, where he came directly under the influence referred to above. +In Russia he absorbed the native music, especially that of Moussorgsky, +who, recently dead, had left behind him the reputation of a "musical +nihilist," and on his return to Paris Debussy devoted himself to +composition, the stream of his muse being even in 1908 as fluent as +twenty years before. To him public recognition was slow in coming, but +in 1893 the Societe Nationale de Musique performed his _Damoiselle +elue_, in 1894 the Ysaye Quartet introduced the string quartet, while in +the same year the _Prelude a l'apres-midi d'un Faune_ was heard, and +brought Debussy's name into some prominence. As time passed the +prominence grew, until the climax of Debussy's creative career was +reached by the production at the Opera Comique on the 30th of April 1902 +of his masterpiece _Pelleas et Melisande_. Herein lay the whole strength +of Debussy's system, the perfection of his appeal to the mind and +imagination as well as to the emotions and senses. Since its production +the world has been enriched by _La Mer_, and by the _Ariettes oubliees_, +but the lyric drama remains on its own lofty pedestal, a monument of +elusive and subtle beauty, of emphatic originality and of charm. In an +Apologia Debussy has declared that in composing _Pelleas_ he "wanted to +dispense with parasitic musical phrases. Melody is, if I may say so, +almost anti-lyric, and powerless to express the constant change of +emotion or life. Melody is suitable only for the chanson, which confirms +a fixed sentiment. I have never been willing that my music should +hinder, through technical exigencies, the change of sentiment and +passion felt by my characters. It is effaced as soon as it is necessary +that these should have perfect liberty in their gestures or in their +cries, in their joy, or in their sorrow." + +The list of Debussy's works is a lengthy one. Several of them have been +referred to already. Among the others, of which the complete list is too +long to print here, are the dances for chromatic harp or pianoforte; +_Images_; incidental music to _King Lear_; the _Petite Suite_; _Trois +Nocturnes_; innumerable songs, as _Proses Lyriques_ (text by Debussy); +two series of Verlaine's _Fetes galantes_; _Cinq Poemes de Baudelaire_; +many pianoforte pieces. + +In 1891 Debussy was appointed critic of the _Revue Blanche_. In his +first notice he expressed his faith thus: "I shall endeavour to trace in +a musical work the many different emotions which have helped to give it +birth, also to demonstrate its inner life. This, surely, will be +accounted of greater interest than the game which consists in dissecting +it as if it were a curious timepiece." + +As to the theories, so much debated, of this remarkable +musician--probably in the whole range of musical history there has not +appeared a more difficult theorist to "place." Unquestionably Debussy +has introduced a new system of colour into music, which has begun +already to exert widespread influence. Roughly, Debussy's system may be +summarized thus: + +His scale basis is of six whole tones (enharmonic), as (1) middle C, D, +E, G[flat], A[flat], B[flat], which are of excellent sound when +superimposed in the form of two augmented unrelated triads. + + / B[flat] / A[sharp] + < G[flat]or enharmonically < F[sharp] + \ D \ D + + / A[flat] / G[sharp] + < E < E + \ C \ C + +used frequently incomplete (i.e. by the omission of one note) by +Debussy. + + E \ + C | + A > + F[sharp] | + D / + +Now, upon the basis of an augmented triad a tune may be played above it +provided that it be based upon the six-tone scale, and a fugue may be +written, the re-entry of the subject of which may be made upon any note +of the scale, and the harmony will be complete. To associate this scale +with the ordinary diatonic scale let a major 9th be taken, e.g.: one may +conventionally flatten or sharpen the fifth of this (A becoming [sharp] +or [flat] as desired): if _both_ the flattened and sharpened fifths be +taken in the one chord this chord is arrived at: + + E + C + B[flat] + A[flat] (A[sharp] enharmonically altered to B[flat]) + F[sharp] + D + +which is composed of the notes of the aforesaid scale (1), and Debussy +thereby proves his case to belong to the "primitifs." It will be noticed +that chords of the 9th in sequence and in all forms occur in Debussy's +music as well as the augmented triad harmonics, where the melodic line +is based on the tonal scale. This, in all likelihood, is the outcome of +Debussy's instinctive feeling for the association of his so-called +discovery with the ordinary scale. The "secret," it may be added, comes +not from Annamese music as has been frequently stated, but probably from +Russia, where certainly it was used before Debussy's rise. (R. H. L.) + + + + +DECADE (from Gr. [Greek: deka], ten), a group or series containing ten +members, particularly a period of ten years. In the new calendar made at +the time of the French Revolution in 1793, a decade of ten days took the +place of the week. The word is also used of the divisions containing ten +books or parts into which the history of Livy was divided. + + + + +DECAEN, CHARLES MATHIEU ISIDORE, COUNT (1769-1832), French soldier, was +born at Caen on the 13th of April 1769. He was educated for the bar, but +soon showed a strong preference for the military career, in which he +quickly made his way during the wars of the French Revolution under +Kleber, Marceau and Jourdan, in the Rhenish campaigns. In 1799 he became +general of division, and contributed to the success of the famous attack +by General Richepanse on the Austrian flank and rear at Hohenlinden +(December 1800). Becoming known for his Anglophobe tendencies, he was +selected by Napoleon early in the year 1802 for the command of the +French possessions in the East Indies. The secret instructions issued to +him bade him prepare the way, so that in due course (September 1804 was +hinted at as the suitable time) everything might be ready for an attack +on the British power in India. Napoleon held out to him the hope of +acquiring lasting glory in that enterprise. Decaen set sail with Admiral +Linois early in March 1803 with a small expeditionary force, touched at +the Cape of Good Hope (then in Dutch hands), and noted the condition of +the fortifications there. On arriving at Pondicherry he found matters in +a very critical condition. Though the outbreak of war in Europe had not +yet been heard of, the hostile preparations adopted by the Marquis +Wellesley caused Decaen to withdraw promptly to the Isle of France +(Mauritius), where, during eight years, he sought to harass British +trade and prepare for plans of alliance with the Mahratta princes of +India. They all came to naught. Linois was captured by a British +squadron, and ultimately, in 1811, Mauritius itself fell to the Union +Jack. Returning to France on honourable terms, Decaen received the +command of the French troops in Catalonia. The rest of his career calls +for no special mention. He died of the cholera in 1832. + + See M. L. E. Gautier, _Biographie du general Decaen_ (Caen, 1850). + (J. Hl. R.) + + + + +DECALOGUE (in patristic Gr. [Greek: he dekalogos], sc. [Greek: biblos] +or [Greek: nomothesia]), another name for the biblical _Ten +Commandments_, in Hebrew the _Ten Words_ (Deut. iv. 13, x. 4; Ex. xxxiv. +28), written by God on the two tables of stone (Ex. xxiv. 12, xxxii. +16), the so-called _Tables of the Revelation_ (E.V. "tables of +testimony," Ex. xxxiv. 29), or _Tables of the Covenant_ (Deut. ix. 9, +11, 15). These tables were broken by Moses (Ex. xxxii. 19), and two new +ones were hewn (xxxiv. 1), and upon them were written the words of the +covenant by Moses (xxxiv. 27 sqq.) or, according to another view, by God +himself (Deut. iv. 13, ix. 10). They were deposited in the Ark (Ex. xxv. +21; 1 Kings viii. 9). In Deuteronomy the inscription on these tables, +which is briefly called the covenant (iv. 13), is expressly identified +with the words spoken by Jehovah (Yahweh) out of the midst of the fire +at Mt. Sinai or Horeb (according to the Deuteronomic tradition), in the +ears of the whole people on the "day of the assembly," and rehearsed in +v. 6-21. In the narrative of Exodus the relation of the "ten words" of +xxxiv. to the words spoken from Sinai, xx. 2-17, is not so clearly +indicated, and it is generally agreed that the Pentateuch presents +divergent and irreconcilable views of the Sinaitic covenant. + +As regards the Decalogue, as usually understood, and embodied in the +parallel passages in Ex. xx. and Deut. v., certain preliminary points of +detail have to be noticed. The variations in the parallel texts are +partly verbal, partly stylistic (e.g. "Remember the Sabbath day," Ex.; +but "observe," &c., Deut.), and partly consist of amplifications or +divergent explanations. Thus the reason assigned for the institution of +the Sabbath in Exodus is drawn from the creation, and agrees with Gen. +ii. 3. In Deuteronomy the command is based on the duty of humanity to +servants and the memory of Egyptian bondage. Again, in the tenth +commandment, as given in Exodus, "house" means house and household, +including the wife and all the particulars which are enumerated in ver. +17. In Deuteronomy, "Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's wife," comes +first, and "house" following in association with field is to be taken in +the literal restricted sense, and another verb ("thou shalt not desire") +is used. + +The construction of the second commandment in the Hebrew text is +disputed, but the most natural sense seems to be, "Thou shalt not make +unto thee a graven image; (and) to no visible shape in heaven, &c., +shalt thou bow down, &c." The third commandment might be rendered, "Thou +shalt not utter the name of the Lord thy God vainly," but it is possible +that the meaning is that Yahweh's name is not to be used for purposes of +sorcery. + + The order of the commandments relating to murder, adultery and + stealing varies in the Vatican text of the Septuagint, viz. adultery, + stealing, murder, in Ex.; adultery, murder, stealing, in Deut. The + latter is supported by several passages in the New Testament (Rom. + xiii. 9; Mark x. 19, A.V.; Luke xviii. 20; contrast Matt. xix. 18), + and by the "Nash Papyrus."[1] It may be added that the double system + of accentuation of the Decalogue in the Hebrew Bible seems to preserve + traces of the ancient uncertainty concerning the numeration. + +_Divisions of the Decalogue._--The division current in England and +Scotland, and generally among the Reformed (Calvinistic) churches and in +the Orthodox Eastern Church, is known as the Philonic division (Philo, +_de Decalogo_, S12). It is sometimes called by the name of Origen, who +adopts it in his _Homilies on Exodus_. On this scheme the preface, Ex. +xx. 2, has been usually taken as part of the first commandment. The +Church of Rome and the Lutherans adopt the Augustinian division (Aug., +_Quaest. super Exod._, lxxi.), combining into one the first and second +commandments of Philo, and splitting his tenth commandment into two. To +gain a clear distinction between the ninth and tenth commandments on +this scheme it has usually been felt to be necessary to follow the +Deuteronomic text, and make the ninth commandment, Thou shalt not covet +thy neighbour's wife.[2] As few scholars will now claim priority for the +text of Deuteronomy, this division may be viewed as exploded. But there +is a third scheme (the Talmudic) still current among the Jews, and not +unknown to early Christian writers, which is still a rival of the +Philonic view, though less satisfactory. Here the preface, Ex. xx. 2, is +taken as the first "word," and the second embraces verses 3-6. + + See further Nestle, _Expository Times_ (1897), p. 427. The decision + between Philo and the Talmud must turn on two questions. Can we take + the preface as a separate "word"? And can we regard the prohibition of + polytheism and the prohibition of idolatry as one commandment? Now, + though the Hebrew certainly speaks of ten "words," not of ten + "precepts," it is most unlikely that the first word can be different + in character from those that follow. But the statement "I am the Lord + thy God" is either no precept at all, or only enjoins by implication + what is expressly commanded in the words "Thou shalt have no other + gods before me." Thus to take the preface as a distinct word is not + reasonable unless there are cogent grounds for uniting the + commandments against polytheism and idolatry. But that is far from + being the case. The first precept of the Philonic scheme enjoins + monolatry, the second expresses God's spiritual and transcendental + nature. Accordingly Kuenen does not deny that the prohibition of + images contains an element additional to the precept of monolatry, + but, following De Goeje, regards the words from "thou shalt not make + unto thyself" down to "the waters under the earth" as a later + insertion in the original Decalogue. Unless this can be made out, the + Philonic scheme is clearly best, and as such it is now accepted by + most scholars. + +How were the ten words disposed on the two tables? The natural +arrangement (which is assumed by Philo and Josephus) would be five and +five. And this, as Philo recognized, is a division appropriate to the +sense of the precepts; for antiquity did not look on piety towards +parents as a mere precept of probity, part of one's duty towards one's +neighbour. The authority of parents and rulers is viewed in the Old +Testament as a delegated divine authority, and the violation of it is +akin to blasphemy (cf. Ex. xxi. 17 and Lev. xx. 9 with Lev. xxiv. 15, +16, and note the formula of treason, 1 Kings xxi. 13). + +We have thus five precepts of piety on the first table, and five of +probity, in negative form, on the second, an arrangement which is +accepted by the best recent writers. But the current view of the Western +Church since Augustine has been that the precept to honour parents heads +the second table. The only argument of weight in favour of this view is +that it makes the amount of writing on the two tables less unequal, +while we know that the second table as well as the first was written on +both sides (Ex. xxxii. 15). But we shall presently see that there may be +another way out of this difficulty. + +_Date._--It is much disputed what the original compass of the Decalogue +was. Did the whole text of Ex. xx. 2-17 stand on the tables of stone? +The answer to this question must start from the reason annexed to the +fourth commandment, which is different in Deuteronomy. But the express +words "and he added no more," in Deut. v. 22, show that there is no +conscious omission by the Deuteronomic speaker of part of the original +Decalogue, which cannot therefore have included the reason annexed in +Exodus. On the other hand the reason annexed in Deuteronomy is rather a +parenetic addition than an original element dropped in Exodus. Thus the +original fourth commandment was simply "Remember the Sabbath day to keep +it holy."[3] When this is granted it must appear not improbable that the +elucidations of other commandments may not have stood on the tables, and +that Nos. 6-9 have survived in their original form. Thus in the second +commandment, "Thou shalt not bow down to any visible form," &c., is a +sort of explanatory addition to the precept "Thou shalt not make unto +thee a graven image." And so the promise attached to the fifth +commandment was probably not on the tables, and the tenth commandment +may have simply been, "Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's house," +which includes all that is expressed in the following clauses. Such a +view gets over the difficulty arising from the unequal length of the two +halves of the Decalogue. + +It is quite another question whether there is any idea in the Decalogue +which can be as old as Moses. It is urged by many critics that Moses +cannot have prohibited the worship of Yahweh by images; for the +subsequent history shows us a descendant of Moses as priest in the +idolatrous sanctuary of Dan. There were teraphim in David's house, and +the worship of Yahweh under the image of a calf was the state religion +of the kingdom of Ephraim. Even Moses himself is said to have made a +brazen serpent which, down to Hezekiah's time, continued to be +worshipped at Jerusalem. It is argued from these facts that +image-worship went on unchallenged, and that this would not have been +possible had Moses forbidden it. The argument is supported by others of +great cogency. Although the literary problems of the chapters which +narrate the law-giving on Mt. Sinai are extremely intricate, it is +generally agreed that Ex. xx. cannot be ascribed to the oldest source, +and if, in accordance with many critics, this chapter is ascribed to the +Elohist or Ephraimite school, its incorporation can scarcely be older +than the middle of the 8th century, and is probably later. With this, +the condemnation of adultery in Gen. xx. 1-17 (contrast xii. 10-20, +xxvi. 6-11) is in harmony, and the prohibition of the worship of the +heavenly bodies is aimed at a form of idolatry which is frequently +alluded to in the times of the later kings. The lofty ethics (e.g. tenth +commandment) is in itself no _sound_ criterion, whilst the external form +of the laws, though characteristic of later codes, need not be taken as +evidence of importance. But the general result of a study of the +Decalogue as a whole, in connexion with Israelite political history and +religion, strongly supports, in fact demands, a post-Mosaic origin, and +modern criticism is chiefly divided only as to the approximate date to +which it is to be ascribed. The time of Manasseh (cf. especially its +contact with Micah vi. 6-8) has found many adherents, but an earlier +period, about 750 B.C. (time of Amos and Hosea), is often held to +satisfy the main conditions; the former, however, is probably nearer the +mark. + +_The Decalogue of Exodus xxxiv._--In the book of Exodus the words +written on the tables of stone are nowhere expressly identified with the +ten commandments of chap. xx. In xxv. 16, xxxi. 18, xxxii. 15, we simply +read of "the testimony" inscribed on the tables, and it seems to be +assumed that its contents must be already known to the reader. The +expression "ten words" first occurs in xxxiv. 28, in a passage which +relates the restoration of the tables after they had been broken. But +these "ten words" are called "the words of the covenant," and so can +hardly be different from the words mentioned in the preceding verse as +those in accordance wherewith the covenant was made with Israel. And +again, the words of ver. 27 are necessarily the commandments which +immediately precede in vv. 12-26. Accordingly many recent critics have +sought to show that Ex. xxxiv. 12-26 contains just ten precepts forming +a second decalogue.[4] + +These consist not of precepts of social morality, but of several laws of +religious observance closely corresponding to the religious and ritual +precepts of Ex. xxi.-xxiii. The number ten is not clearly made out, and +the individual precepts are somewhat variously assigned. They prohibit +(1) the worship of other gods, (2) the making of molten images; they +ordain (3) the observance of the feast of unleavened bread, (4) the +feast of weeks, (5) the feast of ingathering at the end of the year, and +(6) the seventh-day rest; to Yahweh belong (7) the firstlings, and (8) +the first-fruits of the land; they forbid also (9) the offering of the +blood of sacrifice with leaven, (10) the leaving-over of the fat of a +feast until the morning, and (11) the seething of a kid in its mother's +milk. This scheme ignores the command to appear thrice in the year +before Yahweh which recapitulates Nos. 3-5, and the decade is obtained +by omitting No. 6, which some hold to be out of place. Others include +"none shall appear before me empty-handed" (xxxiv. 20), and unite Nos. +4-5, 9 and 10. C. F. Kent (_Beginnings of Heb. Hist._ pp. 183 sqq.) +obtains a decalogue from scattered precepts in Ex. xx.-xxiii., which +corresponds with Nos. 2, 7, 6, 3 and 5 (in one), 9 and 10 (in one), 11 +above, and adds (a) the building of an altar of earth (xx. 24), (b) +offering from the harvest and wine-press (xxii. 29), (c) firstlings of +animals (xxii. 29 sqq.; cf. No. 7, and xxxiv. 19); (d) prohibition +against eating torn flesh (xxii. 31).[5] The so-called Yahwist Decalogue +in xxxiv. presupposes a rather more primitive stage in society, partly +nomadic and partly agricultural; No. 6 is suitable only for +agriculturists and cannot have originated among nomads. The whole may be +summed up in a sentence:--"Worship Yahweh and Yahweh alone, without +images, let the worship be simple and in accord with the old usage; +forbear to introduce the practices of your Canaanitish neighbours" +(Harper). It would seem to represent more precisely a Judaean standpoint +(cf. the simpler customs of the Rechabites, q.v.). + +If such a system of precepts was ever viewed as the basis of the +covenant with Israel, it must belong to a far earlier stage of religious +development than that of Ex. xx. This is recognized by Wellhausen, who +says that our decalogue stands to that of Ex. xxxiv. as Amos stood to +his contemporaries, whose whole religion lay in the observance of sacred +feasts. To those accustomed to look on the Ten Words written on the +tables of stone as the very foundation of the Mosaic law, it is hard to +realize that in ancient Israel there were two opinions as to what these +"Words" were. The hypothesis that Ex. xxxiv. 10-26 originally stood in a +different connexion, and was misplaced at some stage in the redaction of +the Hexateuch, does not help us, since it would still have to be +admitted that the editor to whom we owed the present form of the chapter +identified this little code of religious observances with the Ten Words. +Were this the case the editor, to quote Wellhausen, "introduced the most +serious internal contradiction found in the Old Testament."[6] + +_The Decalogue in Christian Theology._--Following the New Testament, in +which the "commandments" summed up in the law of love are identified +with the precepts of the Decalogue (Mark x. 19; Rom. xiii. 9; cf. Mark +xii. 28 ff.), the ancient Church emphasized the permanent obligation of +the ten commandments as a summary of _natural_ in contradistinction to +_ceremonial_ precepts, though the observance of the Sabbath was to be +taken in a spiritual sense (Augustine, _De spiritu et litera_, xiv.; +Jerome, _De celebratione Paschae_). The medieval theologians followed in +the same line, recognizing all the precepts of the Decalogue as moral +precepts _de lege naturae_, though the law of the Sabbath is not of the +law of nature, in so far as it prescribes a determinate day of rest +(Thomas, _summa_, I^ma II^dae, qu. c. art. 3; Duns, _Super sententias_, +lib. iii. dist. 37). The most important medieval exposition of the +Decalogue is that of Nicolaus de Lyra; and the 15th century, in which +the Decalogue acquired special importance in the confessional, was +prolific in treatises on the subject (Antoninus of Florence, Gerson, +&c.). + +Important theological controversies on the Decalogue begin with the +Reformation. The question between the Lutheran (Augustinian) and +Reformed (Philonic) division of the ten commandments was mixed up with +controversy as to the legitimacy of sacred images not designed to be +worshipped. The Reformed theologians took the stricter view. The +identity of the Decalogue with the eternal law of nature was maintained +in both churches, but it was an open question whether the Decalogue, as +such (that is, as a law given by Moses to the Israelites), is of +perpetual obligation. The Socinians, on the other hand, regarded the +Decalogue as abrogated by the more perfect law of Christ; and this view, +especially in the shape that the Decalogue is a civil and not a moral +law (J. D. Michaelis), was the current one in the period of 18th-century +rationalism. The distinction of a permanent and a transitory element in +the law of the Sabbath is found, not only in Luther and Melanchthon, but +in Calvin and other theologians of the Reformed church. The main +controversy which arose on the basis of this distinction was whether the +prescription of one day in seven is of permanent obligation. It was +admitted that such obligation must be not natural but positive; but it +was argued by the stricter Calvinistic divines that the proportion of +one in seven is agreeable to nature, based on the order of creation in +six days, and in no way specially connected with anything Jewish. Hence +it was regarded as a _universal positive_ law of God. But those who +maintained the opposite view were not excluded from the number of the +orthodox. The laxer conception found a place in the Cocceian school. + + LITERATURE.--Geffcken, _Uber die verschiedenen Eintheilungen des + Dekalogs und den Einfluss derselben auf den Cultus_; W. Robertson + Smith, _Old Test. Jew. Church_, pp. 331-345, where his earlier views + (1877) in the _Ency. Brit._ are largely modified (cf. also _Eng. Hist. + Rev._ (1888) p. 352); Montefiore, _Hibbert Lectures_ (1892), Appendix + I; W. R. Harper, _Internat. Crit. Comm. on Amos and Hosea_, pp. 58-64 + (on the position of the Decalogue in early pre-prophetic religion of + Israel); C. A. Briggs, _Higher Criticism of Hexat_.^2 pp. 189-210; see + also the references under EXODUS. (W. R. S.; S. A. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] A Hebrew fragment probably of the 2nd century A.D., in the + University Library, Cambridge, containing the Decalogue with several + variant readings; see S. A. Cook, _Proceed. Soc. Bibl. Archaeology_ + (1903), pp. 34-56; F. C. Burkitt, _Jewish Quarterly Review_ (1903), + pp. 392-408; N. Peters, _D. alteste Abschrift d. zehn Gebote_ (1905). + + [2] So, for example, Augustine, l.c., Thomas, _Summa_ (_Prima + Secundae_, qu. c. art. 4), and recently Sonntag and Kurtz. Purely + arbitrary is the idea of Lutheran writers (Gerhard, Loc. xiii. S 46) + that the ninth commandment forbids _concupiscentia actualis_, the + tenth _conc. originalis_. + + [3] It is generally assumed that the addition in Exodus is from a + hand akin to Gen. ii. 2 sqq.; Ex. xxxi. 17 (P.). + + [4] So Hitzig (_Ostern und Pfingsten im zweiten Dekalog_, Heidelberg, + 1838), independently of a previous suggestion of Goethe in 1783, who + in turn appears to have been anticipated by an early Greek writer + (Nestle, _Zeit. fur alt-test. Wissenschaft_ (1904), pp. 134 sqq.). + + [5] See also W. E. Barnes, _Journ. Theol. Stud._ (1905), pp. 557-563. + + [6] The last three sentences of this paragraph are taken almost + bodily from Robertson Smith's later views (_Old Testament in the + Jewish Church^2_, pp. 335 seq.). + + + + +DE CAMP, JOSEPH (1858- ), American portrait and figure painter, was +born in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1858. He was a pupil of Frank Duveneck and +of the Royal Academy of Munich; became a member of the society of Ten +American Painters, and a teacher in the schools of the Pennsylvania +Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts; +and painted important mural decorations in the Philadelphia city hall. + + + + +DECAMPS, ALEXANDRE GABRIEL (1803-1860), French painter, was born in +Paris on the 3rd of March 1803. In his youth he travelled in the East, +and reproduced Oriental life and scenery with a bold fidelity to nature +that made his works the puzzle of conventional critics. His powers, +however, soon came to be recognized, and he was ranked along with +Delacroix and Vernet as one of the leaders of the French school. At the +Paris Exhibition of 1855 he received the grand or council medal. Most of +his life was passed in the neighbourhood of Paris. He was passionately +fond of animals, especially dogs, and indulged in all kinds of field +sports. He died on the 22nd of August 1860 in consequence of being +thrown from a vicious horse while hunting at Fontainebleau. The style of +Decamps was characteristically and intensely French. It was marked by +vivid dramatic conception, by a manipulation bold and rapid, sometimes +even to roughness, and especially by original and startling use of +decided contrasts of colour and of light and shade. His subjects +embraced an unusually wide range. He availed himself of his travels in +the East in dealing with scenes from Scripture history, which he was +probably the first of European painters to represent with their true and +natural local background. Of this class were his "Joseph sold by his +Brethren," "Moses taken from the Nile," and his scenes from the life of +Samson, nine vigorous sketches in charcoal and white. Perhaps the most +impressive of his historical pictures is his "Defeat of the Cimbri," +representing with wonderful skill the conflict between a horde of +barbarians and a disciplined army. Decamps produced a number of genre +pictures, chiefly of scenes from French and Algerine domestic life, the +most marked feature of which is humour. The same characteristic attaches +to most of his numerous animal paintings. He painted dogs, horses, &c., +with great fidelity and sympathy; but his favourite subject was monkeys, +which he depicted in various studies and sketches with a grotesque +humour that could scarcely be surpassed. Probably the best known of all +his works is "The Monkey Connoisseurs," a clever satire of the jury of +the French Academy of Painting, which had rejected several of his +earlier works on account of their divergence from any known standard. +The pictures and sketches of Decamps were first made familiar to the +English public through the lithographs of Eugene le Roux. + + See Moreau's _Decamps et son oeuvre_ (Paris, 1869). + + + + +DECAPOLIS, a league of ten cities ([Greek: deka poleis]) with their +surrounding district, situated with one exception on the eastern side of +the upper Jordan and the Sea of Tiberias. Being essentially a +confederation of _cities_ it is impossible precisely to fix Decapolis as +a _region_ with definite boundaries. The names of the original ten +cities are given by Pliny; these are as follows: Damascus, Philadelphia, +Raphana, Scythopolis (= Beth-Shan, now _Beisan_, west of Jordan), +Gadara, Hippos, Dion, Pella, Gerasa and Kanatha. Of these Damascus alone +retains its importance. Scythopolis (as represented by the village of +Beisan) is still inhabited; the ruins of Pella, Gerasa and Kanatha +survive, but the other sites are unknown or disputed. Scythopolis, being +in command of the communications with the sea and the Greek cities on +the coast, was the most important member of the league. The league +subsequently received additions and some of the original ten dropped +out. In Ptolemy's enumeration Raphana has no place, and nine, such as +Kapitolias, Edrei, Bosra, &c., are added. The purpose of the league was +no doubt mutual defence against the marauding Bedouin tribes that +surrounded them. These were hardly if at all checked by the Semitic +kinglings to whom the Romans delegated the government of eastern +Palestine. + +It was probably soon after Pompey's campaign in 64-63 B.C. that the +Decapolis league took shape. The cities comprising it were united by +the main roads on which they lay, their respective spheres of influence +touching, if not overlapping, one another. A constant communication was +maintained with the Mediterranean ports and with Greece, and there was a +vigorous municipal life which found expression in literature, in +athletic contests, and in a thriving commerce, thus carrying a truly +Hellenic influence into Perea and Galilee. From Josephus we learn that +the cities were severally subject to the governor of Syria and taxed for +imperial purposes; some of them afterwards came under Herod's +jurisdiction, but reserved the substantial rights granted them by +Pompey. + + The best account is in G. A. Smith's _Historical Geography of the Holy + Land_, chap. xxviii. (R. A. S. M.) + + + + +DECASTYLE (Gr. [Greek: deka], ten, and [Greek: stylos], column), the +architectural term given to a temple where the front portico has ten +columns; as in the temple of Apollo Didymaeus at Miletus, and the +portico of University College, London. (See TEMPLE.) + + + + +DECATUR, STEPHEN (1779-1820), American naval commander, was born at +Sinnepuxent, Maryland, on the 5th of January 1779, and entered the +United States navy as a midshipman in 1798. He was promoted lieutenant a +year later, and in that rank saw some service in the short war with +France. In 1803 he was in command of the "Enterprise," which formed part +of Commodore Preble's squadron in the Mediterranean, and in February +1804 led a daring expedition into the harbour of Tripoli for the purpose +of burning the U.S. frigate "Philadelphia" which had fallen into +Tripolitan hands. He succeeded in his purpose and made his escape under +the fire of the batteries with a loss of only one man wounded. This +brilliant exploit earned him his captain's commission and a sword of +honour from Congress. Decatur was subsequently engaged in all the +attacks on Tripoli between 1804 and 1805. In the War of 1812 his ship +the "United States" captured H.M.S. "Macedonian" after a desperate +fight, and in 1813 he was appointed commodore to command a squadron in +New York harbour, which was soon blockaded by the British. In an attempt +to break out in February 1815 Decatur's flagship the "President" was cut +off and after a spirited fight forced to surrender to a superior force. +Subsequently he commanded in the Mediterranean against the corsairs of +Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli with great success. On his return he was made +a navy commissioner (November 1815), an office which he held until his +death, which took place in a duel with Commodore James Barron at +Bladensburg, Md., on the 22nd of March 1820. + + See Mackenzie, _Life of Decatur_ (Boston, 1846). + + + + +DECATUR, a city and the county-seat of Macon county, Illinois, U.S.A., +in the central part of the state, near the Sangamon river, about 39 m. +E. of Springfield. Pop. (1890) 16,841; (1900) 20,754, of whom 1939 were +foreign-born; (1910 census) 31,140. Decatur is served by the Cincinnati, +Hamilton & Dayton, the Illinois Central, the Wabash (which maintains car +shops here), and the Vandalia railways, and is connected with Danville, +Saint Louis, Springfield, Peoria, Bloomington and Champaign by the +Illinois Traction System (electric). Decatur has three large parks and a +public library; and S.E. of Fairview Park, with a campus of 35 acres, is +the James Millikin University (co-educational; Cumberland Presbyterian), +founded in 1901 by James Millikin, and opened in 1903. The university +comprises schools of liberal arts, engineering (mechanical, electrical, +and civil), domestic economy, fine and applied arts, commerce and +finance, library science, pedagogy, music, and a preparatory school; in +1907-1908 it had 936 students, 440 being in the school of music. Among +the city's manufactures are iron, brass castings, agricultural +implements, flour, Indian corn products, soda fountains, plumbers' +supplies, coffins and caskets, bar and store fixtures, gas and electric +light fixtures, street cars, and car trucks. The value of the city's +factory products increased from $5,133,677 in 1900 to $8,667,302 in +1905, or 68.8%. The city is also an important shipping point for +agricultural products (especially grain), and for coal taken from the +two mines in the city and from mines in the surrounding country. The +first settlement in Decatur was made in 1829, and the place was +incorporated in 1836. On the 22nd of February 1856 a convention of +Illinois editors met at Decatur to determine upon a policy of opposition +to the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. They called a state convention, which met +at Bloomington, and which is considered to have taken the first step +toward founding the Republican party in Illinois. + + + + +DECAZES, ELIE, DUC (1780-1860), French statesman, was born at Saint +Martin de Laye in the Gironde. He studied law, became a judge in the +tribunal of the Seine in 1806, was attached to the cabinet of Louis +Bonaparte in 1807, and was counsel to the court of appeal at Paris in +1811. Immediately upon the fall of the empire he declared himself a +Royalist, and remained faithful to the Bourbons through the Hundred +Days. He made the personal acquaintance of Louis XVIII. during that +period through Baron Louis, and the king rewarded his energy and tact by +appointing him prefect of police at Paris on the 7th of July 1815. His +marked success in that difficult position won for him the ministry of +police, in succession to Fouche, on the 24th of September. In the +interval he had been elected deputy for the Seine (August 1815) and both +as deputy and as minister he led the moderate Royalists. His formula was +"to royalize France and to nationalize the monarchy." The Moderates were +in a minority in the chamber of 1815, but Decazes persuaded Louis XVIII. +to dissolve the house, and the elections of October 1816 gave them a +majority. During the next four years Decazes was called upon to play the +leading role in the government. At first, as minister of police he had +to suppress the insurrections provoked by the ultra-Royalists (the White +Terror); then, after the resignation of the duc de Richelieu, he took +the actual direction of the ministry, although the nominal president was +General J. J. P. A. Dessolle (1767-1828). He held at the same time the +portfolio of the interior. The cabinet, in which Baron Louis was +minister of finance, and Marshal Gouvion Saint Cyr remained minister of +war, was entirely Liberal; and its first act was to suppress the +ministry of police, as Decazes held that it was incompatible with the +regime of liberty. His reforms met with the strong hostility of the +Chamber of Peers, where the ultra-Royalists were in a majority, and to +overcome it he got the king to create sixty new Liberal peers. He then +passed the laws on the press, suppressing the censorship. By +reorganization of the finances, the protection of industry and the +carrying out of great public works, France regained its economic +prosperity, and the ministry became popular. But the powers of the Grand +Alliance had been watching the growth of Liberalism in France with +increasing anxiety. Metternich especially ascribed this mainly to the +"weakness" of the ministry, and when in 1819 the political elections +still further illustrated this trend, notably by the election of the +celebrated Abbe Gregoire, it began to be debated whether the time had +not come to put in force the terms of the secret treaty of +Aix-la-Chapelle. It was this threat of foreign intervention, rather than +the clamour of the "Ultras," that forced Louis XVIII. to urge a change +in the electoral law that should render such a "scandal" as Gregoire's +election impossible for the future. Dessolle and Louis, refusing to +embark on this policy, now resigned; and Decazes became head of the new +ministry, as president of the council (November 1819). But the exclusion +of Gregoire from the chamber and the changes in the franchise embittered +the Radicals without conciliating the "Ultras." The news of the +revolution in Spain in January 1820 added fuel to their fury; it was the +foolish and criminal policy of the royal favourite that had once more +unchained the demon of revolution. Decazes was denounced as the new +Sejanus, the modern Catiline; and when, on the 13th of February, the +duke of Berry was murdered, clamorous tongues loudly accused him of +being an accomplice in the crime. Decazes, indeed, foreseeing the storm, +at once placed his resignation in the king's hands. Louis at first +refused. "They will attack," he exclaimed, "not your system, my dear +son, but mine." But in the end he was forced to yield to the importunity +of his family (February 17th); and Decazes, raised to the rank of duke, +passed into honourable exile as ambassador to Great Britain. + +This ended Decazes's meteoric career of greatness. In December 1821 he +returned to sit in the House of Peers, when he continued to maintain +his Liberal opinions. After 1830 he adhered to the monarchy of July, but +after 1848 he remained in retirement. He had organized in 1826 a society +to develop the coal and iron of the Aveyron, and the name of Decazeville +was given in 1829 to the principal centre of the industry. He died on +the 24th of October 1860. + +His son, LOUIS CHARLES ELIE DECAZES, duc de Glucksberg (1819-1886), was +born at Paris, and entered the diplomatic career. He became minister +plenipotentiary at Madrid and at Lisbon, but the revolution of 1848 +caused him to withdraw into private life, from which he did not emerge +until in 1871 he was elected deputy to the National Assembly by the +Gironde. There he sat in the right centre among the Orleanists, and was +chosen by the duc de Broglie as minister of foreign affairs in November +1873. He voted with the Orleanists the "Constitutional Laws" of 1875, +and approved of MacMahon's parliamentary _coup d'etat_ on the 16th of +May 1877. He was re-elected deputy in October 1877 by the arrondissement +of Puget-Theniers, but his election was annulled by the chamber, and he +was not re-elected. He died on the 16th of September 1886. + + On the Duc Decazes see E. Daudet, _Louis XVIII. et le duc Decazes_ + (1899), and his "L'ambassade du duc Decazes" in the _Revue des deux + mondes_ for 1899. + + + + +DECAZEVILLE, a town of south-central France, in the department of +Aveyron, 34 m. N.W. of Rodez by the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906) 9749. +It possesses iron mines and is the centre of the coal-fields of the +Aveyron, which supply the ironworks established by the Duc Decazes, +minister of Louis XVIII. A statue commemorates the founder. + + + + +DECCAN (Sans. _Dakshina_, "the South"), a name applied, according to +Hindu geographers, to the whole of the territories in India situated to +the south of the river Nerbudda. In its more modern acceptation, +however, it is sometimes understood as comprising only the country lying +between that river and the Kistna, the latter having for a long period +formed the southern boundary of the Mahommedan empire of Delhi. +Assigning it the more extended of these limits, it comprehends the whole +of the Indian peninsula, and in this view the mountainous system, +consisting of the Eastern and Western Ghats, constitutes the most +striking feature of the Deccan. These two mountain ranges unite at their +northern extremities with the Vindhya chain of mountains, and thus is +formed a vast triangle supporting at a considerable elevation the +expanse of table-land which stretches from Cape Comorin to the valley of +the Nerbudda. The surface of this table-land slopes from west to east, +as indicated by the direction of the drainage of the country,--the great +rivers, the Cauvery, Godavari, Kistna and Pennar, though deriving their +sources from the base of the Western Ghats, all finding their way into +the Bay of Bengal through fissures in the Eastern Ghats. + +_History._--The detailed and authentic history of the Deccan only begins +with the 13th century A.D. Of the early history the main facts +established are the Aryan invasion (c. 700 B.C.), the growth of the +Maurya empire (250 B.C.) and the invasion (A.D. 100) of the Scythic +tribes known as the Sakas, Pahlavas and Yavanas, which led to the +establishment of the power of the Kshaharata satraps in western India. +In addition to this, modern study of monuments and inscriptions has +recovered the names, and to a certain extent the records, of a +succession of dynasties ruling in the Deccan; of these the most +conspicuous are the Cholas, the Andhras or Satavahanas, the Chalukyas, +the Rashtrakutas and the Yadavas of Devagiri (Deogiri). (See INDIA: +_History_; BOMBAY; PRESIDENCY: _History_; INSCRIPTIONS: _Indian_.) In +1294 Ala-ud-Din Khilji, emperor of Delhi, invaded the Deccan, stormed +Devagiri, and reduced the Yadava rajas of Maharashtra to the position of +tributary princes (see DAULATABAD), then proceeding southward overran +Telingana and Carnata (1294-1300). With this event the continuous +history of the Deccan begins. In 1307, owing to non-payment of tribute, +a fresh series of Mussulman incursions began, under Malik Kafur, issuing +in the final ruin of the Yadava power; and in 1338 the reduction of the +Deccan was completed by Mahommed ben Tughlak. The imperial sway was, +however, of brief duration. Telingana and Carnata speedily reverted to +their former masters; and this defection on the part of the Hindu states +was followed by a general revolt of the Mussulman governors, resulting +in the establishment in 1347 of the independent Mahommedan dynasty of +Bahmani, and the consequent withdrawal of the power of Delhi from the +territory south of the Nerbudda. In the struggles which ensued, the +Hindu kingdom of Telingana fell bit by bit to the Bahmani dynasty, who +advanced their frontier to Golconda in 1373, to Warangal in 1421, and to +the Bay of Bengal in 1472. On the dissolution of the Bahmani empire +(1482), its dominions were distributed into the five Mahommedan states +of Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Bidar and Berar. To the south of these +the great Hindu state of Carnata or Vijayanagar still survived; but +this, too, was destroyed, at the battle of Talikota (1565), by a league +of the Mahommedan powers. These latter in their turn soon disappeared. +Berar had already been annexed by Ahmednagar in 1572, and Bidar was +absorbed by Bijapur in 1609. The victories of the Delhi emperors, Akbar, +Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, crushed the rest. Ahmednagar was incorporated +in the Mogul empire in 1598, Bijapur in 1686, and Golconda in 1688. The +rule of the Delhi emperors in the Deccan did not, however, long survive. +In 1706 the Mahrattas acquired the right of levying tribute in southern +India, and their principal chief, the Peshwa of Poona, became a +practically independent sovereign. A few years later the emperor's +viceroy in Ahmednagar, the nizam-al-mulk, threw off his allegiance and +established the seat of an independent government at Hyderabad (1724). +The remainder of the imperial possessions in the peninsula were held by +chieftains acknowledging the supremacy of one or other of these two +potentates. In the sequel, Mysore became the prize of the Mahommedan +usurper Hyder Ali. During the contests for power which ensued about the +middle of the 18th century between the native chiefs, the French and the +English took opposite sides. After a brief course of triumph, the +interests of France declined, and a new empire in India was established +by the British. Mysore formed one of their earliest conquests in the +Deccan. Tanjore and the Carnatic were shortly after annexed to their +dominions. In 1818 the forfeited possessions of the Peshwa added to +their extent; and these acquisitions, with others which have more +recently fallen to the paramount power by cession, conquest or failure +of heirs, form a continuous territory stretching from the Nerbudda to +Cape Comorin. Its length is upwards of 1000 m., and its extreme breadth +exceeds 800. This vast tract comprehends the chief provinces now +distributed between the presidencies of Madras and Bombay, together with +the native states of Hyderabad and Mysore, and those of Kolhapur, +Sawantwari, Travancore, Cochin and the petty possessions of France and +Portugal. + + See J. D. B. Gribble, _History of the Deccan_ (1896); Prof. + Bhandarkar, "Early History of the Dekkan" (_Bombay Gazetteer_); + Vincent A. Smith, _Early History of India_ (2nd ed., Oxford, 1908), + chap. xv. "The Kingdoms of the Deccan." + + + + +DECELEA (Gr. [Greek: Dekeleia]), an Attic deme, on the pass which led +over the east end of Mt. Parnes towards Oropus and Chalcis. From its +position it has a commanding view over the Athenian plain. Its eponymous +hero, Decelus, was said to have indicated to the Tyndaridae, Castor and +Pollux, the place where Theseus had hidden their sister Helen at +Aphidnae; and hence there was a traditional friendship between the +Deceleans and the Spartans (Herodotus ix. 73). This tradition, together +with the advice of Alcibiades, led the Spartans to fortify Decelea as a +basis for permanent occupation in Attica during the later years of the +Peloponnesian War, from 413-404 B.C. Its position enabled them to harass +the Athenians constantly, and to form a centre for fugitive slaves and +other deserters. The royal palace of Tatoi has been built on the site. + + See PELOPONNESIAN WAR; also Judeich in Pauly-Wissowa, + _Realencyclopadie_. + + + + +DECEMBER (Lat. _decem_, ten), the last month of the year. In the Roman +calendar, traditionally ascribed to Romulus, the year was divided into +ten months, the last of which was called December, or the _tenth_ month, +and this name, though etymologically incorrect, was retained for the +last or twelfth month of the year as now divided. In the Romulian +calendar December had thirty days; Numa reduced the number to +twenty-nine; Julius Caesar added two days to this, giving the month its +present length. The _Saturnalia_ occurred in December, which is +therefore styled "acceptus geniis" by Ovid (_Fasti_, iii. 58); and this +also explains the phrase of Horace "libertate Decembri utere" (_Sat._ +ii. 7). Martial applies to the month the epithet _canus_ (hoary), and +Ovid styles it _gelidus_ (frosty) and _fumosus_ (smoky). In the reign of +Commodus it was temporarily styled _Amazonius_, in honour of the +emperor's mistress, whom he had had painted as an Amazon. The Saxons +called it _winter-monath_, winter month, and _heligh-monath_, holy +month, from the fact that Christmas fell within it. Thus the modern +Germans call it _Christmonat_. The 22nd of December is the date of the +winter solstice, when the sun reaches the tropic of Capricorn. + + + + +DECEMVIRI ("the ten men"), the name applied by the Romans to any +official commission of ten. The title was often followed by a statement +of the purpose for which the commission was appointed, e.g. _Xviri +legibus scribundis, stlitibus judicandis, sacris faciundis_. + +I. Apart from such qualification, it signified chiefly the temporary +commission which superseded all the ordinary magistrates of the Republic +from 451 to 449 B.C., for the purpose of drawing up a code of laws. In +462 B.C. a tribune proposed that the appointment of a commission to draw +up a code expressing the legal principles of the administration was +necessary to secure for the _plebs_ a hold over magisterial caprice. +Continued agitation to this effect resulted in an agreement in 452 B.C. +between patricians and plebeians that decemvirs should be appointed to +draw up a code, that during their tenure of office all other +magistracies should be in abeyance, that they should not be subject to +appeal, but that they should be bound to maintain the laws which +guaranteed by religious sanctions the rights of the plebs. The first +board of decemvirs (apparently consisting wholly of patricians) was +appointed to hold office during 451 B.C.; and the chief man among them +was Appius Claudius. Livy (iii. 32) says that only patricians were +eligible. Mommsen, however, held that plebeians were legally eligible, +though none were actually appointed for 451. The decemvirs ruled with +singular moderation, and submitted to the _Comitia Centuriata_ a code of +laws in ten headings, which was passed. So popular were the decemvirs +that another board of ten was appointed for the following year, some of +whom, if the extant list of names is correct, were certainly plebeians. +These added two more to the ten laws of their predecessors, thus +completing the Laws of the Twelve Tables (see ROMAN LAW). But their rule +then became violent and tyrannical, and they fell before the fury of the +_plebs_, though for some reason, not easily understood, they continued +to have the support of the patricians. They were forced to abdicate (449 +B.C.), and the ordinary magistrates were restored. + +II. The judicial board of decemvirs (_stlitibus judicandis_) formed a +civil court of ancient origin concerned mainly with questions bearing on +the status of individuals. They were originally a body of jurors which +gave a verdict under the presidency of the praetor (q.v.), but +eventually became annual minor magistrates of the Republic, elected by +the _Comitia Tributa_. + +III. The priestly board of decemvirs (_sacris faciundis_) was an outcome +of the claim of the _plebs_ to a share in the administration of the +state religion. Five of the decemvirs were patricians, and five +plebeians. They were first appointed in 367 B.C. instead of the +patrician _duumviri_ who had hitherto performed these duties. The board +was increased to fifteen in the last century of the Republic. Its chief +function was the care of the Sibylline books, and the celebration of the +games of Apollo (Livy x. 8) and the Secular Games (Tac. _Ann._ xi. 11). + +IV. Decemvirs were also appointed from time to time to control the +distribution of the public land (_agris dandis adsignandis_; see +AGRARIAN LAWS). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--B. G. Niebuhr, _History of Rome_ (Eng. trans.), ii. 309 + et seq. (Cambridge, 1832); Th. Mommsen, _History of Rome_, bk. ii. c. + 2, vol. i. pp. 361 et seq. (Eng. trans., new ed., 1894); _Romisches + Staatsrecht_, ii. 605 et seq., 714 (Leipzig, 1887); A. H. J. + Greenidge, _Legal Procedure of Cicero's Time_, p. 40 et seq., 263 + (Oxford, 1901); J. Muirhead, _Private Law of Rome_, p. 73 et seq. + (London, 1899); Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, iv. 2256 et seq. + (Kubler). (A. M. Cl.) + + + + +DECHEN, ERNST HEINRICH KARL VON (1800-1889), German geologist, was born +in Berlin on the 25th of March 1800, and was educated in the university +in that city. He subsequently studied mining in Bochum and Essen, and +was in 1820 placed in the mining department of the Prussian state, +serving on the staff until 1864, and becoming director in 1841 when he +was stationed at Bonn. In early years he made journeys to study the +mining systems of other countries, and with this object he visited +England and Scotland in company with Karl von Oeynhausen (1797-1865). In +the course of his work he paid special attention to the coal-formation +of Westphalia and northern Europe generally, and he greatly furthered +the progress made in mining and metallurgical works in Rhenish Prussia. +He made numerous contributions to geological literature; notably the +following:--_Geognostische Umrisse der Rheinlander zwischen Basel und +Mainz mit besonderer Rucksicht auf das Vorkommen des Steinsalzes_ (with +von Oeynhausen and La Roche), 2 vols. (Berlin, 1825); _Geognostische +Fuhrer in das Siebengebirge am Rhein_ (Bonn, 1861); _Die nutzbaren +Mineralien und Gebirgsarten im deutschen Reiche_ (1873). But his main +work was a geological map of Rhenish Prussia and Westphalia in 35 sheets +on the scale of 1 : 80,000, issued with two volumes of explanatory text +(1855-1882). He published also a small geological map of Germany (1869). +He died at Bonn on the 15th of February 1889. (H. B. W.) + + + + +DECIDUOUS (from Lat. _decidere_, to fall down), a botanical and +zoological term for "falling in season," as of petals after flowering, +leaves in autumn, the teeth or horns of animals, or the wings of +insects. + + + + +DECIMAL COINAGE.[1] Any currency in which the various denominations of +coin are arranged in multiples or submultiples of ten (Lat. _decem_), +with reference to a standard unit, is a decimal system. Thus if the +standard unit be 1 the higher coins will be 10, 100, 1000, &c., the +lower .1, .01, .001, &c. In a perfect system there would be no breaks or +interpolations, but the actual currencies described as "decimal" do not +show this rigid symmetry. In France the standard unit--the franc--has +the 10 franc and the 100 franc pieces above it; the 10 centime below it; +there are also, however, 50 franc, 20 franc, 5 franc, 2 franc pieces as +well as 50 and 20 centime ones. Similar irregularities occur in the +German and United States coinages, and indeed in all countries in which +a decimal system has been established. Popular convenience has compelled +this departure from the strict decimal form. + +Subject to these practical modifications the leading countries of the +world (Great Britain and India are the chief exceptions) have adopted +decimal coinage. The United States led the way (1786 and 1792) with the +dollar as the unit, and France soon followed (1799 and 1803), her system +being extended to the countries of the Latin Union (1865). The German +empire (1873), the Scandinavian States (1875), Austria-Hungary (1870, +developed in 1892) and Russia (1839 and 1897) are further adherents to +the decimal system. The Latin-American countries and Japan (1871) have +also adopted it. + +In England proposals for decimalizing the coinage have long been under +discussion at intervals. Besides the inconvenience of altering the +established currency, the difficulty of choosing between the different +schemes propounded has been a considerable obstacle. One plan took the +farthing as a base: then 10 farthings = 1 doit (2(1/2)d.), 10 doits = 1 +florin (2s. 1d.), 10 florins = 1 pound (20s. 10d.). The advantages +claimed for this scheme were (1) the preservation of the smaller coins +(the penny = 4 farthings); and (2) the avoidance of interference with +the smaller retail prices. Its great disadvantage was the destruction of +the existing unit of value--the pound--and the consequent disturbance of +all accounts. A second proposal would retain the pound as unit and the +florin, but would subdivide the latter into 100 "units" (or farthings +reduced 4%) and introduce a new coin = 10 units (2.4d.). By it the unit +of account would remain as at present, and the shilling (as 50 units) +would continue in use. The alteration of the bronze and several silver +coins, and the need of readjusting all values and prices expressed in +pence, formed the principal difficulties. A third scheme, which was +connected with the assimilation of English to French and American money, +proposed the establishment of an 8s. gold coin as unit, with the +tenpenny or franc and the penny (reduced by 4%) as subdivisions. The new +coin would be equivalent to 10 francs or (by an anticipated reduction of +the dollar) 2 dollars. None of these plans has gained any great amount +of popular support. + + For the general question of monetary scales see MONEY, and for the + decimal system in reference to weights and measures see METRIC SYSTEM + and WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. (C. F. B.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For "decimal" in general see ARITHMETIC. + + + + +DECIUS, GAIUS MESSIUS QUINTUS TRAJANUS (201-251), Roman emperor, the +first of the long succession of distinguished men from the Illyrian +provinces, was born at Budalia near Sirmium in lower Pannonia in A.D. +201. About 245 the emperor Philip the Arabian entrusted him with an +important command on the Danube, and in 249 (or end of 248), having been +sent to put down a revolt of the troops in Moesia and Pannonia, he was +forced to assume the imperial dignity. He still protested his loyalty to +Philip, but the latter advanced against him and was slain near Verona. +During his brief reign Decius was engaged in important operations +against the Goths, who crossed the Danube and overran the districts of +Moesia and Thrace. The details are obscure, and there is considerable +doubt as to the part taken in the campaign by Decius and his son (of the +same name) respectively. The Goths were surprised by the emperor while +besieging Nicopolis on the Danube; at his approach they crossed the +Balkans, and attacked Philippopolis. Decius followed them, but a severe +defeat near Beroe made it impossible to save Philippopolis, which fell +into the hands of the Goths, who treated the conquered with frightful +cruelty. Its commander, Priscus, declared himself emperor under Gothic +protection. The siege of Philippopolis had so exhausted the numbers and +resources of the Goths, that they offered to surrender their booty and +prisoners on condition of being allowed to retire unmolested. But +Decius, who had succeeded in surrounding them and hoped to cut off their +retreat, refused to entertain their proposals. The final engagement, in +which the Goths fought with the courage of despair, took place on swampy +ground in the Dobrudja near Abritum (Abrittus) or Forum Trebonii and +ended in the defeat and death of Decius and his son. Decius was an +excellent soldier, a man of amiable disposition, and a capable +administrator, worthy of being classed with the best Romans of the +ancient type. The chief blot on his reign was the systematic and +authorized persecution of the Christians, which had for its object the +restoration of the religion and institutions of ancient Rome. Either as +a concession to the senate, or perhaps with the idea of improving public +morality, Decius endeavoured to revive the separate office and authority +of the censor. The choice was left to the senate, who unanimously +selected Valerian (afterwards emperor). But Valerian, well aware of the +dangers and difficulties attaching to the office at such a time, +declined the responsibility. The invasion of the Goths and the death of +Decius put an end to the abortive attempt. + + See Aurelius Victor, _De Caesaribus_, 29, _Epit._ 29; Jordanes, _De + rebus Geticis_, 18; fragments of Dexippus, in C. W. Muller, _Frag. + Hist. Graec._ iii. (1849); Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, chap. 10; H. + Schiller, _Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit_, i. (pt. 2), 1883. + + + + +DECIZE, a town of central France, in the department of Nievre, on an +island in the Loire, 24 m. S.E. of Nevers by the Paris-Lyon railway. +Pop. (1906) 3813. The most important of its buildings is the church of +Saint Are, which dates in part from the 11th and 12th centuries; there +are also ruins of a castle of the counts of Nevers. The town has a +statue of Guy Coquille, the lawyer and historian, who was born there in +1523. Decize is situated at the starting-point of the Nivernais canal. +The coal mine of La Machine, which belongs to the Schneider Company of +Le Creusot, lies four miles to the north. The industries of Decize and +its suburbs on both banks of the Loire include the working of gypsum +and lime, and the manufacture of ceramic products and glass. Trade is +in horses from the Morvan, cattle, coal, iron, wood and stone. + +Under the name of _Decetia_ the place is mentioned by Julius Caesar as a +stronghold of the Aedui, and in 52 B.C. was the scene of a meeting of +the senate held by him to settle the leadership of the tribe and to +reply to his demand for aid against Vercingetorix. In later times it +belonged to the counts of Nevers, from whom it obtained a charter of +franchise in 1226. + + + + +DECKER, SIR MATTHEW, Bart. (1679-1749), English merchant and writer on +trade, was born in Amsterdam in 1679. He came to London in 1702 and +established himself there as a merchant. He was remarkably successful in +his business life, gaining great wealth and having many honours +conferred upon him. He was a director of the East India Company, sat in +parliament for four years as member for Bishops Castle, and was high +sheriff of Surrey in 1729. He was created a baronet by George I. in +1716. Decker's fame as a writer on trade rests on two tracts. The first, +_Serious considerations on the several high duties which the Nation in +general, as well as Trade in particular, labours under, with a proposal +for preventing the removal of goods, discharging the trader from any +search, and raising all the Publick Supplies by one single Tax_ (1743; +name affixed to 7th edition, 1756), proposed to do away with customs +duties and substitute a tax upon houses. He also suggested taking the +duty off tea and putting instead a licence duty on households wishing to +consume it. The second, an _Essay on the Causes of the Decline of the +Foreign Trade, consequently of the value of the lands in Britain, and on +the means to restore both_ (1744), has been attributed to W. Richardson, +but internal evidence is strongly in favour of Decker's authorship. He +advocates the licence plan in an extended form; urges the repeal of +import duties and the abolition of bounties, and, in general, shows +himself such a strong supporter of the doctrine of free trade as to rank +as one of the most important forerunners of Adam Smith. Decker died on +the 18th of March 1749. + + + + +DECKER, PIERRE DE (1812-1891), Belgian statesman and author, was +educated at a Jesuit school, studied law at Paris, and became a +journalist on the staff of the _Revue de Bruxelles_. In 1839 he was +elected to the Belgian lower chamber, where he gained a great reputation +for oratory. In 1855 he became minister of the interior and prime +minister, and attempted, by a combination of the moderate elements of +the Catholic and Liberal parties, the impossible task of effecting a +settlement of the educational and other questions by which Belgium was +distracted. In 1866 he retired from politics and went into business, +with disastrous results. He became involved in financial speculations +which lost him his good name as well as the greater part of his fortune; +and, though he was never proved to have been more than the victim of +clever operators, when in 1871 he was appointed by the Catholic cabinet +governor of Limburg, the outcry was so great that he resigned the +appointment and retired definitively into private life. He died on the +4th of January 1891. Decker, who was a member of the Belgian academy, +wrote several historical and other works of value, of which the most +notable are _Etudes historiques et critiques sur les monts-de-piete en +Belgique_ (Brussels, 1844); _De l'influence du libre arbitre de l'homme +sur les faits sociaux_ (1848); _L'Esprit de parti et l'esprit national_ +(1852); _Etude politique sur le vicomte Ch. Vilain XIIII_ (1879); +_Episodes de l'hist. de l'art en Belgique_ (1883); _Biographie de H. +Conscience_ (1885). + + + + +DECLARATION (from Lat. _declarare_, to make fully clear, _clarus_), +formerly, in an action at English law, the first step in pleading--the +precise statement of the matter in respect of which the plaintiff sued. +It was divided into counts, in each of which a specific cause of action +was alleged, in wide and general terms, and the same acts or omissions +might be stated in several counts as different causes of actions. Under +the system of pleading established by the Judicature Act 1875, the +declaration has been superseded by a statement of claim setting forth +the facts on which the plaintiff relies. Declarations are now in use +only in the mayor's court of London and certain local courts of record, +and in those of the United States and the British colonies in which the +Common Law system of pleading survives. In the United States a +declaration is termed a "complaint," which is the first pleading in an +action. It is divided into parts,--the _title_ of the court and term; +the _venue_ or county in which the facts are alleged to have occurred; +the _commencement_, which contains a statement of the names of the +parties and the character in which they appear; the _statement_ of the +cause of action; and the _conclusion_ or claim for relief. (See +PLEADING.) + +The term is also used in other English legal connexions; e.g. the +Declaration of Insolvency which, when filed in the Bankruptcy Court by +any person unable to pay his debts, amounts to an act of bankruptcy (see +BANKRUPTCY); the Declaration of Title, for which, when a person +apprehends an invasion of his title to land, he may, by the Declaration +of Title Act 1862, petition the Court of Chancery (see LAND +REGISTRATION); or the Declaration of Trust, whereby a person +acknowledges that property, the title of which he holds, belongs to +another, for whose use he holds it; by the Statute of Frauds, +declarations of trust of land must be evidenced in writing and signed by +the party declaring the trust. (See TRUSTS.) By the Statutory +Declarations Act 1835 (which was an act to make provision for the +abolition of unnecessary oaths, and to repeal a previous act of the same +session on the same subject), various cases were specified in which a +solemn declaration was, or might be, substituted for an affidavit. In +nearly all civilized countries an affirmation is now permitted to those +who object to take an oath or upon whose conscience an oath is not +binding. (See AFFIDAVIT; OATH.) + +An exceptional position in law is accorded to a Dying or Deathbed +Declaration. As a general rule, hearsay evidence is excluded on a +criminal charge, but where the charge is one of homicide it is the +practice to admit dying declarations of the deceased with respect to the +cause of his death. But before such declarations can be admitted in +evidence against a prisoner, it must be proved that the deceased when +making the declaration had given up all hope of recovery. Unsworn +declarations as to family matters, e.g. as to pedigree, may also be +admitted as evidence, as well as declarations made by deceased persons +in the course of their duty. (See EVIDENCE.) + + + + +DECLARATION OF PARIS, a statement of principles of international law +adopted at the conclusion (16th of April 1856) of the negotiations for +the treaty of Paris at the suggestion of Count Walewski, the French +plenipotentiary. The declaration set out that maritime law in time of +war had long been the subject of deplorable disputes, that the +uncertainty of the rights and duties in respect of it gave rise to +differences of opinion between neutrals and belligerents which might +occasion serious difficulties and even conflicts, and that it was +consequently desirable to agree upon some fixed uniform rules. The +plenipotentiaries therefore adopted the four following principles:-- + + 1. Privateering is and remains abolished; 2. The neutral flag covers + enemy's goods, with the exception of contraband of war; 3. Neutral + goods, with the exception of contraband of war, are not liable to + capture under the enemy's flag; 4. Blockades, in order to be binding, + must be effective, that is to say, maintained by a force sufficient + really to prevent access to the coast of the enemy. + +They also undertook to bring the declaration to the knowledge of the +states which had not taken part in the congress of Paris and to invite +them to accede to it. The text of the declaration concluded as +follows:--"Convinced that the maxims which they now proclaim cannot but +be received with gratitude by the whole world, the undersigned +plenipotentiaries doubt not that the efforts of their governments to +obtain the general adoption thereof will be crowned with full success." + +The declaration is of course binding only on the powers which adopted it +or have acceded to it. The majority which adopted it consisted of Great +Britain, Austria, France, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia and Turkey. The +United States government declined to sign the declaration on the ground +that, not possessing a great navy, they would be obliged in time of war +to rely largely upon merchant ships commissioned as war vessels, and +that therefore the abolition of privateering would be entirely in favour +of European powers, whose large navies rendered them practically +independent of such aid. All other maritime states acceded to the +declaration except Spain, Mexico[1] and Venezuela. + +Although the United States and Spain were not parties to the +declaration, both, during the Spanish-American War, observed its +principles. The Spanish government, however, expressly gave notice that +it reserved its right to issue letters of marque. At the same time both +belligerents organized services of auxiliary cruisers composed of +merchant ships under the command of naval officers. In how far this +might operate as a veiled revival of the forbidden practice has now +ceased to be a matter of much importance, the Hague Conference having +adopted a series of rules on the subject which may be said to interpret +the first of the four principles of the declaration with such precision +as to take its place. + +The New Convention on the subject (October 18th, 1907) sets out that, in +view of the incorporation in time of war of merchant vessels in +combatant fleets, it is desirable to define the conditions under which +this can be effected, that, nevertheless, the contracting powers, not +having been able to come to an understanding on the question whether the +transformation of a merchant ship into a war vessel may take place on +the high sea,[2] are agreed that the question of the place of +transformation is in no way affected by the rules adopted, which are as +follows:-- + + Art. i. No merchant ship transformed into a war vessel can have the + rights and obligations attaching to this condition unless it is placed + under the direct authority, the immediate control and the + responsibility of the power whose flag it carries. + + Art. ii. Merchant ships transformed into war vessels must bear the + distinctive external signs of war vessels of their nationality. + + Art. iii. The officer commanding must be in the service of the state, + and properly commissioned by the competent authorities. His name must + appear in the list of officers of the combatant fleet. + + Art. iv. The crew must be subject to the rules of military discipline. + + Art. v. Every merchant ship transformed into a war vessel is bound to + conform, in its operation, to the laws and customs of war. + + Art. vi. The belligerent who transforms a merchant ship into a war + vessel must, as soon as possible, mention this transformation on the + list of vessels belonging to its combatant fleet. + + Art. vii. The provisions of the present convention are only applicable + as among the contracting powers and provided the belligerents are all + parties to the convention. + + See T. Gibson Bowles, _Declaration of Paris_ (London, 1900); Sir T. + Barclay, _Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy_ (London, + 1907), chap. xv.^2. (T. Ba.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] At the 7th plenary sitting of the second Hague Conference + (September 7th, 1907) the chiefs of the Spanish and Mexican + delegations, M. de Villa Urratia and M. de la Barra, announced the + determination of their respective governments to accede to the + Declaration of Paris. + + [2] This relates to the incident in the Russo-Japanese War of the + transformation of Russian vessels which had passed through the + Dardanelles unarmed. + + + + +DECLARATOR, in Scots law, a form of action by which some right of +property, or of servitude, or of status, or some inferior right or +interest, is sought to be judicially declared. + + + + +DECLINATION (from Lat. _declinare_, to decline), in magnetism the angle +between true north and magnetic north, i.e. the variation between the +true meridian and the magnetic meridian. In 1596 at London the angle of +declination was 11 deg. E. of N., in 1652 magnetic north was true north, +in 1815 the magnetic needle pointed 24(1/2) deg. W. of N., in 1891 18 +deg. W., in 1896 17 deg. 56' W. and in 1906 17 deg. 45'. The angle is +gradually diminishing and the declination will in time again be 0 deg., +when it will slowly increase in an easterly direction, the north +magnetic pole oscillating slowly around the North Pole. Regular daily +changes of declination also occur. Magnetic storms cause irregular +variations sometimes of one or two degrees. (See MAGNETISM, +TERRESTRIAL.) + +In astronomy the declination is the angular distance, as seen from the +earth, of a heavenly body from the celestial equator, thus corresponding +with terrestrial latitude. + + + + +DECOLOURIZING, in practical chemistry and chemical technology, the +removal of coloured impurities from a substance. The agent most +frequently used is charcoal, preferably prepared from blood, which when +shaken with a coloured solution frequently precipitates the coloured +substances leaving the solution clear. Thus the red colour of wines may +be removed by filtering the wine through charcoal; the removal of the +dark-coloured impurities which arise in the manufacture of sugar may be +similarly effected. Other "decolourizers" are sulphurous acid, +permanganates and manganates, all of which have received application in +the sugar industry. + + + + +DECORATED PERIOD, in architecture, the term given by Richman to the +second pointed or Gothic style, 1307-1377. It is characterized by its +window tracery, geometrical at first and flowing in the later period, +owing to the omission of the circles in the tracery of windows, which +led to the juxtaposition of the foliations and their pronounced curves +of contre-flexure. This flowing or flamboyant tracery was introduced in +the first quarter of the century and lasted about fifty years. The +arches are generally equilateral, and the mouldings bolder than in the +Early English, with less depth in the hollows and with the fillet +largely used. The ball flower and a four-leaved flower take the place of +the dog-tooth, and the foliage in the capitals is less conventional than +in Early English and more flowing, and the diaper patterns in walls are +more varied. The principal examples are those of the east end of Lincoln +and Carlisle cathedral; the west fronts of York and Lichfield; the +crossing of Ely cathedral, including the lantern and three west bays of +choir and the Lady Chapel; and Melrose Abbey. (R. P. S.) + + + + +DE COSTA, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1831-1904), American clergyman and +historical writer, was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 10th +of July 1831. He graduated in 1856 at the Biblical Institute at Concord, +New Hampshire (now a part of Boston University), became a minister in +the Episcopal Church in 1857, and during the next three years was a +rector first at North Adams, and then at Newton Lower Falls, Mass. After +serving as chaplain in two Massachusetts regiments during the first two +years of the Civil War, he became editor (1863) of _The Christian Times_ +in New York, and subsequently edited _The Episcopalian_ and _The +Magazine of American History_. He was rector of the church of St John +the Evangelist in New York city from 1881 to 1899, when he resigned in +consequence of being converted to Roman Catholicism. He was one of the +organizers and long the secretary of the Church Temperance Society, and +founded and was the first president (1884-1899) of the American branch +of the White Cross Society. He became a high authority on early American +cartography and the history of the period of exploration. He died in New +York city on the 4th of November 1904. In addition to numerous +monographs and valuable contributions to Winsor's _Narrative and +Critical History of America_, he published _The Pre-Columbian Discovery +of America by the Northmen_ (1868); _The Northmen in Maine_ (1870); _The +Moabite Stone_ (1871); _The Rector of Roxburgh_ (1871), a novel under +the _nom de plume_ of "William Hickling"; and _Verrazano the Explorer; +being a Vindication of his Letter and Voyage_ (1880). + + + + +DE COSTER, CHARLES THEODORE HENRI (1827-1879), Belgian writer, was born +at Munich on the 20th of August 1827. His father, Augustin de Coster, +was a native of Liege, who was attached to the household of the papal +nuncio at Munich, but soon returned to Belgium. Charles was placed in a +Brussels bank, but in 1850 he entered the university of Brussels, where +he completed his studies in 1855. He was one of the founders of the +_Societe des Joyeux_, a small literary club, more than one member of +which was to achieve literary distinction. De Coster made his debut as a +poet in the _Revue trimestrielle_, founded in 1854, and his first +efforts in prose were contributed to a periodical entitled +_Uylenspiegel_ (founded 1856). A correspondence covering the years +1850-1858, his _Lettres a Elisa_, were edited by Ch. Potvin in 1894. He +was a keen student of Rabelais and Montaigne, and familiarized himself +with 16th-century French. He said that Flemish manners and speech could +not be rendered faithfully in modern French, and accordingly wrote his +best works in the old tongue. The success of his _Legendes flamandes_ +(1857) was increased by the illustrations of Felicien Rops and other +friends. In 1861 he published his _Contes brabancons_, in modern French. +His masterpiece is his _Legende de Thyl Uylenspiegel et de Lamme +Goedzak_ (1867), a 16th-century romance, in which Belgian patriotism +found its fullest expression. In the preparation for this prose epic of +the _gueux_ he spent some ten years. Uylenspiegel (Eulenspiegel) has +been compared to Don Quixote, and even to Panurge. He is the type of the +16th-century Fleming, and the history of his resurrection from the grave +itself was accepted as an allegory of the destiny of the race. The +exploits of himself and his friend form the thread of a semi-historical +narrative, full of racy humour, in spite of the barbarities that find a +place in it. This book also was illustrated by Rops and others. In 1870 +De Coster became professor of general history and of French literature +at the military school. His works however were not financially +profitable; in spite of his government employment he was always in +difficulties; and he died in much discouragement on the 7th of May 1879 +at Ixelles, Brussels. The expensive form in which _Uylenspiegel_ was +produced made it open only to a limited class of readers, and when a new +and cheap edition in modern French appeared in 1893 it was received +practically as a new book in France and Belgium. + + + + +DECOY, a contrivance for the capture or enticing of duck and other wild +fowl within range of a gun, hence any trap or enticement into a place or +situation of danger. Decoys are usually made on the following plan: long +tunnels leading from the sea, channel or estuary into a pool or pond are +covered with an arched net, which gradually narrows in width; the ducks +are enticed into this by a tame trained bird, also known as a "decoy" or +"decoy-duck." In America the "decoy" is an artificial bird, placed in +the water as if it were feeding, which attracts the wild fowl within +range of the concealed sportsman. The word "decoy" has, etymologically, +a complicated history. It appears in English first in the 17th century +in these senses as "coy" and "coy-duck," from the Dutch _kooi_, a word +which is ultimately connected with Latin _cavea_, hollow place, +"cage."[1] The _de_-, with which the word begins, is either a corruption +of "duck-coy," the Dutch article _de_, or a corruption of the Dutch +_eende-kooi_, _eende_, duck. The _New English Dictionary_ points out +that the word "decoy" is found in the particular sense of a sharper or +swindler as a slang term slightly earlier than "coy" or "decoy" in the +ordinary sense, and, as the name of a game of cards, as early as 1550, +apparently with no connexion in meaning. It is suggested that "coy" may +have been adapted to this word. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Distinguish "coy," affectedly shy or modest, from O. Fr. _coi_, + Lat. _quietus_, quiet. + + + + +DECREE (from the past participle, _decretus_, of Lat. _decernere_), in +earlier form _Decreet_, an authoritative decision having the force of +law; the judgment of a court of justice. In Roman law, a decree +(_decretum_) was the decision of the emperor, as the supreme judicial +officer, settling a case which had been referred to him. In +ecclesiastical law the term was given to a decision of an ecclesiastical +council settling a doubtful point of doctrine or discipline (cf. also +DECRETALS). In English law decree was more particularly the judgment of +a court of equity, but since the Judicature Acts the expression +"judgment" (q.v.) is employed in reference to the decisions of all the +divisions of the supreme court. A "decree _nisi_" is the conditional +order for a dissolution of marriage made by the divorce court, and it is +made "absolute" after six months (which period may, however, be +shortened) in the absence of sufficient cause shown to the contrary. +(See DIVORCE.) _Decreet arbitral_ is a Scottish phrase for the award of +an arbitrator. + + + + +DECRETALS (_Epistolae decretales_), the name (see DECREE above), which +is given in Canon Law to those letters of the pope which formulate +decisions in ecclesiastical law; they are generally given in answer to +consultations, but are sometimes due to the initiative of the popes. +These furnish, with the canons of the councils, the chief source of the +legislation of the church, and form the greater part of the _Corpus +Juris_. In this connexion they are dealt with in the article on Canon +Law (q.v.). + +_The False Decretals._ A special interest, however, attaches to the +celebrated collection known by this name. This collection, indeed, +comprises at least as many canons of councils as decretals, and the +decretals contained in it are not all forgeries. It is an amplification +and interpolation, by means of spurious decretals, of the canonical +collection in use in the Church of Spain in the 8th century, all the +documents in which are perfectly authentic. With these amplifications, +the collection dates from the middle of the 9th century. We shall give a +brief account of its contents, its history and its influence on canon +law. + +The author assumes the name of Isidore, evidently the archbishop of +Seville, who was credited with a preponderating part in the compilation +of the _Hispana_; he takes in addition the surname of Mercator, perhaps +because he has made use of two passages of Marius Mercator. Hence the +custom of alluding to the author of the collection under the name of the +pseudo-Isidore. + +The collection itself is divided into three parts. The first, which is +entirely spurious, contains, after the preface and various introductory +sections, seventy letters attributed to the popes of the first three +centuries, up to the council of Nicaea, i.e. up to but not including St +Silvester; all these letters are a fabrication of the pseudo-Isidore, +except two spurious letters of Clement, which were already known. The +second part is the collection of councils, classified according to their +regions, as it figures in the _Hispana_; the few spurious pieces which +are added, and notably the famous Donation of Constantine, were already +in existence. In the third part the author continues the series of +decretals which he had interrupted at the council of Nicaea. But as the +collection of authentic decretals does not begin till Siricius (385), +the pseudo-Isidore first forges thirty letters, which he attributes to +the popes from Silvester to Damasus; after this he includes the +authentic decretals, with the intermixture of thirty-five apocryphal +ones, generally given under the name of those popes who were not +represented in the authentic collection, but sometimes also under the +names of the others, for example, Damasus, St Leo, Vigilius and St +Gregory; with one or two exceptions he does not interpolate genuine +decretals. The series stops at St Gregory the Great (d. 604), except for +one letter of Gregory II. (715-731). The forged letters are not, for the +most part, entirely composed of fresh material; the author draws his +inspiration from the notices on each of the popes given in the _Liber +Pontificalis_; he inserts whole passages from ecclesiastical writers; +and he antedates the evidences of a discipline which actually existed; +so it is by no means all invented. + +Thus the authentic elements were calculated to serve as a passport for +the forgeries, which were, moreover, quite skilfully composed. In fact, +the collection thus blended was passed from hand to hand without meeting +with any opposition. At most all that was asked was whether those +decretals which did not appear in the _Liber canonum_ (the collection of +Dionysius Exiguus, accepted in France) had the force of law, but Pope +Nicholas having answered that all the pontifical letters had the same +authority (see _Decr. Gra._ Dist. xix. c. 1), they were henceforward +accepted, and passed in turn into the later canonical collections. No +doubts found an expression until the 15th century, when Cardinal +Nicholas of Cusa (d. 1464) and Juan Torquemada (d. 1468) freely +expressed their suspicions. More than one scholar of the 16th century, +George Cassander, Erasmus, and the two editors of the _Decretum_ of +Gratian, Dumoulin (d. 1568) and Le Conte (d. 1577), decisively rejected +the False Decretals. This contention was again upheld, in the form of a +violent polemic against the papacy, by the Centuriators of Magdeburg +(_Ecclesiastica historia_, Basel, 1559-1574); the attempt at refutation +by the Jesuit Torres (_Adversus Centur. Magdeburg. libri quinque_, +Florence, 1572) provoked a violent rejoinder from the Protestant +minister David Blondel (_Pseudo-Isidorus et Turrianus rapulantes_, +Geneva, 1620). Since then, the conclusion has been accepted, and all +researches have been of an almost exclusively historical character. One +by one the details are being precisely determined, and the question may +now almost be said to be settled. + + + Date. + +In the first place, an exact determination of the date of the collection +has been arrived at. On the one hand, it cannot go back further than +847, the date of the False Capitularies, with which the author of the +False Decretals was acquainted.[1] On the other hand, in a letter of +Lupus, abbot of Ferrieres, written in 858, and in the synodical letter +of the council of Quierzy in 857 are to be found quotations which are +certainly from these false decretals; and further, an undoubted allusion +in the statutes given by Hincmar to his diocese on the 1st of November +852. The composition of the collection must then be dated approximately +at 850. + + + Aim of the author. + +The object which the forger had in view is clearly stated in his +preface; the reform of the canon law, or rather its better application. +But, again, in what particular respects he wishes it to be reformed can +be best deduced from certain preponderant ideas which make themselves +felt in the apocryphal documents. He constantly harps upon accusations +brought against bishops and the way they were judged; his wish is to +prevent them from being unjustly accused, deposed or deprived of their +sees; to this end he multiplies the safeguards of procedure, and secures +the right of appeal to the pope and the possibility of restoring bishops +to their sees. His object, too, was to protect the property, as well as +the persons, of the clergy against the encroachments of the temporal +power. In the second place, Isidore wishes to increase the strength and +cohesion of the churches; he tries to give absolute stability to the +diocese and the ecclesiastical province; he reinforces the rights of the +bishop and his comprovincials, while he initiates a determined campaign +against the _chorepiscopi_; finally, as the keystone of the arch he +places the papacy. These aims are most laudable, and in no way +subversive; but the author must have had some particular reasons for +emphasizing these questions rather than others; and the examination of +these reasons may help us to determine the nationality of this +collection. + + + Nationality of the collection. + +The name of Isidore usurped by the author at first led to the +supposition that the False Decretals originated in Spain; this opinion +no longer meets with any support; it is enough to point out that there +is no Spanish manuscript of the collection, at least until the 13th +century. In the 16th century the Protestants, who wished to represent +the forgeries in the light of an attempt in favour of the papacy, +ascribed the origin of the False Decretals to Rome, but neither the +manuscript tradition nor the facts confirm this view, which is nowadays +entirely abandoned. Everybody is agreed in placing the origin of the +False Decretals within the Frankish empire. Within these limits, three +different theories have successively arisen: "At first it was thought +that Isidore's domicile could be fixed in the province of Mainz, it is +now about fifty years ago that the balance of opinion was turned in +favour of the province of Reims; and now, after the lapse of about +twenty years, several authors have suggested the province of Tours" (P. +Fournier, _Etude sur les Fausses Decretales_). In favour of Mainz, +especial stress was laid on the fact that it was the country of +Benedictus Levita, the compiler of the False Capitularies, to which the +False Decretals are closely related. But Benedict, the deacon of Otgar +of Mainz, is as much of a hypothetical personage as Isidorus Mercator; +moreover, in the middle of the 9th century the condition of the province +of Mainz was not disturbed, nor were the _chorepiscopi_ menaced. In +favour of Reims, it has been pointed out that it was there that the +first judicial use of the False Decretals is recorded, in the trials of +Rothad, bishop of Soissons (d. 869), and of Hincmar the younger, bishop +of Laon (d. c. 882); and an application of the axiom has been attempted: +_Is fecit cui prodest_. But both these trials took place later than 852, +at which date the existence of the collection is an established fact; +the texts of it were used, but they were in existence before. Between +847 and 852, the province of Reims was disturbed by another affair, that +of the clergy ordained by Ebbo at the time of his short restoration to +the see of Reims, in 840-841; these clerics, Vulfadus (afterwards +archbishop of Bourges), and a few others, had been suspended by Hincmar +on his election in 845. But the affair of Ebbo's clergy did not become +critical till the council of Soissons in 853; up till then these clergy +had, so far as we know, produced no documents, and the citations from +the False Decretals made in their later writings do not prove that they +had forged them. Moreover, Hincmar would not have cited the forged +letters of the popes in 852; above all, this theory would not explain +the chief preoccupation of the forger, which is to protect bishops +against unjust judgments and depositions. We must, then, look for +conditions in which the bishops were concerned. It is precisely this +which has suggested the province of Tours. Brittany, which was dependent +on the province of Tours, had just for a time recovered its +independence, thanks to its duke Nominoe. The struggle between the two +nationalities, the Celt and the Frank, found a reflexion in the sphere +of religion. The Breton bishops were for the most part abbots of +monasteries, who had but little consideration for the territorial limits +of the civitates; and many of the religious usages of the Bretons +differed profoundly from those of the Franks. Charlemagne had divided up +the Breton dioceses and established in them Frankish bishops. Nominoe +hastened to depose the four Frankish bishops, after wringing from them +by force confessions of simony; he then established a metropolitan see +at Dol. Hence arose incessant complaints on the part of the dispossessed +bishops, of the metropolitan of Tours, and his suffragans, notably those +of Angers and Le Mans, which were more exposed than the others to the +incursions of the Bretons; and this gave rise to numerous papal letters, +and all this throughout a period of thirty years. There were requests +that the bishops should be judged according to the rules, protests +against the interlopers, demands for the restoration of the bishops to +their sees. These circumstances fall in perfectly with the questions +about which, as we have pointed out, the pseudo-Isidore was mainly +concerned: the judgment of bishops, and the stability of the +ecclesiastical organizations. + +In the province of Tours, attempts have been made to define more clearly +the centre of the forgeries, and the most recent authorities fix upon Le +Mans. The sole argument, though a very weighty one, is found in the +undeniable relation, revealed in an astonishing similarity both in +expressions and composition, which exists between these forgeries and +some other documents certainly fabricated at Le Mans, under the +episcopate of Aldric (832-856), notably the _Actus Pontificum Cenomanis +in urbe degentium_, in which there is no lack of forged documents. These +certainly bear the mark of the same hand. + + + Canonical influence. + +Though we cannot admit that the False Decretals were composed in order +to enforce the rights of the papacy, we may at least consider whether +the popes did not make use of the False Decretals to support their +rights. It is certain that in 864 Rothad of Soissons took with him to +Rome, if not the collection, at least important extracts from the +pseudo-Isidore; M. Fournier has pointed out in the letters of the pope +of that time, "a literary influence, which is shown in the choice of +expressions and metaphors," notably in those passages relating to the +_restitutio spolii_; but he concludes by affirming that the ideas and +acts of Nicholas were not modified by the new collection: even before +864 he acted in affairs concerning bishops, e.g. in the case of the +Breton bishops or the adversaries of Photius, patriarch of +Constantinople, exactly as he acted later; all that can be said is that +the False Decretals, though not expressly cited by the pope, "led him to +accentuate still further the arguments which he drew from the decrees of +his predecessors," notably with regard to the _exceptio spolii_. In the +papal letters of the end of the 9th and the whole of the 10th century, +only two or three insignificant citations of the pseudo-Isidore have +been pointed out; the use of the pseudo-Isidorian forged documents did +not become prevalent at Rome till about the middle of the 11th century, +in consequence of the circulation of the canonical collections in which +they figured; but nobody then thought of casting any doubts on the +authenticity of those documents. One thing only is established, and this +may be said to have been the real effect of the False Decretals, namely, +the powerful impulse which they gave in the Frankish territories to the +movement towards centralization round the see of Rome, and the legal +obstacles which they opposed to unjust proceedings against the bishops. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best edition is that of P. Hinschius, _Decretales + pseudo-Isidorianae et capitula Angilramni_ (Leipzig, 1863). In it the + authentic texts are printed in two columns, the forgeries across the + whole width of the page; an important preface of ccxxviii. pages + contains, besides the classification of the MSS., a profound study of + the sources and other questions bearing on the collection. After the + works cited above, the following dissertations should be noted. + Placing the origin of the False Decretals at Rome is: A. Theiner, _De + pseudo-Isidoriana canonum collectione_ (Breslau, 1827); at Mainz, the + brothers Ballerini, _De antiquis collectionibus et collectoribus + canonum_, iii. (_S. Leonis opera_, t. iii.; Migne, _Patrologia Lat._ + t. 56); Blascus, _De coll. canonum Isidori Mercatoris_ (Naples, 1760); + Wasserschleben, _Beitrage zur Geschichte der falschen Dekretalen_ + (Breslau, 1844); in the province of Reims: Weizsacker, "Die + pseudoisidorianische Frage," in the _Histor. Zeitschrift_ of Sybel + (1860); Hinschius, Preface, p. ccviii.; A. Tardif, _Histoire des + sources du droit canonique_ (Paris, 1887); Schneider, _Die Lehre der + Kirchenrechtsquellen_ (Regensburg, 1892). An excellent resume of the + question; seems more favourable to Le Mans in the article of the + _Kirchenlexicon_ of Wetzer and Welte (2nd ed.); F. Lot, _Etudes sur le + regne de Hugues Capet_ (Paris, 1903); Lesne, _La Hierarchie episcopale + en Gaule et Germanie_ (Paris, 1905); for the province of Tours and Le + Mans: B. Simson, _Die Entstehung der pseudoisidor. Falschungen in Le + Mans_ (Leipzig, 1886. It is he who pointed out the connexion with the + forgeries of Le Mans); especially Paul Fournier, "La Question des + fausses decretales," in the _Nouvelle Revue historique de droit + francais et etranger_ (1887, 1888); in the _Congres internat. des + savants cathol._ t. ii.; "Etude sur les fausses decretales," in _Revue + d'histoire ecclesiastique de Louvain_ (1906, 1907), to which the above + article is greatly indebted. (A. Bo.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The False Capitularies are for civil legislation what the False + Decretals are for ecclesiastical legislation: three books of + Capitularies of the Frankish kings, more of which are spurious than + authentic. The author gives himself out as a certain Benedict, a + deacon of the church of Mainz; hence the name by which he is usually + known, Benedictus Levita. The two false collections are closely akin, + and are doubtless the fabrication of the same hands. + + + + +DECURIO, a Roman official title, used in three connexions. (1) A member +of the senatorial order in the Italian towns under the administration of +Rome, and later in provincial towns organized on the Italian model (see +CURIA 4). The number of _decuriones_ varied in different towns, but was +usually 100. The qualifications for the office were fixed in each town +by a special law for that community (_lex municipalis_). Cicero (_in +Verr._ 2. 49, 120) alludes to an age limit (originally thirty years, +until lowered by Augustus to twenty-five), to a property qualification +(cf. Pliny, _Ep._ i. 19. 2), and to certain conditions of rank. The +method of appointment varied in different towns and at different +periods. In the early municipal constitution ex-magistrates passed +automatically into the senate of their town; but at a later date this +order was reversed, and membership of the senate became a qualification +for the magistracy. Cicero (_l.c._) speaks of the senate in the Sicilian +towns as appointed by a vote of the township. But in most towns it was +the duty of the chief magistrate to draw up a list (_album_) of the +senators every five years. The _decuriones_ held office for life. They +were convened by the magistrate, who presided as in the Roman senate. +Their powers were extensive. In all matters the magistrates were obliged +to act according to their direction, and in some towns they heard cases +of appeal against judicial sentences passed by the magistrate. By the +time of the municipal law of Julius Caesar (45 B.C.) special privileges +were conferred on the _decuriones_, including the right to appeal to +Rome for trial in criminal cases. Under the principate their status +underwent a marked decline. The office was no longer coveted, and +documents of the 3rd and 4th centuries show that means were devised to +compel members of the towns to undertake it. By the time of the jurists +it had become hereditary and compulsory. This change was largely due to +the heavy financial burdens which the Roman government laid on the +municipal senates. (2) The president of a _decuria_, a subdivision of +the _curia_ (q.v.). (3) An officer in the Roman cavalry, commanding a +troop of ten men (_decuria_). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--C. G. Bruns, _Fontes juris Romani_, c. 3, No. 18, c. 4, + Nos. 27, 29, 30 (_leges municipales_); J. C. Orelli, _Inscr. Latinae_, + No. 3721 (Album of Canusium); Godefroy, _Paratitl. ad cod. + Theodosianam_, xii. 1 (vol. iv. pp. 352 et seq., ed. Ritter); J. + Marquardt, _Romische Staatsverwaltung_, i. pp. 183 et seq. (Leipzig, + 1881); P. Willems, _Droit public romain_, pp. 535 et seq. (Paris, + 1884); Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, IV. ii. pp. 2319 foll. + (Stuttgart, 1901); W. Liebenam, _Stadteverwaltung im romischen + Kaiserreiche_ (Leipzig, 1900). (A. M. Cl.) + + + + +DEDEAGATCH, a seaport of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople, +10 m. N.W. of the Maritza estuary, on the Gulf of Enos, an inlet of the +Aegean Sea. Pop. (1905) about 3000, mostly Greeks. Until 1871 Dedeagatch +was a mere cluster of fishermen's huts. A new town then began to spring +up, settlers being attracted by the prospect of opening up a trade in the +products of a vast forest of valonia oaks which grew near. In 1873 it was +made the chief town of a _Kaza_, to which it gave its name, and a +_Kaimakam_ was appointed to it. In 1884 it was raised in administrative +rank from a _Kaza_ to a _Sanjak_, and the governor became a _Mutessarif_. +In 1889 the Greek archbishopric of Enos was transferred to Dedeagatch. On +the opening, early in 1896, of the Constantinople-Salonica railway, which +has a station here, a large proportion of the extensive transit trade +which Enos, situated at the mouth of the Maritza, had acquired, was +immediately diverted to Dedeagatch, and an era of unprecedented +prosperity began; but when the railway connecting Burgas on the Black Sea +with the interior was opened, in 1898, Dedeagatch lost all it had won +from Enos. Owing to the lack of shelter in its open roadstead, the port +has not become the great commercial centre which its position otherwise +qualifies it to be. It is, however, one of the chief outlets for the +grain trade of the Adrianople, Demotica and Xanthi districts. The valonia +trade has also steadily developed, and is supplemented by the export of +timber, tobacco and almonds. In 1871, while digging out the foundations +of their houses, the settlers found many ancient tombs. Probably these +are relics, not of the necropolis of the ancient _Zone_, but of a +monastic community of Dervishes, of the Dede sect, which was established +here in the 15th century, shortly after the Turkish conquest, and gave to +the place its name. + + + + +DEDHAM, a township and the county seat of Norfolk county, Massachusetts, +U.S.A., with an area of 23 sq. m. of comparatively level country. Pop. +(1890) 7123; (1900) 7457, of whom 2186 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. +census) 9284. The township is traversed by the New York, New Haven & +Hartford railway, and by interurban electric lines. It contains three +villages, Dedham, East Dedham and Oakdale. Dedham has a public library +(1854; incorporated 1871). The Dedham historical society was organized +in 1859 and was incorporated in 1862. The Fairbanks house was erected in +part as early as 1654. Carpets, handkerchiefs and woollen goods are +manufactured, and a pottery here is reputed to make the only true +crackleware outside the East. Dedham was "planted" in 1635 and was +incorporated in 1636. It was one of the first two inland settlements of +the colony, being coeval with Concord. The original plantation, about 20 +m. long and 10 m. wide, extended from Roxbury and Dorchester to the +present state line of Rhode Island: from this territory several +townships were created, including Westwood (pop. in 1910, 1266), in +1897. A free public school, one of the first in America to be supported +by direct taxation, was established in Dedham in 1645. In the Woodward +tavern, the birthplace of Fisher Ames, a convention met in September +1774 and adjourned to Milton (q.v.), where it passed the Suffolk +Resolves. + + + + +DEDICATION (Lat. _dedicatio_, from _dedicare_, to proclaim, to +announce), properly the setting apart of anything by solemn +proclamation. It is thus in Latin the term particularly applied to the +consecration of altars, temples and other sacred buildings, and also to +the inscription prefixed to a book, &c., and addressed to some +particular person. This latter practice, which formerly had the purpose +of gaining the patronage and support of the person so addressed, is now +only a mark of affection or regard. In law, the word is used of the +setting apart by a private owner of a road to public use. (See HIGHWAY.) + +_The Feast of Dedication_ ([Hebrew: hanuka]; [Greek: ta egkainia]) was a +Jewish festival observed for eight days from the 25th of Kislev (i.e. +about December 12) in commemoration of the reconsecration (165 B.C.) of +the temple and especially of the altar of burnt offering, after they had +been desecrated in the persecution under Antiochus Epiphanes (168 B.C.). +The distinguishing features of the festival were the illumination of +houses and synagogues, a custom probably taken over from the feast of +tabernacles, and the recitation of Psalm xxx. The biblical references +are 1 Macc. i. 41-64, iv. 36-39; 2 Macc. vi. 1-11; John x. 22. See also +2 Macc. i. 9, 18; ii. 16; and Josephus, _Antiq._ xii. v. 4. J. +Wellhausen suggests that the feast was originally connected with the +winter solstice, and only afterwards with the events narrated in +Maccabees. + +_Dedication of Churches._--The custom of solemnly dedicating or +consecrating buildings as churches or chapels set apart for Christian +worship must be almost as old as Christianity itself. If we find no +reference to it in the New Testament or in the very earliest apostolic +or post-apostolic writings, it is merely due to the fact that Christian +churches had not as yet begun to be built. Throughout the ante-Nicene +period, until the reign of Constantine, Christian churches were few in +number, and any public dedication of them would have been attended with +danger in those days of heathen persecution. This is why we are ignorant +as to what liturgical forms and what consecration ritual were employed +in those primitive times. But when we come to the earlier part of the +4th century allusions to and descriptions of the consecration of +churches become plentiful. + +Like so much else in the worship and ritual of the Christian church this +service is probably of Jewish origin. The hallowing of the tabernacle +and of its furniture and ornaments (Exodus xl.); the dedication of +Solomon's temple (1 Kings viii.) and of the second temple by Zerubbabel +(Ezra vi.), and its rededication by Judas Maccabaeus (see above), and +the dedication of the temple of Herod the Great (Josephus, _Antiq. of +the Jews_, bk. xv. c. xi. S 6), and our Lord's recognition of the Feast +of Dedication (St John xi. 22, 23)--all these point to the probability +of the Christians deriving their custom from a Jewish origin, quite +apart from the intrinsic appropriateness of such a custom in itself. + +Eusebius (_Hist. Eccles._ lib. x. cap. 3) speaks of the dedication of +churches rebuilt after the Diocletian persecution, including the church +at Tyre in A.D. 314. The consecrations of the church of the Holy +Sepulchre at Jerusalem in A.D. 335, which had been built by Constantine, +and of other churches after his time, are described both by Eusebius and +by other ecclesiastical historians. From them we gather that every +consecration was accompanied by a celebration of the Holy Eucharist and +a sermon, and special prayers of a dedicatory character, but there is no +trace of the elaborate ritual, to be described presently, of the +medieval pontificals dating from the 8th century onwards. + +The separate consecration of altars is provided for by canon 14 of the +council of Agde in 506, and by canon 26 of the council of Epaone in 517, +the latter containing the first known reference to the usage of +anointing the altar with chrism. The use of both holy water and of +unction is attributed to St Columbanus, who died in 615 (Walafrid +Strabo, _Vita S. Galli_, cap. 6). + +There was an annual commemoration of the original dedication of the +church, a feast with its octave extending over eight days, during which +Gregory the Great encouraged the erection of booths and general feasting +on the part of the populace, to compensate them for, and in some way to +take the place of, abolished heathen festivities (Sozomen, _Hist. +Eccles._ lib. ii. cap. 26; Bede, _Hist. Eccles._ lib. i. cap. 30). + +At an early date the right to consecrate churches was reserved to +bishops, as by canon 37 of the first council of Bracara in 563, and by +the 23rd of the Irish collections of canons, once attributed to St +Patrick, but hardly to be put earlier than the 8th century (Haddon and +Stubbs, _Councils, &c._, vol. ii. pt. 2, p. 329). + +When we come to examine the MS. and printed service-books of the +medieval church, we find a lengthy and elaborate service provided for +the consecration of churches. It is contained in the pontifical. The +earliest pontifical which has come down to us is that of Egbert, +archbishop of York (732-766), which, however, only survives in a +10th-century MS. copy. Later pontificals are numerous; we cannot +describe all their variations. A good idea, however, of the general +character of the service will be obtained from a skeleton of it as +performed in this country before the Reformation according to the use of +Sarum. The service in question is taken from an early 15th-century +pontifical in the Cambridge University Library as printed by W. Makell +in _Monumenta ritualia ecclesiae Anglicanae_, and ed., vol. i. pp. +195-239. + +There is a preliminary office for laying a foundation-stone. On the day +of consecration the bishop is to vest in a tent outside the church, +thence to proceed to the door of the church on the outside, a single +deacon being inside the church, and there to bless holy water, twelve +lighted candles being placed outside, and twelve inside the church. He +is then to sprinkle the walls all round outside, and to knock at the +door; then to sprinkle the walls all round outside a second time and to +knock at the door again; then to sprinkle the walls all round outside a +third time, and a third time to knock at the door, by which he will then +enter, all laity being excluded. The bishop is then to fix a cross in +the centre of the church, after which the litany is said, including a +special clause for the consecration of the church and altar. Next the +bishop inscribes the alphabet in Greek letters on one of the limbs of St +Andrew's cross from the left east corner to the right west corner on the +pavement cindered for the purpose, and the alphabet in Latin on the +other limb from the right east corner to the left west corner. Then he +is to genuflect before the altar or cross. Then he blesses water, +mingled with salt, ashes and wine, and sprinkles therewith all the walls +of the church inside thrice, beginning at the altar; then he sprinkles +the centre of the church longwise and crosswise on the pavement, and +then goes round the outside of the church sprinkling it thrice. Next +reentering the church and taking up a central position he sprinkles holy +water to the four points of the compass, and toward the roof. Next he +anoints with chrism the twelve internal and twelve external +wall-crosses, afterwards perambulating the church thrice inside and +outside, censing it. + +Then there follows the consecration of the altar. First, holy water is +blessed and mixed with chrism, and with the mixture the bishop makes a +cross in the middle of the altar, then on the right and the left, then +on the four horns of the altar. Then the altar is sprinkled seven times +or three times with water not mixed with chrism, and the altar-table is +washed therewith and censed and wiped with a linen cloth. The centre of +the altar is next anointed with the oil of the catechumens in the form +of a cross; and the altar-stone is next anointed with chrism; and then +the whole altar is rubbed over with oil of the catechumens and with +chrism. Incense is next blessed, and the altar censed, five grains of +incense being placed crosswise in the centre and at the four corners, +and upon the grains five slender candle crosses, which are to be lit. +Afterwards the altar is scraped and cleansed; then the altar-cloths and +ornaments having been sprinkled with holy water are placed upon the +altar, which is then to be censed. + +All this is subsidiary to the celebration of mass, with which the whole +service is concluded. The transcription and description of the various +collects, psalms, anthems, benedictions, &c., which make up the order of +dedication have been omitted for the sake of brevity. + +The Sarum order of dedication described above is substantially identical +with the Roman order, but it would be superfluous to tabulate and +describe the lesser variations of language or ritual. There is, however, +one very important and significant piece of ritual, not found in the +above-described English church order, but always found in the Roman +service, and not infrequently found in the earlier and later English +uses, in connexion with the presence and use of relics at the +consecration of an altar. According to the Roman ritual, after the +priest has sprinkled the walls of the church inside thrice all round and +then sprinkled the pavement from the altar to the porch, and sideways +from wall to wall, and then to the four quarters of the compass, he +prepares some cement at the altar. He then goes to the place where the +relics are kept, and starts a solemn procession with the relics round +the outside of the church. There a sermon is preached, and two decrees +of the council of Trent are read, and the founder's deed of gift or +endowment. Then the bishop, anointing the door with chrism, enters the +church with the relics and deposits them in the cavity or confession in +the altar. Having been enclosed they are censed and covered in, and the +cover is anointed. Then follows the censing and wiping of the altar as +in the Sarum order. + +This use of relics is very ancient and can be traced back to the time +of St Ambrose. There was also a custom, now obsolete, of enclosing a +portion of the consecrated Eucharist if relics were not obtainable. This +was ordered by cap. 2 of the council of Celchyth (Chelsea) in 816. But +though ancient the custom of enclosing relics was not universal, and +where found in English church orders, as it frequently is found from the +pontifical of Egbert onwards, it is called the "Mos Romanus" as +distinguished from the "Mos Anglicanus" (_Archaeologia_, liv. 416). It +is absent from the description of the early Irish form of consecration +preserved in the _Leabhar Breac_, translated and annotated by Rev. T. +Olden in the _Transactions of the St Paul's Ecclesiolog. Soc._ vol. iv. +pt. ii. p. 98. + +The curious ritual act, technically known as the _abecedarium_, i.e. the +tracing of the alphabet, sometimes in Latin characters, sometimes in +Latin and Greek, sometimes, according to Menard, in Latin, Greek and +Hebrew, along the limbs of St Andrew's cross on the floor of the church, +can be traced back to the 8th century and may be earlier. Its origin and +meaning are unknown. Of all explanations we like best the recent one +suggested by Rossi and adopted by the bishop of Salisbury. This +interprets the St Andrew's cross as the initial Greek letter of +Christus, and the whole act as significant of taking possession of the +site to be consecrated in the name of Christ, who is the Alpha and +Omega, the word of God, combining in himself all letters that lie +between them, every element of human speech. The three languages may +then have been suggested by the Latin, Greek and Hebrew, in which his +title was written on the cross. + +The disentangling the Gallican from the Roman elements in the early +Western forms of service is a delicate and difficult task, undertaken by +Monsignor Louis Duchesne, who shows how the former partook of a funerary +and the latter of a baptismal character (_Christian Worship_ (London, +1904), cap. xii.). + +The dedication service of the Greek Church is likewise long and +elaborate. Relics are to be prepared and guarded on the day previous in +some neighbouring sacred building. On the morning following, all +ornaments and requisites having been got ready, the laity being +excluded, the bishop and clergy vested proceed to fix in its place and +consecrate the altar, a long prayer of dedication being said, followed +by a litany. The altar is then sprinkled with warm water, then with +wine, then anointed with chrism in the form of a cross. The altar, the +book of the gospels, and all cloths are then censed, every pillar is +crossed with chrism, while various collects are said and psalms recited. +One lamp is then filled with oil and lit, and placed on the altar, while +clergy bring in other lamps and other ornaments of the church. On the +next day--if the service cannot be concluded in one day--the bishop and +clergy go to the building where the relics have been kept and guarded. A +procession is formed and advances thence with the relics, which are +borne by a priest in a holy vessel (_discus_) on his head; the church +having been entered, the relics are placed by him with much ceremonial +in the "confession," the recess prepared in or about the altar for their +reception, which is then anointed and sealed up. After this the liturgy +is celebrated both on the feast of dedication and on seven days +afterwards. + +There is no authorized form for the dedication of a church in the +reformed Church of England. A form was drawn up and approved by both +houses of the convocation of Canterbury under Archbishop Tenison in +1712, and an almost identical form was submitted to convocation in 1715, +but its consideration was not completed by the Lower House, and neither +form ever received royal sanction. The consequence has been that +Anglican bishops have fallen back on their undefined _jus liturgicum_, +and have drawn up and promulgated forms for use in their various +dioceses, some of them being content to borrow from other dioceses for +this purpose. There is a general similarity, with a certain amount of +difference in detail, in these various forms. In the diocese of London +the bishop, attended by clergy and churchwardens, receives at the west +door, outside, a petition for consecration; the procession then moves +round the whole church outside, while certain psalms are chanted. On +again reaching the west door the bishop knocks thrice for admission, and +the door being opened the procession advances to the east end of the +church. He there lays the keys on the table "which is to be hallowed." +The _Veni Creator_ is then sung kneeling, followed by the litany with +special suffrages. The bishop then proceeds to various parts of the +church and blesses the font, the chancel, with special references to +confirmation and holy matrimony, the lectern, the pulpit, the clergy +stalls, the choir seats, the holy table. The deed of consecration is +then read and signed, and the celebration of Holy Communion follows with +special collects, epistle and gospel. + +The Church of Ireland and the episcopal Church of Scotland are likewise +without any completely authorized form of dedication, and their +archbishops or bishops have at various times issued forms of service on +their own authority. (F. E. W.) + + + + +DE DONIS CONDITIONALIBUS, a chapter of the statute of Westminster the +Second (1285) which originated the law of entail. Strictly speaking, a +form of entail was known before the Norman feudal law had been +domesticated in England. The common form was a grant "to the feoffee and +the heirs of his body," by which limitation it was sought to prevent +alienation from the lineage of the first purchaser. These grants were +also known as _feuda conditionata_, because if the donee had no heirs of +his body the estate reverted to the donor. This right of reversion was +evaded by the interpretation that such a gift was a conditional fee, +which enabled the donee, if he had an heir of the body born alive, to +alienate the land, and consequently disinherit the issue and defeat the +right of the donor. To remedy this the statute _De Donis +Conditionalibus_ was passed, which enacted that, in grants to a man and +the heirs of his body, the will of the donor according to the form in +the deed of gift manifestly expressed, should be from thenceforth +observed; so that they to whom the land was given under such condition, +should have no power to alienate the land so given, but that it should +remain unto the issue of those to whom it was given after their death, +or unto the giver or his heirs, if issue fail. Since the passing of the +statute an estate given to a man and the heirs of his body has been +known as an estate tail, or an estate in fee tail (_feudum talliatum_), +the word tail being derived from the French _tailler_, to cut, the +inheritance being by the statute cut down and confined to the heirs of +the body. The operation of the statute soon produced innumerable evils: +"children, it is said, grew disobedient when they knew they could not be +set aside; farmers were deprived of their leases; creditors were +defrauded of their debts; innumerable latent entails were produced to +deprive purchasers of the land they had fairly bought; treasons also +were encouraged, as estates tail were not liable to forfeiture longer +than for the tenant's life" (Williams, _Real Property_). Accordingly, +the power of alienation was reintroduced by the judges in Taltarum's +case (_Year Book_, 12 Edward IV., 1472) by means of a fictitious suit or +recovery which had originally been devised by the regular clergy for +evading the statutes of mortmain. This was abolished by an act passed in +1833. (See FINE.) + + + + +DEDUCTION (from Lat. _deducere_, to take or lead from or out of, +derive), a term used in common parlance for the process of taking away +from, or subtracting (as in mathematics), and specially for the +argumentative process of arriving at a conclusion from evidence, i.e. +for any kind of inference.[1] In this sense it includes both arguments +from particular facts and those from general laws to particular cases. +In logic it is generally used in contradiction to "induction" for a kind +of mediate inference, in which a conclusion (often itself called the +deduction) is regarded as following necessarily under certain fixed laws +from premises. This, the most common, form of deduction is the syllogism +(q.v.; see also LOGIC), which consists in taking a general principle and +deriving from it facts which are necessarily involved in it. This use of +deduction is of comparatively modern origin; it was originally used as +the equivalent of Aristotle's [Greek: apagoge] (see _Prior Analytics_, B +xxv.). The modern use of deduction is practically identical with the +Aristotelian [Greek: syllogismos]. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Two forms of the verb are used, "deduce" and "deduct"; originally + synonymous, they are now distinguished, "deduce" being confined to + arguments, "deduct" to quantities. + + + + +DEE, JOHN (1527-1608), English mathematician and astrologer, was born on +the 13th of July 1527, in London, where his father was, according to +Wood, a wealthy vintner. In 1542 he was sent to St John's College, +Cambridge. After five years spent in mathematical and astronomical +studies, he went to Holland, in order to visit several eminent +continental mathematicians. Having remained abroad nearly a year, he +returned to Cambridge, and was elected a fellow of Trinity College, then +first erected by King Henry VIII. In 1548 he took the degree of master +of arts; but in the same year he found it necessary to leave England on +account of the suspicions entertained of his being a conjurer; these +were first excited by a piece of machinery, which, in the _Pax_ of +Aristophanes, he exhibited to the university, representing the +scarabaeus flying up to Jupiter, with a man and a basket of victuals on +its back. He went first to the university of Louvain, where he resided +about two years, and then to the college of Rheims, where he had +extraordinary success in his public lectures on Euclid's _Elements_. On +his return to England in 1551 King Edward assigned him a pension of 100 +crowns, which he afterwards exchanged for the rectory of +Upton-upon-Severn, Worcestershire. Soon after the accession of Mary he +was accused of using enchantments against the queen's life; but after a +tedious confinement he obtained his liberty in 1555, by an order of +council. + +When Elizabeth ascended the throne, Dee was asked by Lord Dudley to name +a propitious day for the coronation. On this occasion he was introduced +to the queen, who took lessons in the mystical interpretation of his +writings, and made him great promises, which, however, were never +fulfilled. In 1564 he again visited the continent, in order to present +his _Monas hieroglyphica_ to the emperor Maximilian, to whom he had +dedicated it. He returned to England in the same year; but in 1571 he +was in Lorraine, whither two physicians were sent by the queen to his +relief in a dangerous illness. Returning to his home at Mortlake, in +Surrey, he continued his studies, and made a collection of curious books +and manuscripts, and a variety of instruments. In 1578 Dee was sent +abroad to consult with German physicians and astrologers in regard to +the illness of the queen. On his return to England, he was employed in +investigating the title of the crown to the countries recently +discovered by British subjects, and in furnishing geographical +descriptions. Two large rolls containing the desired information, which +he presented to the queen, are still preserved in the Cottonian Library. +A learned treatise on the reformation of the calendar, written by him +about the same time, is also preserved in the Ashmolean Library at +Oxford. + +From this period the philosophical researches of Dee were concerned +entirely with necromancy. In 1581 he became acquainted with Edward +Kelly, an apothecary, who had been convicted of forgery and had lost +both ears in the pillory at Lancaster. He professed to have discovered +the philosopher's stone, and by his assistance Dee performed various +incantations, and maintained a frequent imaginary intercourse with +spirits. Shortly afterwards Kelly and Dee were introduced by the earl of +Leicester to a Polish nobleman, Albert Laski, palatine of Siradz, +devoted to the same pursuits, who persuaded them to accompany him to his +native country. They embarked for Holland in September 1583, and arrived +at Laski's residence in February following. Upon Dee's departure the +mob, believing him a wizard, broke into his house, and destroyed a +quantity of furniture and books and his chemical apparatus. Dee and +Kelly lived for some years in Poland and Bohemia in alternate wealth and +poverty, according to the credulity or scepticism of those before whom +they exhibited. They professed to raise spirits by incantation; and +Kelly dictated the utterances to Dee, who wrote them down and +interpreted them. + +Dee at length quarrelled with his companion, and returned to England in +1589. He was helped over his financial difficulties by the queen and his +friends. In May of 1595 he became warden of Manchester College. In +November 1604 he returned to Mortlake, where he died in December 1608, +at the age of eighty-one, in the greatest poverty. Aubrey describes him +as "of a very fair, clear sanguine complexion, with a long beard as +white as milk--a very handsome man--tall and slender. He wore a goune +like an artist's goune with hanging sleeves." Dee's _Speculum_ or +mirror, a piece of solid pink-tinted glass about the size of an orange, +is preserved in the British Museum. + + His principal works are--_Propaedeumata aphoristica_ (London, 1558); + _Monas hieroglyphica_ (Antwerp, 1564); _Epistola ad Fredericum + Commandinum_ (Pesaro, 1570); _Preface Mathematical to the English + Euclid_ (1570); _Divers Annotations and Inventions added after the + tenth book of English Euclid_ (1570); _Epistola praefixa Ephemeridibus + Joannis Feldi, a. 1557; Parallaticae commentationis praxeosque nucleus + quidam_ (London, 1573). The catalogue of his printed and published + works is to be found in his _Compendious Rehearsal_, as well as in his + letter to Archbishop Whitgift. A manuscript of Dee's, relating what + passed for many years between him and some spirits, was edited by + Meric Casaubon and published in 1659. _The Private Diary of Dr John + Dee, and the Catalogue of his Library of Manuscripts_, edited by J. O. + Halliwell, was published by the Camden Society in 1842. There is a + life of Dee in Thomas Smith's _Vitae illustrium virorum_ (1707); + English translation by W. A. Ayton, the _Life of John Dee_ (1909). + + + + +DEE (Welsh, _Dyfrdwy_; Lat., and in Milton, _Deva_), a river of Wales +and England. It rises in Bala Lake, Merionethshire, which is fed by a +number of small streams. Leaving the lake near the town of Bala it +follows a north-easterly course to Corwen, turns thence E. by S. past +Llangollen to a point near Overton, and then bends nearly north to +Chester, and thereafter north-west through a great estuary opening into +the Irish Sea. In the Llangollen district the Dee crosses Denbighshire, +and thereafter forms the boundary of that county with Shropshire, a +detached part of Flint, and Cheshire. From Bala nearly down to Overton, +a distance of 35 m., during which the river falls about 330 ft., its +course lies through a narrow and beautiful valley, enclosed on the south +by the steep lower slopes of the Berwyn Mountains and on the north by a +succession of lesser ranges. The portion known as the Vale of Llangollen +is especially famous. Here an aqueduct carrying the Pontcysyllte branch +of the Shropshire Union canal bestrides the valley; it is a remarkable +engineering work completed by Thomas Telford in 1805. The Dee has a +total length of about 70 m. and a fall of 530 ft. Below Overton it +debouches upon its plain track. Below Chester it follows a straight +artificial channel to the estuary, and this is the only navigable +portion. The estuary, which is 14 m. long, and 5(1/4) m. wide at its +mouth, between Hilbre Point on the English and Point of Air on the Welsh +side, is not a commercial highway like the neighbouring mouth of the +Mersey, for though in appearance a fine natural harbour at high tide, it +becomes at low tide a vast expanse of sand, through which the river +meanders in a narrow channel. The navigation, however, is capable of +improvement, and schemes have been set on foot to this end. The tide +rushes in with great speed over the sands, and their danger is +illustrated in the well-known ballad "The Sands of Dee" by Charles +Kingsley. The Dee drains an area of 813 sq. m. + + + + +DEE, a river in the south of Aberdeenshire, Scotland, pursuing a +generally easterly direction from its source in the extreme west of the +county till it reaches the North Sea at the city of Aberdeen. It rises +in the Wells of Dee, a spring on Ben Braeriach, one of the Cairngorms, +at a height of 4061 ft. above the sea. It descends rapidly from this +altitude, and by the time that it receives the Geusachan, on its right +bank, about 6 m. from its source, it has fallen 2421 ft. From the +mountains flanking its upper reaches it is fed by numerous burns named +and unnamed. With its tributaries the river drains an area of 1000 sq. +m. Rapid and turbulent during the first half of its course of 90 m., it +broadens appreciably below Aboyne and the rate of flow is diminished. +The channel towards its mouth was artificially altered in order to +provide increased dock accommodation at Aberdeen, but, above, the stream +is navigable for only barges and small craft for a few miles. It runs +through scenery of transcendent beauty, especially in Braemar. About two +miles above Inverey it enters a narrow rocky gorge, 300 yds. long and +only a few feet wide at one part, and forms the rapids and cascades of +the famous Linn of Dee. One of the finest of Scottish salmon streams, it +retains its purity almost to the very end of its run. The principal +places on the Dee, apart from private residences, are Castleton of +Braemar, Ballater, Aboyne, Kincardine O'Neil, Banchory, Culter and +Cults. + + + + +DEED (in O. Eng. _dead_, from the stem of the verb "to do"), that which +is done, an act, doing; particularly, in law, a contract in writing, +sealed and delivered by the party bound to the party intended to +benefit. Contracts or obligations under seal are called in English law +_specialties_, and down to 1869 they took precedence in payment over +_simple_ contracts, whether written or not. Writing, sealing and +delivery are all essential to a deed. The signature of the party charged +is not material, and the deed is not void for want of a date. Delivery, +it is held, may be complete without the actual handing over of the deed; +it is sufficient if the act of sealing were accompanied by words or acts +signifying that the deed was intended to be presently binding; and +delivery to a third person for the use of the party benefited will be +sufficient. On the other hand, the deed may be handed over to a third +person as an _escrow_,[1] in which case it will not take effect as a +deed until certain conditions are performed. Such conditional delivery +may be inferred from the circumstances attending the transaction, +although the conditions be not expressed in words. A deed indented, or +indenture (so called because written in counterparts on the same sheet +of parchment, separated by cutting a wavy line between them so as to be +identified by fitting the parts together), is between two or more +parties who contract mutually. The actual indentation is not now +necessary to an indenture. The _deed-poll_ (with a polled or smooth-cut +edge, not indented) is a deed in which one party binds himself without +reference to any corresponding obligations undertaken by another party. +See CONTRACT. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] An Anglo-French law term meaning a "scroll" or strip of + parchment, cognate with the English "shred." The modern French + _ecroue_ is used for the entry of a name on a prison register. + + + + +DEEMS, CHARLES (ALEXANDER) FORCE (1820-1893), American clergyman, was +born in Baltimore, Maryland, on the 4th of December 1820. He was a +precocious child and delivered lectures on temperance and on Sunday +schools before he was fourteen years old. He graduated at Dickinson +College in 1839, taught and preached in New York city for a few months, +in 1840 took charge of the Methodist Episcopal church at Asbury, New +Jersey, and removed in the next year to North Carolina, where he was +general agent for the American Bible Society. He was professor of logic +and rhetoric at the University of North Carolina in 1842-1847, and +professor of natural sciences at Randolph-Macon College (then at +Boydton, Virginia) in 1847-1848, and after two years of preaching at +Newbern, N.C., he held for four years (1850-1854) the presidency of +Greensboro (N.C.) Female College. He continued as a Methodist Episcopal +clergyman at various pastorates in North Carolina from 1854 to 1865, for +the last seven years being a presiding elder and in 1859 to 1863 being +the proprietor of St Austin's Institute, Wilson. In 1865 he settled in +New York City, where in 1866 he began preaching in the chapel of New +York University, and in 1868 he established and became the pastor of the +undenominational Church of the Strangers, which in 1870 occupied the +former Mercer Street Presbyterian church, purchased and given to Dr +Deems by Cornelius Vanderbilt; there he remained until his death in New +York city on the 18th of November 1893. He was one of the founders +(1881) and president of the American Institute of Christian Philosophy +and for ten years was editor of its organ, _Christian Thought_. Dr Deems +was an earnest temperance advocate, as early as 1852 worked +(unsuccessfully) for a general prohibition law in North Carolina, and in +his later years allied himself with the Prohibition party. He was +influential in securing from Cornelius Vanderbilt the endowment of +Vanderbilt University, in Nashville, Tennessee. He was a man of rare +personal and literary charm; he edited _The Southern Methodist Episcopal +Pulpit_ (1846-1852) and _The Annals of Southern Methodism_ (1855-1857); +he compiled _Devotional Melodies_ (1842), and, with the assistance of +Phoebe Cary, one of his parishioners, _Hymns for all Christians_ (1869; +revised, 1881); and he published many books, among which were: _The Life +of Dr Adam Clarke_ (1840); _The Triumph of Peace and other Poems_ +(1840); _The Home Altar_ (1850); _Jesus_ (1872), which ran through many +editions and several revisions, the title being changed in 1880 to _The +Light of the Nations_; _Sermons_ (1885); _The Gospel of Common Sense_ +(1888); _The Gospel of Spiritual Insight_ (1891) and _My Septuagint_ +(1892). The Charles F. Deems Lectureship in Philosophy was founded in +his honour in 1895 at New York University by the American Institute of +Christian Philosophy. + + His _Autobiography_ (New York, 1897) is autobiographical only to 1847, + the memoir being completed by his two sons. + + + + +DEER (O. E. _deor_, _dior_, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, +cf. Ger. _Tier_, Du. _dier_, &c., probably from a root _dhus_-, to +breathe), originally the name of one of two British species, the red-deer +or the fallow-deer, but now extended to all the members of the family +_Cervidae_, in the section Pecora of the suborder Artiodactyla of the +order Ungulata. (See PECORA; ARTIODACTYLA and UNGULATA.) Briefly, deer may +be defined as Pecora presenting the following characteristics:--either +antlers present in the male, or when these are absent, the upper canines +large and sabre-like, and the lateral metacarpal bones represented only by +their lower extremities. This definition will include the living and also +most of the extinct forms, although in some of the latter the lateral +metacarpal bones not only retain their lower ends, but are complete in +their entire length. + +The leading characters of antlers are described under PECORA, but these +structures may be defined somewhat more fully in the following passage +from the present writer's _Deer of all Lands_:-- + + "Antlers are supported on a pair of solid bony processes, or pedicles, + arising from the frontal bones of the skull, of which they form an + inseparable portion; and if in a fully adult deer these pedicles be + sawn through, they will generally be found to consist of solid, + ivory-like bone, devoid of perceptible channels for the passage of + blood-vessels. The pedicles are always covered with skin well supplied + with blood-vessels; and in young deer, or those in which the antlers + have been comparatively recently shed, the covering of skin extends + over their summits, when they appear as longer or shorter projections + on the forehead, according to the species. When the first or a new + antler is about to be formed, the summits of these pedicles become + tender, and bear small velvet-like knobs, which have a high + temperature, and are supplied by an extra quantity of blood, which + commences to deposit bony matter. This deposition of bony matter + progresses very rapidly, and although in young deer and the adults of + some species the resulting antler merely forms a simple spike, or a + single fork, in full-grown individuals of the majority it assumes a + more or less complexly branched structure. All this time the growing + antler is invested with a skin clothed with exceedingly fine short + hairs, and is most liberally supplied with blood-vessels; this + sensitive skin being called the velvet. Towards the completion of its + growth a more or less prominent ring of bone, termed the burr or + coronet, is deposited at its base just above the junction with the + pedicle; this ring tending to constrict the blood-vessels, and thus + cut off the supply of blood from the antlers.... + + "When the antlers are freed from the velvet--a process usually + assisted by the animal rubbing them against tree stems or boughs--they + have a more or less rugose surface, owing to the grooves formed in + them by the nutrient blood-vessels. Although a few living species have + the antlers in the form of simple spikes in the adult male, in the + great majority of species they are more or less branched; while in + some, like the elk and fallow-deer, they expand into broad palmated + plates, with tines, or snags, on one or both margins. In the antlers + of the red-deer group, which form the type of the whole series, the + following names have been applied to their different component parts + and branches. The main shaft is termed the beam; the first or lowest + tine the brow-tine; the second the bez-tine; the third the trez-tine, + or royal; and the branched portion forming the summit the crown, or + surroyals. But the antlers of all deer by no means conform to this + type; and in certain groups other names have to be adopted for the + branches. + + "The antlers of young deer are in the form of simple spikes; and this + form is retained in the South American brockets, although the simple + antlers of these deer appear due to degeneration, and are not + primitive types. Indeed, no living deer shows such primitive + spike-like antlers in the adult, and it is doubtful whether such a + type is displayed by any known extinct form, although many have a + simple fork. In the deer of the sambar group, where the antlers never + advance beyond a three-tined type, the shedding is frequently, if not + invariably, very irregular; but in the majority at least of the + species with complex antlers the replacement is annual, the new + appendages attaining their full development immediately before the + pairing-season. In such species there is a more or less regular annual + increase in the complexity of the antlers up to a certain period of + life, after which they begin to degenerate." + + +The _Cervidae_ are distributed all over Europe, Asia, Northern Africa +and America, but are unknown in Africa south of the Sahara. They are +undoubtedly a group of European or Asiatic origin, and obtained an +entrance into America at a time when that continent was connected with +Asia by way of Bering Strait. + +The existing members of the family are classified in the writer's _Deer +of all Lands_ as follows:-- + + A. Subfamily CERVINAE.--Antlers, with one exception, present in the + male; liver without a gall-bladder; a face-gland, and a gland-pit in + the skull. + + I. Reindeer, Genus _Rangifer_.--Lateral metacarpal bones represented + only by their lower extremities; antlers present in both sexes, + complex. Northern part of both hemispheres. + + II. Elk, Genus _Alces_.--Lateral metacarpals as in preceding; antlers + (as in the following genera) present only in the male, arising at + right angles to the median longitudinal line of the skull, and + extending at first in the plane of the forehead, after which, when in + their fullest development, they expand into a broad palmation margined + with snags. Northern portion of both hemispheres. + + III. True Deer, Genus _Cervus_.--Lateral metacarpals represented only + by their upper ends. Antlers arising at acute angles to the median + line of the skull (as in the following genera), at first projecting + from the plane of the forehead, and then continued upwards nearly in + that plane, supported on short pedicles, and furnished with a + brow-tine, never regularly forked at first division, but generally of + large size, and with not less than three tines; the skull without + ridges on the frontals forming the bases of the pedicles of the + antlers. Upper canine teeth small, or wanting. Europe, Asia and N. + America. + + 1. Red-deer Group, Subgenus _Cervus_.--Antlers rounded, usually with + five or more tines, generally including a bez (second), and always a + trez (third); coat of adult generally unspotted, with a large + light-coloured disk surrounding the tail; young, spotted. Europe, + Northern and Central Asia and North America. + + 2. Sika Deer, Subgenus _Pseudaxis_.--Antlers smaller and simpler, + four-tined, with a trez (third), but no bez (second); coat of adult + spotted, at least in summer, with a white area bordered by black in + the region of the tail, which is also black and white. North-Eastern + Asia. + + 3. Fallow-deer, Subgenus _Dama_.--Antlers without a bez, but with a + trez-tine, above which the beam is more or less palmated, and + generally furnished with numerous snags; coat of adult spotted in + summer, uniform in winter, with black and white markings in the region + of the tail similar to those of _Pseudaxis_; young, spotted. + Mediterranean region, but more widely spread in Europe during the + Pleistocene epoch, and also introduced into many European countries. + + 4. Sambar Group, Subgenus _Rusa_.--Antlers rounded, three-tined, with + the bez- and trez-tines wanting, and the beam simply forked at the + summit; coat either uniform or spotted at all seasons. Indo-Malay + countries and part of China. + + 5. Barasingha Group, Subgenus _Rucervus_.--Antlers flattened or + rounded, without bez- or trez-tine, the beam dichotomously forking, + and one or both branches again forked, so that the number of tines is + at least four; brow-tine forming a right angle or a continuous curve + with the beam; coat of adult generally more or less uniform, of young + spotted. Indo-Malay countries. + + IV. Muntjacs, Genus _Cervulus_.--Lateral metacarpals as in _Cervus_; + antlers small, with a brow-tine and an unbranched beam, supported on + long bony pedicles, continued downwards as convergent ridges on the + forehead; upper canines of male large and tusk-like. Indo-Malay + countries and China. + + V. Tufted Muntjacs, Genus _Elaphodus_.--Nearly related to the last, + but the antlers still smaller, with shorter pedicles and divergent + frontal ridges; upper canines of male not everted at the tips. Tibet + and China. + + VI. Water-deer, Genus _Hydrelaphus_.--Lateral metacarpals as in + _Rangifer_; antlers wanting; upper canines of males tusk-like and + growing from semi-persistent pulps; cheek-teeth tall-crowned + (hypsodont); tail moderate. China. + + VII. Roe-deer, Genus _Capreolus_.--Lateral metacarpals as in + _Rangifer_; antlers rather small, without a brow-tine or sub-basal + snag, dichotomously forked, with the upper or posterior prong again + forking; tail rudimentary; vomer not dividing posterior nasal aperture + of skull. Europe and Northern Asia. + + VIII. Pere David's Deer, Genus _Elaphurus_.--Lateral metacarpals as in + _Cervus_; antlers large, without a brow-tine or sub-basal snag, + dichotomously forked, with the upper prong of the fork curving + forwards and dividing, and the lower prong long, simple, and projected + backwards, the beam making a very marked angle with the plane of the + face; tail very long; vomer as in _Capreolus_. North-East Asia. + + IX. American Deer, Genus _Mazama_.--Lateral metacarpals as in + _Rangifer_; antlers very variable in size, forming a marked angle with + the plane of the face, without a brow-tine; when consisting of more + than a simple prong, dichotomously forked, frequently with a sub-basal + snag, and always with the lower prong of the fork projected from the + front edge of the beam, in some cases the lower, in others the upper, + and in others both prongs again dividing; tail long; tarsal gland + generally present; metatarsal gland very variable, both as regards + presence and position; vomer dividing the inner aperture of the + nostrils in the skull into two distinct chambers. America. + + 1. White-tailed Group, Subgenus _Dorcelaphus_ or + _Odocoileus_.--Antlers large and complex, with a sub-basal snag, and + the lower prong more or less developed at the expense of the upper + one; metatarsal gland usually present; tail long or moderate, and + hairy below; face very long and narrow; the face-gland small, and the + gland-pit in the skull of moderate extent; no upper canines; size + generally large. North America to Northern South America. + + 2. Marsh-deer Group, Subgenus _Blastoceros_.--Antlers large and + complex, without a sub-basal snag, and the upper prong more developed + than the lower one; metatarsal gland absent; tail short; face + moderately long; face-gland and gland-pit well developed; upper + canines usually present in male. Size large or rather small. South + America. + + 3. Guemals, Subgenus _Xenelaphus_.--Antlers small and simple, forming + a single dichotomous fork; metatarsal gland absent; tail short; face + moderately long; face-gland and gland-pit well developed; upper + canines present in both sexes. Size medium. South America. + + 4. Brockets, Subgenus _Mazama_.--Antlers in the form of simple + unbranched spikes; metatarsal, and in one case also the tarsal gland + absent; tail very short; face elongated; face-gland small and + gland-pit deep and triangular; hair of face radiating from two whorls: + upper canines sometimes present in old males. Size small. Central and + South America. + + X. Genus _Pudua_.--Skull and metacarpals generally as in _Mazama_; + size very small; hair coarse and brittle; antlers in the form of + short, simple spikes; cannon-bones very short; tail very short or + wanting; no whorls in the hair of the face; face-gland moderately + large, and gland-pit deep and oval; tarsal and metatarsal glands + wanting; ectocuneiform bone of tarsus united with the naviculocuboid. + South America. + + B. Subfamily MOSCHINAE.--Antlers wanting in both sexes; liver + furnished with a gall-bladder; no face-gland or gland-pit. + + XI. Musk-deer, Genus _Moschus_.--Hair coarse and brittle; upper + canines of male very long; no tarsal or metatarsal glands or tufts; + lateral metacarpals represented by their lower extremities; lateral + hoofs very large; tail very short; naked portion of muzzle extensive; + male with a large abdominal gland. Central Asia. + +Of the above, Reindeer and Elk are dealt with in separate articles +(qq.v.). + +The first or typical group of the genus _Cervus_ includes the red-deer +(_Cervus elaphus_) of Europe and western Asia, of which there are +several local races, such as the large _C. elaphus maral_ of eastern +Europe and Persia, which is often partially spotted above and +dark-coloured below, the smaller _C. e. barbarus_ of Tunisia and +Morocco, and the still smaller _C. e. corsicanus_ of Corsica. The +Scandinavian red-deer is the typical form of the species. In all +red-deer the antlers are rounded, and show a more or less marked +tendency to form a cup at the summit. Wapiti, on the other hand, show a +marked tendency to the flattening of the antlers, with a great +development of the fourth tine, which is larger than all the others, and +the whole of the tines above this in the same plane, or nearly so, this +plane being the same as the long axis of the animal. Normally no cup is +developed at the summit of the antler. The tail, too, is shorter than in +the red-deer; while in winter the under parts become very dark, and the +upper surface often bleaches almost white. The cry of the stags in the +breeding season is also different. The typical representative of the +group is the North American wapiti _C. canadensis_, but there are +several closely allied races in Central Asia, such as _C. canadensis +songaricus_ and _C. c. bactrianus_, while in Manchuria the subgroup is +represented by _C. c. xanthopygus_, in which the summer coat is reddish +instead of grey. The hangul (_C. cashmirianus_) of Kashmir is a distinct +dark-coloured species, in which the antlers tend to turn in at the +summit; while _C. yarcandensis_, of the Tarim Valley, Turkestan, is a +redder animal, with a wholly rufous tail, and antlers usually +terminating in a simple fork placed in a transverse plane. Another +Asiatic species is the great shou (_C. affinis_) of the Chumbi Valley, +in which the antlers curve forwards in a remarkable manner. Lastly _C. +albirostris_, of Tibet, is easily recognized by its white muzzle, and +smooth, whitish, flattened antlers, which have fewer tines than those of +the other members of the group, all placed in one plane. + +The second group of the genus _Cervus_, forming the subgenus +_Pseudaxis_, is typified by the handsome little Japanese deer, or sika, +_C. (P.) sika_, in which the antlers are four-tined, and covered with +red "velvet" when first grown, while the coat is fully spotted in +summer, but more or less uniformly brown in winter. The most distinctive +feature of the deer of this group is, however, the patch of long +erectile white hairs on the buttocks, which, although inconspicuous when +the animals are quiescent, is expanded into a large chrysanthemum-like +bunch when they start to run or are otherwise excited. The patch then +forms a guiding signal for the members of the herd when in flight. On +the mainland of Manchuria both the typical sika, and a larger race (_C. +sika manchuricus_), occur. A still larger and finer animal is the Pekin +sika (_C. hortulorum_), of northern Manchuria, which is as large as a +small red-deer; it is represented in the Yang-tse valley by a local +race, _C. h. kopschi_. Formosa possesses a species of its own (_C. +taevanus_), which, in correlation with the perpetual verdure of that +island, is spotted at all seasons. + +For the fallow-deer, _Cervus [Dama] dama_, see FALLOW-DEER. + +The rusine or sambar group of _Cervus_, of which the characteristics are +given above, comprises a considerable number of long-tailed species with +three-tined antlers from the Indo-Malay countries and some parts of +China. The largest and handsomest is the sambar of India (_Cervus [Rusa] +unicolor_), characterized by its massive and rugged antlers. It is +represented by a number of local races, mostly of smaller size, such as +the Burmese and Malay _C. u. equinus_, the Formosan _C. u. swinhoei_, +and the Philippine _C. u. philippinus_ and _C. u. nigricans_, of which +the latter is not larger than a roe-buck, while the sambar itself is as +large as a red-deer. Whether these local phases of a single variable +type are best denominated races or species, must be largely a matter of +individual opinion. The rusa, or Javan sambar, _C. (R.) hippelaphus_, is +a lighter-coloured and smaller deer than the Indian sambar, with longer, +slenderer and less rugged antlers. Typically from Java, this deer is +also represented in the Moluccas and Timor, and has thus the most +easterly range of the whole tribe. A black coat with white spots +distinguishes the Philippine spotted deer, _C. alfredi_, which is about +the size of a roe-buck; while other members of this group are the +Calamianes deer of the Philippines (_C. culionensis_), the Bavian deer +(_C. kuhli_) from a small island near Java, and the well-known Indian +hog-deer or para (_C. porcinus_), all these three last being small, more +or less uniformly coloured, and closely allied species. On the other +hand, the larger and handsomer chital, or spotted deer (_C. axis_), +stands apart by its white-spotted fawn-red coat and differently formed +antlers. + +Nearly allied to the preceding is the barasingha or rucervine group +(subgenus _Rucervus_), in which the antlers are of a different and +generally more complex character. The typical species is the Indian +barasingha or swamp-deer, _Cervus (Rucervus) duvauceli_, a uniformly red +animal, widely distributed in the forest districts of India. In Siam it +is replaced by _C. (R.) schomburgki_, in which the antlers are of a +still more complex type. Finally, we have the thamin, or Eld's deer, _C. +(R.) eldi_, ranging from Burma to Siam, and characterized by the +continuous curve formed by the beam and the brow-tine of the antlers. + +For the small eastern deer, respectively known as muntjacs (_Cervulus_) +and tufted muntjacs or tufted deer (_Elaphodus_), see MUNTJAC; while +under WATER-DEER will be found a notice of the Chinese representative of +the genus _Hydrelaphus_ (or _Hydropotes_). The roe-deer, or roe-buck +(_Capreolus_), likewise form the subject of a separate article (see +ROE-BUCK), as is also the case with Pere David's deer, the sole +representative of the genus _Elaphurus_. + +The American deer include such New World species as are generically +distinct from Old World types. All these differ from the members of the +genus _Cervus_ in having no brow-tine to the antlers, which, in common +with those of the roe-deer, belong to what is called the forked type. +Including all these deer except one in the genus _Mazama_ (of which the +typical representatives are the South American brockets), the North +American species constitute the subgenus _Dorcelaphus_ (also known as +_Cariacus_ and _Odocoileus_). One of the best known of these is the +white-tailed deer _Mazama (Dorcelaphus) americana_, often known as the +Virginian deer. It is typically an animal of the size of a fallow-deer, +reddish in summer and greyish in winter, with a long tail, which is +coloured like the back above but white below, and is carried elevated +when the animal is running, so as to form with the white of the inner +sides of the buttocks a conspicuous "blaze." A white fetlock-gland with +a black centre is also distinctive of this species. The antlers are +large and curve forwards, giving off an upright snag near the base, and +several vertical tines from the upper surface of the horizontal portion. +As we proceed southwards from the northern United States, deer of the +white-tailed type decrease steadily in size, till in Central America, +Peru and Guiana they are represented by animals not larger that a +roe-buck. The most convenient plan appears to be to regard all these +degenerate forms as local races of the white-tail, although here again +there is room for difference of opinion, and many naturalists prefer to +call them species. The large ears, brown-and-white face, short, +black-tipped tail, and antlers without large basal snag serve to +distinguish the mule-deer _M. (D.) hemionus_, of western North America; +while the black tail, _M. (D.) columbiana_, ranging from British +Columbia to California, is a smaller animal, recognizable by the larger +and longer tail, which is black above and white below. + +South America is the home of the marsh-deer or guazu, _M. (Blastoceros) +dichotoma_, representing a subgenus in which the complex antlers lack a +basal snag, while the hair of the back is reversed. This species is +about the size of a red-deer, with a foxy red coat with black legs. The +pampas-deer, _M. (B.) bezoartica_, of the Argentine pampas is a much +smaller animal, of paler colour, with three-tined antlers. The Chilean +and Peruvian Andes and Patagonia are the homes of two peculiar deer +locally known as guemals (huemals), and constituting the subgenus +_Xenelaphus_, or _Hippocamelus_. They are about the size of fallow-deer, +and have simply forked antlers. The Chilian species is _M. (B.) bisulca_ +and the Peruvian _M. (B.) antisiensis_. Brockets, of which there are +numerous species, such as _M. rufa_ and _M. nemorivaga_, are Central and +South American deer of the size of roe-bucks or smaller, with simple +spike-like antlers, tufted heads and the hair of the face radiating from +two whorls on the forehead so that on the nose the direction is +downwards. The smallest of all deer is the Chilian pudu (_Pudua pudu_), +a creature not much larger than a hare, with almost rudimentary antlers. + +The musk-deer forms the subject of a separate article. + + For deer in general, see R. Lydekker, _The Deer of all Lands_ (London, + 1898, 1908). (R. L.*) + + + + +DEERFIELD, a township of Franklin county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the +Connecticut and Deerfield rivers, about 33 m. N. of Springfield. Pop. +(1900) 1969; (1910 U.S. census) 2209. Deerfield is served by the Boston +& Maine and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways. The natural +beauty and the historic interest of Deerfield attract many visitors. +There are several villages and hamlets in the township, the oldest and +most interesting of which is that known as "The Street" or "Old Street." +This extends along one wide thoroughfare over a hill and across a +plateau or valley that is hemmed in on the E. by a range of highlands +known as East Mountain and on the W. by the foothills of Hoosac +Mountain. Many of the houses in this village are very old. In Memorial +Hall, a building erected in 1797-1798 for the Deerfield academy, the +Pocumtuck Valley memorial association (incorporated in 1870) has +gathered an interesting collection of colonial and Indian relics. +Deerfield was one of the first places in the United States to enter into +the modern "arts and crafts movement"; in 1896 many of the old household +industries were revived and placed upon a business basis. Most of the +work is done by women in the homes. The products, including needlework +and embroidery, textiles, rag rugs, netting, wrought iron, furniture, +and metal-work in gold and silver embellished with precious and +semi-precious stones, are annually exhibited in an old-fashioned house +built in 1710, and a large portion of them are sold to tourists. There +is an arts and crafts society, but the profits from the sales go +entirely to the workers. + +The territory which originally constituted the township of Deerfield +(known as Pocumtuck until 1674) was a tract of 8000 acres granted in +1654 to the town of Dedham in lieu of 2000 acres previously taken from +that town and granted to Rev. John Eliot to further his mission among +the Natick Indians. The rights of the Pocumtuck Indians to the Deerfield +tract were purchased at about fourpence per acre, settlement was begun +upon it in 1669, and the township was incorporated in 1673. For many +years, Deerfield was the N.W. frontier settlement of New England. It was +slightly fortified at the beginning of King Philip's War, and after an +attack by the Indians on the 1st of September 1675 it was garrisoned by +a small force under Captain Samuel Appleton. A second attack was made on +the 12th of September, and six days later, as Captain Thomas Lothrop and +his company were guarding teams that were hauling wheat from Deerfield +to the English headquarters at Hadley, they were surprised by Indians in +ambush at what has since been known as Bloody Brook (in the village of +South Deerfield), and Lothrop and more than sixty of his men were slain. +From this time until the end of the war Deerfield was abandoned. In the +spring of 1677 a few of the old settlers returned, but on the 19th of +September some were killed and the others were captured by a party of +Indians from Canada. Resettlement was undertaken again in 1682. On the +15th of September 1694 Deerfield narrowly escaped capture by a force of +French and Indians from Canada. In the early morning of the 29th of +February 1703-1704, Deerfield was surprised by a force of French and +Indians (under Hertel de Rouville), who murdered 49 men, women and +children, captured 111, burned the town, and on the way back to Canada +murdered 20 of the captured. Among the captives was the Rev. John +Williams (1664-1729), the first minister of Deerfield, who (with the +other captives) was redeemed in 1706 and continued as pastor here until +his death; in 1707 he published an account of his experiences as a +prisoner, _The Redeemed Captive Returning to Zion_, which has frequently +been reprinted. From the original township of Deerfield the territory of +the following townships has been taken: Greenfield (1753 and 1896), +Conway (1767, 1791 and 1811), Shelburne (1768) and a part of Whately +(1810). + + See George Sheldon, _A History of Deerfield_ (Deerfield, 1895); the + _History and Proceedings of the Pocumtuck Valley Memorial Association_ + (Deerfield, 1890 et seq.); and Pauline C. Bouve, "The Deerfield + Renaissance," in _The New England Magazine_ for October 1905. + + + + +DEER PARK, an enclosure of rough wooded pastureland for the +accommodation of red- or fallow-deer. The distinction between a deer +"park" and a deer "forest" is that the former is always enclosed either +by a wall or fence, and is relatively small, whereas the forest covers a +much larger area, and is not only open but sometimes contains +practically no trees at all. Originally, the possession of a deer park +in England was a royal prerogative, and no subject could enclose one +without a direct grant from the crown--a licence to impark, like a +licence to embattle a house, was always necessary. When Domesday Book +was compiled, there were already thirty-one deer parks in England, some +of which may have existed in Saxon times; about one-fourth of them +belonged to the king. After the Conquest they increased rapidly in +number, but from about the middle of the 11th century this tendency was +reversed. In the middle of the 16th century it was conjectured that +one-twentieth of England and Wales was given up to deer and rabbits. +Upon Saxton's maps, which were made between 1575 and 1580, over 700 +parks are marked, and it is not improbable that the number was +understated. Mr Evelyn Philip Shirley enumerated only 334 in his book on +_English Deer Parks_ published in 1867. To these Mr Joseph Whitaker, in +_A Descriptive List of the Deer Parks of England_ (1892), has added +another fifty, and the total is believed to be now about 400. It is a +curious circumstance that despite the rather minute detail of Domesday +none of the parks there enumerated can now be identified. There is, +however, a plausible case for Eridge Park in Sussex as the Reredfelle of +Domesday. The state and consequence of the great barons of the middle +ages depended in some measure upon the number of deer parks which they +possessed. Most bishops and abbots had one or two, and at one time more +than twenty were attached to the archbishopric of Canterbury. When the +power of the barons was finally broken and a more settled period began +with the accession of the house of Tudor, the deer park began to fall +into decay. By Queen Elizabeth's time a considerable proportion of the +ancestral acres of the great houses had passed into the possession of +rich merchants and wealthy wool-staplers, and it had become more +profitable to breed bullocks than to find pasture for deer, and even +where the new men retained, and even in some cases created, deer parks, +they reduced their area in order that more land might be available for +grazing or for corn. Thus began that decadence of the deer park which +has continued down to the present time. More than anything, however, the +strife between Charles I. and parliament contributed to reduce both the +number and size of English parks containing deer. By the Restoration the +majority of the parks in England had for the time being been destroyed, +the palings pulled down, the trees felled, and the deer stolen. Of the +duke of Newcastle's eight parks seven were ruined, that at Welbeck alone +remaining intact. Not a tree was left in Clipston Park, although the +timber had been valued at L20,000. One of the results of the Restoration +was to empty the parks of the Roundhead squires to replenish those of +the Royalists, but this measure helped little, and great numbers of deer +had to be brought from Germany to replenish the depleted stocks. A +gentleman of the Isle of Ely was indeed given a baronetcy in return for +a large present of deer which he made to Charles II. The largest +existing deer park in England is that at Savernake (4000 acres), next +comes Windsor, which contains about 2600 acres in addition to the 1450 +acres of Windsor Forest. Lord Egerton of Tatton's park at Tatton in +Cheshire, and Lord Abergavenny's at Eridge, each contain about 2500 +acres. Other parks which are much about the same size are those of +Blenheim, Richmond, Eastwell, Duncombe, Grimsthorpe, Thoresby and +Knowsley. All these parks are famous either for their size, their +beauty, or the number and long descent of the deer which inhabit them. +The size of English parks devoted to deer varies from that of these +historic examples down to a very few acres. A small proportion of the +older enclosures contains red- as well as fallow-deer. In some of the +larger ones many hundreds of head browse, whereas those of the smallest +size may have only a dozen or two. Although many enclosures were +disparked in very recent times, the 19th century saw the making of a +considerable number of new ones, usually of small dimensions. The +tendency, however, is still towards diminution both in number and +extent, cattle taking the place of deer. + + + + +DEFAMATION (from the classical Lat. _diffamare_, to spread abroad an +evil report--the English form in _de_ is taken from the Late Lat. +_defamare_), the saying or writing something of another, calculated to +injure his reputation or expose him to public hatred, contempt and +ridicule. (See LIBEL AND SLANDER.) + + + + +DEFAULT (Fr. _defaut_, from _defailler_, to fail, Lat. _fallere_), in +English law, a failure to do some act required by law either as a +regular step in procedure or as being a duty imposed. Parties in an +action may be in default as to procedure by failure to appear to the +writ, or to take some other step, within the prescribed time. In such +cases the opposing party gains some advantage by being allowed to sign +judgment or otherwise. But as a rule, unless the party is much in +default and is under a peremptory order to proceed, the penalty for +default is by order to pay the costs occasioned. When there is default +in complying with the terms of a judgment the remedy is by executing it +by one of the processes admitted by the law. (See EXECUTION.) In the +case of judgments in criminal or quasi-criminal cases, where a fine is +imposed, it is in most cases legal and usual to order imprisonment if +the fine is not paid or if the property of the defendant is insufficient +to realize its amount. Default in compliance with a statute renders the +defaulter liable to action by the person aggrieved or to indictment if +the matter of command is of public concern, subject in either case to +the qualification that the statute may limit the remedy for the default +to some particular proceeding specifically indicated; and in some +instances, e.g. in the case of local authorities, default in the +execution of their public duties is dealt with administratively by a +department of the government, and only in the last resort, if at all, by +recourse to judicial tribunals. + + + + +DEFEASANCE, or DEFEAZANCE (Fr. _defaire_, to undo), in law, an +instrument which defeats the force or operation of some other deed or +estate; as distinguished from _condition_, that which in the same deed +is called a condition is a defeasance in another deed. A defeasance +should recite the deed to be defeated and its date, and it must be made +between the same parties as are interested in the deed to which it is +collateral. It must be of a thing defeasible, and all the conditions +must be strictly carried out before the defeasance can be consummated. +Defeasance in a bill of sale is the putting an end to the security by +realizing the goods for the benefit of the mortgagee. It is not strictly +a defeasance, because the stipulation is in the same deed; it is really +a condition in the nature of a defeasance. + + + + +DEFENCE (Lat. _defendere_, to defend), in general, a keeping off or +defending, a justification, protection or guard. Physical defence of +self is the right of every man, even to the employment of force, in +warding off an attack. A person attacked may use such force as he +believes to be necessary for the warding off an attack, even to the +extent of killing an assailant. The same right of reciprocal defence +extends not only to defence of one's own person, but also to the defence +of a husband or wife, parent or child, master or servant. (See ASSAULT; +HOMICIDE.) As a legal term in English pleading, "defence" means the +denial by the party proceeded against of the validity of a charge, or +the steps taken by an accused person or his legal advisers for defending +himself. In civil actions, a statement of defence is the second step in +proceedings, being the answer of the defendant to the plaintiff's +statement of claim. In the statement of defence must be set out every +material fact upon which the defendant intends to rely at the trial. +Every fact alleged in the statement of claim must be dealt with, and +either admitted or denied; further facts may be pleaded in answer to +those admitted; the whole pleading of the plaintiff may be objected to +as insufficient in law, or a set-off or counter-claim may be advanced. A +statement of defence must be delivered within ten days from the delivery +of the statement of claim, or appearance if no statement of claim be +delivered. + +By the Poor Prisoners' Defence Act 1903, where it appears, having regard +to the nature of the defence set up by any poor prisoner, as disclosed +in the evidence given or statement made by him before the committing +justices, that it is desirable in the interests of justice that he +should have legal aid in the preparation and conduct of his defence, and +that his means are insufficient to enable him to obtain such aid, it may +be ordered either (1) on committal for trial by the committing justices, +or (2) after reading the depositions by the judge or quarter sessions +chairman. The defence includes the services of solicitor and counsel and +the expenses of witnesses, the cost being payable in the same manner as +the expenses of a prosecution for felony. Briefly, the object of the act +is, not to give a prisoner legal assistance to find out if he has got a +defence, but in order that a prisoner who has a defence may have every +inducement to tell the truth about it at the earliest opportunity. Legal +assistance under the act is only given where both (1) the nature of the +defence as disclosed is such that in the interests of justice the +prisoner should have legal aid to make his defence clear, and (2) where +also his means are insufficient for that end (Lord Alverstone, C. J., at +Warwick Summer Assizes, _The Times_, July 26, 1904). + + + + +DEFENDANT, in law, a person against whom proceedings are instituted or +directed; one who is called upon to answer in any suit. At one time the +term "defendant" had a narrower meaning, that of a person sued in a +personal action only, the corresponding term in a real action being +"tenant," but the distinction is now practically disregarded, except in +a few states of the United States. + + + + +DEFENDER OF THE FAITH (_Fidei Defensor_), a title belonging to the +sovereign of England in the same way as _Christianissimus_ belonged to +the king of France, and _Catholicus_ belongs to the ruler of Spain. It +seems to have been suggested in 1516, and although certain charters have +been appealed to in proof of an earlier use of the title, it was first +conferred by Pope Leo X. on Henry VIII. The Bull granting the title is +dated the 11th of October 1521, and was a reward for the king's +treatise, _Assertio, septem sacramentorum_, against Luther. When Henry +broke with the papacy, Pope Paul III. deprived him of this designation, +but in 1544 the title of "Defender of the Faith" was confirmed to Henry +by parliament, and has since been used by all his successors on the +English throne. + + + + +DEFERENT (Lat. _deferens_, bearing down), in ancient astronomy, the mean +orbit of a planet, which carried the epicycle in which the planet +revolved. It is now known to correspond to the actual orbit of the +planet round the sun. + + + + +DEFFAND, MARIE ANNE DE VICHY-CHAMROND, MARQUISE DU (1697-1780), a +celebrated Frenchwoman, was born at the chateau of Chamrond near +Charolles (department of Saone-et-Loire) of a noble family in 1697. +Educated at a convent in Paris, she showed, along with great +intelligence, a sceptical and cynical turn of mind. The abbess, alarmed +at the freedom of her views, arranged that Massillon should visit and +reason with her, but he accomplished nothing. Her parents married her at +twenty-one years of age to her kinsman, Jean Baptiste de la Lande, +marquis du Deffand, without consulting her inclination. The union proved +an unhappy one, and resulted in a separation as early as 1722. Madame du +Deffand, young and beautiful, is said by Horace Walpole to have been for +a short time the mistress of the regent, the duke of Orleans (Walpole to +Gray, January 25, 1766). She appeared in her earlier days to be +incapable of any strong attachment, but her intelligence, her cynicism +and her _esprit_ made her the centre of attraction of a brilliant +circle. In 1721 began her friendship with Voltaire, but their regular +correspondence dates only from 1736. She spent much time at Sceaux, at +the court of the duchesse du Maine, where she contracted a close +friendship with the president Henault. In Paris she was in a sense the +rival of Madame Geoffrin, but the members of her salon were drawn from +aristocratic society more than from literary cliques. There were, +however, exceptions. Voltaire, Montesquieu, Fontenelle and Madame de +Staal-Delaunay were among the habitues. When Henault introduced +D'Alembert, Madame du Deffand was at once captivated by him. With the +encyclopaedists she was never in sympathy, and appears to have tolerated +them only for his sake. In 1752 she retired from Paris, intending to +spend the rest of her days in the country, but she was persuaded by her +friends to return. She had taken up her abode in 1747 in apartments in +the convent of St Joseph in the rue St Dominique, which had a separate +entrance from the street. When she lost her sight in 1754 she engaged +Mademoiselle de Lespinasse to help her in entertaining. This lady's wit +made some of the guests, D'Alembert among others, prefer her society to +that of Madame du Deffand, and she arranged to receive her friends for +an hour before the appearance of her patron. When this state of things +was discovered Mademoiselle de Lespinasse was dismissed (1764), but the +salon was broken up, for she took with her D'Alembert, Turgot and the +literary clique generally. From this time Madame du Deffand very rarely +received any literary men. The principal friendships of her later years +were with the duchesse de Choiseul and with Horace Walpole. Her +affection for the latter, which dated from 1765, was the strongest and +most durable of all her attachments. Under the stress of this tardy +passion she developed qualities of style and eloquence of which her +earlier writings had given little promise. In the opinion of +Sainte-Beuve the prose of her letters ranks with that of Voltaire as the +best of that classical epoch without excepting any even of the great +writers. Walpole refused at first to acknowledge the closeness of their +intimacy from an exaggerated fear of the ridicule attaching to her age, +but he paid several visits to Paris expressly for the purpose of +enjoying her society, and maintained a close and most interesting +correspondence with her for fifteen years. She died on the 23rd of +September 1780, leaving her dog Tonton to the care of Walpole, who was +also entrusted with her papers. Of her innumerable witty sayings the +best known is her remark on the cardinal de Polignac's account of St +Denis's miraculous walk of two miles with his head in his hands,--_Il +n'y a que le premier pas qui coute_. + + The _Correspondance inedite_ of Madame du Deffand with D'Alembert, + Henault, Montesquieu, and others was published in Paris (2 vols.) in + 1809. _Letters of the marquise du Deffand to the Hon. Horace Walpole, + afterwards earl of Orford, from the year 1766 to the year 1780_ (4 + vols.), edited, with a biographical sketch, by Miss Mary Berry, were + published in London from the originals at Strawberry Hill in 1810. + + The standard edition of her letters is the _Correspondance complete de + la marquise du Deffand ..._ by M. de Lescure (1865); the + _Correspondance inedite_ with M. and Mme de Choiseul and others was + edited in 1859 and again in 1866 by the marquis de Ste-Aulaire. Other + papers of Madame du Deffand obtained at the breaking up of Walpole's + collection are in private hands. Madame du Deffand returned many of + Walpole's letters at his request, and subsequently destroyed those + which she received from him. Those in his possession appear to have + been destroyed after his death by Miss Berry, who printed fragments + from them as footnotes to the edition of 1810. The correspondence + between Walpole and Madame du Deffand thus remains one-sided, but + seven of Walpole's letters to her are printed for the first time in + the edition (1903) of his correspondence by Mrs Paget Toynbee, who + discovered a quantity of her unedited letters. See Sainte-Beuve, + _Causeries du lundi_, vols. i. and xiv.; and the notice by M. de + Lescure in his edition of the correspondence. + + + + +DEFIANCE, a city and the county seat of Defiance county, Ohio, U.S.A., +at the confluence of the Auglaize and Tiffin rivers with the Maumee, +about 50 m. S.W. of Toledo. Pop. (1890) 7694; (1900) 7579 (960 +foreign-born); (1910) 7327. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio and the +Wabash railways, and by the Ohio Electric railway to Lima (42 m.). The +city commands a fine view of the rivers and the surrounding country, +which is well adapted to agriculture; and has large machine shops and +several flour mills, besides manufactories of agricultural implements, +waggons, sashes and blinds, and wood-working machinery for the +manufacture of artillery wheels. Here, too, is Defiance College, an +institution of the Christian Denomination, opened in 1885. Defiance was +long the site of an Indian village. In 1794 General Anthony Wayne built +a fort here and named it Defiance. In 1822 Defiance was laid out as a +town; in 1845 it was made the county seat of the newly erected county; +and in 1881 it became a city of the second class. + + + + +DEFILE, a military expression for a passage, to march through which +troops are compelled to "defile," or narrow their front (from the Fr. +_defiler_, to march in a line, or by "files"). The word is usually +applied to a ravine or gorge in a range of hills, but a causeway over a +river, a bridge and even a village may equally be called a defile. The +term is also used to express, without any special reference to military +operations, a gorge in mountains. The verb "to defile" is used of troops +marching on a narrow front, or narrowing their front, under all +circumstances, and in this sense is the contrary of "deploy." + +"Defile," in the sense of "pollute," is another form of "defoul"; though +spelt alike, the two words are pronounced differently, the accent being +on the first syllable for the former and on the second for the latter. + + + + +DEFINITION (Lat. _definitio_, from _de-finire_, to set limits to, +describe), a logical term used popularly for the process of explaining, +or giving the meaning of, a word, and also in the concrete for the +proposition or statement in which that explanation is expressed. In +logic, definition consists in determining the qualities which belong to +given concepts or universals; it is not concerned with individuals, +which are marked by an infinity of peculiarities, any one or all of +which might be predicated of another individual. Individuals can be +defined only in so far as they belong to a single kind. According to +Aristotle, definition is the statement of the essence of a concept +([Greek: horismos men gar tou ti esti kai ousias], _Posterior +Analytics_, B iii. 90 b 30); that is, it consists of the genus and the +differentia. In other words, "man" is defined as "animal _plus_ +rationality," or "rational animal,"[1] i.e. the concept is (1) referred +to the next higher genus, and (2) distinguished from other modes in +which that genus exists, i.e. from other species. It is sometimes argued +that, there being no definition of individuals as such, definition is of +names (see J. S. Mill, _Logic_, i. viii. 5), not of things; it is +generally, however, maintained that definition is _of things, regarded +as, or in so far as they are, of a kind_. Definition of words can be +nothing more than the explanation of terms such as is given in a +dictionary. + +The following rules are generally given as governing accurate +definition. (1) _The definition must be equivalent or commensurate with +that which is defined_; it must be applicable to all the individuals +included in the concept and to nothing else. Every man, and nothing +else, is a rational animal. "Man is mortal" is not a definition, for +mortality is predicable of irrational animals. (2) _The definition must +state the essential attributes_; a concept cannot be defined by its +accidental attributes; those attributes must be given which are +essential and primary. (3) _The definition must be per genus et +differentiam_ (or _differentias_), as we have already seen. These are +the important rules. Three minor rules are: (4) _The definition must not +contain the name of the concept to be defined_; if it does, no +information is given. Such a proposition as "an archdeacon is one who +performs archidiaconal functions" is not a definition. Concepts cannot +be defined by their correlatives. Such a definition is known as a +_circulus in definiendo_. (5) _Obscure and figurative language must be +avoided_, and (6) _Definitions must not be in the negative when they can +be in the affirmative_. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] "Rational animal" is thus the predicate of the statement + constituting the definition. Sometimes the word "definition" is used + to signify merely the predicate. + + + + +DEFOE, DANIEL (c. 1659-1731), English author, was born in the parish of +St Giles, Cripplegate, London, in the latter part of 1659 or early in +1660, of a nonconformist family. His grandfather, Daniel Foe, lived at +Etton, Northamptonshire, apparently in comfortable circumstances, for he +is said to have kept a pack of hounds. As to the variation of name, +Defoe or Foe, its owner signed either indifferently till late in life, +and where his initials occur they are sometimes D. F. and sometimes D. +D. F. Three autograph letters of his are extant, all addressed in 1705 +to the same person, and signed respectively D. Foe, de Foe and Daniel +Defoe. His father, James Foe, was a butcher and a citizen of London. + +Daniel was well educated at a famous dissenting academy, Mr Charles +Morton's of Stoke Newington, where many of the best-known nonconformists +of the time were his schoolfellows. With few exceptions all the known +events of Defoe's life are connected with authorship. In the older +catalogues of his works two pamphlets, _Speculum Crapegownorum_, a +satire on the clergy, and _A Treatise against the Turks_, are attributed +to him before the accession of James II., but there seems to be no +publication of his which is certainly genuine before _The Character of +Dr Annesley_ (1697). He had, however, before this, taken up arms in +Monmouth's expedition, and is supposed to have owed his lucky escape +from the clutches of the king's troops and the law, to his being a +Londoner, and therefore a stranger in the west country. On the 26th of +January 1688 he was admitted a liveryman of the city of London, having +claimed his freedom by birth. Before his western escapade he had taken +up the business of hosiery factor. At the entry of William and Mary into +London he is said to have served as a volunteer trooper "gallantly +mounted and richly accoutred." In these days he lived at Tooting, and +was instrumental in forming a dissenting congregation there. His +business operations at this period appear to have been extensive and +various. He seems to have been a sort of commission merchant, especially +in Spanish and Portuguese goods, and at some time to have visited Spain +on business. In 1692 he failed for L17,000. His misfortunes made him +write both feelingly and forcibly on the bankruptcy laws; and although +his creditors accepted a composition, he afterwards honourably paid them +in full, a fact attested by independent and not very friendly witnesses. +Subsequently, he undertook first the secretaryship and then the +management and chief ownership of some tile-works at Tilbury, but here +also he was unfortunate, and his imprisonment in 1703 brought the works +to a standstill, and he lost L3000. From this time forward we hear of no +settled business in which he engaged. + +The course of Defoe's life was determined about the middle of the reign +of William III. by his introduction to that monarch and other +influential persons. He frequently boasts of his personal intimacy with +the "glorious and immortal" king, and in 1695 he was appointed +accountant to the commissioners of the glass duty, an office which he +held for four years. During this time he produced his _Essay on +Projects_ (1698), containing suggestions on banks, road-management, +friendly and insurance societies of various kinds, idiot asylums, +bankruptcy, academies, military colleges, high schools for women, &c. It +displays Defoe's lively and lucid style in full vigour, and abounds with +ingenious thoughts and apt illustrations, though it illustrates also the +unsystematic character of his mind. In the same year Defoe wrote the +first of a long series of pamphlets on the then burning question of +occasional conformity. In this, for the first time, he showed the +unlucky independence which, in so many other instances, united all +parties against him. While he pointed out to the dissenters the +scandalous inconsistency of their playing fast and loose with sacred +things, yet he denounced the impropriety of requiring tests at all. In +support of the government he published, in 1698, _An Argument for a +Standing Army_, followed in 1700 by a defence of William's war policy +called _The Two Great Questions considered_, and a set of pamphlets on +the Partition Treaty. Thus in political matters he had the same fate as +in ecclesiastical; for the Whigs were no more prepared than the Tories +to support William through thick and thin. He also dealt with the +questions of stock-jobbing and of electioneering corruption. But his +most remarkable publication at this time was _The True-Born Englishman_ +(1701), a satire in rough but extremely vigorous verse on the national +objection to William as a foreigner, and on the claim of purity of blood +for a nation which Defoe chooses to represent as crossed and dashed with +all the strains and races in Europe. He also took a prominent part in +the proceedings which followed the Kentish petition, and was the author, +some say the presenter, of the _Legion Memorial_, which asserted in the +strongest terms the supremacy of the electors over the elected, and of +which even an irate House of Commons did not dare to take much notice. +The theory of the indefeasible supremacy of the freeholders of England, +whose delegates merely, according to this theory, the Commons were, was +one of Defoe's favourite political tenets, and he returned to it in a +powerfully written tract entitled _The Original Power of the Collective +Body of the People of England examined and asserted_ (1701). + +At the same time he was occupied in a controversy on the conformity +question with John How (or Howe) on the practice of "occasional +conformity." Defoe maintained that the dissenters who attended the +services of the English Church on particular occasions to qualify +themselves for office were guilty of inconsistency. At the same time he +did not argue for the complete abolition of the tests, but desired that +they should be so framed as to make it possible for most Protestants +conscientiously to subscribe to them. Here again his moderation pleased +neither party. + +The death of William was a great misfortune to Defoe, and he soon felt +the power of his adversaries. After publishing _The Mock Mourners_, +intended to satirize and rebuke the outbreak of Jacobite joy at the +king's death, he turned his attention once more to ecclesiastical +subjects, and, in an evil hour for himself, wrote the anonymous +_Shortest Way with the Dissenters_ (1702), a statement in the most +forcible terms of the extreme "high-flying" position, which some high +churchmen were unwary enough to endorse, without any suspicion of the +writer's ironical intention. The author was soon discovered; and, as he +absconded, an advertisement was issued offering a reward for his +apprehension, and giving the only personal description we possess of +him, as "a middle-sized spare man about forty years old, of a brown +complexion and dark brown-coloured hair, but wears a wig; a hooked nose, +a sharp chin, grey eyes, and a large mole near his mouth." In this +conjuncture Defoe had really no friends, for the dissenters were as much +alarmed at his book as the high-flyers were irritated. He surrendered, +and his defence appears to have been injudiciously conducted; at any +rate he was fined 200 marks, and condemned to be pilloried three times, +to be imprisoned indefinitely, and to find sureties for his good +behaviour during seven years. It was in reference to this incident that +Pope, whose Catholic rearing made him detest the abettor of the +Revolution and the champion of William of Orange, wrote in the +_Dunciad_-- + + "Earless on high stands unabash'd Defoe" + +--though he knew that the sentence to the pillory had long ceased to +entail the loss of ears. Defoe's exposure in the pillory (July 29, 30, +31) was, however, rather a triumph than a punishment, for the populace +took his side; and his _Hymn to the Pillory_, which he soon after +published, is one of the best of his poetical works. Unluckily for him +his condemnation had the indirect effect of destroying his business at +Tilbury. + +He remained in prison until August 1704, and then owed his release to +the intercession of Robert Harley, who represented his case to the +queen, and obtained for him not only liberty but pecuniary relief and +employment, which, of one kind or another, lasted until the termination +of Anne's reign. Defoe was uniformly grateful to the minister, and his +language respecting him is in curious variance with that generally used. +There is no doubt that Harley, who understood the influence wielded by +Defoe, made some conditions. Defoe says he received no pension, but his +subsequent fidelity was at all events indirectly rewarded; moreover, +Harley's moderation in a time of the extremest party-insanity was no +little recommendation to Defoe. During his imprisonment he was by no +means idle. A spurious edition of his works having been issued, he +himself produced a collection of twenty-two treatises, to which some +time afterwards he added a second group of eighteen more. He also wrote +in prison many short pamphlets, chiefly controversial, published a +curious work on the famous storm of the 26th of November 1703, and +started in February 1704 perhaps the most remarkable of all his +projects, _The Review_. This was a paper which was issued during the +greater part of its life three times a week. It was entirely written by +Defoe, and extends to eight complete volumes and some few score numbers +of a second issue. He did not confine himself to news, but wrote +something very like finished essays on questions of policy, trade and +domestic concerns; he also introduced a "Scandal Club," in which minor +questions of manners and morals were treated in a way which undoubtedly +suggested the _Tatlers_ and _Spectators_ which followed. Only one +complete copy of the work is known to exist, and that is in the British +Museum. It is probable that if bulk, rapidity of production, variety of +matter, originality of design, and excellence of style be taken +together, hardly any author can show a work of equal magnitude. After +his release Defoe went to Bury St Edmunds, though he did not interrupt +either his _Review_ or his occasional pamphlets. One of these, _Giving +Alms no Charity, and Employing the Poor a Grievance to the Nation_ +(1704), is extraordinarily far-sighted. It denounces both indiscriminate +alms-giving and the national work-shops proposed by Sir Humphrey +Mackworth. + +In 1705 appeared _The Consolidator, or Memoirs of Sundry Transactions +from the World in the Moon_, a political satire which is supposed to +have given some hints for Swift's _Gulliver's Travels_; and at the end +of the year Defoe performed a secret mission, the first of several of +the kind, for Harley. In 1706 appeared the _True Relation of the +Apparition of one Mrs Veal_, long supposed to have been written for a +bookseller to help off an unsaleable translation of Drelincourt, _On +Death_, but considerable doubt has been cast upon this by William Lee. +Defoe's next work was _Jure divino_, a long poetical argument in (bad) +verse; and soon afterwards (1706) he began to be much employed in +promoting the union with Scotland. Not only did he write pamphlets as +usual on the project, and vigorously recommend it in _The Review_, but +in October 1706 he was sent on a political mission to Scotland by Sidney +Godolphin, to whom Harley had recommended him. He resided in Edinburgh +for nearly sixteen months, and his services to the government were +repaid by a regular salary. He seems to have devoted himself to +commercial and literary as well as to political matters, and prepared at +this time his elaborate _History of the Union_, which appeared in 1709. +In this year Henry Sacheverell delivered his famous sermons, and Defoe +wrote several tracts about them and attacked the preacher in his +_Review_. + +In 1710 Harley returned to power, and Defoe was placed in a somewhat +awkward position. To Harley himself he was bound by gratitude and by a +substantial agreement in principle, but with the rest of the Tory +ministry he had no sympathy. He seems, in fact, to have agreed with the +foreign policy of the Tories and with the home policy of the Whigs, and +naturally incurred the reproach of time-serving and the hearty abuse of +both parties. At the end of 1710 he again visited Scotland. In the +negotiations concerning the Peace of Utrecht, Defoe strongly supported +the ministerial side, to the intense wrath of the Whigs, displayed in an +attempted prosecution against some pamphlets of his on the all-important +question of the succession. Again the influence of Harley saved him. He +continued, however, to take the side of the dissenters in the questions +affecting religious liberty, which played such a prominent part towards +the close of Anne's reign. He naturally shared Harley's downfall; and, +though the loss of his salary might seem a poor reward for his constant +support of the Hanoverian claim, it was little more than his ambiguous, +not to say trimming, position must have led him to expect. + +Defoe declared that Lord Annesley was preparing the army in Ireland to +join a Jacobite rebellion, and was indicted for libel; and prior to his +trial (1715) he published an apologia entitled _An Appeal to Honour and +Justice_, in which he defended his political conduct. Having been +convicted of the libel he was liberated later in the year under +circumstances that only became clear in 1864, when six letters were +discovered in the Record Office from Defoe to a Government official, +Charles Delafaye, which, according to William Lee, established the fact +that in 1718 at least Defoe was doing not only political work, but that +it was of a somewhat equivocal kind--that he was, in fact, sub-editing +the Jacobite _Mist's Journal_, under a secret agreement with the +government that he should tone down the sentiments and omit +objectionable items. He had, in fact, been released on condition of +becoming a government agent. He seems to have performed the same not +very honourable office in the case of two other journals--_Dormer's +Letter_ and the _Mercurius Politicus_; and to have written in these and +other papers until nearly the end of his life. Before these letters were +discovered it was supposed that Defoe's political work had ended in +1715. + +Up to that time Defoe had written nothing but occasional literature, +and, except the _History of the Union_ and _Jure Divino_, nothing of any +great length. In 1715 appeared the first volume of _The Family +Instructor_, which was very popular during the 18th century. The first +volume of his most famous work, the immortal story--partly adventure, +partly moralizing--of _The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of +Robinson Crusoe_, was published on the 25th of April 1719. It ran +through four editions in as many months, and then in August appeared the +second volume. Twelve months afterwards the sequel _Serious +Reflections_, now hardly ever reprinted, appeared. Its connexion with +the two former parts is little more than nominal, Crusoe being simply +made the mouth-piece of Defoe's sentiments on various points of morals +and religion. Meanwhile the first two parts were reprinted as a +_feuilleton_ in _Heathcote's Intelligencer_, perhaps the earliest +instance of the appearance of such a work in such a form. The story was +founded on Dempier's _Voyage round the World_ (1697), and still more on +Alexander Selkirk's adventures, as communicated by Selkirk himself at a +meeting with Defoe at the house of Mrs Damaris Daniel at Bristol. +Selkirk afterwards told Mrs Daniel that he had handed over his papers to +Defoe. _Robinson Crusoe_ was immediately popular, and a wild story was +set afloat of its having been written by Lord Oxford in the Tower. A +curious idea, at one time revived by Henry Kingsley, is that the +adventures of Robinson are allegorical and relate to Defoe's own life. +This idea was certainly entertained to some extent at the time, and +derives some colour of justification from words of Defoe's, but there +seems to be no serious foundation for it. _Robinson Crusoe_ (especially +the story part, with the philosophical and religious moralizings largely +cut out) is one of the world's classics in fiction. Crusoe's shipwreck +and adventures, his finding the footprint in the sand, his man +"Friday,"--the whole atmosphere of romance which surrounds the position +of the civilized man fending for himself on a desert island--these have +made Defoe's great work an imperishable part of English literature. +Contemporaneously appeared _The Dumb Philosopher_, or _Dickory Cronke_, +who gains the power of speech at the end of his life and uses it to +predict the course of European affairs. + +In 1720 came _The Life and Adventures of Mr Duncan Campbell_. This was +not entirely a work of imagination, its hero, the fortune-teller, being +a real person. There are amusing passages in the story, but it is too +desultory to rank with Defoe's best. In the same year appeared two +wholly or partially fictitious histories, each of which might have made +a reputation for any man. The first was the _Memoirs of a Cavalier_, +which Lord Chatham believed to be true history, and which William Lee +considers the embodiment at least of authentic private memoirs. The +Cavalier was declared at the time to be Andrew Newport, made Lord +Newport in 1642. His elder brother was born in 1620 and the Cavalier +gives 1608 as the date of his birth, so that the facts do not fit the +dates. It is probable that Defoe, with his extensive acquaintance with +English history, and his astonishing power of working up details, was +fully equal to the task of inventing it. As a model of historical work +of a certain kind it is hardly surpassable, and many separate +passages--accounts of battles and skirmishes--have never been equalled +except by Carlyle. _Captain Singleton_, the last work of the year, has +been unjustly depreciated by most of the commentators. The record of the +journey across Africa, with its surprising anticipations of subsequent +discoveries, yields in interest to no work of the kind known to us; and +the semi-piratical Quaker who accompanies Singleton in his buccaneering +expeditions is a most life-like character. There is also a Quaker who +plays a very creditable part in _Roxana_ (1724), and Defoe seems to have +been well affected to the Friends. In estimating this wonderful +productiveness on the part of a man sixty years old, it should be +remembered that it was a habit of Defoe's to keep his work in manuscript +sometimes for long periods. + +In 1721 nothing of importance was produced, but in the next twelvemonth +three capital works appeared. These were _The Fortunes and Misfortunes +of Moll Flanders_, _The Journal of the Plague Year_, and _The History of +Colonel Jack_. _Moll Flanders_ and _The Fortunate Mistress_ (Roxana), +which followed in 1724, have subjects of a rather more than questionable +character, but both display the remarkable art with which Defoe handles +such subjects. It is not true, as is sometimes said, that the difference +between the two is that between gross and polished vice. The real +difference is much more one of morals than of manners. Moll is by no +means of the lowest class. Notwithstanding the greater degradation into +which she falls, and her originally dependent position, she has been +well educated, and has consorted with persons of gentle birth. She +displays throughout much greater real refinement of feeling than the +more high-flying Roxana, and is at any rate flesh and blood, if the +flesh be somewhat frail and the blood somewhat hot. Neither of the +heroines has any but the rudiments of a moral sense; but Roxana, both in +her original transgression and in her subsequent conduct, is actuated +merely by avarice and selfishness--vices which are peculiarly offensive +in connexion with her other failing, and which make her thoroughly +repulsive. The art of both stories is great, and that of the episode of +the daughter Susannah in _Roxana_ is consummate; but the transitions of +the later plot are less natural than those in _Moll Flanders_. It is +only fair to notice that while the latter, according to Defoe's more +usual practice, is allowed to repent and end happily, Roxana is brought +to complete misery; Defoe's morality, therefore, required more +repulsiveness in one case than in the other. + +In the _Journal of the Plague Year_, more usually called, from the title +of the second edition, _A History of the Plague_, the accuracy and +apparent veracity of the details is so great that many persons have +taken it for an authentic record, while others have contended for the +existence of such a record as its basis. But here too the genius of Mrs +Veal's creator must, in the absence of all evidence to the contrary, be +allowed sufficient for the task. _The History of Colonel Jack_ is an +unequal book. There is hardly in _Robinson Crusoe_ a scene equal, and +there is consequently not in English literature a scene superior, to +that where the youthful pickpocket first exercises his trade, and then +for a time loses his ill-gotten gains. But a great part of the book, +especially the latter portion, is dull; and in fact it may be generally +remarked of Defoe that the conclusions of his tales are not equal to the +beginning, perhaps from the restless indefatigability with which he +undertook one work almost before finishing another. + +To this period belong his stories of famous criminals, of Jack Sheppard +(1724), of Jonathan Wild (1725), of the Highland Rogue i.e. Rob Roy +(1723). The pamphlet on the first of these Defoe maintained to be a +transcript of a paper which he persuaded Sheppard to give to a friend at +his execution. + +In 1724 appeared also the first volume of _A Tour through the whole +Island of Great Britain_, which was completed in the two following +years. Much of the information in this was derived from personal +experience, for Defoe claims to have made many more tours and visits +about England than those of which we have record; but the major part +must necessarily have been dexterous compilation. In 1725 appeared _A +New Voyage round the World_, apparently entirely due to the author's own +fertile imagination and extensive reading. It is full of his peculiar +verisimilitude and has all the interest of Anson's or Dampier's voyages, +with a charm of style superior even to that of the latter. + +In 1726 Defoe published a curious and amusing little pamphlet entitled +_Everybody's Business is Nobody's Business, or Private Abuses Public +Grievances, exemplified in the Pride, Insolence, and Exorbitant Wages of +our Women-Servants, Footmen, &c._ This subject was a favourite one with +him, and in the pamphlet he showed the immaturity of his political views +by advocating legislative interference in these matters. Towards the end +of this same year _The Complete English Tradesman_, which may be +supposed to sum up the experience of his business life, appeared, and +its second volume followed two years afterwards. This book has been +variously judged. It is generally and traditionally praised, but those +who have read it will be more disposed to agree with Charles Lamb, who +considers it "of a vile and debasing tendency," and thinks it "almost +impossible to suppose the author in earnest." The intolerable meanness +advocated for the sake of the paltriest gains, the entire ignoring of +any pursuit in life except money-getting, and the representation of the +whole duty of man as consisting first in the attainment of a competent +fortune, and next, when that fortune has been attained, in spending not +more than half of it, are certainly repulsive enough. But there are no +reasons for thinking the performance ironical or insincere, and it +cannot be doubted that Defoe would have been honestly unable even to +understand Lamb's indignation. To 1726 also belongs _The Political +History of the Devil_. This is a curious book, partly explanatory of +Defoe's ideas on morality, and partly belonging to a series of +demonological works which he wrote, and of which the chief others are _A +System of Magic_ (1726), and _An Essay on the History of Apparitions_ +(1728), issued the year before under another title. In all these works +his treatment is on the whole rational and sensible; but in _The History +of the Devil_ he is somewhat hampered by an insufficiently worked-out +theory as to the nature and personal existence of his hero, and the +manner in which he handles the subject is an odd and not altogether +satisfactory mixture of irony and earnestness. _A Plan of English +Commerce_, containing very enlightened views on export trade, appeared +in 1728. + +During the years from 1715 to 1728 Defoe had issued pamphlets and minor +works too numerous to mention. The only one of them perhaps which +requires notice is _Religious Courtship_ (1722), a curious series of +dialogues displaying Defoe's unaffected religiosity, and at the same +time the rather meddling intrusiveness with which he applied his +religious notions. This was more flagrantly illustrated in one of his +latest works, _The Treatise Concerning the Use and Abuse of the Marriage +Bed_ (1727), which was originally issued with a much more offensive +name, and has been called "an excellent book with an improper title." +The _Memoirs of Captain Carleton_ (1728) were long attributed to Defoe, +but the internal evidence is strongly against his authorship. They have +been also attributed to Swift, with greater probability as far as style +is concerned. _The Life of Mother Ross_, reprinted in Bohn's edition, +has no claim whatever to be considered Defoe's. + +There is little to be said of Defoe's private life during this period. +He must in some way or other have obtained a considerable income. In +1724 he had built himself a large house at Stoke Newington, which had +stables and grounds of considerable size. From the negotiations for the +marriage of his daughter Sophia it appears that he had landed property +in more than one place, and he had obtained on lease in 1722 a +considerable estate from the corporation of Colchester, which was +settled on his unmarried daughter at his death. Other property was +similarly allotted to his widow and remaining children, though some +difficulty seems to have arisen from the misconduct of his son, to whom, +for some purpose, the property was assigned during his father's +lifetime, and who refused to pay what was due. There is a good deal of +mystery about the end of Defoe's life; it used to be said that he died +insolvent, and that he had been in jail shortly before his death. As a +matter of fact, after great suffering from gout and stone, he died in +Ropemaker's Alley, Moorfields, on Monday the 26th of April 1731, and was +buried in Bunhill Fields. He left no will, all his property having been +previously assigned, and letters of administration were taken out by a +creditor. How his affairs fell into this condition, why he did not die +in his own house, and why in the previous summer he had been in hiding, +as we know he was from a letter still extant, are points not clearly +explained. He was, however, attacked by Mist, whom he wounded, in prison +in 1724. It is most likely that Mist had found out that Defoe was a +government agent and quite probable that he communicated his knowledge +to other editors, for Defoe's journalistic employment almost ceased +about this time, and he began to write anonymously, or as "Andrew +Moreton." It is possible that he had to go into hiding to avoid the +danger of being accused as a real Jacobite, when those with whom he had +contracted to assume the character were dead and could no longer justify +his attitude. + +Defoe married, on New Year's Day, 1684, Mary Tuffley, who survived until +December 1732. They had seven children. His second son, Bernard or +Benjamin Norton, has, like his father, a scandalous niche in the +_Dunciad_. In April 1877 public attention was called to the distress of +three maiden ladies, directly descended from Defoe, and bearing his +name; and a crown pension of L75 a year was bestowed on each of them. +His youngest daughter, Sophia, who married Henry Baker, left a +considerable correspondence, now in the hands of her descendants. There +are several portraits of Defoe, the principal one being engraved by +Vandergucht. + +In his lifetime, Defoe, as not belonging to either of the great parties +at a time of the bitterest party strife, was subjected to obloquy on +both sides. The great Whig writers leave him unnoticed. Swift and Gay +speak slightingly of him,--the former, it is true, at a time when he was +only known as a party pamphleteer. Pope, with less excuse, put him in +the _Dunciad_ towards the end of his life, but he confessed to Spence in +private that Defoe had written many things and none bad. At a later +period he was unjustly described as "a scurrilous party writer," which +he certainly was not; but, on the other hand, Johnson spoke of his +writing "so variously and so well," and put _Robinson Crusoe_ among the +only three books that readers wish longer. From Sir Walter Scott +downwards the tendency to judge literary work on its own merits to a +great extent restored Defoe to his proper place, or, to speak more +correctly, set him there for the first time. Lord Macaulay's description +of _Roxana_, _Moll Flanders_ and _Colonel Jack_ as "utterly nauseous and +wretched" must be set aside as a freak of criticism. + +Scott justly observed that Defoe's style "is the last which should be +attempted by a writer of inferior genius; for though it be possible to +disguise mediocrity by fine writing, it appears in all its naked inanity +when it assumes the garb of simplicity." The methods by which Defoe +attains his result are not difficult to disengage. They are the +presentment of all his ideas and scenes in the plainest and most direct +language, the frequent employment of colloquial forms of speech, the +constant insertion of little material details and illustrations, often +of a more or less digressive form, and, in his historico-fictitious +works, as well as in his novels, the most rigid attention to vivacity +and consistency of character. Plot he disregards, and he is fond of +throwing his dialogues into regular dramatic form, with by-play +prescribed and stage directions interspersed. A particular trick of his +is also to divide his arguments after the manner of the preachers of his +day into heads and subheads, with actual numerical signs affixed to +them. These mannerisms undoubtedly help and emphasize the extraordinary +faithfulness to nature of his fictions, but it would be a great mistake +to suppose that they fully explain their charm. Defoe possessed genius, +and his secret is at the last as impalpable as the secret of genius +always is. + +The character of Defoe, both mental and moral, is very clearly indicated +in his works. He, the satirist of the true-born Englishman, was himself +a model, with some notable variations and improvements, of the +Englishman of his period. He saw a great many things, and what he did +see he saw clearly. But there were also a great many things which he did +not see, and there was often no logical connexion whatever between his +vision and his blindness. The most curious example of this +inconsistency, or rather of this indifference to general principle, +occurs in his _Essay on Projects_. He there speaks very briefly and +slightingly of life insurance, probably because it was then regarded as +impious by religionists of his complexion. But on either side of this +refusal are to be found elaborate projects of friendly societies and +widows' funds, which practically cover, in a clumsy and roundabout +manner, the whole ground of life insurance. In morals it is evident that +he was, according to his lights, a strictly honest and honourable man. +But sentiment of any "high-flying" description--to use the cant word of +his time--was quite incomprehensible to him, or rather never presented +itself as a thing to be comprehended. He tells us with honest and simple +pride that when his patron Harley fell out, and Godolphin came in, he +for three years held no communication with the former, and seems quite +incapable of comprehending the delicacy which would have obliged him to +follow Harley's fallen fortunes. His very anomalous position in regard +to Mist is also indicative of a rather blunt moral perception. One of +the most affecting things in his novels is the heroic constancy and +fidelity of the maid Amy to her exemplary mistress Roxana. But Amy, +scarcely by her own fault, is drawn into certain breaches of definite +moral laws which Defoe did understand, and she is therefore condemned, +with hardly a word of pity, to a miserable end. Nothing heroic or +romantic was within Defoe's view; he could not understand passionate +love, ideal loyalty, aesthetic admiration or anything of the kind; and +it is probable that many of the little sordid touches which delight us +by their apparent satire were, as designed, not satire at all, but +merely a faithful representation of the feelings and ideas of the +classes of which he himself was a unit. + +His political and economical pamphlets are almost unmatched as clear +presentations of the views of their writer. For driving the nail home no +one but Swift excels him, and Swift perhaps only in _The Drapier's +Letters_. There is often a great deal to be said against the view +presented in those pamphlets, but Defoe sees nothing of it. He was +perfectly fair but perfectly one-sided, being generally happily ignorant +of everything which told against his own view. + +The same characteristics are curiously illustrated in his moral works. +The morality of these is almost amusing in its downright positive +character. With all the Puritan eagerness to push a clear, +uncompromising, Scripture-based distinction of right and wrong into the +affairs of every-day life, he has a thoroughly English horror of +casuistry, and his clumsy canons consequently make wild work with the +infinite intricacies of human nature. He is, in fact, an instance of the +tendency, which has so often been remarked by other nations in the +English, to drag in moral distinctions at every turn, and to confound +everything which is novel to the experience, unpleasant to the taste, +and incomprehensible to the understanding, under the general epithets of +wrong, wicked and shocking. His works of this class therefore are now +the least valuable, though not the least curious, of his books. + + The earliest regular life and estimate of Defoe is that of Dr Towers + in the _Biographia Britannica_. George Chalmers's _Life_, however + (1786), added very considerable information. In 1830 Walter Wilson + wrote the standard _Life_ (3 vols.); it is coloured by political + prejudice, but is a model of painstaking care, and by its abundant + citations from works both of Defoe and of others, which are + practically inaccessible to the general reader, is invaluable. In 1859 + appeared a life of Defoe by William Chadwick, an extraordinary + rhapsody in a style which is half Cobbett and half Carlyle, but + amusing, and by no means devoid of acuteness. In 1864 the discovery of + the six letters stirred up William Lee to a new investigation, and the + results of this were published (London, 1869) in three large volumes. + The first of these (well illustrated) contains a new life and + particulars of the author's discoveries. The second and third contain + fugitive writings assigned by Lee to Defoe for the first time. For + most of these, however, we have no authority but Lee's own impressions + of style, &c.; and consequently, though the best qualified judges will + in most cases agree that Defoe may very likely have written them, it + cannot positively be stated that he did. There is also a _Life_ by + Thomas Wright (1894). The _Earlier Life and Chief Earlier Works_ of + Defoe (1890) was included by Henry Morley in the "Carisbrooke + Library." Charles Lamb's criticisms were made in three short pieces, + two of which were written for Wilson's book, and the third for _The + Reflector_. The volume on _Defoe_ (1879) in the "English Men of + Letters" series is by W. Minto. + + There is considerable uncertainty about many of Defoe's writings; and + even if all contested works be excluded, the number is still enormous. + Besides the list in Bohn's _Lowndes_, which is somewhat of an _omnium + gatherum_, three lists drawn with more or less care were compiled in + the 19th century. Wilson's contains 210 distinct works, three or four + only of which are marked as doubtful; Hazlitt's enumerates 183 + "genuine" and 52 "attributed" pieces, with notes on most of them; + Lee's extends to 254, of which 64 claim to be new additions. The + reprint (3 vols.) edited for the "Pulteney Library" by Hazlitt in + 1840-1843 contains a good and full life mainly derived from Wilson, + the whole of the novels (including the _Serious Reflections_ now + hardly ever published with _Robinson Crusoe_), _Jure Divino_, _The Use + and Abuse of Marriage_, and many of the more important tracts and + smaller works. There is also an edition, often called Scott's, but + really edited by Sir G. C. Lewis, in twenty volumes (London, + 1840-1841). This contains the _Complete Tradesman_, _Religious + Courtship_, _The Consolidator_ and other works not comprised in + Hazlitt's. Scott had previously in 1809 edited for Ballantyne some of + the novels, in twelve volumes. Bohn's "British Classics" includes the + novels (except the third part of _Robinson Crusoe_), _The History of + the Devil_, _The Storm_, and a few political pamphlets, also the + undoubtedly spurious _Mother Ross_. In 1870 Nimmo of Edinburgh + published in one volume an admirable selection from Defoe. It contains + Chalmers's _Life_, annotated and completed from Wilson and Lee, + _Robinson Crusoe_, pts. i. and ii., _Colonel Jack_, _The Cavalier_, + _Duncan Campbell_, _The Plague_, _Everybody's Business_, _Mrs Veal_, + _The Shortest Way with Dissenters_, _Giving Alms no Charity_, _The + True-Born Englishman_, _Hymn to the Pillory_, and very copious + extracts from _The Complete English Tradesman_. An edition of Defoe's + _Romances and Narratives_ in sixteen volumes by G. A. Aitken came out + in 1895. + + If we turn to separate works, the bibliography of Defoe is practically + confined (except as far as original editions are concerned) to + _Robinson Crusoe_. _Mrs Veal_ has been to some extent popularized by + the work which it helped to sell; _Religious Courtship_ and _The + Family Instructor_ had a vogue among the middle class until well into + the 19th century, and _The History of the Union_ was republished in + 1786. But the reprints and editions of _Crusoe_ have been innumerable; + it has been often translated; and the eulogy pronounced on it by + Rousseau gave it special currency in France, where imitations (or + rather adaptations) have also been common. + + In addition to the principal authorities already mentioned see John + Forster, _Historical and Biographical Essays_ (1858); G. Saintsbury, + "Introduction" to Defoe's _Minor Novels_; and valuable notes by G. A. + Aitken in _The Contemporary Review_ (February 1890), and _The + Athenaeum_ (April 30, 1889; August 31, 1890). A facsimile reprint + (1883) of _Robinson Crusoe_ has an introduction by Mr Austin Dobson. + Dr Karl T. Bulbring edited two unpublished works of Defoe, _The + Compleat English Gentleman_ (London, 1890) and _Of Royall Educacion_ + (London, 1905), from British Museum Add. MS. 32,555. Further light was + thrown on Defoe's work as a political agent by the discovery (1906) of + an unpublished paper of his in the British Museum by G. F. Warner. + This was printed in the _English Historical Review_, and afterwards + separately. + + + + +DEGAS, HILAIRE GERMAIN EDGARD (1834- ), French painter, was born in +Paris on the 19th of July 1834. Entering in 1855 the Ecole des Beaux +Arts, he early developed independence of artistic outlook, studying +under Lamothe. He first exhibited in the Salon of 1865, contributing a +"War in the middle ages," a work executed in pastel. To this medium he +was ever faithful, using it for some of his best work. In 1866 his +"Steeplechase" revealed him as a painter of the racecourse and of all +the most modern aspects of life and of Parisian society, treated in an +extremely original manner. He subsequently exhibited in 1867 "Family +Portraits," and in 1868 a portrait of a dancer in the "Ballet of _La +Source_." In 1869 and 1870 he restricted himself to portraits; but +thenceforward he abandoned the Salons and attached himself to the +Impressionists. With Manet and Monet he took the lead of the new school +at its first exhibition in 1874, and repeatedly contributed to these +exhibitions (in 1876, 1878, 1879 and 1880). In 1868 he had shown his +first study of a dancer, and in numerous pastels he proclaimed himself +the painter of the ballet, representing its figurantes in every attitude +with more constant aim at truth than grace. Several of his works may be +seen at the Luxembourg Gallery, to which they were bequeathed, among a +collection of impressionist pictures, by M. Caillebotte. In 1880 Degas +showed his powers of observation in a set of "Portraits of Criminals," +and he attempted modelling in a "Dancer," in wax. He afterwards returned +to his studies of the sporting world, exhibiting in December 1884 at the +Petit Gallery two views of "Races" which had a great success, proving +the increasing vogue of the artist among collectors. He is ranked with +Manet as the leader of the "impressionist school." At the eighth +Impressionist Exhibition, in 1886, Degas continued his realistic studies +of modern life, showing drawings of the nude, of workwomen, and of +jockeys. Besides his pastels and his paintings of genre and +portraits--among these, several likenesses of Manet--Degas also handled +his favourite subjects in etching and in aquatint; and executed several +lithographs of "Singers at Cafes-concert," of "Ballet-girls," and indeed +of every possible subject of night-life and incidents behind the scenes. +His work is to be seen not only at the Luxembourg but in many of the +great private collections in Paris, in England and America. In the +Centenary Exhibition of 1900 he exhibited "The Interior of a +Cotton-Broker's Office at New Orleans" (belonging to the Museum at Pau) +and "The Rehearsal." + + See also G. Moore, "Degas, the Painter of Modern Life," _Magazine of + Art_ (1890); J. K. Huysmans, _Certains_ (Paris, 1889); G. Geffroy, _La + Vie Artistique_ (3^e Serie, Paris, 1894). + + + + +DE GEER, LOUIS GERHARD, BARON (1818-1896), Swedish statesman and writer, +was born on the 18th of July 1818 at Finspang castle. He adopted the +legal profession, and in 1855 became president of the Gota Hofret, or +lord justice of one of the Swedish supreme courts. From the 7th of April +1858 to the 3rd of June 1870 he was minister of justice. As a member of +the Upper House he took part in all the Swedish _Riksdags_ from 1851 +onwards, though he seldom spoke. From 1867 to 1878 he was the member for +Stockholm in the first chamber, and introduced and passed many useful +reformatory statutes; but his greatest achievement, as a statesman, was +the reform of the Swedish representative system, whereby he substituted +a bi-cameral elective parliament, on modern lines, for the existing +cumbersome representation by estates, a survival from the later middle +ages. This great measure was accepted by the Riksdag in December 1865, +and received the royal sanction on the 22nd of June 1866. For some time +after this De Geer was the most popular man in Sweden. He retired from +the ministry in 1870, but took office again, as minister of justice, in +1875. In 1876 he became minister of state, which position he retained +till April 1880, when the failure of his repeated efforts to settle the +armaments' question again induced him to resign. From 1881 to 1888 he +was chancellor of the universities of Upsala and Lund. Besides several +novels and aesthetic essays, De Geer has written a few political memoirs +of supreme merit both as to style and matter, the most notable of which +are: _Minnesteckning ofver A. J. v. Hopken_ (Stockholm, 1881); +_Minnesteckning ofver Hans Jarta_ (Stockholm, 1874); _Minnesteckning +ofver B. B. von Platen_ (Stockholm, 1886); and his own _Minnen_ +(Stockholm, 1892), an autobiography, invaluable as a historical +document, in which the political experience and the matured judgments of +a lifetime are recorded with singular clearness, sobriety and charm. + + See _Sveriges historia_ (Stockholm, 1881, &c.), vi,; Carl Gustaf + Malmstrom, _Historiska Studier_ (Stockholm, 1897). (R. N. B.) + + + + +DEGGENDORF, or DECKENDORF, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, +25 m. N.W. of Passau, on the left bank of the Danube, which is there +crossed by two iron bridges. Pop. (1905) 7154. It is situated at the +lower end of the beautiful valley of the Perlbach, and in itself it is a +well-built and attractive town. It possesses an old town hall dating +from 1566, a hospital, a lunatic asylum, an orphanage, and a large +parish church rebuilt in 1756; but the chief interest centres in the +church of the Holy Sepulchre, built in 1337, which attracts thousands of +pilgrims to its _Porta Caeli_ or _Gnadenpforte_ (Gate of Mercy) opened +annually on Michaelmas eve and closed again on the 4th of October. In +1837, on the celebration of the 500th anniversary of this solemnity, the +number of pilgrims was reckoned at nearly 100,000. Such importance as +the town possesses is now rather commercial than religious,--it being a +depot for the timber trade of the Bavarian forest, a station for the +Danube steamboat company, and the seat of several mills, breweries, +potteries and other industrial establishments. On the bank of the Danube +outside the town are the remains of the castle of Findelstein; and on +the Geiersberg (1243 ft.), in the immediate vicinity, stands another old +pilgrimage church. About 6 m. to the north is the village of Metten, +with a Benedictine monastery founded by Charlemagne in 801, restored as +an abbey in 1840 by Louis I. of Bavaria, and well known as an +educational institution. The first mention of Deggendorf occurs in 868, +and it appears as a town in 1212. Henry (d. 1290) of the Landshut branch +of the ruling family of Bavaria made it the seat of a custom-house; and +in 1331 it became the residence of Henry III. of Natternberg (d. 1333), +so called from a castle in the neighbourhood. In 1337 a wholesale +massacre of the Jews, who were accused of having thrown the sacred host +of the church of the Holy Sepulchre into a well, took place in the town; +and it is probably from about this date that the pilgrimage above +mentioned came into vogue. The town was captured by the Swedish forces +in 1633, and in the war of the Austrian Succession it was more than once +laid in ashes. + + See Gruber and Muller, _Der bayerische Wald_ (Regensburg, 1851); + Mittermuller, _Die heil. Hostien und die Juden in Deggendorf_ + (Landshut, 1866); and _Das Kloster Metten_ (Straubing, 1857). + + + + +DE HAAS, MAURITZ FREDERICK HENDRICK (1832-1895), American marine +painter, was born on the 12th of December 1832 in Rotterdam, Holland. He +studied art in the Rotterdam Academy and at The Hague, under Bosboom and +Louis Meyer, and in 1851-1852 in London, following the English +water-colourists of the day. In 1857 he received an artist's commission +in the Dutch navy, but in 1859, under the patronage of August Belmont, +who had recently been minister of the United States at The Hague, he +resigned and removed to New York city. He became an associate of the +National Academy in 1863 and an academician in 1867, and exhibited +annually in the academy, and in 1866 he was one of the founders of the +American Society of Painters in Water Colors. He died on the 23rd of +November 1895. His "Farragut Passing the Forts at the Battle of New +Orleans" and "The Rapids above Niagara," which were exhibited at the +Paris Exposition of 1878, were his best known but not his most typical +works, for his favourite subjects were storm and wreck, wind and heavy +surf, and less often moonlight on the coasts of Holland, of Jersey, of +New England, and of Long Island, and on the English Channel. + +His brother, WILLIAM FREDERICK DE HAAS (1830-1880), who emigrated to New +York in 1854, was also a marine painter. + + + + +DEHRA, a town of British India, headquarters of the Dehra Dun district +in the United Provinces. Pop. (1901) 28,095. It lies at an elevation of +2300 ft. Here the Hardwar-Dehra railway terminates. Dehra is the +headquarters of the Trigonometrical Survey and of the Forest Department, +besides being a cantonment for a Gurkha force. The Forest School, which +trains subordinate forest officials for all parts of India, is a fine +building. Attached to it is an institution for the scientific study of +sylvi-culture and the exploitation and administration of forests. The +town of Dehra grew up round the temple built in 1699 by the heretical +Sikh Guru, Ram Rai, the founder of the Udasi sect of Ascetics. This +temple is a remarkable building in Mahommedan style. The central block, +in imitation of the emperor Jahangir's tomb, contains the bed on which +the Guru, after dying at will and coming back to life several times, +ultimately died outright; it is an object of great veneration. At the +corners of the central block are smaller monuments commemorating the +Guru's wives. + + + + +DEHRA DUN, a district of British India, in the Meerut division of the +United Provinces. Its area is 1209 sq. m. The district is bounded on the +N. by the native state of Tehri or Garhwal, on the E. by British +Garhwal, on the S. by the Siwalik hills, which separate it from +Saharanpur district, and on the W. by the hill states of Sirmur, Jubbal +and Taroch. The valley (the Dun) has an area of about 673 sq. m., and +forms a parallelogram 45 m. from N.W. to S.E. and 15 m. broad. It is +well wooded, undulating and intersected by streams. On the N.E. the +horizon is bounded by the Mussoorie or lower range of the Himalayas, and +on the S. by the Siwalik hills. The Himalayas in the north of the +district attain a height between 7000 and 8000 ft., one peak reaching an +elevation of 8565 ft.; the highest point of the Siwalik range is 3041 +ft. above sea-level. The principal passes through the Siwalik hills are +the Timli pass, leading to the military station of Chakrata, and the +Mohand pass leading to the sanatoriums of Mussoorie and Landaur. The +Ganges bounds the Dehra valley on the E.; the Jumna bounds it on the W. +From a point about midway between the two rivers, and near the town of +Dehra, runs a ridge which forms the watershed of the valley. To the west +of this ridge the water collects to form the Asan, a tributary of the +Jumna; whilst to the east the Suswa receives the drainage and flows into +the Ganges. To the east the valley is characterized by swamps and +forests, but to the west the natural depressions freely carry off the +surface drainage. Along the central ridge, the water-level lies at a +great depth from the surface (228 ft.), but it rises gradually as the +country declines towards the great rivers. In 1901 the population was +178,195, showing an increase of 6% in the decade. A railway to Dehra +from Hardwar, on the Oudh and Rohilkhand line (32 m.), was completed in +1900. The district is served by the Dun canals. Tea gardens cover a +considerable area, and the valley contains a colony of European tea +planters. + +_History._--Dehra Dun only emerges from the mists of legend into +authentic history in the 17th century A.D., when it formed part of the +Garhwal kingdom. Towards the end of the century the heretical Sikh Guru, +Ram Rai, expelled from the Punjab, sought refuge in the Dun and gathered +round him a crowd of devotees. Fateh Sah, raja of Garhwal, endowed the +temple which he built, round which grew up the town of Gurudwara or +Dehra (q.v.). In the 18th century the fertility of the valley attracted +the attention of Najib-ud-daula, governor of Saharanpur, who invaded it +with an army of Rohillas in 1757 and annexed it to his dominion. His +rule, which lasted till 1770, brought great prosperity to the Dun; but +on his death it became a prey to the surrounding tribes, its desolation +being completed after its conquest by the Gurkhas in 1803. In 1814 it +was taken possession of by the British, and in the following year was +annexed to Saharanpur. Under British administration the Dun rapidly +recovered its prosperity. + + + + +DEIOCES ([Greek: Deiokes]), according to Herodotus (i. 96 ff.) the first +king of the Medes. He narrates that, when the Medes had rebelled against +the Assyrians and gained their independence about 710 B.C., according to +his chronology (cf. Diodor. ii. 32), they lived in villages without any +political organization, and therefore the whole country was in a state +of anarchy. Then Deioces, son of Phraortes, an illustrious man of +upright character, was chosen judge in his village, and the justness of +his decisions induced the inhabitants of the other villages to throng to +him. At last the Medes resolved to make an end of the intolerable state +of their country by erecting a kingdom, and chose Deioces king. He now +caused them to build a great capital, Ecbatana, with a royal palace, and +introduced the ceremonial of oriental courts; he surrounded himself +with a guard and no longer showed himself to the people, but gave his +judgments in writing and controlled the people by officials and spies. +He united all the Median tribes, and ruled fifty-three years (c. 699-647 +B.C.), though perhaps, as G. Rawlinson supposed, the fifty-three years +of his reign are exchanged by mistake with the twenty-two years of his +son Phraortes, under whom the Median conquests began. + +The narration of Herodotus is only a popular tradition which derives the +origin of kingship from its judicial functions, considered as its +principal and most beneficent aspect. We know from the Assyrian +inscriptions that just at the time which Herodotus assigns to Deioces +the Medes were divided into numerous small principalities and subjected +to the great Assyrian conquerors. Among these petty chieftains, Sargon +in 715 mentions Dayukku, "lieutenant of Man" (he probably was, +therefore, a vassal of the neighbouring king of Man in the mountains of +south-eastern Armenia), who joined the Urartians and other enemies of +Assyria, but was by Sargon transported to Hamath in Syria "with his +clan." His district is called "bit-Dayaukki," "house of Deioces," also +in 713, when Sargon invaded these regions again. So it seems that the +dynasty, which more than half a century later succeeded in throwing off +the Assyrian yoke and founded the Median empire, was derived from this +Dayukku, and that his name was thus introduced into the Median +traditions, which contrary to history considered him as founder of the +kingdom. (Ed. M.) + + + + +DEIOTARUS, a tetrarch of Galatia (Gallo-Graecia) in Asia Minor, and a +faithful ally of the Romans. He is first heard of at the beginning of +the third Mithradatic war, when he drove out the troops of Mithradates +under Eumachus from Phrygia. His most influential friend was Pompey, +who, when settling the affairs of Asia (63 or 62 B.C.), rewarded him +with the title of king and an increase of territory (Lesser Armenia). On +the outbreak of the civil war, Deiotarus naturally sided with his old +patron Pompey, and after the battle of Pharsalus escaped with him to +Asia. In the meantime Pharnaces, the son of Mithradates, had seized +Lesser Armenia, and defeated Deiotarus near Nicopolis. Fortunately for +Deiotarus, Caesar at that time (47) arrived in Asia from Egypt, and was +met by the tetrarch in the dress of a suppliant. Caesar pardoned him for +having sided with Pompey, ordered him to resume his royal attire, and +hastened against Pharnaces, whom he defeated at Zela. In consequence of +the complaints of certain Galatian princes, Deiotarus was deprived of +part of his dominions, but allowed to retain the title of king. On the +death of Mithradates of Pergamum, tetrarch of the Trocmi, Deiotarus was +a candidate for the vacancy. Other tetrarchs also pressed their claims; +and, further, Deiotarus was accused by his grandson Castor of having +attempted to assassinate Caesar when the latter was his guest in +Galatia. Cicero, who entertained a high opinion of Deiotarus, whose +acquaintance he had made when governor of Cilicia, undertook his +defence, the case being heard in Caesar's own house at Rome. The matter +was allowed to drop for a time, and the assassination of Caesar +prevented any final decision being pronounced. In his speech Cicero +briefly dismisses the charge of assassination, the main question being +the distribution of the provinces, which was the real cause of the +quarrels between Deiotarus and his relatives. After Caesar's death, Mark +Antony, for a large monetary consideration, publicly announced that, in +accordance with instructions left by Caesar, Deiotarus was to resume +possession of all the territory of which he had been deprived. When +civil war again broke out, Deiotarus was persuaded to support Brutus and +Cassius, but after the battle of Philippi went over to the triumvirs. He +remained in possession of his kingdom till his death at a very advanced +age. + + See Cicero, _Philippica_, ii. 37; _Ad fam._ viii. 10, ix. 12, xv. 1, + 2, 4; _Ad Att._ xiv. 1; _De divin._ i. 15, ii. 36, 37; _De harusp. + resp._ 13, and above all _Pro rege Deiotaro_; Appian, _Bell. Mithrid._ + 75, 114; _Bellum Alexandrinum_, 34-41, 65-77; Dio Cassius xli. 63, + xlii. 45, xlvii. 24, 48, xlviii. 33. + + + + +DEIR, or DEIR EZ-ZOR, a town of Asiatic Turkey, on the right bank of the +Euphrates, 27(1/2) m. above its junction with the Khabor, lat. 35 deg. +20' N., long. 40 deg. 12' E. Pop. 8000 and upward, about one-tenth +Christians; except in the official classes, there are no Turks. It is +the capital and the only considerable town of the Zor sanjak, formed in +1857, which includes Ras el-'Ain on the north and Palmyra on the south, +with a total area of 32,820 sq. m., chiefly desert, and an estimated +population of 100,000, mostly Arab nomads. Deir itself is a thrifty and +rising town, having considerable traffic; it is singularly European in +appearance, with macadamized streets and a public garden. The name Deir +means monastery, but there is no other trace or tradition of the +occupation of the site before the 14th century, and until it became the +capital of the sanjak it was an insignificant village. It is an +important centre for the control of the Bedouin Arabs, and has a +garrison of about 1000 troops, including a special corps of mule-riders. +It is also a road centre, the roads from the Mediterranean to Bagdad by +way of Aleppo and Damascus respectively meeting here. A road also leads +northward, by Sinjar, to Mosul, crossing the river on a stone bridge, +built in 1897, the only permanent bridge over the Euphrates south of +Asia Minor. (J. P. Pe.) + + + + +DEIRA, the southern of the two English kingdoms afterwards united as +Northumbria. According to Simeon of Durham it extended from the Humber +to the Tyne, but the land was waste north of the Tees. York was the +capital of its kings. The date of its first settlement is quite unknown, +but the first king of whom we have any record is Ella or Aelle, the +father of Edwin, who is said to have been reigning about 585. After his +death Deira was subject to Aethelfrith, king of Northumbria, until the +accession of Edwin, in 616 or 617, who ruled both kingdoms (see Edwin) +till 633. Osric the nephew of Edwin ruled Deira (633-634), but his son +Oswine was put to death by Oswio in 651. For a few years subsequently +Deira was governed by Aethelwald son of Oswald. + + See Bede, _Historia ecclesiastica_, ii. 14, iii. 1, 6, 14 (ed. C. + Plummer, Oxford, 1896); Nennius, _Historia Brittonum_, S 64 (ed. Th. + Mommsen, Berlin, 1898); Simeon of Durham, _Opera_, i. 339 (ed. T. + Arnold, London, 1882-1885). (F. G. M. B.) + + + + +DEISM (Lat. _deus_, god), strictly the belief in one supreme God. It is +however the received name for a current of rationalistic theological +thought which, though not confined to one country, or to any +well-defined period, was most conspicuous in England in the last years +of the 17th and the first half of the 18th century. The deists, +differing widely in important matters of belief, were yet agreed in +seeking above all to establish the certainty and sufficiency of natural +religion in opposition to the positive religions, and in tacitly or +expressly denying the unique significance of the supernatural revelation +in the Old and New Testaments. They either ignored the Scriptures, +endeavoured to prove them in the main by a helpful republication of the +_Evangelium aeternum_, or directly impugned their divine character, +their infallibility, and the validity of their evidences as a complete +manifestation of the will of God. The term "deism" not only is used to +signify the main body of the deists' teaching, or the tendency they +represent, but has come into use as a technical term for one specific +metaphysical doctrine as to the relation of God to the universe, assumed +to have been characteristic of the deists, and to have distinguished +them from atheists, pantheists and theists,--the belief, namely, that +the first cause of the universe is a personal God, who is, however, not +only distinct from the world but apart from it and its concerns. + +The words "deism" and "deist" appear first about the middle of the 16th +century in France (cf. Bayle's _Dictionnaire, s.v._ "Viret," note D), +though the deistic standpoint had already been foreshadowed to some +extent by Averroists, by Italian authors like Boccaccio and Petrarch, in +More's _Utopia_ (1515), and by French writers like Montaigne, Charron +and Bodin. The first specific attack on deism in English was Bishop +Stillingfleet's _Letter to a Deist_ (1677). By the majority of those +historically known as the English deists, from Blount onwards, the name +was owned and honoured. They were also occasionally called +"rationalists." "Free-thinker" (in Germany, _Freidenker_) was generally +taken to be synonymous with "deist," though obviously capable of a +wider signification, and as coincident with _esprit fort_ and with +_libertin_ in the original and theological sense of the word.[1] +"Naturalists" was a name frequently used of such as recognized no god +but nature, of so-called Spinozists, atheists; but both in England and +Germany, in the 18th century, this word was more commonly and aptly in +use for those who founded their religion on the _lumen naturae_ alone. +It was evidently in common use in the latter half of the 16th century as +it is used by De Mornay in _De la verite de la religion chretienne_ +(1581) and by Montaigne. The same men were not seldom assaulted under +the name of "theists"; the later distinction between "theist" and +"deist," which stamped the latter word as excluding the belief in +providence or in the immanence of God, was apparently formulated in the +end of the 18th century by those rationalists who were aggrieved at +being identified with the naturalists. (See also THEISM.) + +The chief names amongst the deists are those of Lord Herbert of Cherbury +(1583-1648), Charles Blount (1654-1693), Matthew Tindal (1657-1733), +William Wollaston (1659-1724), Thomas Woolston (1669-1733), Junius Janus +(commonly known as John) Toland (1670-1722), the 3rd earl of Shaftesbury +(1671-1713), Viscount Bolingbroke (1678-1751), Anthony Collins +(1676-1729), Thomas Morgan (?-1743), and Thomas Chubb (1679-1747).[2] +Peter Annet (1693-1769), and Henry Dodwell (the younger; d. 1784), who +made his contribution to the controversy in 1742, are of less +importance. Of the eleven first named, ten appear to have been born +within twenty-five years of one another; and it is noteworthy that by +far the greater part of the literary activity of the deists, as well as +of their voluminous opponents, falls within the same half century. + +The impulses that promoted a vein of thought cognate to deism were +active both before and after the time of its greatest notoriety. But +there are many reasons to show why, in the 17th century, men should have +set themselves with a new zeal, in politics, law and theology, to follow +the light of nature alone, and to cast aside the fetters of tradition +and prescriptive right, of positive codes, and scholastic systems, and +why in England especially there should, amongst numerous free-thinkers, +have been not a few free writers. The significance of the Copernican +system, as the total overthrow of the traditional conception of the +universe, dawned on all educated men. In physics, Descartes had prepared +the way for the final triumph of the mechanical explanation of the world +in Newton's system. In England the new philosophy had broken with +time-honoured beliefs more completely than it had done even in France; +Hobbes was more startling than Bacon. Locke's philosophy, as well as his +theology, served as a school for the deists. Men had become weary of +Protestant scholasticism; religious wars had made peaceful thinkers seek +to take the edge off dogmatical rancour; and the multiplicity of +religious sects, coupled with the complete failure of various attempts +at any substantial reconciliation, provoked distrust of the common basis +on which all were founded. There was a school of distinctively +latitudinarian thought in the Church of England; others not unnaturally +thought it better to extend the realm of the _adiaphora_ beyond the +sphere of Protestant ritual or the details of systematic divinity. +Arminianism had revived the rational side of theological method. +Semi-Arians and Unitarians, though sufficiently distinguished from the +free-thinkers by reverence for the letter of Scripture, might be held to +encourage departure from the ancient landmarks. The scholarly labours of +P. D. Huet, R. Simon, L. E. Dupin, and Jean Le Clerc (Clericus), of the +orientalists John Lightfoot, John Spencer and Humphrey Prideaux, of John +Mill, the collator of New Testament readings, and John Fell, furnished +new materials for controversy; and the scope of Spinoza's _Tractatus +theologico-politicus_ had naturally been much more fully apprehended +than ever his _Ethica_ could be. The success of the English revolution +permitted men to turn from the active side of political and theological +controversy to speculation and theory; and curiosity was more powerful +than faith. Much new ferment was working. The toleration and the free +press of England gave it scope. Deism was one of the results, and is an +important link in the chain of thought from the Reformation to our own +day. + +Long before England was ripe to welcome deistic thought Lord Herbert of +Cherbury earned the name "Father of Deism" by laying down the main line +of that religious philosophy which in various forms continued ever after +to be the backbone of deistic systems. He based his theology on a +comprehensive, if insufficient, survey of the nature, foundation, limits +and tests of human knowledge. And amongst the divinely implanted, +original, indefeasible _notitiae communes_ of the human mind, he found +as foremost his five articles:--that there is one supreme God, that he +is to be worshipped, that worship consists chiefly of virtue and piety, +that we must repent of our sins and cease from them, and that there are +rewards and punishments here and hereafter. Thus Herbert sought to do +for the religion of nature what his friend Grotius was doing for natural +law,--making a new application of the standard of Vincent of Lerins, +_Quod semper, quod ubique, quod ab omnibus_. It is important to notice +that Herbert, as English ambassador at Paris, united in himself the +currents of French and English thought, and also that his De Veritate, +published in Latin and translated into French, did not appear in an +English version. + +Herbert had hardly attempted a systematic criticism of the Christian +revelation either as a whole or in its details. Blount, a man of a very +different spirit, did both, and in so doing may be regarded as having +inaugurated the second main line of deistic procedure, that of +historico-critical examination of the Old and New Testaments. Blount +adopted and expanded Hobbes's arguments against the Mosaic authorship of +the Pentateuch; and, mainly in the words of Burnet's _Archeologiae +philosophicae_, he asserts the total inconsistency of the Mosaic +Hexaemeron with the Copernican theory of the heavens, dwelling with +emphasis on the impossibility of admitting the view developed in +Genesis, that the earth is the most important part of the universe. He +assumes that the narrative was meant _ethically_, not _physically_, in +order to eliminate false and polytheistic notions; and he draws +attention to that double narrative in Genesis which was elsewhere to be +so fruitfully handled. The examination of the miracles of Apollonius of +Tyana, professedly founded on papers of Lord Herbert's, is meant to +suggest similar considerations with regard to the miracles of Christ. +Naturalistic explanations of some of these are proposed, and a mythical +theory is distinctly foreshadowed when Blount dwells on the inevitable +tendency of men, especially long after the event, to discover miracles +attendant on the birth and death of their heroes. Blount assaults the +doctrine of a mediator as irreligious. He dwells much more pronouncedly +than Herbert on the view, afterwards regarded as a special +characteristic of all deists, that much or most error in religion has +been invented or knowingly maintained by sagacious men for the easier +maintenance of good government, or in the interests of themselves and +their class. And when he heaps suspicion, not on Christian dogmas, but +on beliefs of which the resemblance to Christian tenets is sufficiently +patent, the real aim is so transparent that his method seems to partake +rather of the nature of literary eccentricity than of polemical +artifice; yet by this disingenuous indirectness he gave his argument +that savour of duplicity which ever after clung to the popular +conception of deism. + +Shaftesbury, dealing with matters for the most part different from those +usually handled by the deists, stands almost wholly out of their ranks. +But he showed how loosely he held the views he did not go out of his way +to attack, and made it plain how little weight the letter of Scripture +had for himself; and, writing with much greater power than any of the +deists, he was held to have done more than any one of them to forward +the cause for which they wrought. Founding ethics on the native and +cultivable capacity in men to appreciate worth in men and actions, and, +like the ancient Greek thinkers whom he followed, associating the +apprehension of morality with the apprehension of beauty, he makes +morality wholly independent of scriptural enactment, and still more, of +theological forecasting of future bliss or agony. He yet insisted on +religion as the crown of virtue; and, arguing that religion is +inseparable from a high and holy enthusiasm for the divine plan of the +universe, he sought the root of religion in feeling, not in accurate +beliefs or meritorious good works. He set little store on the theology +of those who in a system of dry and barren notions "pay handsome +compliments to the Deity," "remove providence," "explode devotion," and +leave but "little of zeal, affection, or warmth in what they call +rational religion." In the protest against the scheme of "judging truth +by counting noses," Shaftesbury recognized the danger of the standard +which seemed to satisfy many deists; and in almost every respect he has +more in common with those who afterwards, in Germany, annihilated the +pretensions of complacent rationalism than with the rationalists +themselves. + +Toland, writing at first professedly without hostility to any of the +received elements of the Christian faith, insisted that Christianity was +not mysterious, and that the value of religion could not lie in any +unintelligible or self-contradictory elements; though we cannot know the +real essence of God or of any of his creatures, yet our beliefs about +God must be thoroughly consistent with reason. Afterwards, Toland +discussed, with considerable real learning and much show of candour, the +comparative evidence for the canonical and apocryphal Scriptures, and +demanded a careful and complete historical examination of the grounds on +which our acceptance of the New Testament canon rests. He contributed +little to the solution of the problem, but forced the investigation of +the canon alike on theologians and the reading public. Again, he +sketched a view of early church history, further worked out by Johann +Salomo Semler (1725-1791), and surprisingly like that which was later +elaborated by the Tubingen school. He tried to show, both from Scripture +and extra-canonical literature, that the primitive church, so far from +being an incorporate body of believers with the same creed and customs, +really consisted of two schools, each possessing its "own gospel"--a +school of Ebionites or Judaizing Christians, and the more liberal school +of Paul. These parties, consciously but amicably differing in their +whole relation to the Jewish law and the outside world, were +subsequently forced into a non-natural uniformity. The cogency of +Toland's arguments was weakened by his manifest love of paradox. +Wollaston upheld the "intellectual" theory of morality, and all his +reasoning is independent of any authority or evidence derived from +revelation. His system was simplicity itself, all sin being reduced to +the one form of lying. He favoured the idea of a future life as being +necessary to set right the mistakes and inequalities of the present. + +Collins, who had created much excitement by his _Discourse of +Free-thinking_, insisting on the value and necessity of unprejudiced +inquiry, published at a later stage of the deistic controversy the +famous argument on the evidences of Christianity. Christianity is +founded on Judaism; its main prop is the argument from the fulfilment of +prophecy. Yet no interpretation or rearrangement of the text of Old +Testament prophecies will secure a fair and non-allegorical +correspondence between these and their alleged fulfilment in the New +Testament. The inference is not expressly drawn, though it becomes +perfectly clear from his refutation of William Whiston's curious counter +theory that there were in the original Hebrew scriptures prophecies +which were literally fulfilled in the New Testament, but had been +expunged at an early date by Jewish scribes. Collins indicates the +possible extent to which the Jews may have been indebted to Chaldeans +and Egyptians for their theological views, especially as great part of +the Old Testament would appear to have been remodelled by Ezra; and, +after dwelling on the points in which the prophecies attributed to +Daniel differ from all other Old Testament predictions, he states the +greater number of the arguments still used to show that the book of +Daniel deals with events past and contemporaneous, and is from the pen +of a writer of the Maccabean period, a view now generally accepted. +Collins resembles Blount in "attacking specific Christian positions +rather than seeking for a foundation on which to build the edifice of +Natural Religion." Amongst those who replied to him were Richard +Bentley, Edward Chandler, bishop of Lichfield, and Thomas Sherlock, +afterwards bishop of London, who also attacked Woolston. They refuted +him easily on many specific points, but carefully abstained from +discussing the real question at issue, namely the propriety of free +inquiry. + +Woolston, at first to all appearance working earnestly in behalf of an +allegorical but believing interpretation of the New Testament miracles, +ended by assaulting, with a yet unknown violence of speech, the +absurdity of accepting them as actual historical events, and did his +best to overthrow the credibility of Christ's principal miracles. The +bitterness of his outspoken invective against the clergy, against all +priestcraft and priesthood, was a new feature in deistic literature, and +injured the author more than it furthered his cause. + +Tindal's aim seems to have been a sober statement of the whole case in +favour of natural religion, with copious but moderately worded criticism +of such beliefs and usages in the Christian and other religions as he +conceived to be either non-religious or directly immoral and +unwholesome. The work in which he endeavoured to prove that true +Christianity is as old as the creation, and is really but the +republication of the gospel of nature, soon gained the name of the +"Deist's Bible." It was against Tindal that the most important of the +orthodox replies were directed, e.g. John Conybeare's _Defence of +Revealed Religion_, William Law's _Case of Reason_ and, to a large +extent, Butler's _Analogy_. + +Morgan criticized with great freedom the moral character of the persons +and events of Old Testament history, developing the theory of conscious +"accommodation" on the part of the leaders of the Jewish church. This +accommodation of truth, by altering the form and substance of it to meet +the views and secure the favour of ignorant and bigoted contemporaries, +Morgan attributes also to the apostles and to Jesus. He likewise expands +at great length a theory of the origin of the Catholic Church much like +that sketched by Toland, but assumes that Paul and his party, latterly +at least, were distinctly hostile to the Judaical party of their +fellow-believers in Jesus as the Messias, while the college of the +original twelve apostles and their adherents viewed Paul and his +followers with suspicion and disfavour. Persecution from without Morgan +regards as the influence which mainly forced the antagonistic parties +into the oneness of the catholic and orthodox church. Morgan "seems to +have discerned the dawning of a truer and better method" than the +others. "He saw dimly that things require to be accounted for as well as +affirmed or denied," and he was "one of the pioneers of modern +historical science as applied to biblical criticism." + +Annet made it his special work to invalidate belief in the resurrection +of Christ, and to discredit the work of Paul. + +Chubb, the least learnedly educated of the deists, did more than any of +them, save Herbert, to round his system into a logical whole. From the +New Testament he sought to show that the teaching of Christ +substantially coincides with natural religion as he understood it. But +his main contention is that Christianity is not a doctrine but a life, +not the reception of a system of truths or facts, but a pious effort to +live in accordance with God's will here, in the hope of joining him +hereafter. Chubb dwells with special emphasis on the fact that Christ +preached the gospel to the poor, and argues, as Tindal had done, that +the gospel must therefore be accessible to all men without any need for +learned study of evidences for miracles, and intelligible to the meanest +capacity. He sought to show that even in the New Testament there are +essential contradictions, and instances the unconditional forgiveness +preached by Christ in the gospels as compared with Paul's doctrine of +forgiveness by the mediation of Christ. Externally Chubb is interesting +as representing the deism of the people contrasted with that of Tindal +the theologian. + +Dodwell's ingenious thesis, that Christianity is not founded on +argument, was certainly not meant as an aid to faith; and, though its +starting-point is different from all other deistical works, it may +safely be reckoned amongst their number. + +Though himself contemporary with the earlier deists, Bolingbroke's +principal works were posthumously published after interest in the +controversy had declined. His whole strain, in sharp contrast to that of +most of his predecessors, is cynical and satirical, and suggests that +most of the matters discussed were of small personal concern to himself. +He gives fullest scope to the ungenerous view that a vast proportion of +professedly revealed truth was ingeniously palmed off by the more +cunning on the more ignorant for the convenience of keeping the latter +under. But he writes with keenness and wit, and knows well how to use +the materials already often taken advantage of by earlier deists. + +Before passing on to a summary of the deistic position, it is necessary +to say something of the views of Conyers Middleton (q.v.), who, though +he never actually severed himself from orthodoxy, yet advanced theories +closely analogous to those of the deists. His most important theological +work was that devoted to an exposure of patristic miracles. His attack +was based largely on arguments which could be turned with equal force +against the miracles of the New Testament, and he even went further than +previous rationalists in impugning the credibility of statements as to +alleged miracles emanating from martyrs and the fathers of the early +church. That Middleton was prepared to carry this type of argument into +the apostolic period is shown by certain posthumous essays +(_Miscellaneous Works_; ii. pp. 255 ff.), in which he charges the New +Testament writers with inconsistency and the apostles with suppressing +their cherished beliefs on occasions of difficulty. + +In the substance of what they received as natural religion, the deists +were for the most part agreed; Herbert's articles continued to contain +the fundamentals of their theology. Religion, though not identified with +morality, had its most important outcome in a faithful following of the +eternal laws of morality, regarded as the will of God. With the virtuous +life was further to be conjoined a humble disposition to adore the +Creator, avoiding all factitious forms of worship as worse than useless. +The small value they attributed to all outward and special forms of +service, and the want of any sympathetic craving for the communion of +saints, saved the deists from attempting to found a free-thinking +church. They seem generally to have inclined to a quietistic +accommodation to established forms of faith, till better times came. +They steadfastly sought to eliminate the miraculous from theological +belief, and to expel from the system of religious truth all debatable, +difficult or mysterious articles. They aimed at a rational and +intelligible faith, professedly in order to make religion, in all its +width and depth, the heritage of every man. They regarded with as much +suspicion the notion of a "peculiar people" of God, as of a unique +revelation, and insisted on the possibility of salvation for the +heathen. They rejected the doctrine of the Trinity, and protested +against mediatorship, atonement and the imputed righteousness of Christ, +always laying more stress on the teaching of Christ than on the teaching +of the church about him; but they repeatedly laid claim to the name of +Christians or of Christian deists. Against superstition, fanaticism and +priestcraft they protested unceasingly. They all recognized the soul of +man--not regarded as intellectual alone--as the ultimate court of +appeal. But they varied much in their attitude towards the Bible. Some +were content to argue their own ideas into Scripture, and those they +disliked out of it; to one or two it seemed a satisfaction to discover +difficulties in Scripture, to point to historical inaccuracies and moral +defects. Probably Chubb's position on this head is most fairly +characteristic of deism. He holds that the narrative, especially of the +New Testament, is in the main accurate, but, as written after the events +narrated, has left room for misunderstandings and mistakes. The apostles +were good men, to whom, after Christ, we are most indebted; but they +were fairly entitled to their own private opinions, and naturally +introduced these into their writings. The epistles, according to Chubb, +contain errors of fact, false interpretations of the Old Testament, and +sometimes disfigurement of religious truth. + +The general tendency of the deistical writings is sufficiently +self-consistent to justify a common name. But deism is not a compact +system nor is it the outcome of any one line of philosophical thought. +Of matters generally regarded as pertaining to natural religion, that on +which they were least agreed was the certainty, philosophical +demonstrability and moral significance of the immortality of the soul, +so that the deists have sometimes been grouped into "mortal" and +"immortal" deists. For some the belief in future rewards and punishments +was an essential of religion; some seem to have questioned the doctrine +as a whole; and, while others made it a basis of morality, Shaftesbury +protested against the ordinary theological form of the belief as +immoral. No two thinkers could well be more opposed than Shaftesbury and +Hobbes; yet sometimes ideas from both were combined by the same writer. +Collins was a pronounced necessitarian; Morgan regarded the denial of +free will as tantamount to atheism. And nothing can be more misleading +than to assume that the belief in a Creator, existent wholly apart from +the work of his hands, was characteristic of the deists as a body. In +none of them is any theory on the subject specially prominent, except +that in their denial of miracles, of supernatural revelation, and a +special redemptive interposition of God in history, they seem to have +thought of providence much as the mass of their opponents did. Herbert +starts his chief theological work with the design of vindicating God's +providence. Shaftesbury vigorously protests against the notion of a +wholly transcendent God. Morgan more than once expresses a theory that +would now be pronounced one of immanence. Toland, the inventor of the +name of pantheism, was notoriously, for a great part of his life, in +some sort a pantheist. And while as thinkers they diverged in their +opinions, so too they differed radically in character, in reverence for +their subject and in religious earnestness and moral worth. + +The deists were not powerful writers; none of them was distinguished by +wide and accurate scholarship; hardly any was either a deep or +comprehensive thinker. But though they generally had the best +scholarship of England against them, they were bold, acute, +well-informed men; they appreciated more fully than their contemporaries +not a few truths now all but universally accepted; and they seemed +therefore entitled to leave their mark on subsequent theological +thought. Yet while the seed they sowed was taking deep root in France +and in Germany, the English deists, the most notable men of their time, +were soon forgotten, or at least ceased to be a prominent factor in the +intellectual life of the century. The controversies they had provoked +collapsed, and deism became a by-word even amongst those who were in no +degree anxious to appear as champions of orthodoxy. + +The fault was not wholly in the subjectivism of the movement. But the +subjectivism that founded its theology on the "common sense" of the +individual was accompanied by a fatal pseudo-universalism which, cutting +away all that was peculiar, individual and most intense in all +religions, left in any one of them but a lifeless form. A theology +consisting of a few vague generalities was sufficient to sustain the +piety of the best of the deists; but it had not the concreteness or +intensity necessary to take a firm hold on those whom it emancipated +from the old beliefs. The negative side of deism came to the front, and, +communicated with fatal facility, seems ultimately to have constituted +the deism that was commonly professed at the clubs of the wits and the +tea-tables of polite society. But the intenser religious life before +which deism fell was also a revolt against the abstract and +argumentative orthodoxy of the time. + +That the deists appreciated fully the scope of difficulties in Christian +theology and the sacred books is not their most noteworthy feature; but +that they made a stand, sometimes cautiously, often with outspoken +fearlessness, against the presupposition that the Bible is the religion +of Protestants. They themselves gave way to another presupposition +equally fatal to true historical research, though in great measure +common to them and their opponents. It was assumed by deists in +debating against the orthodox, that the flood of error in the hostile +camp was due to the benevolent cunning or deliberate self-seeking of +unscrupulous men, supported by the ignorant with the obstinacy of +prejudice. + +Yet deism deserves to be remembered as a strenuous protest against +bibliolatry in every degree and against all traditionalism in theology. +It sought to look not a few facts full in the face, from a new point of +view and with a thoroughly modern though unhistorical spirit. It was not +a religious movement; and though, as a defiance of the accepted +theology, its character was mainly theological, the deistical crusade +belongs, not to the history of the church, or of dogma, but to the +history of general culture. It was an attitude of mind, not a body of +doctrine; its nearest parallel is probably to be found in the eclectic +strivings of the Renaissance philosophy and the modernizing tendencies +of cisalpine humanism. The controversy was assumed to be against +prejudice, ignorance, obscurantism; what monks were to Erasmus the +clergy as such were to Woolston. Yet English deism was in many ways +characteristically English. The deists were, as usually happens with the +leaders of English thought, no class of professional men, but +represented every rank in the community. They made their appeal in the +mother tongue to all men who could read and think, and sought to reduce +the controversy to its most direct practical issue. And, with but one or +two exceptions, they avoided wildness in their language as much as in +the general scheme of theology they proposed. If at times they had +recourse to ambiguity of speech and veiled polemic, this might be partly +excused when we remember the hanging of Thomas Aikenhead in 1697 for +ridiculing the Bible, and Woolston's imprisonment in 1729. + +French deism, the direct progeny of the English movement, was equally +short-lived. Voltaire during his three years' residence in England +(1726-1729) absorbed an enthusiasm for freedom of thought, and provided +himself with the arguments necessary to support the deism which he had +learned in his youth; he was to the end a deist of the school of +Bolingbroke. Rousseau, though not an active assailant of Christianity, +could have claimed kindred with the nobler deists. Diderot was for a +time heartily in sympathy with deistic thought; and the _Encyclopedie_ +was in its earlier portion an organ of deism. Even in the Roman Catholic +Church a large number of the leading divines were frankly deistic, nor +were they for that reason regarded as irreligious. But as Locke's +philosophy became in France sensationalism, and as Locke's pregnant +question, reiterated by Collins, how we know that the divine power might +not confer thought on matter, led the way to dogmatic materialism, so +deism soon gave way to forms of thought more directly and completely +subversive of the traditional theology. None the less it is +unquestionable that in the period preceding the Revolution the bulk of +French thinkers were ultimately deists in various degrees, and that +deism was a most potent factor not only in speculative but also in +social and political development. Many of the leaders of the +revolutionary movement were deists, though it is quite false to say that +the extreme methods of the movement were the result of widespread +rationalism. + +In Germany there was a native free-thinking theology nearly contemporary +with that of England, whence it was greatly developed and supplemented. +Among the earliest names are those of Georg Schade (1712-1795), J. B. +Basedow (1723-1790), the educationist, Johann August Eberhard (q.v.); +and K. F. Bahrdt, who regarded Christ as merely a noble teacher like +Moses, Confucius and Luther. The compact rational philosophy of Wolff +nourished a theological rationalism which in H. S. Reimarus was wholly +undistinguishable from dogmatic deism, and was undoubtedly to a great +extent adopted by Lessing; while, in the case of the historico-critical +school to which J. S. Sender belonged, the distinction is not always +easily drawn--although these rationalists professedly recognized in +Scripture a real divine revelation, mingled with local and temporary +elements. It deserves to be noted here that the former, the theology of +the _Aufklarung_, was, like that of the deists, destined to a +short-lived notoriety; whereas the solid, accurate and scholarly +researches of the rationalist critics of Germany, undertaken with no +merely polemical spirit, not only form an epoch in the history of +theology, but have taken a permanent place in the body of theological +science. Ere _rationalismus vulgaris_ fell before the combined assault +of Schleiermacher's subjective theology and the deeper historical +insight of the Hegelians, it had found a refuge successively in the +Kantian postulates of the practical reason, and in the vague but earnest +faith-philosophy of Jacobi. + +Outside France, Germany and England, there were no great schools of +thought distinctively deistic, though in most countries there is to be +found a rationalistic anti-clerical movement which partakes of the +character of deism. It seems probable, for example, that in Portugal the +marquis de Pombal was in reality a deist, and both in Italy and in Spain +there were signs of the same rationalistic revolt. More certain, and +also more striking, is the fact that the leading statesmen in the +American War of Independence were emphatically deists; Benjamin Franklin +(who attributes his position to the study of Shaftesbury and Collins), +Thomas Paine, Washington and Jefferson, although they all had the +greatest admiration for the New Testament story, denied that it was +based on any supernatural revelation. For various reasons the movement +in America did not appear on the surface to any great extent, and after +the comparative failure of Elihu Palmer's _Principles of Nature_ it +expressed itself chiefly in the spread of Unitarianism. + +In England, though the deists were forgotten, their spirit was not +wholly dead. For men like Hume and Gibbon the standpoint of deism was +long left behind; yet Gibbon's famous two chapters might well have been +written by a deist. Even now many undoubtedly cling to a theology nearly +allied to deism. Rejecting miracles and denying the infallibility of +Scripture, protesting against Calvinistic views of sovereign grace and +having no interest in evangelical Arminianism, the faith of such +inquirers seems fairly to coincide with that of the deists. Even some +cultured theologians, the historical representatives of +latitudinarianism, seem to accept the great body of what was contended +for by the deists. Moreover, the influence of the deistic writers had an +incalculable influence in the gradual progress towards tolerance, and in +the spread of a broader attitude towards intellectual problems, and this +too, though, as we have seen, the original deists devoted themselves +mainly to a crusade against the doctrine of revelation. + +The original deists displayed a singular incapacity to understand the +true conditions of history; yet amongst them there were some who pointed +the way to the truer, more generous interpretation of the past. When +Shaftesbury wrote that "religion is still a discipline, and progress of +the soul towards perfection," he gave birth to the same thought that was +afterwards hailed in Lessing's _Erziehung des Menschengeschlechtes_ as +the dawn of a fuller and a purer light on the history of religion and on +the development of the spiritual life of mankind. + + AUTHORITIES.--See John Leland, _A View of the Principal Deistical + Writers_ (2 vols., 1754-1756; ed. 1837); G. V. Lechler, _Geschichte + des englischen Deismus_ (2 vols., 1841); L. Noack, _Die Freidenker in + der Religion_ (Bern, 1853-1855); John Hunt, _Religious Thought in + England_ (3 vols., 1870-1872); Leslie Stephen, _History of English + Thought in the 18th Century_ (2 vols., 1876); A. S. Farrar, _A + Critical History of Free Thought_ (1862, Bampton Lectures); J. H. + Overton and F. Relton, _The English Church from the Accession of + George I. to the end of the 18th Century_ (1906; especially chap. iv., + "The Answer to Deism"); A. W. Benn, _History of English Rationalism in + the 19th Century_ (1906); i. 111 ff.; J. M. Robertson, _Short History + of Free Thought_ (1906); G. Ch. B. Punjer, _Geschichte der + christlichen Religionsphilosophie seit der Reformation_ (Brunswick, + 1880); M. W. Wiseman, _Dynamics of Religion_ (London, 1897), pt. ii.; + article "Deismus" in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (vol. iv., + 1898). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The right of the orthodox party to use this name was asserted by + the publication in 1715 of a journal called _The Freethinker_, + conducted by anti-deistic clergymen. The term _libertin_ appears to + have been used first as a hostile epithet of the Brethren of the Free + Spirit, a 13th-century sect which was accused not only of + free-thought but also of licentious living. + + [2] See the separate biographies of these writers. The three most + significant names after Lord Herbert are those of Toland, Wollaston + and Tindal. + + + + +DEISTER, a chain of hills in Germany, in the Prussian province of +Hanover, about 15 m. S.W. of the city of Hanover. It runs in a +north-westerly direction from Springe in the S. to Rodenberg in the N. +It has a total length of 14 m., and rises in the Hofeler to a height of +1250 ft. The chain is well-wooded and abounds in game. There are some +coal mines and sandstone quarries. + + + + +DEJAZET, PAULINE VIRGINIE (1798-1875), French actress, born in Paris on +the 30th of August 1798, made her first appearance on the stage at the +age of five. It was not until 1820, when she began her seven years' +connexion with the recently founded Gymnase, that she won her triumphs +in soubrette and "breeches" parts, which came to be known as +"_Dejazets_." From 1828 she played at the Nouveautes for three years, +then at the Varietes, and finally became manager, with her son, of the +Folies, which was renamed the Theatre Dejazet. Here, even at the age of +sixty-five, she had marvellous success in youthful parts, especially in +a number of Sardou's earlier plays, previously unacted. She retired in +1868, and died on the 1st of December 1875, leaving a great name in the +annals of the French stage. + + See Duval's _Virginie Dejazet_ (1876). + + + + +DE KALB, a city of De Kalb county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the N. part of +the state, about 58 m. W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 2579; (1900) 5904 +(1520 foreign-born); (1910) 8102. De Kalb is served by the Chicago Great +Western, the Chicago & North-Western, and the Illinois, Iowa & Minnesota +railways, and by interurban electric lines. It is the seat of the +Northern Illinois state normal school (opened in 1899). The principal +manufactures of De Kalb are woven and barbed wire, waggons and +agricultural implements, pianos, shoes, gloves, and creamery packages. +The city has important dairy interests also. De Kalb was first settled +in 1832, was known as Buena Vista until 1840, was incorporated as a +village in 1861, and in 1877 was organized under the general state law +as a city. + + + + +DE KEYSER, THOMAS (1596 or 1597-1667), Dutch painter, was born at +Amsterdam, the son of the architect and sculptor Hendrik de Keyser. We +have no definite knowledge of his training, and but scant information as +to the course of his life, though it is known that he owned a basalt +business between 1640 and 1654. Aert Pietersz, Cornelis vanider Voort, +Werner van Valckert and Nicolas Elias are accredited by different +authorities with having developed his talent; and M. Karl Woermann, who +has pronounced in favour of Nicolas Elias is supported by the fact that +almost all that master's pictures were formerly attributed to De Keyser, +who, in like fashion, exercised some influence upon Rembrandt when he +first went to Amsterdam in 1631. De Keyser chiefly excelled as a +portrait painter, though he also executed some historical and +mythological pictures, such as the "Theseus" and "Ariadne" in the +Amsterdam town hall. His portraiture is full of character and masterly +in handling, and often, as in the "Old Woman" of the Budapest gallery, +is distinguished by a rich golden glow of colour and Rembrandtesque +chiaroscuro. Some of his portraits are life-size, but the artist +generally preferred to keep them on a considerably smaller scale, like +the famous "Group of Amsterdam Burgomasters" assembled to receive Marie +de' Medici in 1638, now at the Hague museum. The sketch for this +important painting, together with three other drawings, was sold at the +Gallitzin sale in 1783 for the sum of threepence. The German emperor +owns an "Equestrian Portrait of a young Dutchman," by De Keyser, a late +work which in general disposition and in the soft manner of painting +recalled the work of Cuyp. Similar pictures are in the Dresden and +Frankfort museums, in the Heyl collection at Worms, and the +Liechtenstein Gallery in Vienna. The National Gallery, London, owns a +characteristic portrait group of a "Merchant with his Clerk"; the Hague +museum, besides the group already referred to, a magnificent "Portrait +of a Savant," and the Haarlem museum a fine portrait of "Claes +Fabricius." At the Ryks Museum in Amsterdam there are no fewer than +twelve works from his brush, and other important examples are to be +found in Brussels, Munich, Copenhagen and St Petersburg. + + + + +DEKKER, EDWARD DOUWES (1820-1887), Dutch writer, commonly known as +MULTATULI, was born at Amsterdam on the 2nd of March 1820. His father, a +ship's captain, intended his son for trade, but this humdrum prospect +disgusted him, and in 1838 he went out to Java, and obtained a post in +the Inland Revenue. He rose from one position to another, until, in +1851, he found himself assistant-resident at Amboyna, in the Moluccas. +In 1857 he was transferred to Lebak, in the Bantam residency of Java. +By this time, however, all the secrets of Dutch administration were +known to him, and he had begun to protest against the abuses of the +colonial system. In consequence he was threatened with dismissal from +his office for his openness of speech, and, throwing up his appointment, +he returned to Holland in a state of fierce indignation. He determined +to expose in detail the scandals he had witnessed, and he began to do so +in newspaper articles and pamphlets. Little notice, however, was taken +of his protestations until, in 1860, he published, under the pseudonym +of "Multatuli," his romance entitled _Max Havelaar_. An attempt was made +to ignore this brilliant and irregular book, but in vain; it was read +all over Europe. The exposure of the abuse of free labour in the Dutch +Indies was complete, although there were not wanting apologists who +accused Dekker's terrible picture of being over-coloured. He was now +fairly launched on literature, and he lost no time in publishing _Love +Letters_ (1861), which, in spite of their mild title, proved to be +mordant satires of the most rancorous and unsparing kind. The literary +merit of Multatuli's work was much contested; he received an unexpected +and most valuable ally in Vosmaer. He continued to write much, and to +faggot his miscellanies in uniform volumes called _Ideas_, of which +seven appeared between 1862 and 1877. Douwes quitted Holland, snaking +off her dust from his feet, and went to live at Wiesbaden. He now made +several attempts to gain the stage, and one of his pieces, _The School +for Princes_, 1875 (published in the fourth volume of _Ideas_), pleased +himself so highly that he is said to have styled it the greatest drama +ever written. It is a fine poem, written in blank verse, like an English +tragedy, and not in Dutch Alexandrines; but it is undramatic, and has +not held the boards. Douwes Dekker moved his residence to Nieder +Ingelheim, on the Rhine, and there he died on the 19th of February 1887. + +Towards the end of his career he was the centre of a crowd of disciples +and imitators, who did his reputation no service; he is now, again, in +danger of being read too little. To understand his fame, it is necessary +to remember the sensational way in which he broke into the dulness of +Dutch literature fifty years ago, like a flame out of the Far East. He +was ardent, provocative, perhaps a little hysterical, but he made +himself heard all over Europe. He brought an exceedingly severe +indictment against the egotism and brutality of the administrators of +Dutch India, and he framed it in a literary form which was brilliantly +original. Not satisfied with this, he attacked, in a fury that was +sometimes blind, everything that seemed to him falsely conventional in +Dutch religion, government, society and morals. He respected nothing, he +left no institution untouched. Now that it is possible to look back upon +Multatuli without passion, we see in him, not what Dutch enthusiasm +saw,--"the second writer of Europe in the nineteenth century" (Victor +Hugo being presumably the first),--but a great man who was a powerful +and glowing author, yet hardly an artist, a reckless enthusiast, who was +inspired by indignation and a burning sense of justice, who cared little +for his means if only he could produce his effect. He is seen to his +best and worst in _Max Havelaar_; his _Ideas_, hard, fantastic and +sardonic, seldom offer any solid satisfaction to the foreign reader. But +Multatuli deserves remembrance, if only on account of the unequalled +effect his writing had in rousing Holland from the intellectual and +moral lethargy in which she lay half a century ago. (E. G.) + + + + +DEKKER, JEREMIAS DE (1610-1666), Dutch poet, was born at Dort in 1610. +His father was a native of Antwerp, who, having embraced the reformed +religion, had been compelled to take refuge in Holland. Entering his +father's business at an early age, he found leisure to cultivate his +taste for literature and especially for poetry, and to acquire without +assistance a competent knowledge of English, French, Latin and Italian. +His first poem was a paraphrase of the Lamentations of Jeremiah +(_Klaagliederen van Jeremias_), which was followed by translations and +imitations of Horace, Juvenal and other Latin poets. The most important +of his original poems were a collection of epigrams (_Puntdichten_) and +a satire in praise of avarice (_Lof der Geldzucht_). The latter is his +best-known work. Written in a vein of light and yet effective irony, it +is usually ranked by critics along with Erasmus's _Praise of Folly_. +Dekker died at Amsterdam in November 1666. + + A complete collection of his poems, edited by Brouerius van Nideck, + was published at Amsterdam in 1726 under the title _Exercices + poetiques_ (2 vols. 4to.). Selections from his poems are included in + Siegenbeck's _Proeven van nederduitsche Dichtkunde_ (1823), and from + his epigrams in Geijsbeek's _Epigrammatische Anthologie_ (1827). + + + + +DEKKER (or DECKER), THOMAS (c. 1570-1641), English dramatist, was born +in London. His name occurs frequently in Henslowe's _Diary_ during the +last three years of the 16th century; he is mentioned there as receiving +loans and payments for writing plays in conjunction with Ben Jonson, +Drayton, Chettle, Haughton, Wilson, Day and others, and he would appear +to have been then in the most active employment as a playwright. The +titles of the plays on which he was engaged from April 1599 to March +1599/1600 are _Troilus and Cressida_, _Orestes Fures_, _Agamemnon_, _The +Gentle Craft_, _The Stepmother's Tragedy_, _Bear a Brain_, _Pagge of +Plymouth_, _Robert the Second_, _The Whole History of Fortunatus_, +_Patient Grissel_, _Truth's Supplication to Candlelight_, _The Spanish +Moor's Tragedy_, _The Seven Wise Masters_. At that date it is evident +that Dekker's services were in great request for the stage. He is first +mentioned in the Diary under date 8th of January 1597/1598, as having +sold a book, i.e. the manuscript of a play; the payments in 1599 are +generally made in advance, "in earnest" of work to be done. In the case +of three of the above plays, _Orestes Fures_, _Truth's Supplication_ and +_The Gentle Craft_, Dekker is paid as the sole author. Only _The Gentle +Craft_ has been preserved; it was published anonymously in 1600 under +the title of _The Shoemaker's Holiday_. It would be unsafe to argue from +the classical subjects of some of these plays that Dekker was then a +young man from the university, who had come up like so many others to +make a living by writing for the stage. Classical knowledge was then in +the air; playwrights in want of a subject were content with +translations, if they did not know the originals. However educated, +Dekker was then a young man just out of his teens, if he spoke with any +accuracy when he said that he was threescore in 1637. And it was not in +scholarly themes that he was destined to find his true vein. The call +for the publication of _The Gentle Craft_, which deals with the life of +the city, showed him where his strength lay. + +To give a general idea of the substance of Dekker's plays, there is no +better way than to call him the Dickens of the Elizabethan period. The +two men were as unlike as possible in their habits of work, Dekker +having apparently all the thriftlessness and impecunious shamelessness +of Micawber himself. Henslowe's _Diary_ contains two notes of payments +made in 1597/1598 and 1598/1599 to release Dekker from prison, and he is +supposed to have spent the years between 1613 and 1616 in the King's +Bench. Dekker's Bohemianism appears in the slightness and hurry of his +work, a strong contrast to the thoroughness and rich completeness of +every labour to which Dickens applied himself; perhaps also in the +exquisite freshness and sweetness of his songs, and the natural charm of +stray touches of expression and description in his plays. But he was +like Dickens in the bent of his genius towards the representation of the +life around him in London, as well as in the humorous kindliness of his +way of looking at that life, his vein of sentiment, and his eye for odd +characters, though the random pickings of Dekker, hopping here and there +in search of a subject, give less complete results than the more +systematic labours of Dickens. Dekker's Simon Eyre, the good-hearted, +mad shoemaker, and his Orlando Friscobaldo, are touched with a kindly +humour in which Dickens would have delighted; his Infelices, Fiamettas, +Tormiellas, even his Bellafront, have a certain likeness in type to the +heroines of Dickens; and his roaring blades and their gulls are +prototypes of Sir Mulberry Hawk and Lord Frederick Verisopht. Only there +is this great difference in the spirit of the two writers, that Dekker +wrote without the smallest apparent wish to reform the life that he saw, +desiring only to exhibit it; and that on the whole, apart from his +dramatist's necessity of finding interesting matter, he cast his eye +about rather with a liking for the discovery of good under unpromising +appearances than with any determination to detect and expose vice. The +observation must also be made that Dekker's personages have much more +individual character, more of that mixture of good and evil which we +find in real human beings. Hack-writer though Dekker was, and writing +often under sore pressure, there is no dramatist whose personages have +more of the breath of life in them; drawing with easy, unconstrained +hand, he was a master of those touches by which an imaginary figure is +brought home to us as a creature with human interests. A very large part +of the motive power in his plays consists in the temporary yielding to +an evil passion. The kindly philosophy that the best of natures may be +for a time perverted by passionate desires is the chief animating +principle of his comedy. He delights in showing women listening to +temptation, and apparently yielding, but still retaining sufficient +control over themselves to be capable of drawing back when on the verge +of the precipice. The wives of the citizens were his heroines, pursued +by the unlawful addresses of the gay young courtiers; and on the whole +Dekker, from inclination apparently as well as policy, though himself, +if Ben Jonson's satire had any point, a bit of a dandy in his youth, +took the part of morality and the city, and either struck the rakes with +remorse or made the objects of their machinations clever enough to +outwit them. From Dekker's plays we get a very lively impression of all +that was picturesque and theatrically interesting in the city life of +the time, the interiors of the shops and the houses, the tastes of the +citizens and their wives, the tavern and tobacco-shop manners of the +youthful aristocracy and their satellites. The social student cannot +afford to overlook Dekker; there is no other dramatist of that age, +except Thomas Middleton, from whom we can get such a vivid picture of +contemporary manners in London. He drew direct from life; in so far as +he idealized, he did so not in obedience to scholarly precepts or +dogmatic theories, but in the immediate interests of good-natured farce +and tender-hearted sentiment. + +In all the serious parts of Dekker's plays there is a charming delicacy +of touch, and his smallest scraps of song are bewitching; but his plays, +as plays, owe much more to the interest of the characters and the +incidents than to any excellence of construction. We see what use could +be made of his materials by a stronger intellect in _Westward Ho!_ which +he wrote in conjunction with John Webster. The play, somehow, though the +parts are more firmly knit together, and it has more unity of purpose, +is not so interesting as Dekker's unaided work. Middleton formed a more +successful combination with Dekker than Webster; there is some evidence +that in _The Honest Whore_, or _The Converted Courtesan_, which is +generally regarded as the best that bears Dekker's name, he had the +assistance of Middleton, although the assistance was so immaterial as +not to be worth acknowledging in the title-page. Still that Middleton, a +man of little genius but of much practical talent and robust humour, was +serviceable to Dekker in determining the form of the play may well be +believed. The two wrote another play in concert, _The Roaring Girl_, for +which Middleton probably contributed a good deal of the matter, as well +as a more symmetrical form than Dekker seems to have been capable of +devising. In _The Witch of Edmonton_, except in a few scenes, it is +difficult to trace the hand of Dekker with any certainty; his +collaborators were John Ford and William Rowley; to Ford probably +belongs the intense brooding and murderous wrath of the old hag, which +are too direct and hard in their energy for Dekker, while Rowley may be +supposed to be responsible for the delineation of country life. _The +Virgin Martyr_, one of the best constructed of his plays, was written in +conjunction with Massinger, to whom the form is no doubt due. Dekker's +plays contain a few songs which show him to have been possessed of very +great lyrical skill, but of this he seems to have made sadly little use. +His poem of _Canaans Calamitie_--if indeed it be his, which is hard to +believe--is exceedingly poor stuff, and the verse portion of his +_Dreame_, though containing some good lines, is, as a whole, not much +better. + +When Gerard Langbaine wrote his _Account of the English Dramatic Poets_ +in 1691, he spoke of Dekker as being "more famous for the contention he +had with Ben Jonson for the bays, than for any great reputation he had +gained by his own writings." This is an opinion that could not be +professed now, when Dekker's work is read. In the contention with Ben +Jonson, one of the most celebrated quarrels of authors, the origin of +which is matter of dispute, Dekker seems to have had very much the best +of it. We can imagine that Jonson's attack was stinging at the time, +because it seems to be full of sarcastic personalities, but it is dull +enough now when nobody knows what Dekker was like, nor what was the +character of his mother. There is nothing in the _Poetaster_ that has +any point as applied to Dekker's powers as a dramatist, while, on the +contrary, _Satiromastix, or the Untrussing of the Humorous Poet_ is full +of pungent ridicule of Jonson's style, and of retorts and insults +conceived in the happiest spirit of good-natured mockery. Dekker has +been accused of poverty of invention in adopting the character of the +_Poetaster_, but it is of the very pith of the jest that Dekker should +have set on Jonson's own foul-mouthed Captain Tucca to abuse Horace +himself. + + WORKS.--_The Pleasant Comedie of Old Fortunatus_ (1600); _The + Shomakers Holiday. Or The gentle Craft. With the humorous life of + Simon Eyre, shoomaker, and Lord Maior of London_ (1600); + _Satiromastix. Or The untrussing of the Humorous Poet_ (1602); _The + Pleasant Comodie of Patient Grissill_ (1603), with Chettle and + Haughton; _The Honest Whore. With The Humours of the Patient Man, and + the Longing Wife_ (1604); _North-Ward Hoe_ (1607), with John Webster; + _West-Ward Hoe_ (1607), with John Webster; _The Whore of Babylon_ + (1607); _The Famous History of Sir Thomas Wyat. With the Coronation of + Queen Mary, and the coming in of King Philip_ (1607), with John + Webster; _The Roaring Girle. Or Moll Cut-Purse_ (1611), with Thomas + Middleton; _The Virgin Martir_ (1622), with Massinger; _If It Be Not + Good, the Divel is in it_ (1612); _The Second Part of the Honest + Whore. With the Humors of the Patient Man, the Impatient Wife; the + Honest Whore, perswaded by strong Arguments to turne Curtizan againe; + her brave refuting those Arguments. And lastly, the Comicall Passages + of an Italian Bridewell, where the Scaene ends_ (1630); _A + Tragi-Comedy: Called, Match mee in London_ (1631); _The Wonder of a + Kingdome_ (1636); _The Witch of Edmonton. A known true Story. Composed + into a Tragi-Comedy_ (1658), with William Rowley and John Ford. _The + Sun's Darling_ (1656) was possibly written by Ford and Dekker, or may + be perhaps more correctly regarded as a recast by Ford of a masque by + Dekker, perhaps his lost play of _Phaeton_. The pageants for the Lord + Mayor's shows of 1612 and 1629 were written by Dekker, and both are + preserved. His tracts are invaluable for the light which they throw on + the London of his time, especially in their descriptions of the + circumstances of the theatre. Their titles, many of which are + necessarily abbreviated, are: _Canaans Calamitie, Jerusalems Miserie, + and Englands Mirror_ (1598), in verse; _The Wonderfull Yeare 1603. + Wherein is shewed the picture of London lying sicke of the Plague_ + (1603); _The Batchelars Banquet_ (1603); a brilliant adaptation of + _Les Quinze Joyes de mariage_; the _Seven Deadly Sinnes of London_ + (1606); _Newes from Hell, Brought by the Divells Carrier_ (1606), + reprinted in the next year with some interesting additions as _A + Knights Conjuring; Jests to make you Merie_ (1607), with George + Wilkins; _The Belman of London: Bringing to Light the most notorious + villanies that are now practised in the Kingdome_ (1608); followed by + a second part and enlarged editions under other titles; _The Dead + Tearme_ (1608); _The Ravens Almanacke, foretelling of a Plague, Famine + and Civill Warre_ (1609), ridiculing the almanac makers; _The Guls + Horne-booke_ (1609), the most famous of all his tracts, providing a + code of manners for the Elizabethan gallant, in the aisle of St + Paul's, at the ordinary, at the playhouse, and other resorts; _Worke + for Armorours, or the Peace is Broken_ (1609); _Foure Birds of Noahs + Ark_ (1609); _A Strange Horse-Race_ (1613); _Dekker his Dreame ..._ + (1620), in verse and prose, illustrated with a woodcut of the dreamer; + and _A Rod for Run-awayes_ (1625). This long list does not exhaust + Dekker's work, much of which is lost. + + AUTHORITIES.--An edition of the collected dramatic works of Dekker by + R. H. Shepherd appeared in 1873; his prose tracts and poems were + included in Dr A. B. Grosart's _Huth Library_ (1884-1886): both these + contain memoirs of him, but by far the most complete account of his + life and writings is to be found in the article by A. H. Bullen in the + _Dictionary of National Biography_. See also the elaborate discussion + of his plays in Mr Fleay's _Biographical Chronicle_ (1891), i. 115, + &c., and, for his quarrel with Ben Jonson, Prof. J. H. Penniman's _War + of the Theatres_ (Boston, 1897) and Mr R. A. Small's _Stage Quarrel + between Ben Jonson and the so-called Poetasters_ (Breslau, 1899). A + selection from his plays was edited for the Mermaid Series (1887; new + series, 1904) by Ernest Rhys. An essay on Dekker by A. C. Swinburne + appeared in _The Nineteenth Century_ for January 1887. + (W. M.; R. B. McK.) + + + + +DE LA BECHE, SIR HENRY THOMAS (1796-1855), English geologist, was born +in the year 1796. His father, an officer in the army, possessed landed +property in Jamaica, but died while his son was still young. The boy +accordingly spent his youth with his mother at Lyme Regis among the +interesting and picturesque coast cliffs of the south-west of England, +where he imbibed a love for geological pursuits and cultivated a marked +artistic faculty. When fourteen years of age, being destined, like his +friend Murchison, for the military profession, he entered the college at +Great Marlow, where he distinguished himself by the rapidity and skill +with which he executed sketches showing the salient features of a +district. The peace of 1815, however, changed his career and he devoted +himself with ever-increasing assiduity to the pursuit of geology. When +only twenty-one years of age he joined the Geological Society of London, +continuing throughout life to be one of its most active, useful and +honoured members. He was president in 1848-1849. Possessing a fortune +sufficient for the gratification of his tastes, he visited many +localities of geological interest, not only in Britain, but also on the +continent, in France and Switzerland. His journeys seldom failed to bear +fruit in suggestive papers accompanied by sketches. Early attachment to +the south-west of England led him back to that region, where, with +enlarged experience, he began the detailed investigation of the rocks of +Cornwall and Devon. Thrown much into contact with the mining community +of that part of the country, he conceived the idea that the nation ought +to compile a geological map of the United Kingdom, and collect and +preserve specimens to illustrate, and aid in further developing, its +mineral industries. He showed his skilful management of affairs by +inducing the government of the day to recognize his work and give him an +appointment in connexion with the Ordnance Survey. This formed the +starting point of the present Geological Survey of Great Britain, which +was officially recognized in 1835, when De la Beche was appointed +director. Year by year increasing stores of valuable specimens were +transmitted to London; and the building at Craig's Court, where the +young Museum of Economic Geology was placed, became too small. But De la +Beche, having seen how fruitful his first idea had become, appealed to +the authorities not merely to provide a larger structure, but to widen +the whole scope of the scientific establishment of which he was the +head, so as to impart to it the character of a great educational +institution where practical as well as theoretical instruction should be +given in every branch of science necessary for the conduct of mining +work. In this endeavour he was again successful. Parliament sanctioned +the erection of a museum in Jermyn Street, London, and the organization +Of a staff of professors with laboratories and other appliances. The +establishment, in which were combined the offices of the Geological +Survey, the Museum of Practical Geology, The Royal School of Mines and +the Mining Record Office, was opened in 1851. Many foreign countries +have since formed geological surveys avowedly based upon the +organization and experience of that of the United Kingdom. The British +colonies, also, have in many instances established similar surveys for +the development of their mineral resources, and have had recourse to the +parent survey for advice and for officers to conduct the operations. + +De la Beche published numerous memoirs on English geology in the +_Transactions of the Geological Society of London_, as well as in the +_Memoirs of the Geological Survey_, notably the _Report on the Geology +of Cornwall, Devon and West Somerset_ (1839). He likewise wrote _A +Geological Manual_ (1831; 3rd ed., 1833); and a work of singular breadth +and clearness--_Researches in Theoretical Geology_ (1834)--in which he +enunciated a philosophical treatment of geological questions much in +advance of his time. An early volume, _How to Observe Geology_ (1835 and +1836), was rewritten and enlarged by him late in life, and published +under the title of _The Geological Observer_ (1851; 2nd ed., 1853). It +was marked by wide practical experience, multifarious knowledge, +philosophical insight and a genius for artistic delineation of +geological phenomena. He was elected F.R.S. in 1819. He received the +honour of knighthood in 1848, and near the close of his life was awarded +the Wollaston medal--the highest honour in the gift of the Geological +Society of London. After a life of constant activity he began to suffer +from partial paralysis, but, though becoming gradually worse, continued +able to transact his official business until a few days before his +death, which took place on the 13th of April 1855. + + See Sir A. Geikie's _Memoir of Sir A. C. Ramsay_ (1895), which + contains a sketch of the history of the Geological Survey, and of the + life of De la Beche (with portrait); also _Summary of Progress of the + Geological Survey for 1897_ (1898). + + + + +DELABORDE, HENRI FRANCOIS, COUNT (1764-1833), French soldier, was the +son of a baker of Dijon. At the outbreak of the French Revolution he +joined the "Volunteers of the Cote-d'Or," and passing rapidly through +all the junior grades, was made general of brigade after the combat of +Rhein-Zabern (1793). As chief of the staff he was present at the siege +of Toulon in the same year, and, promoted general of division, he was +for a time governor of Corsica. In 1794 Delaborde served on the Spanish +frontier, distinguishing himself at the Bidassoa (July 25) and Misquiriz +(October 16). His next command was on the Rhine. At the head of a +division he took part in the celebrated campaigns of 1795-97, and in +1796 covered Moreau's right when that general invaded Bavaria. Delaborde +was in constant military employment during the Consulate and the early +Empire. Made commander of the Legion of Honour in 1804, he received the +dignity of count in 1808. In that year he was serving in Portugal under +Junot. Against Sir Arthur Wellesley's English army he fought the +skillful brilliant rear-guard action of Rolica. In 1812 he was one of +Mortier's divisional leaders in the Russian War, and in the following +year was grand cross and governor of the castle of Compiegne. Joining +Napoleon in the Hundred Days, he was marked for punishment by the +returning Bourbons, sent before a court-martial, and only escaped +condemnation through a technical flaw in the wording of the charge. The +rest of his life was spent in retirement. + + + + +DELACROIX, FERDINAND VICTOR EUGENE (1798-1863), French historical painter, +leader of the Romantic movement, was born at Charenton-St-Maurice, near +Paris, on the 26th of April 1798. His father Charles Delacroix (1741-1805) +was a partisan of the most violent faction during the time of the +Revolution, and was foreign minister under the Directory. The family +affairs seem to have been conducted in the wildest manner, and the +accidents that befell the child, well authenticated as they are said to +be, make it almost a miracle that he survived. He was first nearly burned +to death in the cradle by a nurse falling asleep over a novel and the +candle dropping on the coverlet; this left permanent marks on his arms and +face. He was next dropped into the sea by another _bonne_, who was +climbing up a ship's side to see her lover. He was nearly poisoned, and +nearly choked, and, to crown all, he tried to hang himself, without any +thought of suicide, in imitation of a print exhibiting a man in that +position of final ignominy. The prediction of a charlatan founded on his +horoscope has been preserved: "Cet enfant deviendra un homme celebre, mais +sa vie sera des plus laborieuses, des plus tourmentees, et toujours livree +a la contradiction." + +Delacroix the elder (also known as Delacroix de Contaut) died at +Bordeaux when Eugene was seven years of age, and his mother returned to +Paris and placed him in the Lycee Napoleon. Afterwards, on his +determining to be a painter, he entered the _atelier_ of Baron Guerin, +who affected to treat him as an amateur. His fellow-pupil was Ary +Scheffer, who was alike by temperament and antecedents the opposite of +the _bizarre_ Delacroix, and the two remained antagonistic to the end of +life. Delacroix's acknowledged power and yet want of success with +artists and critics--Thiers being his only advocate--perhaps mainly +resulted from his bravura and rude dash in the use of the brush, at a +time when smooth roundness of surface was general. His first important +picture, "Dante and Virgil," was painted in his own studio; and when +Guerin went to see it he flew into a passion, and told him his picture +was absurd, detestable, exaggerated. "Why ask me to come and see this? +You knew what I must say." Yet his work was received at the Salon, and +produced an enthusiasm of debate (1822). Some said Gericault had worked +on it, but all treated it with respect. Still in private his position, +even after the larger tragic picture, the "Massacre of Chios," had been +deposited in the Luxembourg by the government (1824), became that of an +Ishmaelite. The war for the freedom of Greece then going on moved him +deeply, and his next two pictures--"Marino Faliero Decapitated on the +Giant's Staircase of the Ducal Palace" (which has always remained a +European success), and "Greece Lamenting on the Ruins of +Missolonghi"--with many smaller works, were exhibited for the benefit of +the patriots in 1826. This exhibition was much visited by the public, +and next year he produced another of his important works, +"Sardanapalus," from Byron's drama. After this, he says, "I became the +abomination of painting, I was refused water and salt,"--but, he adds +with singularly happy naivete, "J'etais enchante de moi-meme!" The +patrimony he inherited, or perhaps it should be said, what remained of +it, was 10,000 _livres de rente_, and with economy he lived on this, and +continued the expensive process of painting large historical pictures. +In 1831 he reappeared in the Salon with six works, and immediately after +left for Morocco, where he found much congenial matter. Delacroix never +went to Italy; he refused to go on principle, lest the old masters, +either in spirit or manner, should impair his originality and +self-dependence. His greatest admiration in literature was the poetry of +Byron; Shakespeare also attracted him for tragic inspirations; and of +course classic subjects had their turn of his easel. + +He continued his work indefatigably, having his pictures very seldom +favourably received at the Salon. These were sometimes very large, full +of incidents, with many figures. "Drawing of Lots in the Boat at Sea," +from Byron's _Don Juan_, and the "Taking of Constantinople by the +Christians" were of that character, and the former was one of his +noblest creations. In 1845 he was employed to decorate the library of +the Luxembourg, that of the chamber of deputies in 1847, the ceiling of +the gallery of Apollo in the Louvre in 1849 and that of the Salon de la +Paix in the hotel de ville in 1853. He died on the 13th of August 1863, +and in August 1864 an exhibition of his works was opened on the +Boulevard des Italiens. It contained 174 pictures, many of them of large +dimensions, and 303 drawings, showing immense perseverance as well as +energy and versatility. As a colourist, and a romantic painter, he now +ranks among the greatest of French artists. + + See also A. Robaut, _Delacroix_ (1885); E. Dargenty, _Delacroix par + lui-meme_ (1885); G. Moreau, _Delacroix et son oeuvre_ (1893); Dorothy + Bussy, _Eugene Delacroix_ (1907). + + + + +DE LA GARDIE, MAGNUS GABRIEL, COUNT (1622-1686), Swedish statesman, the +best-known member of an ancient family of French origin (the +D'Escouperies of Languedoc) which had been settled in Sweden since the +14th century. After a careful education, completed by the usual grand +tour, Magnus learned the art of war under Gustavus Horn, and during the +reign of Christina (1644-1654), whose prime favourite he became, though +the liaison was innocent enough, he was raised to the highest offices in +the state and loaded with distinctions. In 1646 he was sent at the head +of an extraordinary mission to France, and on his return married the +queen's cousin Marie Euphrosyne of Zweibrucken, who, being but a poor +princess, benefited greatly by her wedding with the richest of the +Swedish magnates. Immediately afterwards, De la Gardie was made a +senator, governor-general of Saxony during the last stages of the Thirty +Years' War, and, in 1652, lord high treasurer. In 1653 he fell into +disgrace and had to withdraw from court. During the reign of Charles X. +(1654-1660) he was employed in the Baltic provinces both as a civilian +and a soldier, although in the latter capacity he gave the martial king +but little satisfaction. Charles X. nevertheless, in his last will, +appointed De la Gardie grand-chancellor and a member of the council of +regency which ruled Sweden during the minority of Charles XI. +(1660-1672). During this period De la Gardie was the ruling spirit of +the government and represented the party of warlike adventure as opposed +to the party of peace and economy led by Counts Bonde and Brahe (qq.v.). +After a severe struggle De la Gardie's party finally prevailed, and its +triumph was marked by that general decline of personal and political +morality which has given to this regency its unenviable reputation. It +was De la Gardie who first made Sweden the obsequious hireling of the +foreign power which had the longest purse. The beginning of this +shameful "subsidy policy" was the treaty of Fontainebleau, 1661, by a +secret paragraph of which Sweden, in exchange for a considerable sum of +money, undertook to support the French candidate on the first vacancy of +the Polish throne. It was not, however, till the 14th of April 1672 that +Sweden, by the treaty of Stockholm, became a regular "mercenarius +Galliae," pledging herself, in return for 400,000 _ecus_ per annum in +peace and 600,000 in war time, to attack with 16,000 men those German +princes who might be disposed to assist Holland. The early disasters of +the unlucky war of 1675-1679 were rightly attributed to the +carelessness, extravagance, procrastination and general incompetence of +De la Gardie and his high aristocratic colleagues. In 1675 a special +commission was appointed to inquire into their conduct, and on the 27th +of May 1682 it decided that the regents and the senate were solely +responsible for dilapidations of the realm, the compensation due by them +to the crown being assessed at 4,000,000 _daler_ or L500,000. De la +Gardie was treated with relative leniency, but he "received permission +to retire to his estates for the rest of his life" and died there in +comparative poverty, a mere shadow of his former magnificent self. The +best sides of his character were his brilliant social gifts and his +intense devotion to literature and art. + + See Martin Veibull, _Sveriges Storhetstid_ (Stockholm, 1881); _Sv. + Hist._ iv.; Robert Nisbet Bain, _Scandinavia_ (Cambridge, 1905). + (R. N. B.) + + + + +DELAGOA BAY (Port. for the bay "of the lagoon"), an inlet of the Indian +Ocean on the east coast of South Africa, between 25 deg. 40' and 26 deg. +20' S., with a length from north to south of over 70 m. and a breadth of +about 20 m. The bay is the northern termination of the series of lagoons +which line the coast from Saint Lucia Bay. The opening is toward the +N.E. The southern part of the bay is formed by a peninsula, called the +Inyak peninsula, which on its inner or western side affords safe +anchorage. At its N.W. point is Port Melville. North of the peninsula is +Inyak Island, and beyond it a smaller island known as Elephant's Island. + +In spite of a bar at the entrance and a number of shallows within, +Delagoa Bay forms a valuable harbour, accessible to large vessels at all +seasons of the year. The surrounding country is low and very unhealthy, +but the island of Inyak has a height of 240 ft., and is used as a +sanatorium. A river 12 to 18 ft. deep, known as the Manhissa or Komati, +enters the bay at its northern end; several smaller streams, the +Matolla, the Umbelozi, and the Tembi, from the Lebombo Mountains, meet +towards the middle of the bay in the estuary called by the Portuguese +the Espirito Santo, but generally known as the English river; and the +Maputa, which has its headwaters in the Drakensberg, enters in the +south, as also does the Umfusi river. These rivers are the haunts of the +hippopotamus and the crocodile. + +The bay was discovered by the Portuguese navigator Antonio de Campo, one +of Vasco da Gama's companions, in 1502, and the Portuguese post of +Lourenco Marques was established not long after on the north side of the +English river. In 1720 the Dutch East India Company built a fort and +"factory" on the spot where Lourenco Marques now stands; but in 1730 the +settlement was abandoned. Thereafter the Portuguese +had--intermittently--trading stations in the Espirito Santo. These +stations were protected by small forts, usually incapable, however, of +withstanding attacks by the natives. In 1823 Captain (afterwards +Vice-Admiral) W. F. W. Owen, of the British navy, finding that the +Portuguese exercised no jurisdiction south of the settlement of Lourenco +Marques, concluded treaties of cession with native chiefs, hoisted the +British flag, and appropriated the country from the English river +southwards; but when he visited the bay again in 1824 he found that the +Portuguese, disregarding the British treaties, had concluded others with +the natives, and had endeavoured (unsuccessfully) to take military +possession of the country. Captain Owen rehoisted the British flag, but +the sovereignty of either power was left undecided till the claims of +the Transvaal Republic rendered a solution of the question urgent. In +the meantime Great Britain had taken no steps to exercise authority on +the spot, while the ravages of Zulu hordes confined Portuguese authority +to the limits of their fort. In 1835 Boers, under a leader named Orich, +had attempted to form a settlement on the bay, which is the natural +outlet for the Transvaal; and in 1868 the Transvaal president, Marthinus +Pretorius, claimed the country on each side of the Maputa down to the +sea. In the following year, however, the Transvaal acknowledged +Portugal's sovereignty over the bay. In 1861 Captain Bickford, R.N., had +declared Inyak and Elephant islands British territory; an act protested +against by the Lisbon authorities. In 1872 the dispute between Great +Britain and Portugal was submitted to the arbitration of M. Thiers, the +French president; and on the 19th of April 1875 his successor, Marshal +MacMahon, declared in favour of the Portuguese. It had been previously +agreed by Great Britain and Portugal that the right of pre-emption in +case of sale or cession should be given to the unsuccessful claimant to +the bay. Portuguese authority over the interior was not established +until some time after the MacMahon award; nominally the country south of +the Manhissa river was ceded to them by the Matshangana chief Umzila in +1861. In 1889 another dispute arose between Portugal and Great Britain +in consequence of the seizure by the Portuguese of the railway running +from the bay to the Transvaal. This dispute was referred to arbitration, +and in 1900 Portugal was condemned to pay nearly L1,000,000 in +compensation to the shareholders in the railway company. (See LOURENCO +MARQUES and GAZALAND.) + + For an account of the Delagoa Bay arbitration proceedings see Sir E. + Hertslet, _The Map of Africa by Treaty_, iii. 991-998 (London, 1909). + Consult also the British blue-book, _Delagoa Bay, Correspondence + respecting the Claims of Her Majesty's Government_ (London, 1875); L. + van Deventer, _La Hollande et la Baie Delagoa_ (The Hague, 1883); G. + McC. Theal, _The Portuguese in South Africa_ (London, 1896), and + _History of South Africa since September 1795_, vol. v. (London, + 1908). _The Narrative of Voyages to explore the shores of Africa ... + performed ... under direction of Captain W. F. W. Owen, R.N._ (London, + 1833) contains much interesting information concerning the district in + the early part of the 19th century. + + + + +DELAMBRE, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH (1749-1822), French astronomer, was born +at Amiens on the 19th of September 1749. His college course, begun at +Amiens under the abbe Jacques Delille, was finished in Paris, where he +took a scholarship at the college of Plessis. Despite extreme penury, he +then continued to study indefatigably ancient and modern languages, +history and literature, finally turning his attention to mathematics and +astronomy. In 1771 he became tutor to the son of M. d'Assy, +receiver-general of finances; and while acting in this capacity, +attended the lectures of J. J. Lalande, who, struck with his remarkable +acquirements, induced M. d'Assy in 1788 to install an observatory for +his benefit at his own residence. Here Delambre observed and computed +almost uninterruptedly, and in 1790 obtained for his Tables of Uranus +the prize offered by the academy of sciences, of which body he was +elected a member two years later. He was admitted to the Institute on +its organization in 1795, and became, in 1803, perpetual secretary to +its mathematical section. He, moreover, belonged from 1795 to the bureau +of longitudes. From 1792 to 1799 he was occupied with the measurement of +the arc of the meridian extending from Dunkirk to Barcelona, and +published a detailed account of the operations in _Base du systeme +metrique_ (3 vols., 1806, 1807, 1810), for which he was awarded in 1810 +the decennial prize of the Institute. The first consul nominated him +inspector-general of studies; he succeeded Lalande in 1807 as professor +of astronomy at the College de France, and filled the office of +treasurer to the imperial university from 1808 until its suppression in +1815. Delambre died at Paris on the 19th of August 1822. His last years +were devoted to researches into the history of science, resulting in the +successive publication of: _Histoire de l'astronomie ancienne_ (2 vols., +1817); _Histoire de l'astronomie au moyen age_ (1819); _Histoire de +l'astronomie moderne_ (2 vols., 1821); and _Histoire de l'astronomie au +XVIII^e siecle_, issued in 1827 under the care of C. L. Mathieu. These +books show marvellous erudition; but some of the judgments expressed in +them are warped by prejudice; they are diffuse in style and overloaded +with computations. He wrote besides: _Tables ecliptiques des satellites +de Jupiter_, inserted in the third edition of J. J. Lalande's +_Astronomie_ (1792), and republished in an improved form by the bureau +of longitudes in 1817; _Methodes analytiques pour la determination d'un +arc du meridien_ (1799); _Tables du soleil (publiees par le bureau des +longitudes)_ (1806); _Rapport historique sur les progres des sciences +mathematiques depuis l'an 1789_ (1810); _Abrege d'astronomie_ (1813); +_Astronomie theorique et pratique_ (1814); &c. + + See J. B. J. Fourier's "Eloge" in _Memoires de l'acad. des sciences_, + t. iv.; Ch. Dupin, _Revue encyclopedique_, t. xvi. (1822); _Biog. + universelle_, t. lxii. (C. L. Mathieu); Max. Marie, _Hist. des + sciences_, x. 31; R. Grant, _Hist. of Physical Astr._ pp. 96, 142, + 165; R. Wolf, _Geschichte der Astronomie_, p. 779, &c. (A. M. C.) + + + + +DELAMERE (or DE LA MER), GEORGE BOOTH, 1st BARON (1622-1684), son of +William Booth, a member of an ancient family settled at Dunham Massey in +Cheshire, and of Vere, daughter and co-heir of Sir Thomas Egerton, was +born in August 1622. He took an active part in the Civil War with his +grandfather, Sir George Booth, on the parliamentary side. He was +returned for Cheshire to the Long Parliament in 1645 and to Cromwell's +parliaments of 1654 and 1656. In 1655 he was appointed military +commissioner for Cheshire and treasurer at war. He was one of the +excluded members who tried and failed to regain their seats after the +fall of Richard Cromwell in 1659. He had for some time been regarded by +the royalists as a well-wisher to their cause, and was described to the +king in May 1659 as "very considerable in his country, a presbyterian in +opinion, yet so moral a man.... I think your Majesty may safely [rely] +on him and his promises which are considerable and hearty."[1] He now +became one of the chief leaders of the new "royalists" who at this time +united with the cavaliers to effect the restoration. A rising was +arranged for the 5th of August in several districts, and Booth took +charge of operations in Cheshire, Lancashire and North Wales. He got +possession of Chester on the 19th, issued a proclamation declaring that +arms had been taken up "in vindication of the freedom of parliament, of +the known laws, liberty and property," and marched towards York. The +plot, however, was known to Thurloe. It had entirely failed in other +parts of the country, and Lambert advancing with his forces defeated +Booth's men at Nantwich Bridge. Booth himself escaped disguised as a +woman, but was discovered at Newport Pagnell on the 23rd in the act of +shaving, and was imprisoned in the Tower. He was, however, soon +liberated, took his seat in the parliament of 1659-1660, and was one of +the twelve members deputed to carry the message of the Commons to +Charles II. at the Hague. In July 1660 he received a grant of L10,000, +having refused the larger sum of L20,000 at first offered to him, and on +the 20th of April 1661, on the occasion of the coronation, he was +created Baron Delamere, with a licence to create six new knights. The +same year he was appointed _custos rotulorum_ of Cheshire. In later +years he showed himself strongly antagonistic to the reactionary policy +of the government. He died on the 8th of August 1684, and was buried at +Bowdon. He married (1) Lady Catherine Clinton, daughter and co-heir of +Theophilus, 4th earl of Lincoln, by whom he had one daughter; and (2) +Lady Elizabeth Grey, daughter of Henry, 1st earl of Stamford, by whom, +besides five daughters, he had seven sons, the second of whom, Henry, +succeeded him in the title and estates and was created earl of +Warrington. The earldom became extinct on the death of the latter's son, +the 2nd earl, without male issue, in 1758, and the barony of Delamere +terminated in the person of the 4th baron in 1770; the title was revived +in 1821 in the Cholmondeley family. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Clarendon, _State Papers_, iii. 472. + + + + +DE LAND, a town and the county-seat of Volusia county, Florida, U.S.A., +111 m. by rail S. of Jacksonville, 20 m. from the Atlantic coast and 4 +m. from the St John's river. Pop. (1900) 1449; (1910) 2812. De Land is +served by the Atlantic Coast Line and by steamboats on the St John's +river. It has a fine winter climate, with an average temperature of 60 +deg. F., has sulphur springs, and is a health and winter resort. There +is a starch factory here; and the surrounding country is devoted to +fruit-growing. De Land is the seat of the John B. Stetson University +(co-educational), an undenominational institution under Baptist control, +founded in 1884, as an academy, by Henry A. De Land, a manufacturer of +Fairport, New York, and in 1887 incorporated under the name of De Land +University, which was changed in 1889 to the present name, in honour of +John Batterson Stetson (1830-1906), a Philadelphia manufacturer of hats, +who during his life gave nearly $500,000 to the institution. The +university includes a college of liberal arts, a department of law, a +school of technology, an academy, a normal school, a model school, a +business college and a school of music. De Land was founded in 1876 by +H. A. De Land, above mentioned, who built a public school here in 1877 +and a high school in 1883. + + + + +DELANE, JOHN THADEUS (1817-1879), editor of _The Times_ (London), was +born on the 11th of October 1817 in London. He was the second son of Mr +W. F. A. Delane, a barrister, of an old Irish family, who about 1832 was +appointed by Mr Walter financial manager of _The Times_. While still a +boy he attracted Mr Walter's attention, and it was always intended that +he should find work on the paper. He received a good general education +at private schools and King's College, London, and also at Magdalen +Hall, Oxford; after taking his degree in 1840 he at once began work on +the paper, though later he read for the bar, being called in 1847. In +1841 he succeeded Thomas Barnes as editor, a post which he occupied for +thirty-six years. He from the first obtained the best introductions into +society and the chief political circles, and had a position there such +as no journalist had previously enjoyed, using his opportunities with a +sure intuition for the way in which events would move. His staff +included some of the most brilliant men of the day, who worked together +with a common ideal. The result to the paper, which in those days had +hardly any real competitor in English journalism, was an excellence of +information which gave it great power. (See NEWSPAPERS.) Delane was a +man of many interests and great judgment; capable of long application +and concentrated attention, with power to seize always on the main point +at issue, and rapidly master the essential facts in the most complicated +affair. His general policy was to keep the paper a national organ of +opinion above party, but with a tendency to sympathize with the Liberal +movements of the day. He admired Palmerston and respected Lord Aberdeen, +and was of considerable use to both; and it was Lord Aberdeen himself +who, in 1845, told him of the impending repeal of the Corn Laws, an +incident round which many incorrect stories have gathered. The history, +however, of the events during the thirteen administrations, between 1841 +and 1877, in which _The Times_, and therefore Delane, played an +important part cannot here be recapitulated. In 1877 his health gave +way, and he retired from the editorship; and on the 22nd of November +1879 he died at Ascot. + + A biography by his nephew, Arthur Irwin Dasent, was published in 1908. + + + + +DELANY, MARY GRANVILLE (1700-1788), an Englishwoman of literary tastes, +was born at Coulston, Wilts, on the 14th of May 1700. She was a niece of +the 1st Lord Lansdowne. In 1717 or 1718 she was unhappily married to +Alexander Pendarves, a rich old Cornish landowner, who died in 1724. +During a visit to Ireland she met Dean Swift and his intimate friend, +the Irish divine, Patrick Delany, whose second wife she became in 1743. +After his death in 1768 she passed all her summers with her bosom friend +the dowager duchess of Portland--Prior's "Peggy"--and when the latter +died George III. and Queen Charlotte, whose affection for their "dearest +Mrs Delany" seems to have been most genuine, gave her a small house at +Windsor and a pension of L300 a year. Fanny Burney (Madame D'Arblay) was +introduced to her in 1783, and frequently visited her at her London home +and at Windsor, and owed to her friendship her court appointment. At +this time Mrs Delany was a charming and sweet old lady, with a +reputation for cutting out and making the ingenious "paper mosaiks" now +in the British Museum; she had known every one worth knowing in her day, +had corresponded with Swift and Young, and left an interesting picture +of the polite but commonplace English society of the 18th century in her +six volumes of _Autobiography and Letters_. Burke calls her "a real fine +lady"--"the model of an accomplished woman of former times." She died on +the 15th of April 1788. + + + + +DE LA REY, JACOBUS HERCULES (1847- ), Boer soldier, was born in the +Lichtenburg district, and in his youth and early manhood saw much +service in savage warfare. In 1893 he entered the Volksraad of the South +African Republic, and was an active supporter of the policy of General +Joubert. At the outbreak of the war with Great Britain in 1899 De La Rey +was made a general, and he was engaged in the western campaign against +Lord Methuen and Lord Roberts. He won his first great success at +Nitral's Nek on the 11th of July 1900, where he compelled the surrender +of a strong English detachment. In the second or guerrilla stage of the +war De La Rey became one of the most conspicuously successful of the +Boer leaders. He was assistant to General Louis Botha and a member of +the government, with charge of operations in the western Transvaal. The +principal actions in which he was successful (see also TRANSVAAL: +_History_) were Nooitgedacht, Vlakfontein and the defeat and capture of +Lord Methuen at Klerksdorp (March 7, 1902). The British general was +severely wounded in the action, and De La Rey released him at once, +being unable to afford him proper medical assistance. This humanity and +courtesy marked De La Rey's conduct throughout the war, and even more +than his military skill and daring earned for him the esteem of his +enemies. After the conclusion of peace De La Rey, who had borne a +prominent part in the negotiations, visited Europe with the other +generals, with the intention of raising funds to enable the Boers to +resettle their country. In December 1903 he went on a mission to India, +and induced the whole of the Boer prisoners of war detained at +Ahmednagar to accept the new order of things and to take the oath of +allegiance. In February 1907 General De La Rey was returned unopposed as +member for Ventersdorp in the legislative assembly of the first +Transvaal parliament under self-government. + + + + +DE LA RIVE, AUGUSTE ARTHUR (1801-1873), Swiss physicist, was born at +Geneva on the 9th of October 1801. He was the son of Charles Gaspard de +la Rive (1770-1834), who studied medicine at Edinburgh, and after +practising for a few years in London, became professor of pharmaceutical +chemistry at the academy of Geneva in 1802 and rector in 1823. After a +brilliant career as a student, he was appointed at the age of twenty-two +to the chair of natural philosophy in the academy of Geneva. For some +years after his appointment he devoted himself specially, with Francois +Marcet (1803-1883), to the investigation of the specific heat of gases, +and to observations for determining the temperature of the earth's +crust. Electrical studies, however, engaged most of his attention, +especially in connexion with the theory of the voltaic cell and the +electric discharge in rarefied gases. His researches on the +last-mentioned subject led him to form a new theory of the aurora +borealis. In 1840 he described a process for the electro-gilding of +silver and brass, for which in the following year he received a prize of +3000 francs from the French Academy of Sciences. Between 1854 and 1858 +he published a _Traite de l'electricite theorique et appliquee_, which +was translated into several languages. De la Rive's birth and fortune +gave him considerable social and political influence. He was +distinguished for his hospitality to literary and scientific men, and +for his interest in the welfare and independence of his native country. +In 1860, when the annexation of Savoy and Nice had led the Genevese to +fear French aggression, de la Rive was sent by his fellow-citizens on a +special embassy to England, and succeeded in securing a declaration from +the English government, which was communicated privately to that of +France, that any attack upon Geneva would be regarded as a _casus +belli_. On the occasion of this visit the university of Oxford conferred +upon de la Rive the honorary degree of D.C.L. When on his way to pass +the winter at Cannes he died suddenly at Marseilles on the 27th of +November 1873. + +His son, LUCIEN DE LA RIVE, born at Geneva on the 3rd of April 1834, +published papers on various mathematical and physical subjects, and with +Edouard Sarasin carried out investigations on the propagation of +electric waves. + + + + +DELAROCHE, HIPPOLYTE, commonly known as PAUL (1797-1856), French +painter, was born in Paris on the 17th of July 1797. His father was an +expert who had made a fortune, to some extent, by negotiating and +cataloguing, buying and selling. He was proud of his son's talent, and +able to forward his artistic education. The master selected was Gros, +then painting life-size histories, and surrounded by many pupils. In no +haste to make an appearance in the Salon, his first exhibited picture +was a large one, "Josabeth saving Joas" (1822). This picture led to his +acquaintance with Gericault and Delacroix, with whom he remained on the +most friendly terms, the three forming the central group of a numerous +body of historical painters, such as perhaps never before lived in one +locality and at one time. + +From 1822 the record of his life is to be found in the successive works +coming from his hand. He visited Italy in 1838 and 1843, when his +father-in-law, Horace Vernet, was director of the French Academy. His +studio in Paris was in the rue Mazarine, where he never spent a day +without some good result, his hand being sure and his knowledge great. +His subjects, definitely expressed and popular in their manner of +treatment, illustrating certain views of history dear to partisans, yet +romantic in their general interest, were painted with a firm, solid, +smooth surface, which gave an appearance of the highest finish. This +solidity, found also on the canvas of Vernet, Scheffer, Leopold Robert +and Ingres, was the manner of the day. It repudiates the technical charm +of texture and variety of handling which the English school inherited as +a tradition from the time of Reynolds; but it is more easily understood +by the world at large, since a picture so executed depends for its +interest rather on the history, scene in nature or object depicted, than +on the executive skill, which may or may not be critically appreciated. +We may add that his point of view of the historical characters which he +treated is not always just. "Cromwell lifting the Coffin-lid and looking +at the Body of Charles" is an incident only to be excused by an +improbable tradition; but "The King in the Guard-Room," with villainous +roundhead soldiers blowing tobacco smoke in his patient face, is a libel +on the Puritans; and "Queen Elizabeth dying on the Ground," like a +she-dragon no one dares to touch, is sensational; while the "Execution +of Lady Jane Grey" is represented as taking place in a dungeon. Nothing +can be more incorrect than this last as a reading of English history, +yet we forget the inaccuracy in admiration of the treatment which +represents Lady Jane, with bandaged sight, feeling for the block, her +maids covering their faces, and none with their eyes visible among the +many figures. On the other hand, "Strafford led to Execution," when Laud +stretches his lawn-covered arms out of the small high window of his cell +to give him a blessing as he passes along the corridor, is perfect; and +the splendid scene of Richelieu in his gorgeous barge, preceding the +boat containing Cinq-Mars and De Thou carried to execution by their +guards, is perhaps the most dramatic semi-historical work ever done. +"The Princes in the Tower" must also be mentioned as a very complete +creation; and the "Young female Martyr floating dead on the Tiber" is so +pathetic that criticism feels hard-hearted and ashamed before it. As a +realization of a page of authentic history, again, no picture can +surpass the "Assassination of the duc de Guise at Blois." The expression +of the murdered man stretched out by the side of the bed, the +conspirators all massed together towards the door and far from the body, +show exact study as well as insight into human nature. This work was +exhibited in his meridian time, 1835; and in the same year he exhibited +the "Head of an Angel," a study from Horace Vernet's young daughter +Louise, his love for whom was the absorbing passion of his life, and +from the shock of whose death, in 1845, it is said he never quite +recovered. By far his finest productions after her death are of the most +serious character, a sequence of small elaborate pictures of incidents +in the Passion. Two of these, the Virgin and the other Maries, with the +apostles Peter and John, within a nearly dark apartment, hearing the +crowd as it passes haling Christ to Calvary, and St John conducting the +Virgin home again after all is over, are beyond all praise as exhibiting +the divine story from a simply human point of view. They are pure and +elevated, and also dramatic and painful. Delaroche was not troubled by +ideals, and had no affectation of them. His sound but hard execution +allowed no mystery to intervene between him and his _motif_, which was +always intelligible to the million, so that he escaped all the waste of +energy that painters who try to be poets on canvas suffer. Thus it is +that essentially the same treatment was applied by him to the characters +of distant historical times, the founders of the Christian religion, and +the real people of his own day, such as "Napoleon at Fontainebleau," or +"Napoleon at St Helena," or "Marie Antoinette leaving the Convention" +after her sentence. + +In 1837 Delaroche received the commission for the great picture, 27 +metres long, in the hemicycle of the lecture theatre of the Ecole des +Beaux Arts. This represents the great artists of the modern ages +assembled in groups on either hand of a central elevation of white +marble steps, on the topmost of which are three thrones filled by the +architects and sculptors of the Parthenon. To supply the female element +in this vast composition he introduced the genii or muses, who symbolize +or reign over the arts, leaning against the balustrade of the steps, +beautiful and queenly figures with a certain antique perfection of form, +but not informed by any wonderful or profound expression. The portrait +figures are nearly all unexceptionable and admirable. This great and +successful work is on the wall itself, an inner wall however, and is +executed in oil. It was finished in 1841, and considerably injured by a +fire which occurred in 1855, which injury he immediately set himself to +remedy (finished by Robert-Fleury); but he died before he had well +begun, on the 4th of November 1856. + +Personally Delaroche exercised even a greater influence than by his +works. Though short and not powerfully made, he impressed every one as +rather tall than otherwise; his physiognomy was accentuated and firm, +and his fine forehead gave him the air of a minister of state. + + See Rees, _Delaroche_ (London, 1880). (W. B. Sc.) + + + + +DELARUE, GERVAIS (1751-1835), French historical investigator, formerly +regarded as one of the chief authorities on Norman and Anglo-Norman +literature, was a native of Caen. He received his education at the +university of that town, and was ultimately raised to the rank of +professor. His first historical enterprise was interrupted by the French +Revolution, which forced him to take refuge in England, where he took +the opportunity of examining a vast mass of original documents in the +Tower and elsewhere, and received much encouragement, from Sir Walter +Scott among others. From England he passed over to Holland, still in +prosecution of his favourite task; and there he remained till in 1798 he +returned to France. The rest of his life was spent in his native town, +where he was chosen principal of his university. While in England he had +been elected a member of the Royal Society of Antiquaries; and in his +own country he was made a corresponding member of the Institute, and was +enrolled in the Legion of Honour. Besides numerous articles in the +_Memoirs of the Royal Society of London_, the _Memoires de l'Institut_, +the _Memoires de la Societe d'Agriculture de Caen_, and in other +periodical collections, he published separately _Essais historiques sur +les Bardes, les Jongleurs, et les Trouveres normands et anglo-normands_ +(3 vols., 1834), and _Recherches historiques sur la Prairie de Caen_ +(1837); and after his death appeared _Memoires historiques sur le +palinod de Caen_ (1841), _Recherches sur la tapisserie de Bayeux_ +(1841), and _Nouveaux Essais historiques sur la ville de Caen_ (1842). +In all his writings he displays a strong partiality for everything +Norman, and rates the Norman influence on French and English literature +as of the very highest moment. + + + + +DE LA RUE, WARREN (1815-1889), British astronomer and chemist, son of +Thomas De la Rue, the founder of the large firm of stationers of that +name in London, was born in Guernsey on the 18th of January 1815. Having +completed his education in Paris, he entered his father's business, but +devoted his leisure hours to chemical and electrical researches, and +between 1836 and 1848 published several papers on these subjects. +Attracted to astronomy by the influence of James Nasmyth, he constructed +in 1850 a 13-in. reflecting telescope, mounted first at Canonbury, later +at Cranford, Middlesex, and with its aid executed many drawings of the +celestial bodies of singular beauty and fidelity. His chief title to +fame, however, is his pioneering work in the application of the art of +photography to astronomical research. In 1851 his attention was drawn to +a daguerreotype of the moon by G. P. Bond, shown at the great exhibition +of that year. Excited to emulation and employing the more rapid +wet-collodion process, he succeeded before long in obtaining exquisitely +defined lunar pictures, which remained unsurpassed until the appearance +of the Rutherfurd photographs in 1865. In 1854 he turned his attention +to solar physics, and for the purpose of obtaining a daily photographic +representation of the state of the solar surface he devised the +photo-heliograph, described in his report to the British Association, +"On Celestial Photography in England" (1859), and in his Bakerian +Lecture (_Phil. Trans._ vol. clii. pp. 333-416). Regular work with this +instrument, inaugurated at Kew by De la Rue in 1858, was carried on +there for fourteen years; and was continued at the Royal Observatory, +Greenwich, from 1873 to 1882. The results obtained in the years +1862-1866 were discussed in two memoirs, entitled "Researches on Solar +Physics," published by De la Rue, in conjunction with Professor Balfour +Stewart and Mr B. Loewy, in the _Phil. Trans._ (vol. clix. pp. 1-110, +and vol. clx. pp. 389-496). In 1860 De la Rue took the photo-heliograph +to Spain for the purpose of photographing the total solar eclipse which +occurred on the 18th of July of that year. This expedition formed the +subject of the Bakerian Lecture already referred to. The photographs +obtained on that occasion proved beyond doubt the solar character of the +prominences or red flames, seen around the limb of the moon during a +solar eclipse. In 1873 De la Rue gave up active work in astronomy, and +presented most of his astronomical instruments to the university +observatory, Oxford. Subsequently, in the year 1887, he provided the +same observatory with a 13-in. refractor to enable it to take part in +the International Photographic Survey of the Heavens. With Dr Hugo +Muller as his collaborator he published several papers of a chemical +character between the years 1856 and 1862, and investigated, 1868-1883, +the discharge of electricity through gases by means of a battery of +14,600 chloride of silver cells. He was twice president of the Chemical +Society, and also of the Royal Astronomical Society (1864-1866). In 1862 +he received the gold medal of the latter society, and in 1864 a Royal +medal from the Royal Society, for his observations on the total eclipse +of the sun in 1860, and for his improvements in astronomical +photography. He died in London on the 19th of April 1889. + + See _Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Soc._ l. 155; _Journ. Chem. Soc._ + lvii. 441; _Nature_, xl. 26; _The Times_ (April 22, 1889); Royal + Society, _Catalogue of Scientific Papers_. + + + + +DELATOR, in Roman history, properly one who gave notice (_deferre_) to +the treasury officials of moneys that had become due to the imperial +fisc. This special meaning was extended to those who lodged information +as to punishable offences, and further, to those who brought a public +accusation (whether true or not) against any person (especially with the +object of getting money). Although the word _delator_ itself, for +"common informer," is confined to imperial times, the right of public +accusation had long been in existence. When exercised from patriotic and +disinterested motives, its effects were beneficial; but the moment the +principle of reward was introduced, this was no longer the case. +Sometimes the accuser was rewarded with the rights of citizenship, a +place in the senate, or a share of the property of the accused. At the +end of the republican period, Cicero (_De Officiis_, ii. 14) expresses +his opinion that such accusations should be undertaken only in the +interests of the state or for other urgent reasons. Under the empire the +system degenerated into an abuse, which reached its height during the +reign of Tiberius, although the delators continued to exercise their +activity till the reign of Theodosius. They were drawn from all classes +of society,--patricians, knights, freedmen, slaves, philosophers, +literary men, and, above all, lawyers. The objects of their attacks were +the wealthy, all possible rivals of the emperor, and those whose conduct +implied a reproach against the imperial mode of life. Special +opportunities were afforded by the law of majestas, which (originally +directed against attacks on the ruler by word or deed) came to include +all kinds of accusations with which it really had nothing to do; indeed, +according to Tacitus, a charge of treason was regularly added to all +criminal charges. The chief motive for these accusations was no doubt +the desire of amassing wealth,[1] since by the law of majestas +one-fourth of the goods of the accused, even if he committed suicide in +order to avoid confiscation (which was always carried out in the case of +those condemned to capital punishment), was assured to the accuser (who +was hence called _quadruplator_). Pliny and Martial mention instances of +enormous fortunes amassed by those who carried on this hateful calling. +But it was not without its dangers. If the delator lost his case or +refused to carry it through, he was liable to the same penalties as the +accused; he was exposed to the risk of vengeance at the hands of the +proscribed in the event of their return, or of their relatives; while +emperors like Tiberius would have no scruples about banishing or putting +out of the way those of his creatures for whom he had no further use, +and who might have proved dangerous to himself. Under the better +emperors a reaction set in, and the severest penalties were inflicted +upon the delators. Titus drove into exile or reduced to slavery those +who had served Nero, after they had first been flogged in the +amphitheatre. The abuse naturally reappeared under a man like Domitian; +the delators, with whom Vespasian had not interfered, although he had +abolished trials for majestas, were again banished by Trajan, and +threatened with capital punishment in an edict of Constantine; but, as +has been said, the evil, which was an almost necessary accompaniment of +autocracy, lasted till the end of the 4th century. + + See Mayor's note on Juvenal iv. 48 for ancient authorities; C. + Merivale, _Hist. of the Romans under the Empire_, chap. 44; W. Rein, + _Criminalrecht der Romer_ (1842); T. Mommsen, _Romisches Strafrecht_ + (1899); Kleinfeller in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] "Delatores, genus hominum publico exitio repertum ... per praemia + eliciebantur" (Tacitus, _Annals_, iv. 30). + + + + +DELAUNAY, ELIE (1828-1891), French painter, was born at Nantes and +studied under Flandrin and at the Ecole des Beaux Arts. He worked in the +classicist manner of Ingres until, after winning the Prix de Rome, he +went to Italy in 1856, and abandoned the ideal of Raphaelesque +perfection for the sincerity and severity of the quattrocentists. As a +pure and firm draughtsman he stands second only to Ingres. After his +return from Rome he was entrusted with many important commissions for +decorative paintings, such as the frescoes in the church of St Nicholas +at Nantes; the three panels of "Apollo," "Orpheus" and "Amphion" at the +Paris opera-house; and twelve paintings for the great hall of the +council of state in the Palais Royal. His "Scenes from the Life of St +Genevieve," which he designed for the Pantheon, remained unfinished at +his death. The Luxembourg Museum has his famous "Plague in Rome" and a +nude figure of "Diana"; and the Nantes Museum, the "Lesson on the +Flute." In the last decade of his life he achieved great popularity as a +portrait painter. + + + + +DELAUNAY, LOUIS ARSENE (1826-1903), French actor, was born in Paris, the +son of a wine-seller. He studied at the Conservatoire, and made his +first formal appearance on the stage in 1845, in _Tartuffe_ at the +Odeon. After three years at this house he made his debut at the Comedie +Francaise as Dorante in Corneille's _Le Menteur_, and began a long and +brilliant career in young lover parts. He continued to act as _jeune +premier_ until he was sixty, his grace, marvellous diction and passion +enchanting his audiences. It was especially in the plays of Alfred de +Musset that his gifts found their happiest expression. In the +thirty-seven years during which he was a member of the Comedie +Francaise, Delaunay took or created nearly two hundred parts. He retired +in 1887, having been made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1883. + + + + +DELAVIGNE, JEAN FRANCOIS CASIMIR (1793-1843), French poet and dramatist, +was born on the 4th of April 1793 at Havre. His father sent him at an +early age to Paris, there to be educated at the Lycee Napoleon. +Constitutionally of an ardent and sympathetic temperament, he enlarged +his outlook by extensive miscellaneous reading. On the 20th of March +1811 the empress Marie Louise gave birth to a son, named in his very +cradle king of Rome. This event was celebrated by Delavigne in a +_Dithyrambe sur la naissance du roi de Rome_, which secured for him a +sinecure in the revenue office. + +About this time he competed twice for an academy prize, but without +success. Delavigne, inspired by the catastrophe of 1815, wrote two +impassioned poems, the first entitled Waterloo, the second, _Devastation +du musee_, both written in the heat of patriotic enthusiasm, and teeming +with popular political allusions. A third, but of inferior merit, _Sur +le besoin de s'unir apres le depart des etrangers_, was afterwards +added. These stirring pieces, termed by him _Messeniennes_, sounded a +keynote which found an echo in the hearts of all. Twenty-five thousand +copies were sold; Delavigne was famous. He was appointed to an honorary +librarianship, with no duties to discharge. In 1819 his play _Les vepres +Siciliennes_ was performed at the Odeon, then just rebuilt; it had +previously been refused for the Theatre Francais. On the night of the +first representation, which was warmly received, Picard, the manager, +threw himself into the arms of his elated friend, exclaiming, "You have +saved us! You are the founder of the second French Theatre." This +success was followed up by the production of the _Comediens_ (1820), a +poor play, with little plot, and the _Paria_ (1821), with still less, +but containing some well-written choruses. The latter piece obtained a +longer lease of life than its intrinsic literary merits warranted, on +account of the popularity of the political opinions freely expressed in +it--so freely expressed, indeed, that the displeasure of the king was +incurred, and Delavigne lost his post. But Louis Philippe, duke of +Orleans, willing to gain the people's good wishes by complimenting their +favourite, wrote to him as follows: "The thunder has descended on your +house; I offer you an apartment in mine." Accordingly Delavigne became +librarian at the Palais Royal, a position retained during the remainder +of his life. It was here that he wrote the _Ecole des vieillards_ +(1823), his best comedy, which gained his election to the Academy in +1825. To this period also belong _La Princesse Aurelie_ (1828), and +_Marino Faliero_ (1829), a drama in the romantic style. + +For his success as a writer Delavigne was in no small measure indebted +to the stirring nature of the times in which he lived. The +_Messeniennes_, which first introduced him to universal notice, had +their origin in the excitement consequent on the occupation of France by +the allies in 1815. Another crisis in his life and in the history of his +country, the revolution of 1830, stimulated him to the production of a +second masterpiece, _La Parisienne_. This song, set to music by Auber, +was on the lips of every Frenchman, and rivalled in popularity the +_Marseillaise_. A companion piece, _La Varsovienne_, was written for the +Poles, by whom it was sung on the march to battle. Other works of +Delavigne followed each other in rapid succession--_Louis XI_ (1832), +_Les Enfants d'Edouard_ (1833), _Don Juan d'Autriche_ (1835), _Une +Famille au temps du Luther_ (1836), _La Popularite_ (1838), _La Fille du +Cid_ (1839), _Le Conseiller rapporteur_ (1840), and _Charles VI_ (1843), +an opera partly written by his brother. In 1843 he quitted Paris to seek +in Italy the health his labours had cost him. At Lyons his strength +altogether gave way, and he died on the 11th of December. + +By many of his own time Delavigne was looked upon as unsurpassed and +unsurpassable. Every one bought and read his works. But the applause of +the moment was gained at the sacrifice of lasting fame. As a writer he +had many excellences. He expressed himself in a terse and vigorous +style. The poet of reason rather than of imagination, he recognized his +own province, and was rarely tempted to flights of fancy beyond his +powers. He wrote always as he would have spoken, from sincere +conviction. In private life he was in every way estimable,--upright, +amiable, devoid of all jealousy, and generous to a fault. + + His _Poesies_ and his _Theatre_ were published in 1863. His _Oeuvres + completes_ (new edition, 1855) contains a biographical notice by his + brother, Germain Delavigne, who is best known as a librettist in + opera. See also Sainte-Beuve, _Portraits litteraires_, vol. v.; A. + Favrot, _Etude sur Casimir Delavigne_ (1894); and F. Vuacheux, + _Casimir Delavigne_ (1893). + + + + +DELAWARE, a South Atlantic state of the United States of America, one of +the thirteen original states, situated between 38 deg. 27' and 39 deg. +50' N. lat. and between 75 deg. 2' and 75 deg. 47' W. long. (For map see +MARYLAND.) It is bounded N. and N.W. by Pennsylvania, E. by the Delaware +river and Delaware Bay, which separate it from New Jersey, and by the +Atlantic Ocean; S. and W. by Maryland. With the exception of Rhode +Island it is the smallest state in the Union, its area being 2370 sq. +m., of which 405 sq. m. are water surface. + +_Physical Features._--Delaware lies on the Atlantic coastal plain, and +is for the most part level and relatively low, its average elevation +above the sea being about 50 ft. It is situated in the eastern part of +the peninsula formed by Chesapeake Bay and the estuary of the Delaware +river. In the extreme N. the country is rolling, with moderately high +hills, moderately deep valleys and rapid streams. West of Wilmington +there rises a ridge which crosses the state in a north-westerly +direction and forms a watershed between Christiana and Brandywine +creeks, its highest elevation above sea-level being 280 ft. South of the +Christiana there begins another elevation, sandy and marshy, which +extends almost the entire length of the state from N.W. to S.E., and +forms a second water-parting. The streams that drain the state are small +and insignificant. Those of the N. flow into Brandywine and Christiana +creeks, whose estuary into Delaware river forms Wilmington harbour; +those of the S.W. have a common outlet in the Nanticoke river of +Maryland; those of the E. empty into Delaware Bay and the Atlantic +Ocean. The principal harbours are those of Wilmington, New Castle and +Lewes. The shore of the bay is marshy, that of the Atlantic is sandy. In +Kent county there are more than 60,000 acres of tidal marshland, some of +which has been reclaimed by means of dykes; Cypress Swamp in the extreme +S. has an area of 50,000 acres. The soils of the N. are clays, sometimes +mixed with loam; those of the central part are mainly loams; while those +of the S. are sands. + +Minerals are found only in the N. part of the state. Those of economic +value are kaolin, mined chiefly in the vicinity of Hockessin, New Castle +county, the static kaolin product being exceeded in 1903 only by that of +Pennsylvania among the states of the United States; granite, used for +road-making and rough construction work, found near Wilmington; and +brick and tile clays; but the value of their total product in 1902 was +less than $500,000. In 1906 the total mineral product was valued at +$814,126, of which $237,768 represented clay products and $146,346 +stone. In 1902 only 2.2% of the wage-earners were engaged in mining. + +The forests, which once afforded excellent timber, including white oak +for shipbuilding, have been greatly reduced by constant cutting; in 1900 +it was estimated that 700 sq. m. were wooded, but practically none of +this stand was of commercial importance. The fisheries, chiefly oyster, +sturgeon and shad, yield an annual product valued at about $250,000. + +The proximity of the Delaware and Chesapeake bays help to give Delaware +a mild and temperate climate. The mean annual temperature is +approximately 55 deg. F., ranging from 52 deg. in the S. to 56 deg. in +the N., and the extremes of heat and cold are 103 deg. in the summer and +-17 deg. in the winter. The annual rainfall, greater on the coast than +inland, ranges from 40 to 45 in. + +_Industry and Trade._--Delaware is pre-eminently an agricultural state. +In 1900 85% of its total land surface was enclosed in farms--a slight +decline since 1880. Seven-tenths of this was improved land, and the +expenditure per farm for fertilizers, greater in 1890 than the average +of the Atlantic states, approximated $55 per farm in 1900. In 1899 +Delaware spent more per acre for fertilizers than any of the other +states except New Jersey, Rhode Island and Maryland. The average size of +farms, as in the other states, has declined, falling from 124.6 acres in +1880 to 110.1 acres in 1900. A large proportion of farms (49.7%) were +operated by the owners, and the prevailing form of tenantry was the +share system by which 42.5% of the farms were cultivated, while 8.24% of +the farms were operated by negroes; these represented less than 4% of +the total value of farm property, the average value of farms operated by +negroes being $17 per acre, that of farms operated by whites, $23 per +acre. The total value of farm products in 1900 was $9,190,777, an +increase of 30% over that of 1890, while the cultivation of cereals +suffered on account of the competition of the western states. Indian +corn and wheat form the two largest crops, their product in 1900 being +respectively 24% and 52% greater than in 1890; but these crops when +compared with those of other states are relatively unimportant. In 1906 +the acreage of Indian corn was 196,472 acres with a yield of 5,894,160 +bushels valued at $2,475,547, and the acreage of wheat was 121,745 acres +with a yield of 1,947,920 bushels valued at $1,383,023. The value of the +fruit crop, for which Delaware has long been noted, also increased +during the same decade, but disease and frost caused a marked decline in +the production of peaches, a loss balanced by an increased production of +apples, pears and other orchard fruits. Large quantities of small +fruits, particularly of strawberries, raspberries and blackberries, are +produced, the southern portion of Sussex county being particularly +favourable for strawberry culture. The vicissitudes of fruit raising +have also caused increasing attention to be paid to market gardening, +dairying and stock raising, particularly to market gardening, an +industry which is favoured by the proximity of large cities. The same +influence also explains, partly at least, the decrease (of 13%) in the +value of farm property between 1890 and 1900. + +The development of manufacturing in Delaware has not been so extensive +as its favourable situation relative to the other states, the facilities +for water and railway transportation, and the proximity of the coal and +iron fields of Pennsylvania, would seem to warrant. In 1905 the +wage-earners engaged in manufacturing (under the factory system) +numbered 18,475, and the total capital invested in manufacturing was +$50,925,630; the gross value of products was $41,160,276; the net value +(deducting the value of material purchased in partly manufactured form) +was $16,276,470. The principal industry was the manufacture of iron and +steel products, which, including steel and rolling mills, car, foundry +and machine shops, and shipyards, represented more than 30% of the total +capital, and approximately 25% of the total gross product of the +manufactures in the state. The tanning, currying and finishing of +leather ranks second in importance, with a gross product ($10,250,842) +9% greater than that of 1900, and constituting about one-fourth of the +gross factory product of the state in 1905; and the manufacture of food +products ranked third, the value of the products of the fruit canning +and preserving industry having more than doubled in the decade +1890-1900, but falling off a little more than 7% in 1900-1905. The +manufacture of paper and wood pulp showed an increased product in 1905 +19.1% greater than in 1900; and flour and grist mill products were +valued in 1905 43.6% higher than in 1900. In the grand total of +manufactured products, however, the state showed in 1905 a decrease of +4% from 1900. The great manufacturing centre is Wilmington, where in +1905 almost two-thirds of the capital was invested, and nearly +three-fourths of the product was turned out. There is much manufacturing +also at New Castle. + +Delaware has good facilities for transportation. Its railway mileage in +January 1907 was 333.6 m; the Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington +(Pennsylvania system), the Baltimore & Philadelphia (Baltimore & Ohio +system), and the Wilmington & Northern (Philadelphia & Reading system) +cross the northern part of the state, while the Delaware railway (leased +by the Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington) runs the length of the +state below Wilmington, and another line, the Maryland, Delaware & +Virginia (controlled by the Baltimore, Chesapeake & Atlantic railway, +which is related to the Pennsylvania system), connects Lewes, Del., with +Love Point, Md., on the Chesapeake Bay. There is no state railway +commission, and the farmers of southern Delaware have suffered from +excessive freight rates. The Delaware & Chesapeake Canal (13(1/2) m. +long, 66 ft. wide and 10 ft. deep) crosses the N. part of the state, +connecting Delaware river and Chesapeake Bay, and thus affords +transportation by water from Baltimore to Philadelphia. The canal was +completed in 1829; in 1907 a commission appointed by the president to +report on a route for a waterway between Chesapeake and Delaware bays +selected the route of this canal. The states of Maryland and Delaware +aided in its construction, and in 1828 the national government also made +an appropriation. Wilmington is a customs district in which New Castle +and Lewes are included; but its trade is largely coastwise. Rehoboth and +Indian River bays are navigable for vessels of less than 6 ft. draft. +Opposite Lewes is the Delaware Breakwater (begun in 1818 and completed +in 1869, at a cost of more than $2,000,000), which forms a harbour 16 +ft. deep. In 1897-1901 the United States government constructed a +harbour of refuge, formed by a second breakwater 2(1/4) m. N. of the +existing one; its protected anchorage is 552 acres and the cost was more +than $2,090,000. The harbour is about equidistant from New York, +Philadelphia, and the capes of Chesapeake Bay, and is used chiefly by +vessels awaiting orders to ports for discharge or landing. The national +government also made appropriations for opening an inland waterway from +Lewes to Chincoteague Bay, Virginia, for improving Wilmington harbour, +and for making navigable several of the larger streams of the state. + +_Population._--The population in 1880 was 146,608; in 1890, 168,493, an +increase of 14.9%; in 1900, 184,735, a further increase of 9.6%; in +1910, 202,322. The rate of increase before 1850 was considerably smaller +than the rate after that date. Of the population in 1900, 92.5% was +native born and 7.5% was foreign-born. The negro population was 30,697, +or 16.6% of the total. In Indian River Hundred, Sussex county, there +formerly lived a community of people,--many of whom are of the fair +Caucasian type,--called "Indians" or "Moors"; they are now quite +generally dispersed throughout the state, especially in Kent and Sussex +counties. Their origin is unknown, but according to local tradition they +are the descendants of some Moorish sailors who were cast ashore many +years ago in a shipwreck; their own tradition is that they are descended +from the children of an Irish mother and a negro father, these children +having intermarried with Indians of the Nanticoke tribe. They have, +where practicable, separate churches and schools, the latter receiving +state aid. The urban population of Delaware (i.e. of Wilmington, the +only city having more than 5000 inhabitants) was, in 1900, 41.4% of the +state's population. There were thirty-five incorporated cities and +towns. The largest of these was the city of Wilmington, with 76,508 +inhabitants. The city next in size, New Castle, had a population of +3380, while the largest town, Dover, the capital of the state, had 3329. +The total number of communicants of all denominations in 1906 was +71,251,--32,402 Methodists, 24,228 Roman Catholics, 5200 Presbyterians, +3796 Protestant Episcopalians, and 2921 Baptists. + +_Government._--The constitution by which Delaware is governed was +adopted in 1897. Like the previous constitutions of 1776, 1792 and 1831, +it was promulgated by a constitutional convention without submission to +the people for ratification, and amendments may be adopted by a +two-thirds vote of each house in two consecutive legislatures. Its +character is distinctly democratic. The property qualification of state +senators and the restriction of suffrage to those who have paid county +or poll taxes are abolished; but suffrage is limited to male adults who +can read the state constitution in English, and can write their names, +unless physically disqualified, and who have registered. In 1907 an +amendment to the constitution was adopted, which struck out from the +instrument the clause requiring the payment of a registration fee of one +dollar by each elector. Important innovations in the constitution of +1897 are the office of lieutenant-governor, and the veto power of the +governor which may extend to parts and clauses of appropriation bills, +but a bill may be passed over his veto by a three-fifths vote of each +house of the legislature, and a bill becomes a law if not returned to +the legislature within ten days after its reception by the governor, +unless the session of the legislature shall have expired in the +meantime. The governor's regular term in office is four years, and he is +ineligible for a third term. All his appointments to offices where the +salary is more than $500 must be confirmed by the senate; all pardons +must be approved by a board of pardons. Representation in the +legislature is according to districts, members of the lower house being +chosen for two, and members of the upper house for four years. Members +of the lower house must be at least twenty-four years of age, members of +the senate at least twenty-seven; members of both houses must at the +time of their election have been citizens of the state for at least +three years. In November 1906 the people of the state voted (17,248 for; +2162 against) in favour of the provision of a system of advisory +initiative and advisory referendum; and in March 1907 the general +assembly passed an act providing initiative and referendum in the +municipal affairs in the city of Wilmington. The organization of the +judiciary is similar to that under the old English system. Six judges--a +chancellor, a chief justice, and four associate justices--of whom there +shall be at least one resident in each of the three counties, and not +more than three shall belong to the same political party, are appointed +by the governor, with the consent of the senate, for a term of twelve +years. A certain number of them hold courts of chancery, general +sessions, oyer and terminer, and an orphans' court; the six together +constitute the supreme court, but the judge from whose decision appeal +is made may not hear the appealed case unless the appeal is made at his +own instance. Bribery may be punished by fine, imprisonment and +disfranchisement for ten years. Corporations cannot be created by a +special act of the legislature, and no corporation may issue stock +except for an equivalent value of money, labour or property. In order to +attract capital to the state, the legislature has reduced the taxes on +corporations, has forbidden the repeal of charters, and has given +permission for the organization of corporations with both the power and +name of trust companies. Legislative divorces are forbidden by the +constitution, and a statute of 1901 subjects wife-beaters to corporal +punishment. Although punishment by whipping and by standing in the +pillory was prohibited by an act of Congress in 1839, in so far as the +Federal government had jurisdiction, both these forms of punishment were +retained in Delaware, and standing in the pillory was prescribed by +statute as a punishment for a number of offences, including various +kinds of larceny and forgery, highway robbery, and even pretending "to +exercise the art of witchcraft, fortune-telling or dealing with +spirits," at least until 1893. In 1905, by a law approved on the 20th of +March, the pillory was abolished. The whipping-post was in 1908 still +maintained in Delaware, and whipping continued to be prescribed as a +punishment for a variety of offences, although in 1889 a law was passed +which prescribed that "hereafter no female convicted of any crime in +this state shall be whipped or made to stand in the pillory," and a law +passed in 1883 prescribed that "in case of conviction of larceny, when +the prisoner is of tender years, or is charged for the first time (being +shown to have before had a good character), the court may in its +discretion omit from the sentence the infliction of lashes." An old law +still on the statute-books when the edition of the revised statutes was +issued in 1893, prescribes that "the punishment of whipping shall be +inflicted publicly by strokes on the bare back, well laid on." + +The unit of local government is the "hundred," which corresponds to the +township of Pennsylvania. The employment of children under fourteen +years of age in factories is forbidden by statute. Divorces are granted +for adultery, desertion for three years, habitual drunkenness, impotence +at the time of marriage, fraud, lack of marriageable age (eighteen for +males, sixteen for females), and failure of husband to provide for his +wife during three consecutive years. The marriages of whites with +negroes and of insane persons are null; but the children of the married +insane are legitimate. + +In 1908 the state debt was $816,785, and the assets in bonds, railway +mortgages and bank stocks exceeded the liabilities by $717,779. Besides +the income from interest and dividends on investments, the state +revenues are derived from taxes on licences, on commissions to public +officers, on railway, telegraph and telephone, express, and banking +companies, and to a slight extent from taxes on collateral inheritance. + +_Education._--The charitable and penal administration of Delaware is not +well developed. There is a state hospital for the insane at Farnhurst. +Other dependent citizens are cared for in the institutions of other +states at public expense. In 1899 a county workhouse was established in +New Castle county, in which persons under sentence must labour eight +hours a day, pay being allowed for extra hours, and a diminution of +sentence for good behaviour. At Wilmington is the Ferris industrial +school for boys, a private reformatory institution to which New Castle +county gives $146 for each boy; and the Delaware industrial school for +girls, also at Wilmington, receives financial support from both county +and state. + +The educational system of the state has been considerably improved +within recent years. The maintenance of a system of public schools is +rendered compulsory by the state constitution, and a new compulsory +school law came into effect in 1907. The first public school law, passed +in 1829, was based largely on the principle of "local option," each +school district being left free to determine the character of its own +school or even to decide, if it wished, against having any school at +all. The system thus established proved to be very unsatisfactory, and a +new school law in 1875 brought about a greater degree of uniformity and +centralization through its provisions for the appointment of a state +superintendent of free schools and a state board of education. In 1888, +however, the state superintendency was abolished, and county +superintendencies were created instead, the legislature thus returning, +in a measure, to the old system of local control. Centralization was +again secured, in 1898, by the passage of a law reorganizing and +increasing the powers of the state board of education. The state school +fund, ranging from about $150,000 to $160,000 a year, is apportioned +among the school districts, according to the number of teachers +employed, and is used exclusively for teachers' salaries and the +supplying of free text-books. This fund is supplemented by local +taxation. No discrimination is allowed on account of race or colour; but +separate schools are provided for white and coloured children. Delaware +College (non-sectarian) at Newark, founded in 1833 as Newark College and +rechartered, after suspension from 1859 to 1870, under the present name, +as a state institution, derives most of its financial support from the +United States Land Grant of 1862 and the supplementary appropriation of +1890, and is the seat of an agricultural experiment station, established +in 1888 under the so-called "Hatch Bill" of 1887. In 1906-1907 Delaware +College had 20 instructors and 130 students. The college is a part of +the free school system of Delaware, and tuition is free to all students +from the state. There is an agricultural college for negroes at Dover; +this college receives one-fifth of the appropriation made by the +so-called "new Morrill Bill" of 1890. + +_History._--Delaware river and bay were first explored on behalf of the +Dutch by Henry Hudson in 1609, and more thoroughly in 1615-1616 by +Cornelius Hendrikson, whose reports did much to cause the incorporation +of the Dutch West India Company. The first settlement on Delaware soil +was made under the auspices of members of this company in 1631 near the +site of the present Lewes. The leaders, one of whom was Captain David P. +de Vries, wished "to plant a colony for the cultivation of grain and +tobacco as well as to carry on the whale fishery in that region." The +settlement, however, was soon completely destroyed by the Indians. (See +LEWES.) A more successful effort at colonization was made under the +auspices of the South Company of Sweden, a corporation organized in 1624 +as the "Australian Company," by William Usselinx, who had also been the +chief organizer of the Dutch West India Company, and now secured a +charter or _manifest_ from Gustavus Adolphus. The privileges of the +company were extended to Germans in 1633, and about 1640 the Dutch +members were bought out. In 1638 Peter Minuit on behalf of this company +established a settlement at what is now Wilmington, naming it, in +honour of the infant queen Christina, Christinaham, and naming the +entire territory, bought by Minuit from the Minquas Indians and +extending indefinitely westward from the Delaware river between Bombay +Hook and the mouth of the Schuylkill river, "New Sweden." This territory +was subsequently considerably enlarged. In 1642 mature plans for +colonization were adopted. A new company, officially known as the West +India, American, or New Sweden Company, but like its predecessor +popularly known as the South Company, was chartered, and a governor, +Johan Printz (c. 1600-1663) was sent out by the crown. He arrived early +in 1643 and subsequently established settlements on the island of +Tinicum, near the present Chester, Pennsylvania, at the mouth of Salem +Creek, New Jersey, and near the mouth of the Schuylkill river. Friction +had soon arisen with New Netherland, although, owing to their common +dislike of the English, the Swedes and the Dutch had maintained a formal +friendship. In 1651, however, Peter Stuyvesant, governor of New +Netherland, and more aggressive than his predecessors, built Fort +Casimir, near what is now New Castle. In 1654 Printz's successor, Johan +Claudius Rising, who had arrived from Sweden with a large number of +colonists, expelled the Dutch from Fort Casimir. In retaliation, +Stuyvesant, in 1655, with seven vessels and as many hundred men, +recaptured the fort and also captured Fort Christina (Wilmington). New +Sweden thus passed into the control of the Dutch, and became a +dependency of New Netherland. In 1656, however, the Dutch West India +Company sold part of what had been New Sweden to the city of Amsterdam, +which in the following year established a settlement called "New Amstel" +at Fort Casimir (New Castle). This settlement was badly administered and +made little progress. + +In 1663 the whole of the Delaware country came under the jurisdiction of +the city of Amsterdam, but in the following year this territory, with +New Netherland, was seized by the English. For a brief interval, in +1673-1674, the Dutch were again in control, but in the latter year, by +the treaty of Westminster, the "three counties on the Delaware" again +became part of the English possessions in America held by the duke of +York, later James II. His formal grant from Charles II. was not received +until March 1683. In order that no other settlements should encroach +upon his centre of government, New Castle, the northern boundary was +determined by drawing an arc of a circle, 12 m. in radius, and with New +Castle as the centre. This accounts for the present curved boundary line +between Delaware and Pennsylvania. Previously, however, in August 1680, +the duke of York had leased this territory for 10,000 years to William +Penn, to whom he conveyed it by a deed of feoffment in August 1682; but +differences in race and religion, economic rivalry between New Castle +and the Pennsylvania towns, and petty political quarrels over +representation and office holding, similar to those in the other +American colonies, were so intense that Penn in 1691 appointed a special +deputy governor for the "lower counties." Although reunited with the +"province" of Pennsylvania in 1693, the so-called "territories" or +"lower counties" secured a separate legislature in 1704, and a separate +executive council in 1710; the governor of Pennsylvania, however, was +the chief executive until 1776. A protracted boundary dispute with +Maryland, which colony at first claimed the whole of Delaware under Lord +Baltimore's charter, was not settled until 1767, when the present line +separating Delaware and Maryland was adopted. In the War of Independence +Delaware furnished only one regiment to the American army, but that was +one of the best in the service. One of its companies carried a number of +gamecocks said to have been the brood of a blue hen; hence the soldiers, +and later the people of the state, have been popularly known as the +"Blue Hen's Chickens." + +In 1776 a state government was organized, representative of the Delaware +state, the term "State of Delaware" being first adopted in the +constitution of 1792. One of the peculiarities of the government was +that in addition to the regular executive, legislative and judicial +departments there was a privy council without whose approval the +governor's power was little more than nominal. In 1786 Delaware was one +of the five states whose delegates attended the Annapolis Convention +(see ANNAPOLIS, Maryland), and it was the first (on the 7th of December +1787) to ratify the Federal constitution. From then until 1850 it was +controlled by the Federalist or Whig parties. In 1850 the Democrats, who +had before then elected a few governors and United States senators, +secured control of the entire administration--a control unarrested, +except in 1863, until the last decade of the 19th century. Although it +was a slave state, the majority of the people of Delaware opposed +secession in 1861, and the legislature promptly answered President +Lincoln's call to arms; yet, while 14,000 of the 40,000 males between +the ages of fourteen and sixty served in the Union army, there were many +sympathizers with the Confederacy in the southern part of the state. + +In 1866, 1867 and 1869, respectively, the legislature refused to ratify +the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to the Federal +constitution. The provision of the state constitution that restricted +suffrage to those who had paid county or poll taxes and made the tax +lists the basis for the lists of qualified voters, opened the way for +the disfranchisement of many negroes by fraudulent means. Consequently +the levy court of New Castle county was indicted in the United States +circuit court in 1872, and one of its members was convicted. Again in +1880 the circuit court, by virtue of the Federal statute of 1872 on +elections, appointed supervisors of elections in Delaware. The negro +vote has steadily increased in importance, and in 1900 was approximately +one-fifth of the total vote of the state. In 1901 the legislature +ratified the three amendments rejected in former years. Another +political problem has been that of representation. According to the +constitution of 1831 the unit of representation in the legislature was +the county; inasmuch as the population of New Castle county has exceeded +after 1870 that of both Kent and Sussex, the inequality became a cause +of discontent. This is partly eradicated by the new constitution of +1897, which reapportioned representation according to electoral +districts, so that New Castle has seven senators and fifteen +representatives, while each of the other counties has seven senators and +ten representatives. + +In 1889 the Republicans for the first time since the Civil War secured a +majority in the legislature, and elected Anthony J. Higgins to the +United States Senate. In that year a capitalist and promoter, J. Edward +Addicks (b. 1841, in Pennsylvania), became a citizen of the state, and +after securing for himself the control of the Wilmington gas supply, +systematically set about building up a personal "machine" that would +secure his election to the national Senate as a Republican. His purpose +was thwarted in 1893, when a Democratic majority chose, for a second +term, George Gray (b. 1840), who from 1879 to 1885 had been the +attorney-general of the state and subsequently was a member of the +Spanish-American Peace Commission at Paris in 1898 and became a judge of +the United States circuit court, third judicial circuit, in 1899. Mr +Addicks was an avowed candidate in 1895, but the opposition of the +Regular Republicans, who accused him of corruption and who held the +balance of power, prevented an election. In 1897, the legislature being +again Democratic, Richard R. Kenney (b. 1856) was chosen to fill the +vacancy for the remainder of the unexpired term. Meanwhile the two +Republican factions continued to oppose one another, and both sent +delegates to the national party convention in 1896, the "regular" +delegation being seated. The expiration of Senator Gray's term in 1899 +left a vacancy, but although the Republicans again had a clear majority +the resolution of the Regulars prevented the Union Republicans, as the +supporters of Addicks called themselves, from seating their patron. Both +the Regular and Union factions sent delegations to the national party +convention in 1900, where the refusal of the Regulars to compromise led +to the recognition of the Union delegates. Despite this apparent +abandonment of their cause by the national organization, the Regulars +continued their opposition, the state being wholly without +representation in the Senate from the expiration of Senator Kenney's +term in 1901 until 1903, when a compromise was effected whereby two +Republicans, one of each faction, were chosen, one condition being that +Addicks should not be the candidate of the Union Republicans. Both +factions were recognized by the national convention of 1904, but the +legislature of 1905 adjourned without being able to fill a vacancy in +the Senate which had again occurred. The deadlock, however, was broken +at the special session of the legislature called in 1906, and in June of +that year Henry A. Du Pont was elected senator. + +GOVERNORS OF DELAWARE + + I. _Swedish._ + + Peter Minuit 1638-1640 + Peter Hollander 1640-1643 + Johan Printz 1643-1653 + Johan Papegoga (acting) 1653-1654 + Johan Claudius Rising 1654-1655 + + II. _Dutch._ + + (Same as for New York.) + + III. _English._ + + (Same as New York until 1682.) + (Same as Pennsylvania 1682-1776.) + +PRESIDENTS OF DELAWARE + + John McKinley 1776-1778 + Caesar Rodney 1778-1781 + John Dickinson 1781-1783 + Nicholas Van Dyke 1783-1786 + Thomas Collins 1786-1789 + +GOVERNORS + + Joshua Clayton 1789-1796 Federalist + Gunning Bedford 1796-1797 " + Daniel Rogers[1] 1797-1799 " + Richard Bassett 1799-1801 " + James Sykes[2] 1801-1802 " + David Hall 1802-1805 Federalist + Nathaniel Mitchell 1805-1808 " + George Truett 1808-1811 " + Joseph Haslett 1811-1814 " + Daniel Rodney 1814-1817 " + John Clarke 1817-1820 " + Henry Malleston[3] 1820 " + Jacob Stout[4] 1820-1821 " + John Collins 1821-1822 Democratic-Republican + Caleb Rodney[5] 1822 " + Joseph Haslett 1822-1823 Democratic-Republican + Charles Thomas[6] 1823-1824 " + Samuel Paynter 1824-1827 Federalist + Charles Polk 1827-1830 " + David Hazzard 1830-1833 American-Republican + Caleb P. Bennett 1833-1836 Democrat + Charles Polk[7] 1836-1837 " + Cornelius P. Comegys 1837-1841 Whig + William B. Cooper 1841-1845 " + Thomas Stockton 1845-1846 " + Joseph Maul[8] 1846 " + William Temple[9] 1846-1847 " + William Tharp 1847-1851 Democrat + William H. Ross 1851-1855 " + Peter F. Causey 1855-1859 Whig-Know-Nothing + William Burton 1859-1863 Democrat + William Cannon 1863-1865 Republican + Gove Saulsbury[10] 1865-1871 Democrat + James Ponder 1871-1875 " + John P. Cockran 1875-1879 " + John W. Hall 1879-1883 " + Charles C. Stockley 1883-1887 " + Benjamin T. Biggs 1887-1891 " + Robert J. Reynolds 1891-1895 " + Joshua H. Marvil 1895 Republican + William T. Watson[11] 1895-1897 Democrat + Ebe W. Tunnell 1897-1901 " + John Hunn 1901-1905 Republican + Preston Lea 1905-1909 " + Simeon S. Pennewill 1909 " + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Information about manufactures, mining and agriculture + may be found in the reports of the _Twelfth Census of the United + States_, especially _Bulletins 69_ and _100_. The Agricultural + Experiment Station, at Newark, publishes in its _Annual Report_ a + record of temperature and rainfall. For law and administration see + _Constitution of Delaware_ (Dover, 1899) and the _Revised Code_ of + 1852, amended 1893 (Wilmington, 1893). For education see L. B. Powell, + _History of Education in Delaware_ (Washington, 1893), and a sketch in + the _Annual Report_ for 1902 of the United States Commissioner of + Education. The most elaborate history is that of John Thomas Scharf, + _History of the State of Delaware_ (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1888); the + second volume is entirely biographical. Claes T. Odhner's brief + sketch, _Kolonien Nya Sveriges Grundlaggning, 1637-1642_ (Stockholm, + 1876; English translation in the _Pennsylvania Magazine of History and + Biography_, vol. iii.), and Carl K. S. Sprinchorn's _Kolonien Nya + Sveriges Historia_ (1878; English translation in the _Pennsylvania + Magazine of History and Biography_, vols. vii. and viii.) are based, + in part, on documents in the Swedish Royal Archives and at the + universities of Upsala and Lund, which were unknown to Benjamin Ferris + (_History of the Original Settlements of the Delaware_, Wilmington, + 1846) and Francis Vincent (_History of the State of Delaware_, + Philadelphia, 1870), which ends with the English occupation in 1664. + In vol. iv. of Justin Winsor's _Narrative and Critical History of + America_ (Boston, 1884) there is an excellent chapter by Gregory B. + Keen on "New Sweden, or the Swedes on the Delaware," to which a + bibliographical chapter is appended. The _Papers_ of the Historical + Society of Delaware (1879 seq.) contain valuable material. In part ii. + of the _Report of the Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic + Survey_ for 1893 (Washington, 1905) there is "A Historical Account of + the Boundary Line between the States of Pennsylvania and Delaware, by + W. C. Hodgkins." The colonial records are preserved with those of New + York and Pennsylvania; only one volume of the State Records has been + published, and _Minutes of the Council of Delaware State, 1776-1792_ + (Dover, 1886). For political conditions since the Civil War see vol. + 141 of the _North American Review_, vol. 32 of the _Forum_, and vol. + 73 of the _Outlook_--all published in New York. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Speaker of the senate. Filled unexpired term of Gunning Bedford + (d. 1797). + + [2] Speaker of senate. Filled unexpired term of Richard Bassett, who + resigned 1801. + + [3] Died before he was inaugurated. + + [4] Speaker of the senate. + + [5] Speaker of the senate, John Collins dying in 1822. + + [6] Speaker of senate, Haslett dying in 1823. + + [7] Speaker of senate. + + [8] Speaker of senate, Stockton dying in 1846. + + [9] Speaker of senate, Maul dying in 1846. + + [10] As speaker of the senate filled the unexpired term of Cannon (d. + 1865), and then became governor in 1867. + + [11] President of senate, Marvil dying in 1895. + + + + +DELAWARE, a city and the county-seat of Delaware county, Ohio, U.S.A., +on the Olentangy (or Whetstone) river, near the centre of the state. +Pop. (1890) 8224; (1900) 7940 (572 being foreign-born and 432 negroes); +(1910) 9076. Delaware is served by the Pennsylvania, the Cleveland, +Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (New York Central system), and the +Hocking Valley railways, and by two interurban lines. The city is built +on rolling ground about 900 ft. above sea-level. There are many sulphur +and iron springs in the vicinity. Delaware is the seat of the Ohio +Wesleyan University (co-educational), founded by the Ohio Conference of +the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1841, and opened as a college in 1844; +it includes a college of liberal arts (1844), an academic department +(1841), a school of music (1877), a school of fine arts (1877), a school +of oratory (1894), a business school (1895), and a college of medicine +(the Cleveland College of Physicians and Surgeons, at Cleveland, Ohio; +founded as the Charity Hospital Medical College in 1863, and the medical +department of the university of Wooster until 1896, when, under its +present name, it became a part of Ohio Wesleyan University). In 1877 the +Ohio Wesleyan female college, established at Delaware in 1853, was +incorporated in the university. In 1907-1908 the university had 122 +instructors, 1178 students and a library of 55,395 volumes. At Delaware, +also, are the state industrial school for girls, a Carnegie library, the +Edwards Young Men's Christian Association building and a city hospital. +The city has railway shops and foundries, and manufactures furniture, +carriages, tile, cigars and gas engines. Delaware was laid out in 1808 +and was first incorporated in 1815. It was the birthplace of Rutherford +B. Hayes, president of the United States from 1877 to 1881. + + + + +DELAWARE INDIANS, the English name for the Leni Lenape, a tribe of North +American Indians of Algonquian stock. When first discovered by the +whites the tribe was settled on the banks of the Delaware river. The +French called them Loups (wolves) from their chief totemic division. +Early in the 17th century the Dutch began trading with them. +Subsequently William Penn bought large tracts of land from them, and war +followed, the Delawares alleging they had been defrauded; but, with the +assistance of the Six Nations, the whites forced them back west of the +Alleghenies. In 1789 they were placed on a reservation in Ohio and +subsequently in 1818 were moved to Missouri. Various removals followed, +until in 1866 they accepted lands in the Indian territory (Oklahoma) +and gave up the tribal relation. They have remained there and now number +some 1700. + + + + +DELAWARE RIVER, a stream of the Atlantic slope of the United States, +meeting tide-water at Trenton, New Jersey, 130 m. above its mouth. Its +total length, from the head of the longest branch to the capes, is 410 +m., and above the head of the bay its length is 360 m. It constitutes in +part the boundary between Pennsylvania and New York, the boundary +between New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and, for a few miles, the boundary +between Delaware and New Jersey. The main, west or Mohawk branch rises +in Schoharie county, N.Y., about 1886 ft. above the sea, and flows +tortuously through the plateau in a deep trough until it emerges from +the Catskills. Other branches rise in Greene and Delaware counties. In +the upper portion of its course the varied scenery of its hilly and +wooded banks is exquisitely beautiful. After leaving the mountains and +plateau, the river flows down broad Appalachian valleys, skirts the +Kittatinny range, which it crosses at Delaware Water-Gap, between nearly +vertical walls of sandstone, and passes through a quiet and charming +country of farm and forest, diversified with plateaus and escarpments, +until it crosses the Appalachian plain and enters the hills again at +Easton, Pa. From this point it is flanked at intervals by fine hills, +and in places by cliffs, of which the finest are the Hockamixon Rocks, 3 +m. long and above 200 ft. high. At Trenton there is a fall of 8 ft. +Below Trenton the river becomes a broad, sluggish inlet of the sea, with +many marshes along its side, widening steadily into its great estuary, +Delaware Bay. Its main tributaries in New York are Mongaup and Neversink +rivers and Callicoon Creek; from Pennsylvania, Lackawaxen, Lehigh and +Schuylkill rivers; and from New Jersey, Rancocas Creek and Musconetcong +and Maurice rivers. Commerce was once important on the upper river, but +only before the beginning of railway competition (1857). The Delaware +division of the Pennsylvania Canal, running parallel with the river from +Easton to Bristol, was opened in 1830. A canal from Trenton to New +Brunswick unites the waters of the Delaware and Raritan rivers; the +Morris and the Delaware and Hudson canals connect the Delaware and +Hudson rivers; and the Delaware and Chesapeake canal joins the waters of +the Delaware with those of the Chesapeake Bay. The mean tides below +Philadelphia are about 6 ft. The magnitude of the commerce of +Philadelphia has made the improvements of the river below that port of +great importance. Small improvements were attempted by Pennsylvania as +early as 1771, but apparently never by New Jersey. The ice floods at +Easton are normally 10 to 20 ft., and in 1841 attained a height of 35 +ft. These floods constitute a serious difficulty in the improvement of +the lower river. In the "project of 1885" the United States government +undertook systematically the formation of a 26-ft. channel 600 ft. wide +from Philadelphia to deep water in Delaware Bay; $1,532,688.81 was +expended--about $200,000 of that amount for maintenance--before the 1885 +project was superseded by a paragraph of the River and Harbor Act of the +3rd of March 1899, which provided for a 30-ft. channel 600 ft. wide from +Philadelphia to the deep water of the bay. In 1899 the project of 1885 +had been completed except for three shoal stretches, whose total length, +measured on the range lines, was 4(3/8) m. The project of 1899, +estimated to cost $5,810,000, was not completed at the close of the +fiscal year (June 30) 1907, when $4,936,550.63 had been expended by the +Federal government on the work; in 1905 the state of Pennsylvania +appropriated $750,000 for improvement of the river in Pennsylvania, +south of Philadelphia. + + + + +DELAWARE WATER-GAP, a borough and summer resort of Monroe county, +Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Delaware river, about 108 m. N. of +Philadelphia and about 88 m. W. by N. of New York. Pop. (1890) 467; +(1900) 469. It is served directly by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, +and by the Belvidere division of the Pennsylvania railways; along the +river on the opposite side (in New Jersey) runs the New York, +Susquehanna & Western railway, and the borough is connected with +Stroudsburg, Pa. (about 3 m. W. by N.) by an electric line. The borough +was named from the neighbouring gorge, which is noted for the +picturesqueness of its scenery, especially in winter, when the ice piles +up in the river, sometimes to a height of 20 ft. Here the river cuts +through the Kittatinny (Blue) Ridge to its base. On the New Jersey side +is Mt. Tammany (about 1600 ft.); on the Pennsylvania side, Mt. Minsi +(about 1500 ft.); the elevation of the river here is about 300 ft. The +gap (about 2 m. long) through the mountain is the result of erosion by +the waters of a great river which flowed northwards acting along a line +of faulting at right angles to the strike of the tilted rock formations. +The scenery and the delightful climate have made the place a popular +summer resort. The borough was incorporated in 1889. + + See L. W. Brodhead, _The Delaware Water-Gap_ (Philadelphia, 2nd ed., + 1870). + + + + +DE LA WARR, or DELAWARE, an English barony, the holders of which are +descended from Roger de la Warr of Isfield, Sussex, who was summoned to +parliament as a baron in 1299 and the following years. He died about +1320; his great-grandson Roger, to whom the French king John surrendered +at the battle of Poitiers, died in 1370; and the male line of the family +became extinct on the death of Thomas, 5th baron, in 1426. + +The 5th baron's half-sister Joan married Thomas West, 1st Lord West (d. +1405), and in 1415 her second son Reginald (1394-1451) succeeded his +brother Thomas as 3rd Lord West. After the death of his uncle Thomas, +5th Baron De La Warr, whose estates he inherited, Reginald was summoned +to parliament as Baron La Warr, and he is thus the second founder of the +family. His grandson was Thomas, 3rd (or 8th) baron (d. 1525), a +courtier during the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII.; and the +latter's son was Thomas, 4th (or 9th) baron (c. 1472-1554). The younger +Thomas was a very prominent person during the reigns of Henry VIII. and +Edward VI. After serving with the English army in France in 1513 and +being present at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, he rebuilt the house at +Halnaker in Sussex, which he had obtained by marriage, and here in 1526 +he entertained Henry VIII. "with great cheer." He disliked the +ecclesiastical changes introduced by the king, and he was one of the +peers who tried Anne Boleyn; later he showed some eagerness to stand +well with Thomas Cromwell, but this did not prevent his arrest in 1538. +He is said to have denounced "the plucking down of abbeys," and he +certainly consorted with many suspected persons. But he was soon +released and pardoned, although he was obliged to hand over Halnaker to +Henry VIII., receiving instead the estate of Wherwell in Hampshire. He +died without children in September 1554, when his baronies of De La Warr +and West fell into abeyance. His monument may still be seen in the +church at Broadwater, Sussex. + +He had settled his estates on his nephew William West (c. 1519-1595), +who then tried to bring about his uncle's death by poison; for this +reason he was disabled by act of parliament (1549) from succeeding to +his honours. However, in 1563 he was restored, and in 1570 was created +by patent Baron De La Warr. This was obviously a new creation, but in +1596 his son Thomas (c. 1556-1602) claimed precedency in the baronage as +the holder of the ancient barony of De La Warr. His claim was admitted, +and accordingly his son and successor, next mentioned, is called the 3rd +or the 12th baron. + +THOMAS WEST, 3rd or 12th Baron De La Warr (1577-1618), British soldier +and colonial governor in America, was born on the 9th of July 1577, +probably at Wherwell, Hampshire, where he was baptized. He was educated +at Queen's College, Oxford, where he did not complete his course, but +subsequently (1605) received the degree of M.A. In 1597 he was elected +member of parliament for Lymington, and subsequently fought in Holland +and in Ireland under the earl of Essex, being knighted for bravery in +battle in 1599. He was imprisoned for complicity in Essex's revolt +(1600-1601), but was soon released and exonerated. In 1602 he succeeded +to his father's title and estates and became a privy councillor. +Becoming interested in schemes for the colonization of America, he was +chosen a member of the council of the Virginia Company in 1609, and in +the same year was appointed governor and captain-general of Virginia for +life. Sailing in March 1610 with three ships, 150 settlers and +supplies, he himself bearing the greater part of the expense of the +expedition, he arrived at Jamestown on the 10th of June, in time to +intercept the colonists who had embarked for England and were abandoning +the enterprise. Lord De La Warr's rule was strict but just; he +constructed two forts near the mouth of the James river, rebuilt +Jamestown, and in general brought order out of chaos. In March 1611 he +returned to London, where he published at the request of the company's +council, his _Relation_ of the condition of affairs in Virginia +(reprinted 1859 and 1868). He remained in England until 1618, when the +news of the tyrannical rule of the deputy, Samuel Argall, led him to +start again for Virginia. He embarked in April, but died en route on the +7th of June 1618, and was buried at sea. The Delaware river and the +state of Delaware were named in his honour. + +A younger brother, Francis (1586-c. 1634), was prominent in the affairs +of Virginia, and in 1627-1628 was president of the council, and +acting-governor of the colony. + +In 1761 the 3rd or 12th baron's descendant, John, 7th or 16th Baron De +La Warr (1693-1766), was created Viscount Cantelupe and 1st Earl De La +Warr. He was a prominent figure in the House of Lords, at first as a +supporter of Sir Robert Walpole. He also served in the British army and +fought at Dettingen, and was made governor of Guernsey in 1752. + +George John West, 5th earl (1791-1869), married Elizabeth, sister and +heiress of George John Frederick Sackville, 4th duke of Dorset, who was +created Baroness Buckhurst in 1864; consequently in 1843 he and his sons +took the name of Sackville-West. The earl was twice lord chamberlain to +Queen Victoria, and he is celebrated as "Fair Euryalus" in the _Childish +Recollections_ of his schoolfellow, Lord Byron. His son Charles Richard +(1815-1873), 6th earl, served in the first Sikh war and in the Crimea; +and being unmarried was succeeded by his brother Reginald (1817-1896) as +7th Earl De La Warr. Having inherited his mother's barony of Buckhurst +on her death in 1870, he retained this title along with the barony and +earldom of De La Warr, although the patent had contained a proviso that +it should be kept separate from these dignities. In 1896 the 7th earl's +son, Gilbert George Reginald Sackville-West (b. 1869), became 8th earl +De La Warr. + + See G. E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898). + + + + +DELBRUCK, HANS (1848- ), German historian, was born at Bergen on the +island of Rugen on the 11th of November 1848, and studied at the +universities of Heidelberg and Bonn. As a soldier he fought in the +Franco-German War, after which he was for some years tutor to one of the +princes of the German imperial family. In 1885 he became professor of +modern history in the university of Berlin, and he was a member of the +German Reichstag from 1884 to 1890. Delbruck's writings are chiefly +concerned with the history of the art of war, his most ambitious work +being his _Geschichte der Kriegskunst im Rahmen der politischen +Geschichte_ (first section, _Das Altertum_, 1900; second, _Romer und +Germanen_, 1902; third, _Das Mittelalter_, 1907). Among his other works +are: _Die Perserkriege und die Burgunderkriege_ (Berlin, 1887); +_Historische und politische Aufsatze_ (1886); _Erinnerungen, Aufsatze +und Reden_ (1902); _Die Strategie des Perikles erlautert durch die +Strategie Friedrichs des Grossen_ (1890); _Die Polenfrage_ (1894); and +_Das Leben des Feldmarschalls Grafen Neithardt von Gneisenau_ (1882 and +1894). Delbruck began in 1883 to edit the _Preussische Jahrbucher_, in +which he has written many articles, including one on "General Wolseley +uber Napoleon, Wellington und Gneisenau," and he has contributed to the +_Europaischer Geschichtskalender_ of H. Schulthess. + + + + +DELBRUCK, MARTIN FRIEDRICH RUDOLF VON, Prussian statesman (1817-1903), +was born at Berlin on the 16th of April 1817. On completing his legal +studies he entered the service of the state in 1837; and after holding a +series of minor posts was transferred in 1848 to the ministry of +commerce, which was to be the sphere of his real life's work. Both +Germany and Austria had realized the influence of commercial upon +political union. Delbruck in 1851 induced Hanover, Oldenburg and +Schaumburg-Lippe to join the Zollverein; and the southern states, which +had agreed to admit Austria to the union, found themselves forced in +1853 to renew the old union, from which Austria was excluded. Delbruck +now began, with the support of Bismarck, to apply the principles of free +trade to Prussian fiscal policy. In 1862 he concluded an important +commercial treaty with France. In 1867 he became the first president of +the chancery of the North German Confederation, and represented Bismarck +on the federal tariff council (_Zollbundesrath_), a position of +political as well as fiscal importance owing to the presence in the +council of representatives of the southern states. In 1868 he became a +Prussian minister without portfolio. In October 1870, when the union of +Germany under Prussian headship became a practical question, Delbruck +was chosen to go on a mission to the South German states, and +contributed greatly to the agreements concluded at Versailles in +November. In 1871 he became president of the newly constituted +_Reichskanzleramt_. Delbruck, however, began to feel himself uneasy +under Bismarck's leanings towards protection and state control. On the +introduction of Bismarck's plan for the acquisition of the railways by +the state, Delbruck resigned office, nominally on the ground of +ill-health (June 1, 1876). In 1879 he opposed in the _Reichstag_ the new +protectionist tariff, and on the failure of his efforts retired +definitely from public life. In 1896 he received from the emperor the +order of the Black Eagle. He died at Berlin on the 1st of February 1903. + + + + +DELCASSE, THEOPHILE (1852- ), French statesman, was born at Pamiers, in +the department of Ariege, on the 1st of March 1852. He wrote articles on +foreign affairs for the _Republique francaise_ and _Paris_, and in 1888 +was elected _conseiller general_ of his native department, standing as +"un disciple fidele de Gambetta." In the following year he entered the +chamber as deputy for Foix. He was appointed under-secretary for the +colonies in the second Ribot cabinet (January to April 1893), and +retained his post in the Dupuy cabinet till its fall in December 1893. +It was largely owing to his efforts that the French colonial office was +made a separate department with a minister at its head, and to this +office he was appointed in the second Dupuy cabinet (May 1894 to January +1895). He gave a great impetus to French colonial enterprise, especially +in West Africa, where he organized the newly acquired colony of Dahomey, +and despatched the Liotard mission to the Upper Ubangi. While in +opposition he devoted special attention to naval affairs, and in +speeches that attracted much notice declared that the function of the +French navy was to secure and develop colonial enterprise, deprecated +all attempts to rival the British fleet, and advocated the construction +of commerce destroyers as France's best reply to England. On the +formation of the second Brisson cabinet in June 1898 he succeeded M. +Hanotaux at the foreign office, and retained that post under the +subsequent premierships of MM. Dupuy, Waldeck-Rousseau, Combes and +Rouvier. In 1898 he had to deal with the delicate situation caused by +Captain Marchand's occupation of Fashoda, for which, as he admitted in a +speech in the chamber on the 23rd of January 1899, he accepted full +responsibility, since it arose directly out of the Liotard expedition, +which he had himself organized while minister for the colonies; and in +March 1899 he concluded an agreement with Great Britain by which the +difficulty was finally adjusted, and France consolidated her vast +colonial empire in North-West Africa. In the same year he acted as +mediator between the United States and Spain, and brought the peace +negotiations to a successful conclusion. He introduced greater +cordiality into the relations of France with Italy: at the same time he +adhered firmly to the alliance with Russia, and in August 1899 made a +visit to St Petersburg, which he repeated in April 1901. In June 1900 he +made an arrangement with Spain, fixing the long-disputed boundaries of +the French and Spanish possessions in West Africa. Finally he concluded +with England the important Agreements of 1904 covering colonial and +other questions which had long been a matter of dispute, especially +concerning Egypt, Newfoundland and Morocco. Suspicion of the growing +_entente_ between France and England soon arose on the part of Germany, +and in 1905 German assertiveness was shown in a crisis which was forced +on in the matter of the French activity in Morocco (q.v.), in which the +handling of French policy by M. Delcasse personally was a sore point +with Germany. The situation became acute in April, and was only relieved +by M. Delcasse's resignation of office. He retired into private life, +but in 1908 was warmly welcomed on a visit to England, where the closest +relations now existed with France. + + + + +DEL CREDERE (Ital. "of belief" or "trust"). A "del credere agent," in +English law, is one who, selling goods for his principal on credit, +undertakes for an additional commission to sell only to persons who are +absolutely solvent. His position is thus that of a surety who is liable +to his principal should the vendee make default. The agreement between +him and his principal need not be reduced to or evidenced by writing, +for his undertaking is not a guarantee within the Statute of Frauds. See +also BROKER; GUARANTEE. + + + + +DELESCLUZE, LOUIS CHARLES (1809-1871), French journalist, was born at +Dreux on the 2nd of October 1809. Having studied law in Paris, he early +developed a strong democratic bent, and played a part in the July +revolution of 1830. He became a member of various republican societies, +and in 1836 was forced to take refuge in Belgium, where he devoted +himself to republican journalism. Returning in 1840 he settled in +Valenciennes, and after the revolution of 1848 removed to Paris, where +he started a newspaper called _La Revolution democratique et sociale_. +His zeal so far outran his discretion that he was twice imprisoned and +fined, his paper was suppressed and he himself fled to England, where he +continued his journalistic work. He was arrested in Paris in 1853, and +deported to French Guiana. Released under the amnesty of 1859, he +returned to France with health shattered but energies unimpaired. His +next venture was the publication of the _Reveil_, a radical organ +upholding the principles of the _Association internationale des +travailleurs_, known as the "_Internationale_." This journal, which +brought him three condemnations, fine and imprisonment in one year, +shared the fate of his Paris sheet, and its founder again fled to +Belgium. In 1871 he was elected to the National Assembly, becoming +afterwards a member of the Paris commune. At the siege of Paris he +fought with reckless courage, and met his death on the last of the +barricades (May 1871). He wrote an account of his imprisonment in +Guiana, _De Paris a Cayenne, Journal d'un transporte_ (Paris, 1869). + + + + +DELESSE, ACHILLE ERNEST OSCAR JOSEPH (1817-1881), French geologist and +mineralogist, was born at Metz on the 3rd of February 1817. At the age +of twenty he entered the Ecole Polytechnique, and subsequently passed +through the Ecole des Mines. In 1845 he was appointed to the chair of +mineralogy and geology at Besancon; in 1850 to the chair of geology at +the Sorbonne in Paris; and in 1864 professor of agriculture at the Ecole +des Mines. In 1878 he became inspector-general of mines. In early years +as _ingenieur des mines_ he investigated and described various new +minerals; he proceeded afterwards to the study of rocks, devising new +methods for their determination, and giving particular descriptions of +melaphyre, arkose, porphyry, syenite, &c. The igneous rocks of the +Vosges, and those of the Alps, Corsica, &c., and the subject of +metamorphism occupied his attention. He also prepared in 1858 geological +and hydrological maps of Paris--with reference to the underground water, +similar maps of the departments of the Seine and Seine-et-Marne, and an +agronomic map of the Seine-et-Marne (1880), in which he showed the +relation which exists between the physical and chemical characters of +the soil and the geological structure. His annual _Revue des progres de +geologie_, undertaken with the assistance (1860-1865) of Auguste Laugel +and afterwards (1865-1878) of Albert de Lapparent, was carried on from +1860 to 1880. His observations on the lithology of the deposits +accumulated beneath the sea were of special interest and importance. His +separate publications were: _Recherches sur l'origine des roches_ +(Paris, 1865); _Etude sur le metamorphisme des roches_ (1869); +_Lithologie des mers de France et des mers principales du globe_ (2 +vols. and atlas, 1871). He died at Paris on the 24th of March 1881. + + + + +DELESSERT, JULES PAUL BENJAMIN (1773-1847), French banker, was born at +Lyons on the 14th of February 1773, the son of Etienne Delessert +(1735-1816), the founder of the first fire insurance company and the +first discount bank in France. Young Delessert was travelling in England +when the Revolution broke out in France, but he hastened back to join +the Paris National Guard in 1790, becoming an officer of artillery in +1793. His father bought him out of the army, however, in 1795 in order +to entrust him with the management of his bank. Gifted with remarkable +energy, he started many commercial enterprises, founding the first +cotton factory at Passy in 1801, and a sugar factory in 1802, for which +he was created a baron of the empire. He sat in the chamber of deputies +for many years, and was a strong advocate for many humane measures, +notably the suppression of the "Tours" or revolving box at the foundling +hospital, the suppression of the death penalty, and the improvement of +the penitentiary system. He was made regent of the Bank of France in +1802, and was also member of, and, indeed, founder of many, learned and +philanthropic societies. He founded the first savings bank in France, +and maintained a keen interest in it until his death in 1847. He was +also an ardent botanist and conchologist; his botanical library embraced +30,000 volumes, of which he published a catalogue--_Musee botanique de +M. Delessert_ (1845). He also wrote _Des avantages de la caisse +d'epargne et de prevoyance_ (1835), _Memoire sur un projet de +bibliotheque royale_ (1836), _Le Guide de bonheur_ (1839), and _Recueil +de coquilles decrites par Lamarck_ (1841-1842). + + + + +DELFICO, MELCHIORRE (1744-1835), Italian economist, was born at Teramo +in the Abruzzi on the 1st of August 1744, and was educated at Naples. He +devoted himself specially to the study of jurisprudence and political +economy, and his numerous publications exercised great practical +influence in the correction and extinction of many abuses. Under Joseph +Bonaparte Delfico was made a councillor of state, an office which he +held until the restoration of Ferdinand IV., when he was appointed +president of the commission of archives, from which he retired in 1825. +He died at Teramo on the 21st of June 1835. His more important works +were: _Saggio filosofico sul matrimonio_ (1774); _Memoria sul Tribunale +della Grascia e sulle leggi economiche nelle provincie confinanti del +regno_ (1785), which led to the abolition in Naples of the most +vexatious and absurd restrictions on the sale and exportation of +agricultural produce; _Riflessioni su la vendita dei feudi_ (1790) and +_Lettera a Sua Ecc. il sig. Duca di Cantalupo_ (1795), which brought +about the abolition of feudal rights over landed property and their +sale; _Ricerche sul vero carattere della giurisprudenza Romana e dei +suoi cultori_ (1791); _Pensieri su la storia e su l' incertezza ed +inutilita della medesima_ (1806), both on the early history of Rome. + + See F. Mozzetti, _Degli studii, delle opere e delle virtu di + Melchiorre Delfico_; Tipaldo's _Biographia degli Italiani illustri_ + (vol. ii.). + + + + +DELFT, a town of Holland in the province of South Holland, on the Schie, +5 m. by rail S.E. by S. of the Hague, with which it is also connected by +steam-tramway. Pop. (1900) 31,582. It is a quiet, typically Dutch town, +with its old brick houses and tree-bordered canals. The Prinsenhof, +previously a monastery, was converted into a residence for the counts of +Orange in 1575; it was here that William the Silent was assassinated. It +is now used as a William of Orange Museum. The New Church, formerly the +church of St Ursula (14th century), is the burial place of the princes +of Orange. It is remarkable for its fine tower and chime of bells, and +contains the splendid allegorical monument of William the Silent, +executed by Hendrik de Keyser and his son Pieter about 1621, and the +tomb of Hugo Grotius, born in Delft in 1583, whose statue, erected in +1886, stands in the market-place outside the church. The Old Church, +founded in the 11th century, but in its present form dating from 1476, +contains the monuments of two famous admirals of the 17th century, +Martin van Tromp and Piet Hein, as well as the tomb of the naturalist +Leeuwenhoek, born at Delft in 1632. In the town hall (1618) are some +corporation pictures, portraits of the counts of Orange and Nassau, +including several by Michiel van Mierevelt (1567-1641), one of the +earliest Dutch portrait painters, and with his son Pieter (1595-1623), a +native of Delft. There are also a Roman Catholic church (1882) and a +synagogue. Two important educational establishments are the Indian +Institute for the education of civil service students for the colonies, +to which is attached an ethnographical museum; and the Royal Polytechnic +school, which almost ranks as a university, and teaches, among other +sciences, that of diking. A fine collection of mechanical models is +connected with the polytechnic school. Among other buildings are the +modern "Phoenix" club-house of the students; the hospital, containing +some anatomical pictures, including one by the two Mierevelts (1617); a +lunatic asylum; the Van Renswoude orphanage, the theatre, a school of +design, the powder magazine and the state arsenal, originally a +warehouse of the East India Company, and now used as a manufactory of +artillery stores. + +The name of Delft is most intimately associated with the manufacture of +the beautiful faience pottery for which it was once famous. (See +CERAMICS.) This industry was imported from Haarlem towards the end of +the 16th century, and achieved an unrivalled position in the second half +of the following century; but it did not survive the French occupation +at the end of the 18th century. It has, however, been revived in modern +times under the name of "New Delft." Other branches of industry are +carpet-weaving, distilling, oil and oil-cake manufacture, dyeing, +cooperage and the manufacture of arms and bullets. There is also an +important butter and cheese market. + +Delft was founded in 1075 by Godfrey III., duke of Lower Lorraine, after +his conquest of Holland, and came subsequently into the hands of the +counts of Holland. In 1246 it received a charter from Count William II. +(see C. Hegel, _Stadte und Gilden_, ii. 251). In 1536 it was almost +totally destroyed by fire, and in 1654 largely ruined by the explosion +of a powder magazine. + + + + +DELHI, DEHLI or DILLI, the ancient capital of the Mogul empire in India, +and a modern city which gives its name to a district and division of +British India. The city of Delhi is situated in 28 deg. 38' N., 77 deg. +13' E., very nearly due north of Cape Comorin, and practically in a +latitudinal line with the more ancient cities of Cairo and Canton. It +lies in the south-east corner of the province of the Punjab, to which it +was added in 1858, and abuts on the right bank of the river Jumna. +Though Lahore, the more ancient city, remains the official capital of +the Punjab, Delhi is historically more famous, and is now more important +as a commercial and railway centre. + +Though the remains of earlier cities are scattered round Delhi over an +area estimated to cover some 45 sq. m., modern Delhi dates only from the +middle of the 17th century, when Shah Jahan rebuilt the city on its +present site, adding the title Shah-jahanabad from his own name. It +extends for nearly 2(1/4) m. along the right bank of the Jumna from the +Water bastion to the Wellesley bastion in the south-east corner, nearly +one-third of the frontage being occupied by the river wall of the +palace. The northern wall, famous in the siege of Delhi in 1857, extends +three-quarters of a mile from the Water bastion to the Shah, commonly +known as the Mori, bastion; the length of the west wall from this +bastion to the Ajmere gate is 1(1/4) m. and of the south wall to the +Wellesley bastion again almost exactly the same distance, the whole land +circuit being thus 3(1/4) m. The complete circuit of Delhi is 5(1/2) m. +In the north wall is situated the famous Kashmir gate, while the Mori or +Drain gate, which was built by a Mahratta governor, has now been +removed. In the west wall are the Farash Khana and Ajmere gates, while +the Kabul and Lahore gates have been removed. In the south wall are the +Turkman and Delhi gates. The gates on the river side of the city +included the Khairati and Rajghat, the Calcutta and Nigambod--both +removed; the Kela gate, and the Badar Rao gate, now closed. The great +wall of Delhi, which was constructed by Shah Jahan, was strengthened by +the English by the addition of a ditch and glacis, after Delhi was +captured by Lord Lake in 1803; and its strength was turned against the +British at the time of the Mutiny. The imperial palace (1638-1648), now +known as the "Fort," is situated on the east of the city, and abuts +directly on the river. It consists at present of bare and ugly British +barracks, among which are scattered exquisite gems of oriental +architecture. The two most famous among its buildings are the +Diwan-i-Am or Hall of Public Audience, and the Diwan-i-Khas or Hall of +Private Audience. The Diwan-i-Am is a splendid building measuring 100 +ft. by 60 ft., and was formerly plastered with chunam and overlaid with +gold. The most striking effect now lies in its engrailed arches. It was +in the recess in the back wall of this hall that the famous Peacock +Throne used to stand, "so called from its having the figures of two +peacocks standing behind it, their tails being expanded and the whole so +inlaid with sapphires, rubies, emeralds, pearls and other precious +stones of appropriate colours as to represent life." Tavernier, the +French jeweller, who saw Delhi in 1665, describes the throne as of the +shape of a bed, 6 ft. by 4 ft., supported by four golden feet, 20 to 25 +in. high, from the bars above which rose twelve columns to support the +canopy; the bars were decorated with crosses of rubies and emeralds, and +also with diamonds and pearls. In all there were 108 large rubies on the +throne, and 116 emeralds, but many of the latter had flaws. The twelve +columns supporting the canopy were decorated with rows of splendid +pearls, and Tavernier considered these to be the most valuable part of +the throne. The whole was valued at L6,000,000. This throne was carried +off by the Persian invader Nadir Shah in 1739, and has been rumoured to +exist still in the Treasure House of the Shah of Persia; but Lord +Curzon, who examined the thrones there, says that nothing now exists of +it, except perhaps some portions worked up in a modern Persian throne. +The Diwan-i-Khas is smaller than the Diwan-i-Am, and consists of a +pavilion of white marble, in the interior of which the art of the Moguls +reached the perfection of its jewel-like decoration. On a marble +platform rises a marble pavilion, the flat-coned roof of which is +supported on a double row of marble pillars. The inner face of the +arches, with the spandrils and the pilasters which support them, are +covered with flowers and foliage of delicate design and dainty +execution, crusted in green serpentine, blue _lapis lazuli_ and red and +purple porphyry. During the lapse of years many of these stones were +picked from their setting, and the silver ceiling of flowered patterns +was pillaged by the Mahrattas; but the inlaid work was restored as far +as possible by Lord Curzon. It is in this hall that the famous +inscription "If a paradise be on the face of the earth, it is this, it +is this, it is this," still exists. It is given in Persian characters +twice in the panels over the narrow arches at the ends of the middle +hall, beginning from the east on the north side, and from the west at +the south side. At the time of the Delhi Durbar held in January 1903 to +celebrate the proclamation of Edward VII. as emperor of India these two +halls were used as a dancing-room and supper-room, and their full beauty +was brought out by the electric light shining through their marble +grille-work. + +The native city of Delhi is like most other cities in India, a huddle of +mean houses in mean streets, diversified with splendid mosques. The +Chandni Chauk ("silver street"), the principal street of Delhi, which +was once supposed to be the richest street in the world, has fallen from +its high estate, though it is still a broad and imposing avenue with a +double row of trees running down the centre. During the course of its +history it was four times sacked, by Nadir Shah, Timur, Ahmad Shah and +the Mahrattas, and its roadway has many times run with blood. Now it is +the abode of the jewellers and ivory-workers of Delhi, but the jewels +are seldom valuable and the carving has lost much of its old delicacy. A +short distance south of the Chandni Chauk the Jama Masjid, or Great +Mosque, rises boldly from a small rocky eminence. It was erected in +1648-1650, two years after the royal palace, by Shah Jahan. Its front +court, 450 ft. square, and surrounded by a cloister open on both sides, +is paved with granite inlaid with marble, and commands a fine view of +the city. The mosque itself, a splendid structure forming an oblong 261 +ft. in length, is approached by a magnificent flight of stone steps. +Three domes of white marble rise from its roof, with two tall minarets +at the front corners. The interior of the mosque is paved throughout, +and the walls and roof are lined, with white marble. Two other mosques +in Delhi itself deserve passing notice, the Kala Masjid or Black Mosque, +which was built about 1380 in the reign of Feroz Shah, and the Moti +Masjid or Pearl Mosque, a tiny building added to the palace by +Aurangzeb, as the emperor's private place of prayer. It is only 60 ft. +square, and the domes alone are seen above the red sandstone walls until +the opening of two small fine brass gates. + +To the west and north-west of Delhi considerable suburbs cluster beyond +the walls. Here are the tombs of the imperial family. That of Humayun, +the second of the Mogul dynasty, is a noble building of rose-coloured +sandstone inlaid with white marble. It lies about 3 m. from the city, in +a terraced garden, the whole surrounded by an embattled wall, with +towers and four gateways. In the centre stands a platform about 20 ft. +high by 200 ft. square, supported by arches and ascended by four flights +of steps. Above, rises the mausoleum, also a square, with a great dome +of white marble in the centre. About a mile to the west is another +burying-ground, or collection of tombs and small mosques, some of them +very beautiful. The most remarkable is perhaps the little chapel in +honour of a celebrated Mussulman saint, Nizam-ud-din, near whose shrine +the members of the imperial family, up to the time of the Mutiny, lie +buried, each in a small enclosure surrounded by lattice-work of white +marble. + +Still farther away, some 10 m. south of the modern city, amid the ruins +of old Delhi, stands the Kutb Minar, which is supposed to be the most +perfect tower in the world, and one of the seven architectural wonders +of India. The Minar was begun by Kutb-ud-din Aibak about A.D. 1200. The +two top storeys were rebuilt by Feroz Shah. It consists of five storeys +of red sandstone and white marble. The purplish red of the sandstone at +the base is finely modulated, through a pale pink in the second storey, +to a dark orange at the summit, which harmonizes with the blue of an +Indian sky. Dark bands of Arabic writing round the three lower storeys +contrast with the red sandstone. The height of the column is 238 ft. The +plinth is a polygon of twenty sides. The basement storey has the same +number of faces formed into convex flutes which are alternately angular +and semicircular. The next has semicircular flutes, and in the third +they are all angular. Then rises a plain storey, and above it soars a +partially fluted storey, the shaft of which is adorned with bands of +marble and red sandstone. A bold projecting balcony, richly ornamented, +runs round each storey. After six centuries the column is almost as +fresh as on the day it was finished. It stands in the south-east corner +of the outer court of the mosque erected by Kutb-ud-din immediately +after his capture of Delhi in 1193. The design of this mosque is +Mahommedan, but the wonderfully delicate ornamentation of its western +facade and other remaining parts is Hindu. In the inner courtyard of the +mosque stands the Iron Pillar, which is probably the most ancient +monument in the neighbourhood of Delhi, dating from about A.D. 400. It +consists of a solid shaft of wrought iron some 16 in. in diameter and 23 +ft. 8 in. in height, with an inscription eulogizing Chandragupta +Vikramaditya. It was brought, probably from Muttra, by Anang Pal, a +Rajput chief of the Tomaras, who erected it here in 1052.[1] + +Among the modern buildings of Delhi may be mentioned the Residency, now +occupied by a government high school, and the Protestant church of St +James, built at a coast of L10,000 by Colonel Skinner, an officer well +known in the history of the East India Company. About half-way down the +Chandni Chauk is a high clock-tower. Near it is the town hall, with +museum and library. Behind the Chandni Chauk, to the north, lie the +Queen's Gardens; beyond them the "city lines" stretch away as far as the +well-known rocky ridge, about a mile outside the town. From the summit +of this ridge the view of the station and city is very picturesque. The +principal local institution until 1877 was the Delhi College, founded in +1792. It was at first exclusively an oriental school, supported by the +voluntary contributions of Mahommedan gentlemen, and managed by a +committee of the subscribers. In 1829 an English department was added to +it; and in 1855 the institution was placed under the control of the +Educational Department. In the Mutiny of 1857 the old college was +plundered of a very valuable oriental library, and the building +completely destroyed. A new college was founded in 1858, and was +affiliated to the university of Calcutta in 1864. The old college +attained to great celebrity as an educational institution, and produced +many excellent scholars, but it was abolished in 1877, in order to +concentrate the grant available for higher-class education upon the +Punjab University at Lahore. + +The Ridge, famous as the British base during the siege of Delhi during +the Mutiny, in 1857, is a last outcrop of the Aravalli Hills which rises +in a steep escarpment some 60 ft. above the city. At its nearest point +on the right of the British position, where the Mutiny Memorial now +stands, the Ridge is only 1200 yds. from the walls of Delhi; at the +Flagstaff Tower in the centre of the position it is a mile and a half +away; and at the left near the river nearly two miles and a half. It was +behind the Ridge at this point that the main portion of the British camp +was pitched. The Mutiny Memorial, which was erected by the army before +Delhi, is a rather poor specimen of a Gothic spire in red sandstone, +while the memorial tablets are of inferior marble. Next to the Ridge the +point of most interest to every English visitor to Delhi is Nicholson's +grave, which lies surrounded by an iron railing in the Kashmir gate +cemetery. The Kashmir gate itself bears a slab recording the gallant +deed of the party under Lieutenants D. C. Home and P. Salkeld, who blew +in the gate in broad daylight on the day that Delhi was taken by +assault. + +The population of Delhi according to the census of 1901 was 208,575, of +whom 88,460 were Mahommedans and 114,417 were Hindus. The city is served +by five different railways, the East Indian, the Oudh & Rohilkhand, the +Rajputana-Malwa & Bombay-Baroda, the Southern Punjab, and the +North-Western, and occupies a central position, being 940 m. from +Karachi, 950 from Calcutta, and 960 from Bombay. Owing to the advantages +it enjoys as a trade centre, Delhi is recovering much of the prominence +which it lost at the time of the Mutiny. It has spinning-mills and other +mills worked by steam. The principal manufactures are gold and silver +filigree work and embroidery, jewelry, muslins, shawls, glazed pottery +and wood-carving. + +The DISTRICT OF DELHI has an area of 1290 sq. m. It consists of a strip +of territory on the right or west bank of the Jumna river, 75 m. in +length, and varying from 15 to 233 m. in breadth. Most of the district +consists of hard and stony soil, depending upon irrigation, which is +supplied by the Western Jumna canal, the Ali Mardan canal and the Agra +canal. The principal crops are wheat, barley, sugar-cane and cotton. + +When Lord Lake broke the Mahratta power in 1803, and the emperor was +taken under the protection of the East India Company, the present +districts of Delhi and Hissar were assigned for the maintenance of the +royal family, and were administered by a British resident. In 1832 the +office of resident was abolished, and the tract was annexed to the +North-Western Provinces. After the Mutiny in 1858 it was separated from +the North-Western Provinces and annexed to the Punjab. The population in +1901 was 689,039. + +The DIVISION OF DELHI stretches from Simla to Rajputana, and is much +broken up by native states. It comprises the seven districts of Hissar, +Rohtak, Gurgaon, Delhi, Karnal, Umballa and Simla. Its total area is +15,393 sq. m., and in 1901 the population was 4,587,092. + +_History._--According to legends, which may or may not have a +substantial basis, Delhi or its immediate neighbourhood has from time +immemorial been the site of a capital city. The neighbouring village of +Indarpat preserves the name of Indraprashta, the semi-mythical city +founded, according to the Sanscrit epic _Mahabharata_, by Yudisthira and +his brothers, the five Pandavas. Whatever its dim predecessors may have +been, however, the actual history of Delhi dates no further back than +the 11th century A.D., when Anangapala (Anang Pal), a chief of the +Tomara clan, built the Red Fort, in which the Kutb Minar now stands; in +1052 the same chief removed the famous Iron Pillar from its original +position, probably at Muttra, and set it up among a group of temples of +which the materials were afterwards used by the Mussulmans for the +construction of the great Kutb Mosque. About the middle of the 12th +century the Tomara dynasty was overthrown by Vigraha-raja (Visala-deva, +Bisal Deo), the Chauhan king of Ajmere, who from inscribed records +discovered of late years appears to have been a man of considerable +culture (see V. A. Smith, _Early Hist. of India_, ed. 1908, p. 356). His +nephew and successor was Prithwi-raja (Prithiraj, or Rai Pithora), lord +of Sambhar, Delhi and Ajmere, whose fame as lover and warrior still +lives in popular story. He was the last Hindu ruler of Delhi. In 1191 +came the invasion of Mahommed of Ghor. Defeated on this occasion, +Mahommed returned two years later, overthrew the Hindus, and captured +and put to death Prithwi-raja. Delhi became henceforth the capital of +the Mahommedan Indian empire, Kutb-ud-din (the general and slave of +Mahommed of Ghor) being left in command. His dynasty is known as that of +the slave kings, and it is to them that old Delhi owes its grandest +remains, among them Kutb Mosque and the Kutb Minar. The slave dynasty +retained the throne till 1290, when it was subverted by Jalal-ud-din +Khilji. The most remarkable monarch of this dynasty was Ala-ud-din, +during whose reign Delhi was twice exposed to attack from invading +hordes of Moguls. On the first occasion Ala-ud-din defeated them under +the walls of his capital; on the second, after encamping for two months +in the neighbourhood of the city, they retired without a battle. The +house of Khilji came to an end in 1321, and was followed by that of +Tughlak. Hitherto the Pathan kings had been content with the ancient +Hindu capital, altered and adorned to suit their tastes. But one of the +first acts of the founder of the new dynasty, Ghias-ud-din Tughlak, was +to erect a new capital about 4 m. farther to the east, which he called +Tughlakabad. The ruins of his fort remain, and the eye can still trace +the streets and lanes of the long deserted city. Ghias-ud-din was +succeeded by his son Mahommed b. Tughlak, who reigned from 1325 to 1351, +and is described by Elphinstone as "one of the most accomplished princes +and most furious tyrants that ever adorned or disgraced human nature." +Under this monarch the Delhi of the Tughlak dynasty attained its utmost +growth. His successor Feroz Shah Tughlak transferred the capital to a +new town which he founded some miles off, on the north of the Kutb, and +to which he gave his own name, Ferozabad. In 1398, during the reign of +Mahmud Tughlak, occurred the Tatar invasion of Timurlane. The king fled +to Gujarat, his army was defeated under the walls of Delhi, and the city +surrendered. The town, notwithstanding a promise of protection, was +plundered and burned; the citizens were massacred. The invaders at last +retired, leaving Delhi without a government, and almost without +inhabitants. At length Mahmud Tughlak regained a fragment of his former +kingdom, but on his death in 1412 the family became extinct. He was +succeeded by the Sayyid dynasty, which held Delhi and a few miles of +surrounding territory till 1444, when it gave way to the house of Lodi, +during whose rule the capital was removed to Agra. In 1526 Baber, sixth +in descent from Timurlane, invaded India, defeated and killed Ibrahim +Lodi at the battle of Panipat, entered Delhi, was proclaimed emperor, +and finally put an end to the Afghan empire. Baber's capital was at +Agra, but his son and successor, Humayun, removed it to Delhi. In 1540 +Humayun was defeated and expelled by Sher Shah, who entirely rebuilt the +city, enclosing and fortifying it with a new wall. In his time Delhi +extended from where Humayun's tomb now is to near the southern gate of +the modern city. In 1555 Humayun, with the assistance of Persia, +regained the throne; but he died within six months, and was succeeded by +his son, the illustrious Akbar. + +During Akbar's reign and that of his son Jahangir, the capital was +either at Agra or at Lahore, and Delhi once more fell into decay. +Between 1638 and 1658, however, Shah Jahan rebuilt it almost in its +present form; and his city remains substantially the Delhi of the +present time. The imperial palace, the Jama Masjid or Great Mosque, and +the restoration of what is now the western Jumna canal, are the work of +Shah Jahan. The Mogul empire rapidly expanded during the reigns of Akbar +and his successors down to Aurungzeb, when it attained its climax. After +the death of the latter monarch, in 1707, came the decline. +Insurrections and civil wars on the part of the Hindu tributary chiefs, +Sikhs and Mahrattas, broke out. Aurungzeb's successors became the +helpless instruments of conflicting chiefs. His grandson, Jahandar Shah, +was, in 1713, deposed and strangled after a reign of one year; and +Farrakhsiyyar, the next in succession, met with the same fate in 1719. +He was succeeded by Mahommed Shah, in whose reign the Mahratta forces +first made their appearance before the gates of Delhi, in 1736. Three +years later the Persian monarch, Nadir Shah, after defeating the Mogul +army at Karnal, entered Delhi in triumph. While engaged in levying a +heavy contribution, the Persian troops were attacked by the populace, +and many of them were killed. Nadir Shah, after vainly attempting to +stay the tumult, at last gave orders for a general massacre of the +inhabitants. For fifty-eight days Nadir Shah remained in Delhi, and when +he left he carried with him a treasure in money amounting, at the lowest +computation, to eight or nine millions sterling, besides jewels of +inestimable value, and other property to the amount of several millions +more. + +From this time (1740) the decline of the empire proceeded unchecked and +with increased rapidity. In 1771 Shah Alam, the son of Alamgir II., was +nominally raised to the throne by the Mahrattas, the real sovereignty +resting with the Mahratta chief, Sindhia. An attempt of the puppet +emperor to shake himself clear of the Mahrattas, in which he was +defeated in 1788, led to a permanent Mahratta garrison being stationed +at Delhi. From this date, the king remained a cipher in the hands of +Sindhia, who treated him with studied neglect, until the 8th of +September 1803, when Lord Lake overthrew the Mahrattas under the walls +of Delhi, entered the city, and took the king under the protection of +the British. Delhi, once more attacked by a Mahratta army under the +Mahratta chief Holkar in 1804, was gallantly defended by Colonel +Ochterlony, the British resident, who held out against overwhelming odds +for eight days, until relieved by Lord Lake. From this date a new era in +the history of Delhi began. A pension of L120,000 per annum was allowed +to the king, with exclusive jurisdiction over the palace, and the +titular sovereignty as before; but the city, together with the Delhi +territory, passed under British administration. + +Fifty-three years of quiet prosperity for Delhi were brought to a close +by the Mutiny of 1857. Its capture by the mutineers, its siege, and its +subsequent recapture by the British have been often told, and nothing +beyond a short notice is called for here. The outbreak at Meerut +occurred on the night of the 10th of May 1857. Immediately after the +murder of their officers, the rebel soldiery set out for Delhi, about 35 +m. distant, and on the following morning entered the city, where they +were joined by the city mob. Mr Fraser, the commissioner, Mr Hutchinson, +the collector, Captain Douglas, the commandant of the palace guards, and +the Rev. Mr Jennings, the residency chaplain, were at once murdered, as +were also most of the civil and non-official residents whose houses were +situated within the city walls. The British troops in cantonments +consisted of three regiments of native infantry and a battery of +artillery. These cast in their lot with the mutineers, and commenced by +killing their officers. The Delhi magazine, then the largest in the +north-west of India, was in the charge of Lieutenant Willoughby, with +whom were two other officers and six non-commissioned officers. The +magazine was attacked by the mutineers, but the little band defended to +the last the enormous accumulation of munitions of war stored there, +and, when further defence was hopeless, fired the magazine. Five of the +nine were killed by the explosion, and Lieutenant Willoughby +subsequently died of his injuries; the remaining three succeeded in +making their escape. The occupation of Delhi by the rebels was the +signal for risings in almost every military station in North-Western +India. The revolted soldiery with one accord thronged towards Delhi, and +in a short time the city was garrisoned by a rebel army variously +estimated at from 50,000 to 70,000 disciplined men. The pensioned king, +Bahadur Shah, was proclaimed emperor; his sons were appointed to various +military commands. About fifty Europeans and Eurasians, nearly all +females, who had been captured in trying to escape from the town on the +day of the outbreak, were confined in a stifling chamber of the palace +for fifteen days; they were then brought out and massacred in the +court-yard. + +The siege which followed forms one of the memorable incidents of the +British history of India. On the 8th June, four weeks after the +outbreak, Sir H. Barnard, who had succeeded as commander-in-chief on the +death of General Anson, routed the mutineers with a handful of Europeans +and Sikhs, after a severe action at Badliki-Serai, and encamped upon the +Ridge that overlooks the city. The force was too weak to capture the +city, and he had no siege train or heavy guns. All that could be done +was to hold the position till the arrival of reinforcements and of a +siege train. During the next three months the little British force on +the Ridge were rather the besieged than the besiegers. Almost daily +sallies, which often turned into pitched battles, were made by the +rebels upon the over-worked handful of Europeans, Sikhs and Gurkhas. A +great struggle took place on the centenary of the battle of Plassey +(June 23), and another on the 25th of August; but on both occasions the +mutineers were repulsed with heavy loss. General Barnard died of cholera +in July, and was succeeded by General Archdale Wilson. Meanwhile +reinforcements and siege artillery gradually arrived, and early in +September it was resolved to make the assault. The first of the heavy +batteries opened fire on the 8th of September, and on the 13th a +practicable breach was reported. + +On the morning of the 14th Sept. the assault was delivered, the points +of attack being the Kashmir bastion, the Water bastion, the Kashmir +gate, and the Lahore gate. The assault was thoroughly successful, +although the column which was to enter the city by the Lahore gate +sustained a temporary check. The whole eastern part of the city was +retaken, but at a cost of 66 officers and 1104 men killed and wounded, +out of the total strength of 9866. Fighting continued more or less +during the next six days, and it was not till the 20th of September that +the entire city and palace were occupied, and the reconquest of Delhi +was complete. During the siege, the British force sustained a loss of +1012 officers and men killed, and 3837 wounded. Among the killed was +General John Nicholson, the leader of one of the storming parties, who +was shot through the body in the act of leading his men, in the first +day's fighting. He lived, however, to learn that the whole city had been +recaptured, and died on the 23rd of September. On the flight of the +mutineers, the king and several members of the royal family took refuge +at Humayun's tomb. On receiving a promise that his life would be spared, +the last of the house of Timur surrendered to Major Hodson; he was +afterwards banished to Rangoon. Delhi, thus reconquered, remained for +some months under military authority. Owing to the murder of several +European soldiers who strayed from the lines, the native population was +expelled the city. Hindus were soon afterwards readmitted, but for some +time Mahommedans were rigorously excluded. Delhi was made over to the +civil authorities in January 1858, but it was not till 1861 that the +civil courts were regularly reopened. The shattered walls of the Kashmir +gateway, and the bastions of the northern face of the city, still bear +the marks of the cannonade of September 1857. Since that date Delhi has +settled down into a prosperous commercial town, and a great railway +centre. The lines which start from it to the north, south, east and west +bring into its bazaars the trade of many districts. But the romance of +antiquity still lingers around it, and Delhi was selected for the scene +of the Imperial Proclamation on the 1st of January 1877, and for the +great Durbar held in January 1903 for the proclamation of King Edward +VII. as emperor of India. + + AUTHORITIES.--The best modern account of the city is _Delhi, Past and + Present_ (1901), by H. C. Fanshawe, a former commissioner of Delhi. + Other authoritative works are _Cities of India_ (1903) and _The Mutiny + Papers_ (1893), both by G. W. Forrest, and _Forty-one Years in India_ + (1897), by Lord Roberts; while some impressionistic sketches will be + found in _Enchanted India_ (1899), by Prince Bojidar Karageorgevitch. + See also the chapter on Delhi in H. G. Keene, _Hist. of Hindustan ... + to the fall of the Mughol Empire_ (1885). For the Delhi Durbar of 1903 + see Stephen Wheeler, _Hist. of the Delhi Coronation Durbar_, compiled + from official papers by order of the viceroy of India (London, 1904), + which contains numerous portraits and other illustrations. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See the paper by V. A. Smith in the _Journal of the Royal Asiatic + Soc._ (1897), p. 13. + + + + +DELIA, a festival of Apollo held every five years at the great panegyris +in Delos (Homeric _Hymn to Apollo_, 147). It included athletic and +musical contests, at which the prize was a branch of the sacred palm. +This festival was said to have been established by Theseus on his way +back from Crete. Its celebration gradually fell into abeyance and was +not revived till 426 B.C., when the Athenians purified the island and +took so prominent a part in the maintenance of the Delia that it came to +be regarded almost as an Athenian festival (Thucydides iii. 104). +Ceremonial embassies ([Greek: theoriai]) from all the Greek cities were +present. + + See G. Gilbert, _Deliaca_ (1869); J. A. Lebegue, _Recherches sur + Delos_ (1876); A. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen_ (1898); E. Pfuhl, + _De Atheniensium pompis sacris_ (1900); G. F. Schomann, _Griechische + Altertumer_ (4th ed., 1897-1902); P. Stengel, _Die griechischen + Kultusaltertumer_ (1898); T. Homolle in Daremberg and Saglio's + _Dictionnaire des antiquites_. + + + + +DELIAN LEAGUE, or CONFEDERACY OF DELOS, the name given to a +confederation of Greek states under the leadership of Athens, with its +headquarters at Delos, founded in 478 B.C. shortly after the final +repulse of the expedition of the Persians under Xerxes I. This +confederacy, which after many modifications and vicissitudes was finally +broken up by the capture of Athens by Sparta in 404, was revived in +378-7 (the "Second Athenian Confederacy") as a protection against +Spartan aggression, and lasted, at least formally, until the victory of +Philip II. of Macedon at Chaeronea. These two confederations have an +interest quite out of proportion to the significance of the detailed +events which form their history. (See GREECE: _Ancient History_.) They +are the first two examples of which we have detailed knowledge of a +serious attempt at united action on the part of a large number of +self-governing states at a relatively high level of conscious political +development. The first league, moreover, in its later period affords the +first example in recorded history of self-conscious imperialism in which +the subordinate units enjoyed a specified local autonomy with an +organized system, financial, military and judicial. The second league is +further interesting as the precursor of the Achaean and Aetolian +Leagues. + +_History._--Several causes contributed to the formation of the first +Confederacy of Delos. During the 6th century B.C. Sparta had come to be +regarded as the chief power, not only in the Peloponnese, but also in +Greece as a whole, including the islands of the Aegean. The Persian +invasions of Darius and Xerxes, with the consequent importance of +maritime strength and the capacity for distant enterprise, as compared +with that of purely military superiority in the Greek peninsula, caused +a considerable loss of prestige which Sparta was unwilling to recognize. +Moreover, it chanced that at the time the Spartan leaders were not men +of strong character or general ability. Pausanias, the victor of +Plataea, soon showed himself destitute of the high qualities which the +situation demanded. Personal cupidity, discourtesy to the allies, and a +tendency to adopt the style and manners of oriental princes, combined to +alienate from him the sympathies of the Ionian allies, who realized +that, had it not been for the Athenians, the battle of Salamis would +never have been even fought, and Greece would probably have become a +Persian satrapy. The Athenian contingent which was sent to aid Pausanias +in the task of driving the Persians finally out of the Thraceward towns +was under the command of the Athenians, Aristides and Cimon, men of tact +and probity. It is not, therefore, surprising that when Pausanias was +recalled to Sparta on the charge of treasonable overtures to the +Persians, the Ionian allies appealed to the Athenians on the grounds of +kinship and urgent necessity, and that when Sparta sent out Dorcis to +supersede Pausanias he found Aristides in unquestioned command of the +allied fleet. To some extent the Spartans were undoubtedly relieved, in +that it no longer fell to them to organize distant expeditions to Asia +Minor, and this feeling was strengthened about the same time by the +treacherous conduct of their king Leotychides (q.v.) in Thessaly. In any +case the inelastic quality of the Spartan system was unable to adapt +itself to the spirit of the new age. To Aristides was mainly due the +organization of the new league and the adjustment of the contributions +of the various allies in ships or in money. His assessment, of the +details of which we know nothing, was so fair that it remained popular +long after the league of autonomous allies had become an Athenian +empire. The general affairs of the league were managed by a synod which +met periodically in the temple of Apollo and Artemis at Delos, the +ancient centre sanctified by the common worship of the Ionians. In this +synod the allies met on an equality under the presidency of Athens. +Among its first subjects of deliberation must have been the ratification +of Aristides' assessment. Thucydides lays emphasis on the fact that in +these meetings Athens as head of the league had no more than +presidential authority, and the other members were called [Greek: +summachoi] (allies), a word, however, of ambiguous meaning and capable +of including both free and subject allies. The only other fact preserved +by Thucydides is that Athens appointed a board called the Hellenotamiae +([Greek: tamias], steward) to watch over and administer the treasury of +the league, which for some twenty years was kept at Delos, and to +receive the contributions ([Greek: phoros]) of the allies who paid in +money. + +The league was, therefore, specifically a free confederation of +autonomous Ionian cities founded as a protection against the common +danger which threatened the Aegean basin, and led by Athens in virtue of +her predominant naval power as exhibited in the war against Xerxes. Its +organization, adopted by the common synod, was the product of the new +democratic ideal embodied in the Cleisthenic reforms, as interpreted by +a just and moderate exponent. It is one of the few examples of free +corporate action on the part of the ancient Greek cities, whose +centrifugal yearning for independence so often proved fatal to the +Hellenic world. It is, therefore, a profound mistake to regard the +history of the league during the first twenty years of its existence as +that of an Athenian empire. Thucydides expressly describes the +predominance of Athens as [Greek: hegemonia] (leadership, headship), not +as [Greek: arche] (empire), and the attempts made by Athenian orators +during the second period of the Peloponnesian War to prove that the +attitude of Athens had not altered since the time of Aristides are +manifestly unsuccessful. + +Of the first ten years of the league's history we know practically +nothing, save that it was a period of steady, successful activity +against the few remaining Persian strongholds in Thrace and the Aegean +(Herod, i. 106-107, see ATHENS, CIMON). In these years the Athenian +sailors reached a high pitch of training, and by their successes +strengthened that corporate pride which had been born at Salamis. On the +other hand, it naturally came to pass that certain of the allies became +weary of incessant warfare and looked for a period of commercial +prosperity. Athens, as the chosen leader, and supported no doubt by the +synod, enforced the contributions of ships and money according to the +assessment. Gradually the allies began to weary of personal service and +persuaded the synod to accept a money commutation. The Ionians were +naturally averse from prolonged warfare, and in the prosperity which +must have followed the final rout of the Persians and the freeing of the +Aegean from the pirates (a very important feature in the league's +policy) a money contribution was only a trifling burden. The result was, +however, extremely bad for the allies, whose status in the league +necessarily became lower in relation to that of Athens, while at the +same time their military and naval resources correspondingly diminished. +Athens became more and more powerful, and could afford to disregard the +authority of the synod. Another new feature appeared in the employment +of coercion against cities which desired to secede. Athens might fairly +insist that the protection of the Aegean would become impossible if some +of the chief islands were liable to be used as piratical strongholds, +and further that it was only right that all should contribute in some +way to the security which all enjoyed. The result was that, in the cases +of Naxos and Thasos, for instance, the league's resources were employed +not against the Persians but against recalcitrant Greek islands, and +that the Greek ideal of separate autonomy was outraged. Shortly after +the capture of Naxos (c. 467 B.C.) Cimon proceeded with a fleet of 300 +ships (only 100 from the allies) to the south-western and southern +coasts of Asia Minor. Having driven the Persians out of Greek towns in +Lycia and Caria, he met and routed the Persians on land and sea at the +mouth of the Eurymedon in Pamphylia. In 463 after a siege of more than +two years the Athenians captured Thasos, with which they had quarrelled +over mining rights in the Strymon valley. It is said (Thuc. i. 101) that +Thasos had appealed for aid to Sparta, and that the latter was prevented +from responding only by earthquake and the Helot revolt. But this is +both unproved and improbable. Sparta had so far no quarrel with Athens. +Athens thus became mistress of the Aegean, while the synod at Delos had +become practically, if not theoretically, powerless. It was at this time +that Cimon (q.v.), who had striven to maintain a balance between Sparta, +the chief military, and Athens, the chief naval power, was successfully +attacked by Ephialtes and Pericles. During the ensuing years, apart from +a brief return to the Cimonian policy, the resources of the league, or, +as it has now become, the Athenian empire, were directed not so much +against Persia as against Sparta, Corinth, Aegina and Boeotia. (See +ATHENS; SPARTA, &c.) A few points only need be dealt with here. The +first years of the land war brought the Athenian empire to its zenith. +Apart from Thessaly, it included all Greece outside the Peloponnese. At +the same time, however, the Athenian expedition against the Persians in +Egypt ended in a disastrous defeat, and for a time the Athenians +returned to a philo-Laconian policy, perhaps under the direction of +Cimon (see CIMON and PERICLES). Peace was made with Sparta, and, if we +are to believe 4th-century orators, a treaty, the Peace of Callias or of +Cimon, was concluded between the Great King and Athens in 449 after the +death of Cimon before the walls of Citium in Cyprus. The meaning of this +so-called Peace of Callias is doubtful. Owing to the silence of +Thucydides and other reasons, many scholars regard it as merely a +cessation of hostilities (see CIMON and CALLIAS, where authorities are +quoted). At all events, it is significant of the success of the main +object of the Delian League, the Athenians resigning Cyprus and Egypt, +while Persia recognized the freedom of the maritime Greeks of Asia +Minor. + +During this period the power of Athens over her allies had increased, +though we do not know anything of the process by which this was brought +about. Chios, Lesbos and Samos alone furnished ships; all the rest had +commuted for a money payment. This meant that the synod was quite +powerless. Moreover in 454 (probably) the changed relations were +crystallized by the transference (proposed by the Samians) of the +treasury to Athens (_Corp. Inscr. Attic._ i. 260). Thus in 448 B.C. +Athens was not only mistress of a maritime empire, but ruled over +Megara, Boeotia, Phocis, Locris, Achaea and Troezen, i.e. over so-called +allies who were strangers to the old pan-Ionian assembly and to the +policy of the league, and was practically equal to Sparta on land. An +important event must be referred probably to the year 451,--the law of +Pericles, by which citizenship (including the right to vote in the +Ecclesia and to sit on paid juries) was restricted to those who could +prove themselves the children of an Athenian father and mother ([Greek: +ex amphoin astoin]). This measure must have had a detrimental effect on +the allies, who thus saw themselves excluded still further from +recognition as equal partners in a league (see PERICLES). The natural +result of all these causes was that a feeling of antipathy rose against +Athens in the minds of those to whom autonomy was the breath of life, +and the fundamental tendency of the Greeks to disruption was soon to +prove more powerful than the forces at the disposal of Athens. The first +to secede were the land powers of Greece proper, whose subordination +Athens had endeavoured to guarantee by supporting the democratic parties +in the various states. Gradually the exiled oligarchs combined; with the +defeat of Tolmides at Coroneia, Boeotia was finally lost to the empire, +and the loss of Phocis, Locris and Megara was the immediate sequel. +Against these losses the retention of Euboea, Nisaea and Pegae was no +compensation; the land empire was irretrievably lost. + +The next important event is the revolt of Samos, which had quarrelled +with Miletus over the city of Priene. The Samians refused the +arbitration of Athens. The island was conquered with great difficulty +by the whole force of the league, and from the fact that the tribute of +the Thracian cities and those in Hellespontine district was increased +between 439 and 436 we must probably infer that Athens had to deal with +a widespread feeling of discontent about this period. It is, however, +equally noticeable on the one hand that the main body of the allies was +not affected, and on the other that the Peloponnesian League on the +advice of Corinth officially recognized the right of Athens to deal with +her rebellious subject allies, and refused to give help to the Samians. + +The succeeding events which led to the Peloponnesian War and the final +disruption of the league are discussed in other articles. (See ATHENS: +_History_, and PELOPONNESIAN War.) Two important events alone call for +special notice. The first is the raising of the allies' tribute in 425 +B.C. by a certain Thudippus, presumably a henchman of Cleon. The fact, +though not mentioned by Thucydides, was inferred from Aristophanes +(_Wasps_, 660), Andocides (_de Pace_, S 9), Plutarch (_Aristides_, c. +24), and pseudo-Andocides (_Alcibiad._ 11); it was proved by the +discovery of the assessment list of 425-4 (Hicks and Hill, _Inscrip._ +64). The second event belongs to 411, after the failure of the Sicilian +expedition. In that year the tribute of the allies was commuted for a 5% +tax on all imports and exports by sea. This tax, which must have tended +to equalize the Athenian merchants with those of the allied cities, +probably came into force gradually, for beside the new collectors called +[Greek: poristai] we still find Hellenotamiae (_C.I.A._ iv. [i.] p. 34). + +_The Tribute._--Only a few problems can be discussed of the many which +are raised by the insufficient and conflicting evidence at our disposal. +In the first place there is the question of the tribute. Thucydides is +almost certainly wrong in saying that the amount of the original tribute +was 460 talents (about L106,000); this figure cannot have been reached +for at least twelve, probably twenty years, when new members had been +enrolled (Lycia, Caria, Eion, Lampsacus). Similarly he is probably +wrong, or at all events includes items of which the tribute lists take +no account, when he says that it amounted to 600 talents at the +beginning of the Peloponnesian War. The moderation of the assessment is +shown not only by the fact that it was paid so long without objection, +but also by the individual items. Even in 425 Naxos and Andros paid only +15 talents, while Athens had just raised an _eisphora_ (income tax) from +her own citizens of 200 talents. Moreover it would seem that a tribute +which yielded less than the 5% tax of 411 could not have been +unreasonable. + +The number of tributaries is given by Aristophanes as 1000, but this is +greatly in excess of those named in the tribute lists. Some authorities +give 200; others put it as high as 290. The difficulty is increased by +the fact that in some cases several towns were grouped together in one +payment ([Greek: synteleis]). These were grouped into five main +geographical divisions (from 443 to 436; afterwards four, Caria being +merged in Ionia). Each division was represented by two elective +assessment commissioners ([Greek: taktai]), who assisted the Boule at +Athens in the quadrennial division of the tribute. Each city sent in its +own assessment before the [Greek: taktai], who presented it to the +Boule. If there was any difference of opinion the matter was referred to +the Ecclesia for settlement. In the Ecclesia a private citizen might +propose another assessment, or the case might be referred to the law +courts. The records of the tribute are preserved in the so-called quota +lists, which give the names of the cities and the proportion, +one-sixtieth, of their several tributes, which was paid to Athens. No +tribute was paid by members of a _cleruchy_ (q.v.), as we find from the +fact that the tribute of a city always decreased when a cleruchy was +planted in it. This highly organized financial system must have been +gradually evolved, and no doubt reached its perfection only after the +treasury was transferred to Athens. + +_Government and Jurisdiction._--There is much difference of opinion +among scholars regarding the attitude of imperial Athens towards her +allies. Grote maintained that on the whole the allies had little ground +for complaint; but in so doing he rather seems to leave out of account +the Greek's dislike of external discipline. The very fact that the +hegemony had become an empire was enough to make the new system highly +offensive to the allies. No very strong argument can be based on the +paucity of actual revolts. The indolent Ionians had seen the result of +secession at Naxos and rebellion at Thasos; the Athenian fleet was +perpetually on guard in the Aegean. On the other hand among the mainland +cities revolt was frequent; they were ready to rebel [Greek: kai para +dynamin]. Therefore, even though Athenian domination may have been +highly salutary in its effects, there can be no doubt that the allies +did not regard it with affection. + +To judge only by the negative evidence of the decree of Aristoteles +which records the terms of alliance of the second confederacy (below), +we gather that in the later period at least of the first league's +history the Athenians had interfered with the local autonomy of the +allies in various ways--an inference which is confirmed by the terms of +"alliance" which Athens imposed on Erythrae, Chalcis and Miletus. Though +it appears that Athens made individual agreements with various states, +and therefore that we cannot regard as general rules the terms laid down +in those which we possess, it is undeniable that the Athenians planted +garrisons under permanent Athenian officers ([Greek: phrourarchoi]) in +some cities. Moreover the practice among Athenian settlers of acquiring +land in the allied districts must have been vexatious to the allies, the +more so as all important cases between Athenians and citizens of allied +cities were brought to Athens. Even on the assumption that the Athenian +dicasteries were scrupulously fair in their awards, it must have been +peculiarly galling to the self-respect of the allies and inconvenient to +individuals to be compelled to carry cases to Athens and Athenian +juries. Furthermore we gather from the Aristoteles inscription and from +the 4th-century orators that Athens imposed democratic constitutions on +her allies; indeed Isocrates (_Paneg._, 106) takes credit for Athens on +this ground, and the charter of Erythrae confirms the view (cf. Arist. +_Polit._, viii., vi. 9 1307 b 20; Thuc. viii. 21, 48, 64, 65). Even +though we admit that Chios, Lesbos and Samos (up to 440) retained their +oligarchic governments and that Selymbria, at a time (409 B.C.) when the +empire was _in extremis_, was permitted to choose its own constitution, +there can be no doubt that, from whatever motive and with whatever +result, Athens did exercise over many of her allies an authority which +extended to the most intimate concerns of local administration. + +Thus the great attempt on the part of Athens to lead a harmonious league +of free Greek states for the good of Hellas degenerated into an empire +which proved intolerable to the autonomous states of Greece. Her failure +was due partly to the commercial jealousy of Corinth working on the dull +antipathy of Sparta, partly to the hatred of compromise and discipline +which was fatally characteristic of Greece and especially of Ionian +Greece, and partly also to the lack of tact and restraint shown by +Athens and her representatives in her relations with the allies. + +_The Second League._--The conditions which led to the second Athenian or +Delian Confederacy were fundamentally different, not only in virtue of +the fact that the allies had learned from experience the dangers to +which such a league was liable, but because the enemy was no longer an +oriental power of whose future action there could be no certain +anticipation, but Sparta, whose ambitious projects since the fall of +Athens had shown that there could be no safety for the smaller states +save in combination. + +There can be no reasonable doubt that as soon as the Athenians began to +recover from the paralysing effect of the victory of Lysander and the +internal troubles in which they were involved by the government of the +Thirty, their thoughts turned to the possibility of recovering their +lost empire. The first step in the direction was the recovery of their +sea-power, which was effected by the victory of Conon at Cnidus (August +394 B.C.). Gradually individual cities which had formed part of the +Athenian empire returned to their alliance with Athens, until the +Spartans had lost Rhodes, Cos, Nisyrus, Teos, Chios, Mytilene, Ephesus, +Erythrae, Lemnos, Imbros, Scyros, Eretria, Melos, Cythera, Carpathus +and Delos. Sparta had only Sestos and Abydos of all that she had won by +the battle of Aegospotami. At the same time no systematic constructive +attempt at a renewal of empire can as yet be detected. Athenian +relations were with individual states only, and the terms of alliance +were various. Moreover, whereas Persia had been for several years aiding +Athens against Sparta, the revolt of the Athenian ally Evagoras (q.v.) +of Cyprus set them at enmity, and with the secession of Ephesus, Cnidus +and Samos in 391 and the civil war in Rhodes, the star of Sparta seemed +again to be in the ascendant. But the whole position was changed by the +successes of Thrasybulus, who brought over the Odrysian king Medocus and +Seuthes of the Propontis to the Athenian alliance, set up a democracy in +Byzantium and reimposed the old 10% duty on goods from the Black Sea. +Many of the island towns subsequently came over, and from inscriptions +at Clazomenae (_C.I.A._ ii. 14_b_) and Thasos (_C.I.A._ iv. 11_b_) we +learn that Thrasybulus evidently was deliberately aiming at a renewal of +the empire, though the circumstances leading to his death at Aspendus +when seeking to raise money suggest that he had no general backing in +Athens. + +The peace of Antalcidas or the King's Peace (see ANTALCIDAS; SPARTA) in +386 was a blow to Athens in the interests of Persia and Sparta. +Antalcidas compelled the Athenians to give their assent to it only by +making himself master of the Hellespont by stratagem with the aid of +Dionysius the Elder of Syracuse. By this peace all the Greek cities on +the mainland of Asia with the islands of Cyprus and Clazomenae were +recognized as Persian, all other cities except Imbros, Lemnos and Scyros +as autonomous. Directly, this arrangement prevented an Athenian empire; +indirectly, it caused the sacrificed cities and their kinsmen on the +islands to look upon Athens as their protector. The gross selfishness of +the Spartans, herein exemplified, was emphasized by their capture of the +Theban citadel, and, after their expulsion, by the raid upon Attica in +time of peace by the Spartan Sphodrias, and his immunity from punishment +at Sparta (summer of 378 B.C.). The Athenians at once invited their +allies to a conference, and the Second Athenian Confederacy was formed +in the archonship of Nausinicus on the basis of the famous decree of +Aristoteles. Those who attended the conference were probably Athens, +Chios, Mytilene, Methymna, Rhodes, Byzantium, Thebes, the latter of +which joined Athens soon after the Sphodrias raid. In the spring of 377 +invitations were sent out to the maritime cities. Some time in that year +Tenedos, Chios, Chalcis in Euboea, and probably the Euboean cities +Eretria, Carystus and Arethusa gave in their adherence, followed by +Perinthus, Peparethus, Sciathus and other maritime cities. + +At this point Sparta was roused to a sense of the significance of the +new confederacy, and the Athenian corn supply was threatened by a +Spartan fleet of sixty triremes. The Athenians immediately fitted out a +fleet under Chabrias, who gained a decisive victory over the Spartans +between Naxos and Paros (battle of Naxos 376 B.C.), both of which were +added to the league. Proceeding northwards in 375 Chabrias brought over +a large number of the Thraceward towns, including Abdera, Thasos and +Samothrace. It is interesting to notice that a garrison was placed in +Abdera in direct contravention of the terms of the new confederacy +(Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alt._, v. 394). About the same time the successes of +Timotheus in the west resulted in the addition to the league of Corcyra +and the cities of Cephallenia, and his moderation induced the +Acarnanians and Alcetas, the Molossian king, to follow their example. +Once again Sparta sent out a fleet, but Timotheus in spite of financial +embarrassment held his ground. By this time, however, the alliance +between Thebes and Athens was growing weaker, and Athens, being short of +money, concluded a peace with Sparta (probably in July 374), by which +the peace of Antalcidas was confirmed and the two states recognized each +other as mistress of sea and land respectively. Trouble, however, soon +arose over Zacynthus, and the Spartans not only sent help to the +Zacynthian oligarchs but even besieged Corcyra (373). Timotheus was sent +to relieve the island, but shortness of money compelled him to search +for new allies, and he spent the summer of 373 in persuading Jason of +Pherae (if he had not already joined), and certain towns in Thrace, the +Chersonese, the Propontis and the Aegean to enrol themselves. This delay +in sending help to Corcyra was rightly or wrongly condemned by the +Athenians, who dismissed Timotheus in favour of Iphicrates. The +expedition which followed produced negative successes, but the absence +of any positive success and the pressure of financial difficulty, +coupled with the defection of Jason (probably before 371), and the +high-handed action of Thebes in destroying Plataea (373), induced Athens +to renew the peace with Sparta which Timotheus had broken. With the +support of Persia an agreement was made by a congress at Sparta on the +basis of the autonomy of the cities, Amphipolis and the Chersonese being +granted to Athens. The Thebans at first accepted the terms, but on the +day after, realizing that they were thus balked of their pan-Boeotian +ambition, withdrew and finally severed themselves from the league. + +The peace of 371 may be regarded as the conclusion of the first distinct +period in the league's existence. The original purpose of the +league--the protection of the allies from the ambitions of Sparta--was +achieved. Athens was recognized as mistress of the sea; Sparta as the +chief land power. The inherent weakness of the coalition had, however, +become apparent. The enthusiasm of the allies (numbering about seventy) +waned rapidly before the financial exigencies of successive campaigns, +and it is abundantly clear that Thebes had no interest save the +extension of her power in Boeotia. Though her secession, therefore, +meant very little loss of strength, there were not wanting signs that +the league was not destined to remain a power in the land. + +The remaining history may be broken up into two periods, the first from +371 to 357, the second from 357 to 338. Throughout these two periods, +which saw the decline and final dissolution of the alliance, there is +very little specific evidence for its existence. The events seem to +belong to the histories of the several cities, and examples of corporate +action are few and uncertain. None the less the known facts justify a +large number of inferences as to the significance of events which are on +the surface merely a part of the individual foreign policy of Athens. + +_Period 371-357._--The first event in this period was the battle of +Leuctra (July 371), in which, no doubt to the surprise of Athens, Thebes +temporarily asserted itself as the chief land power in Greece. To +counterbalance the new power Athens very rashly plunged into +Peloponnesian politics with the ulterior object of inducing the states +which had formerly recognized the hegemony of Sparta to transfer their +allegiance to the Delian League. It seems that all the states adopted +this policy with the exception of Sparta (probably) and Elis. The policy +of Athens was mistaken for two reasons: (1) Sparta was not entirely +humiliated, and (2) alliance with the land powers of Peloponnese was +incalculably dangerous, inasmuch as it involved Athens in enterprises +which could not awake the enthusiasm of her maritime allies. This new +coalition naturally alarmed Sparta, which at once made overtures to +Athens on the ground of their common danger from Thebes. The alliance +was concluded in 369. About the same time Iphicrates was sent to take +possession of Amphipolis according to the treaty of 371. Some success in +Macedonia roused the hostility of Thebes, and the subsequent attempts on +Amphipolis caused the Chalcidians to declare against the league. It +would appear that the old suspicion of the allies was now thoroughly +awakened, and we find Athens making great efforts to conciliate Mytilene +by honorific decrees (Hicks and Hill, 109). This suspicion, which was +due primarily, no doubt, to the agreement with Sparta, would find +confirmation in the subsequent exchange of compliments with Dionysius I. +of Syracuse, Sparta's ally, who with his sons received the Athenian +citizenship. It is not clear that the allies officially approved this +new friendship; it is certain that it was actually distasteful to them. +The same dislike would be roused by the Athenian alliance with Alexander +of Pherae (368-367). The maritime allies naturally had no desire to be +involved in the quarrels of Sicily, Thessaly and the Peloponnese. + +In 367 Athens and Thebes sent rival ambassadors to Persia, with the +result that Athens was actually ordered to abandon her claim to +Amphipolis, and to remove her navy from the high seas. The claim to +Amphipolis was subsequently affirmed, but the Greek states declined to +obey the order of Persia. In 366 Athens lost Oropus, a blow which she +endeavoured to repair by forming an alliance with Arcadia and by an +attack on Corinth. At the same time certain of the Peloponnesian states +made peace with Thebes, and some hold that Athens joined this peace +(Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alt._ v. 449). Timotheus was sent in 366-365 to make +a demonstration against Persia. Finding Samos in the hands of +Cyprothemis, a servant of the satrap Tigranes, he laid siege to it, +captured it after a ten months' siege and established a cleruchy. Though +Samos was not apparently one of the allies, this latter action could not +but remind the allies of the very dangers which the second confederacy +had set out to avoid. + +The next important event was the serious attempt on the part of +Epaminondas to challenge the Athenian naval supremacy. Though Timotheus +held his ground the confederacy was undoubtedly weakened. In 362 Athens +joined in the opposition to the Theban expedition which ended in the +battle of Mantineia (July). In the next year the Athenian generals +failed in the north in their attempt to control the Hellespont. In +Thessaly Alexander of Pherae became hostile and after several successes +even attacked the Peiraeus. Chares was ordered to make reprisals, but +instead sailed to Corcyra, where he made the mistake of siding with the +oligarchs. The last event of the period was a success, the recovery of +Euboea (357), which was once more added to the league. + +During these fourteen years the policy of Athens towards her maritime +allies was, as we have seen, shortsighted and inconsistent. Alliances +with various land powers, and an inability to understand the true +relations which alone could unite the league, combined to alienate the +allies, who could discover no reason for the expenditure of their +contributions on protecting Sparta or Corinth against Thebes. The +[Greek: Synedrion] of the league is found taking action in several +instances, but there is evidence (cf. the expedition of Epaminondas in +363) that there was ground for suspecting disloyalty in many quarters. +On the other hand, though the Athenian fleet became stronger and several +cities were captured, the league itself did not gain any important +voluntary adherents. The generals were compelled to support their forces +by plunder or out of their private resources, and, frequently failing, +diverted their efforts from the pressing needs of the allies to purely +Athenian objects. + +_Period 357-338._--The latent discontent of the allies was soon fanned +into hostility by the intrigues of Mausolus, prince of Cardia, who was +anxious to extend his kingdom. Chios, Rhodes, Cos, Byzantium, Erythrae +and probably other cities were in revolt by the spring of 356, and their +attacks on loyal members of the confederacy compelled Athens to take the +offensive. Chabrias had already been killed in an attack on Chios in the +previous autumn, and the fleet was under the command of Timotheus, +Iphicrates and Chares, who sailed against Byzantium. The enemy sailed +north from Samos and in a battle off Embata (between Erythrae and Chios) +defeated Chares, who, without the consent of his colleagues, had +ventured to engage them in a storm. The more cautious generals were +accused of corruption in not supporting Chares. Iphicrates was acquitted +and Timotheus condemned. Chares sought to replenish his resources by +aiding the Phrygian satrap Artabazus against Artaxerxes Ochus, but a +threat from the Persian court caused the Athenians to recall him, and +peace was made by which Athens recognized the independence of the +revolted towns. The league was further weakened by the secession of +Corcyra, and by 355 was reduced to Athens, Euboea and a few islands. By +this time, moreover, Philip II. of Macedon had begun his career of +conquest, and had shattered an embryonic alliance between the league and +certain princes of Thrace (Cetriporis), Paeonia (Lyppeius) and Illyria +(Grabus). In 355 his advance temporarily ceased, but, as we learn from +Isocrates and Xenophon, the financial exhaustion of the league was such +that its destruction was only a matter of time. Resuming operations in +354, Philip, in spite of temporary checks at the hands of Chares, and +the spasmodic opposition of a few barbarian chiefs, took from the +league all its Thracian and Macedonian cities (Abdera, Maronea, +Neapolis, Methone.) In 352-351 Philip actually received help from former +members of the confederacy. In 351 Charidemus, Chares and Phocion were +sent to oppose him, and we find that the contributions of the Lesbian +cities were assigned to them for supplies, but no successes were gained. +In 349 Euboea and Olynthus were lost to the league, of which indeed +nothing remained but an empty form, in spite of the facts that the +expelled Olynthians appealed to it in 348 and that Mytilene rejoined in +347. In 346 the peace of Philocrates was made between the league and +Philip on terms which were accepted by the Athenian Boule. It is very +remarkable that, in spite of the powerlessness of the confederacy, the +last recorded event in its history is the steady loyalty of Tenedos, +which gave money to Athens about 340 (Hicks and Hill, 146). The victory +of Philip at Chaeronea in 338 finally destroyed the league. + +In spite of the precautions taken by the allies to prevent the +domination of Athens at their expense, the policy of the league was +almost throughout directed rather in the interests of Athens. Founded +with the specific object of thwarting the ambitious designs of Sparta, +it was plunged by Athens into enterprises of an entirely different +character which exhausted the resources of the allies without benefiting +them in any respect. There is no doubt that, with very few exceptions, +the cities were held to their allegiance solely by the superior force of +the Athenian navy. The few instances of its action show that the [Greek: +Synedrion] was practically only a tool in the hands of Athens. + + AUTHORITIES.--_The First League._--The general histories of Greece, + especially those of A. Holm (Eng. trans., London, 1894), G. Busolt + (2nd ed., Gotha, 1893), J. Beloch (Strassburg, 1893 foll.), and G. + Grote (the one-vol. ed. of 1907 has some further notes on later + evidence). E. Meyer's _Gesch. des Altertums_ (Stuttgart, 1892 foll.) + and _Forschungen_ (Halle, 1892 foll.) are of the greatest value. For + inscriptions, G. F. Hill, _Sources of Greek History_, 478-431 (2nd + ed., 1907); E. L. Hicks and G. F. Hill, _Greek Hist. Inscr._ (Oxford, + 1901). On the tribute see also U. Kohler in _Abhandlungen d. Berliner + Akademie_ (1869) and U. Pedroli, "I Tributi degli alleati d' Atene" in + Beloch's _Studi di storia antica_. See also articles ARISTIDES; + THEMISTOCLES; PERICLES; CIMON, &c., and GREECE: _History_, with works + quoted. For the last years of the league see also PELOPONNESIAN WAR. + + _The Second League._--The chief modern works are G. Busolt, "Der + zweite athenische Bund" in _Neue Jahrbucher fur classische Philologie_ + (supp. vol. vii., 1873-1875, pp. 641-866), and F. H. Marshall, _The + Second Athenian Confederacy_ (1905), one of the Cambridge Historical + Essays (No. xiii.). The latter is based on Busolt's monograph and + includes subsequent epigraphic evidence, with a full list of + authorities. For inscriptions see Hicks and Hill, op. cit., and the + _Inscriptiones Atticae_, vol. ii. pt. 5. The meagre data given by + ancient writers are collected by Busolt and Marshall. (J. M. M.) + + + + +DELIBES, CLEMENT PHILIBERT LEO (1836-1891), French composer, was born at +Saint Germain du Val on the 21st of February 1836. He studied at the +Paris Conservatoire under Adolphe Charles Adam, through whose influence +he became accompanist at the Theatre Lyrique. His first essay in +dramatic composition was his _Deux sous de charbon_ (1853), and during +several years he produced a number of operettas. His cantata _Alger_ was +heard at the Paris opera in 1865. Having become second chorus master at +the Grand Opera, he wrote the music of a ballet entitled _La Source_ for +this theatre, in collaboration with Minkous, a Polish composer. La +Source was produced with great success in 1866. The composer returned to +the operetta style with _Malbrouk s'en va-t-en guerre_,--written in +collaboration with Georges Bizet, Emile Jonas and Legouix, and given at +the Theatre de l'Athenee in 1867. Two years later came _L'Ecossais de +Chatou_, a one-act piece, and _La Cour du roi Petaud_, a three-act +opera-bouffe. The ballet _Coppelia_ was produced at the Grand Opera on +the 25th of May 1870 with enormous success. + +Delibes gave up his post as second chorus master at the Grand Opera in +1872 when he married the daughter of Mademoiselle Denain, formerly an +actress at the Comedie Francaise. In this year he published a collection +of graceful melodies including _Myrto_, _Les Filles de Cadiz_, +_Bonjour_, _Suzon_ and others. His first important dramatic work was _Le +Roi l'a dit_, a charming comic opera, produced on the 24th of May 1873 +at the Opera Comique. Three years later, on the 14th of June 1876, +_Sylvia_, a ballet in three acts, one of the composer's most delightful +works, was produced at the Grand Opera. This was followed by _La Mort +d'Orphee_, a grand scena produced at the Trocadero concerts in 1878; by +_Jean de Nivelle_, a three-act opera brought out at the Opera Comique on +the 8th of March 1880; and by _Lakme_, an opera in three acts produced +at the same theatre on the 14th of April 1883. Lakme has remained his +most popular opera. The composer died in Paris on the 16th of January +1891, leaving _Kassya_, a four-act opera, in an unfinished state. This +work was completed by E. Guiraud, and produced at the Opera Comique on +the 21st of March 1893. In 1877 Delibes became a chevalier of the Legion +of Honour; in 1881 he became a professor of advanced composition at the +Conservatoire; in 1884 he took the place of Victor Masse at the Institut +de France. + +Leo Delibes was a typically French composer. His music is light, +graceful and refined. He excelled in ballet music, and _Sylvia_ may well +be considered a masterpiece. His operas are constructed on a +conventional pattern. The harmonic texture, however, is modern, and the +melodic invention abundant, while the orchestral treatment is invariably +excellent. + + + + +DELILAH, in the Bible, the heroine of Samson's last love-story and the +cause of his downfall (Judg. xvi.). She was a Philistine of Sorek (mod. +Surik), west of Zorah, and when her countrymen offered her an enormous +bribe to betray him, she set to work to find out the source of his +strength. Thrice Samson scoffingly told her how he might be bound, and +thrice he readily broke the bonds with which she had fettered him in his +sleep; seven green bow-strings, new ropes, and even the braiding of his +hair into the frame of the loom failed to secure him. At length he +disclosed the secret of his power. Delilah put him to sleep upon her +lap, called in a man to shave off his seven locks, and this time he was +easily captured. See SAMSON. + + + + +DELILLE, JACQUES (1738-1813), French poet, was born on the 22nd of June +1738 at Aigue-Perse in Auvergne. He was an illegitimate child, and was +descended by his mother from the chancellor De l'Hopital. He was +educated at the college of Lisieux in Paris and became an elementary +teacher. He gradually acquired a reputation as a poet by his epistles, +in which things are not called by their ordinary names but are hinted at +by elaborate periphrases. Sugar becomes "le miel americain que du suc +des roseaux exprima l'Africain." The publication (1769) of his +translation of the _Georgics_ of Virgil made him famous. Voltaire +recommended the poet for the next vacant place in the Academy. He was at +once elected a member, but was not admitted until 1774 owing to the +opposition of the king, who alleged that he was too young. In his +_Jardins, ou l'art d'embellir les paysages_ (1782) he made good his +pretensions as an original poet. In 1786 he made a journey to +Constantinople in the train of the ambassador M. de Choiseul-Gouffier. + +Delille had become professor of Latin poetry at the College da France, +and abbot of Saint-Severin, when the outbreak of the Revolution reduced +him to poverty. He purchased his personal safety by professing his +adherence to revolutionary doctrine, but eventually quitted Paris, and +retired to St Die, where he completed his translation of the _Aeneid_. +He emigrated first to Basel and then to Glairesse in Switzerland. Here +he finished his _Homme des champs_, and his poem on the _Trois regnes de +la nature_. His next place of refuge was in Germany, where he composed +his _La Pitie_; and finally, he passed some time in London, chiefly +employed in translating _Paradise Lost_. In 1802 he was able to return +to Paris, where, although nearly blind, he resumed his professorship and +his chair at the Academy, but lived in retirement. He fortunately did +not outlive the vogue of the descriptive poems which were his special +province, and died on the 1st of May 1813. + +Delille left behind him little prose. His preface to the translation of +the _Georgics_ is an able essay, and contains many excellent hints on +the art and difficulties of translation. He wrote the article "La +Bruyere" in the _Biographie universelle_. The following is the list of +his poetical works:--_Les Georgiques de Virgile, traduites en vers +francais_ (Paris, 1769, 1782, 1785, 1809); _Les Jardins_, en quatre +chants (1780; new edition, Paris, 1801); _L'Homme des champs, ou les +Georgiques francaises_ (Strassburg, 1802); _Poesies fugitives_ (1802); +_Dithyrambe sur l'immortalite de l'ame, suivi du passage du Saint +Gothard_, poeme traduit de l'Anglais de Madame la duchesse de Devonshire +(1802); _La Pitie_, poeme en quatre chants (Paris, 1802); _L'Eneide de +Virgile, traduite en vers francais_ (4 vols., 1804); _Le Paradis perdu_ +(3 vols., 1804); _L'Imagination_, poeme en huit chants (2 vols., 1806); +_Les trois regnes de la nature_ (2 vols., 1808); _La Conversation_ +(1812). A collection given under the title of _Poesies diverses_ (1801) +was disavowed by Delille. + + His _Oeuvres_ (16 vols.) were published in 1824. See Sainte-Beuve, + _Portraits litteraires_, vol. ii. + + + + +DELIRIUM (a Latin medical term for madness, from _delirare_, to be mad, +literally to wander from the _lira_, or furrow), a temporary form of +brain disorder, generally occurring in connexion with some special form +of bodily disease. It may vary in intensity from slight and occasional +wandering of the mind and incoherence of expression, to fixed delusions +and violent maniacal excitement, and again it may be associated with +more or less of coma or insensibility. (See INSANITY, and +NEUROPATHOLOGY.) Delirium is apt to occur in most diseases of an acute +nature, such as fevers or inflammatory affections, in injuries affecting +the brain, in blood diseases, in conditions of exhaustion, and as the +result of the action of certain specific poisons, such as opium, Indian +hemp, belladonna, chloroform and alcohol. + +Delirium tremens is one of a train of symptoms of what is termed in +medical nomenclature acute alcoholism, or excessive indulgence in +alcohol. It must, however, be observed that this disorder, although +arising in this manner, rarely comes on as the result of a single +debauch in a person unaccustomed to the abuse of stimulants, but +generally occurs in cases where the nervous system has been already +subjected for a length of time to the poisonous action of alcohol, so +that the complaint might be more properly regarded as acute supervening +on chronic alcoholism. It is equally to be borne in mind that many +habitual drunkards never suffer from delirium tremens. + +It was long supposed, and is indeed still believed by some, that +delirium tremens only comes on when the supply of alcohol has been +suddenly cut off; but this view is now generally rejected, and there is +abundant evidence to show that the attack comes on while the patient is +still continuing to drink. Even in those cases where several days have +elapsed between the cessation from drinking and the seizure, it will be +found that in the interval the premonitory symptoms of delirium tremens +have shown themselves, one of which is aversion to drink as well as +food--the attack being in most instances preceded by marked derangement +of the digestive functions. Occasionally the attack is precipitated in +persons predisposed to it by the occurrence of some acute disease, such +as pneumonia, by accidents, such as burns, also by severe mental strain, +and by the deprivation of food, even where the supply of alcohol is less +than would have been likely to produce it otherwise. Where, on the other +hand, the quantity of alcohol taken has been very large, the attack is +sometimes ushered in by fits of an epileptiform character. + +One of the earliest indications of the approaching attack of delirium +tremens is sleeplessness, any rest the patient may obtain being troubled +by unpleasant or terrifying dreams. During the day there is observed a +certain restlessness and irritability of manner, with trembling of the +hands and a thick or tremulous articulation. The skin is perspiring, the +countenance oppressed-looking and flushed, the pulse rapid and feeble, +and there is evidence of considerable bodily prostration. These symptoms +increase each day and night for a few days, and then the characteristic +delirium is superadded. The patient is in a state of mental confusion, +talks incessantly and incoherently, has a distressed and agitated or +perplexed appearance, and a vague notion that he is pursued by some one +seeking to injure him. His delusions are usually of transient character, +but he is constantly troubled with visual hallucinations in the form of +disagreeable animals or insects which he imagines he sees all about him. +He looks suspiciously around him, turns over his pillows, and ransacks +his bedclothes for some fancied object he supposes to be concealed +there. There is constant restlessness, a common form of delusion being +that he is not in his own house, but imprisoned in some apartment from +which he is anxious to escape to return home. In these circumstances he +is ever wishing to get out of bed and out of doors, and, although in +general he may be persuaded to return to bed, he is soon desiring to get +up again. The trembling of the muscles from which the name of the +disease is derived is a prominent but not invariable symptom. It is most +marked in the muscles of the hands and arms and in the tongue. The +character of the delirium is seldom wild or noisy, but is much more +commonly a combination of busy restlessness and indefinite fear. When +spoken to, the patient can answer correctly enough, but immediately +thereafter relapses into his former condition of incoherence. +Occasionally maniacal symptoms develop themselves, the patient becoming +dangerously violent, and the case thus assuming a much graver aspect +than one of simple delirium tremens. + +In most cases the symptoms undergo abatement in from three to six days, +the cessation of the attack being marked by the occurrence of sound +sleep, from which the patient awakes in his right mind, although in a +state of great physical prostration, and in great measure if not +entirely oblivious of his condition during his illness. + +Although generally the termination of an attack of delirium tremens is +in recovery, it occasionally proves fatal by the supervention of coma +and convulsions, or acute mania, or by exhaustion, more especially when +any acute bodily disease is associated with the attack. In certain +instances delirium tremens is but the beginning of serious and permanent +impairment of intellect, as is not infrequently observed in confirmed +drunkards who have suffered from frequent attacks of this disease. The +theory once widely accepted, that delirium tremens was the result of the +too sudden breaking off from indulgence in alcohol, led to its treatment +by regular and often large doses of stimulants, a practice fraught with +mischievous results, since however much the delirium appeared to be thus +calmed for the time, the continuous supply of the poison which was the +original source of the disease inflicted serious damage upon the brain, +and led in many instances to the subsequent development of insanity. The +former system of prescribing large doses of opium, with the view of +procuring sleep at all hazards, was no less pernicious. In addition to +these methods of treatment, mechanical restraint of the patient was the +common practice. + +The views of the disease which now prevail, recognizing the delirium as +the effect at once of the poisonous action of alcohol upon the brain and +of the want of food, encourage reliance to be placed for its cure upon +the entire withdrawal, in most instances, of stimulants, and the liberal +administration of light nutriment, in addition to quietness and gentle +but firm control, without mechanical restraint. In mild attacks this is +frequently all that is required. In more severe cases, where there is +great restlessness, sedatives have to be resorted to, and many +substances have been recommended for the purpose. Opiates administered +in small quantity, and preferably by hypodermic injection, are +undoubtedly of value; and chloral, either alone or in conjunction with +bromide of potassium, often answers even better. Such remedies, however, +should be administered with great caution, and only under medical +supervision. + +Stimulants may be called for where the delirium assumes the low or +adynamic form, and the patient tends to sink from exhaustion, or when +the attack is complicated with some other disease. Such cases are, +however, in the highest degree exceptional, and do not affect the +general principle of treatment already referred to, which inculcates the +entire withdrawal of stimulants in the treatment of ordinary attacks of +delirium tremens. + + + + +DELISLE, JOSEPH NICOLAS (1688-1768), French astronomer, was born at +Paris on the 4th of April 1688. Attracted to astronomy by the solar +eclipse of the 12th of May 1706, he obtained permission in 1710 to lodge +in the dome of the Luxembourg, procured some instruments, and there +observed the total eclipse of the 22nd of May 1724. He proposed in 1715 +the "diffraction-theory" of the sun's corona, visited England and was +received into the Royal Society in 1724, and left Paris for St +Petersburg on a summons from the empress Catherine, towards the end of +1725. Having founded an observatory there, he returned to Paris in 1747, +was appointed geographical astronomer to the naval department with a +salary of 3000 livres, and installed an observatory in the Hotel Cluny. +Charles Messier and J. J. Lalande were among his pupils. He died of +apoplexy at Paris on the 12th of September 1768. Delisle is chiefly +remembered as the author of a method for observing the transits of Venus +and Mercury by instants of contacts. First proposed by him in a letter +to J. Cassini in 1743, it was afterwards perfected, and has been +extensively employed. As a preliminary to the transit of Mercury in +1743, which he personally observed, he issued a map of the world showing +the varied circumstances of its occurrence. Besides many papers +communicated to the academy of sciences, of which he became a member in +1714, he published _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire et au progres de +l'astronomie_ (St Petersburg, 1738), in which he gave the first method +for determining the heliocentric co-ordinates of sun-spots; _Memoire sur +les nouvelles decouvertes au nord de la mer du sud_ (Paris, 1752), &c. + + See _Memoires de l'acad. des sciences_ (Paris, 1768), _Histoire_, p. + 167 (G. de Fouchy); J. B. J. Delambre, _Hist. de l'astronomie au + XVIII^e siecle_, pp. 319, 533; Max. Marie, _Hist. des sciences_, vii. + 254; Lalande, Bibl. astr. p. 385; and _Le Necrologe des hommes + celebres de France_ (1770). The records of Delisle's observations at + St Petersburg are preserved in manuscript at the Pulkowa observatory. + A report upon them was presented to the St Petersburg academy of + sciences by O. Struve in 1848, and those relating to occultations of + the Pleiades were discussed by Carl Linsser in 1864. See also S. + Newcomb, _Washington Observations_ for 1875, app. ii. pp. 176-189. + (A. M. C.) + + + + +DELISLE, LEOPOLD VICTOR (1826- ), French bibliophile and historian, was +born at Valognes (Manche) on the 24th of October 1826. At the Ecole des +Chartes, where his career was remarkably brilliant, his valedictory +thesis was an _Essai sur les revenus publics en Normandie au XII^e +siecle_ (1849), and it was to the history of his native province that he +devoted his early works. Of these the _Etudes sur la condition de la +classe agricole et l'etat de l'agriculture en Normandie au moyen age_ +(1851), condensing an enormous mass of facts drawn from the local +archives, was reprinted in 1905 without change, and remains +authoritative. In November 1852 he entered the manuscript department of +the Bibliotheque Imperiale (Nationale), of which in 1874 he became the +official head in succession to Jules Taschereau. He was already known as +the compiler of several invaluable inventories of its manuscripts. When +the French government decided on printing a general catalogue of the +printed books in the Bibliotheque, Delisle became responsible for this +great undertaking and took an active part in the work; in the preface to +the first volume (1897) he gave a detailed history of the library and +its management. Under his administration the library was enriched with +numerous gifts, legacies and acquisitions, notably by the purchase of a +part of the Ashburnham MSS. Delisle proved that the bulk of the MSS. of +French origin which Lord Ashburnham had bought in France, particularly +those bought from the bookseller Barrois, had been purloined by Count +Libri, inspector-general of libraries under King Louis Philippe, and he +procured the repurchase of the MSS. for the library, afterwards +preparing a catalogue of them entitled _Catalogue des MSS. des fonds +Libri et Barrois_ (1888), the preface of which gives the history of the +whole transaction. He was elected member of the Academie des +Inscriptions et Belles Lettres in 1859, and became a member of the staff +of the _Recueil des historiens de la France_, collaborating in vols. +xxii. (1865) and xxiii. (1876) and editing vol. xxiv. (1904), which is +valuable for the social history of France in the 13th century. The +jubilee of his fifty years' association with the Bibliotheque Nationale +was celebrated on the 8th of March 1903. After his retirement (February +21, 1905) he brought out in two volumes a catalogue and description of +the printed books and MSS. in the Musee Conde at Chantilly, left by the +due d'Aumale to the French Institute. He produced many valuable official +reports and catalogues and a great number of memoirs and monographs on +points connected with palaeography and the study of history and +archaeology (see his _Melanges de paleographie et de bibliographie_ +(1880) with atlas; and his articles in the _Album paleographique_ +(1887). Of his purely historical works special mention must be made of +his _Memoire sur les actes d'Innocent III_ (1857), and his _Memoire sur +les operations financieres des Templiers_ (1889), a collection of +documents of the highest value for economic history. The thirty-second +volume of the _Histoire litteraire de la France_, which was partly his +work, is of great importance for the study of 13th and 14th century +Latin chronicles. Delisle was undoubtedly the most learned man in Europe +with regard to the middle ages; and his knowledge of diplomatics, +palaeography and printing was profound. His output of work, in +catalogues, &c., was enormous, and his services to the Bibliotheque +Nationale in this respect cannot be overestimated. His wife, a daughter +of Eugene Burnouf, was for many years his collaborator. + + The _Bibliographie des travaux de L. Delisle_ (1902), by Paul Lacombe, + may be consulted for a full list of his numerous works. + + + + +DELITZSCH, FRANZ (1813-1890), German Lutheran theologian and +orientalist, of Jewish descent, was born at Leipzig on the 23rd of +February 1813. He studied theology and oriental languages in the +university of his native town, and in 1850 was appointed professor +ordinarius of theology at Erlangen, where the school of theologians +became almost as famous as that of Tubingen. In 1867 he accepted a call +to Leipzig, where he died on the 4th of March 1890. Delitzsch was a +strict Lutheran. "By the banner of our Lutheran confession let us +stand," he said in 1888; "folding ourselves in it, let us die" (T. K. +Cheyne, _Founders_, p. 160). Greatly interested in the Jews, he longed +ardently for their conversion to Christianity; and with a view to this +he edited the periodical _Saat auf Hoffnung_ from 1863, revived the +"Institutum Judaicum" in 1880, founded a Jewish missionary college for +the training of theologians, and translated the _New Testament_ into +Hebrew. He acquired such a mastery of post-biblical, rabbinic and +talmudic literature that he has been called the "Christian Talmudist." +Though never an advanced critic, his article on Daniel in the second +edition of Herzog's _Realencyklopadie_, his _New Commentary on Genesis_ +and the fourth edition of his _Isaiah_ show that as years went on his +sympathy with higher criticism increased--so much so indeed that Prof. +Cheyne has included him among its founders. + +He wrote a number of very valuable commentaries on _Habakkuk_ (1843), +_Genesis_ (1852, 4th ed. 1872), _Neuer Kommentar uber die Genesis_ +(1887, Eng. trans. 1888, &c.), _Psalms_ (4th ed. 1883, Eng. trans. 1886, +&c.), _Job_ (2nd ed., 1876), _Isaiah_ (4th ed. 1889, Eng. trans. 1890, +&c.), _Proverbs_ (1873), _Epistle to the Hebrews_ (1857, Eng. trans. +1865, &c.), _Song of Songs and Ecclesiastes_ (4th ed., 1875). Other +works are _Geschichte der jud. Poesie_ (1836); _Jesus und Hillel_ (1867, +3rd ed. 1879); _Handwerkerleben zur Zeit Jesu_ (1868, 3rd ed. 1878, Eng. +trans. in the "Unit Library," 1902); _Ein Tag in Kapernaum_ (1871, 3rd +ed. 1886); _Poesieen aus vormuhammedanischer Zeit_ (1874); _Iris, +Farbenstudien und Blumenstucke_ (1888, Eng. trans. 1889); _Messianische +Weissagungen in geschichtlicher Folge_ (1890, 2nd ed. 1898). His Hebrew +_New Testament_ reached its eleventh edition in 1891, and his popular +devotional work _Das Sakrament des wahren Leibes und Blutes Jesu +Christi_ its seventh edition in 1886. + +His son, FRIEDRICH DELITZSCH (b. 1850), became well known as professor +of Assyriology in Berlin, and the author of many books of great research +and learning, especially on oriental philology. Among other works of +importance he wrote _Wo lag das Paradies?_ (1881), and _Babel und Bibel_ +(1902, 1903, Eng. trans. 1903). + + + + +DELITZSCH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, on the +Lober, an affluent of the Mulde, 12 m. north of Leipzig at the junction +of the railways, Bitterfeld-Leipzig and Halle-Cottbus. Pop. (1905) +10,479. Its public buildings comprise an old castle of the 14th century +now used as a female penitentiary, a Roman Catholic and three Protestant +churches, a normal college (_Schullehrerseminar_) established in 1873 +and several other educational institutions. Besides _Kuhschwanz_, a +peculiar kind of beer, it manufactures tobacco, cigars, shoes and +hosiery; and coal-mining is carried on in the neighbourhood, It was the +birthplace of the naturalist Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg (1795-1876), +and the political economist Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch (1808-1883), to +the latter of whom a statue has been erected. Originally a settlement of +the Sorbian Wends, and in the 12th century part of the possessions of +the bishops of Merseburg, Delitzsch ultimately passed to the +Saxe-Merseburg family, and, on their extinction in 1738, was +incorporated with Electoral Saxony. + + + + +DELIUS, NIKOLAUS (1813-1888), German philologist and Shakespearean +scholar, was born at Bremen on the 19th of September 1813. He was +educated at Bonn and Berlin, and took the degree of doctor in philosophy +in 1838. After travelling for some time in England, France and Germany, +he returned to Bonn in 1846, where in 1855 he was appointed professor of +Sanskrit, Provencal and English literature, a post he held until his +death, which took place at Bonn on the 18th of November 1888. His +greatest literary achievement was his scholarly edition of Shakespeare +(1854-1861). He also edited Wace's _St Nicholas_ (1850), a volume of +Provencal songs (1853), and published a _Shakspere-Lexikon_ (1852). His +original works include: _Uber das englische Theaterwesen zu Shaksperes +Zeit_ (1853), _Gedichte_ (1853), _Der sardinische Dialekt des +dreizehnten Jahrhunderts_ (1868), and _Abhandlungen zu Shakspere_ (two +series, 1878 and 1888). As a critic of Shakespeare's text he stands in +the first rank. + + See the biographical notice by J. Schipper in _Englische Studien_, + vol. 14. + + + + +DELLA BELLA, STEFANO (1610-1664), Italian engraver, was born at +Florence. He was apprenticed to a goldsmith; but some prints of Callot +having fallen into his hands, he began to turn his attention entirely +towards engraving, and studied the art under Canta Gallina, who had also +been the instructor of Callot. By the liberality of Lorenzo de' Medici +he was enabled to spend three years in study at Rome. In 1642 he went to +Paris, where Cardinal Richelieu engaged him to go to Arras and make +drawings of the siege and taking of that town by the royal army. After +residing a considerable time at Paris he returned to Florence, where he +obtained a pension from the grand duke, whose son, Cosmo, he instructed +in drawing. His productions were very numerous, amounting to over 1400 +separate pieces. + + + + +DELLA CASA, GIOVANNI (1503-1556), Italian poet, was born at Mugillo, in +Tuscany, in 1503. He studied at Bologna, Florence and Rome, and by his +learning attracted the patronage of Alexander Farnese, who, as Pope Paul +III., made him nuncio to Florence, where he received the honour of being +elected a member of the celebrated academy, and then to Naples, where +his oratorical ability brought him considerable success. His reward was +the archbishopric of Benevento, and it was believed that it was only his +openly licentious poem, _Capitoli del forno_, and the fact that the +French court seemed to desire his elevation, which prevented him from +being raised to a still higher dignity. He died in 1556. Casa is chiefly +remarkable as the leader of a reaction in lyric poetry against the +universal imitation of Petrarch, and as the originator of a style, +which, if less soft and elegant, was more nervous and majestic than that +which it replaced. His prose writings gained great reputation in their +own day, and long afterwards, but are disfigured by apparent straining +after effect, and by frequent puerility and circumlocution. The +principal are--in Italian, the famous _Il Galateo_ (1558), a treatise of +manners, which has been translated into several languages, and in Latin, +_De officiis_, and translations from Thucydides, Plato and Aristotle. + + A complete edition of his works was published at Florence in 1707, to + which is prefixed a life by Casotti. The best edition is that of + Venice, 1752. + + + + +DELLA COLLE, RAFFAELLINO, Italian painter, was born at Colle, near Borgo +San Sepolcro, in Tuscany, about 1490. A pupil of Raphael, whom he is +held to have assisted in the Farnesina and the Vatican, Della Colle, +after his master's death, was the assistant of his chief scholar, Giulio +Romano, at Rome and afterwards at Mantua. In 1536, on the occasion of +the entry of Charles V. into Florence, he took service in that city +under Vasari. In his later years Della Colle resided at Borgo San +Sepolcro, where he kept a school of design; among his many pupils of +note may be mentioned Gherardi and Vecchi. His works, which are to be +found at Urbino, at Perugia, at Pesaro and at Gubbio, are fine examples +of the Roman school of Raphael. The best are a painting of the Almighty +supported by angels, a Resurrection and an Assumption, all preserved in +churches at Borgo San Sepolcro. + + + + +DELLA GHERARDESCA, UGOLINO (c. 1220-1289), count of Donoratico, was the +head of the powerful family of Gherardesca, the chief Ghibelline house +of Pisa. His alliance with the Visconti, the leaders of the Guelph +faction, through the marriage of his sister with Giovanni Visconti, +judge of Gallura, aroused the suspicions of his party, and the +Ghibellines being then predominant in Pisa, the disorders in the city +caused by Ugolino and Visconti in 1271-1274 led to the arrest of the +former and the banishment of the latter. Visconti died soon afterwards, +and Ugolino, no longer regarded as dangerous, was liberated and +banished. But he immediately began to intrigue with the Guelph towns +opposed to Pisa, and with the help of Charles I. of Anjou (q.v.) +attacked his native city and forced it to make peace on humiliating +terms, pardoning him and all the other Guelph exiles. He lived quietly +in Pisa for some years, although working all the time to extend his +influence. War having broken out between Pisa and Genoa in 1284, Count +Ugolino was given the command of a division of the Pisan fleet. It was +by his flight--usually attributed to treachery--that the fortunes of the +day were decided and the Pisans totally defeated at La Meloria (October +1284). But the political ability which he afterwards displayed led to +his being appointed _podesta_ for a year and _capitano del popolo_ for +ten years. Florence and Lucca took advantage of the Pisan defeat to +attack the republic, but Ugolino succeeded in pacifying them by ceding +certain castles. He was however less anxious to make peace with Genoa, +for the return of the Pisan prisoners, including most of the leading +Ghibellines, would have diminished his power. He was now the most +influential man in Pisa, and was preparing to establish his absolute +sovereignty, when for some reason not clearly understood he was forced +to share his power with his nephew Nino Visconti, son of Giovanni. The +duumvirate did not last, and the count and Nino soon quarrelled. Then +Ugolino tried to consolidate his position by entering into negotiations +with the archbishop, Ruggieri degli Ubaldini, the leader of the +Ghibellines. But that party having revived once more, the archbishop +obliged both Nino and Ugolino to leave the city, and had himself elected +_podesta_ and _capitano del popolo_. However, he allowed Ugolino to +return soon afterwards, and was even ready to divide the government of +the city with him, although he refused to admit his armed followers. The +count, determined to be sole master, attempted to get his followers into +the city by way of the Arno, and Ruggieri, realizing the danger, aroused +the citizens, accusing Ugolino of treachery for having ceded the +castles, and after a day's street fighting (July 1, 1288), Gherardesca +was captured and immured together with his sons Gaddo and Uguccione, and +his grandsons Nino (surnamed _il Brigata_) and Anselmuccio, in the Muda, +a tower belonging to the Gualandi family; here they were detained for +nine months, and then starved to death. + +The historic details of the episode are still involved in some +obscurity, and although mentioned by Villani and other writers, it owes +its fame entirely to Dante, who placed Ugolino and Ruggieri in the +second ring (_Antenora_) of the lowest circle of the _Inferno_ (canto +xxxii. 124-140 and xxxiii. 1-90). This terrible but magnificent passage, +which includes "thirty lines unequalled by any other thirty lines in the +whole dominion of poetry" (Landor), has been paraphrased by Chaucer in +the "Monk's Tale" and more recently by Shelley. But the reason why Dante +placed Ugolino among the traitors is not by any means clear, as the +flight from La Meloria was not regarded as treachery by any writer +earlier than the 16th century, although G. del Noce, in _Il Conte U. +della Gherardesca_ (Citta di Castello, 1894), states that that was the +only motive; Bartoli, in vol. vi. of his _Storia della Letteratura +italiana_, suggests Ugolino's alliance with the Ghibellines as the +motive. The cession of the castles was not treachery but an act of +necessity, owing to the desperate conditions of Pisa. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Besides the above-quoted works see P. Tronci, _Annali + Pisani_ (2 vols., Pisa, 1868-1871); S. de Sismondi, _Histoire des + republiques italiennes_ (Brussels, 1838); also the various annotated + editions of Dante, especially W. W. Vernon's _Readings from the + Inferno_, vol. ii. (2nd ed., London, 1905). (L. V.*) + + + + +DELLA PORTA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (c. 1538-1615), Italian natural +philosopher, was born of a noble and ancient family at Naples about the +year 1538. He travelled extensively not only in Italy but also in France +and Spain, and he was still a youth when he published _Magia naturalis, +sive de miraculis rerum naturalium lib. IV._ (1558), the first draft of +his _Magia naturalis_, in twenty books, published in 1589. He founded in +Naples the Academia Secretorum Naturae, otherwise known as the Accademia +dei Oziosi; and in 1610 he became a member of the Accademia dei Lincei +at Rome. He died at Naples on the 4th of February 1615. + +The following is a list of his principal writings:--_De miraculis rerum +naturalium_, in four books (1558); _De furtivis litterarum notis_, in +five books (1563, and frequently afterwards, entitling him to high rank +among the early writers on cryptography); _Phytognomonica_ (1583, a +bulky treatise on the physiology of plants as then understood); _Magia +naturalis_ (1589, and often reprinted); _De humana physiognomonia_, in +six books (1591); _Villa_, in twelve books (1592, an interesting +practical treatise on farming, gardening and arboriculture, based upon +his own observations at his country-seat near Naples); _De refractione, +optices parte_, in nine books (1593); _Pneumatica_, in three books +(1601); _De coelesti physiognomonia_, in six books (1601); _Elementa +curvilinea_ (1601); _De distillatione_, in nine books (1604); _De +munitione_, in three books (1608); and _De aeris transmutationibus_, in +four books (1609). He also wrote several Italian comedies _Olimpia_ +(1589); _La Fantesca_ (1592); _La Trappolaria_ (1597); _I' Due Fratelli +rivali_ (1601); _La Sorella_ (1607); _La Chiappinaria_ (1609); _La +Carbonaria_ (1628); _La Cintia_ (1628). Among all the above-mentioned +works the chief interest attaches to the _Magia naturalis_, in which a +strange medley of subjects is discussed, including the reproduction of +animals, the transmutation of metals, pyrotechny, domestic economy, +statics, hunting, the preparation of perfumes. In book xvii. he +describes a number of optical experiments, including a description of +the camera obscura (q.v.). + + + + +DELLA QUERCIA, or DELLA FONTE, JACOPO (1374-1438), Italian sculptor, was +born at Siena. He was the son of a goldsmith of repute, Pietro d'Agnolo, +to whom he doubtless owed much of his training. There are no records of +his early life until the year 1394, when he made an equestrian statue of +Gian Tedesco. He is next heard of at Florence in 1402, when he was one +of six artists who submitted designs for the great gates of the +baptistery, in which competition Ghiberti was the victor. From Florence +he seems to have gone to Lucca, where in 1406 he executed one of his +finest works, the monument of Ilaria del Caretto, wife of Paolo Guinigi. +It is uncertain if he visited Ferrara in 1408; but at the end of that +year he was engaged in negotiations which resulted in his acceptance of +the commission for the famous Fonte Gaia, at Siena, early in 1409. This +work was not seriously begun by him until 1414, and was only finished in +1419. In 1858 the remains of the fountain were removed to the Opera del +Duomo, where they are now preserved; a copy of the original by Sarrocchi +being erected on the site. After another visit to Lucca in 1422, he +returned to Siena, and in March 1425 undertook the contract for the +doors of S. Petronio, Bologna. He is known, in following years, to have +been to Milan, Verona, Ferrara and Venice; but the rest of his life was +chiefly divided between his native city and Bologna. In 1430 he finished +the great font of S. Giovanni at Siena, which he had begun in 1417, +contributing himself only one of the bas-reliefs, "Zacharias in the +Temple," the others being by Ghiberti, Donatello and other sculptors. +Among the work known to have been done by Jacopo, may be mentioned also +the reliefs of the _predella_ of the altar of S. Frediano at Lucca +(1422); and the Bentivoglio monument which was unfinished at the time +of his death on the 20th of October 1438. Jacopo della Quercia's work +exercised a powerful influence on that of the artists of the later +Italian Renaissance. He himself reflects not a little of the Gothic +spirit, admirably intermixed with some of the best qualities of +neo-classicism. He was an artist whose powers have hardly yet received +the recognition they undoubtedly deserve. + + See C. Cornelius, _Jacopo della Quercia: eine Kunsthistorische Studie_ + (1896), and works relating generally to the arts in Siena. + (E. F. S.) + + + + +DELLA ROBBIA, the name of a family of great distinction in the annals of +Florentine art. Its members are enumerated in chronological order +below.[1] + +I. LUCA DELLA ROBBIA (1399 or 1400[2]-1482) was the son of a Florentine +named Simone di Marco della Robbia. According to Vasari, whose account +of Luca's early life is little to be trusted, he was apprenticed to the +silversmith Leonardo di Ser Giovanni, who from 1355 to 1371 was working +on the grand silver altar frontal for the cathedral at Pistoia (q.v.); +this, however, appears doubtful from the great age which it would give +to Leonardo, and it is more probable that Luca was the pupil of +Ghiberti. During the early part of his life Luca executed many important +and exceedingly beautiful pieces of sculpture in marble and bronze. In +technical skill he was quite the equal of Ghiberti, and, while +possessing all Donatello's vigour, dramatic power and originality, he +very frequently excelled him in grace of attitude and soft beauty of +expression. No sculptured work of the great 15th century ever surpassed +the singing gallery which Luca made for the cathedral at Florence +between 1431 and 1440, with its ten magnificent panels of singing angels +and dancing boys, far exceeding in beauty those which Donatello in 1433 +sculptured for the opposite gallery in the same choir. This splendid +work is now to be found in the Museo del Duomo. The general effect of +the whole can also be seen at the Victoria and Albert Museum, where a +complete cast is fixed to the wall. The same museum possesses a study in +_gesso duro_ for one of the panels, which appears to be the original +sketch by Luca's own hand. + +In May 1437 Luca received a commission from the signoria of Florence to +execute five reliefs for the north side of the campanile, to complete +the series begun by Giotto and Andrea Pisano. These panels are so much +in the earlier style of Giotto that we must conclude that he had left +drawings from which Luca worked. They have representative figures chosen +to typify grammar, logic, philosophy, music, and science,--the last +represented by Euclid and Ptolemy.[3] In 1438 Luca in association with +Donatello received an order for two marble altars for chapels in the +cathedral. The reliefs from one of them--St Peter's Deliverance from +Prison and his Crucifixion--are now in the Bargello. It is probable that +these altars were never finished. A tabernacle for the host, made by +Luca in 1442, is now at Peretola, near Florence, in the church of S. +Maria. A document in the archives of S. Maria Nuova at Florence shows +that he received for this 700 florins 1 lira 16 soldi (about L1400 of +modern money). In 1437 Donatello received a commission to cast a bronze +door for one of the sacristies of the cathedral; but, as he delayed to +execute this order, the work was handed over to Luca on the 28th of +February 1446, with Michelozzo and Maso di Bartolomeo as his assistants. +Part of this wonderful door was cast in 1448, and the last two panels +were finished by Luca in 1467, with bronze which was supplied to him by +Verrocchio.[4] The door is divided into ten square panels, with small +heads in the style of Ghiberti projecting from the framing. The two top +subjects are the Madonna and Child and the Baptist, next come the four +Evangelists, and below are the four Latin Doctors, each subject with +attendant angels. The whole is modelled with perfect grace and dignified +simplicity; the heads throughout are full of life, and the treatment of +the drapery in broad simple folds is worthy of a Greek sculptor of the +best period of Hellenic art. These exquisite reliefs are perfect models +of plastic art, and are quite free from the over-elaboration and too +pictorial style of Ghiberti. Fig. 1 shows one of the panels. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Bronze Relief of one of the Latin Doctors, from +the sacristy door in the cathedral of Florence, by Luca.] + +The most important existing work in marble by Luca (executed in +1454-1456) is the tomb of Benozzo Federighi, bishop of Fiesole, +originally placed in the church of S. Pancrazio at Florence, but removed +to S. Francesco di Paola on the Bellosguardo road outside the city in +1783. In 1898 it was again removed to the church of SS. Trinita in +Florence. A very beautiful effigy of the bishop in a restful pose lies +on a sarcophagus sculptured with graceful reliefs of angels holding a +wreath which contains the inscription. Above are three-quarter length +figures of Christ between St John and the Virgin, of conventional type. +The whole is surrounded by a rectangular frame formed of painted tiles +of exquisite beauty, but out of keeping with the memorial. On each tile +is painted, with enamel pigments, a bunch of flowers and fruit in +brilliant realistic colours, the loveliness of which is very hard to +describe. Though the bunch of flowers on each is painted on one slab, +the ground of each tile is formed of separate pieces, fitted together +like a kind of mosaic, probably because the pigment of the ground +required a different degree of heat in firing from that needed for the +enamel painting of the centre. The few other works of this class which +exist do not approach the beauty of this early essay in tile painting, +on which Luca evidently put forth his utmost skill and patience. + +In the latter part of his life Luca was mainly occupied with the +production of terra-cotta reliefs covered with enamel, a process which +he improved upon, but did not invent, as Vasari asserts. The _rationale_ +of this process was to cover the clay relief with an enamel formed of +the ordinary ingredients of glass (_marzacotto_), made white and opaque +by oxide of tin. (See CERAMICS: _Italian Majolica_.) Though Luca was not +the inventor of the process, yet he extended its application to fine +sculptured work in terra-cotta, so that it is not unnaturally known now +as Della Robbia ware; it must, however, be remembered that by far the +majority of these reliefs which in Italy and elsewhere are ascribed to +Luca are really the work of some of the younger members of the family or +of the _atelier_ which they founded. Comparatively few exist which can +with certainty be ascribed to Luca himself. Among the earliest of these +are medallions of the four Evangelists in the vault of Brunelleschi's +Pazzi chapel in S. Croce. These fine reliefs are coloured with various +metallic oxides in different shades of blue, green, purple, yellow and +black. It has often been asserted that the very polychromatic reliefs +belong to Andrea or his sons, and that Luca's were all in pure white, or +in white and blue; this, however, is not the case; colours were used as +freely by Luca as by his successors. A relief in the Victoria and Albert +Museum furnishes a striking example of this and is of especial value +from its great size, and also because its date is known. This is an +enormous medallion containing the arms of Rene of Anjou and other +heraldic devices; it is surrounded by a splendidly modelled wreath of +fruit and flowers, especially apples, lemons, oranges and fir cones, all +of which are brilliantly coloured. This medallion was set up on the +facade of the Pazzi Palace to commemorate Rene's visit to Florence in +1442. Other reliefs by Luca, also in glazed terra-cotta, are those of +the Ascension and Resurrection in the tympani of the doors of the +sacristies in the cathedral, executed in 1443 and 1446. Other existing +works of Luca in Florence are the tympanum reliefs of the Madonna +between two Angels in the Via dell' Agnolo, a work of exquisite beauty, +and another formerly over the door of S. Pierino del Mercato Vecchio, +but now removed to the Bargello (No. 29). The only existing statues by +Luca are two lovely enamelled figures of kneeling angels holding +candlesticks, now in the canons' sacristy.[5] A very fine work by Luca, +executed between 1449 and 1452, is the tympanum relief of the Madonna +and four Monastic Saints over the door of S. Domenico at Urbino.[6] Luca +also made the four coloured medallions of the Virtues set in the vault +over the tomb of the young cardinal-prince of Portugal in a side chapel +of S. Miniato in Florence (see ROSSELLINO). By Luca also are various +polychromatic medallions outside Or San Michele.[7] One of his chief +decorative works which no longer exists was a small library or study for +Piero de' Medici, wholly lined with enamelled plaques and reliefs.[8] +The Victoria and Albert Museum possesses twelve circular plaques of +majolica ware painted in blue and white with the Occupations of the +Months; these have been attributed to Luca, under the idea that they +formed part of the decoration of this room, but their real origin is +doubtful. + +In 1471 Luca was elected president of the Florentine Gild of Sculptors, +but he refused this great honour on account of his age and infirmity. It +shows, however, the very high estimation in which he was held by his +contemporaries. He died on the 20th of February 1482, leaving his +property to his nephews Andrea and Simone.[9] His chief pupil was his +nephew Andrea, and Agostino di Duccio, who executed many pieces of +sculpture at Rimini, and the graceful but mannered marble reliefs of +angels on the facade of S. Bernardino at Perugia, may have been one of +his assistants.[10] Vasari calls this Agostino Luca's brother, but he +was not related to him at all. + +II. ANDREA DELLA ROBBIA (1435-1525), the nephew and pupil of Luca, +carried on the production of the enamelled reliefs on a much larger +scale than his uncle had ever done; he also extended its application to +various architectural uses, such as friezes and to the making of lavabos +(lavatories), fountains and large retables. The result of this was that, +though the finest reliefs from the workshop of Andrea were but little if +at all inferior to those from the hand of Luca, yet some of them, turned +out by pupils and assistants, reached only a lower standard of merit. +Only one work in marble by Andrea is known, namely, an altar in S. Maria +delle Grazie near Arezzo, mentioned by Vasari (ed. Milanesi, ii. p. +179), and still well preserved. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Enamelled Clay Relief of Virgin and Child, by +Andrea.] + +One variety of method was introduced by Andrea in his enamelled work; +sometimes he omitted the enamel on the face and hands (nude parts) of +his figures, especially in those cases where he had treated the heads in +a realistic manner; as, for example, in the noble tympanum relief of the +meeting of St Domenic and St Francis in the loggia of the Florentine +hospital of S. Paolo,--a design suggested by a fresco of Fra Angelico's +in the cloister of St Mark's. One of the most remarkable works by Andrea +is the series of medallions with reliefs of Infants in white on a blue +ground set on the front of the foundling hospital at Florence. These +lovely child-figures are modelled with wonderful skill and variety, no +two being alike. Andrea produced, for gilds and private persons, a large +number of reliefs of the Madonna and Child varied with much invention, +and all of extreme beauty of pose and sweetness of expression. These are +frequently framed with realistic yet decorative garlands of fruit and +flowers painted with coloured enamels, while the main relief is left +white. Fig. 2 shows a good example of these smaller works. The hospital +of S. Paolo, near S. Maria Novella, has also a number of fine medallions +with reliefs of saints, two of Christ Healing the Sick, and two fine +portraits, under which are white plaques inscribed--"DALL ANNO 1451 ALL +ANNO 1495"[11]; the first of these dates is the year when the hospital +was rebuilt owing to a papal brief sent to the archbishop of Florence. +Arezzo possesses a number of fine enamelled works by Andrea and his +sons--a retable in the cathedral with God holding the Crucified Christ, +surrounded by angels, and below, kneeling figures of S. Donato and S. +Bernardino; also in the chapel of the Campo Santo is a fine relief of +the Madonna and Child with four saints at the sides. In S. Maria in +Grado is a very noble retable with angels holding a crown over a +standing figure of the Madonna; a number of small figures of worshippers +take refuge in the folds of the Virgin's mantle, a favourite motive for +sculpture dedicated by gilds or other corporate bodies. Perhaps the +finest collection of works of this class is at La Verna, not far from +Arezzo (see Vasari, ed. Milanesi, ii. p. 179). The best of these, three +large retables with representations of the Annunciation, the +Crucifixion, and the Madonna giving her Girdle to St Thomas, are +probably the work of Andrea himself, the others being by his sons. In +1489 Andrea made a beautiful relief of the Virgin and two Angels, now +over the archive-room door in the Florentine Opera del Duomo; for this +he was paid twenty gold florins (see Cavallucci, _S. Maria del Fiore_). +In the same year he modelled the fine tympanum relief over a door of +Prato cathedral, with a half-length figure of the Madonna between St +Stephen and St Lawrence, surrounded by a frame of angels' heads. + +In 1491 he was still working at Prato, where many of his best reliefs +still exist. A fine bust of S. Lino exists over the side door of the +cathedral at Volterra, which is attributed to Andrea. Other late works +of known date are a magnificent bust of the Protonotary Almadiano, made +in 1510 for the church of S. Giovanni de' Fiorentini at Viterbo, now +preserved in the Palazzo Communale there, and a medallion of the Virgin +in Glory, surrounded by angels, made in 1505 for Pistoia cathedral.[12] +The latest work attributed to Andrea, though apparently only a workshop +production of 1515, is a relief representing the Adoration of the Magi, +made for a little church, St Maria, in Pian di Mugnone, near +Florence.[13] Portions of this work are still in the church, but some +fragments of it are at Oxford. + +III., IV. Five of Andrea's seven sons worked with their father, and +after his death carried on the Robbia fabrique; the dates of their birth +are shown in the table on p. 838 _ante_. Early in life two of them came +under the influence of Savonarola, and took monastic orders at his +Dominican convent; these were MARCO, who adopted the name of Fra Luca, +and PAOLO, called Fra Ambrogio. One relief by the latter, a Nativity +with four life-sized figures of rather poor work, is in the Cappella +degli Spagnuoli in the Sienese convent of S. Spirito; a MS. in the +convent archives records that it was made in 1504. + +V. The chief existing work known to be by the second LUCA[14] is the +very rich and beautiful tile pavement in the uppermost story of +Raphael's loggie at the Vatican, finely designed and painted in +harmonious majolica colours. This was made by Luca at Raphael's request +and under his supervision in 1518.[15] It is still in very fine +preservation. + +VI. GIOVANNI DELLA ROBBIA (1460-1529?) during a great part of his life +worked as assistant to his father, Andrea, and in many cases the +enamelled sculpture of the two cannot be distinguished. Some of +Giovanni's independent works are of great merit, especially the earlier +ones; during the latter part of his life his reliefs deteriorated in +style, owing mainly to the universal decadence of the time. A very large +number of pieces of Robbia ware which are attributed to Andrea, and even +to the elder Luca, were really by the hand of Giovanni. One of his +finest works is a large retable at Volterra in the church of S. +Girolamo, dated 1501; it represents the Last Judgment, and is remarkable +for the fine modelling of the figures, especially that of the archangel +Michael, and a nude kneeling figure of a youth who has just risen from +his tomb. Quite equal in beauty to anything of his father's, from whom +the design of the figures was probably taken, is the washing-fountain in +the sacristy of S. Maria Novella at Florence, made in 1497.[16] It is a +large arched recess with a view of the seashore, not very decorative in +style, painted on majolica tiles at the back. There are also two very +beautiful painted majolica panels of fruit-trees let into the lower +part. In the tympanum of the arch is a very lovely white relief of the +Madonna between two Adoring Angels (see fig. 3). Long coloured garlands +of fruit and flowers are held by nude boys reclining on the top of the +arch and others standing on the cornice. All this part is of enamelled +clay, but the basin of the fountain is of white marble. Neither Luca nor +Andrea was in the habit of signing his work, but Giovanni often did so, +usually adding the date, probably because other potters had begun to +imitate the Robbia ware.[17] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Relief of Madonna and Angels in the tympanum of +the lavabo (S. Maria Novella, Florence), by Giovanni.] + +Giovanni lacked the original talent of Luca and Andrea, and so he not +only copied their work but even reproduced in clay the marble sculpture +of Pollaiuolo, Da Settignano, Verrocchio and others. A relief by him, +evidently taken from Mino da Fiesole, exists in the Palazzo Castracane +Staccoli. Among the very numerous other works of Giovanni are a relief +in the wall of a suppressed convent in the Via Nazionale at Florence, +and two reliefs in the Bargello dated 1521 and 1522. That dated 1521 is +a many-coloured relief of the Nativity, and was taken from the church of +S. Girolamo in Florence; it is a too pictorial work, marred by the use +of many different planes. Its predella has a small relief of the +Adoration of the Magi, and is inscribed "Hoc opus fecit Ioaes Andee de +Robia, ac a posuit hoc in tempore die ultima lulli ANO. DNI. M.D. XXI." +At Pisa in the Campo Santo is a relief in Giovanni's later and poorer +manner dated 1520; it is a Madonna surrounded by angels, with saints +below--the whole overcrowded with figures and ornaments. Giovanni's +largest and perhaps finest work is the polychromatic frieze on the +outside of the Del Ceppo hospital at Pistoia, for which he received +various sums of money between 1525 and 1529, as is recorded in documents +which still exist among the archives of the hospital.[18] The subjects +of this frieze are the Seven Works of Mercy, forming a continuous band +of sculpture in high relief, well modelled and designed in a very broad +sculpturesque way, but disfigured by the crudeness of some of its +colouring. Six of these reliefs are by Giovanni, namely, Clothing the +Naked, Washing the Feet of Pilgrims, Visiting the Sick, Visiting +Prisoners, Burying the Dead, and Feeding the Hungry. The seventh, Giving +drink to the Thirsty, was made by Filippo Paladini of Pistoia in 1585; +this last is simply made of painted stucco. The large figures of the +virtues placed between the scenes, and the medallions between the +pillars, are the work of assistants or imitators. + +A large octagonal font of enamelled clay, with pilasters at the angles +and panels between them with scenes from the life of the Baptist, in the +church of S. Leonardo at Cerreto Guidi, is a work of the school of +Giovanni; the reliefs are pictorial in style and coarse in execution. +Giovanni's chief pupil was a man named Benedetto Buglioni (1461-1521), +and a pupil of his, one Santi Buglioni (b. 1494), entered the Robbia +workshops in 1521, and assisted in the later works of Giovanni. + +VII. GIROLAMO DELLA ROBBIA (1488-1566), another of Andrea's sons, was an +architect and a sculptor in marble and bronze as well as in enamelled +clay. During the first part of his life he, like his brothers, worked +with his father, but in 1528 he went to France and spent nearly forty +years in the service of the French Royal family. Francis I. employed him +to build a palace in the Bois de Boulogne called the Chateau de Madrid. +This was a large well-designed building, four storeys high, two of them +having open loggie in the Italian fashion. Girolamo decorated it richly +with terra-cotta medallions, friezes and other architectural +features.[19] For this purpose he set up kilns at Suresnes. Though the +palace itself has been destroyed, drawings of it exist.[20] + +The best collections of Robbia ware are in the Florentine Bargello, +Accademia and Museo del Duomo; the Victoria and Albert Museum (the +finest out of Italy); the Louvre, the Cluny and the Berlin Museums; +while fine examples are to be found in New York, Boston, St Petersburg +and Vienna. Many fine specimens exist in private collections in England, +France, Germany and the United States. The greater part of the Robbia +work still remains in the churches and other buildings of Italy, +especially in Florence, Fiesole, Arezzo, La Verna, Volterra, Barga, +Montepulciano, Lucca, Pistoia, Prato and Siena. + + LITERATURE.--H. Barbet de Jouy, _Les della Robbia_ (Paris, 1855); W. + Bode, _Die Kunstlerfamilie della Robbia_ (Leipzig, 1878); "Luca della + Robbia ed i suoi precursori in Firenze," _Arch. stor. dell' arte_ + (1899); "Uber Luca della Robbia," _Sitzungsbericht von der Berliner + kunstgeschichtlichen Gesellschaft_ (1896); _Florentiner Bildhauer der + Renaissance_ (Berlin, 1902); G. Carocci, _I Dintorni de Firenze_ + (Florence, 1881); "Il Monumento di Benozzo Federighi," _Arte e Storia_ + (1894); "Opere Robbiane poco noti," _Arte e storia_ (1898, 1899); + Cavallucci et Molinier, _Les della Robbia_ (Paris, 1884); Maud + Crutwell, _Luca and Andrea della Robbia and their Successors_ (London, + 1902); A. du Cerceau, _Les plus excellents bastiments de France_ + (Paris, 1586); G. Milanesi, _Le Vite scritte da Vasari_ (Florence, + 1878); M. Reymond, _Les della Robbia_ (Florence, 1897); _La Sculpture + Florentine_ (Florence, 1898); I. B. Supino, _Catalogo del R. Museo di + Firenze_ (Rome 1898); Vasari (see Milanesi's edition). + (J. H. M.; W. B.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Genealogical tree of Della Robbia sculptors:-- + + Simone di Marco. + | + +----------------+------------------+ + | | + Marco. Luca + | (1400-1482). + Andrea + (1435-1525). + | + +------+-------+------------+-------------+------------+ + | | | | | + Girolamo Luca Paolo Giovanni Marco + (1488-1566), (1475-1550?), (1470-?), (1469-1529?), (1468-?), + worked mostly worked in Dominican worked Dominican + in France. Florence monk. mainly in monk. + and Rome. Florence. + + [2] Not 1388, as Vasari says. See a document printed by Gaye, + _Carteggio inedito_, i. pp. 182-186. + + [3] Vasari is not quite right in his account of these reliefs: he + speaks of Euclid and Ptolemy as being in different panels. + + [4] See Cavallucci, _S. Maria del Fiore_, pt. ii. p. 137. + + [5] The Victoria and Albert Museum possesses what seem to be fine + replicas of these statues. + + [6] The document in which the order for this and the price paid for + it are recorded is published by Yriarte, _Gaz. d. beaux arts_, xxiv. + p. 143. + + [7] One of these medallions, that of the Physicians, is now removed + to the inside of the church. + + [8] It is fully described by Filarete in his _Trattato dell' + architectura_, written in 1464, and therefore was finished before + that date; see also Vasari, ed. Milanesi (Florence, 1880), ii. p. + 174. + + [9] His will, dated 19th February 1471, is published by Gaye, _Cart. + ined._ i. p. 185. + + [10] In the works of Perkins and others on Italian sculpture these + Perugian reliefs are wrongly stated to be of enamelled clay. + + [11] Professor Marquand has discovered, beneath 1451, the inscription + Prete Benino, and, under 1495, De Benini; probably the names of the + governors of the hospital at these dates. + + [12] See Gualandi, _Memorie risguardanti le belle arti_ (Bologna, + 1845), vi. pp. 33-35, where original documents are printed recording + the dates and prices paid for these and other works of Andrea. + + [13] See a document printed by Milanesi in his Vasari, ii. p. 180. + + [14] It appears certain that this Luca was a layman and not the Fra + Luca referred to above. + + [15] It is illustrated by Gruner, _Fresco Decorations of Italy_ + (London, 1854), pl. iv.; see also Muntz, _Raphael, sa vie_, &c. + (Paris, 1881), p. 452, note i., and Vasari, ed. Milanesi, ii. p. 182. + + [16] See a document printed by Milanesi in his Vasari, ii. 193. + + [17] Examples of these imitations are a retable in S. Lucchese near + Poggibonsi dated 1514, another of the Madonna and Saints at Monte San + Savino of 1525, and a third in the Capuchin church of Arceria near + Sinigaglia; they are all inferior to the best works of the Robbia + family, though some of them may have been made by assistants trained + in the Robbia workshops. + + [18] The hospital itself was begun in 1514. + + [19] The Sevres Museum possesses some fragments of these decorations. + + [20] See Laborde, _Chateau de Madrid_ (Paris, 1853), and _Comptes des + batiments du roi_ (Paris, 1877-1880), in which a full account is + given of Girolamo's work in connexion with this palace. + + + + +DELMEDIGO, a Cretan Jewish family, of whom the following are the most +important: + +ELIJAH DELMEDIGO (1460-1497), philosopher, taught in several Italian +centres of learning. He translated some of Averroes' commentaries into +Latin at the instigation of Pico di Mirandola. In the sphere of +religion, Delmedigo represents the tendency to depart from the +scholastic attitude in which religion and philosophy were identified. +His most important work was devoted to this end; it was entitled +_Behinath ha-Dath_ (Investigation of Religion). + +JOSEPH SOLOMON DELMEDIGO (1591-1655), pupil of Galileo, wrote many books +on science and philosophy, and bore a considerable part in initiating +the critical movement in Judaism. He belonged to the sceptical school, +and though his positive contributions to literature were not of lasting +worth, Graetz includes him among the important formative influences +within the synagogue of the 17th century. (I. A.) + + + + +DELMENHORST, a town of Germany, grand duchy of Oldenburg, on the Delme, +8 m. by rail W. from Bremen, at the junction of a line to Vechta. Pop. +(1905) 20,147. It has a Protestant and a Roman Catholic church, and is +the seat of considerable industries; notably wool-combing, weaving, +jute-spinning and the manufacture of linoleum. Delmenhorst was founded +in 1230, and from 1247 to 1679, when it was destroyed by the French, was +protected by a strong castle. + + + + +DELOLME, JEAN LOUIS (1740-1806), Swiss jurist and constitutional writer, +was born at Geneva in 1740. He studied for the bar, and had begun to +practise when he was obliged to emigrate on account of a pamphlet +entitled _Examen de trois parts de droit_, which gave offence to the +authorities of the town. He took refuge in England, where he lived for +several years on the meagre and precarious income derived from +occasional contributions to various journals. In 1775 he found himself +compelled to accept aid from a charitable society to enable him to +return home. He died at Sewen, a village in the canton of Schwyz, on the +16th of July 1806. + +During his protracted exile in England Delolme made a careful study of +the English constitution, the results of which he published in his +_Constitution de l'Angleterre_ (Amsterdam, 1771), of which an enlarged +and improved edition in English appeared in 1772, and was several times +reprinted. The work excited much interest as containing many acute +observations on the causes of the excellence of the English constitution +as compared with that of other countries. It is, however, wanting in +breadth of view, being written before the period when constitutional +questions were treated in a scientific manner. Along with a translation +of Hume's _History of England_ it supplied the _philosophes_ with most +of their ideas about the English constitution. It thus was used somewhat +as a political pamphlet. Several editions were published after the +author's death. Delolme also wrote in English _Parallel between the +English Government and the former Government of Sweden_ (1772); A +_History of the Flagellants_ (1782), based upon a work of Boileau's; _An +Essay on the Union of Scotland with England_ (1787), and one or two +smaller works. + + + + +DELONEY (or DELONE), THOMAS, English ballad-writer and pamphleteer, +produced his earliest indisputable work in 1586, and died about 1600. In +1596 Thomas Nashe, in his _Have with you to Saffron Walden_, wrote: +"Thomas Deloney, the ballating silk-weaver, hath rime enough for all +myracles, and wit to make a Garland of Good Will more than the premisses +... and this deare yeare, together with the silencing of his looms, +scarce that, he being constrained to betake himself to carded ale; +whence it proceedeth that since Candlemas, or his jigge, John for the +king, not one merrie dittie will come from him, but, the Thunderbolt +against Swearers,--Repent, England, Repent--and, the strange Judgements +of God." In 1588 the coming of the Armada inspired him for three +broadsides, which were reprinted (1860) by J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps. +They are entitled "The Queenes visiting of the Campe at Tilsburie with +her entertainment there," "A Joyful new Ballad, declaring the happie +obtaining of the great Galleazzo ...," and "A new Ballet of the straunge +and Most cruell Whippes which the Spaniards had prepared." A collection +of _Strange Histories_ (1607) consists of historical ballads by Deloney, +with some poems from other hands. This collection, known in later and +enlarged editions as _The Royal Garland of Love and Delight_ and _The +Garland of Delight_, contains the ballad of Fair Rosamond. J. H. Dixon +in his preface to _The Garland of Good Will_ (Percy Society, 1851) +ascribes to Deloney _The Blind Beggar of Bednall Green_, and _The +Pleasant and sweet History of Patient Grissel_, in prose, with the whole +of the _Garland of Good Will_, including some poems such as "The Spanish +Lady's Love" generally supposed to be by other hands. His other works +include _The Gentle Craft_ (1597) in praise of shoemakers, _The Pleasant +Historie of John Winchecombe_ (8th ed., 1619), and _Thomas of Reading or +the Sixe Worthie Yeomen of the West_ (earliest extant edition, 1612). +Kempe, the actor, jeers at these histories in his _Nine Daies Wonder_, +but they were very popular, being reprinted as penny chap-books. + + + + +DE LONG, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1844-1881), American explorer, was born in +New York city on the 22nd of August 1844. He graduated at the U.S. Naval +Academy in 1865, and spent the next fourteen years in naval service in +various parts of the world, attaining the rank of lieutenant in 1869, +and lieutenant-commander in 1879. In 1873 he took part in the voyage of +the "Juniata," sent to search for and relieve the American Arctic +expedition under Hall in the "Polaris," commanding a steam launch which +was sent out from Upernivik, Greenland, to make a thorough search of +Melville Bay. On his return to New York the same year he proposed to +James Gordon Bennett, of _The New York Herald_, that the latter should +fit out a Polar expedition. It was not until 1879 that the final +arrangements were made, the "Pandora," a yacht which had already made +two Arctic voyages under Sir Allen Young, being purchased and +rechristened the "Jeannette" for this voyage. The story of this +expedition (see POLAR REGIONS) is chiefly remarkable on account of the +long and helpless drifting of the "Jeannette" with the polar ice-pack in +which she was caught (September 5, 1879) and by which she was finally +crushed and sunk on the 13th of June 1881. The members of the expedition +set out in three boats, one of which was lost in a gale, while another +boat-load under De Long died from starvation after reaching the mouth of +the Lena river. He was the last survivor of his party. His journal, in +which he made regular entries up to the day on which he died (October +30, 1881) was edited by his wife and published in 1883 under the title +_Voyage of the "Jeannette"_; and an account of the search which was made +for him and his comrades by his heroic companion George W. Melville, who +was chief engineer of the expedition and commanded the third of the +retreating parties, was published a year later under the title of _In +the Lena Delta_. The fate of the "Jeannette" was still more remarkable +in its sequel. Three years after she had sunk several articles belonging +to her crew were found on an ice-floe near Julianshaab on the south-west +coast of Greenland; thus adding fresh evidence to the theory of a +continuous ocean current passing across the unknown Polar regions, which +was to be finally demonstrated by Nansen's voyage in the "Fram." By +direction of the United States government, the remains of De Long and +his companions were brought home and interred with honour in his native +city. + + + + +DELORME, MARION (c. 1613-1650), French courtesan, was the daughter of +Jean de Lou, sieur de l'Orme, president of the treasurers of France in +Champagne, and of Marie Chastelain. She was born at her father's chateau +near Champaubert. Initiated into the philosophy of pleasure by the +epicurean and atheist Jacques Vallee, sieur Desbarreaux, she soon left +him for Cinq Mars, at that time at the height of his popularity, and +succeeded, it is said, in marrying him in secret. From this time Marion +Delorme's salon became one of the most brilliant centres of elegant +Parisian society. After the execution of Cinq Mars she is said to have +numbered among her lovers Charles de St Evremond (1610-1703) the wit and +litterateur, Buckingham (Villiers), the great Conde, and even Cardinal +Richelieu. Under the Fronde her salon became a meeting place for the +disaffected, and Mazarin is said to have sent to arrest her when she +suddenly died. Her last years have been adorned with considerable legend +(cf. Merecourt, _Confessions de Marie Delorme_, Paris, 1856). It seems +established that she died in 1650. But she was believed to have lived +until 1706 or even 1741, after having had the most fantastic adventures, +including marriage with an English lord, and an old age spent in poverty +in Paris. Her name has been popularized by various authors, especially +by Alfred de Vigny in his novel _Cinq Mars_, by Victor Hugo in the drama +_Marion Delorme_, and by G. Bottesini in an opera of the same title. + + See P. J. Jacob, _Marion Delorme et Ninon Lenclos_ (Paris, 1859); J. + Peladan, _Histoire et legende de Marion de Lorme_ (Paris, 1882). + + + + +DE L'ORME, PHILIBERT (c. 1510-1570), French architect, one of the great +masters of the Renaissance, was born at Lyons, the son of Jehan de +L'Orme, who practised the same art and brought his son up to it. At an +early age Philibert was sent to Italy to study (1533-1536) and was +employed there by Pope Paul III. Returning to France he was patronized +by Cardinal du Bellay at Lyons, and was sent by him about 1540 to +Paris, where he began the Chateau de St Maur, and enjoyed royal favour; +in 1545 he was made architect to Francis I. and given the charge of +works in Brittany. In 1548 Henry II. gave him the supervision of +Fontainebleau, Saint-Germain and the other royal buildings; but on his +death (1559) Philibert fell into disgrace. Under Charles IX., however, +he returned to favour, and was employed to construct the Tuileries, in +collaboration with Jean Brillant. He died in Paris on the 8th of January +1570. Much of his work has disappeared, but his fame remains. An ardent +humanist and student of the antique, he yet vindicated resolutely the +French tradition in opposition to Italian tendencies; he was a man of +independent mind and a vigorous originality. His masterpiece was the +Chateau d'Anet (1552-1559), built for Diane de Poitiers, the plans of +which are preserved in Du Cerceau's _Plus excellens bastimens de +France_, though part of the building alone remains; and his designs for +the Tuileries (also given by Du Cerceau), begun by Catherine de' Medici +in 1565, were magnificent. His work is also seen at Chenonceaux and +other famous chateaux; and his tomb of Francis I. at St Denis remains a +perfect specimen of his art. He wrote two books on architecture (1561 +and 1567). + + See Marius Vachon, _Philibert de L'Orme_ (1887); Chevalier, _Lettres + et devis relatifs a la construction de Chenonceaux_ (1864); Pfror, + _Monographie du chateau d'Anet_ (1867); Herbet, _Travaux de P. de + L'Orme a Fontainebleau_ (1890). + + + + +DELOS (mod. _Mikra Dili_, or Little Delos, to distinguish it from Megali +Dili, or Great Delos), an island in the Aegean, the smallest but most +famous of the Cyclades, and, according to the ancient belief, the spot +round which the group arranged itself in a nearly circular form. It is a +rugged mass of granite, about 3 m. long and 1 m. to 1/2 m. broad, about +1/2 m. E. of Megali Dili or Rheneia, and 2 m. W. of Myconus. Towards the +centre it rises to its greatest height of 350 ft. in the steep and rocky +peak of Mount Cynthus, which, though overtopped by several eminences in +the neighbouring islands, is very conspicuous from the surrounding sea. +It is now completely destitute of trees, but it abounds with brushwood +of lentisk and cistus, and here and there affords a patch of corn-land +to the occasional sower from Myconus. + +I. _Archaeology._--Excavations have been made by the French School at +Athens upon the island of Delos since 1877, chiefly by Th. Homolle. They +have proceeded slowly but systematically, and the method adopted, though +scientific and economical, left the site in some apparent confusion, but +the debris have more recently been cleared away to a considerable +extent. The complete plan of the sacred precinct of Apollo has been +recovered, as well as those of a considerable portion of the commercial +quarter of Hellenistic and Roman times, of the theatre, of the temples +of the foreign gods, of the temples on the top of Mount Cynthus, and of +several very interesting private houses. Numerous works of sculpture of +all periods have been found, and also a very extensive series of +inscriptions, some of them throwing much light upon the subject of +temple administration in Greece. + +[Illustration: DELOS PRECINCT OF APOLLO.] + +The most convenient place for landing is protected by an ancient mole; +it faces the channel between Delos and Rheneia, and is about opposite +the most northerly of the two little islands now called [Greek: +Rheumatiari]. From this side the sacred precinct of Apollo is approached +by an avenue flanked by porticoes, that upon the seaside bearing the +name of Philip V. of Macedon, who dedicated it about 200 B.C. This +avenue must have formed the usual approach for sacred embassies and +processions; but it is probable that the space to the south was not +convenient for marshalling them, since Nicias, on the occasion of his +famous embassy, built a bridge from the island of Hecate (the Greater +Rhevmatiari) to Delos, in order that the imposing Athenian procession +might not miss its full effect. Facing the avenue were the propylaea +that formed the chief entrance of the precinct of Apollo. They consisted +of a gate faced on the outside with a projecting portico of four +columns, on the inside with two columns _in antis_. Through this one +entered a large open space, filled with votive offerings and containing +a large exedra. The sacred road continued its course to the north-east +corner of this open space, with the precinct of Artemis on its west +side, and, on its east side, a terrace on which stood three temples. The +southernmost of these was the temple of Apollo, but only its back was +visible from this side. Though there is no evidence to show to whom the +other two were dedicated, the fact that they faced west seems to imply +that they were either dedicated to heroes or minor deities, or that they +were treasuries. Beyond them a road branches to the right, sweeping +round in a broad curve to the space in front of the temple of Apollo. +The outer side of this curve is bounded by a row of treasuries, similar +to those found at Delphi and Olympia, and serving to house the more +costly offerings of various islands or cities. The space to the east and +south of the temple of Apollo could also be approached directly from the +propylaea of entrance, by turning to the right through a passage-like +building with a porch at either end. Just to the north of this may be +seen the basis of the colossal statue of Apollo dedicated by the +Naxians, with its well-known archaic inscription; two large fragments of +the statue itself may still be seen a little farther to the north. + +The temple of Apollo forms the centre of the whole precinct, which it +dominates by the height of its steps as well as of the terrace already +mentioned; its position must have been more commanding in ancient times +than it is now that heaps of earth and debris cover so much of the +level. The temple was of Doric style, with six columns at the front and +back and thirteen at the sides; it was built early in the 4th century +B.C.; little if any traces have been found of the earlier building which +it superseded. Its sculptural decoration appears to have been but +scanty; the metopes were plain. The groups which ornamented, as +acroteria, the two gables of the temple have been in part recovered, and +may now be seen in the national museum at Athens; at the one end was +Boreas carrying off Oreithyia, at the other Eos and Cephalus, the centre +in each case being occupied by the winged figure that stood out against +the sky--a variation on the winged Victories that often occupy the same +position on temples. + +To the east of the space in front of the temple was an oblong building +of two chambers, with a colonnade on each side but not in front; this +may have been the Prytaneum or some other official building; beyond it +is the most interesting and characteristic of all the monuments of +Delphi. This is a long narrow hall, running from north to south, and +entered by a portico at its south end. At the north end was the famous +altar, built out of the horns of the victims, which was sometimes +reckoned among the seven wonders of the world. The rest of the room is +taken up by a paved space, surrounded by a narrow gangway; and on this +it is supposed that the [Greek: geranos] or stork-dance took place. The +most remarkable architectural feature of the building is the partition +that separated the altar from this long gallery; it consists of two +columns between _antae_, with capitals of a very peculiar form, +consisting of the fore parts of bulls set back to back; from these the +whole building is sometimes called the sanctuary of the bulls. Beyond +it, on the east, was a sacred wood filling the space up to the wall of +the precinct; and at the south end of this was a small open space with +the altar of Zeus Polieus. + +At the north of the precinct was a broad road, flanked with votive +offerings and exedrae, and along the boundary were porticoes and +chambers intended for the reception of the [Greek: theoriai] or sacred +embassies; there are two entrances on this side, each of them through +extensive propylaea. + +At the north-west corner of the precinct is a building of limestone, the +[Greek: porinos oikos] often mentioned in the inventories of the +treasures of the Delian shrine. South of it is the precinct of Artemis, +containing within it the old temple of the goddess; her more recent +temple was to the south of her precinct, opening not into it but into +the open space entered through the southern propylaea of the precinct of +Apollo. The older temple is mentioned in some of the inventories as "the +temple in which were the seven statues"; and close beside it was found a +series of archaic draped female statues, which was the most important of +its kind until the discovery of the finer and better preserved set from +the Athenian Acropolis. + +Within the precinct there were found many statues and other works of +art, and a very large number of inscriptions, some of them giving +inventories of the votive offerings and accounts of the administration +of the temple and its property. The latter are of considerable interest, +and give full information as to the sources of the revenue and its +financial administration. + +Outside the precinct of Apollo, on the south, was an open place; between +this and the precinct was a house for the priests, and within it, in a +kind of court, a set of small structures that may perhaps be identified +as the tombs of the Hyperborean maidens. Just to the east was the temple +of Dionysus, which is of peculiar plan, and faces the open place; on the +other side of it is a large rectangular court, surrounded by colonnades +and chambers which served as offices, the whole forming a sort of +commercial exchange; in the middle of it was a temple dedicated to +Aphrodite and Hermes. + +To the north of the precinct of Apollo, between it and the sacred lake, +there are very extensive ruins of the commercial town of Delos; these +have been only partially cleared, but have yielded a good many +inscriptions and other antiquities. The most extensive building is a +very large court surrounded by chambers, a sort of club or exchange. +Beyond this, on the way to the east coast, are the remains of the new +and the old palaestra, also partially excavated. + +The shore of the channel facing Rheneia is lined with docks and +warehouses, and behind them, as well as elsewhere in the island, there +have been found several private houses of the 2nd or 3rd century B.C. +Each of these consists of a single court surrounded by columns and often +paved with mosaic; various chambers open out of the court, including +usually one of large proportions, the [Greek: andron] or dining-room for +guests. + +The theatre, which is set in the lower slope of Mount Cynthus, has the +wings of the auditorium supported by massive substructures. The most +interesting feature is the _scena_, which is unique in plan; it +consisted of an oblong building of two storeys, surrounded on all sides +by a low portico or terrace reaching to the level of the first floor. +This was supported by pillars, set closer together along the front than +at the sides and back. An inscription found in the theatre showed that +this portico, or at least the front portion of it, was called the +proscenium or logeum, two terms of which the identity was previously +disputed. + +On the summit of Mount Cynthus, above the primitive cave-temple which +has always been visible, there have been found the remains of a small +precinct dedicated to Zeus Cynthius and Athena Cynthia. Some way down +the slope of the hill, between the cave-temple and the ravine of the +Inopus, is a terrace with the temples of the foreign gods, Isis and +Serapis, and a small odeum. + +II. _History._--Many alternative names for Delos are given by tradition; +one of these, Ortygia, is elsewhere also assigned to an island sacred to +Artemis. Of the various traditions that were current among the ancient +Greeks regarding the origin of Delos, the most popular describes it as +drifting through the Aegean till moored by Zeus as a refuge for the +wandering Leto. It supplied a birthplace to Apollo and Artemis, who were +born beneath a palm tree beside its sacred lake, and became for ever +sacred to these twin deities. The island first appears in history as the +seat of a great Ionic festival to which the various Ionic states, +including Athens, were accustomed annually to despatch a sacred embassy, +or Theoria, at the anniversary of the birth of the god on the 7th of +Thargelion (about May). In the 6th century B.C. the influence of the +Delian Apollo was at its height; Polycrates of Samos dedicated the +neighbouring island of Rheneia to his service and Peisistratus of Athens +caused all the area within sight of the temple to be cleared of the +tombs by which its sanctity was impaired. After the Persian wars, the +predominance of Athens led to the transformation of the Delian +amphictyony into the Athenian empire. (See DELIAN LEAGUE.) In 426 B.C., +in connexion with a reorganization of the festival, which henceforth was +celebrated in the third year of every Olympiad, the Athenians instituted +a more elaborate lustration, caused every tomb to be removed from the +island, and established a law that ever after any one who was about to +die or to give birth to a child should be at once conveyed from its +shores. And even this was not accounted sufficient, for in 422 they +expelled all its secular inhabitants, who were, however, permitted to +return in the following year. At the close of the Peloponnesian War the +Spartans gave to the people of Delos the management of their own +affairs; but the Athenian predominance was soon after restored, and +survived an appeal to the amphictyony of Delphi in 345 B.C. During +Macedonian times, from 322 to 166 B.C., Delos again became independent; +during this period the shrine was enriched by offerings from all +quarters, and the temple and its possessions were administered by +officials called [Greek: hieropoioi]. After 166 B.C. the Romans restored +the control of Delian worship to Athens, but granted to the island +various commercial privileges which brought it great prosperity. In 87 +B.C. Menophanes, the general of Mithradates VI. of Pontus, sacked the +island, which had remained faithful to Rome. From this blow it never +recovered; the Athenian control was resumed in 42 B.C., but Pausanias +(viii. 33. 2) mentions Delos as deserted but for a few Athenian +officials; and several epigrams of the 1st or 2nd century A.D. attest +the same fact, though the temple and worship were probably kept up until +the official extinction of the ancient religion. A museum has now been +built to contain the antiquities found in the excavations; otherwise +Delos is now uninhabited, though during the summer months a few +shepherds cross over with their flocks from Myconus or Rheneia. As a +religious centre it is replaced by Tenos and as a commercial centre by +the flourishing port of Syra. + + See Lebegue, _Recherches sur Delos_ (Paris, 1876). Numerous articles + in the _Bulletin de correspondance hellenique_ record the various + discoveries at Delos as they were made. See also Th. Homolle, _Les + Archives de l'intendance sacree a Delos_ (with plan). The best + consecutive account is given in the _Guide Joanne, Grece_, ii. + 443-464. For history, see Sir R. C. Jebb, _Journal of Hellenic + Studies_, i. (1889), pp. 7-62. For works of art found at Delos see + GREEK ART. (E. Gr.) + + + + +DE LOUTHERBOURG, PHILIP JAMES (1740-1812), English artist, was born at +Strassburg on the 31st of October 1740, where his father, the +representative of a Polish family, practised miniature painting; but he +spent the greater part of his life in London, where he was naturalized, +and exerted a considerable influence on the scenery of the English +stage, as well as on the artists of the following generation. De +Loutherbourg was intended for the Lutheran ministry, and was educated at +the university of Strassburg. As the calling, however, was foreign to +his nature, he insisted on being a painter, and placed himself under +Vanloo in Paris. The result was an immediate and precocious development +of his powers, and he became a figure in the fashionable society of that +day. In 1767 he was elected into the French Academy below the age +required by the law of the institution, and painted landscapes, sea +storms, battles, all of which had a celebrity above those of the +specialists then working in Paris. His debut was made by the exhibition +of twelve pictures, including "Storm at Sunset," "Night," "Morning after +Rain." He is next found travelling in Switzerland, Germany and Italy, +distinguishing himself as much by mechanical inventions as by painting. +One of these, showing quite new effects produced in a model theatre, was +the wonder of the day. The exhibition of lights behind canvas +representing the moon and stars, the illusory appearance of running +water produced by clear blue sheets of metal and gauze, with loose +threads of silver, and so on, were his devices. In 1771 he came to +London, and was employed by Garrick, who offered him L500 a year to +apply his inventions to Drury Lane, and to superintend the +scene-painting, which he did with complete success, making a new era in +the adjuncts of the stage. Garrick's own piece, the _Christmas Tale_, +and the pantomime, 1781-1782, introduced the novelties to the public, +and the delight not only of the masses, but of Reynolds and the artists, +was unbounded. The green trees gradually became russet, the moon rose +and lit the edges of passing clouds, and all the world was captivated by +effects we now take little notice of. A still greater triumph awaited +him on his opening an entertainment called the "Eidophusicon," which +showed the rise, progress and result of a storm at sea--that which +destroyed the great Indiaman, the "Halsewell,"--and the Fallen Angels +raising the Palace of Pandemonium. De Loutherbourg has been called the +inventor of the panorama, but this honour does not belong to him, +although it first appeared about the same time as the eidophusicon. The +first panorama was painted and exhibited by Robert Barker. + +All this mechanism did not prevent De Loutherbourg from painting. "Lord +Howe's Victory off Ushant" (1794), and other large naval pictures were +commissioned for Greenwich Hospital Gallery, where they still remain. +His finest work was the "Destruction of the Armada." He painted also the +Great Fire of London, and several historical works, one of these being +the "Attack of the Combined Armies on Valenciennes" (1793). He was made +R.A., in addition to other distinctions, in 1781, shortly after which +date we find an entirely new mental impulse taking possession of him. He +joined Balsamo, comte de Cagliostro, and travelled about with this +extraordinary person--leaving him, however, before his condemnation to +death. We do not hear that Mesmer had attracted De Loutherbourg, nor do +we find an exact record of his connexion with Cagliostro. A pamphlet +published in 1789, _A List of a few Cures performed by Mr and Mrs De +Loutherbourg without Medicine_, shows that he had taken up +faith-healing, and there is a story that a successful projection of the +philosopher's stone was only spoiled by the breaking of the crucible by +a relative. He died on the 11th of March 1812. His publications are +few--some sets of etchings, and _English Scenery_ (1805). + + + + +DELPHI (the Pytho of Homer and Herodotus; in Boeotian inscriptions +[Greek: Belphoi], on coins [Greek: Dalphoi]), a place in ancient Greece +in the territory of Phocis, famous as the seat of the most important +temple and oracle of Apollo. It was situated about 6 m. inland from the +shores of the Corinthian Gulf, in a rugged and romantic glen, closed on +the N. by the steep wall-like under-cliffs of Mount Parnassus known as +the Phaedriades or Shining Rocks, on the E. and W. by two minor ridges +or spurs, and on the S. by the irregular heights of Mount Cirphis. +Between the two mountains the Pleistus flowed from east to west, and +opposite the town received the brooklet of the Castalian fountain, which +rose in a deep gorge in the centre of the Parnassian cliff. About 7 m. +to the north, on the side of Mount Parnassus, was the famous Corycian +cave, a large grotto in the limestone rock, which afforded the people of +Delphi a refuge during the Persian invasion. It is now called in the +district the Sarant' Aulai or Forty Courts, and is said to be capable of +holding 3000 people. + +I. _The Site._--The site of Delphi was occupied by the modern village of +Castri until it was bought by the French government in 1891, and the +peasant proprietors expropriated and transferred to the new village of +Castri, a little farther to the west. Excavations had been made +previously in some parts of the precinct; for example, the portico of +the Athenians was laid bare in 1860. The systematic clearing of the site +began in the spring of 1892, and it was rapidly cleared of earth by +means of a light railway. The plan of the precinct is now easily traced, +and with the help of Pausanias many of the buildings have been +identified. + +The ancient wall running east and west, commonly known as the Hellenico, +has been found extant in its whole length, and the two boundary walls +running up the hill at each end of it, traced. In the eastern of these +was the main entrance by which Pausanias went in along the Sacred Way. +This paved road is easily recognized as it zigzags up the hill, with +treasuries and the bases of various offerings facing it on both sides. +It mounts first westwards to an open space, then turns eastwards till it +reaches the eastern end of the terrace wall that supports the temple, +and then turns again and curves up north and then west towards the +temple. Above this, approached by a stair, are the Lesche and the +theatre, occupying respectively the north-east and north-west corner of +the precinct. On a higher level still, a little to the west, is the +stadium. There are several narrow paths and stairs that cut off the +zigzags of the Sacred Way. + +In describing the monuments discovered by the French excavators, the +simplest plan is to follow the route of Pausanias. Outside the entrance +is a large paved court of Roman date, flanked by a colonnade. On the +north side of the Sacred Way, close to the main entrance, stood the +offering dedicated by the Lacedaemonians after the battle of +Aegospotami. It was a large quadrangular building of conglomerate, with +a back wall faced with stucco, and stood open to the road. On a stepped +pedestal facing the open stood the statues of the gods and the admirals, +perhaps in rows above one another. + +The statues of the Epigoni stood on a semicircular basis on the south +side of the way. Opposite them stood another semicircular basis which +carried the statues of the Argive kings, whose names are cut on the +pedestal in archaic characters, reading from right to left. Farther west +was the Sicyonian treasury on the south of the way. It was in the form +of a small Doric temple _in antis_, and had its entrance on the east. +The present foundations are built of architectural fragments, probably +from an earlier building of circular form on the same site. The +sculptures from this treasury are in the museum, as are the other +sculptures found on the site. These sculptures, which are in rough +limestone, most likely belong to the earlier building, as their surface +is in a better state of preservation than could be possible if they had +been long exposed to the air. The earlier treasury was probably +destroyed either by earthquake or by the percolation of water through +the terracing. + +[ILLUSTRATION: PRECINCT OF APOLLO AT DELPHI.] + +The Cnidian treasury stands on the south side of the way farther west. +This building was originally surmised by the excavators to be the +treasury of Siphnos, but further evidence led them to change their +opinion. The treasury was raised on a quadrangular structure, supported +on its south side by the Hellenico, and built of tufa. The lower courses +are left rough and were most likely hidden. A small Ionic temple of +marble with two caryatids between antae stood on this substructure. The +sculpture from this treasury, which ornamented its frieze and pediment, +is of great interest in the history of the development of the art, and +the fragments of architectural mouldings are of great delicacy and +beauty. The whole work is perhaps the most perfect example we possess of +the transitional style of the early 5th century. Standing back somewhat +from the path just as it bends round up the hill is the Theban treasury. +Farther north, where the path turns again, is the Athenian treasury. +This structure, which was in the form of a small Doric temple _in +antis_, appears to have suffered from the building above it having been +shaken down by an earthquake. It has now been rebuilt with the original +blocks. There can be no doubt about the identity of the building, for +the basis on which it stands bears the remains of the dedicatory +inscription, stating that it was erected from the spoils of Marathon. +Almost all the sculptured metopes are in the museum, and are of the +highest interest to the student of archaic art. The famous inscriptions +with hymns to Apollo accompanied by musical notation were found on +stones belonging to this treasury. + +Above the Athenian treasury is an open space, in which is a rock which +has been identified as the Sybil's rock. It has steps hewn in it, and +has a cleft. The ground round it has been left rough like the space on +the Acropolis at Athens identified as the ancient altar of Athena. Here +too was placed the curious column, with many flutes and an Ionic +capital, on which stood the colossal sphinx, dedicated by the Naxians, +that has been pieced together and placed in the museum. + +A little farther on, but below the Sacred Way, is another open space, of +circular form, which is perhaps the [Greek: halos] or sacred +threshing-floor on which the drama of the slaying of the Python by +Apollo was periodically performed. Opposite this space, and backed +against the beautifully jointed polygonal wall which has for some time +been known, and which supports the terrace on which the temple stands, +is the colonnade of the Athenians. A dedicatory inscription runs along +the face of the top step, and has been the subject of much dispute. Both +the forms of the letters and the style of the architecture show that the +colonnade cannot date, as Pausanias says, from the time of the +Peloponnesian War; Th. Homolle now assigns it to the end of the 6th +century. The polygonal terrace wall at the back, on being cleared, +proves to be covered with inscriptions, most of them concerning the +manumission of slaves. + +After rounding the east end of the terrace wall, the Sacred Way turns +northward, leaving the Great Altar, dedicated by the Chians, on the +left. After passing the altar, it turns to the left again at right +angles, and so enters the space in front of the temple. Remains of +offerings found in this region include those dedicated by the Cyrenians +and by the Corinthians. The site of the temple itself carries the +remains of successive structures. Of that built by the Alcmaeonids in +the 6th century B.C. considerable remains have been found, some in the +foundations of the later temple and some lying where they were thrown by +the earthquake. The sculptures found have been assigned to this +building, probably to the gables, as they are archaic in character, and +show a remarkable resemblance to the sculptures from the pediment of the +early temple of Athena at Athens. The existing foundations are these of +the temple built in the 4th century. They give no certain information as +to the sacred cleft and other matters relating to the oracle. Though +there are great hollow spaces in the structure of the foundations, these +appear merely to have been intended to save material, and not to have +been put to any religious or other use. Up in the north-eastern corner +of the precinct, standing at the foot of the cliffs, are the remains of +the interesting Cnidian Lesche or Clubhouse. It was a long narrow +building accessible only from the south, and the famous paintings were +probably disposed around the walls so as to meet in the middle of the +north side. Some scanty fragments of the lower part of the frescoed +walls have survived; but they are not enough to give any information as +to the work of Polygnotus. + +At the north-western corner of the precinct is the theatre, one of the +best preserved in Greece. The foundations of the stage are extant, as +well as the orchestra, and the walls and seats of the auditorium. There +are thirty-three tiers of seats in seven sets, and a paved diazoma. The +sculptures from the stage front, now in the museum, have the labours of +Heracles as their subject. The date of the theatre is probably early 2nd +century B.C. + +The stadium lies, as Pausanias says, in the highest part of the city to +the north-west. It stands on a narrow plateau of ground supported on the +south-east by a terrace wall. The seats have been cleared, and are in a +state of extraordinary preservation. A few of those at the east end are +hewn in the rock. No trace of the marble seats mentioned by Pausanias +has been found, but they have probably been carried off for lime or +building, as they could easily be removed. An immense number of +inscriptions have been found in the excavations, and many works of art, +including a bronze charioteer, which is one of the most admirable +statues preserved from ancient times. + +II. _History._--Our information as to the oracle at Delphi and the +manner in which it was consulted is somewhat confused; there probably +was considerable variation at different periods. The tale of a hole from +which intoxicating "mephitic" vapour arose has no early authority, nor +is it scientifically probable (see A. P. Oppe in _Journal of Hellenic +Studies_, xxiv. 214). The questions had to be given in writing, and the +responses were uttered by the Pythian priestess, in early times a +maiden, later a woman over fifty attired as a maiden. After chewing the +sacred bay and drinking of the spring Cassotis, which was conducted into +the temple by artificial channels, she took her seat on the sacred +tripod in the inner shrine. Her utterances were reduced to verse and +edited by the prophets and the "holy men" ([Greek: hosioi]). For the +influence and history of the oracle see ORACLE. + +Delphi also contained the "Omphalos," a sacred stone bound with fillets, +supposed to mark the centre of the earth. It was said Zeus had started +two eagles from the opposite extremities and they met there. Other tales +said the stone was the one given by Rhea to Cronus as a substitute for +Zeus. + +For the history of the Delphic Amphictyony see under AMPHICTYONY. The +oracle at Delphi was asserted by tradition to have existed before the +introduction of the Apolline worship and to have belonged to the goddess +Earth (Ge or Gaia). The Homeric Hymn to Apollo evidently combines two +different versions, one of the approach of Apollo from the north by +land, and the other of the introduction of his votaries from Crete. The +earliest stone temple was said to have been built by Trophonius and +Agamedes. This was destroyed by fire in 548 B.C., and the contract for +rebuilding was undertaken by the exiled Alcmaeonidae from Athens, who +generously substituted marble on the eastern front for the poros +specified (see CLEISTHENES, _ad init._). Portions of the pediments of +this temple have been found in the excavations; but no sign has been +found of the pediments mentioned by Pausanias, representing on the east +Apollo and the Muses, and on the west Dionysus and the Thyiades +(Bacchantes), and designed by Praxias, the pupil of Calanias. The temple +which was seen by Pausanias, and of which the foundations were found by +the excavators, was the one of which the building is recorded in +inscriptions of the 4th century. A raid on Delphi attempted by the +Persians in 480 B.C. was said to have been frustrated by the god +himself, by means of a storm or earthquake which hurled rocks down on +the invaders; a similar tale is told of the raid of the Gauls in 279 +B.C. But the sacrilege thus escaped at the hands of foreign invaders was +inflicted by the Phocian defenders of Delphi during the Sacred War, +356-346 B.C., when many of the precious votive offerings were melted +down. The Phocians were condemned to replace their value to the amount +of 10,000 talents, which they paid in instalments. In 86 B.C. the +sanctuary and its treasures were put under contribution by L. Cornelius +Sulla for the payment of his soldiers; Nero removed no fewer than 500 +bronze statues from the sacred precincts; Constantine the Great enriched +his new city by the sacred tripod and its support of intertwined snakes +dedicated by the Greek cities after the battle of Plataea. This still +exists, with its inscription, in the Hippodrome at Constantinople. +Julian afterwards sent Oribasius to restore the temple; but the oracle +responded to the emperor's enthusiasm with nothing but a wail over the +glory that had departed. + + Provisional accounts of the excavations have appeared during the + excavations in the _Bulletin de correspondance hellenique_. A summary + is given in J. G. Frazer, _Pausanias_, vol. v. The official account is + entitled _Fouilles de Delphes_. For history see Hiller von Gartringen + in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie, s.v._ "Delphi." For cult see L. + R. Farnell, _Cults of the Creek States_, iv. 179-218. For the works of + art discovered see GREEK ART. (E. Gr.) + + + + +DELPHINIA, a festival of Apollo Delphinius held annually on the 6th (or +7th) of the month Munychion (April) at Athens. All that is known of the +ceremonies is that a number of girls proceeded to his temple +(Delphinium) carrying suppliants' branches and seeking to propitiate +Apollo, probably as a god having influence on the sea. It was at this +time of year that navigation began again after the storms of winter. +According to the story in Plutarch (_Theseus_, 18), Theseus, before +setting out to Crete to slay the Minotaur, repaired to the Delphinium +and deposited, on his own behalf and that of his companions on whom the +lot had fallen, an offering to Apollo, consisting of a branch of +consecrated olive, bound about with white wool; after which he prayed to +the god and set sail. The sending of the maidens to propitiate the god +during the Delphinia commemorates this event in the life of Theseus. + + See A. Mommsen, _Festeder Stadt Athen_ (1898); L. Preller, + _Griechische Mythologie_ (4th ed., 1887); P. Stengel, _Die griechische + Kultusaltertumer_ (1898); Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des + antiquites_; G. F. Schomann, _Griechische Altertumer_ (4th ed., + 1897-1902). + + + + +DELPHINUS ("THE DOLPHIN"), in astronomy, a constellation of the northern +hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd +century B.C.); and catalogued by Ptolemy (10 stars), Tycho Brahe (10 +stars), and Hevelius (14 stars), [Gamma] _Delphini_ is a double star: a +yellowish of magnitude 4, and a bluish of magnitude 5. + + + + +DELTA (from the shape of the Gr. letter [Delta], delta, originally used +of the mouth of the Nile), a tract of land enclosed by the diverging +branches of a river's mouth and the seacoast, and traversed by other +branches of the stream. This triangular tract is formed from the fine +silt brought down in suspension by a muddy river and deposited when the +river reaches the sea. When tidal currents are feeble, the delta +frequently advances some distance seawards, forming a local prolongation +of the coast. + + + + +DELUC, JEAN ANDRE (1727-1817), Swiss geologist and meteorologist, born +at Geneva on the 8th of February 1727, was descended from a family which +had emigrated from Lucca and settled at Geneva in the 15th century. His +father, Francois Deluc, was the author of some publications in +refutation of Mandeville and other rationalistic writers, which are best +known through Rousseau's humorous account of his ennui in reading them; +and he gave his son an excellent education, chiefly in mathematics and +natural science. On completing it he engaged in commerce, which +principally occupied the first forty-six years of his life, without any +other interruption than that which was occasioned by some journeys of +business into the neighbouring countries, and a few scientific +excursions among the Alps. During these, however, he collected by +degrees, in conjunction with his brother Guillaume Antoine, a splendid +museum of mineralogy and of natural history in general, which was +afterwards increased by his nephew J. Andre Deluc (1763-1847), who was +also a writer on geology. He at the same time took a prominent part in +politics. In 1768 he was sent to Paris on an embassy to the duc de +Choiseul, whose friendship he succeeded in gaining. In 1770 he was +nominated one of the Council of Two Hundred. Three years later +unexpected reverses in business made it advisable for him to quit his +native town, which he only revisited once for a few days. The change was +welcome in so far as it set him entirely free for scientific pursuits, +and it was with little regret that he removed to England in 1773. He was +made a fellow of the Royal Society in the same year, and received the +appointment of reader to Queen Charlotte, which he continued to hold +for forty-four years, and which afforded him both leisure and a +competent income. In the latter part of his life he obtained leave to +make several tours in Switzerland, France, Holland and Germany. In +Germany he passed the six years from 1798 to 1804; and after his return +he undertook a geological tour through England. When he was at +Gottingen, in the beginning of his German tour, he received the +compliment of being appointed honorary professor of philosophy and +geology in that university; but he never entered upon the active duties +of a professorship. He was also a correspondent of the Academy of +Sciences at Paris, and a member of several other scientific +associations. He died at Windsor on the 7th of November 1817. + +His favourite studies were geology and meteorology. The situation of his +native country had naturally led him to contemplate the peculiarities of +the earth's structure, and the properties of the atmosphere, as +particularly displayed in mountainous countries, and as subservient to +the measurement of heights. According to Cuvier, he ranked among the +first geologists of his age. His principal geological work, _Lettres +physiques et morales sur les montagnes el sur l'histoire de la terre et +de l'homme_, first published in 1778, and in a more complete form in +1779, was dedicated to Queen Charlotte. It dealt with the appearance of +mountains and the antiquity of the human race, explained the six days of +the Mosaic creation as so many epochs preceding the actual state of the +globe, and attributed the deluge to the filling up of cavities supposed +to have been left void in the interior of the earth. He published later +an important series of volumes on geological travels in the north of +Europe (1810), in England (1811), and in France, Switzerland and Germany +(1813). These were translated into English. + +Deluc's original experiments relating to meteorology were valuable to +the natural philosopher; and he discovered many facts of considerable +importance relating to heat and moisture. He noticed the disappearance +of heat in the thawing of ice about the same time that J. Black founded +on it his ingenious hypothesis of latent heat. He ascertained that water +was more dense about 40 deg. F. (4 deg. C.) than at the temperature of +freezing, expanding equally on each side of the maximum; and he was the +originator of the theory, afterward readvanced by John Dalton, that the +quantity of aqueous vapour contained in any space is independent of the +presence or density of the air, or of any other elastic fluid. + +His _Recherches sur les modifications de l'atmosphere_ (2 vols. 4to, +Geneva, 1772; 2nd ed., 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1784) contains many accurate +and ingenious experiments upon moisture, evaporation and the indications +of hygrometers and thermometers, applied to the barometer employed in +determining heights. In the _Phil. Trans._, 1773, appeared his account +of a new hygrometer, which resembled a mercurial thermometer, with an +ivory bulb, which expanded by moisture, and caused the mercury to +descend. The first correct rules ever published for measuring heights by +the barometer were those he gave in the _Phil. Trans._, 1771, p. 158. +His _Lettres sur l'histoire physique de la terre_ (8vo, Paris, 1798), +addressed to Professor Blumenbach, contains an essay on the existence of +a General Principle of Morality. It also gives an interesting account of +some conversations of the author with Voltaire and Rousseau. Deluc was +an ardent admirer of Bacon, on whose writings he published two +works--_Bacon tel qu'il est_ (8vo, Berlin, 1800), showing the bad faith +of the French translator, who had omitted many passages favourable to +revealed religion, and _Precis de la philosophie de Bacon_ (2 vols. 8vo, +Paris, 1802), giving an interesting view of the progress of natural +science. _Lettres sur le Christianisme_ (Berlin and Hanover, 1801, 1803) +was a controversial correspondence with Dr Teller of Berlin in regard to +the Mosaic cosmogony. His _Traite elementaire de geologie_ (8vo, Paris, +1809, also in English, by de la Fite, the same year) was principally +intended as a refutation of the Vulcanian system of Hutton and Playfair, +who deduced the changes of the earth's structure from the operation of +fire, and attributed a higher antiquity to the present state of the +continents than is required in the Neptunian system adopted by Deluc +after D. Dolomieu. He sent to the Royal Society, in 1809, a long paper +on separating the chemical from the electrical effect of the pile, with +a description of the electric column and aerial electroscope, in which +he advanced opinions so little in unison with the latest discoveries of +the day, that the council deemed it inexpedient to admit them into the +_Transactions_. The paper was afterwards published in Nicholson's +_Journal_ (xxvi.), and the dry column described in it was constructed by +various experimental philosophers. This dry pile or electric column has +been regarded as his chief discovery. + + Many other of his papers on subjects kindred to those already + mentioned are to be found in the _Transactions_ and in the + _Philosophical Magazine_. See _Philosophical Magazine_ (November + 1817). + + + + +DELUGE, THE (through the Fr. from Lat. _diluvium_, flood, _diluere_, to +wash away), a great flood or submersion of the earth (so far as the +earth was known to the narrators), or of heaven and earth, or simply of +heaven, by which, according to primitive and semi-primitive races, chaos +was restored. It is, of course, not meant that all the current flood +stories, as they stand, answer to this description. There are flood +stories which, at first sight, may plausibly be held to be only +exaggerated accounts of some ancient historical occurrences. The +probability of such traditions being handed down is, however, extremely +slight. If some flood stories are apparently local, and almost or quite +without mythical colouring, it may be because the original myth-makers +had a very narrow conception of the earth, and because in the lapse of +time the original mythic elements had dwindled or even disappeared. The +relics of the traditional story may then have been adapted by scribes +and priests to a new theory. Many deluge stories may in this way have +degenerated. It is at any rate undeniable that flood stories of the type +described above, and even with similar minor details, are fairly common. +A conspectus of illustrative flood stories from different parts of the +world would throw great light on the problems before us; see the article +COSMOGONY, especially for the North American tales, which show clearly +enough that the deluge is properly a second creation, and that the +serpent is as truly connected with the second chaos as with the first. +One of them, too, gives a striking parallel to the Babylonian name +Hasis-andra (the Very Wise), whence comes the corrupt form Xisuthrus; +the deluge hero of the Hare Indians is called Kunyan, "the intelligent." +Polynesia also gives us most welcome assistance, for its flood stories +still present clear traces of the primitive imagination that the sky was +a great blue sea, on which the sun, moon and stars (or constellations) +were voyagers. Greece too supplies some stimulus to thought, nor are +Iran and Egypt as unproductive as some have supposed. But the only +pauses that we can allow ourselves are in Hindustan, Babylonia and +Canaan. The peoples of these three countries, which are religiously so +prominent in antiquity, have naturally connected their name equally with +thoughts about earth production and earth destruction. + + + Indian Tradition. + +The Indian tradition exists in several forms.[1] The earliest is +preserved in the Satapatha Brahmana. It is there related that Manu, the +first man, the son of the sun-god Vivasvat, found, in bathing, a small +fish, which asked to be tended, and in reward promised to save him in +the coming flood. The fish grew, and at last had to be carried to the +sea, where it revealed to Manu the time of the flood, and bade him +construct a ship for his deliverance. When the time came, Manu, +unaccompanied, went on board; the grateful fish towed the ship through +the water to the summit of the northern mountain, where it bade Manu +bind the vessel to a tree. Gradually, as the waters fell, Manu descended +the mountain; he then sacrificed and prayed. In a year's time his prayer +was granted. A woman appeared, who called herself his daughter Ida +(goddess of fertility). It is neither stated, nor even hinted, that sin +was the cause of the flood. + +Another version occurs in the great epic, the Mahabharata. The lacunae +of the earlier story are here supplied. Manu, for instance, embarks with +the seven "rishis" or wise men, and takes with him all kinds of seed. +The fish announces himself as the God Brahman, and enables Manu to +create both gods and men. A third account is given in the Bhagavata +Purana. It contains the details of the announcement of the flood seven +days beforehand (cf. Gen. vii. 4) and of the taking of pairs of all +kinds of animals (cf. Gen. vi. 19), besides the seeds of plants (as the +epic; cf. Gen. vi. 21). This story, however, is a late composition, not +earlier than the 12th century A.D. A first glance at these stories is +somewhat bewildering. We shall return, however, to this problem later +with a good hope of mastering it. + + + Israelite and Babylonian. + +The Israelite (Biblical) and the Babylonian deluge-stories remain to be +considered. Neither need be described here in detail; for the former see +Gen. vi. 5-ix. 17, and for the latter GILGAMESH. As most students are +aware, the Biblical deluge-story is composite, being made up of two +narratives, the few lacunae in which are due to the ancient redactor who +worked them together.[2] The narrators are conventionally known as J. (= +the Yahwist, from the divine name Yahweh) and P. (= the Priestly Writer) +respectively. It is important to notice that P., though chronologically +later than J., reproduces certain elements which must be archaic. For +instance, while J. speaks only of a rain-storm, P. states that "all the +fountains of the great ocean were broken up, and the windows of heaven +opened" (Gen. vii. 11), i.e. the lower and the upper waters met together +and produced the deluge. It is also P. who tells the story of the +appointment of the rainbow (Gen ix. 12-17), which is evidently ancient, +though only paralleled in a Lithuanian flood-story, and near it we find +the divine declaration (Gen. ix. 2-6) that the golden age of universal +peace (cf. Gen. i. 29, 30), already sadly tarnished, is over.[3] Surely +this too has a touch of the archaic; nor can we err in connecting it +with the tradition of man's first home in Paradise, where no enemy could +come, because, in the original form of the tradition, Paradise was the +abode of God. (See PARADISE.) + + + Berossus: four points. + +The Babylonian tradition exists in two main forms,[4] nor can we affirm +that the shorter form, due to Berossus, is superseded by the larger one +in the Gilgamesh epic, for it communicates four important points: (1) +Xisuthrus, the hero of the deluge, was also the tenth Babylonian king; +cf. Noah, in P., the tenth patriarch as well as the survivor from the +deluge; (2) the destination of Xisuthrus is said to be "to the gods," a +statement which virtually records his divine character. In accordance +with this, the final reward of the hero is declared to be "living with +the gods." This suggests that Noah (?) may originally have been +represented as a supernatural man, a demigod. True, Gen. ix. 20, 21 is +not consistent with this, but it is very possible that Noah was +substituted by a scribe's error for Enoch,[5] who, like Xisuthrus, +"walked with God (learning the heavenly wisdom) and disappeared, for God +had taken him" (Gen. v. 22, 24); (3) the birds, when sent out by +Xisuthrus the second time, return with mud on their feet. This detail +reminds us of points in some archaic North American myths which probably +supply the key to its meaning;[6] (4) in the time of Berossus the +mountain on which the ark grounded was considered to be in Armenia. + + + Details on relation of Israelite story to Babylonian. + +We pass on to the relation of J. and P. to the Babylonian story. (1) The +polytheistic colouring of the latter contrasts strongly with the far +simpler religious views of J. and P. Note the capricious character of +the god Bel who sends the deluge, while at the end of the story the +catastrophe is represented as a judgment upon human sins. It is the +latter view which is adopted by J. and P. We cannot, however, infer from +this that the narratives which doubtless underlie J. and P. were +directly taken from some such story as that in the Gilgamesh epic. The +theory of an indirect and unconscious borrowing on the part of the +Israelitish compilers will satisfy all the conditions of the case. (2) +In the general scheme the three accounts very nearly agree, for J. must +originally have contained directions as to the building of the vessel, +and a notice that the ark grounded on a certain mountain. P.'s omission +of the sacrifice at the close seems to be arbitrary. His theory of +religious history forbade a reference to an altar so early, but his +document must have contained it. J. expressly mentions it (Gen. viii. +20, 21), though not in such an original way as the cuneiform text. (3) +As to the directions for building the ship (epic) or chest (J. and P.). +Here the Babylonian story and P. have a strong general resemblance; +note, e.g., the mention of bitumen in both. Whether the Hebrew reference +to a chest (_tebah_) is, or is not, more archaic than the Babylonian +reference to a ship (_elippu_) is a question which admits of different +answers. (4) As to the material cause of the deluge. According to P. +(see above) the water came both from above and from below; J. only +speaks of continuous rain. The Gilgamesh epic, however, mentions besides +thunder, lightning and rain, a hurricane which drove the sea upon the +land. We can hardly regard this as more original than P.'s +representation. (5) As to the extent of the flood. From the opening of +the story in the epic we should naturally infer that only a single S. +Babylonian city was affected. The sequel, however, implies that the +flood extended all over Babylonia and the region of Nisir. More than +this can hardly be claimed. Similarly the earlier story which underlies +J. and P. need only have referred to the region of the myth-framers, +i.e. either Canaan or N. Arabia. (6) As to the duration of the flood the +traditions differ. P. reckons it at 365 days, i.e. a solar year, which +is parallel to the 365 years of the life of Enoch (who, as we have seen, +may have been the original hero of the flood). It is probable (see +below) that P.'s ultimate authority, far back in the centuries, +represented the deluge as a celestial occurrence. The origin of J.'s +story is not quite so clear, owing to the lacunae in the narrative. If +the text may be followed, this narrator made the flood last forty days +and nights, after which two periods of seven days elapse, and then the +patriarch leaves the ark. The epic shortens the duration of the flood to +seven days, after which the ship remains another seven days (more +strictly six full days) on the mountain of the land of Nisir (P., the +mountains of Ararat; J., unrecorded). (7) As to the despatch of the +birds. J. begins, the epic closes, with the raven. Clearly the epic is +more original. Besides, one of the two missions of the dove is evidently +superfluous. Dove, swallow, raven, as in the epic, must be more +primitive than raven, dove, dove. + +That the Hebrew deluge-story in both its forms has been at least +indirectly influenced by the Babylonian is obvious. We cannot indeed +reconstruct the form either of the Canaanitish (or N. Arabian) story, +which was recast partly at least under the influence of a recast +Babylonian myth, nor can we conjecture where the sanctuary was, the +priests of which, yielding to a popular impulse, adopted and modified +the fascinating story. But the fact of the ultimate Babylonian origin of +the Israelitish narratives cannot seriously be questioned. The +Canaanites or the N. Arabians handed on at least a portion of their +myths to the Israelites, and the creation and deluge stories were among +these. That the Israelitish priests gradually recast them is an easy and +altogether satisfactory conjecture. + + + History and significance of deluge-myths. + +It remains to ask, What is the history and significance of the +deluge-myth? The question carries us into far-off times. We have no +version of the Babylonian myth which goes back to about 2100 B.C., while +its text was apparently derived from a still older tablet. But even this +is not primitive; behind it there must have been a much shorter and +simpler myth. The recast represented by the existing versions of the +myth must have been produced partly by the insertion, partly by the +omission or modification, of mythic details, and by the application to +the story thus produced of a particular mythic theory respecting the +celestial world. The shorter myth referred to may--if we take hints from +the very primitive myths of N. America--have run somewhat thus, +omitting minor details: "The earth (a small enough earth, doubtless) +and its inhabitants proved so imperfect that the beneficent superhuman +Being, who had created it, or perhaps another such Being, determined to +remake it. He, therefore, summoned the serpent or dragon who controlled +the cosmic ocean, and had been subjugated at creation, to overwhelm the +earth, after which the creator remade it better,[7] and the survivor and +his family became the ancestors of a new human race." + +This, however, is only one possible representation. It may have been +said that the serpent of his own accord, not having been killed by the +creator, maliciously flooded the earth (cf. the Algonquian myth), but +was again overcome in battle, or that the serpent, after filling the +earth with violence and wrong, was at length slain by the Good Being, +and that his blood, streaming, out, produced a deluge.[8] In any case it +is unnatural to hold that the first flood (that which preceded creation) +had a dragon, but not the second. An old cuneiform text, recopied late, +however, appears to call the year of the deluge (i.e. of what we here +call the second flood) "the year of the raging (or red-shining) +serpent,"[9] and certainly the N. American myths distinctly connect +serpents with the deluges. + +Among the probable minor details (omitted above) of the presumed shorter +and older myth we may include: (1) the warning of "Very-Wise,"[10] +either by friendly animals or by a dream; (2) the construction of a +chest to contain "Very-Wise," his wife and his sons, together with +animals;[11] (3) the despatch of three birds with a special object (see +below); (4) the landing of the survivors on a mountain. As to (1), +Berossus suggests that the notice came to Xisuthrus in a dream; in the +Indian myth it is the sacred fish which warns Manu. In the archaic N. +American myths, however, it is some animal which gives the notice--an +eagle or a coyote (a kind of wolf). As to (2), nothing is more common +than the story of a divine child cast into the sea in a box.[12] The +ship-motive is also found,[13] but it is not too rash to assume that the +box-motive is the earlier, and, in accordance with the parallels, that +the hero of the deluge was originally a god or a demigod. The +translation of the hero to be with the gods is a transparent +modification of the original tradition. As to (3), the original object +of sending out the birds was probably not to find out where dry land +was, but to use them as helpers in the work of re-creation. Take the +story of the Tlatlasik Indians, where the diving-bird (one of three sent +out) comes back with a branch of a fir-tree, out of which O'meatl made +mountains, earth and heaven;[14] so, too, the Caingangs relate[15] that +those who escaped from the flood, as they tarried on a mountain, heard +the song of the _saracura_ birds, who came carrying earth in baskets, +and threw it into the waters, which slowly subsided. As to (4), the +mountain would naturally be thought of as a place of refuge even in the +old, simple flood-story. But when Babylonian mythology effected an +entrance, the mountain would receive a new and much grander +significance. It would then come to represent the summit of that great +and most holy mountain, which, save by the special favour of the gods, +no human eye has seen. + +That a didactic element entered the deluge-tradition but slowly, may be +surmised, not only from the genuinely old N. American stories, but from +the inconsistent statements, to which Jastrow has already referred, in +the Babylonian story. We may imagine that between the creation and the +deluge some great and wise Being had initiated the early men, not only +in the necessary arts of life, but in the "ways" that were pleasing to +the heavenly powers. The Babylonians apparently think of neglected +sacrifices, the Australians of a desecrated mystery as the cause of the +flood. Some such violation of a sacred rule is the origin that naturally +occurs to an adapter or expander of primitive myths. + + + Celestial myth theory. + +And now as to the application of the celestial mythic theory to the +early deluge-story. In the agricultural stage it was natural that men +should take a deeper interest than before in the appearance of the sky, +and especially of the sun and moon, and of the constellations, even +though an astrological science or quasi-science would very slowly, if at +all, grow up. That the Polynesian myths (which show no vestige of +science) originally referred to the supposed celestial ocean, seems to +be plain. Schirren[16] regarded the New Zealand cosmogonies as myths of +sunrise, and the deluge-stories as myths of sunset. We may at any rate +plausibly hold, with the article "Deluge" (by Cheyne) in the ninth +edition of this work[17] (1877), that the deluge-stories of Polynesia +and early Babylonia (we may now probably add India) were accommodated to +an imaginative conception of the sun and moon as voyagers on the +celestial ocean. "When this story had been told and retold a long time, +rationalism suggested that the sea was not in heaven but on earth, and +observation of the damage wrought in winter by excessive rains and the +inundations of great rivers suggested the introduction of corresponding +details into the new earthly deluge-myth." "This accounts for the +strongly mythological character of Par-napishti (Ut-napishti) in +Babylonia and Maui in New Zealand, who are in fact solar personages. +Enoch, too, must be classed in this category, his perfect righteousness +and superhuman wisdom now first become intelligible. Moreover, we now +comprehend how the goddess Sabitu (the guardian of the entrance to the +sea) can say to Gilgamesh (himself a solar personage), 'Shamash the +mighty (i.e. the sun-god) has crossed the sea; besides (?) Shamash, who +can cross it?' For though the sea in the epic is no doubt the +earth-circling ocean, it was hardly this in the myth from which the +words were taken."[18] And, what is still more important, we can +understand better how, in the Gilgamesh epic (lines 115-116), the gods, +after cowering like dogs, go up to the "heaven of Ana." They, too, fear +the deluge, and only in the highest heaven can they feel themselves +secure. + +Such an explanation seems indispensable if the wide influence of the +Babylonian form of the deluge-myth is to be accounted for. As Gunkel +well remarks,[19] neither the tenacity and self-propagating character of +this myth, nor the solemn utterance of Yahweh (who corresponds to the +Babylonian Marduk) in Gen. viii. 21_b_ (J.) and ix. 8-17 (P.) can be +understood, if the deluge-story is nothing more than an exaggerated +account of a historical, earthly occurrence. We, therefore, venture to +hold that it is an insufficient account to give of the story in the +Gilgamesh epic that it is a combination of a local tradition of the +destruction of a single city with a myth of the destruction of +mankind--a myth exaggerated in its present form, but based on accurate +knowledge of the yearly recurring phenomenon of the overflow of the +Euphrates.[20] There are no doubt points in the story as it now stands +which indicate a composite origin, but it is probable that even the +tradition which apparently limits the destruction to a single city, +equally with many other local flood-stories, has a basis in what we may +fairly call a celestial myth. + + + Indian myth reconsidered. + +We can now return with some confidence to the Indian deluge-story. It is +unlikely that so richly gifted a race as the Aryans of India should not +have produced their own flood-story out of the same primeval germs which +grew up into the earliest Babylonian flood-story,[21] and almost +inconceivable that in its second form the Indian story should not have +become adapted to what may be called the celestial mythic theory. The +phrase "the northern mountain" for the place where the ship grounded may +quite well be the name of an earthly substitute (the epic has "the +highest summit of the Himalaya") for the mythic mountain of heaven. Nor +is it unimportant that Manu is the son of the sun-god, and that the +phrase "the seven rishis" in classical Sanskrit is a designation of the +seven stars of the Great Bear. For such problems all that we can hope +for is a probable solution. The opposite view[22] that the deluge is a +historical occurrence implies a self-propagating power in early +tradition which is not justified by critical research, and leaves out of +sight many important facts revealed by comparative study. + + For a conspectus of deluge-stories see Andree, _Die Flutsagen, + ethnographisch betrachtet_ (1891), by a competent anthropologist; E. + Suess, _Face of the Earth_, i. 17 (1904); also Elwood Worcester, + _Genesis in the Light of Modern Knowledge_ (New York, 1901), Appendix + ii., in tabular form, from Schwarz's _Sintfluth und + Volkerwanderungen_. Dr Worcester's work is popular, but based on + well-chosen authorities. The article "Flood" in Hastings' D. B. is + comprehensive; it represents the difficult view that flood-stories, + &c., are generally highly-coloured traditions of genuine facts. + (T. K. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Muir, _Sanscrit Texts_, i. 182, 206 ff. + + [2] Cf. Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, _The Hexateuch_, ii. 9, + where the documents are printed separately in a tabular form. + + [3] Isa. xi. 6-8 prophesies that one day this idyllic state shall be + restored. + + [4] For a discussion of the Babylonian version of the Deluge Legend, + recently discovered among the tablets from Nippur, see NIPPUR. + + [5] The genealogy in Gen. v. is hardly in its original form. Enoch is + probably misplaced, and Noah inserted in error. + + [6] Cf. COSMOGONY, and Cheyne's _Traditions and Beliefs of Ancient + Israel_ (on deluge-story). + + [7] Cf. the myths of the Pawnees and the Quiches of Guatemala. + + [8] See the cuneiform text described in _KAT_^3, pp. 498-499. + + [9] Zimmern, _KAT_^3, p. 554. + + [10] i.e. Atrahasis (Xisuthrus). + + [11] To have omitted the animals would have been an offence against + primitive views of kinship. + + [12] Usener, _Die Sintflutsagen_, pp. 80-108, 115-127. + + [13] Ib. p. 254. + + [14] Stucken, _Astralmythen_, pp. 233-234. + + [15] _Amer. Journ. of Folklore_, xviii. 223 ff. + + [16] Schirren, _Wandersagen der Neuseelander_ (1856), p. 193. + + [17] Referring for Polynesia to Gerland in Waitz-Gerland, + _Anthropologie der Naturvolker_, vi. 270-273 (1872). After a long + interval, this theory has been taken up by Zimmern, _KAT_^3, p. 355, + and by Jensen, _Das Gilgamesch-Epos_ (1906), p. 120; Winckler (_AOF_, + 3rd series, i. 96) also speaks of the deluge as a "celestial + occurrence." For other forms of this view see Jeremias, _ATAO_, pp. + 134-136; Usener, p. 239. + + [18] Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._ cols. 1063-1064. + + [19] _Genesis_, p. 67. + + [20] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_ (1898), pp. 502, + 506. + + [21] The view here adopted is that of Lindner and Usener. On the + opposite side are Zimmern, Tiele, Jensen, Oldenberg, Noldeke, + Stucken, Lenormant. + + [22] Held by Franz Delitzsch, Dillmann and Lenormant. + + + + +DELYANNI, THEODOROS (1826-1905), Greek statesman, was born at Kalavryta, +Peloponnesus, in 1826. He studied law at Athens, and in 1843 entered the +ministry of the interior, of which department he became permanent +secretary in 1859. In 1862, on the deposition of King Otho, he became +minister for foreign affairs in the provisional government. In 1867 he +was minister at Paris. On his return to Athens he became a member of +successive cabinets in various capacities, and rapidly collected a party +around him consisting of those who opposed his great rival, Tricoupi. In +the so-called "Oecumenical Ministry" of 1877 he voted for war with +Turkey, and on its fall he entered the cabinet of Koumoundoros as +minister for foreign affairs. He was a representative of Greece at the +Berlin Congress in 1878. From this time forward, and particularly after +1882, when Tricoupi again came into power at the head of a strong party, +the duel between these two statesmen was the leading feature of Greek +politics. (See GREECE: _History_.) Delyanni first formed a cabinet in +1885; but his warlike policy, the aim of which was, by threatening +Turkey, to force the powers to make concessions in order to avoid the +risk of a European war, ended in failure. For the powers, in order to +stop his excessive armaments, eventually blockaded the Peiraeus and +other ports, and this brought about his downfall. He returned to power +in 1890, with a radical programme, but his failure to deal with the +financial crisis produced a conflict between him and the king, and his +disrespectful attitude resulted in his summary dismissal in 1892. +Delyanni, by his demagogic behaviour, evidently expected the public to +side with him; but at the elections he was badly beaten. In 1895, +however, he again became prime minister, and was at the head of affairs +during the Cretan crisis and the opening of the war with Turkey in 1897. +The humiliating defeat which ensued--though Delyanni himself had been +led into the disastrous war policy to some extent against his +will--caused his fall in April 1897, the king again dismissing him from +office when he declined to resign. Delyanni kept his own seat at the +election of 1899, but his following dwindled to small dimensions. He +quickly recovered his influence, however, and he was again president of +the council and minister of the interior when, on the 13th of June 1905, +he was murdered in revenge for the rigorous measures taken by him +against gambling houses. + +The main fault of Delyanni as a statesman was that he was unable to +grasp the truth that the prosperity of a state depends on its adapting +its ambitions to its means. Yet, in his vast projects, which the powers +were never likely to endorse, and without their endorsement were vain, +he represented the real wishes and aspirations of his countrymen, and +his death was the occasion for an extraordinary demonstration of popular +grief. He died in extreme poverty, and a pension was voted to the two +nieces who lived with him. + + + + +DEMADES (c. 380-318 B.C.), Athenian orator and demagogue. He was +originally of humble position, and was employed at one time as a common +sailor, but he rose partly by his eloquence and partly by his +unscrupulous character to a prominent position at Athens. He espoused +the cause of Philip in the war against Olynthus, and was thus brought +into bitter and life-long enmity with Demosthenes, whom he at first +supported. He fought against the Macedonians in the battle of +Chaeroneia, and was taken prisoner. Having made a favourable impression +upon Philip, he was released together with his fellow-captives, and was +instrumental in bringing about a treaty of peace between Macedonia and +Athens. He continued to be a favourite of Alexander, and, prompted by a +bribe, saved Demosthenes and the other obnoxious Athenian orators from +his vengeance. It was also chiefly owing to him that Alexander, after +the destruction of Thebes, treated Athens so leniently. His conduct in +supporting the Macedonian cause, yet receiving any bribes that were +offered by the opposite party, caused him to be heavily fined more than +once; and he was finally deprived of his civil rights. He was reinstated +(322) on the approach of Antipater, to whom he was sent as ambassador. +Before setting out he persuaded the citizens to pass sentence of death +upon Demosthenes and his followers, who had fled from Athens. The result +of his embassy was the conclusion of a peace greatly to the disadvantage +of the Athenians. In 318 (or earlier), having been detected in an +intrigue with Perdiccas, Antipater's opponent, he was put to death by +Antipater at Pella, when entrusted with another mission by the +Athenians. Demades was avaricious and unscrupulous; but he was a highly +gifted and practised orator. + + A fragment of a speech ([Greek: Peri dodekaetias]), bearing his name, + in which he defends his conduct, is to be found in C. Muller's + _Oratores Attici_, ii. 438, but its genuineness is exceedingly + doubtful. + + + + +DEMAGOGUE (Gr. [Greek: demagogos], from [Greek: agein], to lead, and +[Greek: demos], the people), a leader of the popular as opposed to any +other party. Being particularly used with an invidious sense of a mob +leader or orator, one who for his own political ends panders to the +passions and prejudices of the people, the word has come to mean an +unprincipled agitator. + + + + +DEMANTOID, the name given by Nils Gustaf Nordenskiold to a green garnet, +found in the Urals and used as a gem stone. As it possesses high +refractive and dispersive power, it presents when properly cut great +brilliancy and "fire," and the name has reference to its diamond-like +appearance. It is sometimes known as "Uralian emerald," a rather +unfortunate name inasmuch as true emerald is found in the Urals, whilst +it not infrequently passes in trade as olivine. Demantoid is regarded as +a lime-iron garnet, coloured probably by a small proportion of chromium. +The colour varies in different specimens from a vivid green to a dull +yellowish-green, or even to a brown. The specific gravity of an +emerald-green demantoid was found to be 3.849, and that of a +greenish-yellow specimen 3.854 (A. H. Church). The hardness is only 6.5, +or lower even than that of quartz--a character rather adverse to the use +of demantoid as a gem. This mineral was originally discovered as pebbles +in the gold-washings at Nizhne Tagilsk in the Ural Mountains, and was +afterwards found in the stream called Bobrovka, in the Sysertsk district +on the western slope of the Urals. It occurs not only as pebbles but in +the form of granular nodules in a serpentine rock, and occasionally, +though very rarely, shows traces of crystal faces. (F. W. R.*) + + + + +DEMARATUS (Doric [Greek: Damaratos], Ionic [Greek: Demaretos]), king of +Sparta of the Eurypontid line, successor of his father Ariston. He is +known chiefly for his opposition to his colleague Cleomenes I. (q.v.) in +his attempts to make Isagoras tyrant in Athens and afterwards to punish +Aegina for medizing. He did his utmost to bring Cleomenes into disfavour +at home. Thereupon Cleomenes urged Leotychides, a relative and personal +enemy of Demaratus, to claim the throne on the ground that the latter +was not really the son of Ariston but of Agetus, his mother's first +husband. The Delphic oracle, under the influence of Cleomenes' bribes, +pronounced in favour of Leotychides, who became king (491 B.C.). Soon +afterwards Demaratus fled to Darius, who gave him the cities of +Pergamum, Teuthrania and Halisarna, where his descendants were still +ruling at the beginning of the 4th century (Xen. _Anabasis_, ii. 1. 3, +vii. 8. 17; _Hellenica_, iii. 1. 6); to these Gambreum should perhaps +be added (Athenaeus i. 29 f). He accompanied Xerxes on his expedition to +Greece, but the stories told of the warning and advice which on several +occasions he addressed to the king are scarcely historical. + + See Herodotus v. 75, vi. 50-70, vii.; later writers either reproduce + or embellish his narrative (Pausanias iii. 4, 3-5, 7, 7-8; Diodorus + xi. 6; Polyaenus ii. 20; Seneca, _De beneficiis_, vi. 31, 4-12). The + story that he took part in the attack on Argos which was repulsed by + Telesilla, the poetess, and the Argive women, can hardly be true + (Plutarch, _Mul. virt._ 4; Polyaenus, _Strat._ viii. 33; G. Busolt, + _Griechische Geschichte_, ii.^2 563, note 4). (M. N. T.) + + + + +DEMERARA, one of the three settlements of British Guiana, taking its +name from the river Demerara. See GUIANA. + + + + +DEMESNE (DEMEINE, DEMAIN, DOMAIN, &c.),[1] that portion of the lands of +a manor not granted out in freehold tenancy, but (a) retained by the +lord of the manor for his own use and occupation or (b) let out as +tenemental land to his retainers or "villani." This demesne land, +originally held at the will of the lord, in course of time came to +acquire fixity of tenure, and developed into the modern copyhold (see +MANOR). It is from demesne as used in sense (a) that the modern +restricted use of the word comes, i.e. land immediately surrounding the +mansion or dwelling-house, the park or chase. _Demesne of the crown_, or +royal demesne, was that part of the crown lands not granted out to +feudal tenants, but which remained under the management of stewards +appointed by the crown. These crown lands, since the accession of George +III., have been appropriated by parliament, the sovereign receiving in +return a fixed annual sum (see CIVIL LIST). _Ancient demesne_ signified +lands or manors vested in the king at the time of the Norman Conquest. +There were special privileges surrounding tenancies of these lands, such +as freedom from tolls and duties, exemption from danegeld and +amercement, from sitting on juries, &c. Hence, the phrase "ancient +demesne" came to be applied to the tenure by which the lands were held. +Land held in ancient demesne is sometimes also called customary +freehold. (See COPYHOLD.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The form "demesne" is an Anglo-French spelling of the Old Fr. + _demeine_ or _demaine_, belonging to a lord, from Med. Lat. + _dominicus_, _dominus_, lord; _dominicum_ in Med. Lat. meant + _proprietas_ (see Du Cange). From the later Fr. _domaine_, which + approaches more nearly the original Lat., comes the other Eng. form + "domain," which is chiefly used in a non-legal sense of any tract of + country or district under the rule of any specific sovereign state, + &c. "Domain" is, however, the form kept in the legal phrase "Eminent + Domain" (q.v.). + + + + +DEMETER, in Greek mythology, daughter of Cronus and Rhea and sister of +Zeus, goddess of agriculture and civilized life. Her name has been +explained as (1) "grain-mother," from [Greek: deai], the Cretan form of +[Greek: xeiai], "barley," or (2) "earth-mother," or rather "mother +earth," [Greek: da] being regarded as the Doric form of [Greek: le]. She +is rarely mentioned in Homer, nor is she included amongst the Olympian +gods. + +The central fact of her cult was the story of her daughter Persephone +(Proserpine), a favourite subject in classical poetry. According to the +Homeric _Hymn to Demeter_, Persephone, while gathering flowers on the +Nysian plain (probably here a purely mythical locality), was carried off +by Hades (Pluto), the god of the lower world, with the connivance of +Zeus (see also PROSERPINE). The incident has been assigned to various +other localities--Crete, Eleusis, and Enna in Sicily, the last being +most generally adopted. This rape is supposed to point to an original +[Greek: ieros lamos], an annual holy marriage of a god and goddess of +vegetation. Wandering over the earth in search of her daughter, Demeter +learns from Helios the truth about her disappearance. In the form of an +old woman named Deo (= the "seeker," or simply a diminutive form), she +comes to the house of Celeus at Eleusis, where she is hospitably +received. Having revealed herself to the Eleusinians, she departs, in +her wrath having visited the earth with a great dearth. At last Zeus +appeases her by allowing her daughter to spend two-thirds of the year +with her in the upper world. Demeter then returns to Olympus, but before +her final departure from earth, in token of her gratitude, she instructs +the rulers of Eleusis in the art of agriculture and in the solemnities +and rites whereby she desires in future to be honoured. + +Those who were initiated into the mysteries of Eleusis found a deep +meaning in the myth, which was held to teach the principle of a future +life, founded on the return of Persephone to the upper world, or rather +on the process of nature by which seed sown in the ground must first die +and rot before it can yield new life (see MYSTERY). At Eleusis, Demeter +was venerated as the introducer of all the blessings which agriculture +brings in its train--fixed dwelling-places, civil order, marriage and a +peaceful life; hence her name _Thesmophoros_, "the bringer of law and +order," and the festival _Thesmophoria_ (q.v.). J. G. Frazer takes the +epithet to mean "bearer of the sacred objects deposited on the altar"; +L. R. Farnell (_Cults of the Greek States_, iii. 106) suggests "the +bringer of treasure or riches," as appropriate to the goddess of corn +and of the lower world; others refer the name to "the law of wedlock" +([Greek: thesmos lektroio], Odyssey, xxiii. 296, where, however, D. B. +Monro translates "place, situation"). At Eleusis also, Triptolemus +(q.v.), the son of Celeus, who was said to have invented the plough and +to have been sent by Demeter round the world to diffuse the knowledge of +agriculture, had a temple and threshing-floor. + +In the agrarian legends of Iasion and Erysichthon, Demeter also plays an +important part. Iasion (or Iasius), a beautiful youth, inspired her with +love for him in a thrice-ploughed field in Crete, the fruit of their +union being Plutus (wealth). According to Homer (_Odyssey_, v. 128) he +was slain by Zeus with a thunderbolt. The story is compared by Frazer +(_Golden Bough_, 2nd ed., ii. 217) with the west Prussian custom of the +mock birth of a child on the harvest-field, the object being to ensure a +plentiful crop for the coming year. It seems to point to the +supersession of a primitive local Cretan divinity by Demeter, and the +adoption of agriculture by the inhabitants, bringing wealth in its train +in the form of the fruits of the earth, both vegetable and mineral. Some +scholars, identifying Iasion with Jason (q.v.), regard Thessaly as the +original home of the legend, and the union with Demeter as the [Greek: +ieros gamos] of mother earth with a health god. Erysichthon ("tearer up +of the earth"), son of Triopas or Myrmidon, having cut down the trees in +a grove sacred to the goddess, was punished by her with terrible hunger +(Callimachus, _Hymn to Demeter_; Ovid, _Metam._ viii. 738-878). Perhaps +Erysichthon may be explained as the personification of the labourer, who +by the systematic cultivation and tilling of the soil endeavours to +force the crops, instead of allowing them to mature unmolested as in the +good old times. Tearing up the soil with the plough is regarded as an +invasion of the domain of the earth-mother, punished by the +all-devouring hunger for wealth, that increases with increasing produce. +According to another view, Erysichthon is the destroyer of trees, who +wastes away as the plant itself loses its vigour. It is possible that +the story may originally have been connected with tree-worship. Here +again, as in the case of Iasion, a conflict between an older and a +younger cult seems to be alluded to (for the numerous interpretations +see O. Crusius _s.v._ in Roscher's _Lexikon_). + +It is as a corn-goddess that Demeter appears in Homer and Hesiod, and +numerous epithets from various sources (see Bruchmann, _Epitheta +Deorum_, supplement to Roscher's _Lexikon_, i. 2) attest her character +as such. The name [Greek: Ioulo] (? at Delos), from [Greek: ioulos], +"corn-sheaf," has been regarded as identifying the goddess with the +sheaf, and as proving that the cult of Demeter originated in the worship +of the corn-mother or corn-spirit, the last sheaf having a more or less +divine character for the primitive husbandman. According to this view, +the prototypes of Demeter and Persephone are the corn-mother and harvest +maiden of northern Europe, the corn-fetishes of the field (Frazer, +_Golden Bough_, 2nd ed., ii. 217, 222; but see Farnell, _Cults_, iii. +35). The influence of Demeter, however, was not limited to corn, but +extended to vegetation generally and all the fruits of the earth, with +the curious exception of the bean, the use of which was forbidden at +Eleusis, and for the protection of which a special patron was invented. +In this wider sense Demeter is akin to Ge, with whom she has several +epithets in common, and is sometimes identified with Rhea-Cybele; thus +Pindar speaks of Demeter [Greek: chalkokrotos] ("brass-rattling"), an +epithet obviously more suitable to the Asiatic than to the Greek +earth-goddess. Although the goddess of agriculture is naturally inclined +to peace and averse from war, the memory of the time when her land was +won and kept by the sword still lingers in the epithets [Greek: +chrysaoros] and [Greek: xiphephoros] and in the name Triptolemus, which +probably means "thrice fighter" rather than "thrice plougher." + +Another important aspect of Demeter was that of a divinity of the +under-world; as such she is [Greek: chthonia] at Sparta and especially +at Hermione in Argolis, where she had a celebrated temple, said to have +been founded by Clymenus (one of the names of Hades-Pluto) and his +sister Chthonia, the children of Phoroneus, an Argive hero. Here there +was said to be a descent into the lower world, and local tradition made +it the scene of the rape of Persephone. At the festival Chthonia, a cow +(representing, according to Mannhardt, the spirit of vegetation), which +voluntarily presented itself, was sacrificed by three old women. Those +joining in the procession wore garlands of hyacinth, which seems to +attribute a chthonian character to the ceremony, although it may also +have been connected with agriculture (see S. Wide, _De Sacris +Troezeniorum, Hermionensium, Epidauriorum_, Upsala, 1888). The striking +use of the term [Greek: demetreioi] in the sense of "the dead" may be +noted in this connexion. + +The remarkable epithets, [Greek: Erinys] and [Greek: Melaina], as +applied to Demeter, were both localized in Arcadia, the first at +Thelpusa (or rather Onkeion close by), the second at Phigalia (see W. +Immerwahr, _Die Kulte und Mythen Arkadiens_, i. 1891). According to the +Thelpusan story, Demeter, during her wanderings in search of Persephone, +changed herself into a mare to avoid the persecution of Poseidon. The +god, however, assumed the form of a stallion, and the fruit of the union +was a daughter of mystic name and the horse Areion (or Erion). Demeter, +at first enraged, afterwards calmed down, and washed herself in the +river Ladon by way of purification. Demeter "the angry" ([Greek: +erinys]) became Demeter "the bather" ([Greek: lousia]). An almost +identical story was current in the neighbourhood of Tilphossa, a +Boeotian spring. In the Phigalian legend, no mention is made of the +horse Areion, but only of the daughter, who is called Despoina +(mistress), a title common to all divinities connected with the +under-world. Demeter, clad in black (hence [Greek: melaina]) in token of +mourning for her daughter and wrath with Poseidon, retired into a cave. +During that time the earth bore no fruit, and the inhabitants of the +world were threatened with starvation. At last Pan, the old god of +Arcadia, discovered her hiding-place, and informed Zeus, who sent the +Moirae (Fates) to fetch her out. The cave, still called Mavrospelya +("black cave"), was ever afterwards regarded as sacred to Demeter, and +in it, according to information given to Pausanias, there had been set +up an image of the goddess, a female form seated on a rock, but with a +horse's head and mane, to which were attached snakes and other wild +animals. It was clothed in a black garment reaching to the feet, and +held in one hand a dolphin, in the other a dove. The image was destroyed +by fire, replaced by the sculptor Onatas from inspiration in a dream, +but disappeared again before the time of Pausanias. + +Both [Greek: melaina] and [Greek: erinus], according to Farnell, are +epithets of Demeter as an earth-goddess of the under-world. The first +has been explained as referring to the gloom of her abode, or the +blackness of the withered corn. The second, according to Max Muller and +A. Kuhn, is the etymological equivalent of the Sanskrit Saranyu, who, +having turned herself into a mare, is pursued by Vivasvat, and becomes +the mother of the two Asvins, the Indian Dioscuri, the Indian and Greek +myths being regarded as identical. According to Farnell, the meaning of +the epithet is to be looked for in the original conception of Erinys, +which was that of an earth-goddess akin to Ge, thus naturally associated +with Demeter, rather than that of a wrathful avenging deity. + +Various interpretations have been given of the horse-headed form of the +Black Demeter: (1) that the horse was one of the forms of the +corn-spirit in ancient Greece; (2) that it was an animal "devoted" to +the chthonian goddess; (3) that it is totemistic; (4) that the form was +adopted from Poseidon Hippios, who is frequently associated with the +earth-goddess and is said to have received the name Hippios first at +Thelpusa, in order that Demeter might figure as the mother of Areion +(for a discussion of the whole subject see Farnell, _Cults_, iii. pp. +50-62). The union of Poseidon and Demeter is thus explained by +Mannhardt. As the waves of the sea are fancifully compared to horses, so +a field of corn, waving in the breeze, may be said to represent the +wedding of the sea-god and the corn-goddess. In any case the association +of Poseidon, representing the fertilizing element of moisture, with +Demeter, who causes the plants and seeds to grow, is quite natural, and +seems to have been widespread. + +Demeter also appears as a goddess of health, of birth and of marriage; +and a certain number of political and ethnic titles is assigned to her. +Of the latter the most noteworthy are: [Greek: Panachaia] at Aegium in +Achaea, pointing to some connexion with the Achaean league; [Greek: +Achaia],[1] "the Achaean goddess," unless it refers to the "sorrow" of +the goddess for the loss of her daughter (cf. [Greek: Achea] in +Boeotia); and, most important of all, [Greek: Amphiktyonis], at Anthela +near Thermopylae, as patron-goddess of the Amphictyonic league, +subsequently so well known in connexion with the temple at Delphi. + +The Eleusinia and Thesmophoria are discussed elsewhere, but brief +mention may here be made of certain agrarian festivals held in honour of +Demeter. + +1. _Haloa_, obviously connected with [Greek: halos] ("threshing-floor"), +begun at Athens and finished at Eleusis, where there was a +threshing-floor of Triptolemus, in the month Poseideon (December). This +date, which is confirmed by historical and epigraphical evidence, seems +inappropriate, and it is suggested (A. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen_, +p. 365 foll.) that the festival, originally held in autumn, was +subsequently placed later, so as to synchronize with the winter +Dionysia. Dionysus, as the god of vines, and (in a special procession) +Poseidon [Greek: phytalmios] ("god of vegetation") were associated with +Demeter. In addition to being a harvest festival, marked by the ordinary +popular rejoicings, the Haloa had a religious character. The [Greek: +aparchai] ("first fruits") were conveyed to Eleusis, where sacrifice was +offered by a priestess, men being prohibited from undertaking the duty. +A [Greek: telete] ("initiatory ceremony") of women by a woman also took +place at Eleusis, characterized by obscene jests and the use of phallic +emblems. The sacramental meal on this occasion consisted of the produce +of land and sea, certain things (pomegranates, honey, eggs) being +forbidden for mystical reasons. Although the offerings at the festival +were bloodless, the ceremony of the presentation of the [Greek: +aparchai] was probably accompanied by animal sacrifice (Farnell, +Foucart); Mommsen, however, considers the offerings to have been pastry +imitations. Certain games ([Greek: patrios agon]), of which nothing is +known, terminated the proceedings. In Roman imperial times the ephebi +had to deliver a speech at the Haloa. + +2. _Chloeia_ or _Chloia_, the festival of the corn beginning to sprout, +held at Eleusis in the early spring (Anthesterion) in honour of Demeter +Chloe, "the green," the goddess of growing vegetation. This is to be +distinguished from the later sacrifice of a ram to the same goddess on +the 6th of the month Thargelion, probably intended as an act of +propitiation. It has been identified with the _Procharisteria_ +(sometimes called _Proschaireteria_), another spring festival, but this +is doubtful. The scholiast on Pindar (Ol. ix. 150) mentions an Athenian +harvest festival _Eucharisteria_. + +3. _Proerosia_, at which prayers were offered for an abundant harvest, +before the land was ploughed for sowing. It was also called +_Proarcturia_, an indication that it was held before the rising of +Arcturus. According to the traditional account, when Greece was +threatened with famine, the Delphic oracle ordered first-fruits to be +brought to Athens from all parts of the country, which were to be +offered by the Athenians to the goddess Deo on behalf of all the +contributors. The most important part of the festival was the three +sacred ploughings--the Athenian [Greek: hypo polin], the Eleusinian on +the Rharian plain, the Scirian (a compromise between Athens and +Eleusis). The festival itself took place, probably some time in +September, at Eleusis. In later times the ephebi also took part in the +Proerosia. + +4. _Thalysia_, a thanksgiving festival, held in autumn after the harvest +in the island of Cos (see Theocritus vii.). + +5. The name of Demeter is also associated with the _Scirophoria_ (see +ATHENA). It is considered probable that the festival was originally held +in honour of Athena, but that the growing importance of the Eleusinia +caused it to be attached to Demeter and Kore. + +The attributes of Demeter are chiefly connected with her character as +goddess of agriculture and vegetation--ears of corn, the poppy, the +mystic basket (_calathus_) filled with flowers, corn and fruit of all +kinds, the pomegranate being especially common. Of animals, the cow and +the pig are her favourites, the latter owing to its productivity and the +cathartic properties of its blood. The crane is associated with her as +an indicator of the weather. As a chthonian divinity she is accompanied +by a snake; the myrtle, asphodel and narcissus (which Persephone was +gathering when carried off by Hades) also are sacred to her. + +In Greek art, Demeter is made to resemble Hera, only more matronly and +of milder expression; her form is broader and fuller. She is sometimes +riding in a chariot drawn by horses or dragons, sometimes walking, +sometimes seated upon a throne, alone or with her daughter. The Demeter +of Cnidus in the British Museum, of the school of Praxiteles, apparently +shows her mourning for the loss of her daughter. The article GREEK ART, +fig. 67 (pl. iv.), gives a probable representation of Demeter (or her +priestess) from the stone of a vault in a Crimean grave. + +The Romans identified Demeter with their own Ceres (q.v.). + + See L. Preller, _Demeter und Persephone_ (1837); P. R. Forster, _Der + Raub und die Ruckkehr der Persephone_ (1874), in which considerable + space is devoted to the representations of the myth in art; W. + Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (1884); J. E. Harrison, + _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_ (1903); L. Dyer, _The + Gods in Greece_ (1891); J. G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_ (2nd ed.), + ii. 168-222; L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_ (4th ed., by C. + Robert); O. Kern in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iv. pt. 2 + (1901); L. Bloch in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_; O. Gruppe, + _Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte_, ii. (1907); L. R. + Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, iii. (1907); article "Ceres" by + F. Lenormant in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_. + (J. H. F.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] O. Gruppe (_Griechische Mythologie_, ii. 1177, note 1) considers + it "certain" that [Greek: Achaia = Acheloia], although he is unable + to explain the form. + + + + +DEMETRIA, a Greek festival in honour of Demeter, held at seed-time, and +lasting ten days. Nothing is known of it beyond the fact that the men +who took part in it lashed one another with whips of bark ([Greek: +morotton]), while the women made obscene jests. It is even doubtful +whether it was a particular festival at all or only another name for the +Eleusinia or Thesmophoria. The Dionysia also were called Demetria in +honour of Demetrius Poliorcetes, upon whom divine honours were conferred +by the Athenians. + + Hesychius, s.v. [Greek: morotton]; Pollux i. 37; Diod. Sic. v. 4; + Plutarch, _Demetrius_, 12; Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des + antiquites_. + + + + +DEMETRIUS, king of Bactria, was the son of the Graeco-Bactrian king +Euthydemus, for whom he negotiated a peace with Antiochus the Great in +206 (Polyb. xi. 34). Soon afterwards he crossed the Hindu Kush and began +the invasion of India (Strabo xi. 516); he conquered the Punjab and the +valley of the Indus down to the sea and to Gujerat. The town Sangala, a +town of the Kathaeans in the Punjab (Arrian v. 22, 2 ff.), he named +after his father Euthydemia (Ptol. vii. 1, 46). That his power extended +into Arachosia (Afghanistan) is proved by the name of a town Demetrias +near Kandahar (Isidor. Charac. 19, cf. Strabo xi. 516). On his coins he +wears an elephant's skin with trunk and teeth on his head; on bronze +coins, which have also an Indian legend in Kharoshti letters (see +BACTRIA), he calls himself the unvanquished king ([Greek: Basileos +aniketou Demetriou]). One of his coins has already the square form used +in India instead of the circular. Eventually he was defeated by the +usurper Eucratides (q.v.), who meanwhile had risen to great power in +Bactria. About his death we know nothing; his young son Euthydemus II. +(known only from coins) can have ruled only a short time. (Ed. M.) + + + + +DEMETRIUS, the name of two kings of Macedonia. + +1. DEMETRIUS I. (337-283 B.C.), surnamed _Poliorcetes_ ("Besieger"), son +of Antigonus Cyclops and Stratonice. At the age of twenty-two he was +left by his father to defend Syria against Ptolemy the son of Lagus; he +was totally defeated near Gaza (312), but soon partially repaired his +loss by a victory in the neighbourhood of Myus. After an unsuccessful +expedition against Babylon, and several campaigns against Ptolemy on the +coasts of Cilicia and Cyprus, Demetrius sailed with a fleet of 250 ships +to Athens. He freed the city from the power of Cassander and Ptolemy, +expelled the garrison which had been stationed there under Demetrius of +Phalerum, and besieged and took Munychia (307). After these victories he +was worshipped by the Athenians as a tutelary deity under the title of +_Soter_ ("Preserver"). In the campaign of 306 against Ptolemy he +defeated Menelaus (the brother of Ptolemy) in Cyprus, and completely +destroyed the naval power of Egypt. In 305 he endeavoured to punish the +Rhodians for having deserted his cause; and his ingenuity in devising +new instruments of siege, in his unsuccessful attempt to reduce the +capital, gained him the appellation of Poliorcetes. He returned a second +time to Greece as liberator. But his licentiousness and extravagance +made the Athenians regret the government of Cassander. He soon, however, +roused the jealousy of the successors of Alexander; and Seleucus, +Cassander and Lysimachus united to destroy Antigonus and his son. The +hostile armies met at Ipsus in Phrygia (301). Antigonus was killed in +the battle, and Demetrius, after sustaining a severe loss, retired to +Ephesus. This reverse of fortune raised up many enemies against him; and +the Athenians refused even to admit him into their city. But he soon +afterwards ravaged the territory of Lysimachus, and effected a +reconciliation with Seleucus, to whom he gave his daughter Stratonice in +marriage. Athens was at this time oppressed by the tyranny of Lachares; +but Demetrius, after a protracted blockade, gained possession of the +city (294) and pardoned the inhabitants their former misconduct. In the +same year he established himself on the throne of Macedonia by the +murder of Alexander, the son of Cassander. But here he was continually +threatened by Pyrrhus, who took advantage of his occasional absence to +ravage the defenceless part of his kingdom (Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_, 7 ff.); +and at length the combined forces of Pyrrhus, Ptolemy and Lysimachus, +assisted by the disaffected among his own subjects, obliged him to leave +Macedonia after he had sat on the throne for six years (294-288). He +passed into Asia, and attacked some of the provinces of Lysimachus with +varying success; but famine and pestilence destroyed the greater part of +his army, and he solicited Seleucus for support and assistance. But +before he reached Syria hostilities broke out; and after he had gained +some advantages over his son-in-law, Demetrius was totally forsaken by +his troops on the field of battle, and surrendered his person to +Seleucus. His son Antigonus offered all his possessions, and even his +person, in order to procure his father's liberty; but all proved +unavailing, and Demetrius died in the fifty-fourth year of his age, +after a confinement of three years (283). His remains were given to +Antigonus, honoured with a splendid funeral at Corinth, and thence +conveyed to Demetrias. His posterity remained in possession of the +Macedonian throne till the time of Perseus, who was conquered by the +Romans. + + See _Life_ by Plutarch; Diod. Sic. xix. xx.; Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, + _Antigonos von Karystos_; De Sanctis, _Contributi alla storia + Ateniese_ in Beloch's _Studi di storia antica_ (1893); Fergusson in + Lehmann's _Beitrage z. alt. Gesch._ (_Klio_) vol. v. (1905); also + authorities under MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. + +2. DEMETRIUS II., son of Antigonus Gonatas, reigned from 239 to 229 B.C. +He had already during his father's lifetime distinguished himself by +defeating Alexander of Epirus at Derdia and so saving Macedonia (about +260?). On his accession he had to face a coalition which the two great +leagues, usually rivals, the Aetolian and Achaean, formed against the +Macedonian power. He succeeded in dealing this coalition severe blows, +wresting Boeotia from their alliance. The revolution in Epirus, which +substituted a republican league for the monarchy, gravely weakened his +position. Demetrius had also to defend Macedonia against the wild +peoples of the north. A battle with the Dardanians turned out +disastrously, and he died shortly afterwards, leaving Philip, his son +by Chryseis, still a child. Former wives of Demetrius were Stratonice, +the daughter of the Seleucid king Antiochus I., Phthia the daughter of +Alexander of Epirus, and Nicaea, the widow of his cousin Alexander. The +chronology of these marriages is a matter of dispute. + + See Thirlwall, _History of Greece_, vol. viii. (1847); Ad. Holm, + _Griech. Gesch._ vol. iv. (1894); B. Niese, _Gesch. d. griech. u. + maked. Staaten_, vol. ii. (1899); J. Beloch, _Griech. Gesch._ vol. + iii. (1904). (E. R. B.) + + + + +DEMETRIUS, the name of three kings of Syria. + +DEMETRIUS I. (d. 150 B.C.), surnamed _Soter_, was sent to Rome as a +hostage during the reign of his father, Seleucus IV. Philopator, but +after his father's death in 175 B.C. he escaped from confinement, and +established himself on the Syrian throne (162 B.C.) after overthrowing +and murdering King Antiochus V. Eupator. He acquired his surname of +_Soter_, or _Saviour_, from the Babylonians, whom he delivered from the +tyranny of the Median satrap, Timarchus, and is famous in Jewish history +for his contests with the Maccabees. Hated for his vices, Demetrius fell +in battle against the usurper, Alexander Balas, in 150 B.C. + +DEMETRIUS II. (d. 125 B.C.), surnamed _Nicator_, son of Demetrius I., +fled to Crete after the death of his father, but about 147 B.C. he +returned to Syria, and with the help of Ptolemy VII. Philometor, king of +Egypt, regained his father's throne. In 140 B.C. he marched against +Mithradates, king of Parthia, but was taken prisoner by treachery, and +remained in captivity for ten years, regaining his throne about 129 B.C. +on the death of his brother, Antiochus VII., who had usurped it. His +cruelties and vices, however, caused him to be greatly detested, and +during another civil war he was defeated in a battle at Damascus, and +killed near Tyre, possibly at the instigation of his wife, a daughter of +Ptolemy VII., who was indignant at his subsequent marriage with a +daughter of the Parthian king, Mithradates. His successor was his son, +Antiochus VIII. Grypus. + +DEMETRIUS III. (d. 88 B.C.), called _Euergetes_ and _Philometor_, was +the son of Antiochus VIII. Grypus. By the assistance of Ptolemy X. +Lathyrus, king of Egypt, he recovered part of his Syrian dominions from +Antiochus X. Eusebes, and held his court at Damascus. In attempting to +dethrone his brother, Philip Epiphanes, he was defeated by the Arabs and +Parthians, was taken prisoner, and kept in confinement in Parthia by +King Mithradates until his death in 88 B.C. + + + + +DEMETRIUS, a Greek sculptor of the early part of the 4th century B.C., +who is said by ancient critics to have been notable for the life-like +realism of his statues. His portrait of Pellichus, a Corinthian general, +"with fat paunch and bald head, wearing a cloak which leaves him half +exposed, with some of the hairs of his head flowing in the wind, and +prominent veins," was admired by Lucian. He was contrasted with Cresilas +(q.v.), an idealizing sculptor of the generation before. Since however +the peculiarities mentioned by Lucian do not appear in Greek portraits +before the 3rd century B.C., and since the Greek art of the 4th century +consistently idealizes, there would seem to be a difficulty to explain. +The date of Demetrius above given is confirmed by inscriptions found on +the Athenian Acropolis. (P. G.) + + + + +DEMETRIUS, a Cynic philosopher, born at Sunium, who lived partly at +Corinth and later in Rome during the reigns of Caligula, Nero and +Vespasian. He was an intimate friend of Thrasea Paetus and Seneca, and +was held in the highest estimation for his consistent disregard of +creature comfort in the pursuit of virtue. His contempt for worldly +prosperity is shown by his reply to Caligula who, wishing to gain his +friendship, sent him a large present. He replied, "If Caligula had +intended to bribe me, he should have offered me his crown." Vespasian +banished him, but Demetrius laughed at the punishment and mocked the +emperor's anger. He reached the logical conclusion of Cynicism in +attaching no real importance to scientific data. + + + + +DEMETRIUS DONSKOI[1] (1350-1389), grand duke of Vladimir and Moscow, son +of the grand duke Ivan Ivanovich by his second consort Aleksandra, was +placed on the grand-ducal throne of Vladimir by the Tatar khan in 1362, +and married the princess Eudoxia of Nizhniy Novgorod in 1364. It was now +that Moscow was first fortified by a strong wall, or _kreml_ (citadel), +and the grand duke began "to bring all the other princes under his +will." Michael, prince of Tver, appealed however for help to Olgierd, +grand duke of Lithuania, who appeared before Moscow with his army and +compelled Demetrius to make restitution to the prince of Tver (1369). +The war between Tver and Vladimir continued intermittently for some +years, and both the Tatars and the Lithuanians took an active part in +it. Demetrius was generally successful in what was really a contention +for the supremacy. In 1371 he won over the khan by a personal visit to +the Horde, and in 1372 he defeated the Lithuanians at Lyubutsk. +Demetrius then formed a league of all the Russian princes against the +Tatars and in 1380 encountered them on the plain of Kulikovo, between +the rivers Nepryadvaya and Don, where he completely routed them, the +grand khan Mamai perishing in his flight from the field. But now +Toktamish, the deputy of Tamerlane, suddenly appeared in the Horde and +organized a punitive expedition against Demetrius. Moscow was taken by +treachery, and the Russian lands were again subdued by the Tatars +(1381). Nevertheless, while compelled to submit to the Horde, Demetrius +maintained his hegemony over Tver, Novgorod and the other recalcitrant +Russian principalities, and even held his own against the Lithuanian +grand dukes, so that by his last testament he was able to leave not only +his ancestral possessions but his grand-dukedom also to his son Basil. +Demetrius was one of the greatest of the north Russian grand dukes. He +was not merely a cautious and tactful statesman, but also a valiant and +capable captain, in striking contrast to most of the princes of his +house. + + See Sergyei Solovev, _History of Russia_ (Rus.), vols, i.-ii. (St + Petersburg, 1857), &c.; Nikolai Savelev, _Demetrius Ivanovich Donskoi_ + (Rus.), (Moscow, 1837). (R. N. B.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Of the Don. + + + + +DEMETRIUS PHALEREUS (c. 345-283 B.C.), Attic orator, statesman and +philosopher, born at Phalerum, was a pupil of Theophrastus and an +adherent of the Peripatetic school. He governed the city of Athens as +representative of Cassander (q.v.) for ten years from 317. It is said +that he so won the hearts of the people that 360 statues were erected in +his honour; but opinions are divided as to the character of his rule. On +the restoration of the old democracy by Demetrius Poliorcetes, he was +condemned to death by the fickle Athenians and obliged to leave the +city. He escaped to Egypt, where he was protected by Ptolemy Lagus, to +whom he is said to have suggested the foundation of the Alexandrian +library. Having incurred the displeasure of Lagus's successor +Philadelphus, Demetrius was banished to Upper Egypt, where he died +(according to some, voluntarily) from the bite of an asp. Demetrius +composed a large number of works on poetry, history, politics, rhetoric +and accounts of embassies, all of which are lost. + + The treatise [Greek: Peri Hermeneias] (on rhetorical expression), + which is often ascribed to him, is probably the work of a later + Alexandrian (1st century A.D.) of the same name; it has been edited by + L. Radermacher (1901) and W. Rhys Roberts (1902), the last-named + providing English translation, introduction, notes, glossary and + complete bibliography. Fragments in C. Muller, _Frag. Hist. Graec._ + ii. p. 362. See A. Holm, _History of Greece_ (Eng. trans.), iv. 60. + + + + +DEMETRIUS, PSEUDO- (or FALSE), the name by which three Muscovite princes +and pretenders, who claimed to be Demetrius, son of Ivan the Terrible, +are known in history. The real Demetrius had been murdered, while still +a child, in 1591, at Uglich, his widowed mother's appanage. + +1. In the reign of Tsar Boris Godunov (1598-1605), the first of these +pretenders, whose origin is still obscure, emigrated to Lithuania and +persuaded many of the magnates there of his tsarish birth, and +consequently of his right to the Muscovite throne. His real name seems +to have been Yury or Gregory, and he was the grandson of Bogdan Otrepev, +a Galician boyar, and a tool in the hands of Tsar Boris Godunov's +enemies. He first appears in history _circa_ 1600, when his learning and +assurance seem to have greatly impressed the Muscovite patriarch Job. +Tsar Boris, however, ordered him to be seized and examined, whereupon he +fled to Prince Constantine Ostrogsky at Ostrog, and subsequently entered +the service of another Lithuanian, Prince Wisniwiecki, who accepted him +for what he pretended to be and tried to enlist the sympathy of the +Polish king, Sigismund III., in his favour. The king refused to support +him officially, but his cause was taken up, as a speculation, by the +Polish magnate Yury Mniszek, whose daughter Marina he afterwards wedded +and crowned as his tsaritsa. The Jesuits also seem to have believed in +the man, who was evidently an unconscious impostor brought up from his +youth to believe that he was the real Demetrius; numerous fugitives from +Moscow also acknowledged him, and finally he set out, at the head of an +army of Polish and Lithuanian volunteers, Cossacks and Muscovite +fugitives, to drive out the Godunovs, after being received into the +Church of Rome. At the beginning of 1604 he was invited to Cracow, where +Sigismund presented him to the papal nuncio Rangoni. His public +conversion took place on the 17th of April. In October the false +Demetrius crossed the Russian frontier, and shortly afterwards routed a +large Muscovite army beneath the walls of Novgorod-Syeversk. The sudden +death of Tsar Boris (April 13, 1605) removed the last barrier to the +further progress of the pretender. The principal Russian army, under P. +F. Basmanov, at once went over to him (May 7); on the 20th of June he +made his triumphal entry into Moscow, and on the 21st of July he was +crowned tsar by a new patriarch of his own choosing, the Greek Isidore. +He at once proceeded to introduce a whole series of political and +economical reforms. From all accounts, he must have been a man of +original genius and extraordinary resource. He did his best to relieve +the burdens of the peasantry; he formed the project of a grand alliance +between the emperor, the pope, Venice, Poland and Muscovy against the +Turk; he displayed an amazing toleration in religious matters which made +people suspect that he was a crypto-Arian; and far from being, as was +expected, the tool of Poland and the pope, he maintained from the first +a dignified and independent attitude. But his extravagant opinion of his +own authority (he lost no time in styling himself emperor), and his +predilection for Western civilization, alarmed the ultra-conservative +boyars (the people were always on his side), and a conspiracy was formed +against him, headed by Basil Shuisky, whose life he had saved a few +months previously. A favourable opportunity for the conspirators +presented itself on the 8th of May 1606, when Demetrius was married to +Marina Mniszek. Taking advantage of the hostility of the Muscovites +towards the Polish regiments which had escorted Marina to Moscow and +there committed some excesses, the boyars urged the citizens to rise +against the Poles, while they themselves attacked and slew Demetrius in +the Kreml on the night of the 17th of May. + + See Sergyei Solovev, _History of Russia_ (Rus.), vol. viii. (St + Petersburg, 1857, &c.); Nikolai Kostomarov, _Historical Monographs_ + (Rus.) vols, iv.-vi. (St Petersburg, 1863, &c.); Orest Levitsky, _The + First False Demetrius as the Propagandist of Catholicism in Russia_ + (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1886); Paul Pierling, _Rome et Demetrius_ + (Paris, 1878); R. N. Bain, _Poland and Russia_, cap. 10 (Cambridge, + 1907). + +2. The second pretender, called "the thief of Tushino," first appeared +on the scene _circa_ 1607 at Starodub. He is supposed to have been +either a priest's son or a converted Jew, and was highly educated, +relatively to the times he lived in, knowing as he did the Russian and +Polish languages and being somewhat of an expert in liturgical matters. +He pretended at first to be the Muscovite boyarin Nagi; but confessed, +under torture, that he was Demetrius Ivanovich, whereupon he was taken +at his word and joined by thousands of Cossacks, Poles and Muscovites. +He speedily captured Karachev, Bryansk and other towns; was reinforced +by the Poles; and in the spring of 1608 advanced upon Moscow, routing +the army of Tsar Basil Shuisky, at Bolkhov, on his way. Liberal promises +of the wholesale confiscation of the estates of the boyars drew the +common people to him, and he entrenched himself at the village of +Tushino, twelve versts from the capital, which he converted into an +armed camp, collecting therein 7000 Polish soldiers, 10,000 Cossacks and +10,000 of the rabble. In the course of the year he captured Marina +Mniszek, who acknowledged him to be her husband (subsequently quieting +her conscience by privately marrying this impostor, who in no way +resembled her first husband), and brought him the support of the +Lithuanian magnates Mniszek and Sapieha so that his forces soon exceeded +100,000 men. He raised to the rank of patriarch another illustrious +captive, Philaret Romanov, and won over the towns of Yaroslavl, +Kostroma, Vologda, Kashin and other places to his allegiance. But a +series of subsequent disasters, and the arrival of King Sigismund III. +at Sinolensk, induced him to fly his camp disguised as a peasant and go +to Kostroma, where Marina joined him and he lived once more in regal +state. He also made another but unsuccessful attack on Moscow, and, +supported by the Don Cossacks, recovered a hold over all south-eastern +Russia. He was killed, while half drunk, on the 11th of December 1610, +by a Tatar whom he had flogged. + + See Sergyei Solovev, _History of Russia_ (Rus.) vol. viii. (St + Petersburg, 1657, &c.). + +3. The third, a still more enigmatical person than his predecessors, +supposed to have been a deacon called Siderka, appeared suddenly, "from, +behind the river Yanza," in the Ingrian town of Ivangorod (Narva), +proclaiming himself the tsarevich Demetrius Ivanovich, on the 28th of +March 1611. The Cossacks, ravaging the environs of Moscow, acknowledged +him as tsar on the 2nd of March 1612, and under threat of vengeance in +case of non-compliance, the gentry of Pskov also kissed the cross to +"the thief of Pskov," as he was usually nicknamed. On the 18th of May +1612 he fled from Pskov, was seized and delivered up to the authorities +at Moscow, and there executed. + + See Sergyei Solovev, _History of Russia_ (Rus.), vol. viii. (St + Petersburg, 1857, &c.). (R. N. B.) + + + + +DEMIDOV, the name of a famous Russian family, founded by Nikita Demidov +(b. c. 1665), who was originally a blacksmith serf. He made his fortune +by his skill in the manufacture of weapons, and established an iron +foundry for the government. Peter the Great, with whom he was a +favourite, ennobled him in 1720. His son, Akinfiy Demidov (d. c. 1740), +increased his inherited wealth by the discovery and working of gold, +silver and copper mines. The latter's nephew, Paul Grigoryevich Demidov +(1738-1821), was a great traveller who was a benefactor of Russian +scientific education; he founded an annual prize for Russian literature, +awarded by the Academy of Sciences. Paul's nephew, Nikolay Nikitich +Demidov (1774-1828), raised and commanded a regiment to oppose +Napoleon's invasion, and carried on the accumulation of the family +wealth from mining; he contributed liberally to the erection of four +bridges in St Petersburg, and to the propagation of scientific culture +in Moscow. Paul's son, Anatoli Demidov (1812-1870), was a well-known +traveller and patron of art; he married Princess Mathilde, daughter of +Jerome Bonaparte. + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 7, Slice 10, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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