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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:12:43 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:12:43 -0700 |
| commit | f8d5d88ddad18b57372e29e68ebd4bfbcd4a7c7e (patch) | |
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diff --git a/39421-h/39421-h.htm b/39421-h/39421-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6f773aa --- /dev/null +++ b/39421-h/39421-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,15285 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<!-- $Id: header.txt 236 2009-12-07 18:57:00Z vlsimpson $ --> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of MOUNT EVEREST - THE RECONNAISSANCE, 1921, by C. K. Howard-Bury + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + body {margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + h1 {text-align: center; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + font-weight: bold; + font-size: 3em; + clear: both; + } + + h2 {text-align: center; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + font-size: 2em; + clear: both; + } + + p {margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + text-align: justify; + font-size: 1em; + line-height: 1.4em; + text-indent: 1em; + } + + p.title {text-align: center; + text-indent: 0; + line-height: 1.4em; + margin-bottom: 3em; + } + + p.blockquot {margin-left: 10%; + } + + hr.hr65 { width: 65%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + hr.hr45 { width: 45%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + hr.hr35 { width: 35%; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + margin-top: 1em; + empty-cells: show; + } + + table#p008 {margin-left: 70%; border-collapse: collapse;} + + table#p012_1 {margin: 2em auto; border-collapse: collapse;} + + table#p012_1 td.td1 {text-align: center; + border-top: 1px solid black;} + + table#p012_1 td.td2 {text-align: center; + border-top: 1px solid black; + border-left: 1px solid black;} + + table#p012_1 td.td3 {text-align: left; + border-top: 1px solid black;} + + table#p012_1 td.td4 {text-align: center; + border-left: 1px solid black;} + + table#p012_1 td.td5 {text-align: left; + border-bottom: 1px solid black;} + + table#p012_1 td.td6 {text-align: center; + border-left: 1px solid black; + border-bottom: 1px solid black;} + + table#p012_2 {margin: 2em auto; border-collapse: collapse;} + + table#p012_2 td.td1 {text-align: center; + border-top: 1px solid black;} + + table#p012_2 td.td2 {text-align: center; + border-top: 1px solid black; + border-left: 1px solid black;} + + table#p012_2 td.td3 {text-align: left; + border-top: 1px solid black;} + + table#p012_2 td.td4 {text-align: center; + border-left: 1px solid black;} + + table#p012_2 td.td5 {text-align: left; + border-bottom: 1px solid black;} + + table#p012_2 td.td6 {text-align: center; + border-left: 1px solid black; + border-bottom: 1px solid black;} + + ul {list-style-type: none;} + + .pagenum {/* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: 75%; + text-align: right; + } + + div.center {text-align: center;} + + div.left {text-align: left;} + + div.note {border-right: black 1px dashed; + padding-right: 0.5em; + border-top: black 1px dashed; + padding-left: 0.5em; + font-size: smaller; + padding-bottom: 0.5em; + margin: 4em 10% 0px; + border-left: black 1px dashed; + color: black; + padding-top: 0px; + border-bottom: black 1px dashed; + background-color: rgb(204,255,204); + margin-bottom: 5em;} + + ins {text-decoration: none; + border-bottom: thin dotted gray; + } + + .center {text-align: center;} + + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold; text-align: center;} + + /* Images */ + + .figcenter {margin: 1em; + text-align: center; + } + + .figright {float: right; + clear: right; + margin-left: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-right: 0; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; + } + + /* Footnotes */ + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px; + margin-top: 1em; + padding: 1em; + } + + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; + font-size: 0.8em; + text-decoration: none; + background-color: #DDD + } + + /* Poetry */ + .poem { + margin-left:10%; + width: 80%; + text-align: left; + } + + .poem br {display: none;} + + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + + .poem span.i0 { + display: block; + margin-left: 0em; + padding-left: 3em; + text-indent: -3em; + } + + .poem span.i2 { + display: block; + margin-left: 1em; + padding-left: 3em; + text-indent: -3em; + } + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Mount Everest the Reconnaissance, 1921, by +Charles Kenneth Howard-Bury and George H. Leigh-Mallory and A. F. R. Wollaston + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license + + +Title: Mount Everest the Reconnaissance, 1921 + +Author: Charles Kenneth Howard-Bury + George H. Leigh-Mallory + A. F. R. Wollaston + +Release Date: April 10, 2012 [EBook #39421] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOUNT EVEREST *** + + + + +Produced by Jens Nordmann, Greg Bergquist and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="note"> +<p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p> +<p style="text-indent: 0;">The original spelling and minor inconsistencies +in the spelling and formatting have been maintained. Obvious misprints were corrected +and <ins title="like this">marked-up</ins>. The original text will be +displayed as a mouse-over pop-up.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p style="text-align: center; font-size: 250%; font-weight: bold; text-indent: 0;">MOUNT EVEREST</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_005.jpg" width="316" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_005"></a> +<p class="caption"><i>The Summit</i>.</p> +</div> + +<h1>MOUNT EVEREST</h1> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 200%; font-weight: bold;">THE RECONNAISSANCE, 1921</span> +<br /><br /><br /><br /> +<span style="font-size: 120%;">By</span><br /> +<span style="font-size: 150%;">Lieut.-Col. C. K. HOWARD-BURY, D.S.O.</span><br /><br /> +AND OTHER MEMBERS OF THE MOUNT EVEREST EXPEDITION +<br /><br /><br /><br /> +<span style="font-size: 125%;"><i>WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS</i></span> +<br /><br /><br /><br /> +<span style="font-size: 140%;">LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO.</span><br /> +<span style="font-size: 120%;">55 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK</span><br /> +LONDON: EDWARD ARNOLD & CO.<br /> +<span style="font-size: 110%;">1922</span></p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + +<p>The Mount Everest Committee of the Royal Geographical +Society and the Alpine Club desire to express their thanks +to Colonel Howard-Bury, Mr. Wollaston, Mr. Mallory, Major +Morshead, Major Wheeler and Dr. Heron for the trouble +they have taken to write so soon after their return an account +of their several parts in the joint work of the Expedition. +They have thereby enabled the present Expedition to start +with full knowledge of the results of the reconnaissance, +and the public to follow the progress of the attempt to reach +the summit with full information at hand.</p> + +<p>The Committee also wish to take this opportunity of +thanking the Imperial Dry Plate Company for having generously +presented photographic plates to the Expedition and +so contributed to the production of the excellent photographs +that have been brought back.</p> + +<p>They also desire to thank the Peninsular and Oriental +Steam Navigation Company for their liberality in allowing +the members to travel at reduced fares; and the Government +of India for allowing the stores and equipment of the +Expedition to enter India free of duty.</p> + +<table id="p008" summary="preface"> + <tr> + <td>J. E. C. <span class="smcap">Eaton</span></td> + <td rowspan="2" valign="middle"><span style="font-size: 200%;">}</span></td> + <td rowspan="2" valign="middle"><i>Hon. Secretaries.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>A. R. <span class="smcap">Hinks</span></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<table summary="TOC"> + <tr> + <td align="right" colspan="3"><small>PAGE</small></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Introduction.</span> By <span class="smcap">Sir Francis Younghusband</span>, K.C.S.I., K.C.I.E.,<br /> +President of the Royal Geographical Society</td> + <td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center" colspan="3">THE NARRATIVE OF THE EXPEDITION<br /> +By <span class="smcap">Lieut.-Col. C. K. Howard-Bury</span>, D.S.O.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">CHAP.</td> + <td colspan="2"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">I</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">From Darjeeling through Sikkim</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">II</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Chumbi Valley and the Tibetan Plateau</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">III</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">From Khamba Dzong through Unknown Country to Tingri</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">IV</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Tingri and the Country to the South</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">V</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Search for Kharta</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">VI</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Move to Kharta</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">VII</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Kama Valley</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">VIII</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Upper Kharta Valley and the 20,000-foot Camp</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">IX</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Return to Kharta by the Kama Valley</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">X</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Return Journey to Phari</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">XI</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Back to Civilisation</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center" colspan="3">THE RECONNAISSANCE OF THE MOUNTAIN<br /> +By <span class="smcap">George H. Leigh-Mallory</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">XII</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Northern Approach</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">XIII</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Northern Approach (<i>continued</i>)</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">XIV</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Eastern Approach</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">XV</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Assault</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">XVI</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Weather and Condition of Snow</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">XVII</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Route to the Summit</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center" colspan="3">NATURAL HISTORY<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span><br /> +By A. F. R. <span class="smcap">Wollaston</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">XVIII</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">An Excursion to Nyenyam and Lapche Kang</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_281">281</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">XIX</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Natural History Notes</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center" colspan="3"><hr class="hr35" /></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">XX</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">An Appreciation of the Reconnaissance.</span> By <span class="smcap">Professor +Norman Collie</span>, F.R.S., President of the Alpine Club</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_304">304</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center" colspan="3">APPENDICES</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">I</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Survey.</span> By Major H. T. <span class="smcap">Morshead</span>, D.S.O.</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_319">319</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">II</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Photographic Survey.</span> By Major E. O. <span class="smcap">Wheeler</span>, M.C.</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_329">329</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">III</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Note on the Geological Results of the Expedition.</span> +By A. M. <span class="smcap">Heron</span>, D.Sc., F.G.S., Geological Survey of India</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_338">338</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">IV</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Scientific Equipment.</span> By A. R. <span class="smcap">Hinks</span>, F.R.S., +Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_341">341</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">V</td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Mammals, Birds and Plants collected by the Expedition.</span> +By A. F. R. <span class="smcap">Wollaston</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_344">344</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_351">351</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p> + +<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + +<table summary="Illustrations"> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td align="right">FACING<br />PAGE</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">The Summit<span style="margin-left: 25em;"><a href="#img_005"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></span></td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Chomolhari from the South</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_046">46</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Loading up at Dochen</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_050">50</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Kampa Dzong</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_054">54</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Tinki Dzong</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_058">58</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Gyangka Range from near Chushar</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_062">62</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Shekar Dzong</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_066">66</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">The Abbot of Shekar Chöte</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_068">68</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Military Governor, his Wife and Mother</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_100">100</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">The Dzongpen of Kharta and his Wife</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_106">106</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Lamas of Kharta Monastery</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_110">110</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Makalu from 21,500-foot peak on ridge south of Kama-chu</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_112">112</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Makalu and Chomolönzo</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_114">114</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Cliffs of Chomolönzo from camp at Pethang Ringmo</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_116">116</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">The Kama Valley</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_118">118</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Sea of cloud from peak north of Kama Valley. <ins title="Kangchenjunga">Kanchenjunga</ins> in distance</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_138">138</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Chomolönzo from the alp below the Langma La, Kama Valley</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_150">150</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Members of the Expedition</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_178">178</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Cho-Uyo</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_190">190</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Summit of Mount Everest and North Peak from the Island, West Rongbuk Glacier</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_210">210</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Mount Everest from the Rongbuk Glacier, nine miles north-west</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_214">214</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Summit of Mount Everest and South Peak from the Island, West Rongbuk Glacier</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_218">218</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Pethang-tse</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_222">222</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Summit of Makalu</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_226">226</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">South-east Ridge of Mount Everest from above the 20,000-foot camp, Kharta Valley</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_230">230</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">North-east of Mount Everest and Chang La from Lhakpa La</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_246">246</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Mount Everest from the 20,000-foot camp—wind blowing snow off the mountain</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_278">278</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Temple at Lapche Kang</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_286">286</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Gauri-Sankar</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_288">288</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Lower Kama-chu</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_290">290</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Junipers in the Kama Valley</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_294">294</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Forest in the Kama Valley</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_300">300</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Mount Everest at sunset from the 20,000-foot camp, Kharta Valley</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_316">316</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></p> + +<h2>LIST OF MAPS</h2> + +<table cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Maps"> + <tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_357">I</a></td> + <td align="left">Map to illustrate the route of the Mount Everest Expedition. Scale 1/750,000</td> + <td><i>At end</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_358">II</a></td> + <td align="left">Map of Mount Everest. Scale 1/100,000</td> + <td align="center">„</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#img_359">III</a></td> + <td align="left">Geological Map of the Mount Everest Region</td> + <td align="center">„</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> + +<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><span class="smcap">By Sir</span> FRANCIS YOUNGHUSBAND, K.C.S.I., K.C.I.E.</p> + +<p>The idea of climbing Mount Everest has been vaguely +in men's mind for thirty or forty years past. Certainly +that veteran mountain-climber and mountain-lover, Douglas +Freshfield, had it persistently rising within him as he broke +away from the Swiss Alps and subdued the giants of the +Caucasus and then sought still higher peaks to conquer. +Lord Curzon also had had it in his mind, and when Viceroy +of India had written suggesting that the Royal Geographical +Society and the Alpine Club should make a joint exploration +of the mountain. Bruce, Longstaff and Mumm would +have made this exploration in 1905 if the permission of the +Nepalese and Tibetan Governments had been available. +So also would Rawling a few years later. All these, and +doubtless others, had contemplated at least a preliminary +reconnaissance of Mount Everest.</p> + +<p>But, so far as I know, the first man to propose a definite +expedition to Mount Everest was the then Captain Bruce, +who, when he and I were together in Chitral in 1893, +proposed to me that we should make a glorious termination +to a journey from Chinese Turkestan across Tibet by +ascending Mount Everest. And it is Bruce who has held +to the idea ever since and sought any opportunity that +offered of getting at the mountain.</p> + +<p>It stands to reason that men with any zest for mountaineering +could not possibly allow Mount Everest to remain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +untouched. The time, the opportunity, the money, the +ability to make the necessary preliminary preparation +might be lacking, but the wish and the will to stand on +the summit of the world's highest mountain must have been +in the heart of many a mountaineer since the Alps have +been so firmly trampled under foot. The higher climbers +climb, the higher they want to climb. It is certain that +they will never rest content till the proudest peaks of the +Himalaya are as subdued and tamed as the once dreaded +summits of the Alps now are.</p> + +<p>Men simply cannot resist exercising and stretching to +their fullest tether the faculties and aptitudes with which +they each happen to be specially endowed. One born with +an aptitude for painting is dull and morose and fidgety until +he can get colours and a brush into his hand and commence +painting. Another is itching to make things—to use his +hands and fashion wood or stone or metal into forms which +he is continually creating in his mind. Another is restless +until he can sing. Another is ever pining to be on a public +platform swaying the audience with his oratory and playing +on their feelings as on a musical instrument. Each has +his own inner aptitude which he aches to give vent to and +bring into play. And more than this, he secretly owns +within himself an exceedingly high standard—the highest +standard—of what he wants to attain to along his own +particular line, and he is never really content in his mind +and at peace with himself when he is not stretching himself +out to the full towards this high pinnacle which he has set +before him.</p> + +<p>Now fortunately all men are not born with the same +aptitudes. We do not all want to sing or all want to orate +or all want to paint. Some few want to climb mountains. +These men love to pit themselves against what most +others would consider an insuperable obstacle. They enjoy +measuring themselves against it and being forced to exercise +all their energies and faculties to overcome it. The Duke +of the Abruzzi is as good an example of this type as I<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +know. He was never happy until he had discovered some +inaccessible and impracticable mountain and then thrown +himself against it and come to grips with it in dead earnest +and either conquered it or been thrown back from it utterly +and completely exhausted, but with the satisfaction that +anyhow he had exercised every nerve and muscle and faculty +to the full. His native mountains he had early conquered +over and over again, so he had to look further afield to Mount +Elias in Alaska and Ruwenzori in East Africa; and having +vanquished these he would doubtless have turned his eyes +to Mount Everest if for political reasons the way to that +mountain had not been barred, and he was compelled +therefore to look to the next highest mountain, namely, the +peak K2 in the Karakoram Himalaya in the neighbourhood +of which he attained to a greater height, 24,600 feet, than +has yet been attained by any man on foot.</p> + +<p>The Duke no doubt is human and would like his name +to go down to posterity as having conquered some +conspicuously lofty and difficult peak. But undoubtedly +the ruling passion with him would be this love of pitting +himself against a great mountain and feeling that he was +being forced to exert himself to the full. To such men a +tussle with a mountain is a real tonic—something bracing +and refreshing. And even if they are laid out flat by the +mountain instead of standing triumphant on its summit +they have enjoyed the struggle and would go back for +another if they ever had the chance.</p> + +<p>Others—like Bruce—climb from sheer exuberance of +spirits. Blessed with boundless energy they revel in its +exercise. It is only on the mountain side, breathing its +pure air, buffeting against its storms, testing their nerve, +running hair-breadth risks, exercising their intelligence and +judgment, feeling their manhood and looking on Nature face +to face and with open heart and mind that they are truly +happy. For these men days on the mountain are days +when they really live. And as the cobwebs in their brains +get blown away, as the blood begins to course refreshingly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> +through their veins, as all their faculties become tuned up +and their whole being becomes more sensitive, they detect +appeals from Nature they had never heard before and see +beauties which are revealed only to those who win them. +They may not at the moment be aware of the deepest +impressions they are receiving. But to those who have +struggled with them the mountains reveal beauties they +will not disclose to those who make no effort. That is the +reward the mountains give to effort. And it is because they +have much to give and give it so lavishly to those who will +wrestle with them that men love the mountains and go back +to them again and again.</p> + +<p>And naturally the mountains reserve their choicest gifts +for those who stand upon their summits. The climber's +vision is then no longer confined and enclosed. He can see +now all round. His width of outlook is enlarged to its full +extremity. He sees in every direction. He has a sense of +being raised above the world and being proudly conscious +that he has raised himself there by his own exertions, he has +a peculiar satisfaction and for the time forgets all frets and +worries in the serener atmosphere in which he now for a +moment dwells.</p> + +<p>And it is only for a moment that he can dwell there. For +men cannot always live on the heights. They must come +down to the plains again and engage in the practical life of +the world. But the vision from the heights never leaves +them. They want to return there. They want to reach a +higher height. Their standard of achievement rises. And +so it has come about that mountaineers when they had +climbed the highest heights in Europe went off to the +Caucasus, to the Andes, and eventually to the Himalaya +to climb something higher still. Freshfield conquered the +Caucasus, Whymper and Conway the Andes, and the +assault upon the Himalaya is now in full swing.</p> + +<p>It is therefore only in the natural course of things that +men should want to climb the highest summit of the +Himalaya. And though those who set out to climb Mount<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +Everest will probably think little of the eventual results, +being perfectly satisfied in their own minds, without any +elaborate reasoning, that what they are attempting is +something supremely worth while, yet it is easy for lookers +on to see that much unexpected good will result from their +activities. The climbers will be actuated by sheer love of +mountaineering, and that is enough for them. But climbing +Mount Everest is no futile and useless performance of +no satisfaction to anyone but the climbers. Results will +follow from it of the highest value to mankind at large.</p> + +<p>For the climbers are unwittingly carrying out an +experiment of momentous consequence to mankind. They +are testing the capacity of the human race to stand the +highest altitudes on this earth which is its home. No +scientific man, no physiologist or physician, can now say +for certain whether or not a human body can reach a height +of 29,000 feet above the sea. We know that in an aeroplane +he can be carried up to a much greater height. But we do +not know whether he can climb on his own feet such an +altitude. That knowledge of men's capacity can only be +acquired by practical experiment in the field.</p> + +<p>And in the process of acquiring the knowledge a valuable +result will ensue. By testing their capacities men actually +increase them. By exercising their capacities to the full +mountaineers seem to enlarge them. A century ago the +ascent of Mount Blanc seemed the limit of human capacity. +Nowadays hundreds ascend the mountain every year. And +going further afield men ascended the highest peaks in the +Caucasus and then in the Andes and have been reaching +higher and higher altitudes in the Himalaya. Conway +reached 23,000 feet, Kellas 23,186 feet, Longstaff 23,360 +feet, Dr. Workman 23,000 feet, Kellas and Meade 23,600 +feet and the Duke of the Abruzzi 24,600 feet. It looks therefore +as if man by attempting more was actually making +himself capable of achieving more. By straining after the +highest he is increasing his capacity to attain it.</p> + +<p>In this measuring of themselves against the mountains<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +men are indeed very like puppies crawling about and testing +their capacities on their surroundings—crawling up on to +some obstacle, tumbling back discomfited but returning +gallantly to the attack and at last triumphantly surmounting +it. Thus do they find out what they can do and how they +stand in relation to their surroundings. Also by exercising +and stretching their muscles and faculties to the full they +actually increase their capacity.</p> + +<p>Men are still only in the puppy stage of existence. We +are prone to think ourselves very “grown up” but really +we are only in our childhood. In the latest discussions as +to the period of time which must have elapsed since life +first appeared upon this earth a period of the order of a +thousand million years was named. But of that immense +period man has been in existence for only a quarter or half +a million years. So the probability is that he has still long +years before him and must be now only in his childhood—in +his puppyhood. We certainly find that as he inquisitively +looks about his surroundings and measures himself +against them he is steadily increasing his mastery over them. +In the last five hundred years record after record has +been beaten. Men have ventured more and shown more +adaptability and a sterner hardihood and endurance than +ever before. They have ventured across the oceans, +circumnavigated the globe, reached the poles, risen into the +air, and it can be only a question of time—a few months +or a few years—before they reach the highest summit of +the earth.</p> + +<p>“What then?” some will ask. “Suppose men do +reach the top of Mount Everest, what then?” “Suppose +we do establish the fact that man has the capacity to surmount +the highest summit of his surroundings, of what good is that +knowledge?” This is the kind of question promoters of +the enterprise continually have to answer. One reply is +obvious. The sight of climbers struggling upwards to the +supreme pinnacle will have taught men to lift their eyes +unto the hills—to raise them off the ground and direct them,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +if only for a moment, to something pure and lofty and +satisfying to that inner craving for the worthiest which all +men have hidden in their souls. And when they see men +thrown back at first but venturing again and again to the +assault till with faltering footsteps and gasping breaths +they at last reach the summit they will thrill with pride. +They will no longer be obsessed with the thought of what +mites they are in comparison with the mountains—how +insignificant they are beside their material surroundings. +They will have a proper pride in themselves and a well-grounded +faith in the capacity of spirit to dominate material.</p> + +<p>And direct practical results flow from this increasing +confidence which man is acquiring in face of the mountains. +A century ago Napoleon's crossing of the Alps was thought +an astounding feat. During the last thirty years troops—and +Indian troops—have been moved about the Himalaya +in all seasons and crossed passes over 15,000 feet above sea +level in the depth of winter. On the Gilgit frontier, in +Chitral, and in Tibet, neither cold nor snow nor wind stopped +them. In winter or in summer, in spring or in autumn, +they have faced the Himalayan passes. And they have +been able to negotiate them successfully because of their +increased knowledge of men's capacities and of the way +to overcome difficulties that constant wrestling with +mountains in all parts of the world during the last half-century +has given. The activities of the Alpine Club have +produced direct practical results in the movement of troops +in the Himalaya.</p> + +<p>More still will follow. When men have proved that +they can surmount the highest peak in the Himalaya they +will take heart to climb other peaks and become more and +more at home in that wonderful region, extending for nigh +two thousand miles from the Roof of the World in the North +and West to the borders of Burma and China in the South +and East and containing more than seventy peaks over +24,000 feet in height—that is higher than any in the Andes, +the second highest range of mountains in the world—and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +more than eleven hundred peaks over 20,000 feet in height. +This great mountain region which in Europe would stretch +from Calais to the Caspian is one vast mine of beauty of +every varied description. And a mine of beauty has this +advantage over a mine of material wealth—that we can +never exhaust it. And not only can we never exhaust it, +but the more we take out the more we find, and the more +we give away the richer we are. We may go on digging +into a gold mine, but eventually we shall find there is no +gold left. We shall have exhausted our mine. But we may +dig into that mine of beauty in the Himalaya and never +exhaust it. The more we dig the more we shall find—richer +beauty, subtler beauty, more varied beauty—beauty of +mountain form and beauty of pure and delicate colour, +beauty of forest, beauty of river and beauty of lake and +combined beauty of rushing torrent, precipitous cliff, richest +vegetation and overtopping snowy summit. And when we +have discovered these treasures and made them our own +we can actually increase their value to ourselves by giving +them away to others. By imparting to others the enjoyment +which we have felt we shall have increased our own +enjoyment.</p> + +<p>We cannot expect those who are first engaged in climbing +Mount Everest to have the time or inclination to observe +and describe the full beauty there is. They will be set on overcoming +the physical difficulties and they will be so exhausted +for the moment by the effort they will have made that they +will not have the repose of mind which is so necessary for +seeing and depicting beauty. But when they have pioneered +the way and beaten down a path, others will more leisurely +follow after. Many even of these may not be able to express +in words or in picture the enjoyment they have felt and be +able to communicate it to others. They may not be given +to public speech or writing and may have no capacity for +painting. The flame of their enjoyment may be kept sacred +and hidden within them, and it may be only in the privacy +of colloquy with some kindred soul that the white glow of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +their enjoyment may ever be shown. But, others there +may be who have the capacity for making the world at +large share with them some little of the joy they have felt—who +can make our nerves tingle and our blood course quicker, +our eyes uplift themselves and our outlook widen as we +go out with them to face and overcome the mountains. +Such men as these from their very intimacy with the +mountains are able to point out beauties which distant +beholders would never suspect. And as Leslie Stephen +through his love of mountains has been able to attract +thousands to the Alps and given them enjoyment, clean +and fresh, which but for him they might never have known, +so we hope that in the fulness of time a greater Stephen +will tell of the unsurpassable beauty of the Himalaya and +by so doing add appreciably to the enjoyment of human +life.</p> + +<hr class="hr45" /> + +<p>Such are some of the advantages which men in general +will obtain from the attempt to climb Mount Everest. +But it is time now to say something of the mountain +itself.</p> + +<p>Mount Everest for its size is a singularly shy and retiring +mountain. It hides itself away behind other mountains. +On the north side, in Tibet, it does indeed stand up proudly +and alone, a true monarch among mountains. But it stands +in a very sparsely inhabited part of Tibet, and very few +people ever go to Tibet. From the Indian side only its +tip appears among a mighty array of peaks which being +nearer look higher. Consequently for a long time no one +suspected Mount Everest of being the supreme mountain +not only of the Himalaya but of the world. At the time +when Hooker was making his Himalayan journeys—that +was in 1849—Kanchenjunga was believed to be the highest.</p> + +<p>How it was eventually discovered to be the highest is +a story worth recording. In the very year that Hooker +was botanising in the Sikkim Himalaya the officers of the +Great Trigonometrical Survey were making observations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +from the plains of India to the peaks in Nepal which could +be seen from there. When they could find a native name +for a peak they called it by that name. But in most cases +no native name was forthcoming, and in those cases a Roman +number was affixed to the peak. Among these unnamed +peaks to which observations to determine the altitude and +position were taken from stations in the plains was Peak XV. +The observations were recorded, but the resulting height +was not computed till three years later, and then one day the +Bengali Chief Computer rushed into the room of the Surveyor-General, +Sir Andrew Waugh, breathlessly exclaiming, “Sir! +I have discovered the highest mountain in the world.” The +mean result of all the observations taken from the six stations +from which Peak XV had been observed came to 29,002 +feet, and this Peak XV is what is now known as Mount +Everest.</p> + +<p>The question is often asked, “Why twenty-nine thousand +and two?” “Why be so particular about the two?” +The answer is that that particular figure is the mean of +many observations. But it is not infallible. It is indeed +in all probability below rather than above the mark, and +a later computation of the observed results puts the height +at 29,141 feet. In any case, however, there are, as Sir +Sidney Burrard has pointed out in his discussion of this +point in Burrard and Hayden's <i>Himalaya and Tibet</i>, many +causes of slight error in observing and computing the altitude +of a distant and very lofty peak. The observations are +made with a theodolite. The telescope of the theodolite +may not be absolutely perfect. The theodolite may not +be levelled with perfect accuracy. The graduations on +the circle of the theodolite may not be quite accurate. The +observer himself may not have observed with sufficient +perfection. An error of ten feet may have resulted from +these causes. Then there are other and greater sources of +possible error. There may be error in the assumed height +of the observing station; and the altitudes of peaks are +always varying in nature with the increase and decrease<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +of snow in summer and winter and in a season of heavy +snowfall or a season of light snowfall. Another source of +error arises from the varying effects of gravitational attraction. +“The attraction of the great mass of the Himalaya +and Tibet,” says Burrard, “pulls all liquids towards itself, +as the moon attracts the ocean and the surface of the water +assumes an irregular form at the foot of the Himalaya. +If the ocean were to overflow Northern India its surface +would be deformed by Himalayan attraction. The liquid +in levels is similarly affected and theodolites cannot consequently +be adjusted; their plates when levelled are still +tilted upward towards the mountains, and angles of observation +are too small by the amount the horizon is inclined to +the tangential plane. At Darjeeling the surface of water +in repose is inclined about 35̎ to this plane, at Kurseong +about 51̎, at Siliguri about 23̎, at Dehra Dun and Mussooree +about 37̎. For this reason all angles of elevation to Himalayan +peaks measured from the plains, as Mount Everest was +measured, are too small and consequently all our values +of Himalayan heights are too small. Errors of this nature +range from 40 to 100 feet.”</p> + +<p>This then is a considerable source of error, but the +most serious source of uncertainty affecting the value of +heights is the refraction of the atmosphere. A ray of light +from a peak to an observer's eye does not travel along a +straight line but assumes a curved path concave to the +earth. The ray enters the observer's eye in a direction +tangential to the curve at that point, and this is the direction +in which the observer sees the peak. It makes the peak +appear too high. Corrections have therefore to be applied. +But there is no certainty as to what should be the amount +of the correction; and it is now believed that the computers +of the height of Mount Everest applied too great a correction +for refraction and consequently reduced its height too +much.</p> + +<p>Burrard brings together in the following table the different +errors to which the carefully determined height of Mount<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +Everest is liable:—</p> + +<table id="p012_1" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="2" summary="Height_1"> + <tr> + <td class="td1">Source of error.</td> + <td class="td2">Magnitude of possible error.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3">Variation of snow level from the mean</td> + <td class="td2">Unknown</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Errors of observation</td> + <td class="td4">10 feet</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Adoption of erroneous height for observing station</td> + <td class="td4">10 feet</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Deviation of gravity</td> + <td class="td4">60 feet, too small</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td5">Atmospheric refraction</td> + <td class="td6">150 feet, too small</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The following table shows how the different values of +the height of Mount Everest have been deduced:—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><span class="smcap">Height of Mount Everest</span></p> + +<table id="p012_2" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="2" summary="Height_2"> + <tr> + <td class="td1">Observing station.</td> + <td class="td2">Year of<br />observation.</td> + <td class="td2">Distance<br />in miles.</td> + <td class="td2">Height as<br />determined<br />by Waugh.</td> + <td class="td2">Determination<br />of height<br />with revised<br />correction for<br />refraction.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td3"> </td> + <td class="td2"> </td> + <td class="td2"> </td> + <td class="td2">Feet</td> + <td class="td2">Feet</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Jirol</td> + <td class="td4">1849</td> + <td class="td4">118</td> + <td class="td4">28,991</td> + <td class="td4">29,141</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Mirzapur</td> + <td class="td4">1849</td> + <td class="td4">108</td> + <td class="td4">29,005</td> + <td class="td4">29,135</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Joafpati</td> + <td class="td4">1849</td> + <td class="td4">108</td> + <td class="td4">29,001</td> + <td class="td4">29,117</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Ladnia</td> + <td class="td4">1849</td> + <td class="td4">108</td> + <td class="td4"><ins title="29,998">28,998</ins></td> + <td class="td4">29,144</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Harpur</td> + <td class="td4">1849</td> + <td class="td4">111</td> + <td class="td4">29,026</td> + <td class="td4">29,146</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Minai</td> + <td class="td4">1850</td> + <td class="td4">113</td> + <td class="td4">28,990</td> + <td class="td4">29,160</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Suberkum</td> + <td class="td4">1881</td> + <td class="td4">87</td> + <td class="td4">—</td> + <td class="td4">29,141</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Suberkum</td> + <td class="td4">1883</td> + <td class="td4">87</td> + <td class="td4">—</td> + <td class="td4">29,127</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Tiger Hill</td> + <td class="td4">1880</td> + <td class="td4">107</td> + <td class="td4">—</td> + <td class="td4">29,140</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Sandakphu</td> + <td class="td4">1883</td> + <td class="td4">89</td> + <td class="td4">—</td> + <td class="td4">29,142</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Phallut</td> + <td class="td4">1902</td> + <td class="td4">85</td> + <td class="td4">—</td> + <td class="td4">29,151</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td5">Senchal</td> + <td class="td6">1902</td> + <td class="td6">108</td> + <td class="td6">—</td> + <td class="td6">29,134</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="td5">Mean</td> + <td class="td6">—</td> + <td class="td6">—</td> + <td class="td6">29,002</td> + <td class="td6">29,141</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The height 29,141 is still, Burrard thinks, too small, as +it has yet to be corrected for the deviations of gravity. But +though it is a more reliable result than 29,002, the latter is +still to be retained in maps and publications of the Survey<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +of India.</p> + +<p>As to the name, it was called Everest after the distinguished +Surveyor-General of India under whose direction +the triangulation had been carried out, one result of which +was the discovery of the mountain. From the Indian +side and Nepal it is not a conspicuous peak on account of +its lying so far back. No native name for it could be +discovered and Sir Andrew Waugh, the successor of Sir +George Everest, called it after his predecessor. From the +Tibetan side it is much more conspicuous and, as General +Bruce stated in his lecture to the Royal Geographical Society +in November 1920, and as Colonel Howard-Bury found +in 1921, the Tibetans call it <ins title="Chomo-lungmo">Chomolungma</ins>, which Colonel +Howard-Bury translated, the “Goddess Mother of the +Mountains”—a most appropriate name. But the name +Mount Everest is now so firmly established throughout the +world that it would be impossible to change it. It is +therefore now definitely adopted.</p> + +<p>Now, this mountain so coveted by mountaineers is +unfortunately situated exactly on the border between two +of the most secluded countries in the world—Nepal and +Tibet. To reach it the climbers must pass through one +or other of these countries and the difficulty of getting the +necessary permission is what has so far prevented any +attempt being made to attack Mount Everest. But recently +access through Tibet has become more possible, and it so +happens that it is on the Tibetan side that the summit seems +most accessible. From the distant views that could be +obtained of it from Sandakphu beyond Darjeeling and +from Kampa Dzong in Tibet, a ridge running from the summit +in a northerly direction seemed to give good promise of +access. Major Ryder and Captain Rawling in 1904, viewing +the mountain from a distance of sixty miles almost due +north, thought the mountain might be approached from +that direction. At the same time the Tibetans were +distinctly more favourable to travellers than they had ever +been before. The chances therefore of at least exploring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +Mount Everest were much more promising, and Major +Rawling was planning an expedition of exploration when +the war broke out and he was killed.</p> + +<p>Mr. Douglas Freshfield would certainly have taken the +matter up during his Presidency of the Royal Geographical +Society, but he had the misfortune to hold that post during +the years of the war and no action was possible. But as +soon as the war was over interest in Mount Everest revived. +In March 1919 Captain J. B. L. Noel read a paper to the +Royal Geographical Society describing a reconnaissance +he had made in the direction of the mountain in the year +1913. He showed how attention during the last few years +had been focused more and more upon the Himalaya and +said, “Now that the Poles have been reached, it is generally +felt that the next and equally important task is the exploration +and mapping of Mount Everest.” So he urged that +the exploration which had been the ambition of the late +General Rawling with whom he was to have joined should +be accomplished in his memory. “It cannot be long,” +he continued, “before the culminating summit of the world +is visited and its ridges, valleys and glaciers are mapped +and photographed.” And at the conclusion of his lecture +he said that “some day the political difficulties will be +overcome and a fully equipped expedition must explore and +map Mount Everest.”</p> + +<p>It was not clear whether Captain Noel was advocating +a definite attempt to climb the mountain and reach the +actual summit, and Mr. Douglas Freshfield and Dr. Kellas +who followed after him referred only to the approaches to +Mount Everest. But Captain J. P. Farrar, the then +President of the Alpine Club, seems to have considered it +“a proposal to attempt the ascent of Mount Everest,” and +said that the Alpine Club took the keenest interest in the +proposal and was prepared not only to lend such financial +aid as was in its power, but also to recommend two or three +young mountaineers quite capable of dealing with any +purely mountaineering difficulties which were likely to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +met with on Mount Everest.</p> + +<p>The hour was late, but I was so struck by the ring of +assurance and determination in the words of the President +of the Alpine Club that I could not help asking the President, +Sir Thomas Holdich, to let me say a few words. I then +told how General Bruce had made to me, twenty-six years +ago, the proposal to climb Mount Everest. I said the +Royal Geographical Society was interested in the project +and now we had heard the President of the Alpine Club +say that he had young mountaineers ready to undertake +the work. I added, “It must be done.” There might be +one or two attempts before we were successful, but the first +thing to do was to get over the trouble with our own +Government. If they were approached properly by Societies +like the Royal Geographical Society and the Alpine Club, +and a reasonable scheme were put before them and it were +proved to them that we meant business, then, I said, they +would be reasonable and do what we wanted. This was a +big business and must be done in a big way and I hoped +that something really serious would come of that meeting.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> + +<p>Sir Thomas Holdich in closing the meeting advocated +approaching Mount Everest through Nepal, and hoped +that at some time not very remote we should hear more +about the proposed expedition to Mount Everest.</p> + +<p>Only a few days after the meeting I met Colonel Howard-Bury +at lunch with a Fellow of our Society, Mr. C. P. +McCarthy. He was not a mountaineer in the Alpine Club sense +of the word, but he had spent much of his time shooting in the +Alps and in the Himalaya, and becoming deeply interested<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +in the Mount Everest project, had a talk with Mr. Freshfield +about it and made a formal application to the Society for +their support in undertaking an expedition. Things now +began to move, and the Society applied to the India Office +for permission to send an expedition into Tibet for the +purpose of exploring Mount Everest. The Government +of India in reply said that they were not prepared at the +moment to approach the Tibetan Government; but they +did not return any absolute refusal.</p> + +<p>During my Presidency the Society, in conjunction with +the Alpine Club, still further pressed the matter. We asked +the Secretary of State for India to receive a deputation +from the two bodies, and the request being granted and the +deputation being assured of his sympathy we invited Colonel +Howard-Bury to proceed to India in June 1920 to explain +our wishes personally to the Government of India, and ask +them to obtain for us from the Dalai Lama the necessary +permission to enter Tibet for the purpose of exploring and +climbing Mount Everest. Lord Chelmsford, the Viceroy, +received Colonel Howard-Bury most sympathetically and +after some preliminary difficulties had been overcome, Mr. +Bell, the Political Agent in Sikkim, who happened to be in +Lhasa, was instructed to ask the Dalai Lama for permission, +and Mr. Bell being on most friendly terms with His Holiness, +permission was at once granted.</p> + +<p>The one great obstacle in the way of approaching Mount +Everest had now at last been removed. What so many +keen mountaineers had for years dreamed of was within +sight. And as soon as the welcome news arrived—early in +January 1921—preparations were commenced to organise +an expedition. A joint Committee of three representatives +each from the Royal Geographical Society and the Alpine +Club was formed under the Chairmanship of the President +of the former Society and was named the Mount Everest +Committee. The three members of the Society were Sir +Francis Younghusband, Mr. E. L. Somers-Cocks (Honorary +Treasurer) and Colonel Jack. The three members of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +Alpine Club were Professor Norman Collie, Captain J. P. +Farrar and Mr. C. F. Meade. Mr. Eaton and Mr. Hinks were +Honorary Secretaries.</p> + +<p>Our first business was to select a leader for the Expedition. +General Bruce, who had had the idea in his mind for so +many years, who knew the Himalaya as no one else did, +and who had a special aptitude for handling Himalayan +people, was now in England, and it was to him our thoughts +first turned. But he had just taken up an appointment +with the Glamorganshire Territorial Association and was not +then available. In these circumstances we were fortunate in +having ready to hand a man with such high qualifications as +Colonel Howard-Bury. He had much to do on his property +in Ireland, but he willingly accepted our invitation to lead +the Expedition, and we could then proceed to the choice of +the mountaineers.</p> + +<p>From the very first we decided that the main object +of the Expedition was to be the ascent of the mountain and +that all other activities were to be made subordinate to the +supreme object of reaching the summit. It was to be no +mere surveying or geologising or botanising expedition +which would as a secondary object try to climb the mountain +if it saw a chance. To climb the mountain was to be +the first object and the mapping and everything else was +to come afterwards. The reason for this is obvious. What +men really want to know is whether man can ascend the +highest mountain.</p> + +<p>Knowledge of the topography, fauna and flora of that +particular area is of very small consequence in comparison +with the knowledge of human capacity to surmount the +highest point in men's physical surroundings on this earth. +By some perversity of human nature there are men who +shy at putting the ascent of Mount Everest in the forefront, +because it is adventurous and must therefore, they seem +to think, cease to be a scientific object. They profess to +be unconcerned with the climbing of the mountain so long +as a map is made or plants collected. But the plain man<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +instinctively sees the value of the adventure and knows +that the successful ascent of Mount Everest will show what +man is capable of and put new hope and heart into the human +race.</p> + +<p>But while it was decided to make the ascent of Mount +Everest the main object of the Expedition, Professor Norman +Collie and Mr. Douglas Freshfield from the first insisted +that a whole season must be devoted to a thorough reconnaissance +of the mountain with a view to finding not only +a feasible route to the summit but what was without any +doubt the most feasible route. We knew nothing of the +immediate approaches to the mountain. But we knew +that the only chance of reaching the summit was by finding +some way up which would entail little rock-climbing or ice +step-cutting. The mountain had therefore to be prospected +from every side to find a comparatively easy route and to +make sure that no other easier route than the one selected +existed. This was considered ample work for the Expedition +for one season, while the following season would be +devoted to an all-out effort to reach the summit along the +route selected in the first year.</p> + +<p>On this basis the first year's Expedition had accordingly +to be organised. The mountain party was to consist of +four members, two of whom were to be men of considerable +experience and two younger men who it was hoped would +form the nucleus of the climbing party the next year. +Mr. Harold Raeburn, a member of the Alpine Club who +had had great experience of snow and rock work in the +Alps, and who had in 1920 been climbing on the spurs of +Kanchenjunga, was invited to lead the mountain party. +Dr. Kellas, who had made several climbing expeditions in +the Himalaya and had in 1920 ascended to a height of 23,400 +feet on Mount Kamet, was also invited to join the climbing +party. He had been making experiments in the use of +oxygen at high altitudes and was still out in India preparing +to continue these experiments on Mount Kamet in 1921. +It was suggested to him that he should make the experiments<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +on Mount Everest instead, and the party would thereby +have the benefit of his wide Himalayan experience. This +invitation he accepted.</p> + +<p>The two younger members selected for the climbing +party were Mr. George Leigh Mallory and Captain George +Finch, both with a very high reputation for climbing in the +Alps. Unfortunately Captain Finch was for the time +indisposed and his place at the last moment had to be +taken by Mr. Bullock of the Consular Service, who had +been at Winchester with Mr. Mallory and who happened +to be at home on leave. Through the courtesy of Lord +Curzon he was able to get special leave of absence from the +Foreign Office.</p> + +<p>While we were finding the men we had also to be finding +the money. As a quite rough guess we estimated the +Expedition for the two years would cost about £10,000, and +at least a substantial portion of this had to be raised by +private subscription. Appeals were made by their Presidents +to the Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society and to +members of the Alpine Club, and Captain Farrar was +especially energetic in urging the claims of the enterprise. +As a result the members of the Alpine Club subscribed over +£3,000 and the Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society +nearly that amount. Later on with the advice and help +of Mr. John Buchan arrangements were made with <i>The +Times</i> and the <i>Philadelphia Ledger</i> for the purchase of the +rights of publication of telegrams from the Expedition, and +with the <i>Graphic</i> for the purchase of photographs. So +eventually the financial position of the Expedition was assured.</p> + +<p>The equipment and provisioning of the Expedition was +undertaken by the Equipment Committee—Captain Farrar +and Mr. Meade—and the greatest trouble was taken to +ensure that the most suitable and best tents, sleeping +bags, clothing, boots, ice-axes, ropes, cooking apparatus, +provisions, etc., were purchased and that they were +properly packed and listed.</p> + +<p>In the same way the scientific equipment was undertaken<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +by Colonel Jack and Mr. Hinks.</p> + +<p>Finally the services of Mr. Wollaston, well known for +his journeys in New Guinea and East Africa, were secured +as Medical Officer and Naturalist to the Expedition.</p> + +<p>Throughout these preparations the advice and help of +the best men in every line were freely and willingly forthcoming. +For such an enterprise all were ready to give a +helping hand. Whether they were scientific men, or business +men or journalists, they were ready to throw aside their own +work and devote hours to ensuring that the Expedition should +be a success along the lines on which they severally had +most experience.</p> + +<p>And most valuable was the encouragement given to the +Expedition by the interest which His Majesty showed in +conversation with the President, and His Royal Highness +the Prince of Wales in receiving Colonel Howard-Bury—an +interest which was shown in practical form by generous +subscriptions to the funds of the Expedition.</p> + +<p>The Expedition was able, therefore, to set out from England +under the most favourable auspices, and it was to be joined +in India by two officers of the Indian Survey Department, +Major Morshead and Major Wheeler, and by an officer of +the Indian Geological Survey, Dr. Heron. It was thus +admirably equipped for the acquirement of knowledge. +But acquirement of knowledge was not the only object +which the Expedition had in view. It could not be doubted +that the region would possess beauty of exceptional grandeur. +So it was hoped that the Expedition would discover, describe +and reveal to us, by camera and by pen, beauty no less +valuable than the knowledge.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p style="text-indent: 0;">Footnote:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> In the enthusiasm of the moment I seem to have displayed a regrettable +excess of “nationalism”! According to the record, I expressed the +hope that it would be an Englishman who first stood on the summit of +Mount Everest. I trust my foreign friends will excuse me! I have this +at least to plead in extenuation, that if I have always striven for my own +countrymen when they led the way, I have never been backward in helping +explorers of other nationalities whom I have met in the Himalaya; and +I have received the thanks of both the French and Italian Governments +for the help I have given to French and Italian explorers.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 200%">THE NARRATIVE OF THE EXPEDITION</span><br /><br /> + +<span style="font-size: 125%">By</span><br /><br /> + +<span style="font-size: 125%">LIEUT.-COL. C. K. HOWARD-BURY, D.S.O.</span></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a></span></p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%">FROM DARJEELING THROUGH SIKKIM</span></p> + +<p>Early in May most of the members of the Expedition +had assembled at Darjeeling. Mr. Raeburn had been the +first to arrive there in order to collect as many coolies of the +right type as he could. I had come out a few weeks earlier +in order to visit the Indian Authorities at Simla and to +make sure that there were no political difficulties in the way. +There I found every one very kind and helpful and all were +anxious to do their best to assist the Expedition. Owing +to the heavy deficit in the Indian Budget, the expenses of +every Department had been rigorously cut down, and the +Government of India were unable to give us financial +assistance. They agreed, however, to take upon themselves +the whole of the expenses of the survey, and to lend the +Expedition the services of an officer of the Geological +Department. The Viceroy, Lord Reading, who, together +with Lady Reading, took the greatest interest in the +Expedition, kindly gave us a subscription of 750 rupees, +and at Darjeeling the Governor of Bengal, Lord Ronaldshay, +had not only put up several members of the Expedition at +his most comfortable house, but had also given the Expedition +several rooms in which to collect their stores for separation +and division into loads. Local stores, such as tea, sugar, +flour and potatoes had to be bought on the spot. Coolies +had to be collected and arrangements made for fitting them +out with boots and warm clothing. The coolies were to +receive pay at the rate of 12 annas per day while in Sikkim, +and when in Tibet were to receive another 6 annas per day, +either in cash or the equivalent in rations. The former +proved the most acceptable eventually, except during the +period when the coolies were up on the glaciers, where there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +were no villages and consequently nothing could be bought.</p> + +<p>A passport had been sent to us by the Government at +Lhasa under the seal of the Prime Minister of Tibet, of which +the following is a translation:—</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 0em; font-size: 90%;"><i>To</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>The Jongpens and Headmen of Pharijong, Ting-ke, Khamba and Kharta.</i></span></p> + +<p style="font-size: 90%;">You are to bear in mind that a party of Sahibs are coming to see the +Chha-mo-lung-ma mountain and they will evince great friendship towards +the Tibetans. On the request of the Great Minister Bell a passport has +been issued requiring you and all officials and subjects of the Tibetan Government +to supply transport, e.g. riding ponies, pack animals and coolies +as required by the Sahibs, the rates for which should be fixed to mutual +satisfaction. Any other assistance that the Sahibs may require either +by day or by night, on the march or during halts, should be faithfully +given, and their requirements about transport or anything else should be +promptly attended to. All the people of the country, wherever the Sahibs +may happen to come, should render all necessary assistance in the best +possible way, in order to maintain friendly relations between the British and +Tibetan Governments.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 0em; font-size: 90%;"><ins title="Despatched">Dispatched</ins> during the Iron-Bird Year.<br /> +Seal of the Prime Minister.</p> + +<p>Our start had been originally arranged for the middle of +May, but the “Hatarana,” in which were most of our +stores, was unable to obtain a berth, as accommodation in +the Docks at Calcutta was very insufficient for the large +number of steamers that call there; she had therefore to +lie out in the Hoogly for a fortnight before she could get +room in the Docks. However, by May 11 everything was +unloaded at Calcutta. The Darjeeling-Himalayan Railway +had generously given the Expedition a free pass over their line +for all stores and goods, and as the Customs had granted a +free entry into the country, everything was up in Darjeeling +by May 14. The time of waiting at Darjeeling had, however, +not been wasted. Four cooks had been engaged for the +Expedition and some forty coolies. These were Sherpa +Bhotias, whose homes were in the North-east corner of +Nepal, some of them coming from villages only a few miles +to the South of Mount Everest. They were an especially +hardy type of coolie, accustomed to living in a cold climate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +and at great heights. They were Buddhists by religion and +therefore had no caste prejudices about food, and could +eat anything. They proved at times quarrelsome and rather +fond of strong drink; they turned out, however, to be a useful +and capable type of man, easily trained in snow and ice work +and not afraid of the snow. We later on picked up a few +Tibetan coolies in the Chumbi Valley and these proved to +be as good as the best of the Sherpas. They were very +hardy and got on well with the Tibetans, who were always +rather suspicious of our Nepalese coolies. They were also +less troublesome to manage and could carry heavy loads at +great heights. These coolies had all to be fitted with boots +and very difficult this sometimes proved to be, as often their +feet were almost as broad as they were long. Blankets, +cap comforters, fur gloves and warm clothing were issued +to all of them, and for those who had to sleep at the +highest camps, eiderdown sleeping-bags were also taken. +Arrangements had also to be made for interpreters to +accompany the Expedition, as with the exception of Major +Morshead, who knew a little Tibetan, no one was able to +speak the language. It was a matter of great importance +to get hold of the right type of man as interpreter. It was +essential to find men of some position and standing who +knew not only the Tibetan language, but also all their ways +and customs. After many names had been suggested, we +were very lucky in getting hold of two men who possessed +these qualifications to a great extent. Gyalzen Kazi, who +came from Gangtok in Sikkim, where he was a Kazi and +landowner, was a young and ambitious man who knew the +Tibetan language well and was well read in their sacred +writings and scriptures. The other one, Chheten Wangdi, +was a Tibetan who had been for a time a captain in the +Tibetan army, and who had left them and been attached +to the Indian army in Egypt during the war. He was a +most energetic, hard-working man, knew all the Tibetan +manners and customs, and was up to all their tricks of +procrastination and attempts at overcharging. By his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +knowledge and persuasive powers the Expedition was saved +many thousand rupees.</p> + +<p>The Expedition when it left Darjeeling included nine +Europeans. The Alpine climbers were Mr. Harold Raeburn, +Dr. A. M. Kellas, Mr. G. L. Mallory and Mr. C. H. Bullock. +Dr. Kellas had unfortunately in the early spring of this +year tried his constitution very severely by climbing Narsing,<a name="FNanchor_2_2_1" id="FNanchor_2_2_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2_1" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> +and he had also spent several nights at very low temperatures +in camps over 20,000 feet, on the slopes of Kabru,<a name="FNanchor_2_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> so +that when he arrived at Darjeeling a few days before the +Expedition was due to start, he was not in as fit a condition +as he should have been. The two Surveyors were Major +H. T. Morshead, D.S.O., and Major O. E. Wheeler, M.C. +These officers had been lent by the Survey of India. Major +Morshead had already a considerable experience of travelling +in the Eastern borders of Tibet and in the Kham country, +where he had carried out some useful survey work, and +under him were three native surveyors, one of whom was +left in Sikkim to revise the existing maps, which were very +inaccurate, while the other two, <ins title="Gujar">Gujjar</ins> Singh and Lalbir +Singh, accompanied the Expedition and filled in all the +details of the country traversed on their plane tables at a +scale of 4 miles to the inch. Major O. E. Wheeler, the other +Surveyor, was a member of the Canadian Alpine Club and +a very keen climber himself. He was an expert in the +Canadian system of Photo Survey—a method especially +useful and applicable to a difficult and mountainous country. +The Indian Government had also lent the Expedition the +services of Dr. A. M. Heron, of the Geological Survey of +India, in order to study the geology of the country through +which it was about to go, and about which nothing was +known, and to investigate the problems which surround the +age and the structure of the Himalayan range. Besides +these, there was Mr. A. F. Wollaston, a member of the Alpine +Club and a very distinguished traveller as well, who had +made some most interesting journeys around Ruwenzori<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +in Africa and in the interior of New Guinea. He accompanied +the Expedition in the capacity of Doctor, Naturalist and +Botanist, and was equipped with a complete collector's +outfit.</p> + +<p>During our time of enforced waiting at Darjeeling, we +came in for the Lebong races—a unique and very amusing +entertainment. The course is a small circular one, where +the top of the Lebong spur has been levelled, and only genuine +Tibetan and Bhotia ponies are allowed to race there. There +were always large entries for these races, as they were very +popular among the hill-folk, who flocked into Darjeeling +from great distances, dressed in their finest clothes and with +their women covered with jewellery and wearing clothing +of brilliant shades of green and red. There was very heavy +betting on each race, and the amount of money that the +coolies, sirdars or servants were able to put up was +astonishing. In most of the races there was at least a field +of ten, which made the start a very amusing affair. The +jockeys were all hill-boys, and as they and the ponies were +up to every dodge and trick, and were equally anxious to +get off first, and as most of the ponies had mouths of iron, +it was always a long time before a start could be made, and +in nearly every race one or more of the ponies would run +out of the course at the point nearest its own home.</p> + +<p>On May 13 Major Morshead with his assistant surveyors +and fifty coolies left Darjeeling for Khamba Dzong. They +went the direct road up the Teesta Valley correcting the +Sikkim map as they went along. Their object in going +this way was to connect the Indian Survey with the new +survey that it was proposed to carry out in Tibet. This +would occupy all Major Morshead's time until we should be +able to join him at Khamba Dzong in June.</p> + +<p>The chief transport of the Expedition consisted of 100 +mules belonging to the Supply and Transport Corps and +lent to us by the Commander-in-Chief. These arrived at +Darjeeling a few days before we were due to start and were +camped in the open on the old parade ground at the top of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +Katapahar. Sub-Conductor Taylor, who had already had +experience of mule transport in Tibet in 1904–5, and was +to have come in charge of them, was unfortunately laid up +at the last moment with a bad attack of influenza. The +next man chosen was passed medically unfit, and the third +man in temporary charge of the mules was, when he arrived +at Darjeeling, already suffering from ague. It was not till +May 15 that Sergeant Fowkes arrived, who was to take +charge of the mules. He was a very capable and energetic +N.C.O., and their subsequent failure was in no way due to +him, but solely to the fact that the mules were in no kind of +condition to do hard work in the hills, being sleek and fat +from the plains where they had had very little work to do. +The muleteers, or drabies, were all hill-men and had been +picked out specially for us and fitted out with every kind +of warm clothing. Though there were a hundred mules, +this did not mean that there were a hundred mules to carry +our loads—so much extra warm clothing and blankets had +been given to the drabies that together with all their line +gear it needed twenty-seven mules to carry their kit, which +left only seventy-three mules for the Expedition loads, +each mule carrying 160 lb., and this was not nearly sufficient +for our requirements. A certain amount of our stores had +therefore to be left behind at Government House, Darjeeling, +for a second journey, and we only took with us sufficient +food and supplies for three and a half months, relying on +the mules going back and returning with the remainder of +the stores in July or August. Owing to the camping grounds +being small, and bungalow accommodation limited on the +journey across Sikkim, we divided ourselves into two parties +with fifty mules and twenty coolies in each party; Wollaston, +Wheeler, Mallory and myself being with the first party and +Raeburn, Kellas, Bullock and Heron with the second.</p> + +<p>The first party left Darjeeling on May 18, and the second +party the following day. I remained behind to see the +second party off, and then by doing a double march I caught +the first party up that evening at Kalimpong, not, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +without noticing on the way that several of our mules were +already knocked up. The night before we started rain +came down in torrents, and it was still pouring when the +mules came round in the morning, and though the rain stopped +soon afterwards yet the hillsides were all wreathed in soft +grey mists and every moss-hung branch and tree dripped +steadily with moisture all day long. The first day's march +from Darjeeling was to Peshoke—a seventeen-mile march +and down hill all the way after Ghoom. From Darjeeling +we gradually ascended some 500 feet to Ghoom and then +for 6 miles followed the well-engineered cart road which +leads below Senchal to the new military cantonment of +Takda which is, I believe, about to be abandoned, as the +Gurkhas, for whom it was built, are not at all happy there. +During the war it was used as a German internment camp. +Along this ridge there are magnificent forests of evergreen +oaks, all of which were covered with ferns and orchids and +long trailing mosses. This first ridge rising straight out of +the plains condenses all the moisture-laden winds that blow +up from the Bay of Bengal and causes it almost always to +be enveloped in clouds and mists. The path now rapidly +descended 4,000 feet, through tea plantations. The whole +hillside was covered with tea bushes, neatly planted in lines, +and showing a very vivid green at this time of the year. +Here and there grew tall tree ferns, 20 feet to 30 feet in height, +their stems covered with ferns and Coelogene orchids. The +air was now growing hotter and hotter as we descended, +but the wonderful and varied vegetation, the beautiful and +brilliantly coloured butterflies—for which the Teesta Valley +is famous—that flitted across the path in front of us, proved +an irresistible attraction, and made us forget the fact that +we were dripping with perspiration from every pore. We +had already descended nearly 5,000 feet by the time that +we reached the P.W.D. bungalow at Peshoke, which was +situated in a clearing in the forest. We were, however, +still 2,000 feet above the muddy Teesta River which ran +down below us in its steamy gorge, and the next morning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +saw us descending 2,000 feet through a Sal forest by a slippery +path of clay leading to the suspension bridge which crosses +the mighty river that with its affluents drains the whole of +Sikkim. It rushes along with irresistible force in mighty +waves and rapids, and though attempts have been made +to float timber down it for commercial purposes, yet the +current is too swift and the logs were all smashed to pieces. +Here at the bridge we were only 700 feet above the sea and +the heat was intense. Several mules had been left exhausted +at Peshoke and had been unable to proceed the following +day and several more only just reached Kalimpong, the +second day's march, only 12 miles from Peshoke, but the +climb of 3,300 feet up from the bridge over the Teesta in +the steamy and enervating heat proved too much for +them. The forests here were very beautiful—huge sal +trees and giant terminalia abounded with weird and +wonderful creepers embracing their stems, or hanging down +from their branches. The handsome pothos—the finest of the +creepers—grew everywhere. The curious pandanus or screw +pine displayed its long and picturesque fronds, while here +and there among the dark green of the tropical forest showed +up as a brilliant patch of colour the scarlet blooms of the +clerodendrons. Above the forests the hillsides had been +terraced with immense labour into rice fields, which at this +time of year were not yet planted out, but the fields of maize +were already ripening. At Kalimpong there was a large +and comfortable Dak bungalow, surrounded by a well-kept +garden full of roses and scarlet hibiscus with a beautiful +and large-flowered mauve solanum growing up the pillars +on the verandah. At Kalimpong we were entertained by +Dr. Graham and his charming daughters, who showed us +true hospitality and kindness. They live in a very pretty +house embowered in roses on the crest of the hill and +commanding lovely views over the Teesta Valley and up +to the snowy peaks of Kanchenjunga. Higher up on the +spur are the homes and the industrial schools that many +years of hard work have brought into being, thanks to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +indefatigable labours of Dr. Graham and the late Mrs. +Graham; these now hold between 600 and 700 pupils, both +boys and girls, who, when they leave these schools, have +all been taught some useful trade and are sent out as useful +members of society. They are given as practical an +education as could be wished for anywhere. At the +Grahams' house I met David Macdonald, the British Trade +Agent at Yatung, who was acting temporarily as political +agent in Sikkim until Major Bailey arrived from England. +He was an old friend of mine, as I had met him before in +Tibet. He promised us every assistance in his power and +had telegraphed to Yatung and to the Jongpen at Phari +to have supplies and anything we wanted in readiness at +those places. He told me that an old Tibetan Lama, who +knew Mount Everest well, had described it as “Miti guti +cha-phu long-nga,” “the mountain visible from all directions, +and where a bird becomes blind if it flies so high.” Throughout +our journey across Sikkim the weather was very bad, +with heavy falls of rain every day and night. We had had +the bad luck to strike the Chota Bursat, or little monsoon, +which usually heralds the coming of the proper monsoon a +fortnight or three weeks later.</p> + +<p>The march to Pedong was an easy one of 14 miles with +a gentle climb of 3,000 feet followed by a descent of 2,000 +feet past gardens beautiful with their great trees of scarlet +hibiscus, daturas and bougainvilleas, which grew with +wonderful luxuriance in this climate where frost is almost +unknown in winter and where in summer the temperature +scarcely ever exceeds 85° Fahrenheit. We passed some of +the most wonderful datura hedges that I have ever seen +with trees 15 feet to 20 feet in height and laden with hundreds +of enormous white trumpet-shaped blooms 8 inches in +diameter and fully a foot long. I could only stand and +admire. At night these great white flowers glowed as though +with phosphorescence in the dark and had a strangely sweet +smell. I got thoroughly soaked on the march, for a couple +of minutes of these deluges are sufficient to go through any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +waterproof.</p> + +<p>Our mules were now beginning to give us great trouble. +Several had to be left behind after each march and fresh +animals had to be hired locally to replace those left behind. +At Pedong there were more wonderful daturas, and all +along the next march we kept passing grand bushes of these +flowers. It rained all that night and most of the following +day, so that we had a very wet and trying march to Rongli—the +distance was only 12 miles, but this included a very +steep descent of over 3,000 feet to the bottom of a steamy +valley, followed by a climb of 3,000 feet across an intervening +ridge and then down another 2,000 feet to the Rongli +bungalow. The poor mules were very tired by the end of +the march and one had died of colic on the way. Most +of the others too were getting very sore backs from the +constant rain. On the way Wollaston and I stopped at +Rhenock to have a look at the Chandra Nursery kept by +Tulsi Dass, where there were many interesting plants, chiefly +collected in the Sikkim forests. There was a tree growing +everywhere in the forests with a white flower which Sikkim +people called Chilauni, and all along the paths the Sikkim +durbar had been busy planting mulberry, walnut and toon +trees. There was a curious pink ground plant that grew in +the forests which I was told belonged to the Amomum species. +There were also beautiful orchids in the trees, mauve, white +and yellow, belonging to the Dendrobium, Coelogene and +Cymbidium families—some with fine sprays of flowers 18 +inches long. Here at Rongli the mules were so tired that +we had to give them a day's rest before they could go on +any further. It was a hot and feverish spot to stop in, +and only necessity compelled us to do so, as we were unable +to get any extra transport the following morning to +supplement the mules that were sick.</p> + +<p>All that day we had passed numbers of mules coming +down from Tibet laden with bales of wool, and others were +returning to Tibet with sheets of copper, manufactured goods, +grain and rice which had been bought in exchange. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +dark faces of the muleteers with their turquoise earrings +formed a pretty picture and they were full of friendly smiles +and greetings for us. The mules travelled on their own—if +any mule stopped on the path, a stone always aimed with +the greatest accuracy reminded him that it was time to +go on. Owing to our having to halt a day at Rongli, we had +to stop the second party, and were able to do this at Ari, +a bungalow 3 miles short of Rongli. I rode up to see +how they were getting on, and found they were having the +same trouble with their mules that we had been having. +On May 23 we left for Sedongchen, or Padamchen as the +Tibetans called it. Sedongchen is the old local name, +so-called because there once grew there a very large +“Sedong” tree. This is a tree that has a white sap which +irritates the skin intensely and sets up a rash. Sedongchen +was only 9 miles from Rongli, but there was a very steep +climb, from 2,700 feet up to 7,000 feet, and our mules only +just managed to arrive there. The first part of the way +is alongside the rushing stream of the Rongli, through +lovely woods and dense tropical vegetation. Caladiums, +kolocasias and begonias were growing on every rock, and +the giant pothos with its large shining leaves grew up the +stems of many of the trees. Climbers of all kinds, such as +vines and peppers, hung down from the branches. Here, too, +were magnificent forest trees, fully 150 feet high, with clean +straight trunks and without a branch for a hundred feet; +others nearly equally tall, which the Sikkim people call +“Panisage,” had huge buttresses and trunks nearly 40 feet +in circumference. Every branch here was covered by thick +matted growth of orchids. For the first time since leaving +Darjeeling the sun shone, and after we left the forests we +found the uphill climb very hot. On to-day's march, +out of the fifty mules with which we started there were only +fourteen carrying our own kit, and of those fourteen we +found on arrival at Sedongchen that none would be fit to +proceed on the following day. It was therefore with great +reluctance that I felt compelled to send back the Government<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +mules, as they could not only not carry their own line +gear, but had become an extra and very large source of +expense and worry to us. That the mules should have +completely broken down like this after a five days' march +showed that they must have been in no kind of training +and condition and were completely unfitted for heavy work +in the mountains. The hill ponies and mules that we had +hired to supplement them, although they had been given +the heaviest loads, always arrived first, and made nothing +of each march. By this failure of the Government transport +we were now thrown back on our own resources, and obliged +to depend everywhere on what local transport we could +obtain, and this often took some time to collect.</p> + +<p>At Sedongchen there was a pleasant bungalow, rather +Swiss in appearance, with fine views down the Rongli Valley +and across all the forest ridges over which we had come, +right back to Darjeeling. Opposite us, to the South-east, +were densely wooded hills with clouds and mists drifting along +the tops, while here and there a waterfall showed up white +amidst the dark green vegetation.</p> + +<p>Rain came down steadily all night, but the morning +proved somewhat finer. Being on the main trade route, +we were luckily able to get other transport to replace the +Government mules and to arrange for hired mules as far +as Yatung. The local animal is a wonderful beast, extremely +sure footed, and not minding in the least a climb of 6,000 +feet. The path from Sedongchen is really only a stone +causeway, very slippery and unpleasant either to walk or +ride upon, but probably anything else would be worn away +by the torrential rains that fall here. At one place we +had to make a wide detour, as the rain of the night before +had washed away some hundred yards of the pathway, +but luckily this was not in a very steep part, as otherwise +we might have been delayed for several days. The constant +rain had already brought out the leeches, and on most +of the stones or blades of grass beside the path they sat +waiting for their meal of blood and clung on to any mule<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +or human being that passed by. The mules suffered severely, +and drops of blood on the stones became frequent from +the bleeding wounds.</p> + +<p>The climb from Sedongchen to Gnatong was very steep +with a rise of over 5,000 feet in the first 5 miles, and we +soon got out of the zone of the leeches and on to the most +wonderful zone of flowering rhododendrons. The rhododendrons +in the lower forest chiefly consisted of <i>R. Argenteum</i> +and <i>R. Falconeri</i>. These grew in a great forest of oaks and +magnolias, all covered with beautiful ferns among which +showed up delightful mauve or white orchids. The lower +rhododendrons had already flowered, but as we got higher +we found masses of <i>R. Cinnabarinum</i>, with flowers showing +every shade of orange and red. Then came rhododendrons +of every colour—pink, deep crimson, yellow, mauve, white +or cream coloured. It was impossible to imagine anything +more beautiful, and every yard of the path was a pure +delight. Among the smaller flowers were the large pink +saxifrage, while the deep reddish-purple primula covered +every open space. There was also a very tiny pink primula—the +smallest I have ever seen—and another one like a +pink primrose, that grew on the banks above the path. +We went along quite slowly all the way, botanising and +admiring the scenery. The path mostly led along the top +of a ridge, and the views and colours of the many-hued +rhododendrons in the gullies on either side were very delightful. +Gnatong, where we were to spend the night, was a very +small and rather dirty village lying in a hollow and surrounded +by grassy hills. The fir trees (<i>Abies Webbiana</i>) +no longer surrounded it, as those anywhere near had been +cut down for firewood, or for building houses. From here +I was able to telephone to Mr. Isaacs, Mr. Macdonald's +head clerk at Yatung, to ask him to make arrangements +for ponies and mules for us both at Yatung and at Phari +now that our transport had broken down. Wonderful +rumours seemed to have preceded our advent. Stories +that we were coming with 1,000 mules and 500 men seemed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +to have been spread about in Tibet.</p> + +<p>Gnatong is a most depressing place, and only owes its +existence to the fact that it is the first stopping place for +the caravans that cross over the Jelep Pass on the British +side of the frontier. Rain always falls there, the rainfall +in the year being nearly 200 inches, and when rain does +not fall the place is enveloped in mist, with the result that +the mud was horrible. It poured with rain all the time +that we were there and we left again in heavy rain for the +Jelep Pass 8 miles distant. We were already over 12,000 +feet when we started, and the top of the pass was 14,390 +feet, so that it was not a very serious climb. There was +no view of any kind to be had as the rain fell steadily all +the way and the hillsides were all veiled in mist. We had +occasional glimpses of a hillside pink, white or yellow with +rhododendrons, which now grew only about 5 feet high. +I counted six or seven different varieties of primulas on the +way, but near the top there was still plenty of the old winter +snow lying about and the Alpine flowers were scarcely out. +A big heap of stones marked the summit of the pass and +the frontier between Sikkim and Tibet, and a few sticks, +to which were attached strings covered with small pieces +of rag on which were inscribed prayers, fluttered out in +the strong wind that always blows up there. In the cold +rain this was not a cheerful spot to linger in, so we hurried +on down a steep and stony path and after descending a few +hundred feet emerged out of the mist and rain and obtained +glimpses of a really blue sky such as we had not seen for +weeks. We had arrived at last in Tibet.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p style="text-indent: 0;">Footnote:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2_1" id="Footnote_2_2_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2_1"></a><a name="Footnote_2_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Narsing and Kabru are two high mountains in the North of Sikkim.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%">THE CHUMBI VALLEY AND THE TIBETAN PLATEAU</span></p> + +<p>The range of mountains which here forms the boundary +between Sikkim and Tibet runs nearly North and South, +and the two main passes across it are the Jelep La and +the Nathu La, the latter being a few miles to the North +of the Jelep La and about the same height. The Jelep La +being the main trade route across which the telegraph line +runs, and over which the postal runners travel, is kept open +all the year round, though often after a heavy blizzard it +is closed for ten days or a fortnight. On the Sikkim side +the snow-fall is always the heaviest; this range of mountains +stops most of the moist currents that drive up from the +Bay of Bengal, with the result that the rainfall in the Chumbi +Valley on the Tibetan side is only about a quarter of what +it is at Gnatong on the Sikkim side.</p> + +<p>The descent into the Chumbi Valley was very steep +and stony, as there was a drop of over 5,000 feet from the +top of the pass. The beauty of the valley and its wild flowers +made up, however, for the badness of the path. The rhododendrons +on the descent were extremely fine, and the whole +character of the vegetation was altered and became more +European. The great pink rhododendron <i>Aucklandi</i> showed +up splendidly in the dark forests of silver fir (<i>A. Webbiana</i>) +which here grows into a fine tree. There was also the yellow +rhododendron Campylocarpum and a white rhododendron, +probably Decorum; the beautiful <i>R. Cinnabarinum</i> with +its orange bells of waxy flowers relieved the darkness of the +firs. There was a small Tibetan rest-house called Langra +where our coolies wanted to stop, but we pushed on past +this and descended steeply through more wonderful forests.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +As we got lower we found birch, sycamore, willow and elder +still clothed in the light green of early spring. A fine white +clematis, a pink and white spiræa, a yellow berberis, white +roses and the dark purple iris grew in profusion on either +side of the path. Underneath these were the small flowers +of the wild strawberry, which the Macdonald family +collected later on in the year and made into jam in great +quantities.</p> + +<p>Near the entrance to this side valley we came to Old +Yatung with its Chinese custom-house and wall built right +across the valley to keep the British from going any further. +All this was now deserted and in ruins. Soon afterwards +we arrived in the main Chumbi Valley where were broad +fields filled with potatoes and ripening barley. The houses +here were mostly built of stone and wood and in two stories. +In character they much resembled Tirolese houses except +for the elaborate carving over the doors and windows and +the many colours in which they were painted. We passed +through the prosperous villages of Richengong, Phema and +Chumbi before arriving at New Yatung, or Shassi as the +Tibetans still prefer to call it. Here was a comfortable +bungalow overlooking the bazaar on the other side of the +river. Knowing that we had had a long and tiring march +and that our coolies would only arrive late that night, Mrs. +Macdonald had with much thoughtfulness sent over her +servants who had tea and dinner prepared for us on a generous +scale. No attention could have been more acceptable. It +rained steadily all that night—a somewhat unusual occurrence +in this valley—but the next morning it cleared up and the +day was delightful.</p> + +<p>The Chumbi Valley is one of the richest valleys in Tibet. +Yatung lies at a height of 9,400 feet. Apples and pears +do well here, and barley, wheat and potatoes are grown +in great quantities. At this time of the year the air is scented +by the wild roses which grow in large bushes covered with +hundreds of cream-coloured and sweetly scented flowers. +The villages all look extremely prosperous and an air of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +peace and contentment seems to pervade the valley. We +had to hire a new lot of animals to take us on to Phari—28 +miles further up the Chumbi Valley. These all arrived +in good time, and by eight o'clock on May 27 our loads +were all on their way. Before leaving, I sent off a telegram +to Sir Francis Younghusband to announce the arrival of +the Expedition in Tibet, a telegram which arrived opportunely +at the Anniversary Dinner of the Royal Geographical Society, +just at the commencement of dinner.</p> + +<p>There is a small garrison at Yatung, consisting of twenty-five +men of the 73rd Carnatics. There was also a hospital +and a supply depot from which we were able to purchase +sugar, flour, ata (coarse native flour) and potatoes, while +later on we were able to send back to it for further supplies. +We formed quite an imposing procession as we started off: +Wollaston and myself on our ponies, Gyalzen Kazi and +Chheten Wangdi, our interpreters, on their ponies which +they had brought along with them. There was Mr. Isaacs, +the head clerk, with a red-coated chaprassi and a syce also +mounted, who accompanied us on a visit to two monasteries +further up the valley. The path followed close to the banks +of the Ammo-chu, which was now a clear stream and contained +many a likely pool for fish. The valley was full of delightful +flowers; curious ground orchids, with several beautiful varieties +of the ladies' slipper grew there; the wild roses, especially +the large red one, were very sweet-scented and filled the air +with fragrance. Berberis, clematis and some charming dwarf +rhododendrons abounded. After going about 3 miles the +valley narrowed, and we passed the spot where the Chinese +had built another wall across the valley to keep us out. +Just above this wall there was a deserted Chinese village, +for now all the Chinese have been driven out of the country +and are not allowed to go back and live there. High above +us on the hillside was the Punagang Monastery belonging +to the old sect of the Bhompo's, who turn their prayer +wheels the opposite to every one else and always keep to +the right of Chortens and Mani walls. This monastery was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +too far off the path for us to visit it. We soon afterwards +passed the large and flourishing village of Galinka surrounded +by fields of barley. Here we turned aside to visit the Galinka +Monastery, which stood in the midst of the village. This +was quite a new building, with a great gilt image of Buddha +inside it. The monks were still busy painting pictures of +scenes from the life of Buddha on the walls. They apparently +did quite a good trade in selling clay images of Buddha +in his different forms and postures. These were stamped +by a very well cut brass die, which the monks told me had +been made at Shigatse. In a side room was a huge prayer wheel +some 12 feet high and 5 feet to 6 feet in diameter. It was +covered over with painted leather inscribed with the usual +Om Mani Padme Hum (Hail, jewel of the lotus flower). +They told us the inside was also filled with prayers, and that +it contained one and a half million of these, so that each +time the wheel was turned a million and a half prayers +were said for the person who turned it. After each complete +revolution it rings a bell. We were allowed to turn it several +times, so that I hope the many million prayers sent up may +benefit us. After leaving the monastery, the path rose +steeply and the river came down in a series of waterfalls. +Above us were masses of pink and mauve rhododendrons, +flowering cherries, viburnum, berberis, roses and other +delightful shrubs. Soon afterwards, at the entrance to +the Lingmatang plain, we crossed the river and rode up +a rocky spur formed of great boulders that had some time +or another fallen down and blocked up the valley, forming +a lake some 2 miles long, but this lake no longer existed, +and there was only a flat grassy plain grazed over by yaks +and ponies. On the top of the spur was the Donka Monastery +in a grand situation, commanding beautiful views up and +down the valley. I had hoped to see my friend the Geshe +Lama or Geshe Rimpoche, as he is sometimes known, with +whom I had lunched last year at the hot springs at Kambu, +but unfortunately he was away at Lhasa. He is a man of +very great learning and held in high veneration throughout<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +these valleys.</p> + +<p>On entering the big stone courtyard of the monastery +a crowd of children and Lamas at once flocked round us. +We were shown over the main temple, but it was badly +lit with a few butter lamps and we could see little of its +contents; amongst these were several statues of Buddha +under his different forms. There were also kept there 108 +volumes of the Tangyur, one of the Buddhist sacred writings. +These books were very curious. Each volume consisted +of a number of loose oblong parchment sheets 2 to 3 feet +long and from 8 inches to a foot wide. These were kept +together by two elaborately carved boards between which +they were pressed. The writing was all done by hand by the +Lamas, who copied out and illuminated books with the +greatest care and skill in the same manner that the monks +in the Middle Ages illuminated their missals. The book-shelves +of the library consisted of a number of pigeon-holes +in the walls in which these volumes were kept. Here, too, +they were busy making clay images to bury under the Chorten +that they were building above the monastery. Next door +was another and newer temple, built to house the Oracle, +and called the Sanctuary of the Oracle. He, too, was +unfortunately away, as he was taking the hot waters at +Kambu, but we were shown his throne and the robes that +he puts on when he prophesies. There was a curiously +shaped head-dress of silver, adorned all round with silver +skulls, and a very quaintly shaped bow and arrow which +the Oracle held in one hand while a huge trident was grasped +in the other. I am told that he is consulted far and wide and +has a great reputation for truth. We were then taken upstairs +to a sunny verandah, just outside the Geshe Rimpoche's +private room and commanding fine views up and down the +valley. Here we were given Tibetan tea, made with salt +and butter, and served up in agate cups with beautifully +chased silver covers. After drinking this tea we were shown +over the Geshe's private apartments and chapel, the prevailing +colour scheme of the room being yellow. The little shrines<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +with their silver bowls in front—the incense burner and the +flame that is never allowed to go out—were all very interesting +to us. We then took a photograph of the Lamas in front +of their temple, after which the head Lama accompanied +us some way down the path to say good-bye, hoping we +would come and see them again on our return.</p> + +<p>I have alluded several times to the hot springs at Kambu. +These springs are two days' journey from Yatung up the +Kambu Valley, but can also be reached quite easily from +Phari. There is a curious account of these springs written +by an old Lama and translated by Major Campbell. The +writer describes the Upper Kambu Valley as quite a pleasant +spot where cooling streams and medicinal plants are found +in abundance. Medicinal waters of five kinds flow from +the rocks, forming twelve pools, the waters of which are +efficacious in curing the 440 diseases to which the human +race is subject. The springs are then made to describe their +own qualities in the first person:—</p> + +<p style="font-size: 90%;">1. <span class="smcap">The Lhamo Spring</span> (The Spring of the Goddess): My virtue is +derived from the essence of stone—I am guarded by the Goddess Tsering, +and my virtue therefore consists in purging the sins and obscurities of +the human body. Those who bathe first in my waters will be purged of +all sin and the power of all diseases will be abated.</p> + +<p style="font-size: 90%;">2. <span class="smcap">The Chagu Spring</span> (The Spring of the Vulture): My virtue is derived +from black sulphur. As regards my properties, a vulture with a broken +wing once fell into my waters and was healed. I benefit diseases of women, +also sores, gout and fractures. I possess particular virtue for all diseases +below the waist. I do not benefit neuralgia, nervous diseases, or loss of +appetite.</p> + +<p style="font-size: 90%;">3 and 4. <span class="smcap">The Pon Springs</span> (The Springs of the Official): We two brothers +derive our properties from both yellow and black sulphur. One of us +provokes catarrh, while the other allays it. A learned man, who wished +us well, once said that we were beneficial in cases of hemorrhoids, kidney +diseases and rheumatism. We are not aware of possessing these qualities, +and rather tend to cause harm in such cases.</p> + +<p style="font-size: 90%;">5. <span class="smcap">The Traggye Spring</span> (The Spring born of the Rock): My virtue +is derived from a combination of sulphur and the essence of stone. I was +formerly efficacious in cases of diseases of the arteries and nerve trouble, +but later on the Brothers of the Pon Spring rushed down on poor me like +tyrants so that no one now regards me. The caretaker of the Springs +and visitors treats me like a beggar and pays no attention to me. Even<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +now if some person with the permission of the Brothers of the Pon Spring +would carry out some repairs, so as to separate my waters from theirs, I +would guarantee to benefit those suffering from arterial diseases, nerve +trouble, impurities of the blood and bile.</p> + +<p style="font-size: 90%;">6. <span class="smcap">The Serka Spring</span> (The Spring of the Crevice): My virtues are +derived from sulphur and carbon. I am not beneficial to those suffering +from ailments arising from nerve trouble, bile and acidity. I am beneficial +to those suffering from chapped hands and feet due to hard work among +earth and stones and also in cases of diseases of the kidneys and bladder. +I am somewhat hurtful to those suffering from headache arising from +nervous catarrh, or impurities of the blood.</p> + +<p style="font-size: 90%;">7. <span class="smcap">The Tang Spring</span> (The Spring of the Plain): My virtues are derived +from carbon and a little sulphur. I am beneficial in cases of hemorrhoids, +kidney disease, rheumatism and other diseases below the waist, also in +cases of venereal disease. There is a danger of the waist becoming bent +like a bow through too much bathing in my waters.</p> + +<p style="font-size: 90%;">8. <span class="smcap">The Traggyab Spring</span> (The Spring behind the Rock): I am beneficial +in cases of disease of the arteries and anaemia—I am not aware that I am +harmful in other cases.</p> + +<p style="font-size: 90%;">9. <span class="smcap">The Tongbu Spring</span> (The Spring of the Hole): My virtues are +derived from a large proportion of crystalline stone and a little sulphur. +I guarantee to be beneficial in cases of white phlegm, brown phlegm and +other forms of phlegmatic disease. Also in diseases arising out of these, +and in cases of impurities of the blood and colic pains. Please bear this +in mind.</p> + +<p style="font-size: 90%;">10. <span class="smcap">The Nub</span> (The Western Spring): My virtues are derived from a +little carbon. I am beneficial in cases of liver disease, impurities of the +blood, flatulence, kidney disease, dyspepsia, brown phlegm, tumours, gout, +rheumatism, gleet, and complications arising from these. I do not boast +in the way that the other Springs do.</p> + +<p style="font-size: 90%;">11. <span class="smcap">The Dzepo Spring</span> (The Leper's Spring): I am cousin to the Western +Spring. He guarantees to cure diseases arising from two or three causes, +also kidney disease, flat foot, rheumatism and gout. I am beneficial in +cases of hemorrhoids, gout, rheumatism and diseases of the feet. I possess +particular virtue in cases of leprosy, sores and wounds.</p> + +<p style="font-size: 90%;">12. <span class="smcap">The Lama Spring</span> (The Spring of the Lama): My virtues are +derived from a large proportion of lime and a little sulphur. I am beneficial +in cases of lung disease, tumours, dyspepsia, both chronic and recent, +poverty of the blood and venereal diseases.</p> + +<p class="blockquot"><span class="smcap">Written by Tsewang in the hope that the People of +Bhutan, Sikkim, and the surrounding country will bear this +in mind.</span></p> + +<p class="blockquot"><span class="smcap">Copied by Tenrab, clearly and exactly, from the original +in the Male Iron Dog Year in the first half of the Earth +Month.</span></p> + +<p>After leaving the monastery we had a pleasant gallop<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +across the Lingmatang Plain, after which the valley narrowed +again and the path followed close beside the rushing stream. +It was a delightful ride through forests of birch, larch, juniper, +spruce, silver fir and mountain ash. Never anywhere have I +seen birch trees grow to such a size. They were grand rugged +old trees that matched the rugged scenery of the gorge. +Blue poppies, fritillaries, ground orchids and sweet-scented +primulas grew along the path, and mixed up everywhere +in the forest were great bushes of <i>R. Cinnabarinum</i>, which +varied in shade from yellow and orange to deep red. +Wagtails and white-crested redstarts dodged about from rock +to rock in the rushing stream, and the clear note of the +shrike could usually be heard above the noise of the waters. +The weather had luckily kept fine all day, so that we were +able to dawdle along and enjoy the scenery and flowers.</p> + +<p>After going about 12 miles we came to the bungalow of +Gautsa, situated at a height of about 12,000 feet, and at +the bottom of the gorge; here we spent the night. During +the night there was heavy rain, and when we woke in the +morning, fresh snow was low down on all the hills and within +1,500 feet of the bungalow. However, the day again proved +brilliantly fine. For breakfast we had been given some +large wild-goose eggs belonging to the bar-headed goose. +Mine I had boiled, and found excellent, though one was +sufficient for a meal. Two that the others had were rather +<i>passé</i>, and were not equally appreciated. The day's path +was at first very stony and climbed steadily uphill beside +the torrent of the <ins title="Ammochu">Ammo-chu</ins>. Pale blue iris, yellow primulas, +a pink viburnum and a large yellow-belled lonicera grew +beside the path, but the rhododendrons were still by far +the most wonderful of the flowering shrubs. We passed +many big blue meconopsis, and some of these flowers measured +fully 3 inches across. Dwarf rhododendrons, only a foot +high—some pure white and others pink, continued up until +about 13,500 feet, and then the hillsides became purple +from another little rhododendron, which looked in the +distance like heather and gave the rounded hills quite a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +Scotch appearance. As we rose higher the flowers decreased +in number. Larks and wheatears ran along the ground in +front of us, and small tailless marmot rats dodged in and out +of their holes as we approached. The distance from Goutsa +to Phari was about 16 miles, of which the last 8 miles were +over flat country with a springy turf, on which it was a +pleasure to be able to canter again after having passed +over so many miles of stony roads. Chomolhari, the Mountain +of the Goddess, stood up as a wonderful sight with its sharp +peak outlined against the clear blue sky. On its summit +the wind was evidently very strong, as we could see the +fresh snow being whirled off in clouds.</p> + +<p>Phari is an extremely dirty village dominated by a stone +fort and lying under the shadow of the great mountain +Chomolhari, 23,930 feet high. It is 14,300 feet above sea +level, and the climate there is always cold, as it is never +without a strong wind. In the afternoon the Jongpen, or +Governor of the district, came to call on me. He was a +young man with an intelligent and pleasant face, and came +from the country between Khamba Dzong and Shekar Dzong, +so that he was able to give us much useful information +about the road; he promised that he would write to his +brother, who was acting as agent for him at his home, telling +him to entertain us and give us all facilities in the matters +of transport and supplies. He told us that he had received +written instructions from the Lhasa Government to arrange +for supplies and transport for us, and he promised that he +would do his best. I gave him photographs that I had +taken last year of his fort, and also of Chomolhari; these +pleased him very much, and in return he presented us with +a dried sheep which looked mummified and smelt very +strongly, but which proved very acceptable to our coolies. +It was necessary to stop here for several days as the second +party had to catch up, and they too needed a day's rest. +Also the transport that was to carry us along to Khamba +Dzong would not be ready for several days, so the following +morning I went to call on the Jongpen in his fort, where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +I found him living in some very dark rooms. I presented +him with one of the new lever electric torches, which he +much appreciated, though at first he and his servants were +rather frightened by it. He gave us tea and sweetmeats, +and soon afterwards the head-men of all the villages came +in, and were given orders about our transport. Their quaint +attitudes of respect and their darkly bronzed faces, that +just showed up in the light, reminded me forcibly of an old +Dutch picture. Some men, too, had been sent from Khamba +Dzong for orders and to know when we should be likely +to arrive there. In the course of the afternoon Dr. Heron +and I rode over to a monastery about 3 miles away where +I had been last year, and where I had taken some photographs. +Some prints of these I brought back to the monastery, +and the monks were very pleased with them. They were +in the middle of a service when we arrived, as it was some +kind of festival, and the dark temple was illuminated by +hundreds of little butter lamps. The monks were all chanting +their scriptures, and this they continued to do all the afternoon.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_046.jpg" width="335" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_046"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Chomolhari from the South.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>On returning to Phari, we found that a message had +come from the Jongpen to ask us to dine with him the +following evening. The change in the climate and the bad +cooking had affected the stomachs of all the members of +the Expedition, and none of us was feeling very well. Dr. +Kellas was the worst, and as soon as he arrived at Phari +he retired to bed. The following morning was misty and +the ground was all white with hoar-frost, though it was +the last day in May; but as I was anxious to get some +photographs of Chomolhari we rode, with the Chaukidar as +a guide, through the mist across the plain to some hills +just to the South of the great mountain; after a few miles +we found ourselves above the clouds with the sun shining +in a brilliant blue sky. The whole of the Phari Plain was +covered by a sea of clouds. On the far side rose the Pawhunri +group of mountains, while further to the South, Kanchenjunga +towered above all the other peaks, such as Siniolchum, +Kabru and Jonsong, all of which stood out very clearly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +in this brilliant atmosphere. I rode up a delightful little +mountain valley full of dwarf rhododendrons and Alpine +primulas until I reached a height of 16,000 feet. We then +left the ponies and climbed on to the top of the hill, which +was about 17,500 feet; from this point we had glorious views +of Chomolhari immediately across the valley, while on the +other side we looked over to the snowy peaks and ranges +in Bhutan far to the South of us. We found the wind very +keen at this height, and after taking several photographs +we rode back again to Phari.</p> + +<p>Here I found the place full of troubles. Our Coolie Sirdar +was, as we were beginning to find out, not only useless, but +very mischievous, and he was evidently at the bottom of +an attempted mutiny among our coolies, who refused to +go on. The Sirdar strongly objected to our interpreters, +who were preventing him from fleecing us in the matter +of stores and supplies. However, after much talking they +were all satisfied. Then it was the turn of the cooks, all +of whom the Sirdar had chosen. I should not have minded +one or two of these going, as they were very bad cooks and +usually drunk, and the fact that all of us had been ill was +solely due to their bad cooking; but I could not let them +all go, so it was necessary to find out which were the most +useless, and this we were able to do in the course of the next +few days. Dr. Kellas was getting no better; he refused to +take any food, and was very depressed about himself. At +Phari I was able to change a certain number of our rupees +into Tibetan currency. The then rate of exchange was +33 rupees to 1 sersang—a gold coin—and 4½ silver trangkas +to 1 rupee. The trangkas were a thin and very badly stamped +coin about the size of a two-shilling piece. We found them, +however, to be the most useful form of currency as the gold +coin, though much easier to carry, could only be exchanged +at a few places, and it was seldom that we met people who +were rich enough to be able to change them.</p> + +<p>That night four of us went over to have dinner with +the Jongpen. First we were given tea and sweetmeats,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +followed by strong ginger wine, which was most comforting +to our stomachs in their delicate condition. Then came +dishes of mutton in varying forms with vegetables and +macaroni. They were all served up in Chinese fashion in +little dishes and some were quite appetising. We were +very late in starting the next morning as all the loads had +to be sorted and laid out for the very miscellaneous transport +that had been given us. This consisted of ponies, mules, +donkeys, bullocks and yaks. For riding-animals we were +given mules, which trotted well and covered the ground +quite quickly, though some of the Alpine climbers found +them hard to manage and were apt to part company with +their steeds. Our transport was by now becoming rather +complicated as forty-four animals were going right through +to Khamba Dzong and forty-four were being changed at +every stage. Dr. Kellas was not well enough to ride and +was carried in an arm-chair all day. Soon after starting +I passed two of our cooks on the road hopelessly drunk, +and left them there. Our way led over the Tang La, a very +gentle and scarcely perceptible pass, 15,200 feet, but +important as being the main Himalayan watershed. All +day there was a very strong South wind blowing, but it +was luckily at our backs, and we did not feel it too much. +We then quickly trotted the 10 miles across the absolutely +level Tang-pün-sum Plain. Here I saw several herds of +kiang, the wild ass of Tibet, and got within 50 yards of one +lot, but unfortunately the coolie who was carrying my +camera was not up with me at the time. We also passed +a certain number of Tibetan gazelle, but they were all very +wary. The Monsoon clouds came up to the South of us in +great rolling billows, but not a drop of moisture came over +the Tang La. Chomolhari was a magnificent sight all day +with its 7,000 feet of precipices descending sheer into the +plain. Tuna (14,800 feet), about 20 miles from Phari, was +our first halt. We were still on the main road to Lhasa +and found a comfortable rest-house into which the eight of +us all managed to stow ourselves. Dr. Kellas, though rather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +better the next day, was still too weak to ride, and was +carried for the next march on a litter. We were now in +the true Tibetan climate, with brilliant sunshine, blue skies, +still mornings and strong winds all the afternoon.</p> + +<p>The next march from Tuna to Dochen was still on the +Lhasa Road. I did not follow the path, but rode with a +local man from the village over the great Tang-pün-sum +Plain in search of goa—Tibetan gazelle. We saw many +of them on the plains, but they were the wiliest and most +difficult animals to approach, and in this flat and bare +country it was not possible ever to get within 300 yards +of them. As a rule they ran off when we were still half +a mile away. They are restless little creatures, always +on the move, and never at any time an easy mark to hit. +I thoroughly enjoyed this ride over the plains and our +glorious views of Chomolhari and the great snow-covered +and glaciated chain to the North of it along the foot of +which we were travelling. A curious pink trumpet-shaped +flower grew in great quantities on the plain; the leaves +were buried under the sand and only the flower showed +its head above the ground. There were also white pincushions +of a kind of tiny saxifrage. This plain, over which +we were riding, was evidently once upon a time a lake bed, +as the pebbles were rounded and there were distinct evidences +of former shores along the sides of the hills. Many kiang +were grazing on it and many thousands of sheep were being +pastured there. As we approached the lake called Bamtso, +the country became very marshy, and our ponies got bogged +several times. The bungalow at Dochen was situated near +the shores of the Bamtso. Never have I seen a lake with +so many colours in it. It was very shallow, and the shades +varied from deep blue and purple to light green, while in +places it was almost red from a weed that grew in it. Behind +it was a background of snow and glacier-covered mountains, +which in the still mornings was reflected faithfully in its +waters and formed a charming picture. Swimming on this +lake were many bar-headed geese and Brahminy ducks, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +along the shores were many terns and yellow wagtails.</p> + +<p>That evening an amusing thing happened in the kitchen. +One of our cooks was heating up a tin of tinned fish and had +put it in some hot water without previously opening it. +When he thought it was sufficiently hot, he started to open +it, with the result that it exploded violently, covering him +and every one else in the kitchen with small pieces of fish. +I was able then to explain to the Tibetans who were carrying +our loads that our stores were very dangerous, and that if +any were at any time stolen, they would be liable to explode +and hurt them. It was, of course, the rarefied air that had +caused this, for Dochen is at a height of 14,700 feet above +sea level.</p> + +<p>Every day on from now the wind used to blow with great +violence all the afternoon, but would die down after sunset. +It must have been of a local nature caused by the rapid +changes from high temperature to low, because the clouds +above at the same time were hardly moving. I sent back +Dorje, one of our cooks, from this place, as it was the fourth +time that he had been drunk, and this I hoped would be +a lesson to the others. We now left the Lhasa Road and +turned off Westwards, having henceforward to rely on our +tents.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_050.jpg" width="500" height="329" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_050"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Loading up at Dochen.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>From Dochen to Khe was a short march of 11 miles over +the Dug Pass, 16,400 feet. I did not follow the road taken +by the transport animals, but took a local guide and rode +over the hill-tops in search of ovis ammon. I did not see +any, however, though we sighted two or three goa, but they +were very wild and would not allow me to approach within +500 yards of them. There were numbers of blue hares, +however, and some ram chakor, the Himalayan snow cock. +But beyond this the hillsides were very bare of game. There +were pin-cushions of a beautiful little blue sedum growing +at a height of over 17,000 feet, also there was a big red +stonecrop. Khe is now only a small and dirty village with +practically no water except a half-dried muddy pond, but +at one time it must have been a place of some importance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +as ruins and buildings of considerable size extend over +an area of more than a mile. The Kala-tso evidently at +one time came right up to this ruined town of Khetam, +and the fact that it is deserted now is probably due to the +shrinkage of the lake. This was only one of the many signs +of desiccation that we saw in our travels in Tibet. There +were some curious ruins which looked like old crenellated +walls, but these walls were only places on which barley dough +used to be exposed to feed the crows as a sign of prosperity. +It was a curious custom and could only have prevailed in +a very fertile valley, which this place is no longer. The age +of the city I could not find out, but the few survivors told +me that the holy shrine at Tashilumpo, which now is at +Shigatse, ought to have been built here. According to +a local legend, there was a certain stone in Khetam shaped +like a ewe's-womb, and one day a donkey driver finding +that his loads were unequal in weight, picked up this stone +and put it on the light load to balance the other, quite +unaware of the importance of the stone. This stone was +then carried from Gyantse to Shigatse, where a high and +important Lama saw it, and recognising that this was a +very holy stone, had it kept there. The powerful monastery +of Tashilumpo was built over this stone. We passed two +small nunneries called Doto and Shidag in snug little valleys +to the North of the plain, and on asking why there should +be so many nunneries in these parts when in the greater +part of Tibet men predominated, I was told that this was +due to the fact that it was close to the Nepalese frontier +where there had always been much fighting, so that most +of the men had been killed and only women had survived. +After a short and easy march we came to a small pocket +in the hills called Kheru. Here were encamped some people +belonging to a nomad tribe who always lived in tents. They +were very friendly, put tents at our disposal, and did their +best to make us comfortable. They told us that they came +here every year in the twelfth month, about January, and +left again in the fifth month of the Tibetan year (June) for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +a place near Tuna, where they disposed of their wool, butter +and cheese at the Phari market. There were altogether +about twenty families here owning some 200 yaks and 3,000 +sheep. Dr. Kellas was slightly better, but Raeburn was +not feeling at all well, and Wheeler was suffering from +indigestion, so that we were rather a sick party. Kheru +lies at a height of 15,700 feet, but it had been very hot all +day in the brilliant sunshine, and on the way we had passed +lizards and a number of common peacock butterflies. Next +morning our march was to Tatsang (Falcon's Nest), a distance +of 15 or 16 miles, and over two passes 16,450 and 17,100 +feet. The going was easy all the way, as the gradients +both up and down the passes were very gentle. Between +the two passes was a broad valley, filled with huge flocks of +sheep and herds of yaks, and after crossing the second pass, +we descended into a great barren and stony plain, more +than 10 miles across which was Tatsang and over which the +wind blew very keenly. To the South of us appeared the +snowy crests of Pawhunri, Kanchenjhow and Chomiomo and +the Lhonak peaks. Again I did not keep with the transport, +but followed the crests of the hills, where I had lovely views; +on the way I saw plenty of gazelle, and was lucky enough +to shoot one of them, as they are very good eating. Our +camp at Tatsang was pitched just below the nunnery there, +which is on the top of a rock and where there are about +thirty nuns. Our camp was on a pleasant grassy spot where +some excellent springs bubble up out of the ground. These +within a few yards formed quite a big stream full of small +snow trout. They do not really belong to the trout family, +although they have somewhat similar spots, and are very +good to eat. Bullock, with his butterfly net, and the coolies +with their hands, managed to catch quite a number of fish, +and we had them for dinner that night. The ground round +our tents was full of holes out of which the marmot rats +kept appearing. They were very tame, and did not seem +to be in the least afraid of us. Dr. Kellas had had a very +trying day. He had been rather better, and had started<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +riding a yak, but he found this too exhausting and coolies +had to be sent back from Tatsang to bring him on in a litter, +so that he did not arrive at Tatsang till late in the evening. +Tatsang is 16,000 feet, so the night was cold, the thermometer +inside the tent registering 7° of frost, though it was +June 4; outside there must have been quite 15° as the +running streams were all frozen over, but once the sun had +risen everything warmed up and we had a beautiful warm +day. Dr. Kellas started off in his litter at 7 a.m. in quite +good spirits. I did not start till an hour later, as I had +wanted to see everything off, and then went up to visit +the nunnery, over which the lady abbess showed me. There +were thirty nuns living there, all with shorn heads and +wearing a curious wool head-dress. The place where they +worshipped was full of prayer wheels, both large and small. +They sat down behind these, and each nun turned one or +two of them if they could manage it. The room was very +dark, with a low ceiling, and at the end were several statues +of Buddha covered over with gauze veils. In another room +there was a large prayer wheel which they said contained +half a million prayers.</p> + +<p>After leaving the nunnery we jogged along a dry and +barren valley which gradually rose in about 12 miles to +a pass 17,200 feet. On the way we passed Dr. Kellas in +his litter, who then seemed to me to be still quite cheerful. +I then rode on and at the top of the pass saw three ovis +ammon, and after a chase of about a mile I shot one, which +afforded plenty of food for the coolies for some days. It +was a full grown ram about five years old and we had great +trouble in getting the carcass on to a mule, as it was enormous +and very heavy. After this I rode on down the valley for +another 10 miles to Khamba Dzong. There were actually +a few bushes in this valley, which was carpeted with the +pretty pink trumpet-shaped flower mentioned above, also +with light and dark blue iris. Suddenly the valley narrowed +into a fine limestone gorge, and all at once the fort of Khamba +Dzong appeared towering above us on the cliffs. It was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +really a very impressive sight and some of the architecture +of the round towers was very fine. I found that Morshead +had been waiting here for about nine days, but had employed +his time in fixing the old triangulation points. Soon after +I arrived the Jongpen came down to pay us a visit. He +was quite a young fellow, only about twenty-four, but very +pleasant and polite.</p> + +<p>While we were talking, a man came running up to us +very excitedly to say that Dr. Kellas had suddenly died on +the way. We could hardly believe this, as he was apparently +gradually getting better; but Wollaston at once rode off +to see if it was true, and unfortunately found that there +was no doubt about it. It was a case of sudden failure of +the heart, due to his weak condition, while being carried over +the high pass. His death meant a very great loss to the +Expedition in every way, as he alone was qualified to carry +out the experiments in oxygen and blood pressure which +would have been so valuable to the Expedition, and on +which subject he was so great an expert. His very keenness +had been the cause of his illness, for he had tried his +constitution too severely in the early months of that year +by expeditions into the heart of the Himalayas to see if he +could get fresh photographs from other angles of Mount +Everest. The following day we buried him on the slopes of +the hill to the South of Khamba Dzong, in a site unsurpassed +for beauty that looks across the broad plains of Tibet to +the mighty chain of the Himalayas out of which rise up +the three great peaks of Pawhunri, Kanchenjhow and +Chomiomo, which he alone had climbed. From the same +spot, far away to the West—more than a hundred miles +away—could be seen the snowy crest of Mount Everest +towering far above all the other mountains. He lies, +therefore, within sight of his greatest feats in climbing and +within view of the mountain that he had longed for so +many years to approach—a fitting resting-place for a great +mountaineer.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_054.jpg" width="324" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_054"></a> +<p class="caption"><ins title="Kampa Dzong."><span class="smcap">Khamba Dzong.</span></ins></p> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p> + +<h2>Chapter III</h2> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%">FROM KHAMBA DZONG THROUGH UNKNOWN COUNTRY TO TINGRI</span></p> + +<p>Our camp at Khamba Dzong<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> was pitched in a walled +enclosure at the foot of the fort, built on a great crag that +rose 500 feet sheer above us. They called this enclosure a +Bagichah, or garden, because it once boasted of three willow +trees. Only one of these three is alive to-day, the other +two being merely dead stumps of wood. The Jongpen here, +who was under the direct orders of Shigatse, was very friendly, +and after our arrival presented us with five live sheep, a +hundred eggs, and a small carpet which he had had made +in his own factory in the fort. Next afternoon Morshead, +Wollaston and myself went up to pay the Jongpen a visit +in his fort. It was a steep climb from our camp, past long +Mendongs or Mani walls covered with inscribed prayers. +The Jongpen was at the entrance waiting to receive us. +He then showed us over his stables, where he had several +nice Tibetan ponies, which strongly objected to Europeans +and lashed out fiercely as we approached them. After +looking at them we went up many flights of most dangerously +steep stairs, almost in pitch darkness the whole time, until +we came to a small courtyard. Then after climbing up +more steps, we were ushered into a small latticed room +where we were given the usual Tibetan tea and sweetmeats. +I presented the Jongpen with one of the new lever electric +torches, with which he was much pleased, saying it would +be of much use to him in going up and down his dark +staircases. After tea he took us up on to the roof of the +fort, which was quite flat, and from which we had a most +magnificent view. We stood on the top of a great precipice +and looked straight down at our camp, which lay many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +hundred feet below but almost within a stone's throw. From +here too we could look across the wide plains and valleys +of the Yaru and its tributaries to the main chain of the +Himalayas which formed the Southern boundary to the +picture. From this side they do not appear nearly as +imposing as they do when seen from the South. Seen as +they are from a height of over 15,000 feet, the distance to +the sky line is not nearly so great, and as a rule we found +the Northern slopes to be much less steep than those on +the Southern side. The snow line, too, was also several +thousand feet higher. Every day great masses of moist +cumulus clouds came rolling up and round the peaks to the +South of us, indicating heavy falls of rain and snow on the +South, but very little of this came over the watershed—only +an occasional slight hailstorm or a few drops of rain. +From this point we could see as far West as Mount Everest, +still over a hundred miles away. After spending some time +up there and admiring and discussing the view, we descended +once more into the fort, where the Jongpen showed us some +of the carpets that his womenfolk were busy making and +promised to have some ready for us by the time that we +came back. We also much admired the curious old locks +by which the doors and boxes were fastened; before leaving, +he made me a present of one of these locks.</p> + +<p>June 7 saw us still at Khamba Dzong, as the transport +would not be ready till the following day. Raeburn, who +for some time had been suffering from the same complaint +as Dr. Kellas, was unfortunately getting no better and was +getting weaker every day. We were therefore reluctantly +compelled to send him back again into Sikkim to Lachen, +where he could be taken charge of by the lady missionaries +and properly looked after. Wollaston and Gyalzen Kazi +were to accompany him down to Lachen, and if possible to +rejoin us by the time that we got to Tingri. This break-up +of our climbing party was most annoying and seriously +weakened our party, obliging us to alter our plans for +reconnoitring in a thorough manner the various approaches<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +to Mount Everest. The following day, after a good deal +of delay and argument about the loads, we got everything +loaded up and started off for Lingga, a march of about 16 +miles to the West. For the first few miles we rode across a +great plain on which were several small herds of goa, but +these were very wary and kept well out of shot. The path +then took us alongside a small isolated rocky hill in which +we kept putting up numerous hares who often got up right +under our ponies' feet. We crossed the Yaru River, now +only a small stream, at the picturesque village of Mende +with its fine willow trees, and then after passing over a spur, +formed of slaty rock, we descended into another great plain +which extended all the way to Tingri. Five miles across this +plain was the village of Lingga, surrounded by marshes and +ponds, with barley fields and rich grass growing between +the patches of water. There were several other villages in +sight, so that the plain was evidently fertile and could support +a considerable population. This was the first place where +we became bothered by sand flies, which in the morning +were very troublesome; but when the wind got up, as it +always did in the afternoons, it blew them away, and for +once was welcome. The villagers were very hospitable; +they produced tea and beer brewed from barley for us as +soon as we arrived there. The latter is quite a pleasant +drink on a hot day, but it did not agree with my inside at +all. The people here had never seen a European before, +and though at first inclined to be rather shy, they soon +became very friendly and curious. Some pieces of silver +paper from chocolates quite won the hearts of the children +who flocked around and did not in the least mind being +photographed. To the South extended the chain of snows +of the main range of the Himalayas, and on the way we +had several clear and distinct views of Mount Everest. +Morshead, who had left the day before, was camped at a +small monastery a few miles to the North of us in order to +follow the crest of the ridge of hills and to survey both sides, +but was to join us again at Tinki. The weather now was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +really delightful, though to the South of us we still saw +heavy clouds which brought showers of snow as far as the +mountains, but they did not reach us.</p> + +<p>From here to Tinki was about 13 miles over a perfectly +level plain. The midges or sand flies were very troublesome +the whole way and came in hundreds round one's head, got +inside one's topee, and were thoroughly objectionable. The +plain appeared very fertile, as there seemed to be plenty of +water and great herds of yaks and flocks of sheep were +grazing upon it. In the marshes and ponds were many +bar-headed geese, Brahminy ducks, mallard and teal. After +the rains, it is evident that a great part of this plain is under +water. About a couple of miles from Tinki we crossed some +curious sand dunes, about 20 feet high, which are evidently +on the move, and soon afterwards the Jongpen of Tinki +came riding out to meet us with a few mounted followers, +he himself riding a fine white pony. He was very Chinese +in appearance, wearing finely embroidered silks with a +Chinese hat and a long pigtail, and his manners were +excellent. He escorted us to the place where our camp +was to be, and had had three or four tents already pitched for +us. Tea and country beer were at once served, and we +rested in the shade of his Chinese tents until our transport +arrived.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_058.jpg" width="336" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_058"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Tinki Dzong.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>We were encamped in a very picturesque spot beside a +large pond that was full of bar-headed geese, Brahminy +ducks and terns. On the opposite side of this pond rose +the walls and towers of the fort of Tinki. As soon as we had +settled down, the Jongpen came again to pay us a formal +visit, presented us with four sheep and a couple of hundred +eggs and promised to do everything he could to help us and +to forward us on our way. Half a mile above us was a large +village and a big monastery belonging to the Yellow Sect of +Buddhists who also owned a fine grove of willows. The +bottom of the valley was all covered with barley fields, now +a tender green and coming up well. As the fresh transport +had not arrived, we had to spend the following day there. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +gave an opportunity for Abdul Jalil, our photographic +assistant, to rejoin us. We had sent him back to Phari +in order to change some more rupees into Tibetan currency, +as we found that Indian notes or rupees were not accepted +any further to the West. Abdul Jalil had been very nervous +about travelling with so much money and had borrowed a +revolver and a rifle from members of the Expedition besides +two large Tibetan swords and a dagger which he obtained +from the Jongpen. In the morning, with Bullock, I went +to return the call of the Jongpen. His fort at the time was +under repair, so he was living in a small house outside the +main building. He was very affable and gave us tea: we +were then able to make all the arrangements for transport +except the actual fixing of the price. For this he said he +would have to consult his head-men. Just as we were about +to leave he insisted on our eating the large meal which he +had had prepared for us. He gave us small dishes of excellent +macaroni and mince, seasoned up with chillies and very +well cooked—much better than anything our cooks could +produce. This we had to eat with chopsticks—a somewhat +difficult proceeding, as we were not yet used to them. Later +on, however, after much practice, we found no difficulty in +consuming the numerous bowls of this excellent dish that +the Tibetans always set before one. The Jongpen told us +that he had been twenty-nine years in Government service, +and he was expecting to have a better post than this shortly. +His health was poor and he said he had been suffering much +from indigestion, so I gave him some pills and tabloids, for +which he was very grateful. On the return journey, he +told me that he had greatly benefited by my treatment. +The bar-headed geese and the wild duck here were +extraordinarily tame, allowing us to approach within five +yards of them and showing no signs of fear. They would +come and waddle round our tents, picking up any scraps +of food. The Jongpen had begged us not to shoot or kill +any of them, as he said a Lama had been sent specially +from Lhasa some years ago in order to tame the creatures,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +and certainly the result was extraordinary; it was most +interesting to watch these birds, ordinarily so wild, from +so close a distance. In the evening the Jongpen came over +to see us again, and after a good hour's bargaining over the +price of the transport, we finally reached a reasonable and +amicable agreement. Every evening, to the South of us, +there were constant flashes of lightning all along the horizon. +In the morning I woke up to the unusual sound of drops +of rain, but this only lasted for five minutes and then cleared +up, though the sky remained clouded all the morning. There +was the usual fighting and confusion about the loads, each +person trying to get the lightest loads for his own animal. +The result was that there was much talking and fighting, +and nothing was actually done until some head-man would +come and take control and decide the dispute. The method +of adjudication was as follows:—From each of the families +who were regarded as responsible for the supply of a transport +animal was taken one of the embroidered garters by which +the man's felt boots are kept in their place. These garters +were shuffled, as one might shuffle a pack of cards, after +which a single garter was laid upon each load. The family +to which the garter belonged thereupon became responsible +for that load and had to pack it upon the animal's back. +Although we had only ninety animals, there were forty-five +different families supplying them.</p> + +<p>The march from Tinki to Chushar Nango was about 14 +miles and was up the valley behind Tinki to the Tinki Pass. +On the way we passed well-irrigated fields of barley and +then climbed up a spur covered with a small yellow cistus. +After this a long gentle pull brought us to the top of the +pass, 17,100 feet. There was a very fine view from here +to the East looking over Tinki and Khamba Dzong and along +the Northern slopes of the Himalayas. I climbed up a hill +about 600 feet above the pass, whence I had a more extensive +view still. I could see far away to the East to Chomolhari, +while in the foreground was the large and picturesque lake +called Tsomotretung backed by the rugged chain of peaks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +that separated us from the valley of the Brahmaputra. +To the West we looked down into the valley of the Yaru, +which flowed gently through a broad and flat valley. To the +South-west was a range of sharp granite peaks rising up to +22,000 feet, which ran North and South and forced the +Yaru to flow round them before it could find its way into +Nepal. The descent from the pass was much steeper. We +passed many of our old friends the pink trumpet-shaped +flowers, also a curious white and pink flower, rather like a +daphne in shape, and smelling very sweetly, which grew in +masses along the path. It was evidently poisonous as no +animal would touch it. I picked some flowers of it and +put them in my buttonhole, but was warned by the Tibetans +not to do so, as they said it was poisonous and would give +me a headache. Lower down the valley was full of small +dwarf gorse bushes—1 foot to 18 inches high—which carpeted +the ground. Everywhere were flocks of sheep and cattle +grazing in the valley. Our camp was pitched on a grassy +flat just below the village of Chushar Nango with its fine +old ruined tower of stone with machicolated galleries all +round it. To the South of us was the Nila Pass, which +afforded an easy way into Nepal. The climate here was +fairly warm, but the wind blew very strongly all that evening. +Next day we saw the mountains all covered with fresh snow +down to 16,000 feet, but we only experienced a slight drizzle +as most of the snowflakes evaporated before they reached +the ground, though clouds remained overhead all the morning. +Morshead and his surveyors had been kept very busy up till +now surveying and plotting in the intervening country from +the tops of the hills, but owing to the clouds they were +unable to do anything. We were all very late in starting, +as our transport animals had been changed and the yaks +that were supplied to us were very wild. In the first few +minutes after starting we saw the plain strewn with our +kits and stores, and yaks careering off in every direction +with their tails in the air.</p> + +<p>The march to Gyangkar Nangpa to-day was only a short<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +one and led across a wide plain through which flowed the +muddy and sluggish waters of the Yaru. The existing maps +of this country were quite misleading and we could no longer +depend on them. The rivers flowed in opposite directions +to those shown on the map and mountains were shown +where there were none. After about 2 or 3 miles, we had +to ford the river, which was about 80 yards wide and not +quite 3 feet deep. We then rode on across the plain, which +was in some parts sandy and in others muddy or gravelly; +evidently during the rainy season a shallow lake. In places +the dwarf gorse grew on it. The sandy tracks were covered +with curious hillocks 5 to 6 feet in height formed by the +drifting sand and the gorse bushes. These in order to keep +alive were compelled to push their branches through the +sand which in its turn became piled up around them. +Towards the West end of the plain were marshes and shallow +lakes around which we had to make big detours.</p> + +<p>Gyangkar Nangpa, which was our destination, was the +country residence of the Phari Jongpen. His brother, who +was acting as agent for him, rode out to meet us and escorted +us to his house, a fine solid stone building dominating all +the small houses. The tops of the walls were covered with +gorse and juniper, rather suggestive of Christmas decorations. +Tents were pitched for us in a grass paddock close to a grove +of willows. We were then conducted upstairs into a pleasant +room where were some fine gilt Chinese cabinets and some +good Chinese rugs. Here the Jongpen had a meal prepared +for us. We were first given tea, milk and beer, after which +some fifteen dumplings apiece, each as big as a small apple, +were put down in front of us together with three other bowls. +In one of these was a black Chinese sauce, in another a chillie +paste, and a third contained a barley soup. We were then +given chopsticks with which we were expected to convey +the dumplings into the barley soup, break them up there, +season them with the various sauces, and then convey them +to our mouths—a not too easy feat. This meal was so +satisfying that we felt that we did not want to eat anything<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +for a long time afterwards. We were told that in the rainy +season the river here was unfordable, as it rose several feet +and flooded over the plains, and it was then necessary to +keep to the North or to the South of it. In the evening +the agent came to make an official call and presented us +with a sheep and a number of eggs. We invited him to +dinner and gave him his first taste of such European cooking +as could be provided by our native cooks.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_062.jpg" width="500" height="313" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_062"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Gyangka Range from near Chushar.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>There was a slight frost during the night, but the day +turned out very fine. Our host accompanied us to the village +of Rongkong, one of the villages belonging to his brother, +and here he said good-bye to us. The day's march was +uninteresting. We followed along the left bank of the +Yaru past well-irrigated barley fields, for there was any +amount of water here, until the valley narrowed and the +sides came down steeper, when it became covered with +gorse bushes. This valley we descended for about 10 miles +until it debouched into another, a broader sandy valley +where the Yaru changed its course to the South. We forded +it at a point where it was about 90 yards wide and 3½ feet +deep, and we then sat down and waited for our transport +to come up. Beyond us lay a wide sandy valley through +which a stream flowed sometimes on the surface, but more +often underground, when it formed dangerous quicksands. +When the transport came up, our drivers were very anxious +to cross immediately, as there was a strong wind blowing +and a violent sandstorm. They said that it would be much +safer to cross now that all the fresh sand had blown over +the wet sand. In the morning, they said, after a still night, +it was very dangerous, so following their advice we started +off, every one dressed up as though for a gas attack, +with goggles over the eyes and comforters or handkerchiefs +tied over the mouth and nose to keep the sand out. At +first we wound our way through big sand dunes, off which +the sand was blowing like smoke. Under one of these sand +dunes we found our coolies halted and lost. Some of the +donkeys, too, had been unloaded here, as they could not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +find their way across in the sandstorm. After leaving the +dunes, there were wide stretches of wet sand to cross, over +which the dried sand from the dunes was being blown like +long wisps of smoke so that the whole ground appeared to +be moving. In places where the wet sand shook and quivered +we galloped along. Eventually we and our transport arrived +on the far side of the plain in safety. It was now too late, +however, to go on any further, so we camped on the dunes +near the quicksands in the teeth of the gale. The sand was +being whirled up on to us and into our tents until everything +and every one was full of sand. Water was handy, but +yak dung, our only fuel, was scarce and scanty.</p> + +<p>Just before dark a very beautiful and lofty peak appeared +to the Southwards. Our drivers called it Chomo Uri (The +Goddess of the Turquoise Peak) and we had many +discussions as to what mountain this was. In the morning, +after taking its bearings carefully, we decided that this +could be no other than Mount Everest. We found out +afterwards that the name, Chomo Uri, was purely a local +name for the mountain. Throughout Tibet it was known +as <ins title="Chomo-lungma">Chomolungma</ins>—Goddess Mother of the Country—and +this is its proper Tibetan name.</p> + +<p>Next morning, after an uncomfortable and windy night, +we rode for several miles across a plain covered with sand +dunes 20 feet or more in height. On reaching the entrance +to the valley of Bhong-chu, I determined to separate myself +from the main party in order to explore a peak which attracted +my attention on the North side of the valley and seemed to +promise good views of Mount Everest and its surroundings. +After a climb of some 3,000 feet, I found myself on a spur +from which I had a very wonderful view. The view extended +to the East from beyond Chomolhari—over 120 miles away—and +embraced practically all the high snow peaks from +Chomolhari to Gosainthan, a distance of some 250 miles. +In the centre Mount Everest stood up all by itself, a wonderful +peak towering above its neighbours and entirely without a +rival. I spent four or five hours at the top of this hill, basking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +in the sun, as it was delightfully hot. I saw several swallow-tailed +butterflies, also a number of bees, wasps and horse +flies. Major Morshead and his surveyors soon afterwards +joined us, intending to take advantage of the fine view. +In the afternoon I left the peak and descended into the valley +in search of our new camp, for we had now left the Yaru and +had turned up into the valley of the Bhong-chu, a river that +flowed from the West, with a very considerable volume of +water. As there was rinderpest in the valley, our transport +consisted now of donkeys only, many of them being very +diminutive in size, but quite accustomed to carrying heavy +loads. Our camp was pitched at a place called Trangso +Chumbab, where there was an old Chinese rest-house. The +Bhong-chu here was nearly 200 yards in width, but there +was quite a good ford across it to Tsogo. Here we found +many flourishing villages and much cultivation. We seemed +to be entering a much more populated part of the country; +from the top of the hill I counted in one valley no less than +fifteen villages and quite a number of willow groves. From +here a longish march of 18 miles up the valley of the Bhong-chu +brought us to Kyishong—a pretty little village on the banks +of the river. There were a few willow trees here and a lot +of sea buckthorn. I did not keep to the road, but started +early across a big plain on which I was lucky enough to +shoot a goa with quite good horns. The day was very hot +and sultry, and after crossing the plain I went up a side +valley which turned out to be extremely pretty. It was +very narrow and a mass of wild rose bushes. These roses +were all of a creamy yellow, and every bush was covered +with hundreds of sweet-smelling flowers. There was also a +curious black clematis and several species of broom and +rock cistus. Here and there were grassy patches with +bubbling springs of crystal clearness. Rock pigeons, +Brahminy ducks, blackbirds and numerous other varieties +of small birds came down to drink here and did not mind us +at all. About two o'clock the weather suddenly changed +and violent thunderstorms started all round us, first on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +opposite side of the valley and then on every side. Heavy +hail came down at the same time and the ground soon became +white. On descending into the valley, I put up what was +to me a new kind of partridge, also numerous mountain +hares. On emerging into the main valley, I noticed a group +of five large Chortens. I was told that the centre Chorten +had been built over a very bad demon, and that it kept +him down. The other four Chortens at the corners prevented +his ever getting away.</p> + +<p>The next day's march to Shekar Dzong was a short one +of only 12 miles. We followed the main valley for about +6 miles through some interesting conglomerate gorges +alternating with open spaces covered with sea buckthorn. +We then turned off Northwards up a side valley which led +us to the town and fort of Shekar. This place was very +finely situated on a big rocky and sharp-pointed mountain +like an enlarged St. Michael's Mount. The actual town +stands at the foot of the hill, but a large monastery, holding +over 400 monks and consisting of innumerable buildings, is +literally perched half-way up the cliff. The buildings are +connected by walls and towers with the fort, which rises +above them all. The fort again is connected by turreted +walls with a curious Gothic-like structure on the summit of +the hill where incense is offered up daily. On our arrival +the whole town turned out and surrounded us with much +curiosity, for we were the first Europeans that they had ever +seen. A small tent had been pitched for us, but there was +such a crowd round it that I retreated to a willow grove +close by, which was protected by a wall. As the Jongpen +had not come to see us, Chheten Wangdi went over to find +him; presently he came along with a basket of eggs and +with many apologies for not coming before, but he said that +he had had no warning of our arrival. This was but partly +true, for though our passport did not particularly mention +this place, it authorised all officials to help us to their utmost, +and the Jongpen certainly knew and had heard that we +were coming. I asked him to give orders that no intoxicating<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +spirits should be served out to our followers, remembering +the trouble we had had in one or two places before owing to +their all getting drunk. Our tents were all pitched inside +an enclosure and in the shade of the willow grove, and above +us towered the picturesque buildings of the fort and the +monastery. This was by far the largest and most interesting +place that we had yet come across. For our mess tent we were +given a fine Chinese tent such as they always seem to keep for +the entertainment of guests of honour. As in most places, there +were two Jongpens residing here, one lay and the other +ecclesiastical, and finding that Tingri was under their jurisdiction, +we asked them to issue orders to their representatives +at Tingri to help us in every way with supplies and transport.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_066.jpg" width="500" height="300" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_066"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Shekar Dzong.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>June 17 we spent resting at Shekar. In the morning +Morshead and I went to call on the Jongpen; he lives in +a poor house at the foot of the hill, his official residence +being three-quarters of the way up, but he wisely prefers +to live at the bottom, not being very fond of exercise. He +was busy adding on to his house, and we were shown into +the old part in which he was living. He gave us the usual +Tibetan tea and sweetmeats and then insisted on our having +macaroni and meat seasoned with chillies, which was +excellent, followed by junket served in china bowls. He +had some very fine teacups of agate and hornblende schist +with finely chased silver covers, which I admired very much. +That afternoon several of us went up to visit the big monastery +of Shekar Chö-te. This consisted of a great number +of buildings terraced one above the other on a very steep +rocky slope. A path along the face of the rock brought +us to several archways under which we passed. We then +had to go up and down some picturesque but very steep and +narrow streets until we came to a large courtyard. On +one side of this was the main temple. In this temple were +several gilt statues of Buddha decorated all over with +turquoises and other precious stones, and behind them +a huge figure of Buddha quite 50 feet high. Every year, +they told us, they had to re-gild his face. Around were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +eight curious figures about 10 feet high and dressed in quaint +flounces which they said were the guardians of the shrine. +We then went up steep and slippery ladders, in almost +pitch darkness, and came out on a platform opposite the +face of the great Buddha. Here were some beautifully +chased silver teapots and other interesting pieces of silver, +richly decorated in relief. Inside the shrine, which was +very dark, the smell of rancid butter was almost overpowering +as all the lamps burnt butter. The official head of the +monastery showed us round. He was apparently appointed +from Lhasa and was responsible for all the revenues and +financial dealings of the monastery. We were given very +buttery tea in the roof courtyard, which was a pleasant +spot, and here I photographed a group of several monks. +They had never seen a camera or photographs before, but +they had heard that such a thing was possible and were +very much interested in it. Before leaving we went in to +see the Head Lama who had lived over sixty-six years in +this monastery. He was looked upon as being extremely +holy and as the re-incarnation of a former abbot, and they +therefore practically worshipped him. There was only one +tooth left in his mouth, but for all that he had a very pleasant +smile. All around his room were silver-gilt Chortens inlaid +with turquoises and precious stones and incense was being +burnt everywhere. After much persuasion the other monks +induced him to come outside and have his photograph +taken, telling him that he was an old man, and that his +time on earth was now short, and they would like to have +a picture of him to remember him by. He was accordingly +brought out, dressed up in robes of beautiful golden brocades, +with priceless silk Chinese hangings arranged behind him +while he sat on a raised dais with his dorje and his bell in +front of him, placed upon a finely carved Chinese table. The +fame of this photograph spread throughout the country +and in places hundreds of miles away I was asked for photographs +of the Old Abbot of Shekar Chö-te, nor could I give +a more welcome present at any house than a photograph<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +of the Old Abbot. Being looked upon as a saint, he was +worshipped, and they would put these little photographs +in shrines and burn incense in front of them.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_068.jpg" width="321" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_068"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Abbot of Shekar Chöte.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>About midnight that night I was suddenly awakened +by yells and loud shouting and hammering close to my +tent and next to that in which Bullock and Mallory were +sleeping. The latter turned out and found that a Tibetan +had seized an ice axe and a mallet and was busy hammering +on our store boxes. He gave chase, but failed to catch +the intruder. Some of our coolies, however, found out +where he had gone to, and Chheten Wangdi had him handed +over to the Jongpen. On investigation in the morning the +man proved to be a madman whom his parents always kept +locked up during nights when the moon was full, but he had +managed to escape, so we handed him back to his family.</p> + +<p>Our transport was very slow in arriving, and there were +so many delays that it was midday before the procession +finally moved off. The loads, too, were very badly put on +and kept falling off, also the transport was quite the worst +that we had yet had. For about 5 miles the path went +up and down hill and through much sand until we came +to the bridge over the Bhong-chu. This bridge consisted of +four or five stout pillars of loose stones which acted as piers, +on which were laid a few pieces of wood, on which flat stones +were placed. It was a rough form of bridge, but served +at ordinary times for its purpose. During the course of +this summer, however, after heavy rain, these piers so +dammed up the water as to cause it to rise some 4 or 5 feet +on the upper side of them with the result that the immense +weight of water swept the whole bridge away. Bullock +and Mallory with half a dozen coolies had left early in the +morning, intending to bivouac out for a couple of nights +and climb one of the hills to the South of the Bhong-chu +in order to get a view of Mount Everest. After we had gone +about 5 miles we met them close to the bridge, as they had +lost their way and had been walking for about 15 miles: +not having found the bridge, they had forded the river<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +and had got wet up to their necks in crossing it. At dusk +we reached the village of Tsakor, where we found a tent +pitched for us, and here we spent the night. Our transport +did not turn up till nearly nine o'clock, and so we all slept +in the mess tent. From here to Tingri was still another +20 miles—the path following the right bank of the Bhong-chu +the whole way. In places the river was as much as 200 +yards wide and flowed very sluggishly. We were told that +the waters were very low, but that next month, when the +rains had broken, the river often filled the whole of the +bottom of the valley. On the way we passed some very +handsome black-necked cranes as large as the Saurus crane. +These had black heads and bills, with red eyes, light grey +bodies and black tails with fine feathers. On this march +the midges were dreadfully annoying the whole way, and we +were surrounded with clouds of them the whole time. Their +bite was very tiresome and extremely irritating. On the +way we passed a Mongolian who had taken eleven months +in coming from Lhasa and who was on his way to Nepal. +His method of progression was by throwing himself at full +length down on the ground. He then got up and at the spot +where his hands touched the ground repeated the motion +again. As we approached Tingri, the valley widened out +and bent round to the South. Tingri itself was situated +on the side of a small hill in the middle of a great plain, +from which, looking to the South, was visible the wonderful +chain of snowy peaks, many of them over 25,000 feet in +height, which extends Westwards from Mount Everest. We +crossed the Ra-chu—a tributary of the Bhong-chu, partly by +bridges and partly by fords; it was split up into a number +of small and very muddy channels that took their rise from +the Kyetrak Glacier. Tingri was to be our first base for +reconnoitring the Northern and North-western approaches +to Mount Everest. It was June 19 when we arrived there, +so that it had taken us just a month's travelling from +Darjeeling to perform this part of our journey.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p style="text-indent: 0;">Footnote:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Dzong means fort.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%">TINGRI AND THE COUNTRY TO THE SOUTH</span></p> + +<p>Tingri is a place of some importance, with a considerable +trade at certain seasons of the year. It is the last place +of any size on this side of the Nepalese frontier and boasts +of a military governor. The garrison, however, when we +visited it, consisted only of a sergeant and four or five +soldiers. There were about three hundred houses in Tingri, +all clustered together on the slopes of a small isolated hill +standing in the middle of the great plain. On the top of +the hill was the old Chinese fort, now all falling into +ruin, but still littered with papers and books, written in +Chinese characters, left behind by the Chinese on their hasty +departure. Inside were quaint mural frescoes of curious old +men riding stags or winged dragons painted in many colours. +All the way up the valley of the Bhong-chu we had seen ruins +of walls and evidences of much fighting. These all dated +back, we were told, to the time of the Nepalese invasions +of Tibet in the eighteenth century when the Gurkhas penetrated +so far into Tibet that they actually got to Shigatse, +and the Tibetans had to call upon the Chinese Empire for +help. The Chinese came into the country with a large +army, defeated the Gurkhas, drove them out of Tibet and +crossed the Himalayas with a considerable army into Nepal, +an extraordinary military feat considering the enormous +difficulty of moving an army in these unhospitable regions +over the high mountain passes through which it is approached. +The Chinese, after this, never left Tibet until they were +driven out by the Tibetans only a few years ago. In the hills +round Tingri we came across many evidences of the fighting +which then took place. This probably accounted for the +large number of ruined and deserted villages that we saw<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +in the valleys around. At the foot of the hill was a large +Chinese rest-house which was only used to house Tibetan +officials when they came there on duty. The Tibetans +themselves did not like to live in or use the place, as many +Chinese had died there and they thought that their ghosts +haunted the spot. This rest-house was, however, swept +out and prepared for our reception, as we had told the +Tibetans that we should probably stay there for some time +and should want a house to protect us from the wind and +to provide a dark room for developing our photographs. +The rest-house consisted of three courtyards in the outer +one we put the coolies, in the middle one the surveyors, +and the inner one we kept for ourselves. In appearance +the building was quite picturesque with its mural paintings +of flying dogs and fierce dragons; but in spite of +its picturesqueness outside and its handsome appearance, the +rooms inside were small, and when the rain came it poured +through the roof and our beds had to be shifted many times +during the night to avoid the drips of water. It however +provided an excellent dark room for us after we had well +plastered the walls, the floor and the ceiling with mud and +got rid of the dust of ages. To do any photographic work +in Tibet a house is a necessity, as with the violent wind +that blows every day all one's belongings get covered with +dust which would ruin any negative. At first we found +water a great difficulty as the local water was full of mud, +but we eventually discovered a beautifully clear spring, +about half a mile away, which bubbled up in a deep bluey +green basin, and this water we used always, both for drinking +and for photographic work. Tingri had many advantages +as a base. Stores, supplies and transport were always +available there, as it was the headquarters of the district. +It also provided an easy means of approach to Mount +Everest from the North-west and to the high group of +mountains that lay to the West of Mount Everest. After +sorting out all our stores and equipment and seeing in +what state they were after the journey, our next business<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> +was the making of a dark room, as we had taken many +photographs on the journey that required developing. The +weather at this time was very fine, but the Tibetans kept +on telling us that the rainy season ought to be starting, so +we determined as soon as possible to send out parties in +different directions to make the most of the favourable +opportunity. The first morning after our arrival we were +up on the top of the hill by six o'clock in the hope of getting +a good view to the South, but the clouds were already over +most of the mountains. Everest we could see quite clearly, +and Cho-Uyo, the great 26,800 feet peak that lies to the +West of Mount Everest. The Depon here, who was acting +as the Governor of the place, was a nice young fellow and +very cheery, and later on I got to know him very well and +went over to his house and was entertained by him and +his wife. He told me that the Tibetans still paid tribute +to Nepal for all that part of the country, and that the +amount they had to pay was the equivalent of 5,000 rupees +per annum. The Nepalese kept a head-man at Tingri and +another at Nyenyam to deal with all criminal cases and +offences committed by Nepalese subjects when in Tibet. +I found later on that the Tibetans were very frightened +of the Nepalese, or of having any dealings with a Gurkha. +I took photographs of the Depon's wife and all their children, +and of his mother-in-law, which delighted them immensely; +the wife at first was very shy of coming forward, but after +many tears and protestations her husband finally induced +her to be photographed. The great semi-circular head-dresses +that the women wear are usually covered with +turquoises, and coral, and often with strings of seed +pearls across them. Round their necks hang long chains +of either turquoise or coral beads, sometimes mixed with +lumps of amber. Suspended round the neck by a shorter +chain is generally a very elaborately decorated charm box, +those belonging to the richer or upper classes being of gold +inlaid with turquoises, the poorer people having them made +of silver with poorer turquoises. The officials, as a rule,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +have a long ear-ring, 4 or 5 inches long, of turquoises and +pearls, suspended from the left ear, while in the right ear +they wear a single turquoise of very good quality. Nearly +every one carries a rosary, with which their hands are playing +about the whole day. We were told that the laws governing +marriage in those parts were strictly regulated. Owing +to the excessive number of males, a form of polyandry +prevails. If there were four brothers in a family, and the +eldest one married a wife, his wife would also be the property +of the three younger brothers; but if the second or third +brother married, their wives would be common only to +themselves and their youngest brother. In Tibet, when, +owing to the severe climate, digging is impossible for about +six months in the year, if a man dies his body is handed +over to professional corpse butchers, of whom there are +one or two in every village. These butchers cut the body +up into small pieces, which are taken out on to a hill-top +and scattered about for the birds of the air or the wolves +to devour. If by any chance there is a delay in consuming +these remains, this is looked upon as a sign that the man +has led an evil life during his lifetime.</p> + +<p>On June 22 Wollaston rejoined us again. He had +escorted Raeburn to Lachen, and had there arranged for +an assistant surgeon to come up and take him back as far +as Gangtok. Wollaston had then come on as fast as possible +to rejoin us. His kit did not arrive till the following day, as +he had ridden in direct from Shekar Dzong. The following +day Bullock and Mallory left us, making direct for Mount +Everest, and intending to reconnoitre the North and Northwestern +slopes. Looked at from here it is certainly a +very wonderful mountain, as it seems to stand up all by +itself, but from this side it looks far too steep to be climbed. +On June 25 Wheeler and Heron went off to Kyetrak, from +which point Wheeler was to begin his photographic survey. +I had intended to start the following day and join them, +but the acid hypo that I had been using for fixing had given +off so many sulphur fumes that I had been quite “gassed”<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +for several days and had lost my voice in consequence. +Unfortunately my orderly and Wheeler's bearer, who were +both Mahommedans, were taken ill with enteric. Wheeler's +bearer was in a very bad way, and a few days after my +departure he died, but my orderly, after a bad attack, +recovered, and when I returned three weeks later he was +able to be up and to walk about a little. As Wollaston +was likely to be detained here for some time owing to these +cases of sickness, and as Morshead wanted to get in some +surveying all round Tingri, I thought it would be a good +opportunity to visit the different parties that we had sent +out, and also to get, if possible, some information about +Kharta, which I intended should be our second base. The +coolies that we had still with us at Tingri were kept busy +by Wollaston, and daily they would bring in rats, birds, +lizards, beetles, or fish which they had collected for him. +The local people would not make any attempt to collect +these animals, as they said it was against their religion. On +June 26 I started out to the South and camped the first +night at Sharto, a small village about 9 miles across the +plain to the South of Tingri. On the way we passed numbers +of bees that seemed to be coming up out of the ground and +swarming. These were all of a very light brown colour. +Sharto is only a small village, but there are no other houses +between it and Kyetrak, so that it was necessary to stop +there. As the wind always blows with great strength here, +the tents were pitched within some sheltering walls. In +every place that we went to now we managed to get some +kind of green food which was turned into spinach; a small +kind of weed that grows in the barley fields was generally +thus used. At other times we tried turnip leaves, or again, +when we were higher and above the limits of cultivation, +the young shoots of the nettle which grows up to 17,000 +feet, and is really very good. I had taken with me this time +a Tibetan whom we had picked up on the way. He was +called Poo, and he turned out to be an excellent cook who +could make any of the Tibetan dishes. As he was a sensible<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +fellow, and very seldom drunk, I made a good deal of use +of him. He accompanied me in all my wanderings, and I +could not have found a more useful servant when travelling, +as he never seemed to mind the cold or the height and could +always produce a fire of some kind, even though he had +forgotten to bring any matches. That evening at Sharto +there was a curious false sunset in the East with rays +of light in the deep purple of the sky. All the hills stood +out with wonderful sharpness, and the colours were very +beautiful. Towards nightfall we saw a number of kiang, +which came quite close up to the camp and started feeding +on the barley fields in spite of the pillars of stones and the +strings which are put round the fields to keep both them +and the hares away from the crops. The next morning I +started off early as I intended to climb a hill 17,700 feet, +on the way to Kyetrak. This hill, however, proved further +off than I anticipated, and we had some difficulty in crossing +a glacier stream, so that I did not get up to the top till 9 +a.m., by which time the clouds had hidden a great part of +the mountains to the South of us. The view, nevertheless, +was extraordinarily fine. The top of Everest just showed +above a great icy range to the East of us, and South-east +was that great group of mountains of which Cho-Uyo, 26,800 +feet, is the highest. Immense granite precipices descended +sheer for several thousand feet until they reached great +winding glaciers, while from over the Khombu Pass long wisps +of cloud came sailing round these peaks and eventually hid +them from our view. To the North the view extended +right up to the watershed of the Brahmaputra, 80 to 100 +miles distant. The different colours of the hills, the light +and shade from the clouds, all formed a charming picture. +Once over 17,000 feet, I met my old friend the dwarf blue +poppy (<i>Meconopsis</i>) and many pretty white, blue and yellow +saxifrages that grew on the rocks. Descending from this +hill into the Kyetrak Valley, we passed a number of goa +which were quite tame, but unfortunately they were all +females. We had two more big glacial torrents to cross<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +which later in the afternoon would probably have been +impassable as by that time they would have risen another +2 feet, due to the melting of the snow and the ice by the +hot sun in the morning; indeed, we only just managed to +get across when we did. The main Kyetrak stream comes +from the great glacier that descends from Cho-Uyo and the +Khombu Pass. Opposite the village of Kyetrak it is luckily +divided into a number of small streams, so that it is usually +possible to get across it, though in the afternoons it is always +somewhat difficult.</p> + +<p>This village lies at a height of 16,000 feet, at the foot +of the Khombu or Nangba Pass and the Pusi Pass. The +former is a high glacier-covered pass, about 19,000 feet, +that leads into the Khombu Valley in Nepal. The other, +the Pusi Pass, is a much lower and easier pass that leads +into the Rongshar Valley. Between these two passes lies +a very beautiful glacier-covered peak called Chorabsang. +Here at Kyetrak I met Heron and Wheeler encamped in +the shelter of some walls close to the village, which consisted +of a few dirty stone houses and a big Chorten. The people +told me that they lived here all the year round, and that +they owned the grazing for many miles to the North and +possessed herds of yaks several thousand in number. Traffic +could be kept up over these passes, they said, at all times +of the year, though only with great difficulty, and with +much danger, whole convoys being sometimes wiped out by +blizzards when trying to cross the Khombu Pass, as the +fine powdery snow is blown down into their faces from every +direction and they finally get suffocated by it. That night +there was a sharp frost, and the following morning Heron +and I started to go up towards the Khombu Pass, following +at first the East side of the Kyetrak Glacier. For about +6 or 7 miles we rode beside the great moraine that +extended along the East side of this glacier; every now and +then we climbed up on to a mound on the edge of the glacier +in order to take photographs of it. The ice was all torn +and riven into wonderful shapes and opposite us was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +finely crevassed peak of Chorabsang. I pushed on, leaving +Heron to come on at a slower pace, as I was anxious to get +to the top of the pass before the clouds should have come +up and hidden all the views. Every day it cost us a race +to get up to a point of vantage before the clouds should +have come up and hidden everything. Leaving the pony +behind, with one coolie, I pressed forward for some 4 miles +up a very stony and slippery moraine on the glacier. Here +were many curious ice formations—ice tables with a big +flat rock superimposed, curious upright pillars of ice, and +the main glacier itself was worn by stone and water into the +weirdest shapes and forms. In places, too, we came across +that curious formation which in South America is called +Nieve Penitentes. As we passed onwards, new glaciers +opened up in every valley. The views up some of these +side valleys, which often widened out into great amphitheatres, +were very grand, especially that of the huge glacier +that swept down from below the rock walls of Cho-Uyo.</p> + +<p>On arriving at the end of the moraine, the boots that +my coolie was wearing came to pieces and he said he could +go no further across the snow, so shouldering the big camera, +I started off alone. At first the ice was firm, but soon I +came to soft snow and much water underneath it: they +made the going very unpleasant and I kept floundering +about up to my knees in snow and water. At length I came +to a large crevasse along the edge of which I followed for +over half a mile as most of the snow bridges across it were +unsafe. At last I found my way across and by climbing on +to some rocks was able to look over the top of the pass and +down into Nepal. The height of the pass seemed to be +about 19,000 feet, and as the day was very hot, I lay down +and went sound asleep, only waking up when it began to +snow. I then started, none too soon, on my homeward +journey: all the way back snow fell heavily. I was very +thankful to meet my coolie again and to hand over the +camera to him: carrying a camera for five or six hours in +soft snow at a height of over 18,000 feet is a heavy tax upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +the endurance of anyone unaccustomed to carrying weights. +Wheeler meanwhile had moved up his camp from Kyetrak +to a spot on the moraine East of the glacier and intended +to spend a week or fortnight in that valley.</p> + +<p>The next morning Heron and I started to go over the +Pusi Pass (Marmot Pass), so called because of the number +of marmots that frequent the Southern slopes. After +fording the Kyetrak River, we climbed up the moraine to +the West of the Kyetrak Glacier and then turned up some +easy grass hills until we came to the top of the pass, 17,700 +feet. Here at the very top were growing some delightful +little dwarf forget-me-nots—not an inch high—also many +white and yellow saxifrages. Most of the views were +unfortunately hidden by clouds, though one fine triple-headed +peak showed up well to the South. We passed +several flocks of female burhel (<i>Ovis nahura</i>), which were +quite tame, and allowed us to ride up to within 50 yards +of them. The hillsides were bare at first and grassy and +the air felt distinctly cold and damp. We now commenced +our long descent, and at 16,000 feet began to meet with +juniper bushes and many dwarf rhododendrons. As we +got lower, many more varieties of bushes appeared. There +were two or three kinds of berberis, loniceras, white and pink +spiræas, and quantities of white roses; besides these were +masses of primulas and anemones, and pink, white or mauve +geraniums. We now followed the right bank of the Shung-chu, +a great glacial torrent, which joined by several others +became an unfordable stream. The path was well engineered, +sometimes close to the river, and sometimes built out on +rocks high above the stream. All of a sudden the valley +narrowed into a great gorge. We had left all the granites +and slates behind and had suddenly come into the zone +of the gneiss, which extended many miles to the South. +A little way further down, at a place where two other valleys +meet, we caught sight of some green barley fields lying round +the small village of Tasang where we encamped on a terrace +for the night. We were now at a height of only 13,300<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +feet, and were able to get fresh eggs and vegetables again. +It was a great pleasure once more to have wood fires in +place of the yak dung with its acrid smoke, which caused +all one's food to taste unpleasantly. Here we used as fuel +the aromatic wood of the juniper.</p> + +<p>This valley is looked upon as a holy one, owing to the +number of juniper bushes that grow in it, and several +hermits and nuns had taken up their abode in it and +shut themselves up in caves in order to meditate. The +nearest village used to supply them with food, and morning +and evening could be seen ascending the blue smoke of the +juniper, which they burnt as incense before the entrances of +their dwelling places. There was a hermit who lived close +to the village and whose cave we could see high up in the +rocks above. The villagers told us that after meditating +for a period of ten years, he would be able to live on +only ten grains of barley a day, and they were looking +forward to that day. There was another anchorite female +who was supposed to have lived here for 138 years and +who was greatly revered. She had forbidden any of the +animals in the valley to be killed, and that was the reason +why the flocks of burhel we had passed were so extremely +tame. The next day, giving our transport a rest, Heron +and I walked for 7 or 8 miles down the valley. On the +opposite side of the valley the only trees were birches and +willow, and it was curious that, at these comparatively +low heights, there were no large rhododendrons or fir trees. +On the other side of the valley, the vegetation consisted +wholly of juniper, berberis or wild roses. We descended +to 12,000 feet, most of the time going through narrow gorges. +At one place we came across a number of gooseberry bushes +covered with young gooseberries, of which we gathered a +sufficient supply to last us for several days. The rose bushes +were charming all the way. At first they were all of the +white creamy coloured variety, but lower down we came +on the big red one with flowers often more than 3 inches +in diameter. Wherever there were springs of water there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +grew masses of anemones and yellow primulas. We now +returned to our camp at Tasang, and rain then started and +continued the remainder of the day. The people told +us that this valley was passable for animals for three days' +journey, after which the river entered into some terrible +gorges down which it was only just possible for a coolie to +get along, and these latter gorges formed the boundary +between Tibet and Nepal. On July 1 we started to return +to Kyetrak; the morning was misty when we started, and +though the higher peaks were all hidden in the clouds, the +sun shone brightly and the day was quite hot. Our kit +did not arrive till between five and six o'clock, and the yaks +had a great deal of trouble in getting across the Kyetrak +River, as it had risen considerably. Wheeler was still at +his high camp further up the valley, waiting for a really clear +day. The clouds, too, were his great enemies, as they came +up very early every morning from over the Khombu Pass.</p> + +<p>From here Heron and I had decided to go on and see +how Mallory and Bullock had been faring in the next valley, +so the next morning, after breakfasting at 5 a.m., we started +off. It was one of the coldest mornings we had had, with +a very hard frost, and being on the shady side of the valley +we did not get the sun till several hours after we had started. +After going down the valley for about 6 miles, we turned +off to the East and crossed several easy passes, the higher +of them, the Lamna La, being 16,900 feet. The country +was very barren of flowers and vegetation, but there was +a certain amount of grazing for yaks and sheep. The march +to Zambu was a fairly long one of 20 miles, but the yaks +came along well. This was a more prosperous-looking +village than most of them, and the houses were all whitewashed. +We were still too high for barley fields as we were +just 16,000 feet, but the wealth of the village lay in its herds +of yaks and sheep; the villagers told us they owned 3,000 +yaks. Shepherds in this country are but poorly paid, +getting only thirty trangkas (10<i>s.</i>) per annum. But house +servants are still worse off, getting only eight trangkas<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +(2<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>) per annum. However, they seem to thrive under +those wages and there is no discontent or trades unionism +among them. Our camp was pitched in a sunny spot not +far from the village, looking straight over towards Mount +Everest, whose top appeared over the opposite hills. From +this side its precipices looked most formidable and there +was also a magnificent ridge which we had not seen before. +There was a slight frost again that night.</p> + +<p>Breakfasting, as usual, at 5 a.m., I started up the hill +South of the camp and was lucky enough to get a clear +view of Everest and the Rongbuk Valley that led up to +it. This valley ran right up to the foot of Mount Everest +and seemed an easy enough approach, but the mountain +itself looked absolutely unscalable from this side, showing +nothing but a series of very steep precipices. The day +turned out to be a very hot one. I descended into the +valley below, and started to ride up towards Mount Everest. +Presently I came to an unfordable stream, and after making +several attempts to get across this, found myself compelled +to return several miles down the valley to the monastery +of Chöbu, where there was a slender footbridge. The pony +that I was riding was swum across, a rope being attached to +its head. He was then pulled over to the far side, a proceeding +he did not at all enjoy. The yaks, too, were unladen, +and the loads carried by hand over the bridge. After this +the yaks were driven into the river and made to swim across, +but they only went as far as an island in the middle of the +river. From this place they would not budge in spite of +stones, curses and threats, until at length a man with a +sling, fetched from the monastery, hurled stones at them with +great violence: this procedure apparently so stung them +up that they thought it advisable to cross the remainder +of the stream. At the entrance to the valley, we passed +some very tame burhel within a few yards of the path, and +then went along at the foot of some fine cliffs with limestone +on the top and layers of hornblende and granite below. At +first there was quite a rich vegetation growing here,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +considering we were just on 16,000 feet. There were juniper +bushes, clematis, willows, a genista, rock roses, and even +some yellow primulas, but as we got further into the valley +it became more stony, and on either side of the path were +small piles of stones heaped up by pilgrims. The valley +was considered very sacred and was apparently a great place +of pilgrimage. We found the base camp of the Alpine +climbers pitched close to the Rongbuk Monastery, where +there lived a very high re-incarnated Lama who was in +meditation and not allowed to see anyone. This valley +was called the Rongbuk, or inner valley—a name well +suited to it; the legend was that from this valley there used +to be a pass over into the Khombu Valley, but the high +Lama who lived here forbade the use of it, as it disturbed +the meditations of the recluses and hermits, of which there +were several hundred here. At first these good people did +not at all approve of our coming into this valley, as they +thought we should be likely to disturb and distract their +meditations.</p> + +<p>The Rongbuk Monastery lies at a height of 16,500 feet, +and is an unpleasantly cold spot. This monastery contains +twenty permanent Lamas who always live there, together +with the re-incarnated Lama. Besides these, there are three +hundred other associated Lamas who come in periodically, +remaining there for periods of varying length. These +Associate Lamas are mostly well-to-do, and having sufficient +money to support themselves are not a drain upon the +villagers. They will often invest several thousand trangkas +with some village, and in return for this money the village +will supply them with food, barley, milk, eggs and fuel. +Higher up the valley there was a smaller monastery, and +dotted along the hillside were numerous cells and caves +where monks or nuns had retired to meditate. Every +animal that we saw in this valley was extraordinarily tame. +In the mornings we watched the burhel coming to some +hermits' cells not a hundred yards away from the camp, +to be fed, and from there they went on to other cells. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +seemed to have no fear whatever of human beings. On +the way up the valley we passed within 40 to 50 yards of +a fine flock of rams, but they barely moved away, and on +the way back we passed some females that were so inquisitive +that they actually came up to within 10 yards of us in order +to have a look at us. The rock pigeons came and fed out +of one's hand, and the ravens and all the other birds here +were equally tame; it was most interesting to be able to +watch all their habits and to see them at such close quarters. +On July 4, Heron and I walked up the valley to see Mallory +and Bullock, who had got an Alpine camp some 7 miles +further up the valley at a height of 18,000 feet, where they +were training their coolies in snow and ice work and trying +to find out whether there was any possible way of attacking +Mount Everest from this side. It was a beautiful morning +when we started, and on the way we passed one or two +small monasteries and numerous cells where hermits and +recluses were living in retirement and meditation. After +crossing several small lake beds and old moraines—for the +big Rongbuk Glacier seemed to have been retiring in the +last few years—we came to the big moraine-covered Rongbuk +Glacier. This glacier appeared to be about 8 or 9 miles +long, starting immediately below an immense circle of cliffs +which formed the North face of Mount Everest. We found +afterwards that there were several other side glaciers that +joined in it, which were even larger and longer than the +centre glacier. After some steep scrambles up the moraine-covered +glacier and on to a high terrace on the West side of +it, we found Mallory and Bullock with their coolies encamped +in a pleasantly sheltered spot with plenty of water close +at hand and commanding the most magnificent views of +Mount Everest, which here seemed to be only about 6 miles +away and towered up above the glacier, showing immense +cliffs 10,000 feet high. Mallory and Bullock were hard at +work training the coolies in snow and ice work and exploring +all the different glaciers from that side. They were, however, +much handicapped by there only being two of them, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +made the work more strenuous. After spending the day +with them, Heron and I returned to our camp in the evening. +The evening light on Mount Everest was wonderfully beautiful. +The weather seems nearly always to clear up about sunset, +and its summit then usually towers far above the clouds +in a clear sky. At dusk several of the Lamas came for +medicines of different kinds, which we gave them, and much +to our surprise in the morning they presented us with a +number of fresh eggs in gratitude. Having seen Mallory +and Bullock well established in this valley, our next most +important duty seemed to be to select a site for our next +base camp. Some place on the East side of Mount Everest +would have to be chosen, and it seemed that somewhere +in the Kharta Valley would be the most likely spot. Heron +and I therefore determined that we would make a quick +reconnaissance of that district before returning to Tingri. +On the following day we moved down from the Rongbuk +Monastery.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%">THE SEARCH FOR KHARTA</span></p> + +<p>After leaving Mallory and Bullock to continue the search +for a possible route up Mount Everest from the Rongbuk +side, Heron and I, on July 5, started off down the Rongbuk +Valley in order to visit Kharta. We had been told that it +was only two days' easy march from the monastery to get +there. It was a cold morning when we started off; there +had been a sharp frost during the night and the sun did +not reach us till late in the morning. Mount Everest stood +out at the head of the valley wonderfully clear and clothed +with a fresh mantle of white. Instead of crossing over the +river by the bridge, at Chöbu, we kept straight on down +the valley till we came to Chödzong, where were the first +barley fields and cultivation. There was plenty of water +here for irrigation purposes, and some fine grassy fields +on which many ponies were grazing. We had to change +our transport in this village and get fresh animals, so that +it was not till three o'clock in the afternoon that we got +started again. In Tibet they have a system of stages, and +animals from one village are taken, as a rule, for one stage +only. As each stage usually ends at the next village, and as +villages are frequent, this is a most awkward and inconvenient +arrangement—as it necessitates three or four changes a +day. In order to avoid these constant changes, we used to +persuade the villagers by promises of extra baksheesh, +especially where we had a large number of animals, to +undertake two or three stages. After leaving Chödzong +we climbed up over a steep pass 1,200 feet above the valley +and found a still deeper descent to the village of Halung, +which lay at our feet. Here we waited for our transport, +but as this did not arrive till dark, we decided to camp<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +there, though we had only done 18 miles from Rongbuk; +the yak travels very slowly. We were now again at 14,800 +feet and found a much warmer climate, with green barley +fields and here and there patches of yellow mustard. A +large rhubarb with a curious crinkled leaf grew here and +there in the fields. We tried to eat this rhubarb; it +had an unpleasant taste, but this disappeared when it +was cooked and it proved a welcome addition to our diet. +The Tibetans do not use it for food, as sugar—without +which it would be uneatable—is scarce and expensive in +the country. The plant serves, however, as an acid for +dyes.</p> + +<p>Halung is a very prosperous-looking village with well-built +houses. The villagers soon had three tents pitched +for us on a grassy field between the village and the river; +cushions, cooking pots and fuel were also brought out for us. +Here we camped for the night in reasonable comfort. On +the following morning the loads were all carried by hand +across a fragile bridge over the glacier stream, while the +yaks and the ponies were driven across it. We then rode +for a mile down the green and well-watered valley, and +afterwards turned up into another valley where every flat +space was green with barley-fields intermixed with brilliant +patches of yellow from the fields of mustard. A small +glacier stream fed this valley and supplied plenty of water +for irrigation. After passing several small villages we rode +across a spur also covered with barley-fields to Rebu, where +we had to change our transport. This was quite a picturesque +village situated on a rocky knoll, part of the village being +on one side and part on the other of the river. Along the +various irrigation canals were wild flowers of all kinds. +Monkshood grew there, also black and yellow clematis, +rhubarb, ranunculus and primulas of different kinds. By +ten o'clock our transport was changed and we were given +ponies instead of yaks: they travel much quicker and we +had apparently a long way to go yet before we could reach +the next village. We were expecting all the time to get to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +Kharta that evening, but where distances are concerned +all Tibetans are liars, and after doing 26 miles we stopped, +Kharta being apparently as far off as ever. After leaving +Rebu the path led for some miles up an uninteresting valley, +in which limestone cliffs on one side and sandstone cliffs +on the other came down almost to the stream, the waters +of which, in contrast to the muddy glacier streams that +we had been meeting the whole time, were as clear as crystal. +There were many small birds along the banks, all of them +wonderfully tame; these, when we were resting for lunch, +hopped all round us and under our legs, carrying off crumbs +or any morsels of food. We now climbed up on to a pass +called the Doya La, 17,000 feet, from the top of which were +fine views of great rocky peaks on either side, those on the +South being covered in parts with hanging glaciers. About +a quarter of a mile from the top of the pass we struck some +granite soil on which grew an extraordinary variety of +Alpine flowers; the blue poppy abounded, pink, yellow +and white saxifrages covered all the rocks, and besides these +were many other plants which I had not seen before and +which were quite new to me. The range which we now +crossed acts as a barrier against the approach of the Monsoon +clouds and prevents them from passing over into Tibet. +Over on the North side the country is mostly dry and very +little grows there, whereas on the South there is a rich and +varied vegetation and the air feels soft and moist. The +road from the pass led by an easy descent into a fine valley +with a green lake lying at its head under the dark cliffs +of some bold rocky peaks. We followed this valley for +many miles, a strong head wind blowing against us the whole +of the time, and found ourselves before long once more +among the junipers and willows. We also saw pink and +white rhododendrons, and in places a small yellow one +with waxy blossoms. The yellow rock cistus, spiræas, roses, +yellow primulas, blue monkshood, campanulas, blue anemones, +and hundreds of other wild flowers formed a rich flora which +showed that a considerable precipitation from the Monsoon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +fell in this valley.</p> + +<p>At last we came to a village, but every one fled at our +approach, and we could get no information about the route. +A little further on we came across more villages, in one +of which, with much difficulty and after a long chase, we +captured a man and made him guide us to the village of +Chulungphu, where we decided to stop the night. After +a little time we induced some of the villagers to come out +from their hiding-places, and to produce tents and fuel for +us. The camp was pitched in a field of sweet-scented primulas +near the village. The architecture of these houses was quite +different from what we had met before—they all appear +to be strongly fortified, as they have practically no windows +and there are only small loopholes facing outwards. They +are all built of a brown stone—a kind of gneiss, and have +sods on the parapet over which are laid branches of juniper. +The next morning we woke to the sound of pattering rain +and found all the hills wreathed in grey mist. This was +their first rain this year, so the inhabitants told us. It was +pleasant to one's skin after the dry climate and biting winds +that we had been experiencing on the other side of the +passes to feel oneself wrapped in a softer and milder air. +We rode down this valley for about 6 miles until it debouched +into the main Arun Valley. The people, however, do not +know it by this name here, but call it still the Bhong-chu +until it reaches Nepal. We passed villages all the way, +villages brown in colour and built of a brown gneiss, +around which grew fields of barley and mustard. After +the barren valleys which we had left, these appeared very +fertile; rose and currant bushes surrounded every field, +while the hillsides were covered with juniper and willows. +Along the path grew spiræas and clematis, while beside +every watercourse were yellow marsh marigolds and primulas. +A feature of the Arun Valley, which was fairly wide here, +was the old terraces on its slopes, now all covered with +barley, pea and mustard fields, the latter being a blaze of +yellow. There were many villages here and some pleasant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +country houses surrounded by groves of willows and poplars. +Down here the people were not quite so frightened of us +as they were in the valley from which we had just come, +where they had run away from us whenever we approached. +The Bong-chu here is a large river with a very great flow +of water, and quite unfordable. The nearest place where +it could be crossed is at a rope bridge some 18 miles higher +up, and during the rainy season this bridge is impassable, +and communication with the other side completely cut +off. To the South and close by, at a height of 12,000 feet, +the Bhong-chu enters a terrific gorge on either side of which +tower up great cliffs with snowy peaks high above them. +On some of the slopes which are not quite so steep there +are thick forests of fir trees and rhododendrons where, I +was told, the muskdeer lived. After descending the valley +for 3 miles, we turned up a side valley pointing Westwards. +Down this flowed a very large and unfordable glacial stream. +This evidently came down from the neighbourhood of +Mount Everest, but local information as to its source was +very vague, and it was evident that we should have to +prospect for ourselves. Some 3 miles up this valley we came +to a place called by the natives Kharta Shika, where the +Governor of the Kharta District resides. Kharta was not +apparently a village at all, but a district including a number +of small villages. We halted a short distance below Kharta +Shika and presently the Governor came out to meet us with +a present of sweetmeats and the usual scarf. He apologised +for not meeting us before, as he said that he had no information +as to the date of our arrival. He begged that we would +come over to his garden where he had ordered a fine Chinese +tent to be pitched for us. We crossed the river by a wooden +bridge, and after going through the village came to the +Governor's house. Crossing through the courtyard we +entered his garden, which lay in a nice sheltered spot +surrounded by willow trees with a stream of clear water +running through it. Big wild roses grew there and a few +European flowers that he had planted, while under a very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +ancient poplar there was a large painted prayer wheel, some 8 +feet high, which was turned by a stream of water. Here in his +garden he provided us with a meal of excellent macaroni +and a very hot chilli salad. It was very pleasant to rest +the eyes on the luscious green of the well irrigated garden, +and to be for once sheltered from the wind. During the +night we were awakened by a regular shower bath. The +Chinese tent, beautiful as it was in outward appearance, +was sadly lacking in waterproof qualities. As it rained +steadily most of the night, we had to take cover under our +mackintoshes on which were pools of water in the morning. +There seemed to be no doubt that the proper Monsoon had +at last broken, and the Jongpen himself told us that this +was the first really heavy rain that they had had. All the +people considered that we had brought this rain with us +and were very grateful in consequence; later on, when we +left, they begged us not to stop the rain, as they wanted +it badly for their crops.</p> + +<p>As it cleared up a little about nine o'clock in the morning, +though the hills were still all in cloud, we rode out with +Chheten Wangdi, the Jongpen and Hopaphema, who was +the largest landowner about here, to look out for a site +for our next base camp. We wanted, if possible, to get a +house that could be used as a store-room and also for photographic +purposes. We rode down into the main valley, +and after looking over several houses, we eventually selected +one on an old river terrace with fine views all around and +standing quite by itself well away from any village. The +water supply was good and handy, and there was a pleasant +garden of poplars and willows, in which we could pitch our +tents. After a certain amount of bargaining, the owners +were willing to let us have the house and the garden for the +large rent of one trangka (3½<i>d.</i>) a day. It was apparently +the first time anyone in that valley had ever wanted to +rent a house, and there were no house agents there to run one +up into exorbitant prices. We then rode on to Hopaphema's +house, which was a fine solidly built dwelling surrounded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +by large juniper trees, willows and poplars. Later on we +got to know this man very well, and used to call him always +the “Sergeant,” as he was supposed to do any recruiting +for the Tibetan army that was needed in that valley. He +had a very kindly disposition, was always very hospitable, +and had a great sense of humour. He had a tent pitched +for our reception under a very old poplar with a grass plot +in front surrounded by bushes of wild red roses. Here we +were given tea, milk and beer, and then the usual macaroni +and mince was produced. On leaving, he insisted on my +taking away a large quantity of turnip leaves, as he knew +I was very fond of green food, and they made an excellent +“spinach.” The Tibetans that we met have invariably +proved very kindly and hospitable.</p> + +<p>On returning to Kharta, where I had left Heron, I found +that it had been raining all the time, though in the main +valley we had had it quite fine. In the evening I took a +walk up to an old fort not far from our camp. This fort +in old days had commanded the only path from here that +led into Nepal, but now it had all fallen into ruin. Close +by it, however, was a delightful dell full of hoary willow +trees, underneath which the ground was carpeted with +yellow primulas growing among the bushes of scarlet roses. +Near by were two old poplar trees, whose trunks measured +between 20 and 30 feet in circumference and were evidently +of a very great age. The primulas everywhere were really +astonishing. They outlined every watercourse with yellow +and often grew between 2 and 3 feet high with enormous +heads of sweet cowslip-scented yellow flowers. It rained +again during the whole of the night, and the fine spray +that came through the Chinese tent made sleep rather +difficult. The next morning we started to go back to Tingri, +and for the first day's march were given coolies for our +transport. In this district coolies are used a great deal +as all the trade with Nepal has to be carried on by them, +the paths over the passes being quite impassable for pack +transport; the Jongpen told us that we would find them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +quite as fast as ponies.</p> + +<p>To-day's march was to Lumeh—a distance of about +17 miles—and the coolies arrived very soon after we did, +having come along extraordinarily well. Our route for the +first 3 miles was down the Kharta Valley until it joined +the valley of the Bhong-chu; we then followed the right bank +of this for some 10 miles. On the way we stopped at the +house of Hopaphema, who insisted on giving us a meal +of milk, macaroni and mince, although it was only just +over an hour since we had had breakfast. On our departure +he gave us a basket of eggs and some more turnip leaves +to take along with us, and altogether showed himself a +most friendly and hospitable host. At first we rode through +fields of barley, peas and mustard for several miles, the valley +then became much more barren and the path occasionally +was taken high up on the face of a cliff, where the river +swept round close beneath the mountain side. At other +times we crossed broad stony terraces. We came eventually +to the village of Dak, where the monks from the monastery +had pitched tents for us and had another meal provided +for us. Coolies had to be changed here, our old coolies +arriving while we were having our meal; after the loads +had been transferred, our new transport proceeded along to +Lumeh, where we intended to spend the night. The path +after Dak was in places dangerous owing to falling stones, +and our guide every now and then urged us to hurry, as +owing to the heavy rain of the preceding night many stones +had been loosened. The main Bhong-chu suddenly turned +off to the East from here, unexpectedly forcing a passage +through a very curious and deep gorge, where it burst its +way through the highest mountains. We did not, however, +follow the valley of the Bhong-chu, but kept on up what +appeared to be the main valley; this was really only the +valley of the Lower Rongbuk that in its lower portion is +called the Dzakar-chu. This river we crossed by a wooden +bridge, built on the cantilever principle, and which a couple +of months later was washed away. After riding for a couple<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +of miles over a nice grassy turf we came to Lumeh. Here +was a very fine country house around which were grouped a +few smaller houses. This was the residence of Ngawangyonten, +who was managing the district for the big monastery at +Shekar Dzong, whose property it was. He had tents already +pitched for us, and fuel, milk and eggs already prepared. +Around this house were five of the largest poplar trees that +I have ever seen. The largest was almost 40 feet in circumference +at the base, and the others were all between 20 +and 25 feet in circumference. The villagers told us that +they thought these trees had been planted about 500 years +ago. Magpies and hoopoes were very common in this +valley—the former were quite tame and allowed us to +approach very close. The barley-fields seemed to hold many +hares. Some fine crops of wheat as well as barley were +grown here, although the height was 12,800 feet. Every +night now we had heavy rain which brought fresh snow +down to 16,000 feet. As the clouds remained low all day +we seldom got any distant views.</p> + +<p>The march to Pulme, our next point up the valley of +the Dzakar-chu, was 22 miles, a very dull and uninteresting +ride. The going was bad—we often had to follow the bed +of the river, which was now in flood and extended to the +cliffs on both sides—at other times we kept high up on +the steep sides of a gorge, sometimes of gneiss, sometimes +of limestone rock. In places where the valley widened +out, the river bed was full of bushes of tamarisk and sea +buckthorn, but otherwise the vegetation was scanty. After +going 15 miles we were to change coolies; but the Lumeh +coolies, who were extremely poor and very different from +those that we had taken from Kharta, took eleven hours +to cover the 15 miles, and did not arrive till six in the evening. +Much to Heron's disgust, I proposed to push on to Pulme, +late as it was; but the road was good, and we trotted the +7 miles in an hour and a half, though the coolies and the +donkeys did not arrive till well after dark. Fortunately we +found tents as usual pitched for our reception. We had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +originally intended to ford the Dzakar-chu that evening +and camp on the far side, but it was too dangerous to do it +in the dark, though the villagers told us that by morning +the stream would be a couple of feet higher. The river is +a great obstacle at this time of the year, as there is no bridge +over it here, the next bridge being at Chöbu, 20 miles higher +up the valley.</p> + +<p>The following day I started on my return journey to +Tingri, leaving at 5.30 in the morning with Chheten Wangdi. +I succeeded in fording the Dzakar-chu, which was deep and +very swift. My pony was swept off his legs once and I got +very wet, the icy cold water coming right over the saddle.</p> + +<p>Heron and the coolies were to follow on slowly and +were to take two days in reaching Tingri, but I was anxious +to get back, having been away already longer than I intended. +Four miles away, at Tashi Dzom, I changed ponies and +procured a guide who was to take me on to Tingri, leaving +Chheten Wangdi behind with Heron. This guide proved +quite an amusing fellow, and suddenly surprised me by +counting in English one, two, three, four, and then saying +“Right turn” and “Left turn,” and other military words +of command. On inquiring where he had learned this +English, I found that at one time he had served as a soldier +at Lhasa, where the military words of command are in +English, and these were the only English words that he +knew. After leaving Tashi Dzom we turned up into a broad +side valley with villages every half-mile and surrounded +by barley, mustard and pea fields. What was, however, +especially noticeable about all these valleys that we had +been passing through for the last two days, was the extraordinary +number of ruined villages that there were everywhere. +This was not due to lack of water, for there was plenty of +water in all the streams; these valleys, however, must have +at one time been very thickly inhabited, and it is probable +that the dearth of population to-day is due to the wars +with the Gurkhas in the eighteenth century. We had a very +wet ride—one storm after another overtook us, and a cold<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +rain fell heavily all the way to Tingri. We gradually ascended +out of the cultivation and crossing a low pass, about 16,000 +feet, looked down again on the great Tingri Plain. There +was still, however, a long way to go, and it was not till +after five o'clock in the evening that I reached Tingri, +drenched to the skin. It had been a ride of between 36 and +40 miles.</p> + +<p>At Tingri I found Wollaston and Morshead. The former +had been very busy all the time I had been away in collecting +insects, butterflies, rats, mice, birds and flowers, and had +amassed quite a number of specimens. Morshead had been +out a good deal with his surveyors to the North and to +the West, but had been driven in by the bad weather of +the last few days. This had apparently been general and +we might say that the rainy season this year had begun +on July 7, which the Tibetans considered very late for +those parts. The following afternoon Heron arrived, and +my kit also, which I was very glad to get, as I had only +had a spare tent to roll around me the previous night.</p> + +<p>The next day or two was spent mostly in reading letters +and newspapers. Our postal arrangements were at first +rather complicated, there being no regular postal service to +the provinces in Tibet. We had, therefore, to make an +arrangement with each Jongpen to forward on our mail. +Phari was the last post office, and the postmaster there +had to arrange with the Phari Jongpen for a messenger +every week to go with our posts to Khamba Dzong; we +had left money with him for the purpose of paying the +postman. At Khamba Dzong we had arranged with the +Jongpen there that he should forward our letters to Tinki, +and at Tinki we had made further arrangements for them +to be sent on to Shekar Dzong and from Shekar Dzong they +were to be sent to Tingri. We had left money for this +purpose with the various Jongpens, and each Jongpen as +he received the mail bag was to affix his seal on it and send +it on as quickly as he could to the next Jongpen. This +system worked very well for the first two months, but after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +we had moved to Kharta, partly owing to floods, and partly +perhaps to the laziness of the Shekar Jongpen, our mails +were all held up and we eventually had to send coolies back +from our camp to Phari to bring them along. The best +plan another time would be to take with the Expedition a +certain number of coolies to be used purely for going backwards +and forwards with the mails. On July 13 Morshead and +Wollaston left to go to Nyenyam in response to a cordial +invitation from the Jongpen, asking that some of the +Expedition should visit the place. We were glad to accept, +and this should be a very interesting part of the country +botanically.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%">THE MOVE TO KHARTA</span></p> + +<p>I had arrived back at Tingri on July 11, and remained +there in the Chinese rest-house until July 24, when I started +to move the base camp and all the stores round to Kharta. +During the time I was not left always alone, for Heron came +in occasionally for a night between his various geological +expeditions to the North. Wheeler also came down for +a change and a rest, and to develop the photographs that +he had taken. He had been having a very trying and +provoking time in the high camps, as the weather had been +bad, with frequent snowfalls. Nearly every day he climbed +up to a spur 20,000 feet or more in height, yet in spite of +waiting all day there in the icy cold winds or driving snow, +it was but seldom that he was able to get a photograph, +and then the clouds would only lift for a few minutes.</p> + +<p>There was always plenty to do at Tingri, so the time +passed quickly. Much photographic work had to be done +and much developing and printing of the many photographs +that were being sent in by the various members of the party. +Supplies had also to be sent out and arrangements made +for the comforts of the climbing party in the Rongbuk Valley. +There were also several expeditions to be made round Tingri, +and these were full of interest. Anemometers were very +popular in this district; they were fixed by the Tibetans +above small prayer wheels, and owing to the constant winds, +it was seldom that the prayer wheels were not revolving. +Many yaks' horns, carved all over with prayers, were lying +about on the different Chortens or Mani walls. The barley, +which was only just coming up when we arrived, was now +18 inches high and coming into ear, and though we were +over 14,000 feet, the crops looked very healthy and even.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +Every evening during this period we had heavy storms of +rain with much lightning and thunder, and fresh snow used +to fall during the night as low as 15,000 feet, but most of it +melted again during the day. During this period the plains +round Tingri were rapidly becoming marshes and the rivers +quite unfordable. The storms always gathered to the North +of us, along the Sipri limestone ridge, and the high mountain +chain that formed the watershed between the Brahmaputra +and the Bhong-chu. These storms generally worked down +towards the South. Occasionally fine days came to us +when there was a strong South wind to blow the rain back, +and it was seldom that the Monsoon clouds brought rain +directly to us from the South. The Sipri range was a very +conspicuous limestone range to the North of us, the limestone +being worn into the most curious shapes. It was looked +upon by the Tibetans as being a holy mountain, and on its +slopes were many small monasteries. Hermits also took +up their abode in the limestone caves below the summit. +Pilgrims used to come from great distances to make the +circuit of the mountain. This took generally five days, +and much merit was acquired by doing so.</p> + +<p>On July 17 I made an excursion out to the Hot Springs +at Tsamda, about 7 miles away to the North-west across +the plain. The valley of the Bhong-chu narrows there for +a few miles before opening out again into the wide Sutso +Plain. There were two or three hot springs here, but only +one large one, and this was enclosed by walls within which +were little stone huts in which people could change their +clothes. The water was just the right temperature for a +nice hot bath. When I went there, there was one man +bathing and also washing his clothes in it. The Tibetans +said, however, that this was not the proper season for bathing. +The autumn was the correct time for them to have their +annual bath before the winter sets in. The water was saline +and had, I think, a little iron in it, but was not very +unpleasant to the taste. The rocks from which it gushes +out are very extraordinary, the strata forming a very steep<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +arch, on the top of which there is a crack, from the very +end of which, and at its lowest point, the springs came +bubbling out. Near by in the valley there were also a good +many saline deposits. In one of the smaller springs there +were a number of little pink worm-like animals that were +swimming about and clinging with their mouths to the +sides of the rock. Riding back to Tingri by a different way +across the plain, I saw a number of kiang and a few goa, +but they were very wild and would not allow us to approach +to within 500 yards. I also passed three of the handsome +black-necked cranes. The way across the plain was rather +boggy, and we had some difficulty in finding it. When +I got back I found that Heron had come in for a couple of +nights, and the following day Wheeler too joined us, having +walked in from Nezogu, the bridge over the Kyetrak River. +He was anxious to develop some photographs, and as the +weather was very bad, he could do no good by remaining +in his high camp.</p> + +<p>On July 20 we had very brilliant flashes of lightning, +followed by a heavy storm of rain during the night. This +was too much for the flat earth roof of the rest-house, and +the water poured into all our rooms, causing us to move +our beds many times during the night in search of a dry +spot. I started off early in the morning as I had intended +to climb the hills to the East of Tingri, but the rain that +had fallen at Tingri had meant a heavy fall of snow on the +mountains and the snow had fallen as low down as 15,000 +feet. We passed several goa on the way, but they were too +shy to allow us to get a shot, also some kiang, which were +very tame, and showed up well in the snow. As we got +higher, the snow became about 4 inches deep, but was +melting rapidly. The glare and the heat were intense. I +saw a good many flocks of burhel, but no very large heads. +The views as I followed the crests of the hills were extremely +fine; on the North I looked down into the valley of the +Bhong-chu, which was in flood and had filled the whole of +the bottom of the valley with water, and on the other side<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +I looked over the Tingri Plain to the great range of snow +peaks which finally ended in the mighty mass of Gosainthan. +The weather had been very hot and oppressive all day, +and as usual in the evening we had another very severe +thunderstorm with heavy rain all through the night. The +following day was more like an English November day—cold +and grey with drizzling rain—and with the snow on +the hills down to 15,000 feet. I bought a Tibetan pony +during the morning for the large sum of £7. It was a bay, +an excellent ambler, and very surefooted. The Tibetan +name by which he was known was Dug-dra-kyang-po, which +means “The bay pony like a dragon.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_100.jpg" width="500" height="334" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_100"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Military Governor, his Wife and Mother.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>I went over to have lunch with the Depon's representative. +His family were all dressed up very smartly for the +occasion, the women folk wearing their best head-dresses +of turquoises, coral and pearls. He gave us rice and raisins +as <ins title="a">an</ins> <i>hors d'œuvre</i>, and an <i>entrée</i> of junket, followed by some +pickled turnips, which I thought very nasty, after which +we had the usual macaroni and mince. He had been very +friendly and kindly to us the whole time that we were at +Tingri, and had always supplied us with everything we asked +for. On July 22 we saw a very fine solar halo with well-marked +rings of yellow, brown, green and white, but the +rain continued steadily nearly all the time. The day before +we were to leave Tingri I sent away my orderly, together +with two coolies who had been sick, and whom the doctor +had recommended that we should send back to Darjeeling. +They were given sufficient food to take them back to +Darjeeling and an extra fifteen days' pay, the orderly also +being given a horse to ride. Towards evening the weather +improved and we had some lovely views of Mount Everest +and that great group of snow peaks of which Cho-Uyo is +the highest. They all looked very white under their new +coating of snow, which lies thickly down to 16,000 feet.</p> + +<p>On July 24 we eventually got off from Tingri; the last +few days had been spent in packing up and re-arranging +all the stores. There was the usual talking, shouting and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +arguing, but all the loads were eventually packed on to +the animals, or loaded on to the backs of the coolies by +nine o'clock. We then took a last farewell of the Depon's +representative, who was very sorry to see us go, and who +had done so much to make our stay pleasant there.</p> + +<p>The first march was to Nezogu, where there was a bridge +over the Kyetrak; this was about 19 miles, partly across +the Tingri Plain and then over a tiresome moraine. While +crossing the moraine, I shot a goa which had quite a good +head. Wheeler had accompanied me, as he had left his +camp at the bridge, and on arrival there we found his +tents all pitched and his cook waiting ready to receive us. +Our own kit did not arrive till it was getting dark, when +the weather looked very ominous. Rain fell steadily most +of the night, and just before dawn this turned to snow, +so that when we woke up there were a couple of inches of +fresh snow on the ground. As it was still snowing steadily, +we were in no great hurry to start, and did not get off until +nine o'clock. The weather than gradually improved and +the fresh snow soon melted, though the ground was left +in a very boggy condition. The march to Chöbu was about +15 miles over the easy Lamna Pass. Knowing the way, I +climbed on to a ridge to the South, where I had a fine view +again of Mount Everest and the Rongbuk Valley. We +pitched our camp on the far side of the Rongbuk River, +our loads being carried across the frail bridge by the villagers, +and our ponies being swum across. Here Mallory and +Bullock joined us. They had been experiencing latterly +very bad weather in the Upper Rongbuk Valley, and +constant heavy falls of snow had seriously hindered their +reconnaissance work. Their coolies, too, were getting +rather tired and stale from remaining at such heights for +a considerable time, and were badly in want of a rest. I +had therefore arranged for them to meet me here and to +accompany me round to Kharta, from which place they +could then explore the Eastern approaches of Mount Everest. +During the night I suffered much from inflammation of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +eyes, due to the snow that had fallen the day before. They +were so painful as to make sleep quite impossible. I was +not, however, the only one to suffer, as Chheten Wangdi, +the interpreter, Acchu, the cook, and several of the coolies +that were with me were all suffering from the same complaint +in the morning. Though the sun had not been +shining and the day had been misty, the glare from the +new snow had been very much more powerful than anything +we had expected and taught us a lesson that whenever +there was the slightest fall of snow, we should always wear +our snow goggles. From Chöbu we marched to Rebu—a +distance of about 15 miles. Knowing the way, I took +Mallory and Bullock by the upper road over a pass to +Halung; from the top of this pass we branched off on to +a spur where there was a very fine view of Mount Everest +and the mountains to the North and North-east of it. +There had been so much fresh snow everywhere that it +was often very difficult to recognize the peaks, but Mount +Everest from this side looked as impossible as ever with +the great black bands of perpendicular cliffs that seemed +to encircle it.</p> + +<p>The day was actually fine and the march was a pleasant +one through a fertile valley full of fields of barley, mustard +and peas. The wild flowers all round Rebu were still very +beautiful. Our camp was pitched on a grassy spot on the +bank of a rushing stream and close to the village of Rebu.</p> + +<p>The following morning the weather was again fine, and as +the yaks were all ready for us, we were started by 7.30 a.m. +This start was quite amusing; we ourselves had first to cross +a flooded stream over which there was a very wobbly +stone bridge. With much excitement and noise the yaks +were then driven across the stream, but the current was +too strong for the bullocks, which had to be unloaded +and their loads carried over. While this was being done, +the bridge collapsed, and a good lady and a bullock that +were trying to get over by the bridge all fell into the +water together. There was then a terrible excitement and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> +mix-up, every one shouting and screaming, but they both +scrambled safely to the shore, and beyond a wetting, no +one was any the worse. We then took the road that I had +travelled three weeks before over the Doya La. Knowing +that there was a good view to be got from the top of the +pass, I hurried ahead and climbed a rocky hill, 17,700 feet, +close to the pass, where I saw a wonderful scene. Range +upon range of snowy mountains extended right away to +Kanchenjunga, and the course of the Arun could be traced +wandering down through Nepal, while to the South towered +up the great walls of Makalu. Mount Everest itself I could +not see, as there were a good many clouds about, but to the +South-west were some fine snow and rock peaks of which +I took several photographs. I then basked in the sun for +a couple of hours and enjoyed the view. The wild flowers +on the top of the pass were delightful; I found three different +kinds of gentians and the blue poppies were as numerous as +ever. The primulas, however, had many of them already +gone to seed, but the saxifrages still covered the rocks, +and it was a delight to wander along and note the different +varieties. Riding on to Chulungphu, we found tents pitched +for us and fuel and milk all ready. In place of the primulas +the ground was now carpeted with gentians. From here +to Kharta the march was only a short one, but we thoroughly +enjoyed riding along between the bushes of wild rose or +juniper. The former were no longer in blossom, but there +were many other new varieties of flowers appearing. I +rode on ahead to the spot that I had chosen, three weeks +previously, for our new base camp, and I found that Hopaphema +had already pitched some tents for us. He had also +prepared a meal for us and made every arrangement for +our comfort. Our camp was pitched under the willows +and poplar trees in the garden, and it was pleasant to hear +the rustle of the leaves in the wind once more. We were +now at a height of only 12,300 feet, and the change in +altitude was a very great relief to the climbing party and +the coolies who had come down from the high camps.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +There were also plenty of green vegetables to be got here, +and the coolies appreciated the change enormously. Just +below us flowed the Arun, now a majestic river over a +hundred yards wide. A mile lower down in its course it +entered into the great gorges in which within a space of +20 miles it dropped from 12,000 feet to 7,500 feet, a drop +of over 200 feet in the mile. From our camp we used to +watch the Monsoon clouds come up every day through the +gorge in thin wisps, but every day they melted away always +at the same spot; and though rain fell heavily a mile below +us, yet with us the sun shone brightly, and it was rare for +any rain to reach us. Twenty miles away to the North +again were heavy clouds and storms, and rain fell there +daily, so that we seemed to be living in a dry zone between +the two storm systems. The forests of fir and birch trees +came up to the limit of the rainfall and then ceased suddenly +where the rain stopped a mile below us. At this point the +Kharta River formed a sharp dividing line between the wet +and dry zones.</p> + +<p>The next day was spent in settling down, arranging all +our stores and making a new dark room in the house we +had rented. The climate here was delicious and a great +change from Tingri. The temperature in my tent used to +go up to 75° Fahr. during the day.</p> + +<p>The day after we arrived the Jongpen came down to +pay an official call and brought a welcome present of a +hundred eggs and five animals laden with fuel. He apologised +for not coming the day before, but said he had been +very busy trying a murder case where eighteen people +had been poisoned by a family that had a feud with them, +the poison used being aconite, with which they were evidently +quite familiar. He told us that our coolies could collect +fuel anywhere on the right bank of the Kharta River, but +begged that we would not collect it anywhere near where +we were living, as the villagers would object.</p> + +<p>On July 30 I started off to explore a neighbouring pass +and valley which looked interesting. Mallory and Bullock<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +were having a few days' rest before starting off again, and +so they remained in camp. Riding a few miles up the Kharta +Valley, I crossed the river by a bridge at the first village, +and then had a very steep and stony climb of nearly 3,000 +feet to the Samchung Pass, 15,000 feet. As we approached +the pass, and entered a moister climate, the vegetation +increased rapidly. On these slopes there were rhododendrons +5 feet high, mountain ash, birch, willows, spiræas +and juniper. At the top of the pass there was not much of +a view, but prowling round I came across some very fine +saussuræas with their great white woolly heads and a +wonderful meconopsis of a deep claret colour that I had never +seen before. There were fifteen to twenty flowers on each +stem, and it grew from 2 to 3 feet high. Eight varieties +of gentians also grew in the same valley, and a quantity of +other attractive Alpine plants. From the pass we descended +about 500 feet into a delightful high level glen full of small +lakes, evidently once upon a time formed by glaciers which +must have filled the whole of the valley. I counted fourteen +lakes in this valley, two or three of them being nearly half +a mile long, and all of them of different colours varying +from a turquoise blue to green and black. For some miles +we rode and walked up the valley. The road consisted of +big loose stones, often with water flowing underneath them, +and usually with big holes in between, so that our ponies +were lucky in not breaking their legs. There was then +a steep climb which brought us on to a second pass, the +Chog La, 16,100 feet, close to which were three small glaciers. +Across the top of the pass there was a wall built many years +ago as a second line of defence against the Gurkhas, the +first line being on the top of the Popti Pass. Unfortunately +the clouds now came up, and it began to rain, so that we +had no view into the Kama Valley, though later on I was +to make the acquaintance of this most charming valley. +For an hour and a half I sheltered behind the wall, but +as the clouds did not lift I returned towards Kharta. +As we descended into the valley again the glimpses of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> +lakes seen between the mists reminded me much of the +upper lakes at Killarney. There were the same ferns, +willows, birch and rhododendrons, and much the same +moist atmosphere.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_106.jpg" width="500" height="325" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_106"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Dzongpen of Kharta and his Wife.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>Next day, with Bullock, I went to pay an official visit +to the Jongpen at Kharta Shiga. He had made great preparations +to receive us, and had put up a large tent in which +Chinese carpets and tables were set out with pots of flowers +arranged all round. Soon after our arrival we were given +a most copious meal: bowl after bowl of well cooked macaroni +and mince with pickled radishes and chillies were set before +us. After we had finished this meal, I induced the Jongpen +and his young wife to be photographed. She had a most +elaborate head-dress of coral and pearls, with masses of +false hair on either side of her head. It was not becoming. +Barely had we finished taking the photograph when another +meal was put in front of us: this time it consisted of Tibetan +dumplings and mince patties, of which I gave the Jongpen's +little dog the greater part surreptitiously; I then hurried +off before I should be compelled to eat a third meal.</p> + +<p>On August 2 Mallory and Bullock started off with thirty-two +coolies to explore the Eastern approaches to Mount +Everest. It had been very hard to get any information +about Mount Everest. The people knew the mountain by +name, but told us that the only way to get near it was by +crossing over the ridge to the South of the Kharta Valley, +when we should find a big valley that would lead right up +to <ins title="Chomo-lungma">Chomolungma</ins>. Where the Kharta River came from +they could not tell me, and whether it took its source from +the snows of Mount Everest they did not know. Tibetans' +ignorance of any valleys outside their own was really extraordinary. +I could seldom get any definite information about +places outside their valley, and on asking two or three +people, they would invariably give contradictory answers. +It was the same as regards distance. They would tell you +a place was one, two or three days' march away, but for +shorter distances they had no time-table, and the nearest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +approach to this was a measurement by cups of tea. I +remember one day asking a village yokel how far off the +next village was, and he surprised me by answering, “Three +cups of tea.” Several times afterwards I got the answer +to a question about distance given me in cups of tea, and +I eventually worked out that three cups of tea was the +equivalent of about 5 miles, and was after that able to use +this as a basis for measurements of distances.</p> + +<p>Two or three hours after Mallory and Bullock had gone, +Wollaston and Morshead arrived from their trip to Nyenyam. +They had had bad weather the whole time. Here, too, +the weather remained overcast and threatening, with a strong +South wind, the mountains remaining covered in clouds +above 16,000 feet. To the South of us rain fell steadily +all day, but the rain did not come up as far as our camp. +One afternoon Morshead, Wollaston and I went over to +have tea with our hospitable Zemindar Hopaphema about +a mile away from us. On this occasion he gave us pods of +fresh peas and the red hips and haws of the wild rose as a +kind of <i>hors d'œuvre</i>, followed by a junket served with pea +flour. Then came bowls of hot milk with macaroni and +minced meat, seasoned with chillies, together with potatoes +and a kind of fungus that grew in the woods. After this +meal, from which we suffered no ill effects, for our stomachs +were getting accustomed to queer foods, he produced an +old painted musical instrument with two sounding boards, +on which he played and sang at the same time some old +Tibetan love songs. Some of these had quite a catching +and plaintive melody. He showed us also some Tibetan +dances. Our interpreter, unfortunately, refused to give us +a literal translation of some of the love songs, though he +seemed very amused at them.</p> + +<p>Another afternoon I rode with Wollaston some 5 miles +up the Kharta Valley to the Gandenchöfel Monastery. +This was situated in a delightfully sheltered spot surrounded +by poplars and ancient gnarled juniper trees of great size. +On arrival we were shown into a picturesque courtyard,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +the walls of which were covered with paintings depicting +scenes from the life of Buddha. Cushions and tables had +been arranged for our reception and placed on a verandah +where, on arrival, we were given cups of tea and hot milk. +The Head Lama presently came out and after taking some +tea with us, proceeded to show us round his temple. This +was a curious building, square in shape, and surmounted +by a cupola. It was very solidly built of stone and was, +they told us, about 500 years old. It was founded by a +saint called Jetsun-Nga-Wang-<ins title="Chhöfel">Chöfel</ins>, who after a great +flood which swept down the valley, destroying all the houses +in it, had taken a large frog (which animal is believed to +represent the Water God) and buried it under the centre +pillar of the temple. With great reverence they showed +us the spot under which this unfortunate frog had been +immured in the centre of the shrine. This immolation of +the frog had apparently not been completely efficacious in +preventing the floods as two other floods had subsequently +occurred, and two small Chortens had been erected to make +quite certain that the frog could not get out again and cause +more floods. The interior of the temple was very dark +in spite of numerous butter lamps. As our eyes gradually +became accustomed to the dim light, we made out three +figures of Buddha—a large one in the centre and smaller +ones on either side. On the pillars were figures of the saint +who had founded the monastery. In this temple were also +represented some Indian saints, but these were shown as +dark figures, very black and very ugly. Tibetans always +despise the Indian and they therefore represent him as quite +black and with the ugliest features imaginable. Around +the shrine were twelve great plaster figures—about 12 feet +to 15 feet in height—the guardians of the shrine, figures +monstrously ugly, and evidently made so in order to frighten +away the evil-doer. Outside the sanctuary there was a +curious passage in the thickness of the walls leading all +round the building, in which were stencilled and painted +curious representations of Buddha. In one of the side rooms<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +there was a huge prayer wheel, which rang a bell every +time it was turned; it contained, the priests told us, many +million prayers. After visiting the shrine, I took a photograph +of the monks with their long trumpets, their bejewelled +clarionets and their drums. After our tour of inspection +we were given further refreshment in the way of macaroni +and meat in a small secluded garden where the monks used +to walk reading the Scriptures and meditating.</p> + +<p>On another day Wollaston and I made an excursion down +to the gorges of the Arun. We first rode up the Kharta +Valley, crossing the river by the first bridge, and then following +the right bank of the river as far as we could go. After +riding only a short way, we entered into a country and a +scenery where we might have been a hundred miles away +from Tibet. The change was extraordinarily sudden—a +dense forest covered the hillsides, mostly of fir (<i>Abies +Webbiana</i>) and birch, many of them fine old trees. The +undergrowth consisted of rhododendrons, 8 feet to 10 feet +in height and extremely difficult to get through. Besides +these there were many larch and willow trees growing on +the hillside, together with many new and delightful flowers. +We went on until we were brought up by a series of perpendicular +cliffs that descended 700 feet sheer down to the +river below us. It was a grand sight from here to see the +mighty Bhong-chu or Arun River, narrowed now to one-third +of its former width, forcing its way in a series of rapids +through these stupendous gorges covered with woods wherever +the precipices allowed a tree to grow and with trees dipping +their branches far below us in the flooded waters of the +river. On the opposite side of the gorge we saw a small +track wandering along the cliffs; the inhabitants told us +it was impossible to get across the river lower down at this +time of the year until you reach Lungdö, where there was a +bridge some 20 miles lower down. Kharta now remained +the base headquarters of the Expedition until it was time +to return to India in October, and all the expeditions that +we made up the Kharta Valley, or into the Kama Valley,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +were made from Kharta. The Jongpen there and Hopaphema +did everything they could to assist us by giving us coolies +and arranging for supplies to be sent up to the various +camps.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_110.jpg" width="500" height="316" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_110"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Lamas of Kharta Monastery.</span></p> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%">THE KAMA VALLEY</span></p> + +<p>We had not been able to gather much information locally +about Mount Everest. A few of the shepherds said that +they had heard that there was a great mountain in the next +valley to the South, but they could not tell us whether +the Kharta River came from this great mountain. The +easiest way to get to this valley, they told us, was by crossing +the Shao La, or the Langma La, both of which passes were +to the South of the Kharta Valley, and, they said, led into +this new valley. They called this valley the Kama Valley, +and little did we realise at the time that in it we were going +to find one of the most beautiful valleys in the world. Mallory +and Bullock had already left Kharta on August 2 to explore +this route, which we thought would lead us to the Eastern +face of Mount Everest. As Wollaston and Morshead had +now arrived at Kharta, there was nothing to prevent my +following the others and learning something about the +geography of the country. Eleven mule-loads of rations, +consisting of flour, potatoes, sugar and rations for the +surveyors, had just arrived; there was therefore now no +cause for me to worry about shortage of supplies. These +had been sent off from Yatung on June 15, but had only +arrived at Kharta on August 2. Learning that I was about +to start off, Hopaphema, the old Zemindar, hurriedly came +round with a large basket full of spinach, potatoes, and +turnips, which he insisted on my taking with me.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_112.jpg" width="500" height="322" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_112"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Makalu</span><br /> +from 21,500 foot peak on ridge south of Kama-chu.</p> +</div> + +<p>On August 5, taking with me Chheten Wangdi and a +dozen coolies, I started off in the tracks of Mallory and +Bullock. For the first few miles we travelled up the Kharta +Valley, through rich fields of barley, by far the best that I +had seen so far in Tibet. The crops were very even and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> +everywhere quite 3 feet in height. The valley was thickly +inhabited, containing villages nearly every mile, and many +monasteries, some of which were surrounded by fine old +gnarled juniper trees. Our local coolies made very poor +progress, taking six hours to cover the first 6 miles, as +they stopped at every village for a drink. After passing +the last village, there was a steep climb of 1,000 feet. Here +our coolies were very anxious to stop and spend the night, +but I pushed on ahead, and they came on behind very slowly +and reluctantly. Seeing that it was impossible to get over +the Langma La, I stopped at the limit of firewood and camped +at a height of 16,100 feet. Poo, who was acting as my cook, +had forgotten to bring any matches with him, and I watched +him with much interest lighting a fire of damp rhododendron +bushes with the flint and tinder that he always carried. +The day had been clear and very warm; and on the way +up we had had some fine views of the great snowy peaks +on the Eastern side of the Arun River. The villagers had +told us that this pass was impossible for ponies, and I accordingly +left mine behind at Kharta, though we found out that +ponies could quite well have crossed the pass. Opposite +our camp was a peak of black rock with a glacier just below +it. During the night there was a little rain and the morning +was unfortunately cloudy. As our coolies had informed us +that there were three passes to be crossed in the next march, +I had them all started off by 5.30 a.m., after which I left +with my coolies, Ang Tenze and Nyima Tendu, who always +accompanied me carrying a rifle, a shot-gun and three cameras +of different sizes. Above the camp there was a steep climb +of 1,000 feet on to a broad, rocky shelf in which was a pretty +turquoise-blue lake. This was followed by another steep climb +of 500 feet on to another great shelf, after which a further +climb of 500 feet brought us to the top of the Langma La, +18,000 feet. The three steps up to this pass were evidently +the three passes that the coolies had told us about, as from +the top we looked down into the next valley. All the coolies +who were carrying loads complained of headaches, due no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +doubt to the steep climb and the high elevation of the pass. +To the East there was a curious view looking over the Arun +towards some high snow peaks. Clouds were lying in patches +everywhere on the hillsides, as the air was saturated with +moisture. To the West our gaze encountered a most wonderful +amphitheatre of peaks and glaciers. Three great glaciers +almost met in the deep green valley that lay at our feet. +One of these glaciers evidently came down from Mount +Everest, the second from the beautiful cliffs of Chomolönzo, +the Northern peak of Makalu, of which we unfortunately +could only get occasional and partial glimpses, an ice or +rock cliff peeping out of the clouds every now and then at +incredible heights above us. The third glacier came from +Kama Changri, a fine peak to the North of the Kama Valley +which later on we climbed. The clouds kept mostly at a height +of about 22,000 feet, and prevented us from seeing the tops +of the mountains. After waiting for an hour at the top of +the pass in hopes of the clouds lifting, I started the descent, +catching on the way a very pretty Marmot rat, with huge +eyes and ears for his size, and a pretty bluish grey fur. +Meeting shortly afterwards some of Mallory and Bullock's +coolies, I gave this animal to them to take back to Wollaston. +We now descended through grassy uplands for nearly 3,000 +feet, past another beautiful blue lake called Shurim Tso, +and came to a curious long and narrow terrace about +1,000 feet above the bottom of the valley. Here there +was a tent belonging to some yak herds; and as wood and +water were plentiful I determined to stop and spend the +night with them. They called the place Tangsham. It was +certainly a most glorious place for a camp, for it overlooked +three great valleys and glaciers. Opposite us, on the other +side of the valley, were the immense cliffs of Chomolönzo, +which towered up to nearly 26,000 feet, while Mount Everest +and its great ridges filled up the head of the valley. I spent +the whole afternoon lying among the rhododendrons at +15,000 feet, and admiring the beautiful glimpses of these +mighty peaks revealed by occasional breaks among the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +fleecy clouds. The shepherds were able to give me much +information about the district, which proved very useful +to us afterwards. They come up here every year for a few +months in the summer and in the winter cross over to the +valley of the Bong-chu.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_114.jpg" width="500" height="311" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_114"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Makalu and Chomolönzo.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>After a slight frost during the night, we had one of the +few really perfect days that fell to our lot in the Kama +Valley. As soon as I had finished breakfast I climbed up +1,000 feet behind the camp; opposite me were the +wonderful white cliffs of Chomolönzo and Makalu, which +dropped almost sheer for 11,000 feet into the valley below. +Close at hand were precipices of black rock on which, in +the dark hollows, nestled a few dirty glaciers. Mount Everest +being some way further off, did not appear nearly as imposing. +Our object now was to get as close to it as possible; we +therefore descended into the valley, a steep drop of nearly +1,000 feet, through luxuriant vegetation. A very beautiful +blue primula was just beginning to come out. This Wollaston +had already discovered a fortnight before near Lapchi-Kang. +We then crossed the Rabkar Chu, a stream which came out +of the Rabkar Glacier, by a very rickety bridge over which +the water was washing. Beyond this was a very fertile +plain covered with rhododendrons, juniper, willow and +mountain ash. On it were a couple of small huts which +were occupied by some yak herds. From here we had to +follow along the edge of the Kang-do-shung Glacier which, +coming down from Chomolönzo, plunges across the valley +until it strikes against the rocks of the opposite side. Between +the glacier and these cliffs was an old water-course up which +we travelled, but stones kept frequently falling from the +cliffs above and the passage was somewhat dangerous. +This had evidently been the old channel of the stream that +has its source in the glaciers of Mount Everest, but owing +to the advance of the Kang-do-shung Glacier, is now compelled +to find its way through this glacier and hurls itself into a +great ice cavern in it. Opposite this ice cavern we had a +steep climb for 500 feet, and found ourselves among pleasant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> +grassy meadows, after a few miles of which we came to a place +called Pethang Ringmo, where we found some yak herds +living. We found that Mallory and Bullock had chosen this +place to be their base camp. It was a most delightfully +sunny spot at 16,400 feet, right under the gigantic and +marvellously beautiful cliffs of Chomolönzo, now all powdered +over with the fresh snow of the night before and only separated +from us by the Kangshung Glacier, here about a mile wide. +Great avalanches thunder down its sides all the day long +with a terrifying sound. Everest from here is seen to fill +up the head of the valley with a most formidable circle of cliffs +overhung by hanging glaciers, but it is not nearly such a +beautiful or striking mountain as Makalu or Chomolönzo. +The shepherds would insist that Makalu was the higher of +the two mountains, and would not believe us when we said +that Mount Everest was the higher. Next morning was +foggy, but there was a glimpse of blue sky behind the mists, +so after breakfast I hurried up the valley, intending to climb +a ridge exactly opposite to Mount Everest which I had marked +down the night before. After walking for an hour up the +valley in a thick fog, by luck I struck the right ridge, which +proved a very steep climb. Glimpses of blue sky and white +peaks, however, gave us hopes of better views higher up. +It took me two and a half hours to climb 3,000 feet, which +at last brought me above the mists. The top of the ridge +was 19,500 feet high, and from it we had most superb views. +Mount Everest was only 3 or 4 miles away from us. From +it to the South-east swept a huge amphitheatre of mighty +peaks culminating in a new and unsurveyed peak, 28,100 feet +in height, to which we gave the name of Lhotse, which in +Tibetan means the South Peak. From this side the mountain +appeared quite unclimbable, as the cliffs were all topped +with hanging glaciers, from which great masses of ice came +thundering down into the valley below all the day long. +Between Mount Everest and Makalu, on the watershed +between Tibet and Nepal, there stands up a very curious +conical peak, to which we gave the name of Pethangtse.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +On either side of it are two very steep, but not very high, +passes into Nepal; both of them are, however, probably +unclimbable. To the South-east towered up the immense +cliffs of Makalu, far the more beautiful mountain of the +two. The whole morning I spent on this ridge, taking +photographs whenever opportunity offered. The clouds +kept coming up and melting away again and were most +annoying, but they occasionally afforded us the most beautiful +glimpses and peeps of the snow and rock peaks by which +we were surrounded. At a height of over 19,000 feet, I had +a great chase after a new kind of rat; but it finally eluded +me, and I was not able to add it to our already large collection. +Even at these heights I found both yellow and white saxifrages +and a blue gentian. From the top of this ridge I had been +able to see Kanchenjunga and Jannu, though nearly 100 +miles away, but their summits stood up out of the great sea +of clouds which covered Nepal.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_116.jpg" width="330" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_116"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Cliffs of Chomolönzo</span><br /> +from camp at Pethang Ringmo.</p> +</div> + +<p>On returning to camp in the afternoon, I found that +Mallory and Bullock were there. They had climbed a snow +peak on the North side of the Kama Valley, about 21,500 +feet, and from this view point had been unable to discover +a possible route up Mount Everest on the Eastern face; +they thought, however, that there might be an alternative +approach from the next valley to the North. They therefore +intended returning to the Kharta Valley to follow that river +to its source.</p> + +<p>Next morning was cloudy, and neither Everest nor Makalu +were to be seen; but towards the East the view was clear, +though the mountains appeared to be much too close. We +started all together down the valley. On the way I climbed +1,000 feet up among the rocks opposite to the big +glacier that descends from Chomolönzo. I failed, however, +to get the good view of Makalu which I had been hoping +for, owing to the clouds, and returned to my old camping +ground at Tangsham, Mallory and Bullock branching off +from here towards the Langma La. The shepherds had told +us that there was another pass into the Kharta Valley called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> +the Shao La, rather more to the South. I therefore intended +to make use of this pass on the return journey to Kharta. +As usual, in the evening, the clouds came up and enveloped +us in a thick mist. Every night this happened in the Kama +Valley, and was evidently due to the excessive moisture of +the air. When we started the following morning, there was +still a thick Scotch mist which made the vegetation very +wet. We descended the Kama Valley, most of the time +keeping high up above the river. On the opposite side of +the valley were immense black cliffs descending sheer for +many thousand feet. On the way we passed through acres +of blue iris, mostly over now, and then through a very +luxuriant vegetation which grew more and more varied +as we descended lower. There was a lovely emerald-green +lake beside the path, and like white sentinels on the hillsides +grew the great rhubarb of Sikkim, the <i>Rheum nobile</i>. This +was a most conspicuous plant with columns of the palest +green leaves sheathing the flower spikes which grew fully +5 feet in height. There were several other varieties of rhubarb +here, but none were as handsome as this. At one place we +descended as low as 13,000 feet and came once more amongst +dense forests of juniper, silver firs (<i>Abies Webbiana</i>), mountain +ash, willow, birch and tall rhododendrons. From every +tree hung long grey lichens attesting the moisture of the +climate. Wherever there was an open space in the forest, +it was carpeted with flowers. Two delightful varieties +of primula were new to me, and were just coming out, one +of them being almost black in colour. The big deep red +meconopsis grew here, too, in great luxuriance. Gentians +of all kinds abounded and many other varieties of flowers +and ferns, due to the fact that Makalu seems to attract +all the storms, causing the moist Monsoon currents to be +drawn into this valley. As the day went on, the weather +improved; the sun came out, and the clouds melted away, +disclosing the magnificent peaks of Makalu. A big glacier +descended from the East face from a side valley into the +floor of the valley below us at a height of about 12,000 feet.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +It was very curious to see fir trees, birch and juniper, and +a very luxuriant vegetation growing on either side of the +ice and on the moraines beside it.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_118.jpg" width="328" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_118"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Kama Valley.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>Below this glacier the valley became quite flat with +grassy meadows and patches of forest dotted about the +pastures—a very unusual type of valley for the Himalayas. +Almost opposite to this glacier we turned into a side valley; +the path and the stream that came down this valley were +often indistinguishable. All round the valley were great +black cliffs; in one place where they were less precipitous +the path found its way upwards. Our camp was pitched +that night on a shelf above the cliffs where for a short time +we had some very wonderful views. This place was called +in Tibetan “The Field of Marigolds,” though at the time +we were there they were all over. We were at a height of +15,300 feet, and Makalu's two peaks were almost exactly +opposite to us. The cloud effects were very striking; the +storms seemed to gather round Makalu, and first one peak +and then the other would appear out of the great white +cumulus clouds whose shapes changed every minute. As +usual, the mists came up in the evening, and we were enveloped +in a very wet Scotch mist with a temperature of 46° Fahr. +Next morning, instead of getting the lovely view that we had +expected, a thick Scotch mist prevented our seeing more +than 20 yards away. We crawled up to the top of the +Shao La, 16,500 feet, in driving rain, but after crossing over +it we emerged into finer weather. On the descent we passed +several fine lakes, on the cliffs above which were numerous +ram chakor (Himalayan snowcock). I pursued a covey of +these, and after a chase managed to shoot one. They are +very fine birds, weighing between 5 and 6 lb.; they are +extremely noisy and fond of their own voices. The parent +birds are always very loth to leave their young, and early +in the summer it is possible to approach very close to them; +but later on in the year, when the young have become nearly +full grown, they are very wily, and having excellent eyesight, +do not allow anyone to approach within a couple of hundred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +yards. That afternoon I arrived back at Kharta, where +the weather had been quite fine, and where there had been +but little rain during my absence.</p> + +<p>During that night a thief broke into our store-room, +forcing and breaking the lock outside. The only thing he +took, as far as we could find out, was one of Wheeler's +yak-dans (a leather mule trunk). The thief had probably +mistaken this one for one of mine, which contained a +considerable amount of money, and knowing that I was +away, he thought that my kit must be packed away in the +store-room. We informed the Jongpen and the head-men +of the villages around of the theft, and had a couple of +suspicious characters watched; but we never found any +trace of the stolen articles, which luckily were of very small +value. For the next fortnight I remained at Kharta.</p> + +<p>On August 19 Heron suddenly arrived back after a +very interesting trip, during which he had explored all +the mountains North of Tingri and Shekar Dzong up to the +Brahmaputra watershed. He had had very bad weather +all the time. Every night there had been heavy thunderstorms +and practically all the bad weather had come from +the North. The whole country was under water, and it +was very difficult to get about. Some of the rivers that +we had crossed earlier in the season were now a mile or more +wide.</p> + +<p>On the following day Bullock and Mallory returned to +Kharta after having explored the Upper Kharta Valley. +They thought that they had found a possible way up Mount +Everest from this valley, but at present the weather was too +bad for them to carry on with their reconnaissance, and they +had come down for a fortnight's rest, hoping that the Monsoon +would be over by the beginning of September and that they +would then be able to make a proper attack on the mountain. +As Mallory and Bullock were likely to be at Kharta for +some time, Wollaston and I seized this opportunity to visit +the lower valley of the Kama-chu.</p> + +<p>Therefore, on August 23, with eleven of our own coolies<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +and several Tibetan coolies, we climbed the Samchung +Pass (15,000 feet), and then descended into the valley of +the fourteen lakes, and after crossing the Chog La camped +on the far side of the pass near a dark green and sacred +lake called Ruddamlamtso. On the way we saw a new species +of black rat in the moraine of a glacier; but Wollaston's +servant, who had the collecting gun with him, was unfortunately +far behind; he was always rather fond of drink and +loth to leave the villages. The weather was cloudy, and +there were no views from the top of either pass. The march +was a strenuous one, taking the coolies thirteen hours to +cover the whole distance, and they did not arrive till after +dark. The Ruddamlamtso, the lake by which we were +camped, had wonderfully clear water; I could see every +stone at a depth of 20 feet, and it was evidently very deep. +It is looked upon as a sacred lake, and to it people make +yearly pilgrimages, walking round it burning incense and +throwing spices into its waters.</p> + +<p>The following morning the clouds were low down everywhere +on the hillsides and we had no views. There was +a steep descent for 4 miles to Sakeding—12,100 feet, through +the most interesting zones of vegetation. We followed +the edge of the rushing stream, always white from the rapidity +of its descent. On one side of the valley grew rhododendrons +of many varieties and mountain ash, and on the other were +hoary old junipers with twisted stems. Grey lichens hung +down from every branch, and were often 5 or 6 feet in length. +We came across some of the finest and largest red currants +that we had yet seen. Of these we collected a great quantity, +and they formed a very excellent stew. Birches, wild roses +and berberis were the commonest shrubs, while nearly every +rock was covered with an extremely pretty rose-coloured +creeper, which in places caused the hillsides to look quite +pink. Earlier in the year the iris must have been a very +beautiful sight, as we passed through acres of their leaves. +A big yellow rock-rose with flowers 2 inches across was +also to be met with here, and many of the lower leaves of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +the rhododendrons were turning yellow to scarlet, making +a great show of colour on the dark green of the hillside. +Deep purple-coloured primulas and monkshood, as well +as a curious hairy mauve-red monkshood with a very +graceful growth, were also to be seen. The pretty white-crested +red-start flitted about from rock to rock, and numerous +tits of various kinds flew about in flocks from tree to tree +as we descended.</p> + +<p>Sakeding (Pleasant terrace) had been at one time a +village of considerable size, but a pestilence sent by the +local demon had wiped out all its inhabitants. This demon +was still reputed to be very active, and no one had dared +to re-build the old houses of which the ruins, overgrown +with weeds and bushes, could be seen here and there. It +was a very pleasant site for a village, situated as it was +on a terrace that projected out into the valley 1,000 +feet above the stream below. During the summer months +there is quite a trade passing through this place, the Tibetans +bringing salt from the North, and the Nepalese coming up +from Nepal with rice, dyes and vegetables, which they +exchange. The rate of barter at this time was two measures +of rice or three measures of madder dye for one measure +of salt, and no money changes hands. Everything that +was brought here was brought on the backs of coolies, and +these Nepalese coolies were sturdy, cheery fellows, and thought +nothing of carrying 80 lb. of salt on their backs up and down +the execrable paths of the district.</p> + +<p>From Sakeding we descended steeply through a forest +of the finest juniper trees that I had yet seen. These grew +80 to 90 feet high, and many of their trunks were 18 feet +to 20 feet in circumference. As a rule they had clean stems, +without a branch for 50 feet or 60 feet. The branches +were all hung with grey lichens. We now descended beside +the muddy and tempestuous waters of the Kama-chu. The +juniper forest gradually gave way to silver firs—wonderful +trees of enormous size and great age. We passed through +many open glades, park-like in appearance, with grand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> +clumps of fir trees or sycamore dotted here and there. The +hillsides were absolutely running over with water, and +often for several hundred yards we walked along logs put +down to try and avoid the mud and the running water. +As many of these rounded logs were very slippery, both we +and our coolies had to proceed with caution, and even so +we experienced many a fall. At Chu-tronu—10,200 feet—there +was a well-made wooden bridge, 60 feet long, which +spanned the river where it flowed in a narrow channel between +two great rocks. We crossed this bridge, and finding a +broad open space there, I selected a spot suitable for our +camp and ordered the coolies to cut down some of the grass +where we intended to pitch the tents. I could not at first +make out why they kept jumping about when thus engaged, +but on going to investigate, I found that the place was +alive with leeches; however, as there was no other better +place in which to camp, we had to make the best of it. The +men collected some dry bamboos out of an old shepherd's +hut which was close by; these they burnt on the sites where +we were to pitch our tents, hoping by this means to drive +away the leeches. This method, however, was not very +successful, for all that evening we were busy picking leeches +off our clothes, legs, hands or heads. They climbed up +the sides of the tents and dropped down into our food, our +cups and on to our plates. Wollaston invented the best +way of killing them, which was by cutting them in two +with a pair of scissors. Our interpreter remonstrated with +him, as he said this method increased the number of leeches, +thinking that both ends of them would grow. After a somewhat +restless and disturbed night, due to these leeches, +we started off next morning to go down to the junction +of the Kama River with the Arun. The distance as the crow +flies was only about 6 miles, but we did not realise the kind +of path that we should have to traverse. In that short +distance we must have risen and fallen quite 5,000 feet. +The path was never level and always very rough and stony. +At first it led through beautiful glades running with moisture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +and over logs buried, most of them, inches deep in the water; +they were, however, better to walk on than the soft mud +there was on either side. The silver firs were now at their +best—trees over 100 feet in height, and with stems 20 feet +to 25 feet in circumference. Here grew great hydrangeas +20 feet or more in height covered with flowers. Our only +halts on the way down, and they were pretty frequent, +were to pick off the leeches from our clothes. We took +them off by tens at a time; they were very hungry, and +varied in size from great striped horse-leeches to tiny ones +as thin as a pin and able to penetrate anywhere. The track +now left the upper terraces and descended very steeply +towards the river, at times climbing sharply upwards again +to avoid precipitous rocks and cliffs. During the descent, +we gradually passed from the zone of the silver firs into +that of the spruce, meeting the lovely <i>Picea Brunoniana</i>, which +grew to an even greater size than the silver firs. Many of the +trees were over 150 feet in height and without a branch for 70 +feet or 80 feet; their stems too, were often 25 feet to 30 feet in +circumference. This valley is so inaccessible that I am glad +to think that these glorious forests can never be exploited +commercially. After passing a great overhanging rock +called Korabak, which is evidently much used as a halting-place, +we descended steeply to the river, which now forms a +series of cascades, leaping from rock to rock, a very remarkable +spectacle. During the last 6 miles of its course, this river—the +product of four large glacier streams—descends at the +rate of 450 feet every mile. In places there were waterfalls +of 20 feet and more, where the river hurled itself into seething +cauldrons; in one place I saw it confined to a breadth of +barely 5 feet. The junction of this river with the Arun is +only 7,500 feet above the sea; just above the junction +is a bridge which leads to the village of Kimonanga, a +picturesque village situated on a terrace some 700 feet +above the river and surrounded by some fine trees. In this +valley we came across a few blue pines (<i>Pinus excelsa</i>) and +also a large-leafed alder; near its junction with the Arun<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +were many trees and orchids of a semi-tropical character. +On the opposite side of the valley is a forest of evergreen +oak trees, but as I was unable to cross the river I could +not say to what species they belonged. On the way we +passed many yellow raspberries on which we slaked our +thirst. Our guide also dug up some of the roots of the wild +arum to show us; it is a great flattish tuberous root, rather +oval in shape. This the inhabitants dig up and, after allowing +it to ferment by burying it in a hole for several days, pound +it up, and then eat it; it was much esteemed by the villagers. +It is necessary to ferment it first, as otherwise the root is +extremely poisonous. We tasted a slice of bread made out +of this root, and I have seldom tasted anything nastier. +It is supposed, if not properly fermented, to cause all the +hair to fall out of the head; but I should be inclined to +imagine that it would do this even if it were properly +fermented. Near the junction of the Kama and Arun Rivers, +we climbed up on to a terrace 1,200 feet above, on which +was situated the village of Lungdö. The great Arun gorges +here become a considerable valley; for 20 miles above this +point up to Kharta the Arun runs through a narrow and +practically impassable gorge, but here the valley widens +out for a few miles and contains several villages; a short +distance below it enters again into another great gorge. +The river now was in full flood and covered the whole of +the bottom of the valley, being in places many hundred +yards in width. At one spot, where it contracted, there +was a well-made bridge leading to the village of Matsang. +I was astonished to meet with maize growing at this height—8,700 +feet. The villagers also grew cucumbers, pumpkins +and several kinds of millet, including an extremely pretty red +one. The head-man of Lungdö gave me some millet beer, +which was very refreshing after the long march. Wollaston +did not care for it, but between us we managed to eat three +large and juicy cucumbers. The head-man was very friendly; +and a local official was staying here who had just come +from Kharta, who recognised us, and presented us with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +some excellent honey cakes. We neither of us looked forward +to the uphill return journey, but after five and a half hours' +hard walking I reached camp just before dark. Wollaston +did not arrive till later, and I had to send a coolie with a +lamp to bring him in. We were both of us much exhausted, +as the day had been a long and trying one. That night +we had a grand camp fire of rhododendron and fir logs. +Hundreds of moths insisted on flying into the fire instead of +entering the tent where Wollaston was ready with his cyanide +bottle to catch them.</p> + +<p>The following morning the weather was dull and cloudy, +and did not look very promising. We determined, however, +to visit the Popti La, the pass between Tibet and Nepal, +over which all the local traffic passes. Leaving the camp, +we entered a small side valley to the South, the path climbing +steeply upwards under big rhododendrons (<i>R. Falconeri</i> +and <i>R. Argenteum</i>) with leaves 18 inches long. Noticing +many of their leaves strewn on the path, I inquired the +reason for this. Our guide informed us that the carriers +fastened these leaves together with thin strips of bamboo +and thus provided an excellent waterproof cover for themselves +and for their loads. After climbing about a mile, +we saw some bamboo huts in the forest and a number of +cows were grazing round them. These belonged to some +Nepalese herds who come over here in the summer, bringing +their cattle to graze. The path now followed the side of a +rushing torrent, peaty brown in colour, which came hurrying +down under the shade of birch, sycamore, silver firs, juniper +and rhododendrons. As we ascended higher, the open spaces +became more frequent, though the grass and weeds grew +fully 3 feet in height, attesting the constant rainfall of this +district. On leaving the path to collect a few seeds from +some plants growing a short distance away from it, I found +myself in a few moments covered with leeches which apparently +thrive here at an altitude of over 12,000 feet; this must +be almost a record height for these pests. The path climbed +up steeply, the rhododendrons growing gradually smaller<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> +in size as we ascended. After going for four hours, we reached +the top of the pass—14,000 feet. Here on the top was a +stone half hidden in a pile of rocks with a notice, written +in Chinese characters, that this was the boundary between +Tibet and Nepal. Across the top of the pass was a long +wall, mostly overgrown with grass, evidently at one time +considered to be some kind of defence. Owing to the clouds +being very low, we unfortunately had no view from the +top, but just below us, on the Nepalese side, was a fine +black lake, about half a mile long, with an island in the centre, +which the Nepalese called Dungepokri. On the top were +many interesting Alpine flowers, amongst them a charming +white potentilla with a red centre; and a large cream-coloured +primula, shading into deep orange. We also came across +several new varieties of gentians. Here we rested for a +couple of hours, hoping that the clouds might lift, but a +nasty rain began to fall heavily. While we were waiting +several coolies from Nepal passed by: from these we found +out that the pass was closed by snow for five months in +the year and that the trade market at Sakeding was closed +by the end of October. We now turned our footsteps homeward, +urged on by cold showers of rain. On the descent +we were able to collect a few seeds. Autumn was approaching, +though the trees had not yet begun to assume their autumn +colours owing to the warm nights. That evening in the +camp we had an enormous bonfire of birch, juniper and +rhododendrons, which made the prettiest blaze imaginable, +with flames of green, blue, violet and orange. The large +fire also helped to keep away the leeches. Heavy rain fell +again all night, and the thermometer did not descend below +55° Fahr. The morning, however, broke fine, and we started +back again up the valley to Sakeding. The sun shone every +now and then, giving us occasional glimpses of distant glaciers +at the head of the valley. The walk through the forest, +with the sunlight shining on the dark green leaves of the +rhododendron and the dripping foliage, was very delightful. +The undergrowth consisted of wild roses, berberis with its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +necklaces of scarlet berries, wild currants of a great size—sour +to the taste, but excellent when stewed—wild raspberries, +light feathery bamboos, birch, willow and a most luxuriant +vegetation of flowers and grasses. In one or two places +the mountain ash were just beginning to show traces of +colour. We soon left the leeches behind us and followed +our old track through the forest beside the rushing waters +of the Kama-chu. Enormous rocks which had fallen from +above had in places almost blocked up the river. Often +on these great boulders in the middle of the stream were +growing the graceful Himalayan larch. On the steepest +rock faces grew vegetation of every kind, thanks to the +excessive moisture of the climate, and from every tree and +from every bush hung long and picturesque lichens. Crested +tits and bullfinches lived in great numbers in this forest +and gave it quite a homelike appearance. The climb from +the river had been a steep one, and we pitched our camp +at Sakeding in a downpour of rain, but towards the evening +the weather cleared up, allowing us fine views of great snow +peaks which showed above the mists on the opposite sides +of the valley. It was too far to go from Sakeding to Kharta +in one day; we therefore decided to camp before crossing +the Chog La. We passed our old camp by the green lake +Ruddamlamtso, and I had a long chase after some ram chakor, +but they were too clever for me and ran up the hill faster +than I could follow them. The large moraines which converged +in this valley were specially interesting, and threw +much light on its past history. Each moraine had its own +long line of boulders formed of different kinds of rock, +according to the character of the mountains from which they +had been carried down by the ice. It was not difficult to +imagine the vast glaciers by which these lines of boulders +had been deposited; glaciers which must at one time have +completely blocked the valley and the disappearance of +which has made room for the chain of lakes which now +occupy the valley. We pitched our camp at a place called +Mendalongkyo—15,500 feet—in a pleasantly sheltered spot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> +where a gurgling stream disappeared under an old moraine. +In the afternoon Wollaston went out after rats, of which +he secured a new variety. Our coolies had a great chase +after a fat marmot, which they very nearly caught, but he +got down into his hole just in time. Around the camp +were quantities of a very beautiful pale blue gentian—a +regular Eton blue colour. Wandering up the spur North-west +of the camp I counted nine lakes in the next valley +and four lakes in the one that we were in; as the rain +began to fall again, I returned to camp.</p> + +<p>The next morning, August 29, we began our homeward +journey to Kharta. Getting up early, we climbed on to +the high ridge North-west of the camp, from which we had +a fair view; but unfortunately both Makalu and Mount +Everest were hidden by clouds. We waited for a long time +in hopes of a better view, but the clouds only grew thicker. +We therefore followed the ridge above the Chog La. On +the way I shot a Tibetan snow partridge (<i>Lerwa nivicola</i>), +an extremely pretty bird with lovely markings. This was +the first I had seen.</p> + +<p>We now turned our backs upon the Kama Valley with +much regret. We had explored many of these Himalayan +valleys, but none seemed to me to be comparable with this, +either for the beauty of its Alpine scenery, or for its wonderful +vegetation. We shall not easily forget the smiling pastures +carpeted with gentians and every variety of Alpine flower +that rise to the very verge of icebound and snow-covered +tracks, where mighty glaciers descend among the forests +which clothe the lower slopes.</p> + +<p>After crossing the Chog La, we went down once more into +the valley of the lakes and then, crossing the Samchung La, +descended to Kharta which we found bathed in sunshine.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%">THE UPPER KHARTA VALLEY AND THE 20,000 FOOT CAMP</span></p> + +<p>During the early part of August Mallory and Bullock, +after they had found that there was no possible means of +attacking Mount Everest from the Kama Valley, crossed +the Langma La and returned to the Kharta Valley. Up +this valley they now proceeded until they reached the glaciers +in which the Kharta River has its source. After exploring +a number of valleys, they at last found one which led straight +to Mount Everest. Accompanied by Major Morshead, who +had joined them during their excursion, they made a long and +tiring reconnaissance of this valley, and satisfied themselves +that it afforded a practicable approach to the North-eastern +ridge of Mount Everest. The slopes were fairly gentle, but +were at that time covered with soft fresh snow, knee deep. +Over these snow-covered glaciers, up which they had +proceeded with great difficulty, they found a col from which +it was possible to attack the mountain. Under the existing +conditions of soft snow and warm weather it would have +been quite impossible to take laden coolies along this route, +and they therefore returned to Kharta to wait until the +monsoon conditions had abated and the snow should have +become hard and frozen.</p> + +<p>On our return from the Kama Valley on August 29, we +found Mallory and Bullock still at Kharta, waiting for the +weather to improve. About this time it was showing distinct +signs of improvement. The clouds were not so thick and +there were many more bright intervals with blue skies. +They therefore determined to start off on August 31, to +form an advanced base camp up the Kharta Valley.</p> + +<p>On September 1, much to the surprise of every one,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> +Raeburn arrived back from Darjeeling. He reported very +wet conditions throughout Tibet, the rivers everywhere +being unfordable, and most of the bridges washed away. +He also reported having seen five bags of our mails at Chushar. +Our posts had latterly been very erratic, and for five weeks +no mails had arrived. We did not know what had happened +to them. We were sending in a couple of our own coolies +every fortnight to Phari with our outgoing mail, and the +first lot of these coolies had not yet returned, so that we +were all without news of the outside world. Although it +was the beginning of September, the night temperatures at +Kharta were still much too high, ranging from 52° Fahr. to +47° Fahr. On September 3 Morshead and Wheeler left for +the Upper Kharta Valley, intending to go slowly and to +map and fill in the detail of the valley as they went along.</p> + +<p>The tameness of the birds gave us many opportunities +of studying their habits. A large family of redstarts lived +in our garden at Kharta, and used to amuse me very much. +The young birds were now fully fledged and spent most of +the day in hopping in and out of my tent; they were not in +the least degree afraid, and the mother would come and feed +them actually inside my tent. On the terrace near the +camp there were a number of prettily marked white rock +pigeons which formed a welcome addition to our diet of +Tibetan mutton, of which we were getting very tired.</p> + +<p>On September 5 Wollaston, Raeburn and I, with twenty-six +Tibetan coolies, and eleven of our own, started off to +join the climbing party up the Kharta Valley. The first +7 miles of this valley I knew well, having traversed them +many times before. The barley fields were now fast ripening, +and were a beautiful golden colour. Curious to relate, the +barley that grew at 14,000 feet was riper than that which +grew at 12,000 feet. Two kinds of barley seemed to be +grown here—the ordinary variety, and another with a red +ear such as is, I believe, grown in the Shetlands. We rode +past the tidy-looking monastery of Gandenchöfel, surrounded +by its juniper trees, and after a steep climb past the entrance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +of the valley leading to the Langma La, descended on to +some fine river terraces, on which were many prosperous +farms and well-tilled fields. These extended for several +more miles up the valley. We pitched our camp on a grassy +flat a couple of miles above the last house, where willows, +rhododendrons and junipers grew plentifully; the marshy +ground was carpeted with gentians, one of the commonest +being dark blue in colour with ten petals, and rather like a +star in shape, the other being larger and of a pale Eton-blue +colour. I managed to collect a certain number of seeds of +both of these. We had a grand bonfire that evening, made +of juniper and willow, the last that we were to have for a +long time. The weather was disappointing and a drizzling +rain fell all night with a temperature of 42° Fahr.</p> + +<p>It was still raining when we started in the morning, so +that there were no views. A white andromeda was still in +flower on the hillsides, but the rhododendrons were all over. +On the opposite side of the valley juniper alone flourished +and grew to an altitude of nearly 17,000 feet. After going +a couple of miles, we passed Morshead and Wheeler's tents +pitched on an old yak camp. When we arrived, they were +still having breakfast, as the weather was too bad to do +any surveying. On leaving them we had a steep climb +over grassy slopes, where the drizzling rain now changed +to snow, and for the rest of the day it fell steadily. There +appeared to be many branch valleys, and as our views in +the mist were very curtailed, we were not at all certain as +to whether we were going up the right valley—I only knew +approximately the height of the place at which we were +to camp. Therefore, on arriving at that height, I sent my +coolies off in two different directions up two different valleys +to see where Mallory and Bullock's camp might be. The +mist lifted for a moment, and one of them luckily saw Mallory, +whose camp was only a few hundred yards from us. We +decided to call this our “Advanced base camp.” It was +pitched in some small grassy hollows at a height of 17,350 +feet. The site was well sheltered from the winds, and was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +a regular Alpine garden. Gentians of three different kinds +were growing there, including the lovely light-blue one. +There was also a beautiful little white saxifrage with yellow +and brown spots inside the flower, a delightful pink androsace, +and dwarf delphiniums with their single deep-blue flowers. +Here grew also the musk-scented hairy light-blue delphinium +with its overpowering smell of musk. The latter flower, +the Tibetans told me, was a great preventative of lice, and +I noticed that our cooks and most of our servants had picked +great bundles of it. They also told me that if a man habitually +wears this flower about him during his lifetime, after +his death when cut up and exposed to the birds, no bird or +wolf will touch his flesh owing to the strong scent apparently +left by the musk. A pretty pink aster grew here in great +clusters, and a few blue poppies were still out. Acchu, our +cook, and Gyalzen Kazi, who were coming along behind us, +both missed their way and wandered several miles further +up the valley before they found out their mistake, and when +they eventually arrived in camp, were both suffering from +severe headaches, due to the great height. During our +stay at this camp we had plenty of time and many opportunities +of observing bird and animal life. Some of the +birds were very brilliantly coloured. There was a snow +bunting with bright scarlet breast and head, also a beautiful +redstart with red body and black and white wings. Overhead +the great <ins title="lammergeier">Lämmergeier</ins>, or bearded vulture, sailed in graceful +circles, while the big black raven croaked on the rocks by +the camp. Morning and evening we could hear the ramchakor +(<i>Tetraogallus tibetanus</i>) calling on the opposite side of the +valley, and with glasses we could see them chasing one +another and running round in circles. Red foxes I met +with on several occasions over 18,000 feet.</p> + +<p>Mallory and Bullock, who had already been here for a +few days, had spent their time in carrying wood and stores +up to a higher camp further up the valley; they had been +having a certain amount of trouble with their coolies, due +to the Sirdar, who was always trying to create difficulties.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +I therefore sent him away on a job to Chushar to collect +some of our stores which were supposed to have been detained +there, and which would keep him busy for a number of days +and prevent him from interfering with our coolies at a critical +period. We had brought up with us six live sheep, and +very lively these proved. Dukpa, Mallory's cook, let three +of them escape, but luckily some coolies coming up the +valley saw two of them, and after a great chase brought +them back. The third they could not catch and eventually +drove him under a cliff, where they killed him with stones +and brought his carcass back to us. The weather continued +very unsettled. During the night a couple of inches of snow +fell, but until the temperature became colder and the sky +cleared, it was no use trying to go up to the upper camp. +I shot a ramchakor on the opposite side of the valley. They +are the most tasty of the Tibetan birds, and are quite +excellent eating.</p> + +<p>On September 8, after a frosty night, Bullock, Mallory +and I with three coolies, for the purpose of keeping fit, made +a little excursion along a rocky ridge that lay to the South +of us. On the top of the ridge there were a number of sharp +rock pinnacles that had to be climbed. I found these gymnastics +at a height of over 19,000 feet to be very exhausting, +but Mallory did not seem to mind them in the least. There +should have been a lovely view from here, but all we got +was an occasional glimpse of glaciers and rocky peaks through +the mist. The sun was trying to shine through the clouds +and at first it was beautifully warm; but after a couple of +hours snow began to fall, so we hurriedly descended on to +the glacier below. Snow fell all the way back to camp, and +by nightfall there were 3 inches of fresh snow round our +tents. During the night the thermometer dropped to 21° +Fahr., and the morning broke clear and frosty. I started +off early to climb the hill behind the camp, from which there +was a very extensive view, both Everest and Makalu being +for the moment quite clear and free from cloud. To the +North extended a great range of snow peaks between 23,000<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +feet and 24,000 feet in height, rather uninteresting in appearance, +and to the East stretched a great sea of accumulating +cloud, out of which appeared the tops of Kanchenjunga and +Jannu. The peak on which we stood was just under 20,000 +feet; I spent several hours basking in the hot sunshine, +which was rapidly melting the fresh snow. I was surprised +to find growing at this height a tiny yellow saxifrage.</p> + +<p>That evening eight coolies arrived with our long-expected +mail, and the rest of the day was spent in reading letters +and sorting out papers, for over two hundred letters and +papers had arrived for me alone. There was again a sharp +frost of 10° that night and the early morning was beautiful, +but clouds came quickly drifting up the valley and obscured +the fine views we had from the camp of Mount Everest and +the rocky peaks to the North of the camp. On September 11, +in spite of a warm night, Mallory and Bullock, being very +optimistic, left for the upper camp, while Morshead and +Wheeler rejoined us from their camp below, not having +been able to do any work down there owing to bad weather. +Snow fell steadily all the evening to a depth of about 3 inches. +Next day was cloudy, but warm, and the snow disappeared +again with extraordinary rapidity. I went out with a shotgun +to try and shoot some ramchakor, and while after them +saw a very fine grey wolf who was also stalking the ramchakor. +He came up to within 50 yards of me, so that I +was able to have a good look at him. He had a beautiful +coat, and it was very unfortunate that I did not have a rifle +with me. I wandered some way up a side valley to the +foot of a glacier, but saw no signs of birds, as the wolf had +evidently been there before me. In the afternoon Mallory +and Bullock returned from the upper camp, having been +driven down by the bad weather: another 5 inches of snow +fell that evening, so that we were kept busy beating our +tents to keep the ridge poles from breaking. On September +13, 14 and 15, snow fell on and off the whole time; but in +spite of the bad weather I managed to shoot a burhel for +food. Their meat is very much better than that of the tame<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> +sheep. On September 16 we had at last a fine day with a +sharp frost at night. Wheeler at once seized this opportunity +and took up a station on a hill-top on the opposite side +of the valley, from which he was able to get some useful +views. The next day, after 13° of frost in the night, Mallory, +Morshead and I started off to climb Kama Changri, a peak +to the South of the camp, that overhung the Kama Valley. +We left the camp at 2 a.m., by the light of a full moon, which +made the going as light as though it were day. We soon +reached our view-point of a few days before, where, except +for the distant roar of the stream far away below in the +valley, there was no other sound, only an intense stillness. +Never anywhere have I seen the moon or the stars shine so +brightly. To the South, far away from us, there were +constant flashes of lightning—the valleys in Tibet, the great +gorges of the Arun, the wooded valleys of Nepal all lay +buried under a white sea of clouds, out of which emerged +the higher mountains like islands out of a fairy sea. In +this bright moonlight, mountains like Kanchenjunga—100 +miles away—stood out sharp and distinct. Here on this +sharp ridge, at a height of 21,000 feet, with no obstruction +to hide the view, sunrise came to us in all its beauty and +grandeur. To the West, and close at hand, towered up Mount +Everest, still over 8,000 feet above us; at first showing up +cold, grey and dead against a sky of deep purple. All of +a sudden a ray of sunshine touched the summit, and soon +flooded the higher snows and ridges with golden light, while +behind, the deep purple of the sky changed to orange. Makalu +was the next to catch the first rays of the sun and glowed +as though alive; then the white sea of clouds was struck by +the gleaming rays of the sun, and all aglow with colour rose +slowly and seemed to break against the island peaks in great +billows of fleecy white.</p> + +<p>Such a sunrise has seldom been the privilege of man to +see, and once seen can never be forgotten. After sunrise +the climbing became more unpleasant. We tried to follow +the direct way up the mountain, but the snow was in bad<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +condition and the slope very steep. We therefore crossed +the glacier, putting on our snow-shoes, and followed easier +snow slopes but bad owing to the soft snow. The going was +very tiring; Mallory and Morshead appeared to feel the +height very much. After six hours we reached the top, +21,300 feet, from which we had a most superb view. We +looked straight down on to the Kama Valley. Makalu was +immediately opposite us with its colossal precipices. Glaciers, +cliffs of ice, rock peaks, fluted snow ridges and immense +mountains towered all around us above a vast sea of clouds +which stretched for hundreds of miles away to the plains of +India. Here I was able to take many photographs, but no +photograph can adequately portray the grandeur or the +impressiveness of such a scene. We stopped on the top of +Kama Changri for over three hours. It was extraordinarily +warm; there was not a breath of air, and the sun seemed +to shine with an intense heat. Clouds then began to roll +up, and we returned to camp by an easier way down the +glacier.</p> + +<p>Next day, in spite of 13° of frost at night, snow and sleet +fell all day again, and made us very depressed. In order to +prevent our going to sleep too soon after dinner, four of us +used to play bridge every night, and I do not suppose that +bridge has often been played at so great a height.</p> + +<p>On September 19, after a cold night with 16° of frost, +Mallory, Bullock, Morshead and Wheeler started off for the +20,000-foot camp. The weather was now steadily growing +colder every night. On September 20 we had 18° of frost, +as well as a further fall of snow. During the night a very +fine lunar halo was seen, but the morning broke clear. +Wollaston, Raeburn and I started to join the remainder +of the party at the 20,000-foot camp, leaving Gyalzen Kazi, +our second interpreter, behind in charge of the advance +base camp. It was very necessary to have some one here +to whom we could send back for any extra stores or supplies +that might be wanted, and who would be able to forward +to us anything that might be sent up from Kharta. A<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +four hours' walk brought us to the camp. I had a thorough +feeling of lassitude all the way. It required, indeed, some +effort to walk at all, and a strong effort, both of mind and +body, to reach camp. On the way beautiful views of Mount +Everest gave us encouragement. The foot of the Kharta +Glacier descends to 19,000 feet. From that point on to +the camp we travelled beside it. At first the glacier is cut +up into wonderfully shaped “seracs,” but as we got higher +the surface became smoother. It was an exceptionally +white glacier; there were no moraines on its surface, and +it was covered everywhere with a fresh coating of thick +snow. We found the camp on a terrace between two glaciers. +That above the camp resembled the pictures of a Greenland +ice cap. A thick coating of ice, to a depth of 50 to 60 feet, +covered the gentle slopes above us, and came down to within +a couple of hundred yards of the camp. The drainage from +the melting ice percolated through the stony ground, so +that on digging to a depth of 6 inches we came upon water. +A couple of hundred feet below the camp was the big white +glacier which descended from the Lhakpa La. The day was +gloriously fine, and we obtained magnificent views of Mount +Everest and the snowy chain to the South of us across the +Kharta Glacier. Over the top of this snowy chain appeared +the great rocky crests of Makalu. At an altitude of over +19,800 feet I saw a hare and heard several ramchakor calling. +There grew close to the camp a few gentians with their +curious square leaves, also a dwarf blue delphinium and +a little white saxifrage. It was an extraordinary height +at which to find flowers and their season of summer cannot +last long. On arrival at the camp, we found only Wheeler +and Bullock there, as Mallory and Morshead with fourteen +coolies had gone on ahead to carry loads up to the Lhakpa La, +which was to be our next camp. They returned in a very +exhausted condition in the course of the afternoon. The +snow, they reported, was in better condition than last time +on the lower slopes; but as they got higher, they found +it still very soft and powdery. These extra loads that they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +had taken up to this camp would enable the whole party +to go up to it and to sleep there, if necessary, for several +days. As the sun was setting behind Mount Everest, we +were treated to a glorious view. The ring of clouds that +surrounded it were all touched by the bright evening sunlight, +while the mountain itself was in deep shadow except for +great streamers of powdery fresh snow which were being +blown off the whole length of its crests. We stood and +watched this extraordinary sight for some time, devoutly +hoping that the wind would soon die down. Unfortunately +we were soon to experience what a strong wind meant at +these heights.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_138.jpg" width="500" height="322" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_138"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Sea of cloud from peak north of Kama Valley.</span><br /> +<ins title="Kangchenjunga">Kanchenjunga</ins> in distance.</p> +</div> + +<p>On the following night we had 20° of frost, and the +weather appeared to be getting rather more settled. We +were now sufficiently high up to be above the ordinary clouds, +and we could look down upon the great sea of them which +overhung the Arun Valley and the greater part of Nepal. +As the sun warmed the clouds, they used to rise higher, +but they seldom arrived as far as our camp owing to a strong +North-westerly wind always blowing in the upper regions +of the air which drove them back again. Watching the +movements of the clouds day by day gave me the impression +that the Mount Everest group forms a dividing line between +the two monsoon systems. The monsoon that causes so +much rain in Sikkim comes from the Bay of Bengal, and +these moist currents sweep up to Mount Everest, but it is +only when the current is very strong that they pass beyond +it. At this time of year this monsoon was still active, whereas +the Arabian Sea monsoon—that is to say, the moist +winds from the Arabian Sea—which had given us previously +much rain and snow on the Western sides and slopes of +Mount Everest, was now over, with the result that on the +West side of Everest we had blue skies every day and no +rain clouds, whereas on the East side the clouds and the +moisture brought up by the Bengal monsoon still prevailed. +During the course of the morning I climbed an easy hill to +the East side of the camp and some 500 feet above it. We<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> +walked along at first just below the ice cap, which was very +pretty with its long icicles gleaming in the sunlight. We +then crossed on to the ice cap and found the snow in excellent +condition, firm and crisp to the tread, so that it was a pleasure +to walk along it. From the top of this hill, 20,500 feet, +was a very fine view to the East, over the great sea of cloud +which filled up all the valleys as far as the Massif of +Kanchenjunga which towered up in the distance, and the +more slender peak of Jannu. Amongst the Sikkim peaks +I could also recognise Chomiomo and the Jonsong peak. +To the South Makalu towered up above all the other +mountains: while between it and Mount Everest, beyond +the Southern watershed of the Kama Valley, showed up +some of the great Nepalese peaks, among which we noted +Chamlang, 24,000 feet. To the West of us Mount Everest +showed up sharp and clear and very white after all the fresh +snow that had fallen in the last month. From this side +Mount Everest certainly looks its best, standing up as a +solitary peak instead of being rather dwarfed by the high +ridges that radiate from it. The weather remained fine +all day, and it was a real pleasure to sit outside one's tent +and bask in the sun. Though we were 20,000 feet, we had +breakfast, lunch and tea out of doors in front of our tents, +and we could not have been warmer or enjoyed pleasanter +conditions if we had been down at 5,000 feet.</p> + +<p>On September 22, leaving Raeburn behind, Mallory, +Bullock, Morshead, Wheeler, Wollaston and myself started +off to Lakhpa La camp. We left the 20,000-foot camp in +22° of frost at four o'clock in the morning, accompanied +by twenty-six coolies, who were divided up into four parties, +each of which was properly roped. It was a beautiful +moonlight night, and the mountains showed up nearly +as brightly as in the daytime. We rapidly descended the +200 feet from our terrace to the glacier, when we all “roped +up.” The snow on the glacier was in excellent condition, +and as it was frozen hard we made good progress. Dawn +overtook us on the broad flat part of the glacier, the first<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> +beams of the sun falling on the summit of Mount Everest, +which lay straight in front of us, and changing the colour +of the snow gradually from pink to orange, all the time +with a background of deep purple sky, every detail showing +up sharp and clear in the frosty air. We mounted gradually +past Kartse, the white conical-shaped peak climbed by +Mallory and Bullock a month ago from the Kama Valley. +We wended our way without much difficulty through the +ice-fall of the glacier, below some superbly fluted snow ridges +that rose straight above us. Then followed a long and at +times a somewhat steep climb over soft powdery snow to +the top of the pass. Even at these heights we came across +tracks in the snow. We were able to pick out tracks of +hares and foxes, but one that at first looked like a human +foot puzzled us considerably. Our coolies at once jumped +to the conclusion that this must be “The Wild Man of the +Snows,” to which they gave the name of Metohkangmi, +“the abominable snow man” who interested the newspapers +so much. On my return to civilised countries I read with +interest delightful accounts of the ways and customs of this +wild man whom we were supposed to have met. These +tracks, which caused so much comment, were probably caused +by a large “loping” grey wolf, which in the soft snow formed +double tracks rather like those of a barefooted man. Tibet, +however, is not the only country where there exists a “bogey +man.” In Tibet he takes the form of a hairy man who +lives in the snows, and little Tibetan children who are naughty +and disobedient are frightened by wonderful fairy tales +that are told about him. To escape from him they must +run down the hill, as then his long hair falls over his eyes +and he is unable to see them. Many other such tales have +they with which to strike terror into the hearts of bad boys +and girls.</p> + +<p>I reached the top of the pass (22,350 feet) by 10.30 a.m., +and was rewarded by a wonderful view of Mount Everest, +now only a couple of miles away. From the pass there +was a steep descent of about 1,200 feet to a glacier which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> +after many wanderings finds its way into the Rongbuk +Glacier. This valley had never been thoroughly investigated +by Mallory and Bullock in their visit to the Rongbuk Valley. +It does not, however, actually form the main Rongbuk +Glacier, but stops several miles short of it, the entrance +to the valley containing this huge glacier being both small +and very insignificant. The bad weather that they had +experienced in the Rongbuk Valley during the latter half +of their stay there had made it impossible for Mallory and +Bullock to explore this valley, or see what lay at its head.</p> + +<p>We were now opposite the Chang La (North Col) which +joins Mount Everest to Changtse (the North peak), and +from this col was, so far as we were able to judge, the only +route to the summit. The way from the glacier up to the +Chang La looked steep and unpromising, and we doubted +whether it would be possible to take laden coolies up, even +to this point. I took as many photographs as I could, and +as quickly as possible, for there was an icy wind blowing +which almost froze my hands. This wind blew the fine +powdery snow off all the crests of the ridges and it penetrated +everywhere. We found a little hollow in the snow a few +feet below the crest, and here we set to work to pitch our +camp. There was not much shelter, but it was the only +possible place. We had only brought small Alpine Meade +and Mummery tents with us. Two of us occupied each +tent. They were very small and uncomfortable, and in +order to enter them we had to crawl through a narrow funnel +almost as though we were entering a dog kennel. The +effort of crawling in was very exhausting and caused us to +remain out of breath for a considerable time afterwards. +Even these small tents were with difficulty pitched owing +to the strong winds: cooking was quite out of the question +until dark when the wind temporarily lulled. We had +brought up with us some Primus stoves and spirit lamps. +No one, except perhaps Wheeler, was very expert with the +Primus stove, and though no doubt under favourable conditions +they would be easy to work, even at these heights,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> +we were never very successful with them and were forced +to rely upon the spirit stoves. After sunset we had a scratch +meal of consommé, which we managed to warm up, followed +by some cold ham and biscuits, after which we retired to +bed. The moment the sun went down there were 25° of +frost. Up till now I had felt no ill-effects from the rarefied +air; I had not even had a headache and my appetite was +good, though I owned to feeling rather lazy and it always +needed an effort to concentrate one's thoughts. The coolies +who had accompanied us up to this camp all seemed to be +well and were very cheerful. The eiderdown sleeping-bags +were a great comfort; they were our only means of keeping +thoroughly warm with 34° of frost outside. But I cannot +say that I felt comfortable or, in fact, that I slept at all, +as the snow which at most times had been much too soft, +seemed here to freeze into uncomfortable lumps and bumps +underneath one's back, so that I could never get comfortable +all night. The wind howled round our flimsy tents, and I +do not think anyone, except perhaps Mallory, got any sleep +that night. In the morning we were all suffering from bad +headaches, due to the airlessness of these little tents, and +I am sure that anyone camping at high altitudes ought to +have a much larger type of tent in which to sleep if he is to +avoid headaches. We blessed the early morning sun when +it appeared and began to unfreeze us. I noticed then that +our faces and hands were all a curious blue colour in the +morning, due to what is called, I believe, cyanosis of the +blood. With much difficulty Wheeler made us a little tea, +which if not drunk at once, froze; Mallory thawed out some +sardines which had all been frozen solid. There was luckily +less wind than during the night, and as the sun rose higher, +we all became more alive. The coolies, too, were at first +all torpid and complained of bad headaches, but on getting +into the fresh air, out of their small and stuffy tents, the +headaches rapidly passed away. After consultation, we +decided that there was no object—in fact, that it would +be dangerous—for the whole party to go on, so we decided<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +that it would be best for the expert Alpine climbers only, +together with a few picked coolies, to attempt the Chang La. +If weather conditions were favourable, they might, we +thought, see how high they could get on Mount Everest +itself. We therefore quickly sorted out and divided up the +stores, and after seeing Mallory, Bullock and Wheeler off, +unpitched our own tents, being satisfied that we could be +of no use by remaining where we were, and that it would +be best that we should return to our 20,000-foot camp and +carry down with us as many stores as we could. We +accomplished this without any difficulty, and arrived back +during the course of the afternoon. The contrast here +was extraordinary. We seemed to be in a totally different +climate, and our larger tents and camp beds appeared to +us to be the height of luxury. We spent a very comfortable +night in spite of 22° of frost, and all slept soundly after our +exertions, though once or twice during the night I was +awakened by rats gnawing at the food which had been left +out on the boxes in my tent. One of the coolies also started +to say his prayers in a loud tone of voice at 1 a.m., but after +a few winged words he relapsed into silence.</p> + +<p>The next day was delightfully warm and sunny, though +there had been during the night a good deal of lightning +towards the South. The snow could be seen whirling off +the crest of Mount Everest during the morning, and in the +course of the afternoon the wind grew much stronger, and +blew huge clouds of snow off the slopes of the mountain, +and from all the surrounding ridges. We could see great +wisps of snow being blown off the pass that we had just +left, so that the climbing party must have been having a +very cold time in their new camp. In the evening there +was a curious false sunset in the East with fine purple and +orange rays, while as usual the Kama and the Kharta Valleys +were filled with a sea of cloud. Here, however, we seemed +to be above and beyond the reach of the clouds. Next +night there was again constant lightning to the South and +23° of frost, but the weather kept fine and sunny. On<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +climbing a snow-covered hill to the West of the camp, about +21,000 feet, I had some superb views of Everest and Makalu +with their appalling cliffs and beautifully-fluted snow slopes. +A strong North-westerly gale still continued in the upper +regions of the air above 22,000 feet, and every ridge of Everest +was smothered with clouds of blown snow. I had a pleasant +glissade down steep snow slopes back to the camp, where +the climate was delicious and where I could bask in the +sun at the entrance of my tent with a sun temperature of +173° Fahr. Earlier in the season we had often recorded +temperatures of 195° and 197° Fahr. in the sun with the +black bulb thermometer. During the afternoon we were +able with our glasses to see black specks appearing on the +top of the Lhakpa La. These were the Alpine climbers +and their coolies returning after their strenuous efforts on +Mount Everest. We watched them with the greatest interest +descending the glacier and wondered how far they had been +successful. They all arrived back safely in the course of +the evening, having been extraordinarily lucky in not having +had any casualties or frost-bites in spite of the Arctic gales. +Mallory will, however, tell of their adventures in another +chapter.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%">THE RETURN TO KHARTA BY THE KAMA VALLEY</span></p> + +<p>Winter was now rapidly approaching. Every night +was growing steadily colder, and we were all anxious to +get down to lower altitudes. Every one had been feeling +the strain of life at these high altitudes. It had been, +however, a great relief to us that all the party had got back +to the 20,000-foot camp in safety, and that we had had no +cases of sickness or frost-bite. The coolies had throughout +worked most willingly and to the best of their ability. They +had been well supplied with boots and socks, warm clothing +of all kinds, cap comforters and fur gloves, as well as +blankets, and for those who had slept at the higher camps, +eiderdown sleeping-bags had been provided capable of holding +four or five. Here at the 20,000-foot camp we did not have +to depend on Primus stoves or spirit lamps, as while we +were waiting at the advanced base camp we had daily sent +up coolies with loads of wood for our future use, and even +during our stay here the coolies who had been left behind +under Gyalzen Kazi had been sending up further loads. +We now divided our party into two: Mallory, Bullock, +Raeburn and Morshead were to be responsible for taking +all the stores back to Kharta, and for this purpose we had +arranged with Chheten Wangdi and the Kharta Jongpen +for a number of Tibetan coolies to help in the work of removal. +The remainder of us, that is to say, Wollaston, Wheeler +and myself, were to cross over a snow pass and return to +Kharta <ins title="viâ">via</ins> the Kama Valley. Wheeler was anxious to do +this in order to complete his survey work, for up till now +he had been unable to visit the Kama Valley. Wollaston +had already seen the lower parts of the Kama Valley, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> +was very anxious to see the upper end, particularly after +my descriptions of the scenery and the Alpine flowers that +were to be met with there.</p> + +<p>On September 26 the two parties started off in different +directions. Taking with us fifteen coolies, all pretty heavily +laden, we descended to the great Kharta Glacier, which +it was necessary for us to cross. We were not at all certain +as to the conditions we were likely to meet with on the +other side of the pass. The climb from the Kharta Glacier +to the Karpo La, 20,300 feet, was quite gentle, though the +snow was very soft and powdery. On the North side of +the pass we found the slopes to be a snow-covered glacier, +but on the South side there was a very steep rocky descent +which had to be faced. From the top of the pass we had a +remarkably fine view into the Kama Valley which lay below +us. Makalu, Pethangtse and Everest stood up clear above +the clouds which floated along the bottom of the Kama +Valley. Across the gaps between these peaks we could see +other snow ranges in Nepal. Here at the top of the pass +we were luckily just sheltered from the North-west and +the gale, but on either side of us snow was being blown off +the mountains in long white streamers. Our descent was +down a very steep rocky rib. We began by roping ourselves +together, but the coolies were all of them heavily laden +and were, moreover, very clumsy on the rope, sending down +so many loose stones that I found my position as foremost +man quite untenable owing to the amount of débris and +rocks which were dislodged above me. We therefore unroped, +and Wollaston lowered the coolies one by one over the +steepest part—a somewhat long proceeding—after which +they were able independently to make their way down to +the glacier below without mishap. We now put on the rope +again, and so crossed the easy glacier which led down to +the moraine on which I had been two months before. +Wheeler branched off here and took up a position on one +of the ridges. Here he found the gale very troublesome, +his theodolite being nearly blown over several times. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +managed, however, to take a number of readings and to +get a good many photographs—sufficient to map the whole +of the upper part of the Kama Valley. All that day the +gale continued above 20,000 feet. Below this the valley +was filled with clouds, over which at first we had magnificent +views. As soon as we descended into the valley, we +gradually became enveloped in the autumn mists, which +lasted all the remainder of the way to Pethang Ringmo. +This was the place where I had met the yak herds two +months before when they were pasturing their yaks on the +grassy uplands. They had left the place, and we were +therefore no longer able to draw on them for butter and +milk. I had, however, arranged for Wheeler's fat cook +to be sent up from Kharta to this place to meet us and to +bring with him some fresh meat and vegetables. These +we found on arrival, the fat cook having only arrived an +hour before. We all of us slept that night much better than +we had been doing at the higher camps, and though even +down here we had 14° of frost, I was delighted to find that +my boots were not frozen as hard as nails, as they had been +all the last week.</p> + +<p>From this camp I determined to attempt an expedition +which I had long desired to make. My ambition was to +reach the ridge between Makalu and Everest, and from +it to have a look right down into Nepal. Mallory and +Bullock did not much encourage me in my project, and +doubted whether it could be accomplished within the short +time which was now available. I decided, nevertheless, +to make the attempt. On the night of the 26th all our +servants overslept themselves, and I had some difficulty +in waking them next morning. We succeeded, however, +after a hurried breakfast in making a start at 5.45 a.m., +just as the first sunlight was touching the highest peak +of Mount Everest. It was a most perfect autumn morning, +without a cloud in the sky and with the ground underfoot +white with hoar-frost. After going a mile up the valley, +we had to cross the Kangshung Glacier—here about a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> +mile wide and consisting of a great mass of ice hummocks, +often 100 feet or more in height, mostly covered with +boulders, with the ice showing every now and then below +us in curious caverns and lakes. It took us an hour to cross +this glacier, as the walking was very tiring up and down +hill over loose stones all the time; luckily, however, many +of the stones were frozen to the ice, which made the crossing +easier than it might have been later in the day. We then +climbed on to a spur, over 19,000 feet, which jutted out +into the valley. From this we had marvellous views right +away to Kanchenjunga in the East. On the opposite side +Mount Everest stood out with every detail showing clearly +in the autumn sunshine. Above us towered the perpendicular +cliffs of <ins title="Chomolonzo">Chomolönzo</ins>, opening out into a most astonishing +series of peaks, the existence of which we had never suspected +when looking at the mountain from the valley below. For +once in a way the air was drier and the valleys below were +not filled with cloud, so there was a prospect of our having +clear views all day. Wheeler had come a short way along +the ridge until he got a good view-point, when he stopped +to set up his theodolite and camera for a station, after which +he came along no further. I followed the crest of the ridge +as far as I could, finding it at times very difficult and rocky +and having to make many detours to get along. A descent +of about 500 feet was followed by a climb of another 1,000 feet, +at the end of which we found ourselves exactly opposite +to the great amphitheatre of granite formed by <ins title="Chomolonzo">Chomolönzo</ins> +and Makalu and facing Westwards. So steep were these +great white granite cliffs that no snow lodged on them. +Above them were other cliffs of ice with rather gentler slopes; +at their feet was a great glacier that filled up the whole of +this basin and then swept down till it almost joined the +Kangshung Glacier. I had taken with me as usual Ang Tenze +and Nyima Tendu, the two coolies who always accompanied +me, each of them carrying a camera. We now came to a +glacier which it was necessary to cross, and therefore roped +up once more. The snow by this time had become rather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> +soft, and we were constantly breaking through the crust. +The glare and heat of the sun on this glacier were very +intense, and both Nyima and I were feeling very limp from +the heat. Ang Tenze was extraordinarily active and did +not seem to mind heat or height—a quite exceptionally +gifted mountaineer. Having successfully crossed the glacier, +we left the soft snow and found our way over some easy +rocks and eventually reached the top of the ridge for which +we were making, at a height of about 21,500 feet, and some +500 feet above the snow-covered pass to the East of us. +From the top of the ridge we had a most glorious view +looking across range upon range of snowy mountains in +Nepal. Immediately below us was a large snow “névé,” +towards which glaciers descended from a number of snow-covered +peaks. From this névé a great glacier swept round +towards the Southern side of Makalu, apparently descending +into a valley that ran parallel to the Kama Valley and on +the South side of Makalu. Chamlang and other snow peaks +to the South showed up very clearly, covered with snow and +ice to very much lower elevations than any mountain on +the North side of the Himalayas. On either side of us towered +up Makalu and Everest, but seen from this point the huge +cliffs of Chomolönzo presented by far the most astounding +sight. From here I could see a few thousand feet of the +Southern slopes of Mount Everest which we had been unable +to see from any other point before. From the angle at which +I saw them these appeared very steep, and even if it were +possible and permissible to go into Nepal, it seems improbable +that a practicable route lies up that face of the mountain. +I spent a couple of hours up here taking photographs, enjoying +the views, and eating my lunch in comfort, for the sun was +hot and for once in a way there was no wind. To the South-west +of us, across the névé, there appeared to be another +easy pass which seemed to lead round to the South of Mount +Everest, and Ang Tenze, who came from the Khombu Valley, +said that he thought that he recognised some of the mountain +tops that he saw over this, and that if we crossed this pass,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> +we should eventually descend into the Khombu Valley. +He also told me that there were stories that once upon a +time there was a pass from the Khombu Valley into the +Kama Valley, and that this was probably the pass in question, +but that it had been disused for a great number of years. +To support his theory we found on the way down a kind of +shelter built of stones and some pieces of juniper hidden +under a big rock. This would have been too high up for +any yak herds to camp, as it was above the grazing pastures, +and seemed to prove that the spot might have been used as +a halting-place for smugglers or people fleeing from the law +before they crossed these passes. It had taken us six and a +half hours from camp to get up to the top of this pass; and +we had had no halts on the way beyond what were necessary +to take photographs. The downward journey took us four +hours. We tried another way by the side of the Makalu +Glacier, desiring thereby to avoid the tiresome and rather +difficult bit along the top of the ridge. This short cut proved, +however, to be still more trying and wearisome. From the +cliffs above there had been great rock falls down to the edge +of the glacier, and for a couple of miles we had to jump from +boulder to boulder and to clamber either up or down the +whole time. There was still the Kangshung Glacier to cross, +with more up and down hill work, the stones being much +looser and more inclined to slip under foot than they were +in the morning. Eventually we reached camp, just before +dark, and feeling very tired. A cup of tea, however, with +a little brandy in it, completely removed all fatigue. +Wollaston had been able during the day to get some beautiful +photographs of the snow-powdered cliffs of Chomolönzo, +and also some interesting ones of the Kangshung Glacier. +Besides these he had been able to collect a number of seeds. +It is astonishing how quickly at these heights seeds ripen, +and how short a time it is after flowering that they are fit +for picking.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_150.jpg" width="323" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_150"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Chomolönzo.</span><br /> +from the alp below the Langma La, Kama Valley.</p> +</div> + +<p>We had been very lucky in getting such a perfect day +in the Kama Valley, for fine days there were very few.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> +After our one perfect day the weather changed again, and +for the next three days we descended the Kama Valley +in sleet and snow. The first morning our march was only +to our old camp at Tangsham on a glacial terrace 1,000 +feet above the valley. At first Everest was clear and all +the mountains to the West, but heavy clouds came rolling +up from the South-east and soon enveloped everything. +On the way I managed to collect for Wollaston a number of +the seeds of that lovely blue primula which I had found in +flower here in August. I shot, too, a common snipe, which +I was very surprised to meet at these altitudes. I flushed +him beside a small spring close to the camp. During the +afternoon it snowed and sleeted, and Wheeler came in very +tired in the evening after having spent the whole of the day +on a prominent peak, from which he had been unable to get +a single photograph or to take any bearings. In spite of the +snow that evening we had a cheery bonfire of juniper, willow +and rhododendron. The next morning, though we were +down at 15,000 feet, there were a couple of inches of fresh +snow on the ground. The weather at first was very misty, +and we had no views at all. We soon, however, descended +below the snow, and the autumnal colours in the valley +began to show. On the opposite side of it below the great +black cliffs, the bushes were all shades of brown and gold. +In the forests the rose bushes had turned a brilliant red, +and the mountain ash showed every shade of scarlet and +crimson, contrasting well with the shiny dark green leaves +of the rhododendron. The golden colours of the birch and +the dark junipers also made a beautiful combination of colour. +Rain set in again steadily, and as snow was falling on +the “field of marigolds” where we had intended to camp, +we pitched our tents in the midst of a huge rock-fall—1,000 +feet lower down. Our coolies did not pitch any tents for +themselves, but preferred to scatter in twos and threes +and to camp under the overhanging rocks which they found +apparently warmer and more comfortable than the tents. +There had been a wonderful growth of vegetation among<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> +these huge boulders, many of them 40 feet to 50 feet in +height, which had come down from the cliffs above. Wollaston +and I spent most of the afternoon pottering round and +collecting seeds of plants of different kinds. The next +morning we had trouble in getting hold of the coolies; they +were scattered among the rocks, and in spite of shouts, +refused to budge until I went round with a big stick and +poked them out of their holes. I crossed the Shao La in +thick mist, though Wollaston and Wheeler, who came along +an hour behind, had some beautiful glimpses of Makalu +in the clouds and were able to get some photographs. After +crossing the pass, we descended past several beautiful lakes +and arrived in fine weather at Kharta in the afternoon. +The autumn tints on the way down were again very beautiful, +and most of the crops had already been gathered in. Mallory +and Bullock had, we found, left Kharta, being in a great +hurry to get back to civilisation again.</p> + +<p>It was September 30 when we reached Kharta. We had +now finished our reconnaissance. We had investigated +all the valleys to the West, North-west, North, North-east +and East of the mountain, and had eventually found that +there was only one possible route of approach to the summit. +The bad weather and the furious North-westerly gales had +prevented our attaining any great height this year. The +rainy season had begun some three weeks later than usual. +The rains, they told us, had been much heavier than in +most years in Tibet, and the wet season had lasted until +very nearly the end of September, after which time a period +of gales set in which made climbing at heights above 23,000 +feet a physical impossibility. Undoubtedly the best time +to try and climb the mountain would be before the monsoon +breaks in May or early June. It might be possible, if the +monsoon happened to end by the beginning of September, +to tackle the mountain early in September, but after the +middle of that month the chances of doing any good grow +steadily weaker and the cold increases with great rapidity. +Whether it will be possible in any conditions to reach the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> +summit I am very doubtful. We, however, had never +intended to make a sustained effort to reach the top in +1921. The reconnaissance of the mountain and its approaches +afforded us indeed no time to make such an effort, and we +felt bound to investigate every valley that led up to it. +The Everest Committee had already before we left for India +in 1921 decided to send out a second Expedition in the +following year, for the express purpose of climbing Mount +Everest, and for this purpose had already then promised +the leadership to Brig.-General C. G. Bruce, whose unrivalled +knowledge of climbing and climatic conditions in the +Himalayas specially fitted him for the work. Whether +the task is capable of accomplishment I will not attempt +to say, though I should think the chances are on the whole +against success. If Mount Everest were 6,000, or even +5,000 feet lower, I think there can be no doubt that it could +be climbed. There are no physical difficulties in the shape +of the mountain which prevent it being climbed—the +difficulties are all connected with its altitude. If the snow +is soft and powdery, and the conditions are such as we met +with so often; or if, again, there is difficult rock climbing +in the last 2,000 or 3,000 feet of the climb, I do not think +the summit will be reached. I cannot say what the effect +will be if oxygen is taken to aid the human effort. I only +know that cylinders of oxygen are very uncomfortable and +heavy to carry, and that to wear a mask over the mouth +and to climb so equipped would not seem to be very feasible +or pleasant. Living at great heights, and trying to sleep +at great heights, lowers the vitality enormously. Larger +tents than those with which we were supplied might well +be taken in order to prevent the depressing headaches that +follow from sleeping in a confined and airless space. Among +minor discomforts which count for much may be mentioned +the difficulty of preparing good warm food, and for this +purpose a coolie should be trained in cooking and in the use +of the “Primus” and spirit stoves. This coolie should be +a man accustomed to great heights, and he should accompany<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> +the party up to the highest camps in order to avoid the +difficulties we had in connection with the preparation of +our food and then having to live on such makeshifts as +sardines and biscuits. I never lost my appetite at heights +over 20,000 feet—I was always able to eat well, though not +everything appealed to the palate. Sweet things were +especially wanted. That it is possible to acclimatise the +system to live at heights is true, but only to a certain extent—up +to about 18,000 feet we could acclimatise ourselves very +comfortably, and I know in my own case that after six months' +living in Tibet, I was able to do far more than when I first +came into the country, but at greater heights I think a +prolonged stay permanently lowers the vitality. Sleeplessness +is another great enemy at heights, and most of the party +I found slept very poorly at the highest camp. Mallory, +I think, was the only exception. It ought to be possible to +pick out a few coolies capable of carrying loads able to go +as far as any European can get. Some of them seem to +feel the height much less than others, and I believe that an +unladen native would be able to go much higher if he had +the knowledge of ice and snow that Alpine climbers have, +and would not improbably reach a greater height than +any European. Twenty-nine thousand feet is, however, a +tremendous height for anyone to attain, and I own that I +am not at all sanguine that the summit will be reached, +though I have no doubt that this year will see the Duke of +the Abruzzi's record of 24,600 broken, and I shall not +be at all surprised to see a height of 25,000 or 26,000 feet +arrived at.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%">THE RETURN JOURNEY TO PHARI</span></p> + +<p>Autumn had already come to Kharta. The willows +and the poplars under which we were camped were fast +shedding their leaves, which rustled on the ground, or blew +into our tents, a warning that winter was not far off. Even +here there were one or two degrees of frost every night. The +days, however, were still warm and sunny. The next five +days were fully occupied with strenuous work. Wheeler +and I took alternate mornings and afternoons in the dark +room. We had each taken a large number of photographs +during the past month. These had to be developed before +we started on our return journey to Darjeeling, and this +would be our last opportunity. An account of our last +month's doings and our final reconnaissance had to be written +out for <i>The Times</i>, and this, together with many other letters, +had to be sent off to Phari as soon as possible. Our stores, +tents, Alpine equipment, had all to be collected and sorted +out. Lists had to be made of all of them, and most of them +had to be re-packed. The coolies were perpetually worrying +us for money and advances of pay in order that they might +be able to buy Tibetan clothing, or have money which they +could spend on drink at Kharta, where it was apparently +very cheap. Our cook and most of the coolies used constantly +to return to camp in the evening blind drunk, and I had to +see that the cook was never allowed near the kitchen under +these conditions. On such an occasion my servant, Poo, +would have to do the cooking in his place. The chang, or +barley beer, that they got must have been a much stronger +brew than what was given to us, as what we had did not +appear intoxicating at all, but the interpreters told us that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> +coolie beer was double strength.</p> + +<p>The Jongpen was rather sad as the moment of our +departure drew near. We invited him to lunch one day, +and he seemed to appreciate the beauties of Scotch whisky, +which he said was very much better than his own chang. +We had to pay him a return visit the following day, when +he gave us a great spread. Knowing that we were anxious +to collect such curios as were available, he produced all +kinds of things for our inspection. I bought from him a +curious old Tibetan musket, elaborately decorated with +silver, and fitted with a pair of antelope horns on which to +rest it when firing. Some interesting copper and silver +teapots we were also able to get from him, and I remember +his showing Wollaston many pieces of finely embroidered +Chinese silk. Both Hopaphema and the Jongpen had a +very good idea of the value of money, and were not at all +afraid of asking a stiff price for any of the curios which +they produced. We managed, however, to pick up some +interesting Chinese snuff bottles of carved agate, some with +pictures painted inside. China cups of the Chienlung and +Kanghe periods we were also able to get; there were, however, +many things in the monasteries which we rather coveted, +but which the Lamas would not sell. Their tables were very +ornamentally carved with dragons and weird designs, all +painted over in brilliant colours. The Jongpen had one +such table, but unfortunately I found out that he had only +borrowed it from the nearest monastery for the purpose of +entertaining us, and therefore he could not sell it. We left +behind us a good many stores which it was not worth while +to bring along. Among them was a lot of acid hypo-sulphite +of soda, which the Jongpen at once seized upon, and which +he said he intended to make use of in washing his clothes, +knowing that soda was used occasionally for this purpose. The +Jongpen, of whom we had taken many photographs, and +who had seen the results, was anxious to buy one of our +cameras, and to develop and print everything himself. He +imagined the whole process was very easy, and was extremely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> +anxious to get hold of one of the Expedition's cameras, but +we had to disappoint him in this. Nothing small would +content him—he wanted the biggest of the lot, and was quite +willing to exchange a sword or any other weapon for a camera. +We, however, left behind with him three pairs of skis, which +we had brought out with us, but which had never been +unpacked. These skis had throughout our journeys been +looked upon by the Tibetans with the greatest interest. +They had heard about flying machines, and they thought +that these were the framework of a flying machine which +we had brought with us, and on which we intended to +fly to the top of the mountains. Wherever we arrived +there was always a great crowd assembled round these skis, +discussing the various methods by which they could be put +together and describing how the white man would then fly. +I left them with the Jongpen and told him that they were +very good exercise for him in the winter time, when the snow +was deep, and that if he wanted to reduce his weight, which +was already considerable, there could be no better method +than by making use of them in the snow.</p> + +<p>At last, on October 5, we managed to leave Kharta. +There were no pack animals available; we had therefore +to make use of coolies for our transport for the first march; +it took 140 of them to carry all our loads. For some time +the scene of confusion was very amusing. The Jongpen +himself came down, and it was only owing to his help that +by mid-day we got all the loads sorted out and put on the +backs of the coolies. Before he was able to do this he had +to have recourse to the system of drawing lots by putting +garters on each load, a system which I have already described +in a previous chapter. Before we left, the Jongpen and +Hopaphema brought us presents of sheep and vegetables, +and they and all the people of the valley seemed genuinely +sorry that we were departing. Throughout our long stay +at Kharta they had been most helpful and had done everything +they could for our comfort. They were both of them +very human, with a delightful sense of humour, and we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> +quickly became great friends. It was with much regret that +we turned our backs on Kharta.</p> + +<p>We started off without a cloud in the sky, but with a +strong South wind blowing. High up on the mountains we +could see the snow still being blown off in white clouds. Our +route lay up the valley of the Bhong-chu for about 10 miles +until the river suddenly turned to the East to go through a +deep and impassable gorge. We had then to follow the +valley of the Zachar-chu for 4 miles to Lumeh, where we +camped beside the great poplar trees. The bridge by which +we had crossed the Zachar-chu in July no longer existed. +It had been washed away in August, but now that the snows +were no longer melting higher up, and the rainy season was +over, the river was very much lower, and it was possible to +ford it. The people at Lumeh were very pleased to see us +again; we found tents pitched and food prepared for our +reception. From here there were two routes open to us. +We could either, by crossing two passes, drop down to Tsogo +in the valley of the Bhong-chu, and after fording the river +there, follow our previous route (of the outward journey) to +Tingri, or we could cross a small pass just above Lumeh, +meeting the Bhong-chu again immediately above the gorge, +where there was a bridge across it. We chose the latter +route, as it was probably a couple of days shorter and would +take us through new country. On leaving Lumeh, for the +first time for several days we had a cloudy morning, which +was unfortunate, as from the top of the Quiok (Cuckoo Pass) +we had hoped for a fine view. Our transport to-day consisted +of yaks and donkeys, which came along very well. There +was a steep climb of 2,000 feet to the top of the pass, 15,000 +feet, where we just managed to get a glimpse of Makalu in +the clouds, but Everest was hidden. We thought that this +would be our last chance of a view of the Everest and Makalu +group, but it turned out not to be so. By going over this pass +we had avoided the curious and impassable gorge by which +the Bhong-chu cuts through a high range of mountains. +It was only a little over 6 miles to the famous rope bridge<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> +at Gadompa. I could not help laughing when I first saw +the bridge. It was such a comical, ramshackle-looking +affair, and everything about it seemed torn and ragged and +uneven. Two crooked wooden posts set up in piles of stones +supported the ropes of raw hide which spanned the river. +During the rainy season one of these posts and all the ropes +had been buried deep under the water, but now that the +river had dropped over 10 feet, the posts were out of the +water. Between these two wooden posts were three raw +hide ropes, very frail and much frayed, and looking as though +they might break at any moment. On these ropes was laid +a semi-circular piece of wood, like the framework of a saddle, +to which were attached two leather thongs. The person +or bale of goods that had to be pulled across was tied by +these two thongs to the framework, and this was allowed to +slide rapidly with its load down to the point at which the +“bridge” sagged most—somewhere about the middle of +the river—which here rushed along in a formidable rapid. +If the Tibetans on the far side failed to pull up the passenger +or load and he or it was left for a minute, either would certainly +get the full benefit of one of the ice-cold waves of the +rapids and get thoroughly soaked before reaching the far +side. The Tibetans had great fun with our coolies in transit, +and very few of them were allowed to get over dry. The +villages on either side are exempt from the duty of producing +transport, and have instead to make themselves responsible +for working the bridge. On one side the operators were +all women and on the other all men. It took an average of +five minutes to get each load or person across, and we spent +twelve hours before we got all our loads over. For part of +the time I superintended while Wheeler went to get some +dinner, and after dinner, owing to there being a certain +amount of moonlight, Wheeler carried on until the last +load was brought over at midnight. It was a very chilly +proceeding, as the wind blew very cold, with a suspicion +of snow every now and then. It was a weird experience to +see the loads of baggage suddenly appearing out of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> +darkness and then being unloaded and transferred to the +yaks, who apparently were able to find their way about in +the dark. We got everything over in safety without losing +anything except a few eggs, which I saw drop out during +the passage across, and I felt very much relieved that we +had had no accident.</p> + +<p>That night we camped in a pleasant willow grove at the +village of Kharkhung. In the morning we awoke to find +fresh snow on the ground, but this speedily disappeared +when the sun came out. Our new transport consisted of +donkeys and some very wild yaks, which rapidly got rid +of their loads. The march was only a short one of about +12 miles up the valley of the Bhong-chu. The valley was +uninteresting and stony, with practically no undergrowth, +and we eventually camped in a windy spot near the village +of Lashar, nearly opposite to the sandy camp at Shiling +where we had halted on our outward journey after crossing +the quicksands. The night proved much colder here, with +18° of frost, but the wind luckily died down and the next +morning was beautiful. We continued up the sandy valley +of the Bhong-chu, which is here several miles wide, until +we came to its junction with the Yaru, where we regained +the route which we had followed on the outward journey. +Just before leaving the main valley we found, on looking +behind us, that we were in full sight of Mount Everest and +its great South-eastern ridge, and also of the Lhakpa La +where we had camped. This was our final view of Mount +Everest, and knowing the geography of these peaks as we +now did, this view gave us an added interest in them. We +had climbed slowly and had not realised the great height +which we had reached or the conspicuous position of our +camp on the Lhakpa La which we now saw sharply defined +against the horizon from a distance of 50 miles.</p> + +<p>We rode up the gorge of the Yaru, and at the village of +Rongme we met the Phari Jongpen's brother. He was +busy collecting the harvest rents, which are a fixed percentage +of the crops. I gave him some of the photographs that I<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> +had taken of him and his house on the way up and very soon +after a big crowd collected around. The Tibetans are very +quick at recognising persons in a photograph, and they at +once picked out all the people by name in a group. I then rode +on past his house to the village of Shatog, where we camped. +On the way I shot a couple of snipe and also saw a number +of teal, wild geese and kulan (grey crane), but they were +very wild and I could not get near enough for a shot. Heron +joined us here. He had been exploring some of the valleys +to the North, but had found nothing interesting or remarkable, +geologically, and he accompanied us back as far as +Khamba Dzong. We were anxious to push on as fast as +possible, and determined to do a double march from here +to Tinki Dzong, which our transport drivers said they could +do quite easily. We started on a beautiful day after a sharp +frost at night, causing many of the ponds to be frozen over. +We crossed the broad swampy plain to Chushar. Wheeler, +going on ahead at first, had a shot at some geese, but did not +succeed in getting anything. We crossed the Yaru River +by a very deep ford, and then kept along the North side of +it, past numerous ponds on which were swimming many +bar-headed geese; these were, however, very wily and would +not allow us to approach within shot. We now had a steep +3,000-foot climb to the Tinki Pass. On the way up I came +across some partridges; they were terrible runners, but +after a good chase I managed to collect two. They turned +out to be the ordinary Tibetan partridge (<i>Perdrix hodgsoniæ</i>). +I then rode on down to Tinki, to which place I had sent on +Chheten Wangdi in order to make arrangements for our +reception and to have transport ready for us on the following +day. The two Jongpens rode out to meet us; the elder +of the two had been at Tinki when we passed through on +the way out, but the other one I had not seen before as he +had been away. I had very pleasant recollections of our +reception there before, and was delighted to see the elder +Jongpen, who was a most pleasant and agreeable gentleman. +They presented us with a couple of hundred eggs, rice and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> +some grain for the ponies, and had tents already pitched for +us under the walls of the fort. Here the Jongpens came +and sat talking with us for a long time. Our transport +showed no signs of turning up, so we were very glad to make +our dinner off the rice and eggs that had been given us. +The bulk of the transport did not arrive till midnight. They +had made every effort to stop at Chushar, and it was with +great difficulty that Gyalzen Kazi had induced them to go +on. The animal which was carrying Wheeler's kit died on +the way, and his bedding did not arrive till noon the following +day, another animal having been sent to bring it in. I had +had my maximum and minimum thermometers exposed as +usual under the fly of my tent, but during the night some +wretch came and stole them. What good they could have +been to him I cannot imagine, but it was very annoying +and I hope he will drink the mercury. The weather had +now changed again for the worse: all day there were heavy +snow showers with snow falling on the mountains around +and preventing any views. The march was only a short +one to Lingga. The wild birds in the lake beside the +fort were as tame as ever, the Brahminy ducks (ruddy +sheldrake) almost waddling into our tents and not paying +the slightest attention to us. On the water were swimming +about thousands of duck, bar-headed geese and teal which +the Jongpen's little dog used to have great fun in chasing. +We were not able to follow our former route from Tinki to +Lingga as the country had altered considerably. Most of +the plain was now a broad lake several miles long, and we +had to follow the North side of the water along the foot of +the hills. On these big lakes were many duck, but they +were very wild. I managed on the way, however, to shoot +two bar-headed geese, a couple of <ins title="Gargany">Garganey</ins> teal and a pochard, +which proved a very welcome addition to our bill of fare. +One shot was a most extraordinary one. I was stalking some +geese which were getting very restless and starting to fly +away, when just in front of me got up two teal close together. +I fired at the teal and both fell to my shot, and at the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> +time, to my great surprise, a goose, which was in the direct +line of fire, and about 40 yards away, also fell.</p> + +<p>We found the people at Lingga busy thrashing. The +thrashing time in Tibet is a favourite one for drinking, and +often the whole village after a day's harvest will be completely +incapacitated as the result of too great an indulgence +in chang. Their thrashing floors consist of an area of about +half an acre of hard beaten earth on which the barley is +spread to a depth of 6 to 8 inches. Fifty or sixty yaks are +then driven into this enclosure, followed by thirty people +or more, beating drums, rattling kerosene oil tins, ringing +bells and shouting and yelling in order to frighten the yaks, +who, tail in air, are driven backwards and forwards over +the barley. This they continue doing until every one is +tired and hoarse, when the whole of the workers, both male +and female, adjourn for a long drink of beer, after which +the same process is repeated.</p> + +<p>On October 11 we arrived at Khamba Dzong. We were +having sharp frosts now every night, and the mountains, +both to the North and South of us, were covered low down +with a thick white coating of snow. It was not, however, +unpleasantly cold, and the cloud effects were very beautiful. +On the way I shot two goa—Tibetan gazelle—with good +heads, and horns over 14 inches long. We had to halt here +in order to rest our coolies. All day to the South there was +a furious storm raging along the Himalayas, and when it +cleared up in the evening there had evidently been a heavy +snowfall. In the course of the afternoon we put up over +Dr. Kellas's grave the stone which the Jongpen had had +engraved for us during our absence. On it were inscribed +in English and Tibetan characters his initials and the date +of his death, and this marks his last resting-place.</p> + +<p>Raeburn, Wheeler and Heron now left us, as they wanted +to return to Darjeeling by the short way over the Serpo La +and down the Teesta Valley. This route is only possible +for small parties; with all our transport we were unable +to return that way as the villages on the way and in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> +the Teesta Valley are small and can supply but very few +animals or coolies. Wollaston and I had therefore to return +to Phari and then to follow the main trade route, along +which it is always possible to pick up any amount of hired +transport. We left Khamba Dzong on October 13 in 20° of +frost. Kanchenjunga and the Everest group were just +visible, but ominous clouds were rapidly coming up. Our march +was the same as on the outward journey to Tatsang (Falcon's +Nest)—a distance of about 21 miles. We rode through the +fine limestone gorge behind the fort, shooting on the way +several Tibetan partridge (<i>Perdrix hodgsoniæ</i>). On reaching +the top of the pass, I climbed another thousand feet on to +the ridge to the South of the pass, where I had a wonderful +panorama of snowy peaks, both to the South and to the +North. Snow storms appeared to be raging on either side +and the wind was extremely cold. I came across a fine flock +of burhel (<i>Ovis nahura</i>), and had an easy shot at a fine ram, +but missed him hopelessly, and they never gave me another +chance. A little further on I missed a gazelle. On the +plain below were grazing numerous kiang (<i>Equus hemionus</i>), +their reddish-chestnut coats being well shown off by their +white bellies and legs. Their mane appears to be of a +darker colour, which is continued as a narrow stripe down +the back. On the same plain I could see also a large flock +of nyan (<i>Ovis hodgsoni</i>), all fair-sized rams. I had a long +chase after the latter, but they never allowed me to approach +close to them. Snow began to fall now and a regular +blizzard set in, the fine powdery snow being blown along +the ground into our faces. While riding along in this storm, I +saw two fine nyan which I stalked. My 2·75 rifle was rather +small for such a large animal, and though the larger of the +two was badly hit by the first shot, he went off as though +he were untouched and gave me a long chase after him. +It was only possible to get a glimpse of him every now and +then in the blizzard, and whenever I lay down to try and +get a shot, the fine powdery snow blown along the surface +of the ground nearly blinded me, so that it took five more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +bullets before he finally expired. He was a magnificent +old beast with a grand head and horns, well over 40 inches +in length and of great thickness. The weight of the body +was enormous. I had only Ang Tenze with me. With much +difficulty we cut off the nyan's head and then tried to lift +the carcass, which must have weighed well over 200 lb., +on to one of the ponies. With the greatest trouble we +eventually managed to get the carcass on to the pony's back, +but the pony seemed gradually to subside on to the ground +under the weight and was quite unable to move. While +we were doing this, my pony took it into his head to run +away, and though we made every attempt to catch him, +he completely defeated us, and was last seen galloping away +towards his home. I had therefore an 8 mile trudge through +the snow to get back to camp, not arriving there till well +after dark. Five of the coolies went back after dark to get +the meat. They cut off as much as they could carry, and +the remainder had to be left for the nuns, who sent out their +servants to bring it in. I was cheered up, however, by +getting an English mail and many letters. Among these +was one from Sir Charles Bell from Lhasa, who wrote to +ask the Expedition not to do any more shooting in Tibet, +as the Tibetans did not approve of it; for the remainder of +the time, therefore, the guns had to be put away.</p> + +<p>During the night there were 32° of frost, and everything +inside our tents was frozen solid in the morning; but the +wind luckily died down, and the next day was a most beautiful +one. We knew that there was a long march before us, so +our transport was off by eight o'clock. At Tatsang we +were already 16,000 feet, and we gradually climbed higher, +spending most of the day between 17,000 and 18,000 feet. +For several miles we rode across a snow-covered plain over +which the tops of Pawhunri, Chomiomo, and Kanchenjhow +appeared to the South. As we rose higher, the snow gradually +deepened to 6 inches and made the going very heavy. We +had to cross three spurs of Pawhunri by passes of over +17,500 feet. Here the snow had been blown by the wind into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> +drifts over 2 feet deep. We had arranged to camp at a place +called Lunghi, but on our arrival there found that the +nomads, who ordinarily spent the summer there, had already +left and were encamped some 4 miles further down the valley. +In a side valley I found some of their tents where I was able +to warm myself and get some hot milk before moving on +down the valley, where we were told that preparations had +been made to receive us. There was luckily a bright moon +and we rode on down to the spot, where we found some +Tibetan tents which had been pitched for us; their owners +had, moreover, had the forethought to have great braziers +of cow dung burning in these tents. The smell was not +agreeable, but we sat and warmed ourselves, waiting for +our transport, which did not arrive until eleven o'clock that +night. It was a bitterly cold wait, as the wind got up and +blew down the valley with 25° of frost behind it. We were +very glad to see our transport and coolies when they arrived; +they had really come along very well, as a march of 23 miles +in soft snow and at a great height all the time is no light +feat.</p> + +<p>Breakfast the next morning was very comfortless, as +the wind was still blowing with 28° of frost, and everything—boots +and foodstuffs of all kinds—was frozen inside our +tents. We looked forward with no little pleasure to finding +ourselves inside once more and sitting in front of a fire out +of the everlasting wind which makes Tibet so trying. The +march was a fairly easy one of about 20 miles over gentle +undulating country until we reached the West side of the +Tang La; there was, however, a bitterly cold strong South +wind which blew with great violence all day and penetrated +through everything. Many of our coolies had much difficulty +in coming along, as they were suffering from snow blindness +and their feet were also very tender from the cold and the +deep snow of the last few days. Chomolhari was a glorious +sight all the way. We were gradually approaching it, and +it seemed to rise directly from the plain in front of us. From +its summit and from its ridges great streamers of snow were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> +being blown off and the gale—apparently from the Northwest—still +continued. Nearly every day since we left Kharta +we saw along the higher peaks of the Himalayas the snow +being blown off in great wisps, showing that a strong Northwesterly +current of air sets in at great heights after the +monsoon is over. After reaching Darjeeling we noticed the +same thing; every day, from Kanchenjunga and Kabru, +could be seen the same great wisps of wind-blown snow. +That night at Phari we were once more in a bungalow and +out of the wind, and able to spend a very comfortable and +pleasant evening reading our letters and papers in front of +a fire which, though still mostly yak dung, was in a fireplace. +October 16 we spent resting at Phari. Our coolies were +much exhausted by the three days' march from Khamba +Dzong, in which we had covered 65 miles, most of the time +at considerable heights and in deep snow. We had returned +by the short way, which the people of Phari had told us in +the spring was impassable, and over which they would not +go, sending us instead around by the long way to Dochen, +which took us six days instead of three.</p> + +<p>Phari is a place unfortunately too near civilisation. The +Tibetans there have lost their good manners, such as we +had been accustomed to meet in the more distant and out-of-the-way +parts of the country. Much trade passes through +the town, and the people there are too well off. They had +an idea that the Expedition was a kind of milch cow out of +which money could be extracted to their hearts' content. +Of this view we had to disabuse them, and in consequence +found them all very tiresome. The transport turned up +the following morning, but they refused to load up unless they +were paid in full beforehand and at a most exorbitant rate. +This I refused to do, telephoning at the same time to +the trade agent at Yatung. I sent for the Jongpen, and +both Jongpens turned up. I rather imagine that they were +at the bottom of this trouble, for one of them owed the +Expedition some money; he had also, when forwarding on +stores to us, seized the opportunity to charge five times the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> +ordinary rate, on the pretext that he had supplied some of +his own mules. After long arguments I eventually induced +them to accept part of the payment, the remainder to be +paid at Yatung, whereupon the Jongpens gave orders for +the animals to be loaded. It was not, however, until the +afternoon that we were able to leave Phari and to start on +our downward march to Yatung.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%">BACK TO CIVILISATION</span></p> + +<p>When we turned our backs on Phari and started to +march down the Chumbi Valley, we had left the real Tibet +behind us. I could not somehow look upon the Chumbi +Valley as being a part of Tibet. Its characteristics, its +houses, its people, its vegetation, are all so different from +the greater part of Tibet. There are not the same cold +winds that freeze the very marrow, nor are there the +wide plains and the undulating hills with their extensive +views.</p> + +<p>In spite of all discomforts, there is a very great charm +and fascination about travelling in Tibet. Is it partly +because it is an unknown country, and the unknown is always +fascinating, or is it rather because of the innate beauty of +the country itself, with its landscapes so free from all restraint +and a horizon often 150 to 200 miles distant? Never +anywhere have I seen a country so full of colour as is Tibet. +There is not enough vegetation to hide the rocks and the +stones. The foreground as well as the distant view is +wonderfully full of colour and variety. Contrasts are one +of the charms of life, and probably in this lies the secret +of the charm and attractiveness of Tibet. It is essentially +a country of contrasts. The climate, above all, has contrasts +of its own. The sun is burningly hot, but in the shade the +cold may be intense. To such a pitch can the extremes +of heat and cold arrive, that a man may suffer from sunstroke +and frost-bite at one and the same time.</p> + +<p>The Tibetans themselves are a strong, well-built and +hardy race—Mongolian in type. The women usually put +a mixture of grease and soot on their faces to protect them +against the glare of the fresh snow or the biting winds, for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> +even they, with their thick skins, do not seem to get used +to the severity of the changes. How much more does the +European suffer when he travels in Tibet and seems to need +a fresh skin almost every day. The soot mixture does not +add to the beauty of the women, though I came across some +who were not bad looking. Many of the people are nomads, +living in tents all the year round and moving about from +camp to camp pasturing their herds of yaks and their flocks +of sheep. It is curious that even in the winter-time they +can find grazing places, but the secret lies in the fact that +the slopes face the South in the regions where the wind +blows strongest, so that the surface is usually bare. The +snowfall in winter in most parts of Tibet is not heavy, and +the climate being so dry, the snow is powdery, and the wind +blows it along and forms great drifts in the hollows, leaving +the exposed slopes usually clear. On these the herds, or +flocks of sheep, obtain sufficient nourishment from such +scattered patches of frozen grass or lichens as they are able +to find. Of all the animals that the Tibetans have, the +yak is the most useful. His long black hair, which reaches +to the ground under his belly, is woven into tents or ropes. +The milk, after they have drunk what they want, is turned +into butter and cheese, of which they produce great +quantities. When old, he is killed and his flesh is dried, +providing meat for a long time. His hide supplies leather +of every kind. It is always used untanned, for no tanning +is ever done in Tibet and any tanned skins always come +up from India. The yak dung is in many places the only +fuel to be got and is most carefully picked up. To the present +generation of young children the yak is probably familiar +from that delightful rhyme in “The Bad Child's Book of +Beasts”:—</p> + +<div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <span class="i0">As a friend to the children, commend me the Yak—</span><br /> + <span class="i2">You will find it exactly the thing;</span><br /> + <span class="i0">It will carry and fetch, you can ride on its back</span><br /> + <span class="i2">Or lead it about with a string.</span><br /> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <span class="i0">The Tartar who dwells on the plains of Tibet,</span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> + <span class="i2">A desolate region of snow,</span><br /> + <span class="i0">Has for centuries made it a nursery pet,</span><br /> + <span class="i2">And surely the Tartar should know.</span><br /> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <span class="i0">Then tell your papa where the Yak can be got,</span><br /> + <span class="i2">And if he is awfully rich,</span><br /> + <span class="i0">He will buy you the creature—or else he will not;</span><br /> + <span class="i2">I cannot be positive which.</span><br /> + </div> +</div> + +<p>The traveller in Tibet can easily live on such supplies +as can be drawn from the country. The Tibetan is always +hospitable and will provide sheep, milk, cheese and butter +almost everywhere. Vegetables, however, of any kind are +very scarce, though in the summer a species of spinach can +be got in some places. Living, as the Tibetans do, far away +from all outside influences, their customs and manners have +not changed, and are the same as they were several hundred +years ago. I can fully sympathise with their present desire +for seclusion and their eagerness not to be exploited by +foreigners. They sent a few years ago some young Tibetan +boys to Rugby to be educated in different professions. These +boys have now returned again to Lhasa, and with their aid, +and with the aid of others who are being sent out into the +world to learn, they hope to be able to develop the resources +of their own country at leisure, in their own way, and +by themselves, without being exploited commercially by +foreigners.</p> + +<p>The staple food of the Tibetans is tsampa (parched +barley). This is ground up and either milk or tea is added, +forming it into a kind of dough. This is put in a little bag, +which they carry about with them when travelling, and +is often their only food for several days. Tsampa can be +obtained everywhere in Tibet, though it is easier to get it +in the villages than from the tents of the nomads. Tea +can, of course, be obtained everywhere, and, as I have +described before, is mixed with salt and butter, churned +up with great violence, and then poured into teapots. At +every camp, and at every house, will be met fierce dogs. +These dogs guard the flocks, or the nomad camps, and rather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> +resemble large collies; as a rule, they are black and very +fierce. The Tibetans were, however, always very good +in tying them up before we approached their camps. In +many of the houses we found tied up just outside the door +another kind of dog, a huge brute of the mastiff type, always +extremely savage and ready, if he had not been tied up, +to tear the intruder to pieces. The peasants are still treated +as serfs, though only in a mild form. For all Government +officials, when on tour, they have to supply free transport +and supplies of all kinds, so that official visits are not popular. +At first the villagers were afraid that we might follow the +example of the Tibetan officials and were much relieved +to find that we did not do so.</p> + +<p>I cannot leave the subject of Tibet without a few words +about the monasteries. These are divided into two great +schools, the Red Cap School and the Yellow Cap School. +The former was founded by the Buddhist Saint, Padma +Sambhava or Guru Rimpoche, in A.D. 749. They are the +older of the two monastic sects, but their morals are much +looser than those of the Yellow Sect, and the Lamas or monks +of this sect are often married. In one monastery belonging +to the Red Sect near Kharta, the Lamas and their wives +were all living together. The Yellow Cap, or Gelukpa Sect, +was founded in the fifteenth century by Tsong Kapa, who +instituted a very much stricter moral code, and this sect +looks down very much upon the Red Caps. The State +religion of the country is Buddhism. By the middle of +the seventeenth century, after a series of reincarnations, +Nawang Lobsang had made himself master of Tibet and +transferred his capital to Lhasa. He accepted the title of +Dalai Lama (Ocean of Learning) from the Chinese, hence +the Dalai Lama at Lhasa, by this doctrine of political +reincarnation, has absorbed all the political power in the +country into his own hands, although the Tashi Lama at +Tashilumpo is in theory his senior and superior in spiritual +matters. The old simple creed of the Buddhists can scarcely +be recognised nowadays and is overlaid with devil worship<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> +in all its forms, supernatural agencies abounding everywhere. +The top of a pass, a mountain, a river, a bridge, a storm; +each will have its own particular god who is to be worshipped +and propitiated. In many of the larger monasteries, too, +they have oracles who are consulted far and wide and supposed +to be able to foretell the future. These often acquire +considerable power and influence by methods not unlike +those resorted to in ancient Greece. It has been estimated +that a fifth of the whole population of Tibet has entered +monastic life. The conditions probably much resemble +those which prevailed in mediæval Europe. The monasteries +contain nearly all the riches of the country. They own +large estates; they are the source of all learning, and all +the arts and crafts seem to take their inspiration from +articles for use in the monasteries. The ordinary Tibetan, +surrounded as he is by the various spirits which occupy +every valley and mountain top, is very superstitious. He +therefore has inside his house his prayer wheel and his little +shrine, before which he offers up incense daily. His Mani walls +or mendongs, covered with inscribed stones or carved figures +of Buddha, are alongside the paths he daily uses; on the +top of the mountains or passes, in addition to these prayer-covered +stones, flutter rags printed over with prayers. All +these are intended to propitiate the evil spirits. In places +where there are particularly malignant devils, it may be +necessary to build several Chortens in order to keep them +in subjection, and these Chortens are filled with several +thousands of prayers and sacred figures stamped in the clay.</p> + +<p>The country is divided up into districts, each under its +own Jongpen, who is responsible direct to Lhasa or Shigatse +and has yearly to send the revenue collected to headquarters. +A certain percentage of the crops is collected every year, +and in a year of good harvest the Jongpen is able to make +a certain amount of money for himself in addition to what +he has to send to Lhasa. Our visit to the Kharta Valley +was an unexpected windfall for the Kharta Jongpen, as I +fancy that much of the money that we paid out to the different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> +villages for supplies or coolie hire eventually found its way +into his pocket and was not likely to find its way to Lhasa. +This may possibly have accounted for his pleasure in +entertaining us and his desire to keep us there as long as +possible. The Tibetans, however, everywhere have good +manners and are invariably most polite—a pleasant +characteristic. Although they are all Buddhists, and +accordingly object to the taking of life, they do not in the +least mind killing their sheep or their yaks for food, but +they objected to our shooting wild sheep or gazelles or wild +birds for food. I could have understood this objection +better had they been vegetarians and not killed their sheep +for eating purposes, but a real vegetarian, except in the +strictest monasteries, is very rare in Tibet.</p> + +<p>There was a great fascination in roaming through the +country as we did. It was the fascination of the unknown, +this travelling in regions where Europeans had never travelled +before, and where they had never even been seen. The +people had exaggerated notions of our ferocity, and were +full of fears as to what we might be like and as to what we +might do. In these out-of-the-way parts they had heard +vaguely of the fighting in 1904, and they imagined that our +visit might be on the same lines. They imagined, too, +that all Europeans were cruel and seized what they wanted +without payment. They were therefore much surprised +when they found that we treated them fairly and paid for +everything that we wanted at very good rates. The +Expedition may, I venture to think, take credit to itself for +having certainly done a great deal of good in promoting +more friendly relations between the Tibetans and ourselves, +and in giving them a better understanding of what an +Englishman is. Their ignorance of the outside world was +at times astounding. Tibetan officials and traders were +an exception, but it was seldom that the ordinary Tibetan +ever left the valley in which he was born and bred, with the +result that except for the wildest rumours, they knew nothing +of the outside world. For long-distance journeys, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> +Tibetans used ambling mules or ponies, which were capable +of going long distances and keeping up a speed of about +5 miles an hour. To our idea, the Tibetan saddle with its +high wooden framework is very uncomfortable, but on the +top of their saddles they would put their bedding, spreading +over it a brilliant and often beautifully coloured carpet as a +saddle cloth. On the top of this the rider would sit perched, +and, with a good ambling pony, could get along very +comfortably.</p> + +<p>I always enjoyed travelling and moving about in Tibet. +It hardly has the climate of Tennyson's Island Valley of +Avilion—“Where falls not hail or rain or snow, nor ever +wind blows loudly”—for we used to get samples of nearly +all of these almost every day. But no matter how barren +nor how bare the immediate surroundings were there was a +sense of exhilaration and freedom in the air. There was +never a sense of being confined in a narrow space. There +was always some distant view where the colours would be +continually changing. In the summer-time the climate +was not unpleasant, and there was always the pleasure of +finding some new and beautiful flower, oftentimes springing +up out of the driest sand. Wherever there was water, there +was sure to be vegetation and many bright-coloured flowers +with every kind of wild-bird life. The shrill whistle of the +marmot would often alone break the silence of the scene. +Animal life in some form was almost always visible, whether +it was the wild kiang roaming on the plains, or the gazelle, +or the wild sheep, there was always something of interest +to watch. The little mouse hares which lived in great colonies +would constantly dodge in and out of their holes and the +song of the larks could always be heard.</p> + +<p>By the end of October the climate was beginning to get +very cold, the thermometer descending at times to Zero +Fahrenheit, so that we were quite ready to leave the country, +being anxious to get warm again, if only for a short time. +There was sorrow in our hearts, however, at parting with +the friendly and hospitable folk whom we had encountered,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> +and at leaving behind us the familiar landscapes with the +transparent pale blue atmosphere that is so hard to describe, +and the distant views of range upon range of snowy mountains +often reflected in the calm waters of some blue coloured +lake. The attractions of Tibet may yet be strong enough +to draw us back again once more. Many years ago +the same attraction impelled me to cross the Himalayan +mountains and to visit another part of Tibet, but my +excursion was, I am afraid, not favourably regarded by the +Indian Government and my leave was stopped for six months. +The same attraction, however, still exists for this land of +many colours with its lonely sunsets full of beauty, with its +nights where the eager stars gleam bright as diamonds, and +where the full moon shines upon the nameless mountains +covered with snow and still as death.</p> + +<p>As we turned our backs upon the country we left winter +behind us, and descending the Chumbi Valley once more +found ourselves in autumnal surroundings. The Himalayan +larch were all of a beautiful golden colour; the birch were +all turning brown, and the berberis were a brilliant scarlet. +Red currants and the scarlet haws of the rose were still on +the bushes. The currants were no longer sour to eat raw, +and we picked many of them on the way down. Our pockets, +too, were filled with seeds of rhododendrons and other flowers. +On the way I was met by the native officer commanding the +garrison at Yatung, which was now found by the 90th +Punjabis. As I passed their quarters, the guard turned +out, presenting arms very smartly, and all the detachment +came out and saluted. They were certainly a very well-trained +detachment. Once more the Macdonald family most +kindly sent over a generous meal, besides presents of every +sort and kind of European vegetable. From Yatung we +obtained forty-five mules for our transport. These came +along very much faster than the yaks and the donkeys that +we had been using. Here Gyalzen Kazi, one of our +interpreters, left us to return to his home at Gangtok. I +was very sorry to lose him. He had been a pleasant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> +companion and had been of great assistance to the +Expedition. He was always most willing to undertake +any difficult or unpleasant job there might be, and I never +heard a murmur or grumble from him of any kind during +the whole time that he was with us. Our march was only +a short one of 11 miles to Langra, where there was a Tibetan +rest-house built in the Chinese style and rather reminding +me of our rest-house at Tingri. It was a most perfect +autumnal day, with scarcely a cloud in the sky. The woods +everywhere were very beautiful, the dark silver fir trees +showing up the scarlet and yellow of the bushes and the +gold of the larch. Our cook, Acchu, was drunk again, but +Poo prepared us a good meal instead. The next morning, +to our surprise, on looking out we found a couple of inches +of fresh snow on the ground and the snow was still falling +steadily. The mules, nevertheless, were all loaded up in +good time, and I followed on foot to the top of the Jelep +Pass, snow falling steadily all the way—a fine granular +snow. At the top of the pass the wind was blowing keenly, +driving the snow into our faces. Besides the 6 inches of +fresh snow here, there was a good deal of the old snow that +had fallen a week or more ago, and in some places formed +drifts several feet deep. It is seldom that a clear view is +ever obtained on the Jelep Pass. It rained when we came +over in May and it snowed now, and twice before, when I +have crossed it, it rained all the time. Snow fell all the +way down to Gnatong, where there were already a couple of +inches of slush. The next morning was luckily fine, as we +were to do a long march to Rongli—a distance of only 18 +miles, but with a descent of 9,500 feet. The first few miles +we walked through the fresh snow, but in the afternoon +we were wandering among the sweet scents of a tropical +jungle with orchids still flowering on the trees and ripe +oranges in the garden of our bungalow. We had jumped +from winter to summer in a few hours. The Tibetan mules +came along excellently, doing the march in just over eight +hours, a very different proceeding to our Government mules<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> +on the way up, which we were compelled to discard at +Sedongchen. We reached Darjeeling on October 25. Lord +Ronaldshay was unfortunately away on tour on his way to +Bhutan, and as he had travelled via Gangtok, we had missed +seeing him on the way. The next few days we spent in +getting rid of the remainder of our stores, selling anything +perishable that we could, getting tents dried and mended, +and storing everything else in view of a second Expedition. +We here said good-bye to our other interpreter, Chheten +Wangdi, who had served us most faithfully throughout +the Expedition, and it was with the greatest regret that we +took leave of him on the railway station at Darjeeling.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_178.jpg" width="500" height="322" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_178"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Members of the Expedition.</span><br /> +<i>Standing</i>: WOLLASTON. HOWARD-BURY. HERON. RAEBURN.<br /> +<i>Sitting</i>: MALLORY. WHEELER. BULLOCK. MORSHEAD.</p> +</div> + +<p>Our Expedition had accomplished all that it had set +out to do. All the approaches to Mount Everest from the +North-west, North, North-east and East had been carefully +reconnoitred and a possible route to the top had been found +up the North-east ridge. Climatic conditions alone had +prevented a much greater height being attained. Friendly +relations had been established with the Tibetan officials +and people wherever we went. Our travels had taken us +through much unexplored and new country wherein we had +discovered some magnificent and undreamt-of valleys where +primeval forests existed such as we had never imagined to +find in Tibet and where deep filled glens with the richest +semi-tropical vegetation descended as low as 7,000 feet. +Many beautiful flowers were discovered in these Alpine +valleys, and we were able to collect a quantity of seeds from +these which I hope may help to enrich and to beautify our +gardens at home. A new part of the country has been +opened up to human knowledge. It has been photographed +and described. The surveyors have made an original survey +at a scale of 4 miles to the inch of an area of some 12,000 +square miles; a detailed photographic survey of 600 square +miles of the environs of Mount Everest has been worked out, +and, besides this, the maps of another 4,000 square miles of +country have been revised. Dr. Heron, our indefatigable +geologist, himself travelled over the greater part of this area,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> +and has carefully investigated the geology of the whole +region. That the Expedition was able to accomplish so much +in such a short time was due to the hearty co-operation and +keenness of all the members of the party. We were a happy +family and, to use a rowing expression, we all “pulled together.” +Such success as we attained is entirely due to their +strenuous and ceaseless efforts, and I can only express my +gratitude to them for the unselfish way in which they helped +and assisted me on every occasion.</p> + +<p>The Expedition of 1921 is over; many problems have +been solved, much new country has been brought within +our ken, and many new beauties have been revealed, but +the soul of man is never content with what has been attained. +The solution of one problem only brings forward fresh +problems to be solved, so this Expedition into unknown +country brings within the realms of possibility further travels +and further problems to be solved. There is much that yet +remains to be done, much that remains to be discovered; +and though we may not be privileged to discover a new +race of hairy snow men, yet there is a wild and uncharted +country full of beauty and interest that awaits those who +dare face the discomfort and hardships of travelling in Tibet—discomforts +which are soon forgotten and leave behind +them only the memories of very wonderful scenes and places +which the passing of time can never efface.</p> + +<div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <span class="i0">Let us probe the silent places, let us seek what luck betide us,</span><br /> + <span class="i2">Let us journey to a lonely land I know;</span><br /> + <span class="i0">There's a whisper in the night wind, there's a star, a gleam to guide us,</span><br /> + <span class="i2">And the wild is calling, calling, let us go.</span><br /> + </div> +</div> + +<p style="margin-left: 40%">R. W. S.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181"></a></span></p> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 200%">THE RECONNAISSANCE OF THE MOUNTAIN</span><br /><br /> + +<span style="font-size: 125%">By</span><br /><br /> + +<span style="font-size: 125%">GEORGE H. LEIGH-MALLORY</span></p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%">THE NORTHERN APPROACH</span></p> + +<p>As a matter of history it has been stated already in an +earlier chapter of this book that the highest mountain in +the world attracted attention so early as 1850. When we +started our travels in 1921, something was already known +about it from a surveyor's point of view; it was a triangulated +peak with a position on the map; but from the mountaineer's +point of view almost nothing was known. Mount Everest +had been seen and photographed from various points on +the Singalila ridge as well as from Kampa Dzong; from +these photographs it may dimly be made out that snow lies +on the upper part of the Eastern face at no very steep angle, +while the arête bounding this face on the North comes down +gently for a considerable distance. But the whole angle +subtended at the great summit by the distance between +the two of these view-points which are farthest apart is +only 54°. The North-west sides of the mountain had never +been photographed and nothing was known of its lower +parts anywhere. Perhaps the distant view most valuable +to a mountaineer is that from Sandakphu, because it suggests +gigantic precipices on the South side of the mountain so that +he need have no regrets that access is barred in that direction +for political reasons.</p> + +<p>The present reconnaissance began at Kampa Dzong, no +less than 100 miles away, and in consequence of misfortunes +which the reader will not have forgotten was necessarily +entrusted to Mr. G. H. Bullock and myself, the only +representatives of the Alpine Club now remaining in the +Expedition. It may seem an irony of fate that actually +on the day after the distressing event of Dr. Kellas' death +we experienced the strange elation of seeing Everest for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> +first time. It was a perfect early morning as we plodded +up the barren slopes above our camp and rising behind the +old rugged fort which is itself a singularly impressive and +dramatic spectacle; we had mounted perhaps a thousand +feet when we stayed and turned, and saw what we came to +see. There was no mistaking the two great peaks in the +West: that to the left must be Makalu, grey, severe and yet +distinctly graceful, and the other away to the right—who +could doubt its identity? It was a prodigious white fang +excrescent from the jaw of the world. We saw Mount +Everest not quite sharply defined on account of a slight +haze in that direction; this circumstance added a touch of +mystery and grandeur; we were satisfied that the highest +of mountains would not disappoint us. And we learned one +fact of great importance: the lower parts of the mountain +were hidden by the range of nearer mountains clearly shown +in the map running North from the Nila La and now called +the Gyanka Range, but it was possible to distinguish all +that showed near Everest beyond them by a difference in +tone, and we were certain that one great rocky peak appearing +a little way to the left of Everest must belong to its near +vicinity.</p> + +<p>It was inevitable, as we proceeded to the West from +Kampa Dzong, that we should lose sight of Mount Everest; +after a few miles even its tip was obscured by the Gyanka +Range, and we naturally began to wonder whether it would +not be possible to ascend one of these nearer peaks which +must surely give us a wonderful view. I had hopes that +we should be crossing the range by a high pass, in which +case it would be a simple matter to ascend some eminence +near it. But at Tinki we learned that our route would +lie in the gorge to the North of the mountains where the +river Yaru cuts its way through from the East to join the +Arun.</p> + +<p>From Gyanka Nangpa, which lies under a rocky summit +over 20,000 feet high, Bullock and I, on June 11, made an +early start and proceeded down the gorge. It was a perfect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> +morning and for once we had tolerably swift animals to +ride; we were fortunate in choosing the right place to ford +the river and our spirits were high. How could they be +otherwise? Ever since we had lost sight of Everest the +Gyanka Mountains had been our ultimate horizon to the +West. Day by day as we had approached them our thoughts +had concentrated more and more upon what lay beyond. +On the far side was a new country. Now the great Arun +River was to divulge its secrets and we should see Everest +again after nearly halving the distance. The nature of the +gorge was such that our curiosity could not be satisfied +until the last moment. After crossing the stream we followed +the flat margin of its right bank until the cliffs converging +to the exit were towering above us. Then in a minute we +were out on the edge of a wide sandy basin stretching away +with complex undulations to further hills. Sand and barren +hills as before—but with a difference; for we saw the long +Arun Valley proceeding Southwards to cut through the +Himalayas and its western arm which we should have to +follow to Tingri; and there were marks of more ancient +river beds and strange inland lakes. It was a desolate scene, +I suppose; no flowers were to be seen nor any sign of life +beyond some stunted gorse bushes on a near hillside and +a few patches of coarse brown grass, and the only habitations +were dry inhuman ruins; but whatever else was dead, our +interest was alive.</p> + +<p>After a brief halt a little way out in the plain, to take +our bearings and speculate where the great mountains should +appear, we made our way up a steep hill to a rocky crest +overlooking the gorge. The only visible snow mountains +were in Sikkim. Kanchenjunga was clear and eminent; +we had never seen it so fine before; it now seemed singularly +strong and monumental, like the leonine face of some splendid +musician with a glory of white hair. In the direction of +Everest no snow mountain appeared. We saw the long +base tongues descending into the Arun Valley from the +Gyanka Range, above them in the middle distance an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> +amazingly sharp rock summit and below a blue depth most +unlike Tibet as we had known it hitherto. A conical hill +stood sentinel at the far end of the valley, and in the distance +was a bank of clouds.</p> + +<p>Our attention was engaged by the remarkable spike of +rock, a proper aiguille. As we were observing it a rift opened +in the clouds behind; at first we had merely a fleeting +glimpse of some mountain evidently much more distant, +then a larger and clearer view revealed a recognizable form; +it was Makalu appearing just where it should be according +to our calculations with map and compass.</p> + +<p>We were now able to make out almost exactly where +Everest should be; but the clouds were dark in that direction. +We gazed at them intently through field glasses as though +by some miracle we might pierce the veil. Presently the +miracle happened. We caught the gleam of snow behind +the grey mists. A whole group of mountains began to +appear in gigantic fragments. Mountain shapes are often +fantastic seen through a mist; these were like the wildest +creation of a dream. A preposterous triangular lump rose +out of the depths; its edge came leaping up at an angle of +about 70° and ended nowhere. To the left a black serrated +crest was hanging in the sky incredibly. Gradually, very +gradually, we saw the great mountain sides and glaciers +and arêtes, now one fragment and now another through +the floating rifts, until far higher in the sky than imagination +had dared to suggest the white summit of Everest appeared. +And in this series of partial glimpses we had seen a whole; +we were able to piece together the fragments, to interpret +the dream. However much might remain to be understood, +the centre had a clear meaning as one mountain shape, the +shape of Everest.</p> + +<p>It is hardly possible of course from a distance of 57 miles +to formulate an accurate idea of a mountain's shape. But +some of its most remarkable features may be distinguished +for what they are. We were looking at Everest from about +North-east and evidently a long arête was thrust out towards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> +us. Some little distance below the summit the arête came +down to a black shoulder, which we conjectured would be +an insuperable obstacle. To the right of this we saw the +sky line in profile and judged it not impossibly steep. The +edge was probably a true arête because it appeared to be +joined by a col to a sharp peak to the North. From the +direction of this col a valley came down to the East and +evidently drained into the Arun. This was one fact of +supreme importance which was now established and we +noticed that it agreed with what was shown on the map; +the map in fact went up in our esteem and we were inclined +hereafter to believe in its veracity until we established the +contrary. Another fact was even more remarkable. We +knew something more about the great peak near Everest +which we had seen from Kampa Dzong; we knew now that +it was not a separate mountain; in a sense it was part of +Everest, or rather Everest was not one mountain but two; +this great black mountain to the South was connected with +Everest by a continuous arête and divided from it only by +a snow col which must itself be at least 27,000 feet high. +The black cliffs of this mountain, which faced us, were +continuous with the icy East face of Everest itself.</p> + +<p>A bank of cloud still lay across the face of the mountain +when Bullock and I left the crest where we were established. +It was late in the afternoon. We had looked down into the +gorge and watched our little donkeys crossing the stream. +Now we proceeded to follow their tracks across the plain. +The wind was fiercely blowing up the sand and swept it +away to leeward, transforming the dead flat surface into a +wriggling sea of watered silk. The party were all sheltering +in their tents when we rejoined them. Our camp was +situated on a grassy bank below which by some miracle a +spring wells out from the sand. We also sought shelter. +But a short while after sunset the wind subsided. We all +came forth and proceeded to a little eminence near at hand; +and as we looked down the valley there was Everest +calm in the stillness of evening and clear in the last<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> +light.</p> + +<p>I have dwelt upon this episode at some length partly +because in all our travels before we reached the mountain +it is for me beyond other adventures unforgettable; and +not less because the vision of Everest inhabiting our minds +after this day had no small influence upon our deductions +when we came to close quarters with the mountain. We +made other opportunities before reaching Tingri to ascend +likely hills for what we could see; notably from Shekar +Dzong we made a divergence from the line of march and +from a hill above Ponglet, on a morning of cloudless sunrise, +saw the whole group of mountains of which Everest is the +centre. But no view was so instructive as that above +Shiling and we added little to the knowledge gained that +day.</p> + +<p>On June 23, after a day's interval to arrange stores, the +climbing party set forth from Tingri Dzong. We were two +Sahibs, sixteen coolies, a Sirdar, Gyalzen and a cook Dukpa. +The process of selecting the coolies had been begun some +time before this; the long task of nailing their boots had +been nearly completed on the march and we were now +confident that sixteen of the best Sherpas with their climbing +boots, ice axes and each a suit of underwear would serve us +well. The Sirdar through whom coolies had been engaged +in the first instance seemed to understand what was wanted +and to have sufficient authority, and Dukpa, though we could +not expect from him any culinary refinements, had shown +himself a person of some energy and competence who should +do much to reduce the discomforts of life in camp. Our +equipment was seriously deficient in one respect: we were +short of words. A few hours spent in Darjeeling with a +Grammar of Tibetan had easily convinced me that I should +profit little in the short time available by the study of that +language. It had been assumed by both Bullock and myself +that our experienced leaders would give the necessary orders +for organisation in any dialect that might be <ins title="required we">required. We</ins> +had found little opportunity since losing them to learn a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> +language, and our one hope of conversing with the Sirdar +was a vocabulary of about 150 words which I had written +down in a notebook to be committed to memory on the +march and consulted when occasion should arise.</p> + +<p>The task before us was not likely to prove a simple and +straightforward matter, and we had no expectation that +it would be quickly concluded. It would be necessary +in the first place to find the mountain; as we looked across +the wide plains from Tingri and saw the dark monsoon +clouds gathered in all directions we were not reassured. +And there would be more than one approach to be found. +We should have to explore a number of valleys radiating +from Everest and separated by high ridges which would +make lateral communication extremely difficult; we must +learn from which direction various parts of the mountain +could most conveniently be reached. And beyond all +investigation of the approaches we should have to scrutinise +Mount Everest itself. Our reconnaissance must aim at a +complete knowledge of the various faces and arêtes, a correct +understanding of the whole form and structure of the mountain +and the distribution of its various parts; we must distinguish +the vulnerable places in its armour and finally pit our skill +against the obstacles wherever an opportunity of ascent +should appear until all such opportunities were exhausted. +The whole magnitude of the enterprise was very present in +our minds as we left Tingri. We decided that a preliminary +reconnaissance should include the first two aims of finding +the approaches to Mount Everest and determining its shape, +while anything in the nature of an assault should be left +to the last as a separate stage of organisation and effort. +In the result we may claim to have kept these ends in view +without allowing the less important to prey upon the +greater. So long as a doubt remained as to the way we +should choose we made no attempt to climb the peak; we +required ourselves first to find out as much as possible by +more distant observations.</p> + +<p>Mount Everest, as it turned out, did not prove difficult<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> +to find. Almost in the direct line from Tingri are two great +peaks respectively 26,870 and 25,990 feet high—known +to the Survey of India as M<sub>1</sub> and M<sub>2</sub> and to Tibetans as +Cho-Uyo and Gyachung Kang. They lie about W.N.W. of +Everest. We had to decide whether we should pass to the +South of them, leaving them on our left, or to the North. +In the first case we surmised that we might find ourselves +to the South of a western arête of Everest, and possibly in +Nepal, which was out of bounds. The arête, if it existed, +might perhaps be reached from the North and give us the +view we should require of the South-western side, in which +case one base would serve us for a large area of investigation +and we should economise time that would otherwise be +spent in moving our camp round from one side to another. +Consequently we chose the Northern approach. We learned +from local knowledge that in two days we might reach a +village and monastery called Chöbuk, and from there +could follow a long valley to Everest. And so it proved. +Chöbuk was not reached without some difficulty, but this +was occasioned not by obstacles in the country but by the +manners of Tibetans. At Tingri we had hired four pack +animals. We had proceeded 2 or 3 miles across the plain +when we perceived they were heading in the wrong direction. +We were trusting to the guidance of their local drivers and +felt very uncertain as to where exactly we should be aiming; +but their line was about 60° to the South of our objective +according to a guesswork compass bearing. An almost +interminable three-cornered argument followed. It appeared +that our guides intended to take five days to Chöbuk. +They knew all about “ca' canny.” In the end we decided +to take the risk of a separation; Gyalzen went with the +bullocks and our tents to change transport at the village +where we were intended to stay the night, while the rest of +us made a bee line for a bridge where we should have to +cross the Rongbuk stream. At the foot of a vast moraine +we waited on the edge of the “maidan,” anxiously hoping +that we should see some sign of fresh animals approaching;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> +and at length we saw them. It was a late camp that evening +on a strip of meadow beside the stream, but we had the +comfort of reflecting that we had foiled the natives, whose +aim was to retard our progress; and in the sequel we reached +our destination with no further trouble.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_190.jpg" width="500" height="315" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_190"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Cho-Uyo.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>On June 25 we crossed the stream at Chöbuk. Tibetan +bridges are so constructed as to offer the passenger ample +opportunities of experiencing the sensation of insecurity +and contemplating the possibilities of disaster. This one +was no exception. We had no wish to risk our stores, and +it was planned that the beasts should swim. They were +accordingly unladen and driven with yell and blow by a +willing crowd, until one more frightened than the rest plunged +into the torrent and the others followed. We now found +ourselves on the right bank of the Rongbuk stream, and +knew we had but to follow it up to reach the glacier at the +head of the valley. An hour or so above Chöbuk we entered +a gorge with high red cliffs above us on the left. Below +them was a little space of fertile ground where the moisture +draining down from the limestone above was caught before +it reached the stream—a green ribbon stretched along the +margin with grass and low bushes, yellow-flowering asters, +rhododendrons and juniper. I think we had never seen +anything so green since we came up on to the tableland +of Tibet. It was a day of brilliant sunshine, as yet warm +and windless. The memory of Alpine meadows came into +my mind. I remembered their manifold allurements; I +could almost smell the scent of pines. Now I was filled +with the desire to lie here in this “oasis” and live at ease +and sniff the clean fragrance of mountain plants. But we +went on, on and up the long valley winding across a broad +stony bay; and all the stony hillsides under the midday +sun were alike monotonously dreary. At length we followed +the path up a steeper rise crowned by two chortens between +which it passes. We paused here in sheer astonishment. +Perhaps we had half expected to see Mount Everest at this +moment. In the back of my mind were a host of questions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> +about it clamouring for answer. But the sight of it now +banished every thought. We forgot the stony wastes and +regrets for other beauties. We asked no questions and +made no comment, but simply looked.</p> + +<p>It is perhaps because Everest presented itself so +dramatically on this occasion that I find the Northern +aspect more particularly imaged in my mind, when I recall +the mountain. But in any case this aspect has a special +significance. The Rongbuk Valley is well constructed to +show off the peak at its head; for about 20 miles it is +extraordinarily straight and in that distance rises only +4,000 feet, the glacier, which is 10 miles long, no more steeply +than the rest. In consequence of this arrangement one +has only to be raised very slightly above the bed of the +valley to see it almost as a flat way up to the very head of +the glacier from which the cliffs of Everest spring. To +the place where Everest stands one looks along rather than +up. The glacier is prostrate; not a part of the mountain; +not even a pediment; merely a floor footing the high walls. +At the end of the valley and above the glacier Everest rises +not so much a peak as a prodigious mountain-mass. There +is no complication for the eye. The highest of the world's +great mountains, it seems, has to make but a single gesture +of magnificence to be lord of all, vast in unchallenged and +isolated supremacy. To the discerning eye other mountains +are visible, giants between 23,000 and 26,000 feet high. Not +one of their slenderer heads even reaches their chief's shoulder; +beside Everest they escape notice—such is the pre-eminence +of the greatest.</p> + +<p>Considered as a structure Mount Everest is seen from +the Rongbuk Valley to achieve height with amazing +simplicity. The steep wall 10,000 feet high is contained +between two colossal members—to the left the North-eastern +arête, which leaves the summit at a gentle angle and in a +distance of about half a mile descends only 1,000 feet before +turning more sharply downwards from a clearly defined +shoulder; and to the right the North-west arête (its true<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> +direction is about W.N.W.), which comes down steeply +from the summit but makes up for the weaker nature of +this support by immense length below. Such is the broad +plan. In one respect it is modified. The wide angle between +the two main arêtes involves perhaps too long a face; a +further support is added. The Northern face is brought +out a little below the North-east shoulder and then turned +back to meet the crest again, so that from the point of the +shoulder a broad arête leads down to the North and is +connected by a snow col at about 23,000 feet with a Northern +wing of mountains which forms the right bank of the Rongbuk +Glacier and to some extent masks the view of the lower +parts of Everest. Nothing could be stronger than this +arrangement and it is nowhere fantastic. We do not see +jagged crests and a multitude of pinnacles, and beautiful +as such ornament may be we do not miss it. The outline +is comparatively smooth because the stratification is +horizontal, a circumstance which seems again to give strength, +emphasising the broad foundations. And yet Everest is a +rugged giant. It has not the smooth undulations of a snow +mountain with white snow cap and glaciated flanks. It +is rather a great rock mass, coated often with a thin layer +of white powder which is blown about its sides, and bearing +perennial snow only on the gentler ledges and on several +wide faces less steep than the rest. One such place is the +long arm of the North-west arête which with its slightly +articulated buttresses is like the nave of a vast cathedral +roofed with snow. I was, in fact, reminded often by this +Northern view of Winchester Cathedral with its long high +nave and low square tower; it is only at a considerable +distance that one appreciates the great height of this building +and the strength which seems capable of supporting a far +taller tower. Similarly with Everest; the summit lies +back so far along the immense arêtes that big as it always +appears one required a distant view to realise its height; +and it has no spire though it might easily bear one; I have +thought sometimes that a Matterhorn might be piled on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> +the top of Everest and the gigantic structure would support +the added weight in stable equanimity.</p> + +<p>On June 26 we pitched our tents in full view of Everest +and a little way beyond the large monastery of Chöyling +which provides the habitations nearest to the mountain, +about 16 miles away. After three days' march from the +Expedition's headquarters at Tingri we had found the +object of our quest and established a base in the Rongbuk +Valley, which was to serve us for a month.</p> + +<p>The first steps in a prolonged reconnaissance such as +we were proposing to undertake were easily determined by +topographical circumstances. Neither Bullock nor I was +previously acquainted with any big mountains outside the +Alps; to our experience in the Alps we had continually to +refer, both for understanding this country and for estimating +the efforts required to reach a given point in it. The Alps +provided a standard of comparison which alone could be +our guide until we had acquired some fresh knowledge +in the new surroundings. No feature of what we saw so +immediately challenged this comparison as the glacier +ahead of us; in so narrow a glacier it was hardly surprising +that the lower part of it should be covered with stones, +but higher the whole surface was white ice, and the white +ice came down in a broad stream tapering gradually to a +point when it was lost in the waste of the brown grey. What +was the meaning of this? Even from a distance it was +possible to make out that the white stream contained +pinnacles of ice. Was it all composed of pinnacles? Would +they prove an insuperable obstacle? In the Alps the main +glaciers are most usually highways, the ways offered to +the climber for his travelling. Were they not to prove +highways here?</p> + +<p>Our first expedition was designed to satisfy our curiosity +on this head. Allowing a bountiful margin of time for +untoward contingencies we set forth on June 27 with five +coolies at 3.15 a.m., and made our way up the valley with +a good moon to help us. To be tramping under the stars<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> +toward a great mountain is always an adventure; now +we were adventuring for the first time in a new mountain +country which still held in store for us all its surprises and +almost all its beauties. It was not our plan at present +to make any allowance for the special condition of elevation; +we expected to learn how that condition would tell and how +to make allowances for the future. We started from our +camp at 16,000 feet—above the summit of Mont Blanc—just +as we should have left an Alpine hut 6,000 feet lower, +and when we took our first serious halt at 7 a.m. had already +crossed the narrow end of the glacier. That short experience—an +hour or so—was sufficient for the moment. The +hummocks of ice covered with stones of all sizes—like the +huge waves of a brown angry sea—gave us no chance of +ascending the glacier; one might hopefully follow a trough +for a little distance but invariably to be stopped by the +necessity of mounting once more to a crest and descending +again on the other side. Nevertheless, we were not dissatisfied +with our progress. We were now in a stream bed +between the glacier and its left bank and above the exit of +the main glacier stream, which comes out on this side well +above the snout. The watercourse offered an opportunity +of progress; it was dry almost everywhere and for a bout +of leaping from boulder to boulder we were usually rewarded +by a space of milder walking on the flat sandy bed. Our +pace I considered entirely satisfactory as we went on after +breakfast; unconsciously I was led into something like +a race by one of the coolies who was pressing along at my +side. I noticed that though he was slightly built he seemed +extremely strong and active, compact of muscle; but he +had not yet learnt the art of walking rhythmically and +balancing easily from stone to stone. I wondered how +long he would keep up. Presently we came to a corner +where our stream bed ended and a small glacier-snout was +visible above us apparently descending from the Northwest. +We gathered on a high bank of stones to look out +over the glacier. I observed now that the whole aspect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> +of the party had changed. The majority were more than +momentarily tired, they were visibly suffering from some +sort of malaise. It was not yet nine o'clock and we had +risen barely 2,000 feet, but their spirits had gone. There +were grunts instead of laughter.</p> + +<p>The glacier's left bank which we were following was +now trending to the right. To the South and standing +in front of the great North-west arm of Everest was a +comparatively small and very attractive snow peak, perhaps +a little less than 21,000 feet high. We had harboured a vague +ambition to reach its shoulder, a likely point for prospecting +the head of the Rongbuk Glacier. But between us and +this objective was a wide stretch of hummocky ice which +had every appearance of being something more than a +mere bay of the main glacier. We suspected a western +branch and proceeded to confirm our suspicion. After a +rough crossing below the glacier above us we were fortunate +enough to find another trough wider than the first and +having a flat sandy bottom where we walked easily enough. +Presently leaving the coolies to rest on the edge of the glacier +Bullock and I mounted a high stony shoulder, and from +there, at 18,500 feet, saw the glacier stretching away to +the West, turning sharply below us to rise more steeply than +before. Cloud prevented us from distinguishing what +appeared to be a high mountain ridge at the far end of it.</p> + +<p>It was evident that nothing was to be gained at present +by pushing our investigations further to the West. Our +curiosity was as yet unsatisfied about those white spires +of ice to which our eyes had constantly returned. We +declined the alternative of retracing our steps and without +further delay set about to cross the glacier. It was now +eleven o'clock and we were under no delusion that the task +before us would be other than arduous and long. But +the reward in interest and valuable information promised +to be great, for, by exploring the glacier's right bank during +our descent we should learn all we wanted to know before +making plans for an advance. And we hoped to be in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> +before dark.</p> + +<p>The stone-covered ice on which we first embarked +compared favourably with that of our earlier experience +before breakfast. The sea, so to speak, was not so choppy; +the waves were longer. We were able to follow convenient +troughs for considerable distances. But at the bottom of a +trough which points whither it will it is impossible to keep +a definite direction and difficult to know to what extent +one is erring. An hour's hard work was required to bring +us to the edge of the white ice. Our first question was +answered at a glance. It had always seemed improbable +that these were séracs such as one meets on an Alpine +icefall, and clearly they were not. We saw no signs of +lateral crevasses. The shapes were comparatively conical +and regular, not delicately poised but firmly based, safely +perpendicular and not dangerously impending. They were +the result not of movement but of melting, and it was +remarkable that on either side the black ice looked over the +white, as though the glacier had sunk in the middle. The +pinnacles resembled a topsy-turvy system of colossal icicles, +icicles thrust upwards from a common icy mass, the whole +resting on a definable floor. The largest were about 50 +feet high.</p> + +<p>We were divided from this fairy world of spires by a +deep boundary moat and entered it on the far side by what +may be described as a door but that it had no lintel. An +alley led us over a low wall and we had reached the interior. +A connected narrative of our wanderings in this amazing +country could hardly be true to its disconnected character. +The White Rabbit himself would have been bewildered +here. No course seemed to lead anywhere. Our idea was +to keep to the floor so far as we were able; but most usually +we were scrambling up a chimney or slithering down one, +cutting round the foot of a tower or actually traversing +along an icy crest. To be repeatedly crossing little cols +with the continued expectation of seeing a way beyond +was a sufficiently exciting labour; it was also sufficiently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> +laborious since the chopping of steps was necessary almost +everywhere; but fatigue was out of sight in the enchanted +scene, with the cool delight of little lakes, of the ice reflected +in their unruffled waters and of blue sky showing between +the white spires. We had but one misadventure, and +that of no consequence—it was my fate when crossing the +frozen surface of one little lake to suffer a sudden immersion: +the loss of dignity perhaps was more serious than the chilling +of ardour, for we soon came upon a broadening alley and +came out from our labyrinth as suddenly as we entered +it, to lie and bask in the warm sun.</p> + +<p>Our crossing of the white ice after all had taken little +more than two hours, and we might well consider ourselves +fortunate. But it must be remembered that we were far +from fresh at the start and now the reaction set in. The +stone-covered glacier on this side, besides being a much +narrower belt was clearly not going to give us trouble, and +after an ample halt we started across it easily enough. +On the right bank we had noticed many hours before above +the glacier a broad flat shelf, presumably an old moraine, +and a clear mark along the hillside away down to a point +below the snout. This was now our objective and no doubt +once we had gained it our troubles would be ended. But +in the first place it had to be gained. In the Alps it has +often seemed laborious to go up hill towards the end of a +day: it was a new sensation to find it an almost impossible +exertion to drag oneself up a matter of 150 feet. And +further exertions were to be required of us. A little way +down the valley a glacier stream came in on our right; we +had observed this before and hopefully expected to follow +our terrace round and rejoin it on the far side of the gully. +But it was late in the afternoon and the stream was at its +fullest. We followed it down with defeated expectations; +it always proved just too dangerous to cross. Finally it +formed a lake at the edge of the glacier before disappearing +beneath it and obliged us to make a detour on the ice once +more. I suppose this obstacle was mild enough; but again<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> +an ascent was involved, and after it at least one member +of the party seemed incapable of further effort. Another +halt was necessary. We were now down to about 17,000 +feet and at the head of a long passage at the side of the +glacier, similar to that we had ascended in the morning +on the other bank. Those who suffer from altitude on a +mountain have a right to expect a recovery on the descent. +But I saw no signs of one yet. It was a long painful +hour balancing from boulder to boulder along the passage, +with the conscious effort of keeping up the feat until we +came out into the flat basin at the glacier end. Then as +we left the glacier behind us the day seemed to come right. +One obstacle remained, a stream which had been crossed +with difficulty in the morning and was now swollen to a +formidable torrent. It was carried with a rush—this was +no moment for delay. Each man chose his own way for +a wetting; for my part, after a series of exciting leaps on to +submerged stones I landed in the deepest part of the stream +with the pick of my axe dug into the far bank to help me +scramble out. After this I remember only of the last 4 +miles the keen race against the gathering darkness; fatigue +was forgotten and we reached camp at 8.15 p.m., tired +perhaps, but not exhausted.</p> + +<p>It has seemed necessary to give an account of this first +expedition in some detail in order to emphasise certain +conditions which governed all our movements from the +Rongbuk Valley. We now knew how to get about. Flat +though the glacier might be, it was no use for travelling +in any part we had seen, not a road but an obstacle. The +obstacle, however, had not proved insurmountable, and +though the crossing had been laborious and long, we were +not convinced that it need be so long another time; careful +reconnaissance might reveal a better way, and we had little +doubt that both the main glacier and its Western branch +could be used freely for lateral communication if we chose. +It would not always be necessary in organising an expedition +to be encamped on one side of the glacier rather than the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> +other. And we had discovered that it was not a difficult +matter to make our way along the glacier sides; we could +choose either a trough or a shelf.</p> + +<p>We had also been greatly interested by the phenomena +of fatigue. The most surprising fact when we applied our +standard of comparison was that coming down had proved +so laborious; Bullock and I had each discovered independently +that we got along better when we remembered to +breathe hard, and we already suspected what we afterwards +established—that it was necessary to adopt a conscious +method of breathing deeply for coming down as for going +up. Another inference, subsequently confirmed on many +occasions, accused the glacier. The mid-day sun had been +hot as we crossed it and I seemed to notice some enervating +influence which had not affected me elsewhere. It was the +glacier that had knocked me out, not the hard work alone +but some malignant quality in the atmosphere, which I +can neither describe nor explain; and in crossing a glacier +during the day I always afterwards observed the same +effect; I might feel as fit and fresh as I could wish on the +moraine at the side but only once succeeded in crossing a +glacier without feeling a despairing lassitude.</p> + +<p>I shall now proceed to quote from my diary:</p> + +<p><i>June</i> 28.—A slack day in camp. It is difficult to induce +coolies to take any steps to make themselves more comfortable. +We're lucky to have this fine weather. The +mountain appears not to be intended for climbing. I've +no inclination to think about it in steps to the summit. +Nevertheless, we gaze much through field-glasses. E. is, +generally speaking, convex, steep in lower parts and slanting +back to summit. Last section of East arête<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> should go; +but rocks up to the shoulder are uninviting. An arête +must join up here, coming down towards us and connecting +up with first peak to N.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> There's no true North arête to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> +the summit, as we had supposed at first. It's more like +this:</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_201.jpg" width="350" height="288" + alt="Way to summit" + title="Way to summit" /> + <a id="img_201"></a> +</div> + +<p>G. H. B. thinks little of the North-west arm. But I'm not +so sure; much easy going on that snow if we can get to +it and rocks above probably easier than they look—steep +but broken. Are we seeing the true edge? I wish some +folk at home could see the precipice on this side—a grim +spectacle most unlike the long gentle snow slopes suggested +by photos. Amusing to think how one's vision of the last +effort has changed; it looked like crawling half-blind up +easy snow, an even slope all the way up from a camp on +a flat snow shoulder; but it won't be that sort of grind; +we'll want climbers and not half-dazed ones; a tougher +job than I bargained for, sanguine as usual.</p> + +<p>E. is a rock mountain.</p> + +<p>Obviously we must get round to the West first. The +Western glacier looks as flat as this one. Perhaps we shall +be able to walk round into another cwm<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> on the far side of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> +North-west buttress.</p> + +<p><i>June</i> 29.—Established First Advanced Camp.</p> + +<p>The start late, about 8 a.m., an hour later than ordered. +Loads must be arranged better if anything is to be done +efficiently. Gyalzen's response to being hustled is to tie +knots or collect tent pegs—with no idea of superintending +operations. An exciting day with destination unfixed. +We speculated that the shelf on the left bank would resemble +that on right. A passage on stone-covered glacier unavoidable +and bad for coolies—perhaps to-day's loads were too +heavy for this sort of country. From breakfast place of +27th I went on with Gyalzen, following up a fresh-water +stream to the shelf; good going on this shelf for forty +minutes, with no sign of more water, and I decided to come +back to the stream. Just as we were turning I saw a pond +of water and a spring, an ideal place, and it's much better +to be further on. Real good luck. Wind blows down +the glacier and the camp is well sheltered. Only crab that +we lose the sun early—4 p.m. to-day; but on the other +hand it should hit us very soon after sunrise.</p> + +<p>Coolies in between 3.30 and 4.30. Dorji Gompa first, +stout fellow, with a big load. They seem happy and +interested.… It should now be possible to carry reconnaissance +well up the main glacier and to the basin Westwards +without moving further—once we get accustomed to this +elevation.</p> + +<p><i>June</i> 30.—A short day with second<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> party, following the +shelf to a corner which marks roughly the junction of the +main glacier with its Western branch. A clearing day after +a good night; we found a good way across to the opposite +corner, about an hour across, and came back in leisurely +fashion. Neither B. nor I felt fit.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p style="text-indent: 0;">Footnotes:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> It had not yet been established that the true direction of this arête +is North-east.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> i.e. the North Peak (Changtse).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Cwm, combe or corry—the rounded head of a valley.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> The coolies had been divided into three parties which were to spend +four or five days in the advanced camp by turns to be trained in the practice +of mountaineering while the rest supplied this camp from our base.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XIII</h2> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%">THE NORTHERN APPROACH—<i>continued</i></span></p> + +<p>The reader will gather from these notes some idea of +the whole nature of our problem and the subjects of our most +anxious thoughts. The camp established on June 25 lasted +us until July 8. Meanwhile the idea was growing, the vision +of Everest as a structural whole, and of the glaciers and +lower summits to North and West. This idea resembled +the beginning of an artist's painting, a mere rough design at +the start, but growing by steps of clearer definition in one +part and another towards the precise completion of a whole. +For us the mountain parts defined themselves in the mind +as the result of various expeditions. We set out to gain a +point of view with particular questions to be answered; +partial answers and a new point of view stimulated more +curiosity, other questions, and again the necessity to reach +a particular place whence we imagined they might best +be answered. And at the same time another aim had to +be kept in mind. The coolies, though mountain-men, +were not mountaineers. They had to be trained in the +craft of mountaineering, in treading safely on snow or ice +in dangerous places, in climbing easy rocks and most +particularly in the use of rope and ice-axe—and this not merely +for our foremost needs, but to ensure that, whenever we +were able to launch an assault upon Mount Everest, and all +would be put to the most exhausting test, they should have +that reserve strength of a practised balance and ordered +method on which security must ultimately depend.</p> + +<p>On July 1 I set out with five coolies to reach the head of +the great cwm under the North face of Mount Everest. +The snow on the upper glacier was soft and made very +heavy going. Bad weather came up and in a race against<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> +the clouds we were beaten and failed to find out what +happened to the glacier at its Western head under the +North-west arête. My view of the col lying between Everest +and the North Peak (Changtse)—the North Col as we now +began to call it, or in Tibetan Chang La—was also unsatisfactory; +but I saw enough to make out a broken glacier +running up eastwards towards the gap with steep and +uninviting snow slopes under the pass. I was now sure +that before attempting to reach this col from the Rongbuk +Glacier, if ever we determined to reach it, we should have +to reconnoitre the other side and if possible find a more +hopeful alternative; moreover, from a nearer inspection +of the slopes below the North-west arête I was convinced +that they could be chosen for an attack only as a last resort; +if anything were to be attempted here, we must find a better +way up from the East.</p> + +<p>I had vaguely hoped to bring the party home sufficiently +fresh to climb again on the following day. But the fatigue +of going in deep snow for three hours up the glacier, though +we had been no higher than 19,100 feet, had been too great, +and again we had noticed only a slight relief in coming down; +it was a tired party that dragged back over the glacier +crossing and into camp at 6.15 p.m., thirteen hours after +starting.</p> + +<p>July 3 was devoted to an expedition designed chiefly +to take coolies on to steeper ground and at the same time +to explore the small glacier which we had observed above +us on the first day to the North-west; by following up the +terrace from our present camp we could now come to the +snout of it in half an hour or less. After working up the +glacier we made for a snow col between two high peaks. +On reaching a bergschrund we found above its upper lip +hard ice, which continued no doubt to the ridge. While +Bullock looked after the party below I cut a staircase +slanting up to a small island of rock 100 feet away; from +that security I began to bring the party up. We had now +the interesting experience of seeing our coolies for the first<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> +time on real hard ice; it was not a convincing spectacle, +as they made their way up with the ungainly movements +of beginners; and though the last man never left the secure +anchorage of the bergschrund, the proportion of two Sahibs +to five coolies seemed lamentably weak, and when one man +slipped from the steep steps at an awkward corner, though +Bullock was able to hold him, it was clearly time to retire. +But the descent was a better performance; the coolies were +apt pupils, and we felt that with practice on the glacier +the best of them should become safe mountaineers. And +on this day we had reached a height of 21,000 feet<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> from +our camp at 17,500 feet. I had the great satisfaction of +observing that one could cut steps quite happily at this +altitude. The peak lying to the North of the col, which had +been our objective on this day, attracted our attention by +its position; we thought it should have a commanding view +over all this complicated country, and after a day in camp +very pleasantly spent in receiving a visit from Colonel +Howard-Bury and Dr. Heron, set out on July 5 determined +to reach its summit. The start was made at 4.15 a.m. in +the first light, an hour earlier than usual; we proceeded +up the stone shoots immediately above our camp and after +a halt for photography at the glorious moment of sunrise +had made 2,500 feet and reached the high shoulder above +us at 7 a.m. This place was connected with our peak +by a snowy col which had now to be reached by a long +traverse over a South-facing slope. Though the angle +was not steep very little snow was lying here, and where the +ice was peeping through it was occasionally necessary to +cut steps. I felt it was a satisfactory performance to reach +the col at 9.30 a.m.; the coolies had come well, though one +of them was burdened with the quarter-plate camera; but +evidently their efforts had already tired them. Ahead of +us was a long, curving snow arête, slightly corniced and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> +leading ultimately to a rocky shoulder. We thought that +once this shoulder was gained the summit would be within +our reach. Shortly after we went on two coolies dropped +out, and by 11.30 a.m. the rest had given up the struggle. +It was fortunate that they fell out here and not later, for +they were able to make their way down in our tracks and +regain the col below in safety. The angle steepened as we +went on very slowly now, but still steadily enough, until +we reached the rocks, a frail slatey structure with short +perpendicular pitches. From the shoulder onwards my +memories are dim. I have the impression of a summit +continually receding from the position imagined by sanguine +hopes and of a task growing constantly more severe, of +steeper sides, of steps to be cut, of a dwindling pace, more +frequent little halts standing where we were, and of +breathing quicker but no less deep and always conscious; +the respiratory engine had to be kept running as the +indispensable source of energy, and ever as we went on more +work was required of it. At last we found ourselves +without an alternative under an icy wall; but the ice was +a delusion; in the soft flaky substance smothering rocks +behind it we had strength left to cut a way up to the crest +again, and after a few more steps were on the summit +itself.</p> + +<p>It was now 2.45 p.m. The aneroid used by Bullock, +which, after comparison with one of Howard-Bury's was +supposed to read low, registered 23,050 feet,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> and we puffed +out our chests as we examined it, computing that we had +risen from our camp over 5,500 feet. The views both +earlier in the day and at this moment were of the highest +interest. To the East we had confirmed our impression of +the North Peak as having a high ridge stretching eastwards +and forming the side of whatever valley connected with +the Arun River in this direction; the upper parts of Everest's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> +North face had been clearly visible for a long time, and +we could now be certain that they lay back at no impossibly +steep angle, more particularly above the North col and up +to the North-east shoulder. All we had seen immediately +to the West of the mountain had been of the greatest interest, +and had suggested the idea that the crinkled summit there +might be connected not directly with Mount Everest +itself, but only by way of the South peak. And finally we +now saw the connections of all that lay around us with +the two great triangulated peaks away to the West, Gyachung +Kang, 25,990 and Cho-Uyo, 26,870 feet. While complaining +of the clouds which had come up as usual during the morning +to spoil our view we were not dissatisfied with the expansion +of our knowledge and we were elated besides to be where +we were. But our situation was far from perfectly secure. +The ascent had come very near to exhausting our strength; +for my part I felt distinctly mountain-sick; we might +reflect that we should not be obliged to cut more steps, but +we should have to proceed downwards with perfect accuracy +of balance and a long halt was desirable. However, the +clouds were now gathering about us, dark thunder-clouds +come up from the North and threatening; it was clear we +must not wait; after fifteen minutes on the summit we +started down at three o'clock. Fortune favoured us. The +wind was no more than a breeze; a few flakes of snow were +unnoticed in our flight; the temperature was mild; the +storm's malice was somehow dissipated with no harm done. +We rejoined the coolies before five o'clock and were back +in our camp at 7.15 p.m., happy to have avoided a descent +in the dark.</p> + +<p>Our next plan, based on our experience of this long +mountain ridge, was to practise the coolies in the use of +crampons on hard snow and ice. But snow fell heavily +on the night of the 6th; we deferred our project. It was +the beginning of worse weather; the monsoon was breaking +in earnest. And though crampons afterwards came up +to our camps wherever we went they were not destined to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> +help us, and in the event were never used.</p> + +<p>On July 8 we moved up with a fresh party of seven coolies, +taking only our lightest tents and no more than was necessary +for three nights, in the hope that by two energetic expeditions +we should reach the Western cwm which, we suspected, must +exist on the far side of the North-west arête, and learn enough +to found more elaborate plans for exploring this side of the +mountain should they turn out to be necessary. Again +we were fortunate in finding a good camping ground, better +even than the first, for the floor of this shelf was grassy +and soft, and as we were looking South across the West +Rongbuk Glacier we had the sun late as well as early. But +we were not completely happy. A Mummery tent may +be well enough in fair weather, though even then its low +roof suggests a recumbent attitude; it makes a poor dining-room, +even for two men, and is a cold shelter from snow. +Moreover, the cold and draught discouraged our Primus +stove—but I leave to the imagination of those who have +learned by experience the nausea that comes from the +paraffin fumes and one's dirty hands and all the mess that +may be. It was chiefly a question of incompetence, no +doubt, but there was no consolation in admitting that. In +the morning, with the weather still very thick and the snow +lying about us we saw the error of our ways. Is it not a +first principle of mountaineering to be as comfortable as +possible as long as one can? And how long should we +require for these operations in such weather? It was clear +that our Second Advanced Camp must be organised on a +more permanent basis. On the 9th therefore I went down +to the base and moved it up on the following day so as to +be within reach of our present position by one long march. +The new place greatly pleased me; it was much more +sheltered than the lower site and the tents were pitched on +flat turf where a clear spring flowed out from the hillside +and only a quarter of an hour below the end of the glacier. +Meanwhile Bullock brought up the Whymper tents and +more stores from the First Advanced Camp, which was now<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> +established as a half-way house with our big 80-foot tent +standing in solemn grandeur to protect all that remained +there. On July 10 I was back at the Second Advanced +Camp and felt satisfied that the new arrangements, and +particularly the presence of our cook, would give us a fair +measure of comfort.</p> + +<p>But we were still unable to move next day. The snowfall +during the night was the heaviest we had yet seen and +continued into the next day. Probably the coolies were +not sorry for a rest after some hard work; and we reckoned +to make a long expedition so soon as the weather should +clear. Towards evening on the 10th the clouds broke. +Away to the South-west of us and up the glacier was the +barrier range on the frontier of Nepal, terminated by one +great mountain, Pumori, over 24,000 feet high. To the +West Rongbuk Glacier they present the steepest slopes +on which snow can lie; the crest above these slopes is +surprisingly narrow and the peaks which it joins are +fantastically shaped. This group of mountains, always +beautiful and often in the highest degree impressive, was +now to figure for our eyes as the principal in that oft-repeated +drama which seems always to be a first night, fresh and full +of wonder whenever we are present to watch it. The clinging +curtains were rent and swirled aside and closed again, lifted +and lowered and flung wide at last; sunlight broke through +with sharp shadows and clean edges revealed—and we were +there to witness the amazing spectacle. Below the terrible +mountains one white smooth island rose from the quiet +sea of ice and was bathed in the calm full light of the Western +sun before the splendour failed.</p> + +<p>With hopes inspired by the clearing views of this lovely +evening, we started at 5.30 a.m. on July 12 to follow the +glacier round to the South and perhaps enter the Western +cwm. The glacier was a difficult problem. It looked easy +enough to follow up the medial moraine to what we called +the Island, a low mountain pushed out from the frontier +ridge into the great sea of ice. But the way on Southwards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> +from there would have been a gamble with the chances of +success against us. We decided to cross the glacier directly +to the South with a certainty that once we had reached +the moraine on the other side we should have a clear way +before us. It was exhilarating to set out again under a +clear sky, and we were delighted to think that a large part +of this task was accomplished when the sun rose full of +warmth and cheerfulness. The far side was cut off by a +stream of white ice, so narrow here that we expected with +a little good fortune to get through it in perhaps half an +hour. We entered it by a frozen stream leading into a +bay with high white towers and ridges above us. A side +door led through into a further bay which took us in the +confidence of success almost through the maze. With +some vigorous blows we cut our way up the final wall and +then found ourselves on a crest overlooking the moraine +with a sheer ice-precipice of about 100 feet below us.</p> + +<p>The only hope was to come down again and work round +to the right. Some exciting climbing and much hard work +brought us at length to the foot of the cliffs and on the right +side. The performance had taken us two and a half hours +and it was now nearly ten o'clock. Clouds had already +come up to obscure the mountains, and from the point of view +of a prolonged exploration the day was clearly lost. Our +course now was to make the best of it and yet get back so +early to camp that we could set forth again on the following +day. We had the interest, after following the moraine to +the corner where the glacier bends Southwards, of making +our way into the middle of the ice and finding out how +unpleasant it can be to walk on a glacier melted everywhere +into little valleys and ridges and covered with fresh snow. +We got back at 3 p.m.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_210.jpg" width="500" height="309" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_210"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Summit of Mount Everest and North Peak</span><br /> +from the Island, West Rongbuk Glacier.</p> +</div> + +<p>On July 13, determined to make good, we started at +4.15 a.m. With the knowledge gained on the previous +day and the use of 250 feet of spare rope we were able to +find our way through the ice pinnacles and reached the far +moraine in less than an hour and a half; and we had the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> +further good fortune when we took to the snow to find it +now in such good condition that we were able to walk on +the surface without using our snow-shoes. As we proceeded +up the slopes where the snow steepened the weather began +to thicken and we halted at 8 a.m. in a thick mist with a +nasty wind and some snow falling. It was a cold halt. +We were already somewhat disillusioned about our glacier, +which seemed to be much more narrow than was to be +expected if it were really a high-road to the Western cwm, +and as we went on with the wind blowing the snow into +our faces so that nothing could be clearly distinguished we +had the sense of a narrowing place and a perception of the +even surface being broken up into large crevasses on one +side and the other. At 9.30 we could go no further. For +a few hundred yards we had been traversing a slope which +rose above us on our left, and now coming out on to a little +spur we stood peering down through the mist and knew +ourselves to be on the edge of a considerable precipice. Not +a single feature of the landscape around us was even faintly +visible in the cloud. For a time we stayed on with the +dim hope of better things and then reluctantly retired, +baffled and bewildered.</p> + +<p>Where had we been? It was impossible to know; but +at least it was certain there was no clear way to the West +side of Everest. We could only suppose that we had reached +a col on the frontier of Nepal.</p> + +<p>A further disappointment awaited us when we reached +camp at 1 p.m. I had made a simple plan to ensure our +supply of gobar<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> and rations from the base camp. The +supplies had not come up and it was not the sort of weather +to be without a fire for cooking.</p> + +<p>I shall now proceed to quote my diary:—</p> + +<p><i>July</i> 14.—A day of rest, but with no republican +demonstrations. Very late breakfast after some snow in +the night. Piquet after tiffin and again after dinner<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> +was very consoling. The little streams we found here on +our arrival are drying up; it seems that not much snow +can have fallen higher.</p> + +<p><i>July</i> 15.—Started 6 a.m. to explore the glacier to West +and North-west. A very interesting view just short of the +Island; the South peak appearing. Fifty minutes there +for photos; then hurried on in the hope of seeing more +higher up and at a greater distance. It is really a dry glacier +here but with snow frozen over the surface making many +pitfalls. We had a good many wettings in cold water up +to the knees. The clouds were just coming up as we halted +on the medial moraine. I waited there in hope of better +views, while Bullock took on the coolies. They put on +snow-shoes for the first time and seemed to go very well +in them. Ultimately I struggled across the glacier, bearing +various burdens, to meet them as they came down on a +parallel moraine. Snow-shoes seemed useful, but very +awkward to leap in. Bullock went a long way up the glacier, +rising very slightly towards the peak Cho-Uyo, 26,870 feet. +Evidently there is a flat pass over into Nepal near this peak, +but he did not quite reach it.</p> + +<p>The topographical mystery centres about the West +Peak. Is there an arête connecting this with the great +rock peak South of Everest or is it joined up with the col +we reached the day before yesterday? The shape of the +West cwm and the question of its exit will be solved if we +can answer these questions. Bullock and I are agreed +that the glacier there has probably an exit on the Nepal +side. It all remains extremely puzzling. We saw the +North col quite clearly to-day, and again the way up from +there does not look difficult.</p> + +<p>A finer day and quite useful. Chitayn<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> started out with +us and went back. He appears to be seedy, but has been +quite hopeless as Sirdar down in the base camp and is without +authority. It is a great handicap having no one to look<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> +after things down there. Chitayn is returning to Tingri +to-morrow. I hope he will cheer up again.</p> + +<p><i>July</i> 16.—I made an early start with two coolies at +2.45 a.m. and followed the medial moraine to the Island. +Reached the near summit at sunrise about 5.30. Difficult +to imagine anything more exciting than the clear view of +all peaks. Those near me to the South-west quickly bathed +in sun and those to the South and East showing me their +dark faces. To the left of our col of July 13 a beautiful +sharp peak stood in front of the gap between Everest and +the North Peak, Changtse. Over this col I saw the North-west +buttress of Everest hiding the lower half of the West +face which must be a tremendous precipice of rock. The +last summit of the South Peak, Lhotse, was immediately +behind the shoulder; to the right (i.e. West) of it I saw a +terrible arête stretching a long distance before it turned +upwards in my direction and towards the West Peak. This +mountain dropped very abruptly to the North, indicating +a big gap on the far side of our col. There was the mysterious +cwm lying in cold shadow long after the sun warmed me! +But I now half understand it. The col under the North-west +buttress at the head of the Rongbuk Glacier is one entrance, +and our col of July 13, with how big a drop one knows not, +another.</p> + +<p>I stayed till 7 a.m. taking photos, a dozen plates exposed +in all. The sky was heavy and a band of cloud had come +across Everest before I left.</p> + +<p>Back to breakfast towards 9 a.m. A pleasant morning +collecting flowers, not a great variety but some delicious +honey scents and an occasional cheerful blue poppy.</p> + +<p><i>July</i> 17.—More trouble with our arrangements. The +Sirdar has muddled the rations and the day is wasted. +However, the weather is bad, constant snow showers from +1 to 8 p.m., so that I am somewhat reconciled to this reverse.</p> + +<p><i>July</i> 18.—Yesterday's plan carried out—to move up a +camp with light tents and make a big push over into the +West cwm; eight coolies to carry the loads. But the loads<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> +have been too heavy. What can be cut out next time? +I cannot see many unnecessary articles. Heavy snow +showers fell as we came up and we had rather a cheerless +encampment, but with much heaving of stones made good +places for the tents. A glorious night before we turned in. +Dark masses of cloud were gathered round the peak above +us; below, the glacier was clear and many splendid mountains +were half visible. The whole scene was beautifully lit by +a bright moon.</p> + +<p><i>July</i> 19.—Started 3 a.m.; still some cloud, particularly +to the West. The moon just showed over the mountains +in that direction which cast their strange black shadows on +the snowfield. One amazing black tooth was standing up +against the moonlight. No luck on the glacier and we had +to put on snow-shoes at once. An exciting walk. I so +much feared the cloud would spoil all. It was just light +enough to get on without lanterns after the moon went +down. At dawn almost everything was covered, but not +by heavy clouds. Like guilty creatures of darkness surprised +by the light they went scattering away as we came up and +the whole scene opened out. The North ridge of Everest +was clear and bright even before sunrise. We reached the +col at 5 a.m., a fantastically beautiful scene; and we looked +across into the West cwm at last, terribly cold and forbidding +under the shadow of Everest. It was nearly an hour after +sunrise before the sun hit the West Peak.</p> + +<p>But another disappointment—it is a big drop about +1,500 feet down to the glacier, and a hopeless precipice. I +was hoping to get away to the left and traverse into the +cwm; that too quite hopeless. However, we have seen +this Western glacier and are not sorry we have not to go up +it. It is terribly steep and broken. In any case work on +this side could only be carried out from a base in Nepal, +so we have done with the Western side. It was not a very +likely chance that the gap between Everest and the South +Peak could be reached from the West. From what we have +seen now I do not much fancy it would be possible, even<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> +could one get up the glacier.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_214.jpg" width="500" height="295" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_214"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Mount Everest from the Rongbuk Glacier</span><br /> +nine miles north-west.</p> +</div> + +<p>We saw a lovely group of mountains away to the South +in Nepal. I wonder what they are and if anything is known +about them. It is a big world!</p> + +<hr class="hr45" /> + +<p>With this expedition on July 19 our reconnaissance of +these parts had ended. We proceeded at once to move +down our belongings; on July 20 all tents and stores were +brought down to the base camp and we had said good-bye +to the West Rongbuk Glacier.</p> + +<p>So far as we were concerned with finding a way up the +mountain, little enough had been accomplished; and yet +our growing view of the mountain had been steadily leading +to one conviction. If ever the mountain were to be climbed, +the way would not lie along the whole length of any one +of its colossal ridges. Progress could only be made along +comparatively easy ground, and anything like a prolonged +sharp crest or a series of towers would inevitably bar the +way simply by the time which would be required to overcome +such obstacles. But the North arête coming down to the +gap between Everest and the North Peak, Changtse, is not +of this character. From the horizontal structure of the +mountain there is no excrescence of rock pinnacles in this +part and the steep walls of rock which run across the North +face are merged with it before they reach this part, which +is comparatively smooth and continuous, a bluntly rounded +edge. We had still to see other parts of the mountain, +but already it seemed unlikely that we would find more +favourable ground than this. The great question before +us now was to be one of access. Could the North col be +reached from the East and how could we attain this point?</p> + +<p>At the very moment when we reached the base camp +I received a note from Colonel Howard-Bury telling us that +his departure from Tingri was fixed for July 23 and that he +would be sleeping at Chöbuk in the valley below us two +days later on his way to Kharta. It was now an obvious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> +plan to synchronise our movements with his.</p> + +<p>Besides the branch which we had already explored the +Rongbuk Glacier has yet another which joins the main +stream from the East about 10 miles from Everest. It had +always excited our curiosity, and I now proposed to explore +it in the initial stages of a journey across the unknown ridges +and valleys which separated us from Kharta. I calculated +that we should want eight days' provisions, and that we +should just have time to organise a camp in advance and +start on the 25th with a selected party, sending down the +rest to join Howard-Bury. And it was an integral part +of the scheme that on one of the intervening days I should +ascend a spur to the North of the glacier where we proposed +to march in order to obtain a better idea of this country to +the East. But we were now in the thickest of the monsoon +weather; the 21st and 22nd were both wet days and we +woke on the 23rd to find snow all around us nearly a foot +deep; it had come down as low as 16,000 feet. It was +hardly the weather to cut ourselves adrift and wander among +the uncharted spurs of Everest, and we thought of delaying +our start. Further it transpired that our organisation was +not running smoothly—it never did run smoothly so long +as we employed, as an indispensable Sirdar, a whey-faced +treacherous knave whose sly and calculated villainy too +often, before it was discovered, deprived our coolies of their +food, and whose acquiescence in his own illimitable +incompetence was only less disgusting than his infamous +duplicity. It was the hopeless sense that things were bound +to go wrong if we trusted to this man's services—and we had +no one else at that time through whom it was possible to +order supplies from the natives—that turned the scale and +spoilt the plan. Even so, in the natural course of events, +I should have obtained my preliminary view. But on the +night of the 22nd I received from Howard-Bury an extremely +depressing piece of news, that all my photos taken with the +quarter-plate camera had failed—for the good reason that +the plates had been inserted back to front, a result of ignorance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> +and misunderstanding. It was necessary as far as possible +to repair this hideous error, and the next two days were +spent in a photographic expedition. And so it came about +that we saw no more until a much later date of the East +Rongbuk Glacier. Had our plan been carried out even in +the smallest part by +a cursory survey of +what lay ahead, I +should not now have +to tell a story which +is lamentably incomplete +in one respect. +For the East Rongbuk +Glacier is one +way, and the obvious +way when you see +it, to the North Col. +It was discovered by +Major Wheeler before +ever we saw it, +in the course of his +photographic survey; +but neither he, +nor Bullock, nor I +have ever traversed +its whole length.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img_217.jpg" width="341" height="500" + alt="Way to summit" + title="Way to summit" /> + <a id="img_217"></a> +</div> + +<p>We should have +attached more importance, +no doubt, +in the early stages of reconnaissance, to the East Rongbuk +Glacier had we not been deceived in two ways by appearances. +It had been an early impression left in my mind, at all events, +by what we saw from Shiling, that a deep valley came down +to the East as the R.G.S. map suggests, draining into the +Arun and having the North-east arête of Everest as its +right bank at the start. Further, the head of this valley +seemed to be, as one would expect, the gap between Everest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> +and the first peak to the North which itself has also an +Eastern arm to form the left bank of such a valley. The +impression was confirmed not only by an excellent view +from a hill above Ponglet (two days before Tingri and about +35 miles North of Everest), but by all nearer and more recent +views of the mountains East of the Rongbuk Glacier. The +idea that a glacier running parallel to the Rongbuk started +from the slopes of Everest itself and came so far to turn +Westward in the end hardly occurred to us at this time. +From anything we had seen there was no place for such a +glacier, and it was almost unimaginable that the great +mountain range running North from the North Col, Chang La, +was in no part a true watershed. We saw the East Rongbuk +Glacier stretching away to the East and perceived also a +bay to the South. But how, if this bay were of any +importance, could the glacier stream be so small? We +had found it too large to cross, it is true, late in the afternoon +of our first expedition, but only just too large; and again it +seems now an unbelievable fact that so large an area of ice +should give so small a volume of water. The glacier streams +are remarkably small in all the country we explored, but +this one far more surprisingly small than any other we saw.</p> + +<p>It was some measure of consolation in these circumstances +to make use of a gleam of fine weather. When the bad news +arrived on July 22 about the failure of my photographs +we had ceased to hear the raindrops pattering on the tent, +but could feel well enough when we pushed up the roof +that snow was lying on the outer fly. It was a depressing +evening. I thought of the many wonderful occasions when +I had caught the mountain as I thought just at the right +moment, its moments of most lovely splendour—of all those +moments that would never return and of the record of all +we had seen which neither ourselves nor perhaps anyone +else would ever see again. I was not a cheerful companion. +Moreover, from the back of my mind I was warned, even +in the first despair of disappointment, that I should have +to set out to repair the damage so far as I was able, and I<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> +hated the thought of this expedition. These were our +days of rest after a month's high-living; we were off with +one adventure and on with another; tents, stores, everything +had been brought down to our base and we had said good-bye +to the West Rongbuk Glacier. The clouds were still about +us next morning and snow lay on the ground 9 inches deep. +But by midday much of the snow had melted at our level +and the clouds began to clear. At 2 p.m. we started up +with the Mummery tents and stores for one night. I made +my way with one coolie to a spot some little distance above +our First Advanced Camp. As we pushed up the stormy +hillside the last clouds gathered about Everest, and lingering +in the deep North cwm were dispersed and the great white-mantled +mountains lay all clear in the light of a glorious +evening. Before we raced down to join Bullock my first +dozen plates had been duly exposed; whatever the balance +of hopes and fears for a fine morning to-morrow something +had been done already to make good.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_218.jpg" width="500" height="314" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_218"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Summit of Mount Everest and South Peak</span><br /> +from the Island, West Rongbuk Glacier.</p> +</div> + +<p>My ultimate destination was the Island which I had +found before to command some of the most splendid and +most instructive views. I was close up under the slopes +of this little mountain before sunrise next morning. It +has rarely been my lot to experience in the course of a few +hours so much variety of expectation, of disappointment +and of hope deferred, before the issue is decided. A pall +of cloud lying like a blanket above the glacier was no good +omen after the clear weather; as the sun got up a faint +gleam on the ice encouraged me to go on; presently the +grey clouds began to move and spread in all directions until +I was enveloped and saw nothing. Suddenly the frontier +crest came out and its highest peak towering fantastically +above me; I turned about and saw to the West and North-west +the wide glacier in the sun—beyond it Gyachung Kang +and Cho-Uyo, 26,870 to 25,990 feet: but Everest remained +hidden, obscured by an impenetrable cloud. I watched +the changing shadows on the white snow and gazed helplessly +into the grey mass continually rolled up from Nepal into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> +the deep hollow beyond the glacier head. But a breeze +came up from the East; the curtain was quietly withdrawn; +Everest and the South Peak stood up against the clear blue +sky. The camera was ready and I was satisfied. A few +minutes later the great cloud rolled back and I saw no more.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Bullock had not been idle. He paid a visit +to the North cwm, more successful than mine in July, for +he reached the pass leading over into Nepal under the North-west +arête and had perfectly clear views of Chang La, of +which he brought back some valuable photos. But perhaps +an even greater satisfaction than reckoning the results of +what we both felt was a successful day was ours, when we +listened in our tents that evening at the base camp to the +growling of thunder and reflected that the fair interval +already ended had been caught and turned to good account.</p> + +<p>In snow and sleet and wind next morning, July 25, our +tents were struck. We turned our backs on the Rongbuk +Glacier and hastened along the path to Chöbuk. The valley +was somehow changed as we came down, and more agreeable +to the eye. Presently I discovered the reason. The grass +had grown on the hillside since we went up. We were +coming down to summer green.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p style="text-indent: 0;">Footnotes:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Calculated from the readings of two aneroids, allowing a correction +for the height of the camp as established later by Major Wheeler.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> The survey established the height of this peak as 22,520 feet, and +our subsequent experience suggests that aneroid barometers habitually +read too high when approaching the upper limit of their record.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> In the Rongbuk Valley there was no wood and our supply of yak dung +had to come up from Chöbuk.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> A useful coolie with experience in the Indian Army. I had used him +as second Sirdar.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XIV</h2> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%">THE EASTERN APPROACH</span></p> + +<p>The new base at Kharta established by Colonel Howard-Bury +at the end of July was well suited to meet the needs +of climbers, and no less agreeable, I believe, to all members +of the Expedition. At the moderate elevation of 12,300 feet +and in an almost ideal climate, where the air was always +warm but never hot or stuffy, where the sun shone brightly +but never fiercely, and clouds floated about the hills and +brought moisture from the South, but never too much rain, +here the body could find a delicious change when tired of +the discipline of high-living, and in a place so accessible +to traders from Nepal could easily be fed with fresh food. +But perhaps after life in the Rongbuk Valley, with hardly +a green thing to look at and too much of the endless unfriendly +stone-shoots and the ugly waste of glaciers, and even after +visions of sublime snow-beauty, a change was more needed +for the mind. It was a delight to be again in a land of +flowery meadows and trees and crops; to look into the deep +green gorge only a mile away where the Arun goes down +into Nepal was to be reminded of a rich vegetation and +teeming life, a contrast full of pleasure with Nature's +niggardliness in arid, wind-swept Tibet; and the forgotten +rustle of wind in the willows came back as a soothing sound +full of grateful memories, banishing the least thought of +disagreeable things.</p> + +<p>The Kharta base, besides, was convenient for our reconnaissance. +Below us a broad glacier stream joined the +Arun above the gorge; it was the first met with since we +had left the Rongbuk stream; it came down from the West +and therefore, presumably, from Everest. To follow it +up was an obvious plan as the next stage in our activities.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> +After four clear days for idleness and reorganisation at +Kharta we set forth again on August 2 with this object. +The valley of our glacier stream would lead us, we supposed, +to the mountain; in two days, perhaps, we should see +Chang La ahead of us. A local headman provided by the +Jongpen and entrusted with the task of leading us to +Chomolungma would show us where it might be necessary +to cross the stream and, in case the valley forked, would +ensure us against a bad mistake.</p> + +<p>The start on this day was not propitious. We had +enjoyed the sheltered ease at Kharta; the coolies were +dilatory and unwilling; the distribution of loads was +muddled; there was much discontent about rations, and +our Sirdar was no longer trusted by the men. At a village +where we stopped to buy tsampa some 3 miles up the valley +I witnessed a curious scene. As the tsampa was sold it +had to be measured. The Sirdar on his knees before a large +pile of finely ground flour was ladling it into a bag with a +disused Quaker Oats tin. Each measure-full was counted +by all the coolies standing round in a circle; they were +making sure of having their full ration. Nor was this all; +they wanted to see as part of their supplies, not only tsampa +and rice, but tea, sugar, butter, cooking fat and meat on +the Army scale. This was a new demand altogether beyond +the bargain made with them. The point, of course, had +to be clearly made, that for their so-called luxuries I must +be trusted to do my best with the surplus money (100 tankas +or thereabouts) remaining over from their allowances after +buying the flour and rice. These luxury supplies were +always somewhat of a difficulty; the coolies had been very +short of such things on the Northern side—we had no doubt +that some of the ration money had found its way into the +Sirdar's pockets. It would be possible, we hoped, to prevent +this happening again. But even so the matter was not +simple. What the coolies wanted was not always to be +bought, or at the local price it was too expensive. On this +occasion a bountiful supply of chillies solved our difficulty.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> +After too many words, and not all in the best temper, +the sight of so many of the red, bright, attractive chillies +prevailed; at length my orders were obeyed; the coolies +took up their loads and we started off again.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_222.jpg" width="332" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_222"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Pethang-tse.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>With so much dissatisfaction in the air it was necessary +for Bullock and me to drive rather than lead the party. +In a valley where there are many individual farms and +little villages, the coolies' path is well beset with pitfalls +and with gin. Without discipline the Sahib might easily +find himself at the end of a day's march with perhaps only +half his loads. It was a slow march this day; we had barely +accomplished 8 miles, when Bullock and I with the hindmost +came round a shoulder on the right bank about 4 p.m. and +found the tents pitched on a grassy shelf and looking up a +valley where a stream came in from our left. The Tibetan +headman and his Tibetan coolies who were carrying some of +our loads had evidently no intention of going further, and +after some argument I was content to make the stipulation +that if the coolies (our own as well as the Tibetans) chose +to encamp after half a day's march, they should do a +double march next day.</p> + +<p>The prospect was far from satisfactory: we were at a +valley junction of which we had heard tell, and the headman +pointed the way to the left. Here indeed was a valley, +but no glacier stream. It was a pleasant green nullah covered +with rhododendrons and juniper, but presented nothing +that one may expect of an important valley. Moreover, +so far as I could learn, there were no villages in this direction: +I had counted on reaching one that night with the intention +of buying provisions, more particularly goats and butter. +Where were we going and what should we find? The headman +announced that it would take us five more days to reach +Chomolungma: he was told that he must bring us there +in two, and so the matter was left.</p> + +<p>If the coolies behaved badly on this first day, they +certainly made up for it on the second. The bed of the +little valley which we now followed rose steeply ahead of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> +us, and the path along the hill slopes on its left bank soon +took us up beyond the rhododendrons. We came at last +for a mid-day halt to the shores of a lake. It was the first +I had seen in the neighbourhood of Everest; a little blue +lake, perhaps 600 yards long, set on a flat shelf up there +among the clouds and rocks, a sympathetic place harbouring +a wealth of little rock plants on its steep banks; and as +our present height by the aneroid was little less than 17,000 +feet, we were assured that on this Eastern side of Everest +we should find Nature in a gentler mood. But we were +not satisfied with our direction; we were going too much +to the South. Through the mists we had seen nothing to +help us. For a few moments some crags had appeared to +the left looming surprisingly big; but that was our only +peep, and it told us nothing. Perhaps from the pass ahead +of us we should have better fortune.</p> + +<p>At the Langma La when we reached it we found ourselves +to be well 4,000 feet above our camp of the previous night. +We had followed a track, but not always a smooth one, +and as we stayed in hopes of a clearing view, I began to +wonder whether the Tibetan coolies would manage to arrive +with their loads; they were notably less strong than our +Sherpas and yet had been burdened with the wet heavy +tents. Meanwhile we saw nothing above our own height. +We had hoped that once our col was crossed we should +bear more directly Westward again; but the Tibetan headman +when he came up with good news of his coolies, pointed +our way across a deep valley below us, and the direction +of his pointing was nearly due South. Everest, we imagined, +must be nearly due West of Kharta, and our direction at +the end of this second day by a rough dead reckoning would +be something like South-west. We were more than ever +mystified. Fortunately our difficulties with the coolies +seemed to be ended. Two of our own men stayed at the +pass to relieve the Tibetans of the tents and bring them +quickly on. Grumblings had subsided in friendliness, and +all marched splendidly on this day. They were undepressed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> +with the gloomy circumstance of again encamping in the +rain.</p> + +<p>In the Sahibs' tent that night there took place a long +and fragmentary conversation with the headman, our Sirdar +acting as interpreter. We gained one piece of information: +there were two Chomolungmas. It was not difficult to +guess that, if Everest were one, the other must be Makalu. +We asked to be guided to the furthest Chomolungma.</p> + +<p>The morning of August 4 was not more favourable to +our reconnaissance. We went down steeply to the valley +bed, crossed a stream and a rickety bridge, and wound on +through lovely meadows and much dwarf rhododendron +till we came to the end of a glacier and mounted by its left +bank. Towards mid-day the weather showed signs of clearing; +suddenly on our left across the glacier we saw gigantic +precipices looming through the clouds. We guessed they +must belong in some way to Makalu. We were told that +this was the first Chomolungma, while the valley we were +now following would lead us to the other. It was easy to +conclude that one valley, this one, must come up on the +North side of Makalu all the way to Everest. But we saw +no more. In a few moments the grey clouds blowing swiftly +up from below had enveloped us, rain began to fall heavily, +and when eventually we came to broad meadows above +the glaciers, where yaks were grazing and Tibetan tents +were pitched, we were content to stop. At least we should +have the advantage here of good butter and cream from +this dairy farm. There was indeed no point in going farther; +we had no desire to run our heads against the East face +of Everest; we must now wait for a view.</p> + +<p>The weather signs were decidedly more hopeful as I +looked out of our tent next morning, and we decided at +once to spend the day in some sort of reconnaissance up +the valley. Presently away at the head of it we saw the +clouds breaking about the mountain-sides. Everest itself +began to clear; the great North-east arête came out, cutting +the sky to the right; and little by little the whole Eastern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> +face was revealed to us.</p> + +<p>As I recall now our first impression of the amazing scenery +around us, I seem chiefly to remember the fresh surprise +and vivid delight which, for all we had seen before, seemed +a new sensation. Even the map of the Kama Valley, now +that we have it, may stir the imagination. Besides Everest +itself the crest of the South Peak, 28,000 feet high, and +its prodigious South-east shoulder overlook the Western +end; while Makalu, 12 miles from Everest, thrusts out +Northwards a great arm and another peak to choke the +exit; so that whereas the frontier ridge from Everest to +Makalu goes in a South-easterly direction, the Kangshung +Glacier in the main valley runs nearly due East. In this +spacious manner three of the five highest summits in the +world overlook the Kama Valley.</p> + +<p>And we now saw a scene of magnificence and splendour +even more remarkable than the facts suggest. Among +all the mountains I have seen, and, if we may judge by +photographs, all that ever have been seen, Makalu is incomparable +for its spectacular and rugged grandeur. It was +significant to us that the astonishing precipices rising above +us on the far side of the glacier as we looked across from +our camp, a terrific awe-inspiring sweep of snow-bound +rocks, were the sides not so much of an individual mountain, +but rather of a gigantic bastion or outwork defending Makalu. +At the broad head of the Kama Valley the two summits +of Everest are enclosed between the North-east arête and +the South-east arête bending round from the South Peak; +below them is a basin of tumbled ice well marked by a +number of moraines and receiving a series of tributaries +pouring down between the buttresses which support the +mountain faces in this immense cirque. Perhaps the +astonishing charm and beauty here lie in the complications +half hidden behind a mask of apparent simplicity, so that +one's eye never tires of following up the lines of the great +arêtes, of following down the arms pushed out from their +great shoulders, and of following along the broken edge<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> +of the hanging glacier covering the upper half of this Eastern +face of Everest so as to determine at one point after another +its relation with the buttresses below and with their abutments +against the rocks which it covers. But for me the +most magnificent and sublime in mountain scenery can +be made lovelier by some more tender touch; and that, too, +is added here. When all is said about Chomolungma, the +Goddess Mother of the World, and about Chomo Uri, the +Goddess of the Turquoise Mountain, I come back to the +valley, the valley bed itself, the broad pastures, where our +tents lay, where cattle grazed and where butter was made, +the little stream we followed up to the valley head, wandering +along its well-turfed banks under the high moraine, the +few rare plants, saxifrages, gentians and primulas, so well +watered there, and a soft, familiar blueness in the air which +even here may charm us. Though I bow to the goddesses +I cannot forget at their feet a gentler spirit than theirs, a +little shy perhaps, but constant in the changing winds and +variable moods of mountains and always friendly.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_226.jpg" width="500" height="333" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_226"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Summit of Makalu.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>The deviation from our intended line of approach involved +by entering the Kama Valley was not one which we were +likely to regret. In so far as our object was to follow up +a glacier to the North Col we were now on the wrong side +of a watershed. A spur of mountains continues Eastwards +from the foot of Everest's North-east arête; these were +on our right as we looked up the Kama Valley; the glacier +of our quest must lie on the far side of them. But the pursuit +of this glacier was not our sole object. We had also to +examine both the East face and North-east arête of our +mountain and determine the possibilities of attack on this +side. A plan was now made to satisfy us in all ways. We +chose as our objective a conspicuous snowy summit, Carpo-ri, +on the watershed and apparently the second to the East +from the foot of the North-east arête. Could we climb it +we should not only see over into the valley North of us and +up to Chang La itself, we hoped, but also examine, from +the point most convenient for judging the steepness of its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> +slopes, the whole of the Eastern side of Mount Everest.</p> + +<p>On August 6 the Whymper tents were taken up, and +a camp was made under a moraine at about 17,500 feet, +where a stream flows quietly through a flat space before +plunging steeply down into the valley. In this sheltered +spot we bid defiance to the usual snowstorm of the afternoon; +perhaps as night came on and snow was still falling we +were vaguely disquieted, but we refused to believe in anything +worse than the heavens' passing spite, and before we put +out our candles the weather cleared. We went out into +the keen air; it was a night of early moons. Mounting a +little rise of stones and faintly crunching under our feet +the granular atoms of fresh fallen snow we were already +aware of some unusual loveliness in the moment and the +scenes. We were not kept waiting for the supreme effects; +the curtain was withdrawn. Rising from the bright mists +Mount Everest above us was immanent, vast, incalculable—no +fleeting apparition of elusive dream-form: nothing could +have been more set and permanent, stedfast like Keats's +star, “in lone splendour hung aloft the night,” a watcher +of all the nights, diffusing, it seemed universally, an exalted +radiance.</p> + +<p>It is the property of all that is most sublime in mountain +scenery to be uniquely splendid, or at least to seem so, and +it is commonly the fate of the sublime in this sort very soon +to be mixed with what is trivial. Not infrequently we had +experience of wonderful moments; it is always exciting +to spend a night under the stars. And such a situation +may be arranged quite comfortably; lying with his head +but just within the tent a man has but to stir in his sleep +to see, at all events, half the starry sky. Then perhaps +thoughts come tumbling from the heavens and slip in at +the tent-door; his dozing is an ecstasy: until, at length, +the alarm-watch sounds; and after?… Mean considerations +din it all away, all that delight. On the morning +of August 7 the trivial, with us, preponderated. Something +more than the usual inertia reigned in our frozen camp<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> +at 2 a.m. The cook was feeling unwell; the coolies prolonged +their minutes of grace after the warning shout, dallied +with the thought of meeting the cold air, procrastinated, +drew the blankets more closely round them, and—snored +once more. An expedition over the snow to the outlying +tents by a half-clad Sahib, who expects to enjoy at least +the advantage of withdrawing himself at the last moment +from the friendly down-bag, is calculated to disturb the +recumbency of others; and a kick-off in this manner to +the day's work is at all events exhilarating. The task of +extricating our frozen belongings, where they lay and ought +not to have lain, was performed with alacrity if not with +zeal; feet did not loiter over slippery boulders as we mounted +the moraine, and in spite of the half-hour lost, or gained, +we were well up by sunrise. Even before the first glimmer +of dawn the snow-mantled, slumbering monsters around +us had been somehow touched to life by a faint blue light +showing their form and presence—a light that changed +as the day grew to a pale yellow on Everest and then to a +bright blue-grey before it flamed all golden as the sun hit +the summit and the shadow crept perceptibly down the +slope until the whole mountain stood bare and splendid +in the morning glory. With some premonition of what +was in store for us we had already halted to enjoy the scene, +and I was able to observe exactly how the various ridges +and summits caught the sun. It was remarkable that while +Everest was never, for a moment, pink, Makalu was tinged +with the redder shades, and the colour of the sky in that +direction was a livid Chinese blue red-flushed. Its bearing +from us was about South-east by South, and its distance +nearly twice that of Everest, which lay chiefly to the South-west.</p> + +<p>The first crux of the expedition before us would evidently +be the ascent of a steep wall up to the conspicuous col lying +East of our mountain. The least laborious way was offered +by an outcrop of rocks. The obstacle looked decidedly +formidable and the coolies had little or no experience of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> +rock-climbing. But it proved a pleasure reminiscent of +many good moments once again to be grasping firm granite +and to be encouraging novices to tread delicately by throwing +down an occasional stone to remind them of the perils of +clumsy movements. The coolies, as usual, were apt pupils, +and after agreeable exertions and one gymnastic performance +we all reached the col at 9 a.m. with no bleeding scalps.</p> + +<p>We had already by this hour taken time to observe +the great Eastern face of Mount Everest, and more particularly +the lower edge of the hanging glacier; it required but little +further gazing to be convinced—to know that almost everywhere +the rocks below must be exposed to ice falling from +this glacier; that if, elsewhere, it might be possible to climb +up, the performance would be too arduous, would take +too much time and would lead to no convenient platform; +that, in short, other men, less wise, might attempt this +way if they would, but, emphatically, it was not for us.</p> + +<p>Our interest was rather in the other direction. We had +now gained the watershed. Below us on the far side was +a glacier flowing East, and beyond it two important rock +peaks, which we at once suspected must be two triangulated +points each above 23,000 feet. Was this at last the valley +observed so long ago from the hill above Shiling, more +than 50 miles away, to point up towards the gap between +Changtse and Everest? As yet we could not say. The +head of the glacier was out of sight behind the Northern +slopes of our mountain. We must ascend further, probably +to its summit, to satisfy our curiosity—to see, we hoped, +Changtse and its relation to this glacier, and perhaps the +Chang La of our quest.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_230.jpg" width="600" height="353" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_230"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">South-east Ridge of Mount Everest</span><br /> +from above the 20,000 foot camp, Kharta Valley.</p> +</div> + +<p>The task before us was not one which had suggested +from a distant view any serious difficulties. The angle of +sight from our breakfast-place on the col to the next white +summit West of us was certainly not very steep. But no +continuous ridge would lead us upwards. The East face +in front of us and the South face to our left presented two +bands of fortification, crowned each by a flat emplacement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> +receding a considerable distance, before the final cone. We +knew already that the snow's surface, despite a thin crust, +could not hold us, and counted on snow-shoes to save labour +at the gentler angles. But the escarpments in front of us +were imposing. The first yielded to a frontal attack pushed +home with a proper after-breakfast vigour. The second +when we reached it was a more formidable obstacle. The +steepness of the Eastern slope was undeniable and forbidding +and the edge of its junction with the South side was defined +by a cornice. On that side, however, lay the only hope.</p> + +<p>We had first to traverse a broad gully. The powdery +snow lay deep; we hesitated on the brink. Here, if anywhere, +the unmelted powdery substance was likely to +avalanche. Confidence was restored in sufficient measure +by contemplating an island of rock. Here lay a solution. +By the aid of its sound anchorage the party was secured +across the dangerous passage. With his rope adequately +belayed by a coolie, though the manner was hardly professional, +the leader hewed at the cornice above his head, +fixed a fist-and-axe hold in the crest and struggled over. +Such performances are not accomplished at heights above +20,000 feet without the feeling that something has been +done. Appearances suggested the necessity of establishing +the whole party firmly above the cornice before proceeding +many steps upward, and the first man had the diversion +of observing at his leisure the ungraceful attitudes and +explosive grunts of men strong indeed, but unaccustomed +to meet this kind of obstacle. But with the usual menace +of clouds, which even now were filling the head of the Kama +Valley, it was no season for delay; and it was no place to +be treated lightly. The angle was quite as steep as we +liked; on the slopes to our left again we should evidently +be exposed to the danger of an avalanche. It was necessary +to avoid treading on our frail cornice and no less important +to keep near the edge. Here a foot of powdery snow masked +a disintegrated substance of loose ice. Nothing less than +a vigorous swinging blow had any other effect than to bury<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> +the pick and require a fourfold effort to pull it out again. +Luckily one or even two such blows usually sufficed to make +a firm step. But 400 feet of such work seemed an ample +quantity. If was a relief at length to reach level snow, to +don our rackets again and to follow a coolie bursting with +energy now sent first to tread a path. At 12.15 p.m. we +reached the far edge of this flat shoulder lying under the +final slopes of our mountain and at the most 500 feet below +the summit.</p> + +<p>No one without experience of the problem could guess +how difficult it may be to sit down on a perfectly flat place +with snow-shoes strapped to the feet. To squat is clearly +impossible; and if the feet are pushed out in front the +projection behind the heel tends to tilt the body backwards +so that the back is strained in the mere effort to sit without +falling. The remedy of course is to take off the snow-shoes; +but the human mountaineer after exhausting efforts is too +lazy for that at an elevation of 21,000 feet. He prefers not +to sit; he chooses to lie—in the one convenient posture +under the circumstances—flat upon his back and with +his toes and snow-shoes turned vertically upwards. On +this occasion the majority of the party without more ado +turned up their toes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_233.jpg" width="400" height="254" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_233"></a> +<p class="caption">DIAGRAM SHOWING THAT THE KHARTA GLACIER DOES NOT LEAD TO THE NORTH COL.</p> +</div> + +<p>The situation, however, was one of the greatest interest. +We were still separated from Mount Everest by a spur +at our own height turning Northwards from the foot of the +North-east arête and by the bay enclosed between this and +its continuation Eastward to which our mountain belonged. +But the distance from the North-east arête was small enough +and we were now looking almost directly up its amazing +crest. If any doubts remained at this time as to that line +of attack, they now received a <i>coup de grâce</i>. Not only was +the crest itself seen to be both sharp and steep, suggesting +an almost infinite labour, but the slopes on either hand +appeared in most places an impracticable alternative; +and leading up to the great rock towers of the North-east +shoulder, the final section, the point of a cruel sickle, appeared<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> +effectually to bar further progress should anyone have been +content to spend a week or so on the lower parts. To discern +so much required no prolonged study; to the right (North) +the country was more intricate. The summit of Changtse +was eventually revealed, as the clouds cleared off, beyond, +apparently a long way beyond, the crest of the spur in front +of us. To the extreme right, looking past the final slopes +of the white cone above us was a more elevated skyline and +below it the upper part of the glacier, the lower end of which +we had seen earlier in the day descending Eastward. But +its extreme limit was not quite visible. We had still to +ask the question as to where exactly it lay. Could this +glacier conceivably proceed in an almost level course up +to Chang La, itself? Or was it cut off much nearer to us +by the high skyline which we saw beyond it? Was it +possible, as in the second case must be, that this skyline +was continuous with the East arête of Changtse, the +whole forming the left bank of the glacier? If no answer +was absolutely certain, the probability at least was all on +one side—on the wrong side alike for our present and our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> +future plans. We could hardly doubt that the glacier-head +lay not far away under Chang La, but here near at hand +under another col; beyond this must be the glacier of our +quest, turning East, as presumably it must turn beyond +the skyline we saw now, and beyond the rock peaks which +we had observed to the North of us when first we reached the +watershed.</p> + +<p>One more effort was now required so that we might see +a little more. Chang La itself was still invisible. Might we +not see it from the summit of our mountain? And was +it not in any case an attractive summit? An examination +of the various pairs of upturned toes where the prostrate +forms were still grouped grotesquely in the snow was not +encouraging. But the most vigorous of the coolies was +with us, Nyima, a sturdy boy of eighteen, who from the very +start of the Expedition had consistently displayed a willing +spirit in every emergency. To my demand for volunteers +he responded immediately, and soon persuaded a second +coolie, Dasno, who had been going very strongly on this +day, to accompany him. As the three of us started off +the clouds suddenly boiled up from below and enveloped +us completely. A few minutes brought us to the foot of +the steepest slopes; we took off our snow-shoes and crossed +a bergschrund, wading up to our thighs. Dasno had already +had enough and fell out. But the conical shape of our +peak was just sufficiently irregular to offer a defined blunt +edge where two surfaces intersected. Even here the snow +was deep enough to be a formidable obstacle at that steep +angle; but the edge was safe from avalanches. As we +struggled on I glanced repeatedly away to the left. Presently +through a hole in the clouds all was clear for a moment +to the West; again I saw Changtse, and now my eyes +followed the line of its arête descending towards Everest +until the col itself was visible over the spur in front of us. +The view was little enough; the mere rim appeared; the +wall or the slopes below it, all that I most wanted to see, +remained hidden. We struggled on to the top, in all nearly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> +an hour's work of the most exhausting kind. The reward +was in the beauty of the spot, the faintly-defined edges of +clean snow and the convex surfaces bent slightly back from +the steepness on every side to form the most graceful summit +I have seen. To the North-east we saw clearly for a minute +down the glacier. The rest was cloud, a thin veil, but all +too much, inexorably hiding from us Changtse and Chang La.</p> + +<p>A disappointment? Perhaps. But that sort of suffering +cannot be prolonged in a mind sufficiently interested. +Possibly it is never a genuine emotion; rather an automatic +reaction after too sanguine hopes. And such hopes had +no part in our system. We counted on nothing. Days +as we found them were not seldom of the disappointing +kind; this one had been of the best, remarkably clear and +fine. If we were baffled that was no worse than we expected. +To be bewildered was all in the game. But our sensation +was something beyond bewilderment. We felt ourselves +to be foiled. We were unpleasantly stung by this slap in +the face. We had indeed solved all doubts as to the East +face and North-east arête, and had solved them quickly. +But the way to Chang La, which had seemed almost within +our grasp, had suddenly eluded us, and had escaped, how +far we could not tell. Though its actual distance from +our summit might be short, as indeed it must be, the glacier +of our quest appeared now at the end of a receding vista; +and this was all our prospect.</p> + +<p>Our next plans were made on the descent. With the +relaxation of physical effort the feeling of dazed fatigue +wears off and a mind duly strung to activity may work well +enough. The immediate object was to reach our tents +not too late to send a coolie down to the base camp the same +evening; on the following morning a reinforcement of four +men would enable us to carry down all our loads with +sufficient ease, and with no delay we should move the whole +party along the next stage back towards Langma La—and +thus save a day. The main idea was simple. It still +seemed probable that the elusive glacier drained ultimately<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> +Eastwards, in which case its waters <i>must</i> flow into the +Kharta stream; thither we had now to retrace our steps +and follow up the main valley as we had originally intended; +it might be necessary to investigate more valleys than one, +but there sooner or later a way would be found. Only, +time was short. At the earliest we could be back in the +Kharta Valley on August 9. By August 20 I reckoned +the preliminary reconnaissance should come to an end, if +we were to have sufficient time before the beginning of +September for rest and reorganisation at Kharta—and such +was the core of our plan.</p> + +<p>These projects left out of account an entirely new factor. +In the early stages of the reconnaissance I had taken careful +note of the party's health. One or two of the coolies had +quickly fallen victims to the high altitudes; but the rest +seemed steadily to grow stronger. Nothing had so much +surprised us as the rapid acclimatisation of the majority, +and the good effects, so far as they appeared, of living in +high camps. Both Bullock and myself left the Rongbuk +Valley feeling as fit as we could wish to feel. All qualms +about our health had subsided. For my part I was a +confirmed optimist, and never imagined for myself the +smallest deviation from my uniform standard of health +and strength. On August 7, as we toiled over the <ins title="nevé">névé</ins> in +the afternoon, I felt for the first time a symptom of weariness +beyond muscular fatigue and beyond the vague lassitude +of mountain-sickness. By the time we reached the moraine +I had a bad headache. In the tent at last I was tired and +shivering and there spent a fevered night. The next morning +broke with undeniable glory. A photograph of our yesterday's +conquest must be obtained. I dragged myself and +the quarter-plate camera a few steps up to the crest of the +moraine—only to find that a further peregrination of perhaps +300 yards would be necessary for my purpose: and 300 +yards was more than I could face. I was perforce content +with less interesting exposures and returned to breakfast +with the dismal knowledge that for the moment at all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> +events I was <i>hors de combat</i>. We learned a little later that +Colonel Howard-Bury had arrived the night before in our +base camp. It was easily decided to spend the day there +with him—the day I had hoped to save; after the long +dragging march down the green way, which on the ascent +had been so pleasant with butterflies and flowers, I was +obliged to spend it in bed.</p> + +<p>Three days later, on August 11, our tents were pitched +in a sheltered place well up the Kharta Valley, at a height +of about 16,500 feet. Two tributary streams had been +passed by, the first coming in from the North as being clearly +too small to be of consequence, and the second from the +South, because wherever its source might be, it could not +be far enough to the North. Ahead of us we had seen that +the valley forked; we must follow the larger stream and +then no doubt we should come soon enough to the glacier +of our quest and be able at last to determine whether it +would serve us to approach Chang La. August 12, a day +of necessary idleness after three long marches, was spent +by the coolies in collecting fuel, of which we were delighted +to observe a great abundance, rhododendron and gobar +all about us, and, only a short way down the valley, the +best we could hope for, juniper. The last march had been +too much for me, and again I was obliged to keep my bed +with a sore throat and swollen glands.</p> + +<p>It seemed certain that the next two days must provide +the climax or anticlimax of our whole reconnaissance. The +mystery must surely now be penetrated and the most +important discovery of all be made. A competition with +my companion for the honour of being first was, I hope, as +far from my thoughts as ever it had been. From the start +Bullock and I had shared the whole campaign and worked +and made our plans together, and neither for a moment had +envied the other the monopoly of a particular adventure. +Nevertheless, after all that had passed, the experience of +being left out at the finish would not be agreeable to me; +I confess that not to be in at the death after leading the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> +hunt so long was a bitter expectation. But the hunt must +not be stopped, and on the morning of August 13, from +the ungrateful comfort of my sleeping-bag, I waved farewell +to Bullock. How many days would he be absent before he +came to tell his story, and what sort of story would it be? +Would he know for certain that the way was found? or how +much longer would our doubts continue?</p> + +<p>It was impossible to stay in bed with such thoughts, +and by the middle of the morning I was sitting in the sun +to write home my dismal tale. A hint from one of the +coolies interrupted my meditations; I looked round and +now saw, to my great surprise and unfeigned delight, the +approaching figure of Major Morshead. I had long been +hoping that he might be free to join us; and he arrived at +the due moment to cheer my present solitude, to strengthen +the party, and to help us when help was greatly needed. +Moreover, he brought from Wollaston for my use a medical +dope; stimulated by the unusual act of drug-taking, or +possibly by the drug itself, I began to entertain a hope for +the morrow, a feeling incommunicably faint but distinguishably +a hope.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Bullock, though he had not started early, +had got off soon enough in the morning to pitch his tents +if all went well some hours before dark, and in all probability +at least so far up as to be within view of the glacier snout. +As the night was closing in a coolie was observed running +down the last steep sandy slope to our camp. He brought +a chit from Bullock: “I can see up the glacier ahead of +me and it ends in another high pass. I shall get to the +pass to-morrow morning if I can, and ought to see our glacier +over it. But it looks, after all, as though the most unlikely +solution is the right one and the glacier goes out into the +Rongbuk Valley.”</p> + +<p>Into the Rongbuk Valley! We had discussed the +possibility. The glacier coming in there from the East +remained unexplored. But even if we left out of account +all that was suggested by the East arête of Changtse and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> +other features of this country, there remained the unanswerable +difficulty about the stream, the little stream which we +had but just failed to cross in the afternoon of our first +expedition. How could so little water drain so large an +area of ice as must exist on this supposition?</p> + +<p>In any case we were checked again. The mystery +deepened. And though the interest might increase, the +prospect of finding a way to Chang La, with the necessary +margin of time before the end of the month, was still +receding, and, whether or no the unexpected should turn out +to be the truth, the present situation suggested the unpleasant +complication of moving our base once more somewhere +away to the North.</p> + +<p>On the following day with the gathering energy of +returning health I set forth with Morshead: we walked +in a leisurely fashion up the valley rejected by Bullock and +had the surprising good fortune of a clear sky until noon. +I soon decided that we were looking up the glacier where +we had looked down on the 7th, as Bullock too had decided +on the previous day: at the head of it was a high snow col +and beyond that the tip of Changtse. What lay between +them? If a combe existed there, as presumably it did, the +bed of it must be high: there could hardly be room, I +thought, for a very big drop on the far side of the col. +Might not this, after all, be a sufficiently good approach, +a more convenient way perhaps than to mount the glacier +from its foot, wherever that might be? The near col, so far +as I could judge, should easily be reached from this side. +Why not get to the col and find out what lay beyond it? +The time had come to abandon our object of finding the foot +of a glacier in order to follow it up; for we could more +easily come to the head of it and if necessary follow it down.</p> + +<p>I was sanguine about this new plan, which seemed to +have good prospects of success and might obviate the +difficulties and inconvenience of shifting the base (possibly +again to the Rongbuk side, which I had no desire to revisit) +and, as I still felt far from fit, I was in some hopes now<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> +that two more days would bring us to the end of our present +labours. Bullock very readily agreed to the proposal. +He brought no positive information from the col which he +had reached, though he inclined to the idea that the water +crossed at Harlung on our journey to Kharta, a moderate +stream, but perhaps too clear, might provide the solution +of our problem. A fresh bone was now thrown into our +stew. A letter arrived from Howard-Bury with an enclosure +from Wheeler, a sketch map of what he had seen more +particularly East of the Rongbuk Glacier, on which the +Eastern branch, with its Western exit, was clearly marked +where we now know it to be. It was, unfortunately, a very +rough map, professedly nothing more, and was notably +wrong in some respects about which we had accurate knowledge. +We were not yet convinced that the head of the +East Rongbuk Glacier was really situated under the slopes +of Everest, and not perhaps under the Eastern arm of +Changtse. Still, we had some more pickings to digest. +Our business was to reach the nearer pass, and I felt sure +that once we had looked over it to the other side whatever +doubts remained could be cleared up in subsequent discussion +with Wheeler. Meanwhile, I hoped, we should +have discovered one way to Chang La, and a sufficiently +good one.</p> + +<p>It took us in the sequel not two but four days to reach +the pass which was ultimately known as Lhakpa La +(Windy Gap). The story may serve as a fair illustration +of the sort of difficulty with which we had to contend. It +was arranged on the 15th that we should meet Bullock's +coolies at the divide in the valley; they were bringing down +his camp and we could all go on together: but our messenger +succeeded in collecting only half their number and much +delay was caused in waiting for the others. From here +we followed the Western stream, a stony and rather fatiguing +walk of two hours or so (unladen) up to the end of the +glacier, and then followed a moraine shelf on its left bank, +I hoped we should find an easy way round to the obvious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> +camping place we had previously observed from the Carpo-ri. +But the shelf ended abruptly on steep stony slopes, clouds +obscured our view, and after our misfortunes in the morning +we were now short of time, so that it was necessary to stay +where we were for the night. A thick layer of mist was +still lying along the valley when we woke, and we could see +nothing, but were resolved, nevertheless, to reach the col +if possible. We went up, for the best chance of a view, +to the crest of the hill above us, and followed it to the summit +(6.30 a.m.). The view was splendid, and I took some good +photographs; but the drop on the far side was more serious +than our hopes had suggested. We tried to make the best +of things by contouring and eventually halted for breakfast +on the edge of the glacier a long way North of the direct +line at 8.45 a.m. Before we went on we were again enveloped +in mist, and after stumbling across the glacier in snow-shoes +to the foot of an icefall, we turned back at 11 a.m. By that +time we were a tired party and could not have reached +the col; and even had we reached it, we should have seen +nothing. Still we felt when we found our tents again that +with all we had seen the day had not been lost, and we +determined, before renewing our attempt on Lhakpa La, +to push on the camp. There was still time to send a message +down to the Sirdar so as to get up more coolies and supplies +and move forward next day. From this higher camp we +hoped that the col might be reached at an early hour, and +in that case it would be possible for a party to cross it and +descend the glacier on the other side.</p> + +<p>The first coolies who came up in the morning brought +a message from the Sirdar to the effect that supplies were +short and he could send none up. The rations were +calculated to last for another three days, but their distribution +had been muddled. However, enough was subsequently +sent up to carry us over into the next day, though it was +necessary of course to abandon our project of a more distant +reconnaissance. Our camp was happily established in the +usual snowstorm. The weather, in fact, was not treating<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> +us kindly. Snow was falling in these days for about eight +to ten hours on the average and we were relieved at last to +see a fine morning.</p> + +<p>On August 18, with the low moon near setting, the three +of us with one coolie set forth on the most critical expedition +of our whole reconnaissance. Failure on this day must +involve us in a lamentable delay before the party could +again be brought up for the attack; at the earliest we +should be able to renew the attempt four days later, and if +in the end the way were not established here the whole +prospect of the assault in September would be in jeopardy. +We scaled the little cliff on to the glacier that morning +with the full consciousness that one way or another it was +an imperative necessity to reach the col. The first few +steps on the glacier showed us what to expect; we sank +in to our knees. The remedy was, of course, to put on +rackets—which indeed are no great encumbrance, but a +growing burden on a long march and on steep slopes most +difficult to manage. We wore them for the rest of the day +whenever we were walking on snow. About dawn the light +became difficult; a thin floating mist confused the snow +surfaces; ascents and descents were equally indistinguishable, +so that the errant foot might unexpectedly hit the slope +too soon or equally plunge down with sudden violence to +unexpected depths. Crevasses forced, or seemed to force, +us away to the right and over to the rocks of the left bank. +We were faced with one of those critical decisions which +determine success or failure. It seemed best to climb the +rocks and avoid complications in the icefall. There was +an easy way through on our left which we afterwards used; +but perhaps we did well; ours was a certain way though +long, and we had enough trudging that day; the rocks, +though covered with snow to a depth of several inches, were +not difficult, and a long traverse brought us back to the +glacier at about 8.30 a.m.</p> + +<p>Our greatest enemy as we went on was not, after all, the +deep powdery snow. The racket sank slightly below the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> +surface and carried a little snow each step as one lifted +it; the work was arduous for the first man. But at a slow +pace it was possible to plod on without undue exhaustion. +The heat was a different matter. In the glacier-furnace +the thin mist became steam, it enveloped us with a clinging +garment from which no escape was possible, and far from +being protected by it from the sun's fierce heat, we seemed +to be scorched all the more because of it. The atmosphere +was enervating to the last degree; to halt even for a few +minutes was to be almost overwhelmed by inertia, so difficult +it seemed, once the machinery had stopped and lost +momentum, to heave it into motion again. And yet we +must go on in one direction or the other or else succumb +to sheer lassitude and overpowering drowsiness. The final +slopes, about 700 feet at a fairly steep angle, undoubtedly +called for greater efforts than any hitherto required +of us.</p> + +<p>The importance of breathing hard and deeply had +impressed itself upon us again and again. I had come to +think of my own practice as a very definite and conscious +performance adopted to suit the occasion. The principles +were always the same—to time the breathing regularly +to fit the step, and to use not merely the upper part of the +lungs, but the full capacity of the breathing apparatus, +expanding and contracting not the chest only, but also the +diaphragm, and this not occasionally but with every breath +whenever the body was required to work at high pressure. +Probably no one who has not tried it would guess how difficult +it is to acquire an unconscious habit of deep breathing. +It was easy enough to set the machine going in the right +fashion; it was another task to keep it running. The +moment attention to their performance was relaxed, the lungs +too would begin to relax their efforts, and often I woke +from some day-dream with a feeling of undue fatigue, to +find the cause of my lassitude only in the lungs' laziness. The +best chance of keeping them up to their work, I found, was +to impose a rhythm primarily upon the lungs and swing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> +the legs in time with it.</p> + +<p>The practice employed for walking uphill under normal +conditions is exactly contrary, in that case the rhythm is +consciously imposed on the legs and the rest of the body +takes care of itself.</p> + +<p>During the various expeditions of our reconnaissance +I came to employ two distinct methods of working the legs +with the lungs. As soon as conscious breathing was necessary +it was my custom deliberately to inhale on one step and +exhale on the next. Later, at a higher elevation, or when +the expenditure of muscular energy became more exhausting, +I would both inhale and exhale for each step, in either case +timing the first movement of lifting the leg to synchronise +with the beginning, so to speak, of the breathing-stroke. +On this occasion as we pushed our way up towards Lhakpa +La I adopted a variation of this second method, a third +stage, pausing a minute or so for the most furious sort of +breathing after a series of steps, forty or thirty or twenty, +as the strength ebbed, in order to gain potential energy for +the next spasm of lifting efforts. Never before had our lungs +been tested quite so severely. It was well for us that these +final slopes were no steeper. It was difficult and tiring enough +as it was to prevent the rackets sliding, though without them +we could not possibly have advanced in such snow. But +happily the consequences of a slip were not likely to be +serious. We were able to struggle on without regarding +dangers, half-dazed with the heat and the glare and with +mere fatigue, occasionally encouraged by a glimpse of the +skyline above us, a clean edge of snow where the angle set +back to the pass, more often enveloped in the scorching +mist which made with the snow a continuous whiteness, +so that the smooth slope, even so near as where the foot +must be placed next, was usually indistinguishable. We +had proceeded a considerable distance and I was satisfied +with our progress, when the leader broke the monotony; +he was seen to hesitate in the act of stepping up, to topple +over and fall headlong downwards. This time he had guessed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> +wrong; his foot had hit unexpectedly against the steepening +slope. Somehow he had passed in extreme fatigue from the +physical state of stable equilibrium; he had become such a +man as you may “knock down with a feather,” and this +little misadventure had upset his balance. Mere surprise +gave him strength to stop his slide. He raised himself, +disgusted, to his feet again and after sundry gruntings the +party went on.</p> + +<p>Some little way further up Major Morshead, who was +walking last in the party, with one brief exclamation to tell +us what he intended, quietly untied the rope and remained +where he was in his steps, unable to go further.</p> + +<p>At length we found ourselves on flatter ground; the +pass was still invisible, how far ahead of us we could not +guess. Unexpectedly we came upon the brink of a crevasse. +We worked round it, vaguely wondering whether after all +our pains we were to meet with many troubles of this sort. +And then after a few more steps we were visibly on some +edge of things; we had reached the col itself.</p> + +<p>Some twenty minutes later, as we sat on the snow gazing +most intently at all that lay about us, Bullock and I were +surprised by a shout. A moment later Major Morshead +rejoined us, to the great rejoicing of all three.</p> + +<p>It was about 1.15 p.m. when the first two of us had +reached Lhakpa La; the clouds, which had been earlier +only a thin veil, rent occasionally to give us clear glimpses, +had thickened perceptibly during the last hour, so that we +had now no hope of a clear view. In a sense, despite our +early start from a high camp, we were too late. Little was +to be seen above our level. The slopes of Everest away on +our left were visible only where they impinged upon the +glacier. But we were not actually in cloud on the col. The +South-facing rocks of Changtse presented their profile, steep +and jagged, an imposing spectacle so far up as we could +see; between them and Everest we looked down on a broad +bay, the smooth surface of which was only occasionally +broken by large crevasses. The descent to it from where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> +we were could also be seen well enough, and we judged it +perfectly simple and not much more than 800 feet.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> The +East ridge of Changtse had no existence for us; we looked +across at what presumably were the splayed-out slopes +supporting it. Below them was a narrow glacier (it grew +when we crossed it to broader dimensions), shaping its +course somewhat to the West of North, joined after losing +its white snow-covering by another and cleaner glacier +coming steeply down from the left, then apparently bending +with this confluent to the right, and finally lost to view. +We could see no more; the mountain sides, which must +hem it in on the North, remained completely hidden, and +for all we had seen the exit of this glacier was still a +mystery.</p> + +<p>Another great question remained unsolved. We had +been able to make out the way across the head of the glacier +towards the wall under Chang La; and the way was easy +enough. But the wall itself, in spite of some fleeting glimpses +and partial revelations, we had never really seen. We +conjectured its height should be 500 feet or little more; +and it was probably steep. It had been impossible to found +an opinion as to whether the col were accessible. Nevertheless, +I held an opinion, however flimsy the foundations. +I had seen the rim of the col from both sides, and knew that +above it on either hand were unserrated edges. When we +added to whatever chances might be offered by the whole +extent of the wall, which was considerable, the possibilities +of finding a way to the col by the slopes of Everest to the +South or by those of Changtse to the North, I felt we had +enough in our favour. I was prepared, so to speak, to bet +my bottom dollar that a way could be found, and was resolved +that before we turned homewards this year we must get +up from the East. When I thought of the 4,000 feet on +the other side, the length combined with the difficulties, +the distance that would necessarily separate us there from +any convenient base and all the limitations in our strength,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> +I could have no reasonable doubt that here to the East lay +the best chance of success.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_246.jpg" width="600" height="385" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_246"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">North-east of Mount Everest and Chang La</span><br /> +from Lhakpa La.</p> +</div> + +<p>It remained to determine by which of two possible routes +we should reach the glacier-head between Lhakpa La and +Chang La. Presuming that Wheeler was right we could +use the old base at the foot of the Rongbuk Glacier which +was only one stage, though a very long one, from Chöbuk, +and proceed simply enough by two rough marches and one +which should be easier to a camp at the foot of the wall or +possibly to the col itself. On the East we could use as an +advanced base a place two easy marches from Kharta; +from there I reckoned one long day and two easy ones, +provided the snow were hard, to Chang La. Against this +route was the loss of height in crossing Lhakpa La; and +for it the convenience of a good encampment on stones at +20,000 feet, better than anything we might expect to find +at a similar elevation on the other side. So far the pros +and cons were evenly balanced. But there was one great +and perhaps insuperable obstacle in working from the +Rongbuk Valley. We had always found difficulties there +in obtaining an adequate supply of fuel. There is no wood +at Chöbuk or for some distance below it. A few small +bushes grow in a little patch of vegetation by the riverside +an hour higher up. But it is a very niggardly supply, and +when I thought of the larger scale of the preparations we +should now have to make, it became clear that we should +have to rely on gobar, which, besides being a more extravagant +fuel in the sense that it gives less fire for a given weight +than wood, is also difficult to get in the Rongbuk Valley, +for little enough is to be found there, and the monastery +at Chöyling is a large consumer. On the other hand, in +the Kharta Valley we were in a land of plenty. Gobar and +rhododendron were to be had within a stone's throw of our +present advanced base camp, and a little lower was an +abundance of juniper. Food supplies also were better +here; fresh vegetables and eggs, luxuries never seen on +the other side, could easily be obtained from Kharta, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> +even the sheep in this region could be praised at the expense +of the Rongbuk breed, which was incomparably skinny; +lurking in the thigh of one recently killed we had actually +discovered a nugget of fat.</p> + +<p>And presuming Wheeler were wrong? In any case we +knew enough of the country to be sure that a valley further +to the North would offer us little better than the Rongbuk +Valley, for it must be situated in the drier area unvisited +by the monsoon currents from the Arun. The conclusion +was drawn as we came down from Lhakpa La more swiftly +than the reader of these arguments might suppose. We +had now found a way to approach Chang La—not an ideal +way, because it would involve a descent, and not one that +could be used immediately; but good enough for our purpose. +If laden coolies could not be brought to the Lhakpa at +present over so much soft snow they might find the march +to their liking later; for good snow at angles not too steep +involves far less labour than rougher ground; and might +we not expect the snow to harden before long? The whole +plan of campaign had been founded upon the belief that +September would be the best month for climbing, and our +greatest efforts, some sort of an assault upon the mountain, +were timed to take place then. We must now proceed +upon the assumption that what the wise men prophesied +about the matter would come true; and they promised a +fine September. About the beginning of the month the +monsoon would come to an end; then we should have a +succession of bright, clear days to melt the snow and cold, +starry nights to freeze it hard. At worst the calm spell +would only be broken by a short anger. In September, +perhaps a fortnight hence, on these same slopes where now +we toiled we should find a solid substance beneath our feet +and an easy way.</p> + +<p>The abiding thought, therefore, after the first rush +downwards on the steep slopes below the col contained a +measure of solid satisfaction. We had now brought to an +end our preliminary reconnaissance. Ahead of us was a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> +new phase in our operations, and one which should hold in +store for us the finest adventure of all, the climax of all +reconnoitring expeditions, that advance which was to bring +us as near to the summit as our strength would take us. As +we plodded on, retracing our steps, some little satisfaction +was highly acceptable. To the tired party even descent +seemed laborious. We reached the edge of the glacier +where we had come on to it at 5.30 p.m. But the march +from there to our lower camp was both long and rough. +Major Morshead, who had not been trained with Bullock +and me to the pace of such expeditions, had kept up so far +in the gamest fashion; but he was now much exhausted. +The day ended with a series of little spurts, balancing over +the snow-sprinkled boulders along and along the valley, +in the dim misty moonlit scene, until at 2 o'clock in the +morning we reached our lower camp, twenty-three hours +after the early start.</p> + +<p>On August 20 we went down to Kharta for ten days' +rest and reorganisation. The party was gathering there +for the assault, in which all were to help to the best of their +powers. Col. Howard-Bury and Mr. Wollaston were there; +Dr. Heron came in on the following day, and a little later +Major Wheeler. A conversation with this officer, who had +been working in the Rongbuk Valley since Bullock and I +had left it, was naturally of the highest interest, and he +now confirmed what his sketch-map had suggested: that +the glacier on to which we had looked down from Lhakpa +La drained into the Rongbuk Valley. But this certain +knowledge could have no bearing on our plans; we remained +content with the way we had found and troubled our heads +no more for the present about the East Rongbuk Glacier.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p style="text-indent: 0;">Footnote:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> It turned out to be a full 1,200 feet.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XV</h2> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%">THE ASSAULT</span></p> + +<p>In the agreeable climate of Kharta we were sufficiently +occupied with the results of photography and preparations +for the future; and there was time besides for unmixed +idleness, which we knew how to appreciate. Our thoughts +turned often to the weather. Local lore confirmed our +expectations for September, and we looked each day for +signs of a change. It was arranged, in hope if not in +confidence, to move up on the first signs of improvement. +Already before we came down to Kharta our Advanced +Base Camp had been moved up; it was now situated at +about 17,300 feet on a convenient grassy plateau and only +a reasonable stage below our 20,000-foot camp, where some +light tents and stores had also been left. At these two camps +we had, in fact, left everything which we should not absolutely +require at Kharta, so that few mountaineering stores would +have to be carried forward from the Base when we came +up again. Our first task would be to supply the Advanced +Base with food and fuel, and a start had already been made +by collecting here a pile of wood, nominally thirty loads. +Transport in any case was not likely to be a difficulty in +the early stages. Local coolies could easily be hired, and +Howard-Bury was to follow us up after a short interval +with all available strength to help in every possible way.</p> + +<p>The first object which our plans must include was, of +course, to reach Chang La; by finding the way to this point +we should establish a line of attack and complete a stage +of our reconnaissance. Secondly we must aim at reaching +the North-east Shoulder. In so far as it was an object of +reconnaissance to determine whether it was possible to climb +Mount Everest, our task could never be complete until we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> +had actually climbed it; but short of that it was important +to have a view of the final stage, and could we reach the +great shoulder of the arête we should at least be in a better +position to estimate what lay between there and the summit. +Finally we saw no reason to exclude the supreme object +itself. It would involve no sacrifice of meaner ends; the +best would not interfere with the good. For if it should +turn out that the additional supplies required for a longer +campaign were more than our coolies could carry, we would +simply drop them and aim less high.</p> + +<p>In organising the assault we had first to consider how +our camps could be established, at Lhakpa La or perhaps +better beyond it at a lower elevation, at Chang La, and +finally as high as possible, somewhere under the shoulder, +we thought, at about 26,500 feet. From the camp on +Chang La we should have to carry up ten loads, each of +15 lb., which would provide tents enough, and sleeping-sacks +and food for a maximum of four Sahibs and four +coolies; sixteen coolies were allowed for this task; twelve +therefore would have to return on the day of their ascent +and sleep at Chang La, and on the assumption that they +would require an escort of Sahibs who must also sleep at +this camp, four small tents must remain there, making six +in all to be carried up to this point. The lower end of the +ladder must be so constructed as to support this weight at +the top. It was comparatively a simple matter to provide +the earlier camps. The first above the advanced base—that +at 20,000 feet—could be filled before we moved up to +sleep there, the coolies returning on the same day whenever +they carried up loads. And the same plan could be adopted +for the second at Lhakpa La; only one journey there, I +calculated, would be required before we started in force +from the 20,000-foot camp to go straight ahead without delay. +The crux would lie in the stage from Lhakpa La to Chang +La. At the most we should have twenty-three coolies, +sixteen who had been all along with the climbing party, +three whom Wheeler had partially trained, and four more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> +Sherpas, the maximum number being determined by the +supply of boots. But it would not be necessary to carry +on all the loads from Lhakpa La; and return journeys could +be made from Chang La both by those who were not to stay +there and by the twelve already mentioned who might +fetch supplies if necessary on the final day of the assault. +This plan was never executed in its later stages, and we +cannot know for certain whether it would have held good. +But it may be conjectured, in view of our experience, that +the weakest link would have broken; either an extra day +would have been spent between Lhakpa La and Chang La, +or, if we had reached Chang La according to programme +with the minimum of supplies, the coolies would not have +been brought to this point a second time and the climbing +party would have been cut off from its reserves. And, +granted the most favourable conditions for the attempt, +in asking the coolies to carry loads of 30 lb. on two consecutive +days at these high altitudes, we were probably expecting +too much of them. It must be concluded, if this opinion +is correct, that we had not enough coolies for what we +intended.</p> + +<p>On the last day of August, Bullock and I were established +once again at our Advanced Base. The weather had not +yet cleared, though it was showing some signs of change. +But it had been necessary to move up for the coolies' sake. +At Kharta, where they found little to amuse them and no +work to employ their time, they had sought diversion with +the aid of liquor and become discontented and ill-affected. +They were badly in need of a routine, which at the Advanced +Base was easily enough provided. Besides, I wanted to +be ready, and it seemed not too soon to begin carrying loads +up to the next camp. There was no occasion for hurry +in the event. We were obliged to wait nearly three weeks, +until September 19, before moving forward. The delay +served no useful purpose, the work of supplying our present +needs and providing for the future was sufficiently spread +over the long tale of days, but interspersed with more rest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> +and leisure than anyone required.</p> + +<p>In some respects life at the Advanced Base compared +favourably with our experience at other camps. The place +had a charm of its own. The short turf about us, the +boulders and little streams reminded me of Welsh hillsides; +and these high pastures were often decorated by the brilliant +blues of <i>Gentiana ornata</i> and by the most exquisite of +saxifrages, which, with the yellow and ochre markings on the +cream glaze of its tiny bowl, recalls the marginal ornament +on some Persian page. Whenever the weather cleared +for a few hours we saw down the valley a splendid peak in +a scene of romantic beauty, and by walking up to a stony +shoulder only 2,000 feet above us, we had amazing views of +Everest and Makalu. And it was an advantage during +these days of waiting to be a larger party, as we soon became.</p> + +<p>Bury and Wollaston, and also Raeburn whom we rejoiced +to see again, had come up on the 6th, Morshead and Wheeler +on the 11th, and for two nights Heron was of our company. +We made little excursions to keep ourselves fit, and on one +occasion enjoyed some rock-climbing. But it amused nobody +to watch the procession of clouds which precipitated sleet +by day and snow by night, and our appetite for adventure +could not be stimulated by making time pass in some +endurable fashion and counting the unhopeful signs.</p> + +<p>Under these circumstances I became more than ever +observant of the party's physical condition. I find a passage +in one of my letters written during this period of waiting +in which I boast of finding myself “still able to go up about +1,500 feet in an hour—not bad going at these altitudes”—a +reassuring statement enough but for the one word “still,” +which betrays all my anxiety. In fact there was too much +cause to be anxious. Three of our strongest coolies were +ill at this camp; others seemed to be tired more easily than +they should be. And what of the Sahibs? At least it +must be said that several of them were not looking their +best. Bullock, though he never complained, seemed no +longer to be the fit man he was at the end of July. And for my<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> +part I began to experience a certain lack of exuberance when +going up hill. I came to realise that all such efforts were unduly +exhausting; my reserve of strength had somehow diminished. +The whole machine, in fact, was running down; the days +continued to pass with their cloud and rain and snow, always +postponing our final effort to a later date and a colder season; +and with them our chances of success were slowly vanishing.</p> + +<p>When at last the weather cleared, it was evident that +the fate of our enterprise would be decided by the sun's +power to melt the snow. In a subsequent chapter I shall +have more to say about the snow's melting; it may suffice +to remark here that, before we left the Advanced Base, I +had good reason to expect that we should meet adverse +conditions, and was resolved at the same time that nothing +was to be gained by waiting. The coolies were lightly laden +up to the First Advanced Camp and sufficiently unfatigued +to proceed next day. On the 20th, therefore, leaving Bullock +to accompany Wheeler, Morshead and I set forth to get +fourteen loads up to Lhakpa La. We had one spare coolie +who carried no load, and Sanglu, who was now our acting +Sirdar, four of us in all, to break the trail for the loaded +men. Snow-shoes were not carried because there were +not enough to go round. Though our prospects of +reaching a high point on Everest were already sufficiently +dim, I intended to carry out the original plan until obliged +by circumstances to modify it; it might prove necessary +to spend an extra day in reaching Chang La, and in that +case we could perhaps afford to stop short of Lhakpa La +and establish our camp below its final slopes. But if the +strain on this first day was likely to be severe, I argued that +the coolies could rest to-morrow, and that the second journey +in frozen tracks would be easy enough. That we should +be passing the night a few hundred feet higher (at 22,500 +feet) was a relatively unimportant consideration. The +great matter was to put heart into the coolies; it would +be infinitely more encouraging to reach the crest with a +sense of complete achievement, to see the clear prospect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> +ahead and to proceed downwards on the other side.</p> + +<p>Our start at an early hour on the 20th was propitious +enough. It was the same moonlit glacier of our expedition +a month before as we made good our approach to its surface. +But the conditions were altered. For the first time since +we had come to these mountains we experienced the wonderful +delight of treading snow that is both crisp and solid. We +walked briskly over it, directly towards Mount Everest, +with all the hope such a performance might inspire. The +night was exceedingly cold and there was no untoward +delay. In less than an hour we were at the foot of the icefall. +We were determined on this occasion not to avoid it by the +rocks of the left bank, but to find a quicker way through +the tumbled ice. At first all went well. A smooth-floored +corridor took us helpfully upwards. And then, in the dim +light, we were among the crevasses. To be seriously held +up here might well be fatal to our object, and in the most +exciting kind of mountaineering adventures we had the +stimulus of this thought. We plunged into the maze and +struggled for a little time, crossing frail bridges over fantastic +depths and making steps up steep little walls, until it seemed +we were in serious trouble. One leap proposed by the leader +proved too much for some of the laden coolies and a good +deal of pushing and pulling was required to bring them over +the formidable gap. We had begun to waste time. Halted +on a sharp little crest between two monstrous chasms Morshead +and I discussed the situation, and thereafter gravely proceeded +to reconnoitre the ground to our left. In ten minutes we +came to another corridor like the first, which brought us +out above the icefall.</p> + +<p>We were well satisfied with our progress as we halted +at sunrise, and it was a pleasant change to get our feet out +of the snow and knock a little warmth into chilled toes. +But our confidence had ebbed. Even as we entered the +icefall our feet had occasionally broken the crust; as we +came out of it we were stamping a trail.</p> + +<p>Dorji Gompa, our unladen coolie, and perhaps the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> +strongest man of all, took the lead when we went on, and +plugged manfully upwards. But already the party was +showing signs of fatigue. One coolie, and then two others, +fell out and could not be induced to come further. I sent +Dorji Gompa back to bring on one of their loads. Morshead, +Sanglu and I took turns ahead and soon came to the worst +snow we had encountered anywhere. In it no firm steps +could be stamped by the leaders to save the coolies behind, +and each man in turn had to contend with the shifting +substance of fine powder. The party straggled badly. It +was necessary for some of us to press on and prove that +the goal could be reached. Many of the men were obliged +to halt at frequent intervals. But time was on our side. +Gradually the party fought its way up the final slopes. As +we approached the pass I looked back with Morshead over +the little groups along our track and saw some distance +below the last moving figure another lying huddled up on +the snow. I soon learnt the meaning of this: it was Dorji +Gompa who lay there. He had carried on not one load as +I had asked him, but two, until he had fallen there dazed +and exhausted.</p> + +<p>At length eleven loads reached the pass and two more +were only 800 feet lower. If we had not done all we set +out to do I was satisfied we had done enough. We had +established tracks to Lhakpa La which should serve us well +when they had frozen hard, and not too many loads remained +below to be brought up two days later.</p> + +<p>We now obtained a clear view of Chang La; it was +possible to make more exact calculations, and it was evident +we must modify our plans. We saw a wall of formidable +dimensions, perhaps 1,000 feet high; the surface was +unpleasantly broken by insuperable bergschrunds and the +general angle was undoubtedly steep. The slopes of Everest +to the South were out of the question, and if it were possible +to avoid a direct assault by the North side the way here +would be long, difficult and exceedingly laborious. The +wall itself offered the best chance, and I was in good hopes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> +we could get up. But it would not be work for untrained +men, and to have on the rope a number of laden coolies, +more or less mountain sick, conducted by so small a nucleus +as three Sahibs, who would also presumably be feeling the +effects of altitude, was a proposition not to be contemplated +for a moment. We must have as strong a party as possible +in the first place, simply to reach the col, and afterwards to +bring up a camp, if we were able, as a separate operation. +With this idea I selected the party. Wollaston felt that +his place of duty was not with the van; only Wheeler besides +had sufficient mountaineering experience, and it was decided +that he alone should accompany Bullock and myself on +our first attempt to reach the col. Nevertheless, it seemed +undesirable to abandon so early the hope that Bury and +Morshead would be of use to us later on; and Wollaston +clearly must start with us from the 20,000-foot camp where +all had gathered on the 20th.</p> + +<p>I had hoped we should have a full complement of coolies +on the 22nd, but when morning came it was found that +three, including two of the best men, were too ill to start. +Consequently some of the loads were rather heavier than I +intended. But all arrived safely at Lhakpa La before midday. +Visited by malicious gusts from the North-west, the pass +was cheerless and chilly; however, the rim afforded us +some protection, and we decided to pitch our tents there +rather than descend on the other side with the whole party, +a move which I felt might complicate the return. I was +not very happy about the prospects for the morrow. For +my own part I had been excessively and unaccountably +tired in coming up to the col; I observed no great sparkle +of energy or enthusiasm among my companions; Sanglu +was practically <i>hors de combat</i>; some of the coolies had with +difficulty been brought to the col and were more or less +exhausted; and many complaints of headache, even from +the best of them, were a bad sign.</p> + +<p>There was no question of bustling off before dawn on +the 23rd, but we rose early enough, as I supposed, to push<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> +on to Chang La if we were sufficiently strong. Morshead +and I in a Mummery tent had slept well and I congratulated +myself on an act of mutilation in cutting two large slits +in its roof. The rest had not fared so well, but seemed fit +enough, and the wonderful prospect from our camp at sunrise +was a cheering sight. With the coolies, however, the case +was different. Those who had been unwell overnight had +not recovered, and it was evident that only a comparatively +small number would be able to come on; eventually I +gathered ten, two men who both protested they were ill +casting lots for the last place; and of these ten it was evident +that none were unaffected by the height and several were +more seriously mountain-sick.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> Under these circumstances +it was necessary to consider which loads should be carried +on. Bury, Wollaston and Morshead suggested that they +should go back at once so as not to burden the party with +the extra weight of their belongings, and it seemed the wisest +plan that they should return. Certain stores were left behind +at Lhakpa La as reserve supplies for the climbing party. +I decided at an early hour that our best chance was to take +an easy day; after a late start and a very slow march we +pitched our tents on the open snow up towards the col.</p> + +<p>It might have been supposed that in so deep a cwm +and sheltered on three sides by steep mountain slopes, we +should find a tranquil air and the soothing, though chilly +calm of undisturbed frost. Night came clearly indeed, +but with no gentle intentions. Fierce squalls of wind visited +our tents and shook and worried them with the disagreeable +threat of tearing them away from their moorings, and then +scurried off, leaving us in wonder at the change and asking +what next to expect. It was a cold wind at an altitude of +22,000 feet, and however little one may have suffered, the +atmosphere discouraged sleep. Again I believe I was more +fortunate than my companions, but Bullock and Wheeler<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> +fared badly. Lack of sleep, since it makes one sleepy, always +discourages an early start, and hot drinks take time to +brew; in any case, it was wise to start rather late so as +to have the benefit of warm sun whenever our feet should +be obliged to linger in cold snow or ice steps. It was an +hour or so after sunrise when we left the camp and half an +hour later we were breaking the crust on the first slopes +under the wall. We had taken three coolies who were +sufficiently fit and competent, and now proceeded to use +them for the hardest work. Apart from one brief spell of +cutting when we passed the corner of a bergschrund it was +a matter of straightforward plugging, firstly slanting up +to the right on partially frozen avalanche snow and then +left in one long upward traverse to the summit. Only one +passage shortly below the col caused either anxiety or trouble; +here the snow was lying at a very steep angle and was deep +enough to be disagreeable. About 500 steps of very hard +work covered all the worst of the traverse and we were +on the col shortly before 11.30 a.m. By this time two coolies +were distinctly tired, though by no means incapable of +coming on; the third, who had been in front, was comparatively +fresh. Wheeler thought he might be good for +some further effort, but had lost all feeling in his feet. Bullock +was tired, but by sheer will power would evidently come +on—how far, one couldn't say. For my part I had had the +wonderful good fortune of sleeping tolerably well at both +high camps and now finding my best form; I supposed I +might be capable of another 2,000 feet, and there would +be no time for more. But what lay ahead of us? My eyes +had often strayed, as we came up, to the rounded edge above +the col and the final rocks below the North-east arête. If +ever we had doubted whether the arête were accessible, +it was impossible to doubt any longer. For a long way up +those easy rock and snow slopes was neither danger nor +difficulty. But at present there was wind. Even where +we stood under the lee of a little ice cliff it came in fierce +gusts at frequent intervals, blowing up the powdery snow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> +in a suffocating tourbillon. On the col beyond it was blowing +a gale. And higher was a more fearful sight. The powdery +fresh snow on the great face of Everest was being swept +along in unbroken spindrift and the very ridge where our +route lay was marked out to receive its unmitigated fury. +We could see the blown snow deflected upwards for a moment +where the wind met the ridge, only to rush violently down +in a frightful blizzard on the leeward side. To see, in fact, +was enough; the wind had settled the question; it would +have been folly to go on. Nevertheless, some little discussion +took place as to what might be possible, and we struggled +a few steps further to put the matter to the test. For a +few moments we exposed ourselves on the col to feel the +full strength of the blast, then struggled back to shelter. +Nothing more was said about pushing our assault any +further.</p> + +<p>It remained to take a final decision on the morning of +the 25th. We were evidently too weak a party to play a +waiting game at this altitude. We must either take our +camp to the col or go back. A serious objection to going +forward lay in the shortage of coolies' rations. Had the +men been fit it would not have been too much for them to +return, as I had planned, unladen to Lhakpa La and reach +Chang La again the same day. I doubted whether any two +could be found to do that now; and to subtract two was +to leave only eight, of whom two were unfit to go on, so +that six would remain to carry seven loads. However, +the distance to the col was so short that I was confident +such difficulties could be overcome one way or another.</p> + +<p>A more unpleasant consideration was the thought of +requiring a party which already felt the height too much +to sleep at least a 1,000 feet higher. We might well +find it more than we could do to get back over Lhakpa La, +and be forced to make a hungry descent down the Rongbuk +Valley. There would be no disaster in that event. The +crucial matter was the condition of the climbers. Were +we fit to push the adventure further? The situation, if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> +any one of the whole party collapsed, would be extremely +disagreeable, and all the worse if he should be one of the +Sahibs, who were none too many to look after the coolies +in case of mountaineering difficulties. Such a collapse I +judged might well be the fate of one or other of us if we +were to push our assault above Chang La to the limit of +our strength. And what more were we likely to accomplish +from a camp on Chang La? The second night had been +no less windy than the first. Soon after the weather cleared +the wind had been strong from North-west, and seemed +each day to become more violent. The only signs of a change +now pointed to no improvement, but rather to a heavy +fall of snow—by no means an improbable event according +to local lore. The arguments, in fact, were all on one side; +it would be bad heroics to take wrong risks; and fairly +facing the situation one could only admit the necessity of +retreat.</p> + +<p>It may be added that the real weakness of the party +became only too apparent in the course of our return journey +over Lhakpa La on this final day; and it must be safe to +say that none of the three climbers has ever felt a spasm of +regret about the decision to go back or a moment's doubt as +to its rightness. It was imposed upon us by circumstances +without a reasonable alternative.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p style="text-indent: 0;">Footnote:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> I use this expression to denote not a state of intermittent vomiting, +but simply one in which physical exertion exhausts the body abnormally +and causes a remarkable disinclination to further exertion.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XVI</h2> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%">WEATHER AND CONDITION OF SNOW</span></p> + +<p>Without consulting the meteorologist at Simla it is +difficult to accept assertions about the monsoon as ultimate +truth. Beyond a general, rather vague, agreement as to +what should normally be expected, opinions differ not a +little as to the measure and frequency of divergences from +the norm. And individuals who observe in one locality +more or less than they hope or expect are apt to forget +that their dearth or plenty may be elsewhere compensated +by capricious incidence. Nevertheless it seems certain +that this year's rainfall in North-east India was above the +normal both in amount and duration. “We had good rain,” +people said, and I was tempted to reply, “We had bad +snow.” Travelling through India I frequently asked questions +on this point, and almost invariably heard of an unusually +bountiful rainfall, seldom of one which was merely sufficient. +Inhabitants of Darjeeling, who have observed the hills in +the changing seasons for many years, told me that it was +almost unheard of that so much snow should fall in September +and lie so low. The general tenor of such remarks may +probably be applied to an area including not only Mount +Everest itself and the great peaks in its neighbourhood, +but also a considerable tract of country to the North. The +monsoon, according to Tibetan information, started perhaps +a little later than usual, but was still more late in coming +to an end; the Tibetans ordinarily lie with an object, +and there could be no object in deceiving us about the +weather. It may be concluded the year was abnormally +wet, though to what extent on Everest itself can hardly be +divined.</p> + +<p>During our outward journey through Sikkim we saw<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> +nothing of the high peaks. It was not until the day of our +march to Phari Dzong (May 28) that we had a clear view +of the snows, and we had then the good fortune to see +Chomolhari late in the morning. But Chomolhari and the +range to the North of it were less visited by clouds than the +peaks further South. Pawhunri, Kanchenjunga, Chomiomo +were less often visible, and even at this early season we +began to observe the usual habit of clouds to rise from the +valleys or to form about the summits at an early hour, to +be dissipated not before evening. The weather was not +necessarily bad because the peaks were veiled. When we +first saw Everest from Kampa Dzong on June 6, it was +obscured some three hours after sunrise, but the weather +seemed fine: and on two subsequent days we made the +same observation. On June 13, from the hills above Shiling, +Bullock and I were trying to make out the Everest group +through glasses for about three hours. When first we looked +in that direction, it appeared that a storm was in progress, +with dark clouds drifting up from the West; but Kanchenjunga +at the same time was a glorious sight, and all the +mountains were clear before sunset. The most splendid of +the distant views was from Ponglet on June 19: we were +up our hill half an hour after sunrise and half an hour later +there was nothing to be seen. There may have been malice +in the clouds that day. It was radiantly fine where we were; +but in the afternoon we came under the edge of a thunderstorm +which drenched the main body of the Expedition as they +were approaching Tingri; and there was a definite break +in the weather at this time.</p> + +<p>I suppose this break may be taken as the forerunner +of the monsoon on Mount Everest. Storms there may +have been before; but, generally speaking, it had been +fine over the mountains since the beginning of June, and +though the evidence is slight enough it seems probable +that Everest received little or no snow before June 20. +When first we saw it, a few days later, from the Rongbuk +Glacier, it was still comparatively black. It appeared a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> +rocky mass with a white arm to the right, some permanent +snow on the ledges and in the gullies of the face turned +Northwards in our direction and some snow again on the +high North-east arête; but with no pretensions to be a +snow-mountain, a real sugar-cake as it seemed afterwards +to become. We were lucky in having a few fine days at +the outset of our reconnaissance. The conditions then +were very different from those which obtained later. The +recent snow must have melted quickly; we found clean +ice on an East-facing slope at 21,000 feet and also at a gentler +angle on one facing West. On Ri-ring the slopes were +generally covered with snow near the crest, thinly but +sufficiently, or we should never have got up; near the +summit we found ice on both sides, North and South. It +is impossible to say up to what height one might have found +ice in June. Appearances suggested that on all but the +steepest slopes above 23,000 feet the surface was hard snow +rather than ice.</p> + +<p>It was on the day following our ascent of Ri-ring, July 6, +that we first experienced a real snowfall; and we woke +next morning to find 3 or 4 inches covering the ground. In +so far as an exact date can be ascribed to what is hardly a +single event, July 6–7 may be taken as the beginning of +the monsoon. We imagined at first that this snowfall was +an important matter, sufficient to prevent climbing at any +considerable height for several days. But from subsequent +observations we came to treat such snowfalls with a certain +degree of contempt. It was more often than not the case +during the whole of July until the date of our departure +that snow fell during the day—sometimes perhaps for a +comparatively short period between noon and sunset, not +seldom for many hours, intermittently during the day from +the middle of the morning, and continuing into the night. +But it was often so far as we were concerned a harmless +phenomenon. Snow was precipitated from clouds so thin +that they were easily penetrated by the sun's heat; it +melted where it lay, and the moisture so readily evaporated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> +that the snow had hardly stopped falling before the ground +was dry. One might suppose that a few hundred feet higher, +where the snow could be seen to lie where it fell, the effects +would be more severe; but it was remarkable after half a +day's unceasing precipitation of this fine granular snow +that one might go up early next morning, perhaps to +20,000 feet, and find no more than a thin covering of 2 or +3 inches on the stones.</p> + +<p>In saying that this sort of weather was harmless, I am +not denying that it hindered our operations; but from +the point of view merely of the climber it was remarkably +innocuous. A case in point is our ascent of Ri-ring. As +we were nearing the summit a thunderstorm gathered to +the North and dark clouds came up on every hand, threatening +a violent disturbance. I have related in an earlier chapter +how we hurried down, expecting at the least a cold unpleasant +wind and some nasty snow showers; but the air remained +calm and the temperature warm and such grains of snow +as fell were hardly remarked in our flight. A more disagreeable +experience was our first journey to the col from which +we afterwards looked into the West Cwm of Everest; we +reached the pass in the teeth of a wind which drove the +snow into our faces; but the weather had no real sting, +and the wind, though cold, seemed to touch us lightly. +Wind, in fact, was never an enemy to be feared during the +whole period of the monsoon, and snowstorms, though they +prevented more than one expedition, never turned us back. +The delays in our reconnaissance caused by bad weather +were of course considerable; we were forced to push our +camps higher than would have otherwise been necessary, +and often found ourselves hurrying after a start before dawn +in a desperate race with the clouds to reach a view-point +before the view had disappeared. And the precipitation of +snow on the glaciers forced us invariably to wear snow-shoes +on <ins title="nevé">névé</ins>, and consequently limited the numbers in our +parties.</p> + +<p>I have already alluded to a more serious snowfall which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> +took place from July 20 to 25. Another occurred during +the first days of August and another again on August 20 +and 21, when snow came down below 16,000 feet. In +September, towards the end of the monsoon, the weather +was more monotonously malicious and the snowfall tended +to be heavier; I find two heavy falls noted particularly +in my diary. But on the whole it was the habit of snow +to fall lightly. It is remarkable, when one calls to mind +such a big snowfall as may occur during the climbing season +in the Alps before the weather is resolved to be fine, how +little snow by comparison fell on any one day in the region +of Mount Everest. And perhaps in the end the slopes were +more laden by the smaller precipitations which deposited +a daily accretion.</p> + +<p>We naturally sought an answer to the interminable +query as to how much melting took place at the highest +altitudes. Melting of course was always quicker on rocks. +But even on the glaciers it was remarkably rapid whenever +the sun shone brightly, and we were more than once surprised +after a period of cloudy weather with constant snow showers +to find how much the snow had consolidated. It seemed +to us on more than one occasion that while snow had been +falling at our camps and on the lower peaks, Everest itself +must have escaped. But, generally speaking, after July 6 +the mountain was remarkably white and became increasingly +whiter, and only at the least two perfectly fine days, which +rarely came together, made any perceptible difference. +It was remarkable how little ice was ever observable on +the steep Eastern face, where one would expect to see icicles +hanging about the rocks. It is my own impression for what +it is worth, and its value I fear is small, that though snow +will melt readily enough low down, at least up to 23,000 feet +during the warmer weather even on cloudy days, at greater +altitudes, perhaps above 25,000 feet, it rarely melts even +in bright sunshine. In September this year I doubt if it +melted at all above 23,000 feet after the weather cleared. +At lower elevations the direction and angle of the slope<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> +made all the difference. After one fine day the snow on a +steep East slope had solidified to a remarkable degree at +about 20,000 feet; on a North-facing slope at a similar +elevation it had been quite unaffected; on flat surfaces +1,000 feet higher a perceptible crust had formed, but +the snow remained powdery below it as on the day when +it fell. After three and four fine days the snowy surface +of a glacier was absolutely hard at about 20,000 feet and +remained solid in the afternoon. Fifteen hundred feet +higher we were breaking a hard crust and sinking in a foot +or more. This condition may have been partly due to the +local behaviour of clouds, which were apt to cling about a +ridge overlooking the glacier and cast a shadow on this +part of it. But higher, on more open ground, we met the +same condition; and again the slopes facing North preserved +a powdery snow which never changed before it was blown +down in avalanches. Perhaps the most convincing phenomena +were the powdery snow high up on the Eastern slopes under +the North col and the snow on the Western slopes at a +similar elevation under Lhakpa La, which was hardly more +solid, while 1,000 feet lower we found excellent snow. +It is difficult to resist the conclusion that altitude is a +determining factor in the sun's power of melting. It is +possible that a line might always be drawn on any given +day above which the temperature of the air is too cold for +snow to melt where it has fallen on snow, and another to +meet the case where it covers rocks. From our all too +limited observations in June I should judge that in the +middle of summer such imaginary lines would be above the +height of Everest, but in other and cooler seasons we should +quickly find them lower and a long way below the summit.</p> + +<p>In close connection with the snow's melting we had to +consider the possibility of avalanches. Our observations +on this head were so meagre that I can only make with +the greatest diffidence a few statements about them. It is +astonishing to reflect how seldom we either saw or heard +an avalanche, or even noticed the débris of one under steep<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> +slopes which had been laden with snow. Only on two +occasions, I believe, were we confronted in practice with +the question as to whether a slope could safely be crossed. +The first was on August 7 in ascending the peak Carpo-ri, +of which I have previously made mention. The heavy +snowfall at the beginning of the month had ceased during +the night August 4–5; the following days had been warm +but cloudy, and on both there had been prolonged snow +showers of the lighter sort in the afternoon and evening. +On the night of August 6 we had hard frost at 17,500 feet, +and there was a considerable sprinkling of fresh snow on +the stones of the moraine. Between the col and the summit +we met some very steep snow slopes on the South side: +we carried no clinometer and I shall not venture to estimate +their angles of inclination. It was on this occasion, as I +have narrated, that in crossing a shallow scoop I was very +much afraid of an avalanche, but was able to choose a safe +line where we were protected and helped by an island of +rocks. The snow here was inclined to be powdery; but it +had solidified in some degree and, where we had to tread +it, adhered sufficiently to the slope so as to give one a distinct +confidence that it would not slide off wherever it might be +crossed. Above this place we were able to avoid danger +by following an edge where the snow was not so deep; but +here again I noticed with surprise the adhesion between +new snow and old. The ice below was not solid and smooth, +but frothy and rough, and easily penetrated by a strong +blow of the axe; it seemed to have been formed very quickly. +The snow showed no inclination to slide off, though it was +not of the substance in which a secure step could be made: +and I concluded that the process of assimilation between +the old surface and the new snow must proceed very rapidly +whenever the temperature was warm enough. On the final +slope, which was even steeper, more snow was lying—it +was a more powdery substance: I was able again to escape +danger on an edge dividing two faces; but it was surprising +that no avalanche had already taken place and that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> +snow contrived to stay where it was.</p> + +<p>The other occasion when we had to face and determine +the possibility of an avalanche was in traversing the slopes +to the North Col. Here our feet undoubtedly found a solid +bed to tread upon, but the substance above it was dubiously +loose. It was my conviction at the time that with axes +well driven in above us we were perfectly safe here. But +on the way down we observed a space of 5 yards or so where +the surface snow had slid away below our tracks. The +disquieting thoughts that necessarily followed this discovery +left and still leave me in some doubt as to how great a risk, +if any, we were actually taking. But it is natural to suppose +that at a higher elevation or in a cooler season, because +the snow adheres less rapidly to the slopes on which it lies, +an avalanche of new snow is more likely to occur.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><span class="smcap">Temperature</span></p> + +<p>Before attempting to draw conclusions as to the relative +chances of finding favourable conditions between one month +and another, a few words must be said about temperature.</p> + +<p>So far as the temperature of the air was concerned, we +experienced no severe cold and suffered no hardships from +first to last. I do not mean to affirm that it was always +warm. We welcomed frost at nights as one does in the +Alps. One night so early as July 18, in a camp above +19,000 feet, was exceptionally cold. At our two last camps +in September the thermometer went down to two or three +degrees below zero (Fahr.) and the wind at the final camp +made it more difficult to keep warm; with as little protection +as the coolies had, I should no doubt have shivered in my +tent. The air also seemed very cold before sunrise on +September 20, though we were walking fast; but it did not +bite the tip of my nose or ears or cause any disagreeable result. +In general it may be said that there could be no difficulty +in providing equipment against any cold we encountered. +Heat was a much more dangerous enemy, as I indicated +in describing our first ascent to Lhakpa La. Personally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> +I never felt the sun's power on my head, but I felt it on +my back so early as 8 a.m. as a definite attack on my energy +and vital power, and more than once, though the sun was +not shining, in crossing a glacier late in the day I was reduced +from a state of alert activity to one of heavy lassitude.</p> + +<p>The temperature of the snow is another consideration +of very great importance. Even in July I felt the snow +to be cold in the middle of the day towards the summit +of Ri-ring, and when wearing snow-shoes in fresh snow +under 20,000 feet coolies and all felt the cold in their feet. +Later I apprehended a real danger from this source. The +coolies were encouraged to anoint their feet with whale +oil, and we avoided accident and even complaint: but I +always admired their resistance to cold. Personally, though +I am not particularly a cold-footed person, I took the +precaution of wearing two pairs of long socks which were +both new and thick, and a third from which, unfortunately, +the toes had to be amputated owing to the timid miscalculation +of my bootmaker: this equipment sufficed and I found +my feet perfectly warm, while one of my companions was +obliged to pull off a boot in order to restore circulation, +and the other went on with numb feet and barely escaped +frost-bite. And I must again emphasise the fact that this +was on an Eastern slope well warmed by the sun in the +middle of the morning and at an altitude no higher than +about 22,500 feet. It may readily be concluded that +forethought and care are in no respect more necessary than in +guarding against frozen feet among a large party at the highest +altitudes. And the difficulty of guarding against this danger +might well determine the limits at either end of the warmest +weather within which an assault should be launched on Everest +itself or any one of the half-dozen or so highest peaks.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><span class="smcap">The Best Season for Climbing</span></p> + +<p>It will hardly be doubtful from the whole tendency of +my preceding remarks about weather and conditions that +my opinion inclines decisively to the earlier rather than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> +the later season as offering the best chances of climbing +Mount Everest. We cannot of course assume that because +September was a bad month this year it will always be a +bad month. But supposing the monsoon were to end +punctually and a fair spell to have set in by the first day of +September—even then it appears to me improbable that +the fresh snow fallen during the monsoon would sufficiently +melt near the top of the mountain two and a half months +after midsummer. As to the prospects of wind, we can +only be content with the statement that in this particular +year the wind after the end of the monsoon would alone +have defeated even the most determined attempt to reach +the summit. A wind strong enough to blow up the snow +must always, I believe, prevent an ascent. A superman +might perhaps be found, but never a party of men whose +endurance at high altitudes would warrant the risk of +exhaustion in struggling for long hours against such adverse +circumstances. For the earlier season it may be said again, +as a simple observation upon which little enough can be +built, that the appearance of the clouds before the monsoon +did not suggest wind, but rather a calm air on the summit. +What precisely the conditions may be, for instance, in May +and June, 1922, or what we ought normally to expect, cannot +be determined with certainty. Will the whole of the snow +fallen during the monsoon of 1921 have melted before the +next <ins title="moonsoon">monsoon</ins>, and if so by what date? Will the amount of +snow on the mountain be the same in June, 1922, as twelve +months before? Or will black and white appear in altered +proportions? And if the snow has melted, where will ice +be found? It might well be that under the North Col all +the steeper slopes will have lost their snow. And what of +the final arête? One conjecture seems as good as another, +and the experience of more travelled mountaineers will +suggest the most probable answer to these questions with +an instinct less fallible than mine. Nevertheless, I think it +may be said that the chances are all in favour of the earlier +season. We know, for instance, about this year that snow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> +must have melted since the last monsoon and actually was +melting fast in June, but the summer's snow does not always +melt before the winter—not this year, for instance: the +chances, therefore, of finding it melted in June are better +than those of finding it melted in September. It may be +contended that it might then have melted too much so that +a party would find ice where they would wish to find snow. +But one must prefer the lesser of two evils. Ice is far from +an insuperable obstacle on Mount Everest; almost anywhere +above Chang La crampons would overcome it: but powdery +snow, in case the snow has melted too little, is a deadly +handicap. Finally, the earlier is the warmer season with +less danger to vulnerable feet and requiring a lighter equipment.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XVII</h2> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%">THE ROUTE TO THE SUMMIT</span></p> + +<p>The reader who has carefully followed the preceding +story will hardly have failed to notice that the route which +has been chosen as the only one offering reasonable chances +of success remains still very largely a matter of speculation. +But the reconnaissance, unless it were actually to reach +the summit, was obliged to leave much unproved, and its +value must depend upon observations in various sorts and +not merely upon the practice of treading the snow and rocks. +Speculation in this case is founded upon experience of certain +phenomena and a study of the mountain's features; and +it is by relating what has been only seen with known facts +that inferences have been drawn.</p> + +<p>It may perhaps be accounted a misfortune that the +party of 1921 did not approach Chang La by the East Rongbuk +Glacier. The Lhakpa La proved a bigger obstacle than +was expected. But in conditions such as we hope to find +before the monsoon, this way would have much to recommend +it. It avoids all laborious walking on a dry glacier, and +with hard snow the walk up to the pass from the camp on +stones at 20,000 feet should not be unduly fatiguing. Still +the fact remains that the descent from the Lhakpa La on +to the East Rongbuk Glacier is not less than 1,200 feet. +Would it not be better to follow up this glacier from the +Rongbuk Valley? The absence of wood on this side need +not deter the party of 1922. For them plenty of time will +be available sufficiently to provide their base with fuel, +and the sole consideration should be the easiest line of +approach; and though no one has traversed the whole +length of the East Rongbuk Glacier, enough is known to +choose this way with confidence. Here, as on other glaciers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> +which we saw, the difficulties clearly lie below the limit of +perpetual snow, and the greater part of them were avoided +or solved by Major Wheeler, who found a practicable way +on to the middle of the glacier at about 19,000 feet, and +felt certain that the medial moraine ahead of him would +serve for an ascent and be no more arduous than the moraines +of the West Rongbuk Glacier had proved to be. The view +of this way from the Lhakpa La confirmed his opinion, and +though it may be called a speculation to choose it, whereas +the way from the East has been established by experiment, +it is a fair inference from experience to conclude that the +untraversed section of the East Rongbuk Glacier, a distance +which could be accomplished very easily in one march if all +went well, will afford a simple approach to Chang La.</p> + +<p>The Eastern wall, about 1,000 feet high, by which the +gap itself must be reached, can never be lightly esteemed. +Here reconnaissance has forged a link. But those who +reached the col were not laden with tents and stores; and +on another occasion the conditions may be different. There +may be the danger of an avalanche or the difficulty of ice. +From what we saw this year before the monsoon had brought +a heavy snowfall it is by no means improbable that ice will +be found at the end of May on the steepest slope below +Chang La. In that case much labour will be required to +hew and keep in repair a staircase, and perhaps fix a banister, +so that the laden coolies, not all of whom will be competent +ice-men, may be brought up in safety.</p> + +<p>The summit of Mount Everest is about 6,000 feet above +Chang La; the distance is something like 2½ miles and +the whole of it is unexplored. What grounds have we for +thinking that the mountaineering difficulties will not prove +insuperable, that in so far as mere climbing is concerned +the route is practicable? Two factors, generally speaking, +have to be considered: the nature of the ground and the +general angle of inclination. Where the climber is confined +to a narrow crest and can find no way to circumvent an +obstacle, a very small tower or wall, a matter of 20 feet,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span> +may bar his progress. There the general angle may be +what it likes: the important matter for him is that the +angle is too steep in a particular place. But on a mountain's +face where his choice is not limited to a strict and narrow +way, the general angle is of primary importance: if it is +sufficiently gentle, the climber will find that he may wander +almost where he will to avoid the steeper places. Long +before we reached Chang La Mr. Bullock and I were fairly +well convinced that the slope from here to the North-east +Shoulder was sufficiently gentle and that the nature of the +ill-defined ridge connecting these two points was not such +as to limit the choice of route to a narrow line. Looking up +from the North Col, we learnt nothing more about the angles. +The view, however, was not without value; it amply +confirmed our opinion as to the character of what lay ahead +of us. The ridge is not a crest; its section is a wide and +rounded angle. It is not decorated by pinnacles, it does +not rise in steps. It presents a smooth continuous way, +and whether the rocks are still covered with powdery snow, +or only slightly sprinkled and for the most part bare, the +party of 1922 should be able to go up a long way at all events +without meeting any serious obstacle. It may not prove a +perfectly simple matter actually to reach the North-east +arête above the shoulder at about 28,000 feet. The angle +becomes steeper towards this arête. But even in the last +section below it, the choice of a way should not be +inconveniently restricted. On the right of the ascending +party will be permanent snow on various sloping ledges, +an easy alternative to rocks if the snow is found in good +condition, and always offering a <ins title="détour">detour</ins> by which to avoid +an obstacle.</p> + +<p>From the North-east Shoulder to the summit of +the mountain the way is not so smooth. The rise is +only 1,000 feet in a distance of half a mile, but the first part +of the crest is distinctly jagged by several towers and the +last part is steep. Much will depend upon the possibility +of escaping from the crest to avoid the obstacles and of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> +regaining it easily. The South-east side (left going up) is +terribly steep, and it will almost certainly be out of the +question to traverse there. But the sloping snow-covered +ledges on the North-west may serve very well; the difficulty +about them is their tendency to be horizontal in direction +and to diverge from the arête where it slopes upwards, so +that a party which had followed one in preference to the +crest might find themselves cut off by a cliff running across +the face above them. But one way or another I think it +should be possible with the help of such ledges to reach the +final obstacle. The summit itself is like the thin end of a +wedge thrust up from the mass in which it is embedded. +The edge of it, with the highest point at the far end, can +only be reached from the North-east by climbing a steep +blunt edge of snow. The height of this final obstacle must +be fully 200 feet. Mr. Bullock and I examined it often +through our field-glasses, and though it did not appear +insuperable, whatever our point of view, it never looked +anything but steep.</p> + +<hr class="hr45" /> + +<p>To determine whether it is humanly possible to climb +to the summit of Mount Everest or what may be the chances +of success in such an undertaking, other factors besides +the mere mountaineering difficulties have to be considered. +It is at least probable that the obstacles presented by this +mountain could be overcome by any competent party if +they met them in the Alps. But it is a very different matter +to be confronted with such obstacles at elevations between +23,000 and 29,000 feet. We do not know that it is +physiologically possible at such high altitudes for the human +body to make the efforts required to lift itself up even on +the simplest ground. The condition of the party of 1921 +in September during the days of the Assault cannot be taken +as evidence that the feat is impossible. The long periods +spent in high camps and the tax of many exhausting +expeditions had undoubtedly reduced the physical efficiency<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> +of Sahibs and coolies alike. The party of 1922, on the other +hand, will presumably choose for their attempt a time when +the climbers are at the top of their form and their powers +will depend on the extent of their adaptability to the condition +of high altitude. Nothing perhaps was so astonishing in +the party of reconnaissance as the rapidity with which they +became acclimatised and capable of great exertions between +18,000 and 21,000 feet. Where is the limit of this process? +Will the multiplication of red corpuscles continue so that +men may become acclimatised much higher? There is +evidence enough to show that they may exist comfortably +enough, eating and digesting hearty meals and retaining a +feeling of vitality and energy up to 23,000 feet. It may be +that, after two or three days quietly spent at this height, +the body would sufficiently adjust itself to endure the still +greater difference from normal atmospheric pressure 6,000 feet +higher. At all events, a practical test can alone provide the +proof in such a case. Experiments carried out in a laboratory +by putting a man into a sealed chamber and reducing the +pressure say to half an atmosphere, valuable as they may +be when related to the experiences of airmen, can establish +nothing for mountaineers; for they leave out of account +the all-important physiological factor of acclimatisation. +But in any case it is to be expected that efforts above +23,000 feet will be more exhausting than those at lower +elevations; and it may well be that the nature of the ground +will turn the scale against the climber. For him it is all +important that he should be able to breathe regularly, the +demand upon his lungs along the final arête cannot fail to +be a terrible strain, and anything like a tussle up some steep +obstacle which would interfere with the regularity of his +breathing might prove to be an ordeal beyond his strength.</p> + +<p>As a way out of these difficulties of breathing, the use +of oxygen has often been recommended and experiments +were made by Dr. Kellas,<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> which will be continued in 1922.</p> + +<p>Even so there will remain the difficulty of establishing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> +one or perhaps two camps above Chang La (23,000 feet). +It is by no means certain that any place exists above this +point on which tents could be pitched. Perhaps the party +will manage without tents, but no great economy of weight +will be effected that way; those who sleep out at an elevation +of 25,000 or 26,000 feet will have to be bountifully provided +with warm things. Probably about fifteen, or at least +twelve loads will have to be carried up from Chang La. +It is not expected that oxygen will be available for this +purpose, and the task, whatever organisation is provided, +will be severe, possibly beyond the limits of human strength.</p> + +<p>Further, another sort of difficulty will jeopardise the +chances of success. It might be possible for two men to +struggle somehow to the summit, disregarding every other +consideration. It is a different matter to climb the mountain +as mountaineers would have it climbed. Principles, time-honoured +in the Alpine Club, must of course be respected +in the ascent of Mount Everest. The party must keep a +margin of safety. It is not to be a mad enterprise rashly +pushed on regardless of danger. The ill-considered acceptance +of any and every risk has no part in the essence of persevering +courage. A mountaineering enterprise may keep sanity and +sound judgment and remain an adventure. And of all +principles by which we hold the first is that of mutual help. +What is to be done for a man who is sick or abnormally +exhausted at these high altitudes? His companions must +see to it that he is taken down at the first opportunity and +with an adequate escort; and the obligation is the same +whether he be Sahib or coolie; if we ask a man to carry +our loads up the mountain we must care for his welfare at +need. It may be taken for granted that such need will +arise and will interfere very seriously with any organisation +however ingeniously and carefully it may be arranged.</p> + +<hr class="hr45" /> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_278.jpg" width="600" height="375" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_278"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Mount Everest</span><br /> +from the 20,000 foot camp—wind blowing snow off the mountain.</p> +</div> + +<p>In all it may be said that one factor beyond all others +is required for success. Too many chances are against the +climbers; too many contingencies may turn against them.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> +Anything like a breakdown of the transport will be fatal; +soft snow on the mountain will be an impregnable defence; +a big wind will send back the strongest; even so small a +matter as a boot fitting a shade too tight may endanger +one man's foot and involve the whole party in retreat. The +climbers must have above all things, if they are to win through, +good fortune, and the greatest good fortune of all for +mountaineers, some constant spirit of kindness in Mount +Everest itself, the forgetfulness for long enough of its more +cruel moods; for we must remember that the highest of +mountains is capable of severity, a severity so awful and so +fatal that the wiser sort of men do well to think and tremble +even on the threshold of their high endeavour.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p style="text-indent: 0;">Footnote:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> See <i>Geographical Journal.</i></p></div> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span></p> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 200%">NATURAL HISTORY</span><br /><br /> + +<span style="font-size: 125%"><span class="smcap">By</span> A. F. R. WOLLASTON</span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XVIII</h2> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%">AN EXCURSION TO NYENYAM AND LAPCHE KANG</span></p> + +<p>By a liberal interpretation of the expression “Mount +Everest” we considered it necessary to explore the +surrounding country as far as a hundred miles or more from +the mountain, East, North and South; in all directions, +that is, excepting toward the forbidden territory of Nepal. +So it happened one day in July that Major Morshead and I, +already nearly fifty miles from Everest, set out in a +South-westerly direction, he anxious to add a few hundred +square miles of new country to his map, and I intent on +animals and plants. Our way lay across the Tingri Plain +to Langkor, both names famous in the annals of Tibetan +Buddhism. The following story was told us by an old monk +in the monastery at Langkor:—</p> + +<p>Many generations ago there was born in the Indian village +of Pulahari a child named Tamba Sangay. When he grew +into a youth he became restless and dissatisfied with his +native place, so he went to visit the Lord Buddha and asked +him what he should do. The Lord Buddha told him that +he must take a stone and throw it far, and where the stone +fell there he should spend his life. So Tamba Sangay took +a rounded stone and threw it far, so that no one saw where +it fell. Many months he sought in vain until he passed +over the Hills into Tibet, and there he came to a place where, +although it was winter, was a large black space bare of snow. +The people told him that the cattle walked round and round<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> +in that space to keep it clear from snow, and in the middle +of it was a rounded stone. So Tamba Sangay knew that +the stone was his, and there he made a cell and dwelt until +he was taken on wings to Heaven. And the place is called +Langkor, which means “the cattle go round,” to this day. +The people for many miles about had heard the stone as it +came flying over the Hills from India; it made a whistling +sound like <i>Ting</i>, so the country came to be called Tingri, the +Hill of the Ting.</p> + +<p>We visited the Langkor monastery and saw the casket +in which the stone of Tamba Sangay is kept, only to be opened +once a year by a high dignitary from Lhasa. Close by +was a fair-sized river, the bridge over which had been +carried away by a recent flood. The greater part of the +population was busily engaged in repairing the bridge, to the +accompaniment at frequent intervals of hideous blasts on a +large conch-shell: this, we were told, was to keep the rain +away and stop the floods. Rain fell heavily in spite of the +noise, but the bridge was finished before nightfall.</p> + +<p>On the following day we had a long pull of many miles +up to the Thung La, a pass of 18,000 feet, from which we +had hoped for fine views over the surrounding country. A +driving storm of snow blotted out the views and covered +the ground, so that nothing was to be seen but little clumps, +a few inches high, of poppies of the most heavenly blue. +Going down the steep track beyond the pass I was stopped +by hearing the unfamiliar note of a bird, so it seemed: the +cry was almost exactly that of a female peregrine when its +eyrie has been disturbed, but coming from a labyrinth of +fallen rocks it could not be. Tracking the note from one +rock to another, I came suddenly within a few yards of a +large marmot, which sat up and waved her tail at me; she +called again and two half-grown young ones appeared close +by; then all dived into a burrow. These marmots are +larger and far less timid of mankind than the marmots of +the Alps.</p> + +<p>A few miles below the pass the valley widened into an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> +almost level bottom of half a mile or more, with steep bare +limestone hills on either side. Here and there were small +hamlets, where the inhabitants used the water of the river +to irrigate their fields of barley and of blazing golden mustard, +whose sweetness scented the valley in the sunshine. Like +most of the butter, which is made in vast quantities in +Southern Tibet, the mustard seed produces oil for monastery +lamps. At one place we came across a spring, almost a +fountain, bubbling out of the foothill, of clearest sparkling +mineral water that would be the envy of Bath or of +Marienbad; in a few yards it had become a racing stream a +dozen feet in width.</p> + +<p>Four days of leisurely walking down the valley brought +us to the village of Nyenyam, where the whole population, +a most unpleasant-looking crowd of four or five hundred +people, came out to stare at us. A few only were Tibetans; +the majority were obviously of Indian origin, calling +themselves Nepalese, but without any of the distinctive +features of that race. We had received some weeks earlier +a cordial invitation from the Jongpens of Nyenyam to visit +the place, and we were accordingly much disappointed to +find that no person of authority came out to welcome us. +A Jongpen, it should be said, is an official appointed by +the Lhasa authorities to administer a district and collect +revenues: in a place of any importance, as at Nyenyam, +there are often two, the idea being that one will keep an eye +on the other and prevent him from over-enriching himself. +We visited these worthies, whom we found dressed in priceless +Chinese silk gowns and cultivating the extreme fashion of +long nails on all their fingers, in strange contrast to the squalor +and dilapidation of their dwelling, and were annoyed to find +that they denied all knowledge of the invitation. The +bearer of the message was produced and lied manfully in +their cause; the name of Nyenyam was not, as it happened, +mentioned in our passport, and we were made to look +somewhat foolish. Finally the Jongpens said (with their +tongues in their cheeks and reminding us of a vulgar song)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> +that they were very glad to see us, but they hoped that we +would go. They then went out of their way to give us false +information about the local passes and made our prolonged +stay in the place impossible by discouraging the traders from +dealing with us.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> + +<p>Nyenyam, though more squalid and evil-smelling than +any place in my experience, is of some importance as being +the last Tibetan town before the frontier of Nepal is reached. +It is well placed on a level terrace above the junction of the +Pö Chu with an almost equally big river flowing from the +glaciers of the great mountain mass of Gosainthan. +Immediately below the town the river enters the stupendous +gorge that cuts through the heart of the Himalaya to the +more open country of Nepal, 8,000 feet below. To the West +of Nyenyam rises a great range of mountains culminating +in the beautiful peaks of Gosainthan, which we had hoped +to visit, and somewhere to the East lay the mysterious +sacred mountain of Lapche Kang. Our friends the Jongpens +assured us that there was no direct route to Lapche, that we +must go back the way by which we had come, and so on; +but we were weary of their obstructions and made up our +minds to find a way to the holy places.</p> + +<p>So far our transport animals had been the yak, or the +cross-bred ox-yak, a stronger beast; we were now going +through country where only coolies could carry loads. We +retraced our steps a few miles up the valley to a village ruled +over by a friendly woman, the widow of the late headman. +True, she demanded for the coolies an exorbitant wage, which +we cut down by about a half, but she pressed into our service +every able-bodied person in the neighbourhood, young and +old, men and women. They have a fair and simple way +of apportioning the loads. All Tibetans, men and women +alike, wear long rope-soled boots with woollen cloth tops +extending toward the knee, where they are secured by garters, +long strips of narrow woven cloth. When all the loads are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> +ready, each person takes off one garter and gives it to the +headman, who shuffles them well and in his turn hands them +over to some neutral person who knows not the ownership +of the garters. He lays one on the top of each load, and +whose garter it is must carry the load without any further +talk. It is amusing to watch the excitement in their faces +as the garters are dealt out, and to hear the shrieks of delight +of the lucky ones and the groans of the less fortunate. It +makes one feel weak and ashamed to see a small girl of +apparently no more than fourteen years shouldering a huge +tent or an unwieldy box, until one remembers that they +begin to carry almost as soon as they can walk and are +accustomed to far heavier loads than ever they carry for us.</p> + +<p>Our path led us up a steep side-valley from the Pö Chu, +ascending over a vast moraine to the foot of a small glacier +about two miles in length. Here I saw a rare sight: a +Lämmergeier (bearded vulture) came sailing down in wide +circles and settled on the ice barely a hundred paces from +us, where he began to peck at something—a dead hare +perhaps, but it was impossible to see or to approach nearer +over the crevasses. The Lämmergeier, vulture though it is, +is one of the noblest birds in flight that may be seen: hardly +a day passes in the high mountains without one or more +swooping down to look at you, sometimes so near that you +can see his beard and gleaming eye; but to see one on the +ground is rare indeed. The long-tailed aeroplane at a very +great height resembles the Lämmergeier more than any other +bird.</p> + +<p>We struggled up the glacier, inches deep in soft new +snow, crossed crevasses by means of rotten planks which +gravely offended our mountaineering sense, and came through +dense fog to our pass at its head. Here began the sacred +mountain of Lapche Kang, and on the rocks beside the pass, +and on many of the pinnacles high up above the pass as well, +were cairns of stones supporting little reed-stemmed flags +of prayers. Some of our party had brought up from below +such little flags, which they planted where their fancy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> +prompted. As we went down on the other side we came to +countless little “chortens,” miniature temples, and, where +the ground was level for a space, to long walls of stones, +each one inscribed with the universal Buddhist prayer <span class="smcap">om +mani padme hum.</span></p> + +<p>Yaks are most satisfactory beasts of burden; if their pace +is slow—it is seldom more than two miles an hour—they go +with hardly a halt, cropping a tuft of grass here and there, +until daylight fails. But the Tibetan coolie is of quite +another nature; he (or she) starts off gaily enough in the +morning, but very soon he is glad to stop for a gossip or to +alter the trim of his load, and then it is time to drink tea, and +again at every convenient halting-place more tea, not the +liquid that we are accustomed to drink, but a curious mixture +of powdered brick-tea, salt, soda and butter, of a better taste +than one would suppose. So on this occasion it was long +after noon when we had crossed the pass, and when the day +began to fade in a drenching cloud of rain, the Tibetans +found shelter in some caves, and persuaded us to camp. An +uneven space among rocks just held our tents; we dined +off the fragrant smoke of green rhododendron and soaking +juniper, and we slept (if at all) to the roar of boulders rolling +in the torrent-bed a few feet from where we lay.</p> + +<p>But it was well that we had not stumbled on in the dark. +In the morning light we walked over grassy “alps” still +yellow with sweet-scented primulas, and the steep sides of +the narrowing valley below were bright with roses, pink and +white spiræas, yellow berberis and many other flowers. +Soon it became evident that we were approaching a place of +more than ordinary holiness; every stone had its prayer-flag, +and the tops of trees, which began to appear here, were also +decorated. Great boulders were defaced with the familiar +words engraven on them in letters many feet in height. In +a little while we came to a small wooden hut filled from +floor to roof with thousands of little flags brought there by +pilgrims; the posts and lintel of the door were smeared with +dabs of butter, and the crevices of the walls were filled with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> +little bunches of fresh-cut flowers. Outside was a rude altar +made of stones from the river-bed, where a Lama was burning +incense and chanting prayers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_286.jpg" width="600" height="354" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_286"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Temple at Lapche Kang.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>We passed through the village, a tiny hamlet of a dozen +houses, and came to the celebrated temple of Lapche. A +square stone wall, about 60 yards each way, on the inner +side of which are sheds to shelter pilgrims, encloses a roughly +paved courtyard where stands the temple, a plain square +building of stone with a pagoda-like roof surmounted by a +burnished copper ornament. There is nothing remarkable +about the temple excepting the hundred and more prayer +wheels set in the wall at a convenient height for the pilgrims +to turn as they walk round the building. Inside are countless +Buddhas, the usual smell of smoky butter-lamps, and an +effigy of the saint. The whole place is dirty and dishevelled, +in the supposed care of one old woman and a monk, and +nobody would believe that this is one of the most famous +places in the country and that every year hundreds of +Buddhists from India and from all parts of Tibet make +pilgrimage to it.</p> + +<p>Mila Respa, poet and saint and (it is said) a Tibetan +incarnation of Buddha, spent his earthly life in this mountain +valley, living under rocks and in caves, where the faithful +may see his footprints even now. He seems to have been +not lacking in a sense of humour. He was walking with a +disciple on the mountain one day, when they found an old +yak's horn lying in the path. Mila Respa told the disciple +to pick it up and take it with him. The disciple refused, +saying that it was useless, and passed on without noticing +that the saint himself had picked up the horn and put it +under his cloak. Soon afterwards a mighty storm descended +on them—whether or not it was caused by the saint is not +known. He took the horn from under his cloak and crept +inside it. “Now,” said he, when he was safely sheltered +from the rain, “you see that nothing in the world is useless.”</p> + +<p>We stayed for two days at Lapche Kang, picking flowers +and enjoying the beauty of the place, in spite of the clouds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> +which swept up from the South and filled the valley from +early morning onwards. To a naturalist it was a tantalizing +place; there were many unfamiliar birds that we had not +seen in Tibet, but in such a sacred place I dared not offend +the people by taking life, and I even had some qualms in +catching butterflies. One of the prettiest sights I saw was +a wall-creeper, like a big crimson-winged moth, fluttering +over the temple buildings in search for insects.</p> + +<p>Having found Lapche Kang, where no European had +before penetrated, and having placed it on the map, our next +object was to go over the ranges Eastward to the Rongshar +Valley, the head of which had been visited by members of +the Expedition a few weeks earlier. This was accomplished +in two long days of rather confused climbing over two passes +of about 17,000 feet, crossing sundry glaciers and stumbling +over moraines, and nearly always in an impenetrable fog. +Our views of mountains were none at all, but the beauty +of the flowers at our feet was almost compensation for that. +Among many stand out two in particular, both of them +primulas. One was ivory-white, about the bigness of a +cowslip, with wide open bells and the most delicate primrose +scent: the other carried from four to six bells, each as big +as a lady's thimble, of deep azure blue and lined inside with +frosted silver.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> + +<p>As we went down the last steep slope into the Rongshar +Valley, the clouds parted for a few moments, and across the +valley and incredibly high above our heads appeared the +summit of Gauri-Sankar,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> one of the most beautiful of +Himalayan peaks, blazing in the afternoon sun. It was a +glorious vision, but it rather added to our regret for the views +of peaks that we might have seen. The next morning at +daybreak the whole mountain was clear from its foot in the +Rongshar River (10,000 feet) up through woods of pine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span> +and birch, to rhododendrons and rocks, and so by a knife-edged +ridge of ice to its glistening summit. It recalled to +me the Bietsch-horn more than any other Alpine peak, a +Bietsch-horn on the giant scale and seemingly impassable +to man.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_288.jpg" width="406" height="600" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_288"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Gauri-Sankar.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>The valley of the Rongshar, like the Nyenyam and other +valleys we had visited, though within the Tibetan border, +is really more Nepalese in character. The climate is much +damper than in Tibet, as one can see by the wisps of lichen +on the trees and the greenness of the vegetation far up the +mountain sides, especially at this season of monsoon, when +the South wind blows dense clouds of drenching moisture +through the gorges. Like those valleys the Rongshar is +sacred, which is inconvenient when the question of food +supply is pressing. The people had cattle and flocks of +goats; they would sell us an ox or a goat, but we must not +kill it within the valley, or ill-luck would come to them. +They were a friendly and good-tempered people, much given +to religion. In many places we had seen prayer wheels +worked by water, but here for the first time we saw one +driven by the wind. Though it does not do much work at +night, it probably steals a march on the water wheels in +winter, when the streams are frozen.</p> + +<p>We walked up the valley of Rongshar, which in July +should be called the Valley of Roses; on all sides were bushes, +trees almost, of the deep red single rose in bloom, and the +air was filled with the scent of them. After a journey of +about 150 miles through unknown country we came to the +village of Tazang, which had been visited by some of us +before. Thence over the Phüse La (the Pass of Small Rats) +we came into real Tibet again, and so in a few days to the +Eastern side of Mount Everest.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p style="text-indent: 0;">Footnotes:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> In fairness it must be said that this was the only occasion on which +we met with anything but help and civility from Tibetan officials.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Both of these are new species; the former has been described as +<i>Primula Buryana</i>, the latter as <i>P. Wollastonii</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Gauri-Sankar (23,440 ft.) was for many years confused with Mount +Everest, which is still misnamed Gauri-Sankar in German maps.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XIX</h2> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%">NATURAL HISTORY NOTES</span></p> + +<p>To a naturalist Tibet offers considerable difficulties: it +is true that in some places animals are so tame that they +will almost eat out of your hand; for instance, in the +Rongbuk Valley the <ins title="burrhel">burhel</ins> (wild sheep) come to the cells +of the hermits for food, and in every village the ravens and +rock-doves are as fearless as the sparrows in London. But +against this tameness must be set the Buddhist religion, +which forbids the people from taking life, so that, whereas +in most countries the native children are the best friends +of the naturalist, in Tibet we got no help from them whatever. +Also, in order to avoid giving possible offence, we +were careful to refrain from shooting in the neighbourhood +of monasteries and villages, and that was a very severe +drawback, as birds congregated principally about the cultivated +lands near villages. Another difficulty we found was +in catching small mammals, which showed the greatest +reluctance to enter our traps, whatever the bait might be. +One species only, a vole (<i>Phaiomys leucurus</i>), was trapped; +all the others were shot, and that involved a considerable +expenditure of time in waiting motionless beside burrows. +In spite of these disadvantages we made considerable +collections of mammals and birds, and we brought back a +large number of dried plants and seeds, many of which it +is hoped will live in the gardens of this country.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_290.jpg" width="324" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_290"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Lower Kama-chu.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>Crossing over the Jelep La from Sikkim into Tibet in +the latter part of May we found the country at 12,000 feet +and upwards at the height of spring. The open level spaces +were carpeted with a dark purple and yellow primula (<i>P. +gammieana</i>), a delicate little yellow flower (<i>Lloydia tibetica</i>) +and many saxifrages. The steep hillsides were ablaze<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> +with the flowers of the large rhododendrons (<i>R. thomsoni</i>, +<i>R. falconeri</i>, <i>R. aucklandi</i>) and the smaller <i>Rhododendron +campylocarpum</i>, an almost infinite variety of colours.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> A +descent through woods of pines, oaks and walnuts brought +us to the picturesque village of Richengong, in the Chumbi +Valley, where we found house-martins nesting under the +eaves of the houses. Following up the Ammo Chu, in its +lower course between 9,000 and 12,000 feet, we found the +valley gay with pink and white spiræas and cotoneasters, +red and white roses, yellow berberis, a fragrant white-flowered +bog-myrtle, anemones and white clematis. Dippers, <ins title="wag-tails">wagtails</ins> +and the white-capped redstart were the commonest +birds along the river-banks. From Yatung we made an +excursion of a few miles up the Kambu Valley, and there +found a very beautiful Enkianthus (<i>Enkianthus himalaicus</i>), +a small tree about 15 feet high, with clusters of pink and +white flowers; in the autumn the leaves turn to a deep +copper red.</p> + +<p>At about 11,000 feet is a level terrace, the plain of +Lingmatang, where the stream meanders for two or three +miles through a lovely meadow covered in the spring with +a tiny pink primula (<i>P. minutissima</i>): it looks a perfect +trout stream, but what fish there are (<i>Schizopygopsis stoliczae</i>) +are small and few in number.</p> + +<p>Between 11,000 and 13,000 feet you ascend through +mixed woods of pine, larch, birch and juniper with an +undergrowth of rhododendrons and mountain ash. The +larches here have a much less formal habit of growth than +those of this country, and in the autumn they turn to a +brilliant golden colour. The berries of the mountain ash, +when ripe, are white and very conspicuous. At this altitude +<i>Rhododendron cinnabarinum</i> reaches its best growth, in +bushes of from 8 to 10 feet in height, and the flowers have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> +a very wide range of colour. In the woods hereabouts +may often be heard and sometimes seen the blood pheasant, +and here lives also—but we did not see it—the Tibetan +stag.</p> + +<p>At about 13,000 feet at the end of May you find a yellow +primula covering the ground more thickly than cowslips in +this country; the air is laden with the scent of it, and +growing with it is a pretty little heath-like flower (<i>Cassiope +fastigiata</i>) with snow-white bells. Here and there is seen +the large blue poppy (<i>Meconopsis</i> sp.) and a white anemone +with five or six flowers on one stem. Soon the trees get +scantier and scantier, pines disappear altogether and then +birches and willows and junipers, until only dwarf rhododendrons +(<i>R. setosum</i>) are left, covering the hillsides like purple +heather.</p> + +<p>In a few miles the country changes in character +completely, and you come out on to the open plain of Phari. +Here at 14,000 feet we saw the common cuckoo sitting on +a telegraph wire and calling vigorously. This is Tibet +proper, and henceforward you may travel for scores of miles +and hardly see any plant more than a few inches high. In +some places a little trumpet-shaped purple flower (<i>Incarvillea +younghusbandii</i>) is fairly common, it lies prone on the sand +with its leaves usually buried out of sight; and as we went +Westward we found a dwarf blue iris (<i>I. tenuifolia</i>). Animals +are few and far between: the Kiang, the wild ass of Tibet, +is occasionally seen in small parties; they are very +conspicuous on the open plains in full daylight, but almost +invisible at dusk. The Tibetan gazelle is fairly numerous, +and it is not uncommon to see one or two in company with +a flock of native sheep and taking no notice of the shepherd, +but when a stranger tries to approach they are off like a +flash. Another animal of the plains is the Tibetan antelope +(<i>Pantholops</i>), which is found in large numbers a little to the +North of the region we visited, but the only signs of it we +saw were the horns used as supporting prongs for the long +muzzle-loading guns of the Tibetans. The Tibetan antelope<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> +was probably the Unicorn described by the French priest +Huc in 1845.</p> + +<p>The only mammals that are commonly seen on the plains +are the small mouse-hares or pikas (<i>Ochotona</i>), which live +in colonies on the less stony parts of the plain, where their +burrows often caused our ponies to stumble; they scurry +off to their holes at your approach, but if you wait a few +moments you will see heads peeping out at you from all +sides. These engaging little creatures have been called +“Whistling Hares,” but of the three species which we found +none was ever heard to utter a sound of any kind. The +Tibetan name for them is Phüse. It is interesting to record +that from one specimen I took three fleas of two species, +both of them new to science.</p> + +<p>Birds are few on these stony wastes, larks, wheatears +and snow-finches being the commonest. Elwes' shore-lark +was found feeding young birds at the beginning of June, +when the ground was not yet free from snow, and the song +of the Tibetan skylark, remarkably like that of our own +skylark, was heard over every patch of native cultivation.</p> + +<p>A small spiny lizard (<i>Phrynocephalus theobaldi</i>) is common +on the plains and on the lower hills up to 17,000 feet; it +lives in shallow burrows on the sand and under stones.</p> + +<p>Rising out of the plain North of the Himalayas are +ranges of rounded limestone hills, 18,000 to 19,000 feet high, +running roughly East and West. The hills between Phari +and Khamba Dzong are the home of the big sheep (<i>Ovis +hodgsoni</i>), which are occasionally seen in small companies. +There are many ranges to the West of Khamba Dzong, +apparently well suited to this animal, but it was never seen. +On the slopes of these hills are found partridges (<i>Perdix +hodgsoniæ</i>), and in the ravines are seen Alpine choughs, +rock-doves (<i>Columba rupestris</i>) and crag-martins. Once or +twice at night we heard the shriek of the great eagle-owl, +but the bird was not seen.</p> + +<p>At rare intervals on these plains one meets with small +rivers, tributaries of the Arun River; along their banks is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> +usually more grass than elsewhere, and here the wandering +Tibetan herdsmen bring their yaks to graze. The wild yak +is not found anywhere in this region. It might be supposed +that so hairy an animal as the yak would become dirty +and unkempt. Actually they are among the cleanest of +creatures, and they may often be seen scraping holes in soft +banks where they roll and kick and comb themselves into +silky condition. The usual colour of the domesticated yak +is black, more rarely a yellowish brown. A common variety +has a white face and white tail. The calves are born in +the spring, late April or early May.</p> + +<p>Here and there the rivers overflow their banks and form +lakes or meres, which in the summer are the haunt of +innumerable wild-fowl: bar-headed geese and redshanks +nest here, families of ruddy shelducks (the Brahminy duck +of India) and garganey teal are seen swimming on the pools. +Overhead fly sand-martins, brown-headed gulls, common +terns and white-tailed eagles. Near one of these lakes one +day I watched at close distance a red fox stalking a pair +of bar-headed geese, a most interesting sight, and had the +satisfaction of saving the birds by firing a shot in the air +with my small collecting gun just as the fox was about to +pounce on his intended victim.</p> + +<p>Tinki Dzong is a veritable bird sanctuary. The Dzong +itself is a rambling fort covering a dozen or so of acres, and +about its walls nest hundreds of birds—ravens, magpies, +red-billed choughs, tree-sparrows, hoopoes, Indian redstarts, +Hodgson's pied wagtails and rock-doves. In the shallow +pool outside the Dzong were swimming bar-headed geese +and ruddy shelducks, with families of young birds, all as +tame as domestic poultry. A pair of white storks was seen +here in June, but they did not appear to be breeding. In +the autumn the lakes in this neighbourhood are the resort of +large packs of <ins title="widgeon">wigeon</ins>, gadwall and pochard. The Jongpen +explained to us that it was the particular wish of the Dalai +Lama that no birds should be molested here, and for several +years two lamas lived at Tinki, whose special business it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span> +was to protect the birds.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_294.jpg" width="342" height="500" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_294"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Junipers in the Kama Valley.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>Crossing over a pass of about 17,000 feet (Tinki La), +the slopes gay with a little purple and white daphne (<i>Stellera</i>), +said by the natives to be poisonous to animals, we came to +a plain of a different character, miles of blown sand heaped +here and there into enormous dunes, on which grows a yellow-flowering +gorse. Here, near Chushar, we first met with +rose-finches (Severtzoff's and Przjewalsk's) and the brown +ground-chough (<i>Podoces humilis</i>): the last-named is a +remarkable-looking bird, which progresses by a series of +apparently top-heavy bounds, at the end of which it turns +round to steady itself; in the middle of June it was feeding +its young in nests at the bottom of deep holes in sand or old +mud walls.</p> + +<p>Following up the valley of the Bhong-chu we crossed +the river by a stone bridge near Shekar Dzong. Here we +found a colony of white-rumped swifts nesting high up in +cliffs and ruddy shelducks nesting in holes among the loose +boulders below. Occasionally we saw a pair of black-necked +cranes, which are said by the natives to breed near lakes +a little to the North, but we had no opportunity of visiting +them. The slopes of the hills facing South were covered +with a very pretty shrub (<i>Sophora</i>) with blue and white +flowers and delicate silvery grey leaves, and among the loose +stones a small clematis (<i>C. orientalis</i>) was just beginning to +appear. Groups of small trees, like a sea buckthorn, growing +15 to 20 feet high, indicate a gradual change in the climate +as you go Westwards. Here also for the first time we began +to find a few butterflies, of the genera <i>Lycæna</i> and <i>Colias</i>.</p> + +<p>At Tingri we found ourselves in a large plain about 20 miles +long by 12 wide; a large part of the plain is saturated with +soda and is almost uninhabited by bird or beast. In our three +weeks' stay at Tingri we collected several mammals, including +a new subspecies of hamster (<i>Cricetulus alticola tibetanus</i>) +and a number of birds. This was the only place where we +ever received any natural history specimen from a Tibetan. +A woman came into our camp one day and, after making<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span> +certain that she was not observed by any of the villagers, +produced from a sack a well-worn domestic cat's skin stuffed +with grass and a freshly killed stoat (<i>Mustela longstaffi</i>). +The skin of the stoat is highly prized by the Tibetans, who +say that it has the property of restoring faded turquoises +to their former beauty. About the houses of the village +were nesting tree-sparrows, hoopoes, rock-doves and ravens, +the latter so tame that they hardly troubled to get out of +the way of passers-by. In a tower of the old fort lived a +pair of the Eastern little owl (<i>Athene bactriana</i>), which appeared +to live principally on voles. On the plain the commonest +birds were the long-billed calandra lark, Brook's short-toed +lark, the Tibetan skylark, and Elwes' shore-lark, all of which +were found with eggs, probably the second brood of the +season, at the beginning of July. The nest of the yellow-headed +wagtail, rare at Tingri, was found with eggs, and +Blanford's snow-finch was found feeding its young more +than 2 feet down the burrow of a pika (<i>Ochotona curzoniæ</i>). +The common tern and the greater sand-plover nested on the +shingly islands in the river.</p> + +<p>Plants at Tingri were few and inconspicuous: a small +yellow cistus, the dwarf blue iris, a small aster and a curious +hairy, claret-coloured flower (<i>Thermopsis</i>) were the most noticeable. +Along the rivers which traverse the plain is very good +grazing for the large flocks of sheep and goats of the +Tibetans; the sheep are small and are grown entirely for wool. +By a simple system of irrigation a large area of land near +Tingri has been brought into cultivation. The principal +crop here is barley, which constitutes the chief food of the +people; they also grow a large radish or small turnip, the +young leaves of which are excellent food. The animals +usually used for ploughing are a cross between the yak and +ordinary domestic cattle, called by the Tibetans “zoh”; +they are more powerful than the yak and are excellent +transport animals. We found barley grown in many districts +up to 15,000 feet—it does not always ripen—and in the +valley of the Dzakar Chu near its junction with the Arun<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> +River is a small area where wheat is grown at an altitude of +about 12,800 feet. Peas are grown in the Arun Valley near +Kharta, where they ripen in September and are pounded +into meal for winter food of cattle as well as of the Tibetans +themselves. Mustard is grown in the lower valleys below +14,000 feet. It is to be regretted that we did not bring +back specimens of these hardy cereals.</p> + +<p>During the course of an excursion of about three weeks +in July to the West and South of Tingri we covered a large +tract of unexplored country, much of which is more Nepalese +than Tibetan in character. Going over the Thung La we +found numerous butterflies of the genus <i>Parnassus</i>, and +near the top of the pass (18,000 feet) we found for the first +time the beautiful little blue <i>Gentiana amœna</i>; it is not +easy to see until you are right over it, when it looks like a +little square blue china cup; some of the flowers are as +much as an inch in diameter. Here also was just beginning +to flower the dwarf blue poppy (<i>Meconopsis horridula</i>), +which grows in a small compact clump, 6 to 8 inches high, +with as many as sixteen flowers and buds on one plant; +the flowers are nearly 2 inches across and of a heavenly blue. +In this region, too, we met for the first time marmots, which +live in large colonies at about 16,000 feet; the Himalayan +is larger than the Alpine marmot, and it has a longish tail +which it whisks sharply from side to side when it is alarmed; +it has a twittering cry, curiously like that of a bird of prey.</p> + +<p>Continuing down the valley of the Pö Chu to Nyenyam, +we found several birds that we had not met hitherto, notably +the brown accentor, Himalayan tree-pipit, Adams's snowfinch, +the Himalayan greenfinch and Tickell's willow-warbler. +At about 12,500 feet we first found the white-backed dove +(<i>Columba leuconota</i>), which inhabits the deep gorges of the +Himalayas but does not extend out on to the Tibetan plain. +Beside the big torrent that flows South from Gosainthan +we saw a pair of that curious curlew-like bird, the ibis-bill +(<i>Ibidorhynchus struthersi</i>); it was evident that they had +eggs or young on an island in the torrent, at about 13,800<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span> +feet, but unfortunately it was impossible to reach it.</p> + +<p>The most conspicuous flowers in this region were a little +bushy cistus with golden flowers the size of a half-crown, +a dwarf rhododendron (<i>R. lanatum</i>) with hairy leaves, a +white potentilla with red centre, which carpeted the drier +hillsides, a white gentian (<i>G. robusta</i>), and a very remarkable +louse-wort (<i>Pedicularis megalantha</i>) with two quite distinct +forms—one purple, the other yellow.</p> + +<p>Crossing a pass to the East of Nyenyam, we camped on +a level spot covered densely with white primulas (<i>P. Buryana</i>) +six to eight inches high; an inch or two of snow fell during +the night, and so white are these flowers that it was difficult +to see them against the snow. Near the top of another +pass we found at about the same altitude, 15,000 feet, +another primula (<i>P. Wollastonii</i>) with three to six bells +on each stem, the size of a small thimble, of a deep +blue colour, and lined inside with frosted silver. In the +moister valleys hereabouts a pretty pink-flowered polygonum +(<i>P. vacciniifolium</i>) rambled everywhere over the rocks and +boulders. The Rongshar Valley in July was chiefly notable +for the large gooseberry bushes, 10 to 12 feet high, and for +the profusion of red and white roses. A wall-creeper, the +only one we saw in Tibet, was seen creeping about the temple +at Lapche, a few miles to the West of Rongshar.</p> + +<p>From the beginning of August our headquarters were +at Kharta in the Arun Valley, about 20 miles East of Mount +Everest, and from there we made excursions South to the +Kama Valley, and West up the Kharta Valley in the direction +of Everest. Kharta itself is curiously situated as regards +climate: the wide dry valley of the Arun narrows abruptly +and the river passes into a deep gorge, where it falls rapidly +at a rate of about 200 feet to the mile on its way to Nepal. +The heavy monsoon clouds roll up the gorge to its mouth, +where they are cut off sharply, so that within a mile you +may pass from the dry climate of Tibet to the moist, steamy +air of a Nepalese character, with its luxuriant vegetation.</p> + +<p>In the immediate neighbourhood of Kharta were several<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span> +birds we had not met elsewhere, notably Prince Henry's +laughing thrush (<i>Trochalopterum henrici</i>), which is very much +venerated as a sacred bird by the Tibetans, the Central +Asian blackbird, almost indistinguishable from our blackbird +except by its voice, the solitary thrush, Indian brown turtledove, +and a meadow-bunting (<i>Emberiza godlewskii</i>), probably +a migrant from the North.</p> + +<p>Several species of small gentians and two very fragrant +onosmas were flowering in August, and in this place <i>Clematis +orientalis</i> attains its best growth, clambering over the trees +and the houses of the natives; the flower of this clematis +has a very wide range of colour from an apricot yellow to +almost black. About the houses are often planted junipers +and poplars, and it was about 10 miles from Kharta that +we saw a poplar nearly 40 feet in girth, which we were informed +was five hundred years old.</p> + +<p>A few miles to the south of Kharta is a valley filled with +a dozen or so of small lakes or tarns, inhabited apparently +only by tadpoles (<i>Rana pleskei</i>); no fish could be seen. +Not far from here was discovered an interesting toad of a +new species (<i>Cophophryne alticola</i>). Growing about the +lakes were large beds of purple and yellow iris (<i>I. sibirica</i>, +near); the steeper banks were blue with a very striking +campanula (<i>Cyananthus pedunculatus</i>); growing out from +among the dwarf rhododendrons in dry places were tall +spikes of a claret-coloured meconopsis, now going to seed—some +spikes had as many as twenty seed-pods; and +in the moist places beside the lakes and streams was the +tall yellow primula (<i>P. elongata</i>), growing to a height of over +30 inches.</p> + +<p>Ascending from the lakes to the Chog La we saw a small +black rat amongst the huge boulders of a moraine; it appeared +to be a very active little animal, and though four or five +were seen at different times in similar situations we failed +to secure a specimen. Near the Chog La we found the snow-partridge +(<i>Lerwa lerwa</i>), and one was shot out of a flock of +very beautiful blue birds—Hodgson's grandala. Another<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> +very handsome bird in this region is the red-breasted rose-finch, +which is found up to 18,000 feet. Descending from +the Chog La towards the Kama Valley we found at 16,000 +feet the giant rhubarb (<i>Rheum nobile</i>), and at 14,000 feet +we picked quantities of the wild edible rhubarb. A little +lower down we came to large blue scabius, 3 to 4 feet high, +a dark blue monkshood and quantities of the tall yellow +poppy. Rhododendrons, birches and junipers begin at +about 13,500 feet, and at 12,000 feet the junipers are the +predominating tree; they are of immense size, upwards of +20 feet in girth and from 120 to 150 feet in height and of +a very even and perfect growth. Here we met with the +Sikkim black tit (<i>Parus beavani</i>), and a little lower down +among the firs (<i>Abies webbiana</i>) we came upon bullfinches +(<i>Pyrrhula erythrocephala</i>). At 11,000 feet I saw a langur +monkey (<i>Semnopithecus entellus</i>), the only monkey I saw +in Tibet. Excepting one solitary bat, the only other mammal +we saw in this valley was another species of pika (<i>Ochotona +roylei nepalensis</i>), which appears here to be confined to a +zone between the altitudes of 12,000 and 14,000 feet; it +is not found in dry valleys.</p> + +<p>Among the trees in the lower Kama Valley grow many +parnassias, a tall green fritillaria, a handsome red swertia +and a very sweet-scented pink orchis. We found the tubers +(but not the flowers) of an arum, which the Tibetans collect +and make of it a very unpalatable bread. We went down +through large rhododendrons, magnolias, bamboos, alders, +sycamores, all draped in long wisps of lichen (<i>Usnea</i>), to the +junction of the Kama with the Arun River, where we found +ourselves in the region of the blue pine. The lower part +of the Kama Valley is unpleasantly full of leeches, and in +the course of an excursion to the Popti La (14,000 feet), +one of the principal passes from Tibet to Sikkim, we were +astonished to find them very numerous and active at an +altitude of 12,000 feet. At our low-altitude camps in this +valley hundreds of moths were attracted by the light of our +camp fire, and a few came to the dim candle lamps in our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span> +tents. A collector who came here with a proper equipment +could not fail to make a large collection of moths.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_300.jpg" width="386" height="600" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_300"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Forest in the Kama Valley.</span></p> +</div> + +<p>Proceeding up the Kharta Valley in the beginning of +September we found that most of the roses and rhododendrons +had gone to seed, but some of the gentians, particularly +<i>Gentiana ornata</i>, were at their best. Near our camp at +17,000 feet, along the edges of streams, a very handsome +gentian (<i>G. nubigena</i>) with half a dozen flowers growing on +a single stem was very conspicuous, and growing with it +was an aromatic little purple and yellow aster (<i>A. heterochæta</i>); +in the same place was a bright yellow senecio (<i>S. +arnicoides</i>) with shining, glossy leaves. A curious dark blue +dead-nettle (<i>Dracocephalum speciosum</i>) was found on dry +ground at the same altitude. In the stony places grew up +to 19,000 feet the dwarf blue meconopsis mentioned above, +and many saxifrages, notably a very small white one (<i>S. +umbellulata</i>). On the steeper rocks from 16,000 feet to the +snow-line (roughly 20,000 feet) were found edelweiss (<i>Leontopodium</i>) +of three species. Very noticeable at these altitudes +are the curious saussureas, large composites packed with +cotton wool; if you open one of them on the coldest day, +even when it is covered with snow, you find it quite warm +inside, and often a bumble bee will come buzzing out.</p> + +<p>Another very interesting plant at 17,000 to 18,000 feet +is a dwarf blue hairy delphinium (<i>D. brunnoneanum</i>) with +a strong smell. The Tibetans dry the flowers of this plant +and use them as a preventive against lice. This has its +disadvantages, for when a Tibetan dies his body is undertaken +by the professional butcher, who cuts it up and exposes it +on the hills to be disposed of by the vultures and wolves. +A body tainted with the delphinium flowers is unpalatable +to the scavengers, and it is known that a man must have +been wicked in life whose body is rejected by the vultures +and wolves.</p> + +<p>The smallest rhododendrons (<i>R. setosum</i> and <i>R. lepidotum</i>) +disappear before 19,000 feet, after which vegetation is almost +non-existent. A few grasses and mosses are still found to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> +20,000 feet, and the highest plant we found was a small +arenaria (<i>A. musciformis</i>), which grows in flat cushions a +few inches wide up to 20,100 feet.</p> + +<p>Mammals in the upper Kharta Valley are not numerous. +A pika of a new species (<i>Ochotona wollastoni</i>) is found from +15,000 to 20,000 feet, and a new vole (<i>Phaiomys everesti</i>) +was found at 17,000 feet. The small black rat previously +seen was here too, and an unseen mouse entered our tents +and ate our food at 20,000 feet. Fox and hare were both +seen above 18,000 feet, and undoubted tracks of them on +the Kharta Glacier at 21,000 feet. Wolves were seen about +19,000 feet, and those tracks seen in snow at 21,500 feet, +which gave rise to so much discussion, were almost certainly +those of a wolf. <ins title="Burrhel">Burhel</ins> were fairly common between 17,000 +and 19,000 feet, and we found their droppings on stones +at 20,000 feet.</p> + +<p>Birds of several species were found from 17,000 feet +upwards. The Tibetan snow-partridge (<i>Tetraogallus tibetanus</i>) +is common in large parties up to the snow-line. Dippers +(<ins title="Cinclus cashmiriensis"><i>Cinclus cashmirensis</i></ins>) are found in the streams up to +17,000 feet, and at about the same altitude lives in the +big boulders of moraines a small and very dark wren, which +is almost certainly new, but only one immature bird was +brought home. Snow-finches and the Eastern alpine accentor +appeared to be resident up to the snow-line. Several +migrating birds were seen in September at 17,000 feet and +above, among them Temminck's stint, painted snipe, pin-tailed +snipe, house-martin and several pipits. More than once +at night the cry of migrating waders was heard, curlew +being unmistakable, and (I think) bar-tailed godwit.</p> + +<p>Our camps at 17,000 feet and at 20,000 feet were visited +daily by <ins title="lammergeier">Lämmergeier</ins>, raven, red-billed chough, alpine +chough and black-eared kite, and I saw twice a hoopoe fly +over the Kharta Glacier at about 21,000 feet; a small pale +hawk flew overhead at the same time. The highest bird +seen was a <ins title="lammergeier">Lämmergeier</ins> (bearded vulture); when I was +taking photographs from our camp on the Lhakpa La (22,350<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span> +feet) I saw one of these birds come sailing over the top of +the North peak of Everest and apparently high above the +peak, probably at an altitude of not less than 25,000 feet.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p style="text-indent: 0;">Footnotes:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> We marked many of the best-flowering specimens with the intention +of collecting their seeds on our return in the autumn. Unfortunately when +we came over the Jelep La in October it was in a heavy snowstorm which +made collecting impossible.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Detailed accounts of the collections made will be found: Mammals, +<i>Annals and Magazine of Nat. Hist.</i>, Feb. 1922. Birds, <ins title="Ibis."><i>Ibid.</i></ins>, July, 1922. +Insects, <i>Annals and Magazine of Nat. Hist.</i>, May and June, 1922.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XX</h2> + +<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 150%">AN APPRECIATION OF THE RECONNAISSANCE</span></p> + +<p class="title"><span class="smcap">By Professor</span> NORMAN COLLIE, F.R.S.<br /> + +President of the Alpine Club</p> + +<p>The chance of wandering into the wild places of the +earth is given to few. But those who have once visited +the Himalaya will never forget either the magnificence or +the beauty of that immense mountain land, whether it +be the valley country that lies between the great snow-covered +ranges and the plains, where wonderful forests, +flowers, clear streams and lesser peaks form a fitting guard +to the mighty snow-peaks that lie beyond, or the great peaks +themselves, that can be seen far away to the North, as one +approaches through the foot-hills that lead up to them. +The huge snow-covered giants may be a week's journey +away, they may be far more, yet when seen through the +clear air of the hills, perhaps 100 miles distant, they look +immense, inaccessible, remote and lonely. But as one +approaches nearer and nearer to them, they ever grow more +splendid, glistening white in the mid-day sun, rose-red at +dawn, or a golden orange at sunset, with faint opalescent +green shadows that deepen as the daylight fails, till when +night comes they stand far up in the sky, pale and ghostly +against the glittering stars. Those who have been fortunate +enough to see these things, know the fascination they +exert. It is the call of the great spaces and of the +great mountains. It is a call that mocks at the song of +the Lotus-eaters of old, it is more insidious than the Siren's +call, and it is a call that, once heard, is never forgotten.</p> + +<p>One may be contented and busy with the multitudinous +little events of ordinary civilised life, but a chance phrase<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span> +or some allusion wakes the memory of the wild mountain +lands, and one feels sick with desire for the open spaces +and the old trails. The dreams of the wanderer are far +more real than most of the happenings that make up the +average man's life. It may be the memory of some desolate +peaks set against an angry sky, or of islands set in summer +seas, or some grim fight with deserts of endless sands, or +with tropical forests that have held their growth for a thousand +years; it may be the memory of rushing rivers, or lakes +set in wild woods where the beavers build their houses, or +sunsets over great oceans—the spell binds one, the present +does not exist, one is back again on the old trail—“The Red +Gods have called us out, and we must go.”</p> + +<p>There is no part of the world where lofty mountains +exist at all comparable with the Himalaya. Elsewhere +the highest is Aconcagua, 23,060 feet. But in the Himalaya +there are over eighty peaks that tower above 24,000 feet, +probably twenty above 26,000 feet, six above 27,000 feet, +and the highest of all, Mount Everest, is 29,141 feet.</p> + +<p>The huge range of mountains, of which the Himalaya +forms the chief part, is by far the greatest mountain range +in the world. Starting to the North of Afghanistan, it +sweeps Eastwards, without a break, to the confines of China, +over 2,000 miles away. Yet in this vast world of mountains, +very few have been climbed. For many years to come the +Himalaya will provide sport for the mountaineer when most +of the other mountain ranges of the world will have been +exhausted, as far as exploration and new ascents are +concerned.</p> + +<p>Mountaineering is a sport of which Englishmen should +be proud; for they were the first really to pursue it as a +pastime. The Alpine Club was the first mountaineering +club, and if one inquires into the records of climbing and +discovery amongst the mountains of the world, one usually +finds that it was an Englishman who led the way. It is +the Englishman's love of sport for its own sake that has +enticed him on to battle with the dangers and difficulties<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span> +that are offered with such a lavish hand by the great +mountains.</p> + +<p>As a sport, mountaineering is second to none. It is +the finest mental and physical tonic that a man can take. +Whether it be the grim determination of desperate struggles +with difficult rocks, or with ice, or whether it be the sight +of range after range of splendid peaks basking in the sunshine, +or of mists half hiding the black precipices, or the changing +fairy colours of a sunrise, or the subtle curves of the wind-blown +snow, all these are good for one. They produce a +sane mind in a sane body. The joy of living becomes a +real and a great joy, all is right with the world, and life +flies on golden wings. It is, of course, true that there are +many other beautiful and health-giving places besides the +mountains. The great expanses of the prairie lands, the +forests, the seas set with lonely islands, and in England the +downs and the homely lanes and villages nestling amongst +woods, with clear streams wandering through the pastures +where the cattle feed—all these are good; but the mountains +give something more. There things are larger, man is more +alone, one feels that one is much nearer to Nature, one is +not held down by an artificial civilisation. And although +the life may be more strenuous (for Nature can be savage +at times, as well as beautiful), and the struggle may be hard, +yet the battle is the more worth winning.</p> + +<p>Nowhere in any mountain land does Nature offer the +good things of the wilds with more prodigal hand than in +the Himalaya. On the Southern slopes, coming down from +the great snow-peaks, are the finest river gorges in the world, +wonderful forests of mighty trees, open alps nestling high up +at the head of the valleys, that look out over great expanses +of the lesser ranges; and as one ascends higher and higher, +the views of the great peaks draped in everlasting snow, +changing perpetually as the clouds and mists form and +re-form over them, astonish one by their magnificence.</p> + +<p>All things that the Himalaya gives are big things, and +now that the mountaineer has conquered the lesser ranges,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span> +he turns to the Himalaya, where the peaks stand head and +shoulders above all others. Up to the present, however, +owing to the difficulties of distance and size, none of the +greater peaks have been climbed.</p> + +<p>In climbing the great peaks of the Himalaya, the +difficulties are far greater than those of less lofty ranges. +On most of the highest the mere climbing presents such +difficulties that it would be foolish to attempt their ascent. +Thousands of feet of steep rock or ice guard their summits. +Unless climbing above 24,000 feet is moderately easy, and +no strenuous work is required, it could not be accomplished. +For in the rarefied air at high altitudes there is insufficient +oxygen to promote the normal oxidation of bodily tissue. +Above 20,000 feet a cubic foot of air contains less than half +the amount of oxygen that it does at sea-level. As the +whole metabolism of the body is kept in working order by +the oxygen supplied through the lungs, the obvious result +of high altitudes is to interfere with the various processes +occurring in the system. The combustion of bodily material +is less, the amount of energy produced is therefore less also, +and so capacity for work is diminished progressively as one +ascends.</p> + +<p>But that one is able still to work, and work hard, at +these altitudes is evident by the experiences of Dr. Longstaff +and Mr. Meade. On Trisul, 23,360 feet, Dr. Longstaff in +ten and a half hours ascended from 17,450 feet to the summit. +Whilst on Kamet, Mr. Meade's coolies carried a camp up +to 23,600 feet. Dr. Kellas also in 1920 found his ascent +on moderately easy snow above 21,000 feet approximated +to 600 feet per hour. All these climbers were, however, +acclimatised to high altitudes. The effect on anyone making +a balloon or aeroplane ascent from sea-level would be different. +Tissaudier in a balloon ascent fainted at 26,500 feet and +on regaining consciousness found both his companions dead. +Even on Pike's Peak, 14,109 feet, in the United States, +many of those who go up in the railway suffer from faintness, +sickness, breathlessness and general lassitude. Yet there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span> +are places on the earth,—the Pamirs,—where people live +their lives at higher altitudes than Pike's Peak, without +any effects of the diminished pressure being felt. They +are acclimatised; their bodies, being accustomed to their +surroundings, are good working machines.</p> + +<p>Although it is true that at high altitudes there is less +oxygen to breathe, the body rapidly protects itself by increasing +the number of red blood corpuscles. These red corpuscles +are the carriers of oxygen from the air to the various parts +of the body. An increased number of carriers means an +increase of oxygen to the body. It is just possible, therefore, +that anyone properly acclimatised to, say, 23,000 feet would +be able to ascend the remaining 6,000 feet, to the summit +of Mount Everest. Moreover, if oxygen could be continuously +supplied to the climbers by adventitious aid there is little +doubt that 29,000 feet could be reached.</p> + +<p>The physiological difficulties met with in ascending to +high altitudes are doubtless of a very high order, but can +to a certain extent be eliminated by ascending gradually, +day after day, so as to allow the body to accommodate +itself by degrees to the new surroundings.</p> + +<p>There are, however, other difficulties that must be reckoned +with, such as intense cold and frequent high winds. In +any engine where loss of heat occurs, there is a corresponding +loss of available energy. A bitterly cold wind not only +robs one of much heat, but lowers the vitality as well. At +altitudes above 24,000 feet, the temperature is often arctic, +and the thermometer may fall far below zero. On the other +hand, the rays of the sun are intense. The ultra-violet +rays, that are mostly cut off by the air at sea-level, are a +real source of danger where there is only one-third of an +atmosphere pressure, as in the case at the summit of Mount +Everest.</p> + +<p>The mountaineer also encounters dangers in the Himalaya, +on the same scale as the difficulties. A snow-slide on a +British mountain or in the Alps is an avalanche; often in +the Himalaya it becomes almost a convulsion of nature.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span> +The huge ice-fields and glaciers that hang on the upper slopes +of the mountains, when let loose, have not hundreds of feet +to fall, but thousands, and the wind that is thereby produced +spreads with hurricane force over the glaciers below, on to +which the main body of the avalanche has fallen. Sometimes +even the broken <ins title="debris">débris</ins> will rush across a wide glacier.</p> + +<p>Rock falls also assume gigantic proportions in the +Himalaya. But all these dangers can be largely avoided +by the skilled mountaineer, and he can choose routes up a +mountain where they are not likely to occur. Some risks, +however, must be always run, but they can be reduced to a +minimum.</p> + +<p>On Mount Everest, as we now know, most of these dangers +will be less than on any of the other very high mountains +in the Himalaya. Also there are no difficulties in the approach +to Mount Everest from India. In this respect it differs +from such peaks as K<sup>2</sup> and others. As a rule the highest +mountains in the Himalaya always lie far back from the +plains in the main chain, beyond the foot-hills and the +intervening ranges. To approach them from the South in +India, weeks of travel are often necessary, up deep gorges, +and over rivers, where it is next to impossible to take baggage +animals. Fortunately the approach to Mount Everest by +the route from Darjeeling to Phari Dzong and thence over +an easy pass into Tibet avoids all these difficulties. In +Tibet a high tableland, averaging 13,000 feet, is reached.</p> + +<p>Travelling in Tibet, North of the main range of the +Himalaya, is entirely different from that on the South of +the range. Instead of deep-cut gorges, a rolling, bare, stone-covered +country exists, over which it is easy to take baggage +animals, the only obstacle being the rivers that sometimes +are not bridged, and are often swollen by the melting snow. +From Kampa Dzong to Tingri Dzong, the base of operations +for the Expedition, is an open country. Mount Everest lies +40 to 50 miles South of Tingri Dzong; the approach also is +without difficulty.</p> + +<p>The ascent of Mount Everest was not the primary object<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span> +of the Expedition of 1921. A mountain the size of Mount +Everest cannot be climbed by simply getting to it and starting +the ascent immediately.</p> + +<p>A reasonable route has to be discovered to the summit; +which usually can only be done by a complete reconnaissance +of the mountain. This has been admirably done, and a +most magnificent series of photographs has been brought +back by the members of the Expedition.</p> + +<p>Mount Everest consists of a huge pyramid, having three +main arêtes, the West, the South-east, and the North-east. +It is the last, the North-east arête, that is obviously the +easiest, being snow-covered along most of its length. Nowhere +is it excessively steep, and nowhere are there precipices of +rock to stop the climber. We now know that it can be +reached, by means of a subsidiary ridge, from a col 23,000 +feet, the Chang La, that lies to the north of the North-east +arête. This col was the highest point on Mount Everest +reached by the Expedition, and had it not been for savage +weather a considerably higher altitude would have been +attained; for above the col for several thousand feet lay an +unbroken snow-slope.</p> + +<p>It was only after much hard work, and over two months' +exploration, that a route to this col was discovered. As +is usually the case even with mountains far smaller than +Mount Everest, it can be seen that if a point, often a long +way below the summit, can be reached, not much farther +difficulty will be encountered. But the puzzle is, how can +that point be arrived at from below?</p> + +<p>Quite early in the exploration of Mount Everest it was +obvious that if the 23,000-foot col could be reached, most +of the physical difficulties of the approach to the mountain +would have been surmounted. But it was not so obvious +how to win to the col. It lies on the South-east at the head +of the main Rongbuk Glacier; it was therefore to this glacier +that the mountaineers, Messrs. Mallory and Bullock, went +from Tingri Dzong on June 23. They spent a month exploring +the country to the North and the West of Mount Everest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span> +from the Rongbuk Glacier. Much valuable information +was accumulated. A peak, Ri-Ring, 22,520 feet, was +climbed and a pass on the West ridge of Mount Everest was +visited, from which were seen views of the South-west face +of the great mountain and also many high peaks in Nepal. +Unfortunately, however, no feasible route from the main +Rongbuk Glacier to the 23,000-foot col could be found. +The next attempt was made by leaving the Rongbuk Glacier +and exploring the Kama Valley that flows South-east from +Mount Everest. Here a most magnificent ice-world was +discovered. For a chain of giant peaks running South-east +from Mount Everest to Makalu, 27,790 feet, guards the +whole of the South-west side of the valley. But as an +approach to the North-east arête of Mount Everest this +valley was found to be useless. From the point of view, +however, of exploration it was most fortunate that this +valley was visited. The photographs of Makalu and its +satellite <ins title="Chomo-Lönzo">Chomolönzo</ins>, N.<sup>53</sup>, 25,413 feet, are superb; +moreover the lower reaches of the Kama Valley, as it dips +down to the deep Arun Valley, was full of luxuriant vegetation, +totally different from the wind-swept wilderness of Tibet.</p> + +<p>The Kharta Valley, that runs North-east from Mount +Everest, was the next exploited, to see whether from it an +easy approach to the North-east arête existed. But by +this time the monsoon weather was at its worst. Days of +rain and mist, with snow higher up, succeeded one another, +making climbing impossible. However, towards the end of +September a high camp at 22,500 feet was made at the head +of the Kharta Valley. From this camp the 23,000-foot +col, Chang La, was finally reached, by crossing the head +of a glacier that ran to the North. Higher climbing was +out of the question; a furious North-west gale lasting for +four days drove the party off the mountain.</p> + +<p>The glacier mentioned above, running to the North, was +found to be a tributary of the main Rongbuk Glacier, and +has been named the East Rongbuk Glacier. There is no +doubt that the easiest route to Chang La, the North Col, will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span> +not be all the way round by the Kharta Valley, but up this +East Rongbuk Glacier.</p> + +<p>Several other interesting expeditions were carried out +by other members of the party. Colonel Howard Bury +visited the group of five great peaks (25,202 to 26,867 feet), +that lie about 15 miles North-west of Mount Everest. He +explored the Kyetrak Glacier to its summit the Khombu La, +also crossed the Phüse La with the Rongshar Valley that +drains down into Nepal. Later he visited another pass on +the ridge that connects Mount Everest with Makalu. From +this pass most interesting views of the country South of +Mount Everest were obtained.</p> + +<p>Major Wheeler's and Major Morshead's map of the +country that lies between the Himalaya and the Bramapootra +River will be of the highest value, and the results of Dr. +Heron's geological survey and Mr. Wollaston's collections of +birds, beasts, insects and flowers, when they have been +thoroughly examined, will certainly yield much new scientific +information. The Expedition therefore has accomplished all +that was expected of it, and has brought back material of +the greatest interest, from a part of the world about which +almost nothing was known, and into which Europeans had +never been.</p> + +<p>The attempt to ascend Mount Everest itself necessarily +had to be postponed, but this year the Expedition that is +being sent out will have for its primary object the ascent of +the mountain. There will be easy access to the base of the +peak from Chöbuk, where a base camp will be established, +and from thence a feasible route on to the summit of the +great North-east arête has been discovered.</p> + +<p>Most fortunately this year General Bruce was able to +undertake the leadership of the Expedition. His unrivalled +experience of climbing in the Himalaya and particularly +his special capacity for handling Himalayan people will be +invaluable to the Expedition. Not only will he be able to +organise and instil the right spirit into the coolie corps upon +whom so much will depend for ultimate success, but he will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span> +also be able to give much wise advice to the actual climbers +who are to take part in the ascent of the mountain.</p> + +<p>Moreover, with his long experience of dealing with Asiatics +he can be trusted to deal with the Tibetan people and officials +in such a way as to retain their present good-will.</p> + +<p>As the main object of the Expedition this year is to make +a definite attempt to reach the summit of Mount Everest, +it has been decided that the actual climbing party should be +as strong as possible. But a limit to the size of the Expedition +was imposed by the necessity of respect for the feelings of +the Tibetans, and a warning had been received from Lhasa +to keep the numbers as small as possible. For, although +the authorities at Lhasa might be friendly enough, and +although there might be no difficulty in obtaining transport +from the district round Tingri Dzong, where animals were +plentiful, yet a large party might press hardly on the +inhabitants in the matter of food, such as wheat and barley. +This consideration had therefore to be regarded. Still it +was thought that the district would not be unduly pressed +by a party of twelve Europeans. This number will include +a climbing party of six chosen mountaineers, with two in +reserve, making eight in all. With General Bruce, a doctor +(who would also be a naturalist), a photographer and a +painter, the expeditionary force of Europeans will be complete.</p> + +<p>Colonel E. L. Strutt, C.M.G., has been chosen as second +in command. He possesses first-rate mountaineering experience, +and has been Vice-President of the Alpine Club.</p> + +<p>Mr. Mallory fortunately has been able to accept the +invitation of the Committee to return to Mount Everest +again this year. The remainder of the climbing party are: +Captain George Finch, who was unable to join the Expedition +last year on account of his health; Mr. T. H. Somervell, a +surgeon, a member of the Alpine Club and an extremely +energetic climber; Major E. F. Norton (Royal Artillery); and +Dr. A. W. Wakefield, renowned for his strenuous climbing in +the Lake District and work in Labrador. Besides these six +mountaineers, Captain Geoffrey Bruce and Captain C. J. Morris,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span> +both of Gurkha Regiments, and able to speak the language +of the Himalayan coolies, will assist General Bruce both in +looking after and encouraging the coolies, and also help in +the general arrangement and organisation of the Expedition +as a whole. They also are accustomed to mountaineering +and will act as a reserve to the six climbers.</p> + +<p>As doctor and naturalist Dr. T. G. Longstaff has been +invited to join the Expedition. He has made many climbs +in the Himalaya and other mountain regions, including the +ascent of Trisul, 23,360 feet. He is not expected to join +the climbing party, but his experience will be of great benefit +to the Expedition generally.</p> + +<p>As photographer, Captain J. B. L. Noel has been selected. +He had reconnoitred in the direction of Mount Everest in +1913. For several years he has made a special study of +photography in all its various branches.</p> + +<p>But besides photographs of the mountains, the Expedition +is anxious to bring back pictures which would alone be able +not only to serve as a record of the infinitely delicate +colouring of that lofty region, but at the same time would +show how probably some of the grandest scenery of mighty +mountains should be represented from the point of view of +an artist.</p> + +<p>Difficulty was experienced in finding a suitable painter, +for painters capable of doing justice to mountain scenery, +and who are also physically fit to travel amongst them at +such altitudes as those round Mount Everest, are few. We +have, therefore, to depend on Mr. Somervell to paint us +pictures.</p> + +<p>In the meantime communications were also passing +between Colonel Bailey, the Political Agent in Sikkim, and +the Mount Everest Committee regarding the enlistment of +coolies for the special corps, and the engagement of the very +best headman obtainable to look after them. Many of the +coolies who were with the Expedition in 1921 had volunteered +to rejoin this year. But a stronger corps and more carefully +selected men were needed. The Maharaja of Nepal has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span> +been asked to allow some of the most famous Gurkha +mountain climbers to join the Expedition, and the +Government of India has been asked to put two or three +non-commissioned Gurkha officers at the service of General +Bruce, to assist him generally in looking after the coolies, +and seeing that they were properly fed and paid, and that +they behaved themselves properly.</p> + +<p>The members of last year's Expedition on their return +were freely and fully consulted as to equipment and +provisioning of this year's party; the experience gained +last year has been therefore made use of in every way possible. +Suggestions for the improvement of the Mummery-Meade +tents have been adopted. Better clothing has been provided +for the coolies. General Bruce has purchased leather coats, +waistcoats, socks, jerseys and boots from the equipment +provided for our troops in North Russia during the war, +which will be admirably suited for the majority of the coolies, +whilst for the few chosen for high climbing on Mount Everest +itself, clothing precisely similar to that worn by the British +climbers has been provided.</p> + +<p>Captain Farrar and the equipment committee have +provided a most varied and ample supply of provisions which +was despatched to India in January. The Primus-stoves +have been overhauled and retested by Captain Finch.</p> + +<p>Colonel Jack and Mr. Hinks have carefully examined all +the instruments brought back. The aneroids have been +retested, and all broken instruments replaced.</p> + +<p>The photographic outfit has been considerably enlarged, +including a cinematograph instrument. The question of +supplying oxygen has been most thoroughly gone into. All +flyers in aeroplanes at high altitudes find oxygen absolutely +necessary. In mountain climbing, however, the almost +insuperable difficulty is the weight of the apparatus supplying +the oxygen. As far as possible, this weight has been reduced +to a minimum. A large number of cylinders, the lightest +and smallest obtainable, have been sent out full of compressed +oxygen, and it is hoped that they will be capable of being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span> +used by the party that will attempt to climb to the summit +of Mount Everest. If the climbers are capable of carrying +them, and so getting a continuous supply of oxygen during +the whole of the climb, there is little doubt that climbing +up to 29,000 feet is possible. In aeroplanes considerably +higher altitudes have been reached with the help of oxygen. +Moreover, there is this fact in favour of the climbers on Mount +Everest, they will be acclimatised to altitudes of 20,000 feet, +whilst anyone in an aeroplane is not so acclimatised, having +risen from sea-level. The climbers will have to accommodate +themselves only to an increased height of 9,000 feet, whilst +those in an aeroplane have to suffer a diminution in pressure +equivalent to 29,000 feet.</p> + +<p>Finally, arrangements have been made with the Press +for the publication of telegrams and photographs from +the Expedition. Full information of the progress of the +Expedition will therefore be available for the public, and it +will be possible to follow the climbing party, after they leave +the base camp, which will be somewhere near Chöbuk, as they +ascend the East Rongbuk Glacier to the advanced base under +the North col. Afterwards all the preliminary arrangements +will be reported, and finally there will be an account of the +great attempt to reach the summit.</p> + +<p>The Expedition will be starting nearly two months earlier +than in 1921. The weather in May and June, before the +monsoon breaks in July, apparently is more or less settled, +and so the most must be made of it. In 1921 from the end +of July till September high climbing was impossible. It is +therefore obvious that a determined attempt to climb Mount +Everest should be made before the monsoon sets in.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img_316.jpg" width="600" height="357" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + <a id="img_316"></a> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Mount Everest at Sunset</span><br /> +from the 20,000 foot camp, Kharta Valley.</p> +</div> + +<p>The ascent from the North col, Changa La, 23,000 feet, +to the summit of Mount Everest, 29,000 feet, is only 6,000 +feet, and the distance to traverse is about 2 miles. As far +as can be judged from the numerous photographs of Mount +Everest, the climbing is straightforward with no insurmountable +difficulties in the form of steep rock precipices. There +will be no glaciers overhanging the route which might send<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span></p> + +<p>But the final ascent will test the endurance of the climbers +to the utmost. Many people have found the last 1,000 feet +of Mont Blanc more than they could accomplish. The last +1,000 feet of Mount Everest will only be conquered by men +whose physique is perfect, and who are trained and +acclimatised to the last possible limit, and who have the +determination to struggle on when every fibre of their body +is calling out—Hold! enough!</p> + +<p>The struggle will be a great one, but it will be worth the +while. To do some new thing beyond anything that has +been previously accomplished, and not to be dominated by +his environment, has made man what he is, and has raised +him above the beasts. He always has been seeking new +worlds to conquer. He has penetrated into the forbidding +ice-worlds at the two poles, and many are the secrets he has +wrested from Nature. There remains yet the highest spot +on the world's surface. No doubt he will win there also, +and in the winning will add one more victory over the guarded +secrets of things as they are.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span></p> + +<h2>APPENDIX I</h2> + +<p style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%;">THE SURVEY</p> + +<p style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%;"><span class="smcap">By Major</span> H. T. MORSHEAD, D.S.O.</p> + +<p>The personnel selected to form the Survey Detachment under my +charge were as follows: Brevet-Major E. O. Wheeler, M.C., R.E., +Mr. Lalbir Singh Thapa, Surveyors Gujjar Singh and Turubaz Khan, +Photographer Abdul Jalil Khan, sixteen khalasis, etc.</p> + +<p>The tasks allotted to the detachment were:—</p> + +<p>(1) A general survey of the whole unmapped area covered by the +Expedition, on a scale of 1 inch to 4 miles.</p> + +<p>(2) A detailed survey of the immediate environs of Mount Everest +on the scale of 1 inch to 1 mile.</p> + +<p>(3) A complete revision of the existing ¼-inch map of Sikkim.</p> + +<p>With the exception of a few rough notes and sketches by early +travellers and missionaries in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, +our first knowledge of the Southern portion of the Tibetan province +of Tsang dated from the epoch of the Survey of India by trained native +explorers in the middle of the nineteenth century. Thus, much of +the area visited by the Expedition in 1921 was traversed by the +explorer Hari Ram during the course of his two journeys in 1871–2 +and 1885 respectively. At that time, however, foreign surveyors +were not regarded with favour in Tibet; work could only be carried +on surreptitiously, and the resulting map merely consisted of a small-scale +route traverse which gave no indication of the surface features +beyond the explorer's actual route.</p> + +<p>The first rigorous survey undertaken in the neighbourhood was +that carried out by Captain C. H. D. Ryder, R.E. (now Colonel Ryder, +C.I.E., D.S.O., Surveyor-General of India), during the Tibet Mission +of 1903–1904. During the stay of the Mission at Kampa, the ¼-inch +survey was carried as far West as longitude 88°; while, on the +subsequent return march up the Tsangpo Valley, surveys were +extended as far as the Southern watershed of the great river—the +so-called Ladak Range—in latitude 29° approximately.</p> + +<p>West of longitude 88° there thus remained a stretch of unsurveyed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span> +country some 14,000 square miles in area, between the Ladak Range +on the North and the Great Himalaya Range on the South—the +latter forming the Northern frontier of Nepal. The Mount Everest +Expedition provided an opportunity of making good the whole of this +area, with the exception of some 2,000 square miles at the extreme +Western end, into which, in view of the restrictions of the Indian +Foreign Department, I did not feel justified in penetrating.</p> + +<p>Fortunately, Colonel Bury's plans contemplated an outward +Northerly journey via Shekar and Tingri to the Western flanks of +Mount Everest, whence the reconnaissance of the mountain was to +be carried out from West to East, parallel to the Northern frontier +of Nepal. This rendered feasible the mapping of the whole unsurveyed +area between the Southern watershed of the Tsangpo and the Great +Himalaya Range, as far West as longitude 85° 30', without in any +way infringing the Foreign Department's orders and restrictions.</p> + +<p>For the purpose of the detailed survey of the Mount Everest regions, +it was arranged for my Assistant, Major Wheeler, to make a thorough +test of the Canadian pattern of photo-survey apparatus, of which he +had had previous experience in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. This +method of survey, which had not hitherto been employed in India, +is particularly adapted for use in high mountain regions. Fortunately, +the experimental outfit, which had recently been ordered from England, +was delivered just in time to accompany the Expedition. Wheeler's +account of his season's work will be found in Appendix II.</p> + +<p>With a view to carrying out the revision survey of Sikkim while +awaiting the arrival of the members of the Expedition from England, +the Survey Detachment was authorised to assemble at Darjeeling +early in April, six weeks before the date fixed for the start of the +Expedition. In spite of an unusually wet and cloudy spring, the three +surveyors made such good use of their time that 2,500 square miles +of country were completed before the advance of the Expedition +necessitated the temporary abandonment of this work.</p> + +<p>After completing the necessary preliminaries with Colonel Bury, +I myself left Darjeeling on May 13, intending to rejoin the remainder +of the Expedition in Sikkim. Continuous rain, however, rendered +the latter task impossible; the Sikkim roads were, moreover, blocked +in several places by severe landslips, so that I was only with difficulty +able to reach Kampa by the 28th. It transpired, however, that there +was no cause for hurry, since the main body of the Expedition, +travelling via the Chumbi Valley, had encountered greater difficulties +than mine, and did not arrive at Kampa until June 5. While awaiting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span> +their arrival, I filled in the time by occupying and re-observing from +Colonel Ryder's old triangulation stations of 1903, overlooking the +Kampa Plain.</p> + +<p>I had received no news whatever of the Expedition or of the outside +world since leaving Darjeeling three-and-a-half weeks previously. +Consequently the death of my old friend Dr. Kellas on the very +day of their arrival at Kampa came to me as a very severe +shock.</p> + +<p>The Sikkim revision-survey having been so much hampered by +bad weather, I decided to take only two of the three surveyors with +the Expedition into Tibet, leaving Surveyor Turabaz Khan to complete +the comparatively dry areas of Northern Sikkim before the arrival +of the monsoon. This he succeeded in doing at the cost of considerable +personal discomfort, returning to Darjeeling in July.</p> + +<p>It was not until we reached the summit of the Tinki Pass on +June 11 that we found ourselves for the first time looking into +unsurveyed country. From here onwards as far as Tingri the survey +was kept up by Lalbir Singh, whose unflagging energy alone enabled +him to keep pace with the long marches of the Expedition. Each +morning he was away with his plane-table and squad of coolies long +before our breakfast was served, seldom reaching camp before nightfall. +The gathering clouds and other ominous signs of a rapidly approaching +monsoon, however, forbade any respite.</p> + +<p>On arrival at Tingri, after spending a week in fruitless efforts to +observe the triangulated peaks of the main Himalayan Range through +the dense monsoon clouds which were daily piling up more and more +thickly from the South, I departed on June 26 with Surveyor Gujjar +Singh on a short trip to explore and map the upper valley of the +Bhong Chu.</p> + +<p>Our first march led across the wide Tingri Plain, past the hot +spring village of Tsamda, to the hamlet of Dokcho, at the Southern +extremity of the Sutso Plain. This plain is covered with the ruins +of numerous villages and watch-towers, the haunt of countless rock-pigeons. +They are all of loftier and more substantial construction +than the miserable hovels which form the scattered hamlets of to-day—indicating, +apparently, the former presence of a large and warlike +population. It is impossible even to hazard a guess at the age of +these ruins, which may have preserved their present state for generations +in the comparatively arid climate of Tibet. Many of the towers are +60 feet or more in height; roofs and floors have all disappeared, but +the massive mud walls in many instances still bear the marks of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span> +wooden shuttering used in their erection. This method of construction +is unknown, I believe, in Tibet at the present day.</p> + +<p>The next day's march, skirting the Western edge of the plain, +brought us to the village of Phuri, where the river flows in a +flat-bottomed, +cultivated valley, between bare brown hills. On the 28th +we camped at Menkhap-to, the highest village in the valley. The +headman, a sort of local “warden of the marches,” refused to see +me and shut himself up in his house, guarding his door with three +huge mastiffs who effectively frustrated the efforts of my messengers +to establish communications. Evidently he feared the subsequent +results to himself of harbouring strangers. The remaining villagers +were quite friendly, however, and supplied all my requirements. One +man, the owner of a gun, surprised me by a request for 12-bore cartridges +just after I had greatly shocked his neighbour's Buddhist susceptibilities +by killing a butterfly for my collection! Much snow is reported to +fall at Menkhap-to, which is deserted during the winter months, when +the inhabitants descend to Menkhap-me (“lower Menkhap”) and +the Sutso Plain.</p> + +<p>Above Menkhap-to the road leaves the main valley and proceeds +Westwards over a spur known as the Lungchen La (17,700 feet). +This spur commands an extensive view across the wide, uninhabited +Pekhu Plain, with its three lakes, as far as the snowy range running +North-west from the summit of Gosainthan. On a fine day, the +whole panorama can be sketched in from a couple of fixings on either +side of the pass; unfortunately, at the time of our arrival bad weather +had set in, and the whole snow-range was hidden in cloud. I had +therefore to leave Gujjar Singh camped near the summit of the pass +to await a fine day for the completion of his surveys, and myself returned +at the end of the month to Tingri, where I rejoined Mr. Wollaston, +who had been detained at headquarters by an outbreak of enteric +fever amongst the Expedition servants.</p> + +<p>Wild game is plentiful in the Upper Bhong Valley. I shot numerous +hares, some <ins title="ram-chakor">ramchakor</ins> and a bar-headed goose during the trip; +while Gujjar Singh caught a young, week-old <ins title="barhal">burhel</ins> lamb on the +summit of the Lungchen Pass, which, however, died after three weeks +in captivity. Gazelle are common on the Sutso Plain.</p> + +<p>By the end of June, Lalbir Singh had finished the inking of his +previous surveys, and was ready for fresh work. Accordingly, after +spending a couple of days in examining his board, and checking the +spelling of his village names with the aid of the local Tibetan officials, +I despatched him on a lengthy programme of work in Pharuk and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span> +Kharta. It was three months before I saw him again.</p> + +<p>About this time a messenger arrived from the Dzongpen of Nyenyam, +inviting us to visit his district, which lay four marches to the Southwest, +in the valley of the Po Chu or Bhotia Kosi R. Although Nyenyam +was not one of the districts specifically mentioned in our passport, +Wollaston and I decided, with the concurrence of Colonel Bury, to +avail ourselves of the opportunity of visiting this little-known area.</p> + +<p>Leaving Tingri on July 13, with the interpreter <ins title="Gyaldzan">Gyalzen</ins> Kazi +and Surveyor Gujjar Singh, who had now returned after completing +his work on the Lungchen Pass, we camped that evening at Langkor, +a small village at the Western edge of the Tingri Plain. A cantilever +bridge which spans the Gya Chu opposite the village had been carried +away by floods shortly before our arrival, and the whole population +of the hamlet, male and female, were busily engaged in its reconstruction, +working in relays to the accompaniment of prolonged +and vigorous blasts on a “conch” which a monk was diligently +blowing in order—as it was explained to us—to avert further rainfall +until the bridge should be completed. His efforts were rewarded +with tolerable success, as the rain held off all day in spite of the +threatening storm-clouds which loomed up from the South-west.</p> + +<p>The most interesting feature of Langkor is an ancient temple, +an appanage of the great Drophung monastery of Lhasa. This +building, which is said to be over 1,000 years old, contains a sacred +stone alleged to have been hurled across the Himalayan Range from +India, and to have pitched in the Tingri Plains. The name Tingri +is said to be derived from the noise (“ting”) made by the falling +stone. The stone is carefully preserved inside a wooden box, which +is opened with much ceremony on the first day of the Tibetan new +year. The temple, which is managed by a committee of fifteen civilian +monks (nyakchang), also contains a library of 4,400 books, and an +image of the Indian saint Tamba Sanye which is popularly believed +to have grown by itself from the ground <i>in situ</i>.</p> + +<p>Crossing the Tang La (17,980 feet) in a driving snowstorm, a long +march of 22 miles brought us next day to the bleak village of Tulung, +in the upper valley of the Po Chu. As we descended the Western +side of the pass the snow-clouds gradually dispersed, disclosing glimpses +of the magnificent twin summits of Gosainthan (26,290 feet), 30 miles +to the West. Several of our coolies succumbed to mountain sickness +on the pass, with the result that my bedding and the kitchen box +only reached camp at 9 p.m.</p> + +<p>On July 15 our road lay for 8 miles along the flat valley of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span> +Po Chu; the river then turns sharply Southwards, passing for 3 +miles through a gorge of granite and schist. Bushes of wild currant, +gooseberry, berberis and dog-rose here begin to appear, and around +the village of Targyeling, where we camped, were smiling fields of +mustard and buckwheat, in addition to the usual Tibetan crops of +barley and dwarf pea. After a month spent in the bleak Tibetan +uplands, it was a relief to pitch our tents in a homely green field, +alongside a rippling brook lined with familiar ranunculus, cow parsley, +forget-me-not, and a singularly beautiful pale mauve cranesbill, +and to feast our eyes on the glorious purple of the wild thyme which +clothed the hillsides in great patches of colour.</p> + +<p>The next day, still following the course of the Po Chu, we reached +Nyenyam, a large and very insanitary village which is known under +the name of Kuti by the Nepalis who constitute the majority of its +inhabitants. These Nepali traders (Newars) have their own Hindu +temple in the village. There is also a Nepalese chauki (court-house) +with a haqim (magistrate) invested with summary powers of jurisdiction +over Nepali subjects; he is specially charged with the +settlement of trade disputes, and with the encouragement of +Tibeto-Nepalese +trade and commerce.</p> + +<p>As is customary in all important districts of Tibet, there are here +two Dzongpens, who by a polite fiction are known as “Eastern” +and “Western” (Dzongshar and Dzongnup) respectively. Actually, +the functions of the two Dzongpens are identical; the <i>raison d'être</i> +of the double regime being an attempt to protect the peasants from +extortion by the device of providing two administrators, who, in +theory at least, act as a check upon each other's peculations. At +the time of our arrival, those two worthies were so busy preparing +a joint picnic that we had considerable difficulty in getting their +attention.</p> + +<p>I spent three days in exploring the neighbourhood of Nyenyam, +while Wollaston was engaged in his botanical and zoological pursuits. +Gujjar Singh, with the plane-table, was detained by bad weather +higher up the valley. Below Nyenyam the river enters a very deep, +narrow gorge; pines and other forest trees begin to appear. The +road, which here becomes impassable for animals, crosses the river +four times in 6 miles by cantilever bridges before reaching the village +of Choksum, but I could find no trace of the portion described by +explorer Hari Ram in 1871 as consisting of slabs of stone 9 to 18 inches +wide supported on iron pegs let into the vertical face of the rock at +a height of 1,500 feet above the river. At Choksum (10,500 feet)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span> +the river falls at an average rate of 500 feet per mile. The Nepal +frontier is crossed near Dram village, some 10 miles further down +stream, but owing to the vile state of the weather, which rendered +even the roughest attempts at surveying impossible, I abandoned +all idea of reaching the spot.</p> + +<p>On July 20 we retraced our steps 9 miles up the valley to Tashishong, +where we found Dr. Heron encamped, together with Gujjar Singh, +whose work had been hung up for a week by continued cloud and +rainfall. Heron returned Northwards next day, while we followed +a rough easterly track leading over the Lapche Range to the village +of the same name in the valley of the Kang Chu. The weather on +this day was atrocious, and our last pretence of accurate surveying +broke down. We were unable to reach Lapche village by dusk, +and spent a somewhat cheerless night on boulders in drenching +rain at 14,600 feet, with no fuel except a few green twigs of dwarf +rhododendron.</p> + +<p>Lapche (La-Rimpoche, “precious hill”) is sacred as the home +and birthplace of Jetsun Mila Repa, a wandering lama and saint who +lived in Southern Tibet in the eleventh century, and who taught by +parables and songs, some of which have considerable literary merit. +The two principal works ascribed to him are an autobiography, or +namtar, and a collection of tracts called Labum, or the “myriad +songs.” They are still among the most popular books in Tibet.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> +His hermit-cell still remains under a rock on the hillside, and his +memory is preserved by an ancient temple and monastery, the resort +of numerous pilgrims, alongside which we pitched our tents.</p> + +<p>Lapche village is situated on a spur overlooking the junction of +two branches of the Kang stream—the latter being a tributary of +the Rongshar River, which, in turn, joins the Bhotia Kosi River in +Nepal. The extreme dampness of the local climate is indicated by +the trailing streamers of lichen which festoon the trees, and by the +pent roofs of the buildings. The village contains some ten or twelve +houses, of which half are occupied by Tibetans and half by Nepalese +subjects (<ins title="Sharpas">Sherpas</ins>)—each community having its own headman. The +inhabitants were very friendly and pleasant, and gave us a good deal +of information. The village is deserted during the winter months, +when the whole population migrates across the border into Nepal. +The Tibetans pay no taxes to Nepal during their half-yearly sojourn +in the lower valley; conversely, the Nepalis during their summer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> +residence in Lapche are not subject to Tibetan taxation or to the +imposition of ulag (forced labour). The Tibetans of Lapche pay +their taxes in the form of butter direct to the Lapche monastery, +the head lama, or abbot, of which resides at Phuto Gompa near +Nyenyam. The Nepal frontier is some 10 miles below Lapche, opposite +the snow-peak of Karro Pumri. Katmandu can be reached in eight +days, but the track is bad and very little trade passes this way.</p> + +<p>Transport arrangements necessitated a day's halt at Lapche, +which was fortunately enlivened by the timely arrival of a large +parcel of letters and newspapers, which Colonel Bury had thoughtfully +sent after us from Tingri—almost the last news of the outside +world which we were to receive for over two months.</p> + +<p>From Lapche we proceeded to the Rongshar Valley, crossing +the Kangchen and Kangchung (“big snow” and “little snow”) +passes. Descending the hill to Trintang village, where we camped +on July 25, the clouds lifted momentarily, disclosing an amazing +view of the superb snow summit of <ins title="Gaurisankar">Gauri-Sankar</ins> towering magnificently +above us just across the valley. This mountain, which is called by +the Tibetans Chomo Tsering, or Trashi Tsering, is the westernmost +of a group of five very sacred peaks known collectively as Tsering +Tse-nga (“Tsering five peaks”). Unfortunately, owing to constant +clouds, I was unable to identify with certainty the remaining four +peaks of Tingki Shalzang, Miyo Lobzang, Chopen Drinzang and +Tekar Drozang. Owing to the sacred nature of the Rongshar Valley, +the slaughtering of animals is strictly forbidden; the large flocks +and herds of the villagers are only sold for slaughter in the adjoining +districts of Tingri and Nepal, and we were only able to buy a sheep +on promising not to kill it until after quitting the valley.</p> + +<p>Trintang village occupies a plateau 1,750 feet above the level +of the river; 1,400 feet below is the village of Tropde, to which the +Trintang residents all descend in winter. Rongshar Dzong, which +is situated in the lower village, has no importance; at the time of +our visit the Dzongpen had gone to his home on leave of absence, +leaving his affairs in the hands of a steward.</p> + +<p>A day's halt being necessary in order to collect transport, I took +the opportunity of descending the Rongshar Valley as far as the Nepal +frontier, while Gujjar Singh endeavoured, without much success, +to pick up the threads of his survey by identifying the snowy peaks +which occasionally afforded brief glimpses through rifts in the clouds. +The Rongshar River drops 1,400 feet in 7 miles between Tropde and +the Nepal frontier, which is crossed at an altitude of roughly 9,000<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span> +feet.</p> + +<p>On July 27 we marched 20 miles up the Rongshar Valley to the +village of Tazang (Takpa-Santsam, “limit of birch trees”), which, +as its name implies, is situated at the extreme upper limit of the forest +zone. On the way we passed the village and monastery of Chuphar, +whence a track leads South-east over the difficult snow-pass of +Menlung (“vale of medicinal herbs”) to the villages of Rowaling +and Tangpa in the Kangphu Valley of Nepal.</p> + +<p>Tazang had already been visited by Colonel Bury, a month +previously. The local headman was too drunk, on the evening of +our arrival, to send out the necessary messages summoning the village +transport-yaks from their grazing grounds. In consequence, our +baggage was only got under weigh at 11 a.m. next morning, and we +were compelled to pitch our tents at a grazing camp (16,500 feet) +after only covering 9 miles. The weather showed signs of improvement +in proportion as we receded from the Himalayan gorges, but +dense banks of cloud still obscured all the hill-tops. An easy march +over the Phuse La (17,850 feet) brought us on the 29th to the bleak +village of Kyetrak, situated at the foot of the great Kyetrak Glacier, +on the extreme Southern edge of the Tingri plain—an area which we +had already surveyed six weeks previously.</p> + +<p>From Kyetrak we proceeded via the Lamna La to Chöbuk, thence +following the tracks of the Expedition headquarters which Colonel +Bury had just transferred from Tingri to Kharta in the lower Bhong +Chu Valley. On reaching headquarters on August 2, we found +Colonel Bury in sole occupation—Mallory and Bullock having left +that very morning on a reconnaissance of the Eastern approaches +to Mount Everest.</p> + +<p>The weather during the whole of August was such as to render +out-of-door survey operations impossible. Gujjar Singh was occupied +during the month in adjusting and inking his surveys, while I filled +in several days in making tracings of all work so far completed, after +which, for the remainder of the season, I joined the mountaineers, +whose doings are recorded elsewhere in this book.</p> + +<p>On the return journey in October I despatched Gujjar Singh from +Gyangkar Nangpa to complete the remaining portions of the Sikkim +revision-survey; at the same spot I picked up Lalbir Singh, who, +after completing his survey of the Pharuk and Kharta areas, had +crossed the Bhong Chu below <ins title="Lungdo">Lungdö</ins> and worked his way back via +Tashirakar and Sar. Travelling via Kampa and Lachen Valley, +we reached Darjeeling on October 16. Tracings of the new survey<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span> +were hastily finished and sent to press, with the result that a complete +preliminary ¼-inch map in six colours was published before the last +members of the Expedition had sailed for England. A ½-inch +preliminary sketch-map of the environs of Mount Everest was also +prepared by Major Wheeler at the same time for the use of the mountaineers +in discussing the details of their next year's climb.</p> + +<p>The out-turn of work during the Expedition was as follows:—</p> + +<table summary="map"> + <tr> + <td align="left">¼-inch revision survey</td> + <td align="right">4,000 square miles</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">¼-inch original survey</td> + <td align="right">12,000 square miles</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Detail photo-survey (environs of Mount Everest)</td> + <td align="right">600 square miles</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The surveyors all worked splendidly under difficult and trying +conditions. Major Wheeler had probably the hardest time of any +member of the Expedition, and his success in achieving single-handed +the mapping of 600 square miles of some of the most mountainous +country in the world is sufficient proof of his determination and grit. +It is difficult for those who have not actually had the experience to +conceive the degree of mental and physical discomfort which results +to the surveyor from prolonged camping at high altitudes during +the monsoon, waiting for the fine day which never comes. Such +was our fate for four months during the Expedition of 1921, yet on +looking back one feels that the results were well worth while. The +discomforts soon fade from recollection; the pleasures alone remain +in one's memory, and there is not one of us but would gladly repeat +our season's experiences, if so required.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<p style="text-indent: 0;">Footnote:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet</i>, by S. C. Dass, C.I.E., page 205, +footnote by Hon. W. W. Rockhill.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span></p> + +<h2>APPENDIX II</h2> + +<p style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%;">THE PHOTOGRAPHIC SURVEY</p> + +<p style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%;"><span class="smcap">By Major</span> E. O. WHEELER, M.C.</p> + +<p>I had purchased a set of photo-topographical surveying instruments +of the Canadian pattern, on behalf of the Survey of India, while on +leave in 1920. A trial of this method of surveying mountainous +country was to be carried out in Garhwal in 1921; but when Survey +of India officers were asked for to accompany the Mount Everest +Expedition, I was detailed to carry out the trial there. Possibly a +word of explanation of the method used may not be amiss.</p> + +<p>The “Canadian” method—if I may call it so; for although it +was invented and has been used elsewhere, it has been far more +extensively applied in Canada than in any other part of the world—may +be briefly described as “plane-tabling by photography.” It +requires, equally with the plane-table, an accurate framework, on +which to base the detailed survey; and simply substitutes a small +(3-inch vernier) theodolite and camera for the sight-rule and +plane-table. Stations are fixed and photographs oriented by means +of the theodolite; the photographs, which are taken so as to be as +nearly as possible true perspectives, represent the country as it would +be seen by the plane-tabler, and detail on them may be fixed by +intersections or sketched in by eye in exactly the same way as on the +plane-table.</p> + +<p>Angles are read and photographs taken in the field; and, if +considered necessary to test exposures or protect photographic plates +from deterioration due to climatic conditions, development of plates +is also carried out there. Otherwise, the map is made wholly in the +office, using either contact prints or enlargements, from the negatives +taken in the field. The latter are usually preferable. The main +advantages at high altitudes over the plane-table are, that a much +larger area can be covered in a given time in the field, that the +instruments are more portable for difficult climbing, that there is +no necessity to do accurate drawing with numbed fingers, and that +the draughtsman may see the country from several points of view<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span> +at one time. On the other hand, more equipment is necessary, and—a +great disadvantage sometimes, as in this case—the map does not +come into being as one goes along.</p> + +<p>After carrying out various preliminary adjustments and tests +at the office of the Trigonometrical Survey at Dehra Dun, I reached +Darjeeling on April 30, and Tingri on June 19, travelling with +Expedition Headquarters via Phāri Dzong.</p> + +<p><i>En route</i> Tingri, we had caught glimpses of Everest and the +neighbouring peaks; so that by the time we arrived there, I was +able, with the help of the existing maps and what local information +we had obtained, to decide on the area I would attempt to survey. +I say “attempt,” for little was really known then about the geography, +and still less about the weather conditions throughout the summer. +As it turned out in the end, the area had to be much curtailed, and +certain parts surveyed in considerably less detail than I should have +liked: almost wholly on account of the weather. Although it was +often fairly clear at 6 a.m. or so, photographs taken before 8, +particularly at the latter end of the season, were of little use for +surveying purposes.</p> + +<p>However, at the outset, I had hoped to map, on the scale of 1 inch += 1 mile, the whole area between the Arun Gorge on the East and +the Rā Chu on the West: and from the Nepāl-Tibet boundary +Northwards for some 20 miles; i.e. to the point where the various +streams, flowing in a Northerly direction from the high boundary +ridge, issue from the mountains proper into the more rolling foot-hills +on the Southern outskirts of the Tibetan Plateau. This area includes +Mount Everest itself near the centre of its Southern side, Makālu and +Pk. 25,413 to the South-east, Pks. 23,800 (Khārtaphu), 23,420, and +23,080 to the North-east and North, and Pks. 25,990 (Gyāchung +Kang), 25,202, 25,909 and 26,867 (Cho Oyu) to the North-west; and +comprises some 1,000 square miles of country: a suitable season's work, +given reasonably fine weather. This unfortunately we did not get.</p> + +<p>On June 24, the day after Messrs. Mallory and Bullock had started +for the Rongbuk Valley, Dr. Heron and I marched South across the +plain to the village of <ins title="Shärto">Sharto</ins>, <i>en route</i> Kyetrāk, in the Rā Chu Valley, +where I intended to establish my base camp while surveying the +Kyetrāk Glacier and West face of the Cho Oyu—Gyachung Kāng +group. The next day we moved on to Kyetrāk, 1 mile below the +snout of the glacier, and made camp there. This bleak village and +the route to it and over the Phüse La have already been described.</p> + +<p>June 26 was fine, so after crossing the Rā Chu on local ponies,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span> +ourselves and our ice-axes and rucksacks perched on Tibetan saddles—a +cold and uncomfortable proceeding in the early morning—we +ascended the 18,000-foot hill immediately West of the village. Up +to 1 p.m. we had excellent views across and up the Kyetrāk Valley; +but only a glimpse of Gauri Sankar (Chomo Tsering) to the South-west, +where heavy clouds soon began to roll up. Cho Oyu and Pk. 25,909 +and their spurs unfortunately cut out all distant views to the South-east, +as they did everywhere in the upper part of this valley; so that +my first view of Everest was from Tingri a month later. Next day, +we started shortly after daylight for a spur on the East side of the +valley; unfortunately—and this happened in the case of almost +every peak I started for until mid-September—clouds began to roll +up, and we were forced to stop to take the photographs before we +had reached a really good view-point.</p> + +<p>Colonel Bury arrived at Kyetrāk shortly after we got back to +camp. On the 28th he and Heron started off early for a flying visit +to the Kyetrāk Glacier and Nangba La; I started later, after getting +kit together, for a camp half-way up the glacier, and about 6 miles +from Kyetrāk. About 2 p.m. I found a comparatively dry spot on +shale at 18,000 feet, and pitched my tents there, the last of the coolies +arriving only at 6 p.m. The place was bleak enough, but was as far +as I could get that day, and seemed suitable for two climbs—one on +either side of the glacier.</p> + +<p>My equipment consisted of the camera, theodolite, and a small +plane-table—to help in identifying triangulated points—by way of +instruments, which were carried by three coolies who remained with +me. Ten other coolies slept at the base camp at Kyetrāk, and carried +stores up to me or moved the camp, as required; the camp consisted +of a Whymper tent for the three coolies and a Meade for myself; +bedding, food, a Primus stove and tin of kerosene for my own cooking, +and yak dung fuel for the coolies. My servant remained at the base +camp and sent up cooked meat and vegetables; otherwise I cooked +for myself.</p> + +<p>June 29 and 30 were useless days; but on July 1 the weather +cleared a bit, and after crossing the glacier, I went up a sharp rock +shoulder of Cho Rapzang. The peak was mainly loose granite blocks +at a steep angle, so that progress was slow: it was noon when I reached +the top (about 19,500 feet), and as I did so the clouds settled down, +and it began to snow. However, at 4 p.m. it cleared sufficiently for +some work to be done; after that we came down as quickly as possible +in another blinding snowstorm, and reached camp just after dark;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span> +I for one very tired. I found the coolies exceedingly slow in coming +down the loose blocks, I think because their balance was bad—they +had to use their hands far more than I did.</p> + +<p>I had a good view of the glacier from here: the East side is very +steep and broken, with several tributary glaciers flowing down from +Cho Oyu and Pk. 25,909, and from a 23,000-foot Peak (not triangulated) +to the North of the latter. The West side, except for Cho Rapzang, +round which the glacier flows, is a snowfield falling more or less gently +from a low ridge running from the pass to the West of Cho Rapzang. +The glacier itself is like many others in this region, moraine covered +for 3 or 4 miles above its snout, “pinnacled” for another mile, and +finally practically flat. But this flat portion gives by no means good +going; when frozen it is very irregular and trying to walk over; and +when thawed, is slushy and water soaked. There are two large water +channels in the ice which are unpleasant to cross; these are from +10 to 15 feet wide and 20 feet deep, and carry a large volume of water +in the afternoon. Crossing without a rope is distinctly dangerous, +for although one can find places easy enough to jump, a slip would +be certain death, for once in the channel it would be quite impossible +to get out, or even to stop oneself on its smooth ice floor and sides.</p> + +<p>Cloudy weather then set in; but on the 3rd I got a few +photographs from a shoulder near by, and moved camp 2 or 3 miles +farther up the glacier (at about 18,500 feet). I was in this camp for +nine days and only succeeded in taking two low stations, one on either +side of the glacier and each about 1½ miles from the pass (Nangba +La) to Nepāl; but the valley on the South side, leading down to +Khungphu, turns sharply to the East just below the pass, and little +could be seen of the Nepalese side. Each of these stations I went up +twice—to wait all day long the first time, in each case, for weather +which never came. To reach the station on the East side of the +glacier I had the only comparatively difficult rock climbing which I +met with during the course of the Expedition; and on the way down +watched my theodolite coolie, whom I had left behind exhausted in +the morning, tumble off a steep rock arête, theodolite and all; +fortunately he jammed in a crack a few feet below, and was unhurt. +During the day he had started up after us on his own, and had lost +his way in the clouds.</p> + +<p>On July 12—another wet day—I moved camp some distance +down the main glacier and up a tributary flowing from Pk. 25,909 and +Cho Oyu, and next day ascended a shoulder whence a good view into +the cirque below these two peaks was obtained—or should have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span> +obtained! But again I sat till dusk and saw little or nothing. Early +the following day, however, it was fairly clear, so I got my photographs +and then moved camp back to the base at Kyetrāk.</p> + +<p>The next three days were spent in moving my base camp to the +bridge across the Rā Chu, 6 miles below Kyetrāk; taking a light +camp up to about 18,000 feet on the prominent hill immediately +East of the bridge, climbing the latter, sitting through the usual +storms without doing any work, and returning to the bridge. Time +was getting on, and the weather was still bad, so I then decided to +leave my camp at the bridge and move into Headquarters myself +to get developing, etc., up to date, and have a short rest. I walked +into Tingri, with two coolies, on July 18, and found Colonel Bury +there alone: and the Headquarters house felt very comfortable +indeed after a Meade tent, in spite of nightly pilgrimages from one +dry spot to another, as the roof leaked!</p> + +<p>Five busy days were spent at Tingri developing and printing; +and as the weather showed little sign of improvement, I decided to +go on with Headquarters to Chöbuk, in the Rongbuk Valley and work +on that side, so as to make sure of completing the most important +part, in the vicinity of Everest, and return to the Kyetrāk Valley if +there should be time. So on the 24th Colonel Bury and I left Tingri +and reached Chöbuk on the 25th, where we met Mallory and Bullock, +just in from their reconnaissance of the North and North-west sides +of Everest. A talk with them gave me some idea of the country, +and the view from an 18,000-foot hill above Chöbuk enabled me to +make a plan of campaign: far more extensive, as always, than the +weather eventually allowed.</p> + +<p>Colonel Bury, Mallory and Bullock had gone on to Khārta on July +26; on the 27th I moved up the right bank of the Rongbuk Valley +some 10 miles, to the monastery, above which I took a 20,000-foot +<ins title="tation">station</ins> the next day. The weather was dreadful, but at 6 p.m. I +got a round of photographs, which really turned out very well +considering the time of day at which they were taken: it took me +four and a half hours to get up this peak—fresh snow and scree—and +although I had no glissades, only half an hour to come down.</p> + +<p>On the 27th I moved camp to a grassy hollow near the snout of +the glacier—Mallory and Bullock's base—and next day occupied +another hill overlooking the main glacier and valley, and looking up +the side valley on the East, which joins the Dzākar Chu just below +the glacier snout. The next three days were spent in establishing +a light camp on the left bank of the East branch of the Rongbuk<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span> +Glacier, about 3 miles from its snout, and taking a station on its left +bank to overlook both the East and main glaciers.</p> + +<p>The Rongbuk Glacier is made up of two large branches, one flowing +from the snow basin immediately below the great North wall of +Everest, and the other, the “West Rongbuk” which joins the main +stream about 4 miles above the snout of the glacier, flowing East +in the basin between the high North-west ridge of Everest and the +South-east slopes of Pk. 25,990 (Gyāchung Kang). At one time there +was a third branch, the “East Rongbuk,” which must have also +joined the main stream, but this has receded until its snout is now +a mile or more East of the main glacier, and only its torrent pours +into a large cave in the latter. The East Rongbuk itself consists of +two branches: one, the more southerly, flows from the great snow +basin (which we eventually crossed to reach the North Col) between +Everest, its North Peak and Col, and Pk. 23,800 (Khārtaphu); and +the other, which joins the South branch about 2 miles from its snout, +from between Pks. 23,800 and 23,420. The former gives a 20,000-foot +pass, very steep on the South side, to the Kāma Valley; and the +latter, an easy pass of about the same height to the head of one branch +of the Khārta Valley.</p> + +<p>I camped, at about 19,500 feet, on the moraine-covered glacier +opposite the junction of the northerly branch from Pks. 23,800 and +23,420. On the way up I followed the watercourse between the ice +of the Main Rongbuk Glacier and the scree and conglomerate slopes +to the East of it, as far as the mouth of the East Rongbuk stream +(3 miles), which gave good though boulder-strewn going. Thence a +short scramble up “cut-bank” on the right bank of the East Rongbuk +stream to the shelf of an old lateral moraine of that glacier, and along +the latter—excellent going—to near its snout. The stream is pretty +big in the evening; but quite easy to cross—except for iced rocks—in +the early morning: and from there I followed up a series of lateral +moraines on the left bank, to my camp. It was not till I was coming +down that I discovered that the moraine-covered glacier itself—here +covered with shale instead of boulders and scree as in the case of the +main glacier—gave comfortable walking.</p> + +<p>A little distance below my camp site, the moraine-covered snout +gives place to pinnacled ice, divided into three sections by two broad, +shaly medial moraines. Either of the latter would be very suitable +for a camp, and would give an excellent route to our 21,500-foot camp +below the Chang La. The latter might, I think, be reached +by this route in three days from the base camp at the snout of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span> +main glacier, camping the first night at 19,000 feet at the start of +the medial moraine, the second at 20,000 feet on the medial moraine +some 2 miles above the junction of the Northern and Southern +branches of the East Rongbuk, and the third night on snow at 21,500 +feet below the North Col. The better moraine to ascend would require +reconnaissance; for the pinnacles between them are difficult and slow +to cross. The valley sides are steep in the lower reaches of the glacier, +but more shaly and gentle on both branches, above their junction.</p> + +<p>August 3 broke clear; and I started up a likely looking peak +behind (South of) camp, which appeared to be on the ridge between +the East and main glaciers. I afterwards found that this was not +the case; at the time I had to stop on a lower point as the clouds +settled down. From here I had a glimpse of a big peak—Makālu, +I thought—over the pass at the head of the southerly branch of the +glacier: and this gave me the idea that there must be a comparatively +low pass from here to the Kāma Valley. But clouds prevented me +seeing more and studying the topography more carefully. There +were heavy snowstorms on August 4 and 5, but the 6th looked better, +and after four hours' most strenuous step-cutting up and slithering +down pinnacles, I crossed the glacier and ascended a 21,000-foot +station on the other side, from which I obtained good, if cloudy, +views of the East Rongbuk Glacier. Snow in the night and a dull +morning made me decide to abandon this area—I could get my camp +no farther up owing to having insufficient warm clothes to camp all +my coolies at this height—and I returned to the base camp, preparatory +to tackling the West side of the Rongbuk Valley. Six hours' easy +going took me to my base camp.</p> + +<p>After two days' rest and office work, I crossed the glacier and put +a light camp at about 19,000 feet in a small hanging valley below +the “Finger,” a black rock gendarme which is a very prominent +landmark on the left bank of the Rongbuk Valley. On August 11 +it snowed heavily, and I found my bed, in which I spent the day, +very hard indeed—the camp being pitched on large boulders on +top of the moraine. On the 12th, 13th, and 14th, I started for the +“Finger,” the first time by the ridge immediately above camp, which +gave some nice climbing with the rocks partly snow covered as they +were, and the other two days, by a much quicker but less interesting +route up soft snow and scree. Each day the clouds came down, and +although I waited till nearly dark at about 20,500 feet on the ridge, it was +not till the third day that I got a round of indifferent photographs.</p> + +<p>Time was getting on, so on the 15th I called my “Finger” station<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span> +“good enough” and moved camp up the left bank of the main glacier +to a point on the old lateral moraine, opposite the entrance of the +stream from the East Rongbuk; and the next day round the corner +to the West, some distance up the West Rongbuk Glacier, and about +1,000 feet above it. <i>En route</i>, I tried to get some photographs from +the high moraine at the junction of the West with the main glacier; +but again the weather defeated me, and I got into camp—another +uncomfortable one—soaked to the skin.</p> + +<p>I was in this camp for five days; most of them spent huddled +under rocks waiting for the clouds to lift. I had one beautiful +day, my only one in six weeks, and got some very nice photographs +of Mount Everest and its West ridge. It is surprising how a little +good weather and the feeling of having really done some work affects +one's spirits!</p> + +<p>On August 21 I moved back to my base camp at the glacier snout, +again trying for a station at the corner—and failing. I had not +done nearly as much as I wanted to do; but there seemed to be no +end to the bad weather, and only a month or a bit more remained in +which to map the whole of the East side of the mountain: and I +had heard from Colonel Bury that there would be a considerable +amount of work on that side. Originally, I had hoped not only to +return to the bridge over the Rā Chu to complete the work in the +Kyetrāk Valley, but also to take several stations in the valleys running +North from the 23,000-foot group North of Everest. But again apart +from shortage of time, the weather made it out of the question, and I +went through to Khārta, via the Doya La, arriving there on August 27.</p> + +<p>The change in scenery immediately one crosses the Doya La is +most marked, both as regards rock and vegetation. The former—mostly +gneiss—is far more rugged and interesting, and there is infinitely +more of the latter. The Headquarters camp at Khārta, in a little +poplar grove, was pleasant indeed after the bleak, uninteresting +Rongbuk Valley; and I thoroughly enjoyed my five days there, +developing and printing; busy days, but very different from lying +on one's back on the sharp boulders of the Rongbuk moraines. +Mallory, Bullock and Morshead were in Khārta when I arrived; +Colonel Bury and Wollaston returned from their excursion to the +Popti La soon after, and Raeburn arrived on September 1. It was +a great treat to me to be able to “swap lies” with so many people, +after two months almost wholly alone!</p> + +<p>On September 3 Morshead and I started up the Khārta Chu in +the wake of Mallory and Bullock, who had gone up to get the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span> +“bundobust” for the final fling going. As usual, bad weather dogged +my footsteps, and although the weather while I was in Khārta had +been glorious, Morshead and I spent seven days in taking two very +indifferent stations in the lower part of the Khārta Valley, before +joining the remainder of the expedition at the “Advanced Base” +on September 11. A further eight days were spent there, waiting +for the weather; but in that time I was able to get two very useful +stations, one on either side of the valley.</p> + +<p>On September 19 I moved up to “No. 1 Camp” with Mallory, +Bullock and Morshead; and shared the fortunes of the rest of the +Expedition as far as Kampa Dzong on the way back to Darjeeling, +where Raeburn, Heron and I left Headquarters to return to Darjeeling +via <ins title="Lachen">Lāchen</ins> and the Teesta Valley. I was delighted to get +into the “final push,” and enjoyed the few days' change from surveying +to climbing, enormously; except that I felt the cold very much in +my feet, and had it not been for Mallory's good offices—he rubbed +my feet for a solid hour after we came down from Chang La—I +feel sure that the result might have been much more serious than +the slight discomfort I afterwards experienced.</p> + +<p>I took three stations in the neighbourhood of No. 1 Camp—one +on either side of the <ins title="Kharta">Khārta</ins> Glacier, and one at 22,300 feet on the +“Lhakpa La.” This was on snow, with my instrument resting on, +and steadied by, bags of “tsampa”; which proved to be a most +excellent substitute for rock!</p> + +<p>On September 26 I crossed with Colonel Bury and Wollaston to +the Kāma Valley; unfortunately, we only had two clear days there, +and I had to leave it without covering as much ground as I should +have liked, though—as usual—I spent my days in snowstorms, +hoping for breaks in the clouds.</p> + +<p>The return to Darjeeling via the Serpo La, Lāchen, and the Teesta +Valley, made a pleasant change from the Phāri route; but again +bad weather spoiled our views, and we saw nothing at all of +<ins title="Kangchenjunga">Kanchenjunga</ins> and its neighbours. Raeburn went in by the usual +road via Gangtok; Heron and I followed the river—an excellent +route in spite of the prevalence of leeches—and reached Pashok on +October 19. Heron went on to Darjeeling, a further 18 miles, the +same day. I followed on the 20th.</p> + +<p>I enjoyed the Expedition and my work with it, thoroughly; but +in my opinion, Tibet, at any rate that portion of it in which we were, +is a place to have <i>been</i>, rather than one to go to!</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span></p> + +<h2>APPENDIX III</h2> + +<p style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%;">A NOTE ON THE GEOLOGICAL RESULTS OF THE EXPEDITION</p> + +<p style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%;"><span class="smcap">By</span> A. M. HERON, D.Sc., F.G.S., Geological Survey of India.</p> + +<p>The area geologically examined is somewhat over 8,000 square +miles, comprising the Tibetan portion of the Arun drainage area, +with, in the West, the headwaters of the Bhotia Kosi and its tributaries.</p> + +<p>The circumstances of the Expedition were not favourable for +work in any detail, but an endeavour was made to traverse and map +as large an area as possible on a scale of ¼-inch to the mile, on skeleton +maps very kindly furnished by Major Morshead and his surveyors as +their plane-tabling proceeded; my work must therefore be considered +as a geological reconnaissance pure and simple.</p> + +<p>If I am accorded the privilege of accompanying the second +Expedition, by which time Major Wheeler's map on a scale of 1-inch +to the mile will be available, I hope to be able to make a detailed +survey of the vicinity of Mount Everest and investigate the complicated +inter-relationships of the metamorphosed sedimentaries and the +associated gneisses and granites.</p> + +<p>My survey continues to the Westward Sir Henry Hayden's work +during the Tibet Expedition in 1903–4.</p> + +<p>Geologically this area is divided into two broad divisions: (<i>a</i>) +Tibetan and sedimentary, (<i>b</i>) Himalayan and crystalline, a distinction +which is clearly displayed in the topography resulting from the +underlying geological structure, for to the North we have the somewhat +tame and lumpy mountains of Tibet contrasting with the higher, +steeper and more rugged Himalayas on the South.</p> + +<p>The Tibetan zone consists of an intensely folded succession of +shales and limestones, with subordinate sandstone quartzites, the +folds striking East-West and mainly lying over towards the South, +showing that the movements which produced them came from the +North.</p> + +<p>The uppermost rocks consist of the Kampa system of Hayden, +a great thickness of limestones, which, where the rocks have escaped +alteration, yield an assemblage of fossils which determine their age<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span> +as Cretaceous and Eocene.</p> + +<p>Below these is a monotonous succession of shales, practically +unfossiliferous, with occasional quartzites and limestones representing +the Upper and Middle Jurassic with at the base beds probably belonging +to the Lias.</p> + +<p>These Jurassic shales are by far the most conspicuous formation +in this part of Tibet, being repeated many times in complicated folds.</p> + +<p>The Cretaceous-Eocene limestones form comparatively narrow +bands, occurring as compressed synclines caught up in the folded +complex of Jurassic shales.</p> + +<p>Along the Southern border of the Tibetan zone, below the base of +the Jurassic shales, is a great thickness (2,000 feet–3,000 feet) of +thinly bedded limestones in which the fossils have been destroyed +and the rocks themselves converted over considerable areas into +crystalline limestones and calc-gneisses containing tremolite, epidote, +tourmaline, etc., but still retaining their original bedded structure in +the banding of the altered rock.</p> + +<p>The absence of determinable fossils makes it impossible to determine +the age of these with certainty, but from their lithological character +and position in the sequence, it is possible that they correspond with +the Tso Lhamo limestone in <ins title="Sikhim">Sikkim</ins> (Lias) and the Kioto limestone +of the Zangskar range (Lower Jurassic and Upper Trias).</p> + +<p>The Himalayan and crystalline zone is essentially composed of +foliated and banded biotite-gneiss, usually garnetiferous, on which +lie, at comparatively low angles and with a general Northerly dip, the +above-mentioned calc-gneisses.</p> + +<p>These occur most abundantly to the North and West of Everest, +in the Keprak, Rongbu, Hlalung and Rebu Valleys. The group of +high peaks to the North-west of Everest (overlooking the <ins title="Khumbu">Khombu</ins> +Pass) is made up of these and intrusive schorl granite, and it would +seem that the precipitous North-western face and spurs of Everest +are the same.</p> + +<p>The Eastern and North-eastern valleys, Chongphu, Kharta and +Kama, which are in general at a lower level than the North-western +valleys, are excavated in the biotite-gneiss. On the North-eastern +face of Everest fresh snow was too abundant at the time of my visit +to make out what the rocks were.</p> + +<p>Associated with the limestones and calc-gneisses are quartzites +and tourmaline-biotite schists which probably represent the lowest +portions of the shales immediately overlying the limestones.</p> + +<p>It is probable that the biotite-gneiss is an igneous rock intrusive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span> +in the calc-gneisses and schists, but this and many other puzzling +features of the crystallines require more detailed study than I was able +to give this year.</p> + +<p>Both biotite-gneiss and metamorphosed sedimentaries are crowded +with dykes and sills, of all dimensions, of schorl granite or pegmatite +to such an extent that this granite is frequently the predominant +rock. It is highly resistant to weathering and it is doubtless due to +its presence in large amount that such comparatively soft rocks as +the calc-gneisses take part in forming some of the highest summits.</p> + +<p>In the same way the scattered peaks of over 20,000 feet on the +watershed between the Arun and the Tsangpo owe their prominence +to their being groups of veins of a very similar granite, differing in +that it contains biotite in place of schorl. Around these separate +centres of intrusion are areoles of metamorphism in which the Jurassic +shales have been converted into slates and phyllites.</p> + +<p>Economically the area traversed by the Expedition is devoid of +interest. Barring a little copper staining on a few boulders on moraines +no traces of ore were seen.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span></p> + +<h2>APPENDIX IV</h2> + +<p style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%;">THE SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT</p> + +<p style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%;"><span class="smcap">By</span> A. R. HINKS, F.R.S., Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society.</p> + +<p>The most important scientific work of the first year's expedition +should have been the study of the physiological effects of high altitude +that Dr. Kellas had undertaken, with the support of Professor +Haldane, F.R.S., and of the Oxygen Research Committee of the +Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. In his work on +Kamet in 1920, Dr. Kellas had tried, and provisionally decided against, +the use of oxygen compressed in cylinders: but he laboured under the +grave disadvantage that the light cylinders he hoped to obtain had +been, after his departure for India, pronounced unsafe; and the +cylinders sent out were clearly too heavy for effective use in climbing. +Dr. Kellas had therefore fallen back on the use of oxygen prepared +from the reaction between water and oxylith in an apparatus which +included a kind of gas mask. He was prepared also to make several +difficult researches into the physiological processes of adaptation to +low oxygen pressure; and some delicate apparatus was prepared +and sent out to him by the Oxygen Research Committee. Unhappily +these interesting and important enquiries came to nought, for there +was no one competent to carry them on after his lamented death at +Kampa Dzong; and the Expedition of 1922 was thereby deprived +of much information that should have been at its disposal in studying +the use of oxygen for the grand assault.</p> + +<p>The scientific equipment for which the Mount Everest Committee +were directly responsible was not ambitious: the Survey of India +were responsible for the whole of the survey and brought their own +equipment, which is described elsewhere in this book. It was necessary +to provide the climbing party only with aneroids, compasses, reserve +field-glasses, thermometers and cameras, with subsidiary apparatus +for checking the aneroids at the base camps, and heavier cameras +for work at lower levels.</p> + +<p>The aneroids by Cary, Porter & Co. and by Short & Mason were +constructed in pairs, to operate from 15,000 to 23,000, and 22,000 to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span> +30,000 feet respectively. They seem to have performed well on the +whole, and tests made at the National Physical Laboratory since their +return show that they have changed very little; but it cannot be +said that their performances were very effectively controlled in the +field, for until late in the season there were no trigonometrical heights +available, and the climbers had little opportunity in their rather +isolated circumstances of employing their aneroids to the best +advantage, for purely differential work. Nor is there much to be +said as yet on the value of the shortened form of George mercurial +barometer, to come into action only at 15,000 feet (Cary, Porter & +Co.). These instruments will find effective use only in the second +season, when the reference points of the trigonometrical survey will +be available as fundamental data.</p> + +<p>The climbers carried “Magnapole” compasses with luminous +points, and sometimes a Mark VIII prismatic; these all worked +well. The simpler compass is the more convenient for use on snow +when goggles must be worn. A luminous liquid compass (Short & +Mason) was found very useful on long reconnaissance rides.</p> + +<p>For the record of temperatures in camps Messrs. Negretti & Zambra +had made three small pairs of maximum and minimum thermometers +in leather travelling cases. These suffered some casualties, by theft, +or being accidentally left out in the sun; and the pattern has been +repeated for the second year's work.</p> + +<p>The heavier photographic equipment included an old and well-seasoned +7½ × 5 Hare Camera, lent to the Expedition, but newly +fitted by Messrs. Dallmeyer with a Stigmatic lens of 9 inches focal +length, a negative telephoto lens of 4 inches focal length giving +enlargement up to 6 times, and a set of Wratten filters. With this +camera Mr. Wollaston secured some of the finest pictures taken on the +Expedition.</p> + +<p>There were also two quarter-plate cameras for glass plates: a +Sinclair Una camera fitted by Messrs. Dallmeyer with a Stigmatic +lens of 5.3 inches focal length, and Adon telephoto lens; and a second +Sinclair camera lent by Captain Noel.</p> + +<p>One or the other of these two was used by Mr. Mallory at many +of the high camps, and both the Hare 7½ × 5 and the Sinclair quarter-plate +went to the 22,500-foot camp at the Lhakpa La: doubtless +the greatest height yet attained by so large a camera as the former. +The principal difficulty with these cameras was unsteadiness in a +heavy wind when the telephoto lens was in use: and the tripods +have been strengthened and the lens supports stiffened before they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span> +go out again.</p> + +<p>The plates were of two kinds: Imperial Special Rapid and Fine +Grain slow. The latter were generally preferred, and could hardly +have been better. The Imperial Dry Plate Company, who generously +made and presented these plates to the Expedition, deserve special +thanks for their skill and for their generosity.</p> + +<p>The cameras which used films were a Panoram Kodak of 5 inches +focal length, with films 12 × 4 inches; a No. 1 Autograph Kodak, +and two Vest Pocket Kodaks, all three fitted with Cooke lenses by +Messrs. Taylor, Taylor & Hobson. The Panoram Kodak was used +very successfully by Colonel Howard-Bury, and the splendid series of +panoramas is the most useful, if not quite the most beautiful, set of +photographs brought home. The smaller cameras were used by the +climbing party with many good results.</p> + +<p>Finally it must be said that a large part of the best photographs +were taken by Colonel Howard-Bury with his own 7 × 5 Kodak, +and the results very generously placed at the disposal of the Committee.</p> + +<p>All the instruments were examined and tested at the National +Physical Laboratory, and the thanks of the Committee are due to +the Director and his staff, who gave most valuable advice and +assistance.</p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span></p> + +<h2>APPENDIX V</h2> + +<p style="text-align: center; font-size: 150%;">MAMMALS, BIRDS AND PLANTS COLLECTED BY THE EXPEDITION</p> + +<p style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%;"><span class="smcap">By</span> A. F. R. WOLLASTON</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 5em;">A.—LIST OF MAMMALS COLLECTED</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 0em;">Stoat. <i>Mustela temon</i><br /> +Stoat. <i>Mustela longstaffi</i><br /> +Marmot. <i>Marmota himalayana</i><br /> +Hamster. <i>Cricetulus alticola tibetanus</i>, subsp. n.<br /> +Vole. <i>Phaiomys leucurus</i><br /> +Vole. <i>Phaiomys everesti</i><br /> +Vole. <i>Microtus</i> (<i>Alticola</i>), sp.<br /> +Pika. <i>Ochotona roylei nepalensis</i><br /> +Pika. <i>Ochotona wollastoni</i>, sp. n.<br /> +Pika. <i>Ochotona curzoniæ</i><br /> +</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 5em;">B.—LIST OF BIRDS COLLECTED</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 0em;">Central Asian blackbird. <i>Turdus maxima</i><br /> +Solitary thrush. <i>Monticola solitarius</i><br /> +White-breasted Asiatic dipper. <i>Cinclus cashmirensis</i><br /> +Indian stone-chat. <i>Saxicola torquata indica</i><br /> +Gould's desert chat. <i>Saxicola montana</i><br /> +Bush chat. <i>Pratincola prjevalskii</i><br /> +Indian redstart. <i>Ruticilla rufiventris</i><br /> +Guldenstadt's Afghan redstart. <i>Ruticilla grandis</i><br /> +White-capped redstart. <i>Chimarrhornis leucocephalus</i><br /> +Hodgson's grandala. <i>Grandala cœlicolor</i><br /> +Tickell's willow-warbler. <i>Phylloscopus affinis</i><br /> +Mandelli's willow-warbler. <i>Phylloscopus mandellii</i><br /> +Smoky willow-warbler. <i>Phylloscopus fulviventris</i><br /> +Spotted bush-warbler. <i>Lusciniola thoracica</i><br /> +Prince Henry's laughing thrush. <i>Trochalopterum henrici</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span><br /> +Eastern alpine accentor. <i>Accentor rufiliatus</i><br /> +Red-breasted accentor. <i>Accentor rubeculoides</i><br /> +Rufous-breasted accentor. <i>Accentor strophiatus</i><br /> +Brown accentor. <i>Accentor fulvescens</i><br /> +Sikkim black tit. <i>Parus beavani</i><br /> +Wren. <i>Troglodytes</i>, sp.<br /> +Hodgson's pied wagtail. <i>Motacilla hodgsoni</i><br /> +White-faced wagtail. <i>Motacilla leucopsis</i><br /> +Yellow-headed wagtail. <i>Motacilla citreola.</i><br /> +Blyth's pipit. <i>Anthus citreola</i><br /> +Indian tree-pipit. <i>Anthus maculatus</i><br /> +Hodgson's pipit. <i>Anthus rosaceus</i><br /> +Grey-backed shrike. <i>Lanius tephronotus</i><br /> +Slaty-blue flycatcher. <i>Cyornis leucomelanurus</i><br /> +Himalayan greenfinch. <i>Hypacanthis spinoides</i><br /> +Tree-sparrow. <i>Passer montanus</i><br /> +Cinnamon tree-sparrow. <i>Passer cinnamomeus</i><br /> +Blanford's snow-finch. <i>Montifringilla blanfordi</i><br /> +Adams' snow-finch. <i>Montifringilla adamsi.</i><br /> +Hodgson's ground-finch. <i>Fringilauda nemoricola</i><br /> +Brandt's ground-linnet. <i>Leucosticte brandti.</i><br /> +Walton's twite. <i>Linota rufostrigata</i><br /> +Red-breasted rose-finch. <i>Pyrrhospiza punicea</i><br /> +Scarlet rose-finch. <i>Carpodacus erythrinus</i><br /> +Hodgson's rose-finch. <i>Carpodacus pulcherrimus</i><br /> +Severtzoff's rose-finch. <i>Carpodacus severtzoi</i><br /> +Prejewalk's rose-finch. <i>Carpodacus rubicilloides</i><br /> +Red-headed bullfinch. <i>Pyrrhula erythrocephala</i><br /> +Godlevski's meadow bunting. <i>Emberiza godlevskii</i><br /> +Elwes' shore-lark. <i>Otocorys elwesi</i><br /> +Long-billed calandra lark. <i>Melanocorpha maxima</i><br /> +Tibetan skylark. <i>Alauda inopinata</i><br /> +Short-toed lark. <i>Calandrella brachydactyla</i><br /> +Brook's short-toed lark. <ins title="Calandrella acutirostris tibitana"><i>Calandrella acutirostris tibetana</i></ins><br /> +Chough. <i>Pyrrhocorax graculus</i><br /> +Brown ground-chough. <i>Podoces humilis</i><br /> +Common hoopoe. <i>Upupa epops</i><br /> +Pied crested cuckoo. <i>Coccystes jacobinus</i><br /> +Eastern little owl. <i>Athene bactriana</i><br /> +White-backed dove. <i>Columba leuconota</i><br /> +Snow partridge. <i>Lerwa lerwa</i><br /> +Temminck's stint. <i>Tringa temmincki</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span><br /> +Redshank. <i>Totanus calidris</i><br /> +Dusky redshank. <i>Totanus fuscus</i><br /> +Greater sand plover. <ins title="Aægialitis mongola"><i>Aegialitis mongola</i></ins><br /> +Common tern. <i>Sterna fluviatilis</i><br /> +</p> + +<p>In addition to the above the following birds were identified, but +specimens of them were not obtained:—</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 0em;">Wall-creeper<br /> +House martin<br /> +Sand martin<br /> +Rock martin<br /> +Alpine chough<br /> +Magpie<br /> +Black crow<br /> +Raven<br /> +Swift<br /> +Siberian swift<br /> +Cuckoo<br /> +Himalayan vulture<br /> +<ins title="Lammergeier">Lämmergeier</ins><br /> +Sea eagle<br /> +Pallas' sea eagle<br /> +Black-eared kite<br /> +Barheaded goose<br /> +Ruddy sheldrake<br /> +Garganey<br /> +Wigeon<br /> +Pochard<br /> +Gadwall<br /> +Hill rock-dove<br /> +Chinese turtle dove<br /> +Tibetan partridge<br /> +Tibetan snow partridge<br /> +Blood pheasant<br /> +Black-necked crane<br /> +White stork<br /> +Ibis-bill<br /> +Painted snipe<br /> +Pin-tailed snipe<br /> +Brown-headed gull<br /> +</p> + +<p>C.—LIST OF PLANTS COLLECTED BETWEEN JUNE AND +SEPTEMBER, 1921, 12,000–20,400 <span class="smcap">ft.</span></p> + +<p style="text-indent: 0em;">Clematis orientalis, L.<br /> +Ranunculus pulchellus, C. A. Mey., var. sericeus, Hk. f. & T.<br /> +Ranunculus pulchellus, C. A. Mey.<br /> +Anemone obtusiloba, Don<br /> +Anemone polyanthes, Don<br /> +Anemone rivularis, Ham.<br /> +Geranium Grevilleanum, Wall.<br /> +Caltha scaposa, Hk. f. & T.<br /> +Delphinium Brunonianum, Royle<br /> +Aconitum gymnandrum, Max.<br /> +Aconitum orochryseum, Stapf, sp. nov.<br /> +Delphinium Pylzowii, Maxim.<br /> +Halenia elliptica, Don<br /> +Delphinium grandiflorum, L.<br /> +Hypecoum leptocarpum, Hk. f. & T.<br /> +Meconopsis horridula, Hk. f. & T.<br /> +Meconopsis grandis, Prain?<br /> +Meconopsis, sp.<br /> +Corydalis, sp.<br /> +Corydalis juncea, Wall.<br /> +Corydalis Moorcroftiana, Wall.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span><br /> +Arabis tibetica, Hk. f. & T.<br /> +Lepidium ruderale, L.<br /> +Arenaria ciliolata, Edgew.<br /> +Dilophia salsa, Hk. f. & T.<br /> +Cardamine macrophylla, Willd.<br /> +Arenaria Stracheyi, Edgew.<br /> +Silene Waltoni, F. N. Williams<br /> +Silene Moorcroftiana, Wall.<br /> +Arenaria musciformis, Wall.<br /> +Arenaria melandrioides, Edgew.<br /> +Polygonum islandicum, Hk. f.<br /> +Geranium collinum, A. DC.<br /> +Impatiens sulcatus, Wall.<br /> +Thermopsis barbata, Royle<br /> +Thermopsis lanceolata, R. Br.<br /> +Sophora Moorcroftiana, Benth.<br /> +Stracheya tibetica, Benth.<br /> +Astragalus strictus, Grah.<br /> +Oxytropis microphylla, DC<br /> +Gueldenstædtia uniflora, Benth.<br /> +Desmodium nutans, Wall.<br /> +Potentilla coriandrifolia, Hk. f.<br /> +Potentilla multifida, L.<br /> +Potentilla sericea, L.<br /> +Potentilla microphylla, Don<br /> +Potentilla peduncularis, Don<br /> +Potentilla Griffithii, Hk. f.<br /> +Spiræa arcuata, Hk. f.<br /> +Saxifraga Lychnitis, Hk. f. & T.<br /> +Saxifraga nutans, Hk. f. & T.<br /> +Saxifraga aristulata, Hk. f.<br /> +Saxifraga near S. saginoides, Hk. f. & T.<br /> +Saxifraga flagellaris, Willd.<br /> +Saxifraga Hirculus, L.<br /> +Saxifraga Lychnitis, Hk. f. & T.<br /> +Saxifraga fimbriata, Wall.<br /> +Saxifraga pilifera, Hk. f. & T.<br /> +Saxifraga Caveana, W. W. Sm.<br /> +Saxifraga microphylla, Royle<br /> +Saxifraga pallida, Wall.<br /> +Saxifraga umbellulata, Hk. f. & T.<br /> +Parnassia ovata, Ledeb.<br /> +Parnassia pusilla, Wall.<br /> +Eutrema Prewalskii, Hk. f. & T.<br /> +Sedum fastigiatum, Hk. f. & T.<br /> +Sedum trifidum, Wall.<br /> +Sedum crenulatum, Hk. f. & T.<br /> +Sedum himalense, Don<br /> +Epilobium palustre, L.<br /> +Epilobium reticulatum, C. B. Cl.<br /> +Pleurospermum Hookeri, C. B. Cl.<br /> +Scabiosa Hookeri, C. B. Cl.<br /> +Valeriana Hardwickii, Wall.<br /> +Aster, sp.<br /> +Aster heterochætus, C. B. Cl.<br /> +Allardia glabra, Dene.<br /> +Aster tibeticus, Hk. f.<br /> +Cremanthodium Decaisnei, C. B. Cl.<br /> +Aster diplostephioides, C. B. Cl.<br /> +Erigeron, sp.<br /> +Leontopodium fimbrilligerum, J. R. Drum.?<br /> +Leontopodium monocephalum, Edgew.<br /> +Leontopodium Stracheyi, C. B. Cl.<br /> +Anaphalis xylorhiza, Sch. Bip.<br /> +Anaphalis cuneifolia, Hook. f.<br /> +Tanacetum tibeticum, Hk. f. & T.<br /> +Senecio arnicoides, Wall. var. frigida, Hk. f.<br /> +Cremanthodium pinnatifidum, Benth.<br /> +Chrysanthemum Atkinsoni, C. B. Cl.?<br /> +Artemisia Moorcroftiana, Wall.<br /> +Sonchus sp.<br /> +Senecio glomerata, Decne.<br /> +Senecio (§ Ligularia) sp.<br /> +Senecio chrysanthemoides, DC.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span><br /> +Tanacetum khartense, Dunn, sp. nov.<br /> +Aster sp.<br /> +Lactuca macrantha, C. B. Cl.<br /> +Senecio sorocephala, Hemsl.<br /> +Saussurea gossypina, Wall.<br /> +Saussurea tridactyla, Sch. Bip.<br /> +Tanacetum gossypinum, Hk. f. & T.<br /> +Saussurea wernerioides, Sch. Bip.<br /> +Crepis glomerata, Hk. f.?<br /> +Saussurea graminifolia, Wall.<br /> +Senecio arnicoides, Wall.<br /> +Saussurea uniflora, Wall.<br /> +Morina polyphylla, Wall.<br /> +Saussurea glandulifera, Sch. Bip.<br /> +Lactuca Dubyæa, C. B. Cl.<br /> +Lactuca Lessertiana, C. B. Cl.<br /> +Cassiope fastigiata, D. Don<br /> +Daphne retusa, Hemsl.<br /> +Rhododendron lepidotum, Wall.<br /> +Rhododendron setosum, Don<br /> +Rhododendron near R. lepidotum, Wall.<br /> +Rhododendron campylocarpum, Hk. f.<br /> +Rhododendron cinnabarinum, Hk. f.<br /> +Rhododendron lanatum, Hk. f.<br /> +Rhododendron arboreum, Sm.<br /> +Rhododendron Thomsoni, Hk. f.<br /> +Cyananthus incanus, Hk. f. & T.<br /> +Glossocomia tenera, DC.<br /> +Cyananthus pedunculatus, C. B. Cl.<br /> +Campanula modesta, Hk. f. & T.<br /> +Campanula colorata, Wall.<br /> +Campanula aristata, Wall.<br /> +Androsace chamæjasme, Hort., var. coronata, Wall.<br /> +Androsace villosa, L. var.?<br /> +Androsace strigillosa, Franch.<br /> +Primula minutissima, Jacq.<br /> +Primula Buryana, Balf. f. sp. nov.<br /> +Primula Wollastonii, Balf. f. sp. nov.<br /> +Primula pusilla, Wall.<br /> +Primula sikkimensis, Hook, microform<br /> +Primula capitata, Hook.<br /> +Primula capitata, microform.<br /> +Primula uniflora, Klatt<br /> +Primula Dickieana, Watt.<br /> +Primula obliqua, W. W. Sm.<br /> +Primula indobella. Balf. f.<br /> +Primula minutissima, Jacq.<br /> +Primula glabra, Klatt<br /> +Primula Younghusbandii, sp. nov.<br /> +Primula tibetica, Watt.<br /> +Primula denticulata, Sm.<br /> +Primula sikkimensis, Hook.<br /> +Primula nivalis, Pallas, var. macrocarpa, Pax.<br /> +Gentiana amœna, C. B. Cl.<br /> +Gentiana ornata, Wall.<br /> +Gentiana sp. Probably new but the material is too imperfect to decide this.<br /> +Gentiana Elwesii, C. B. Cl.<br /> +Gentiana robusta, King<br /> +Gentiana micantiformis, Burkill<br /> +Gentiana nubigena, Edgew.<br /> +Gentiana tubiflora, Wall., var. longiflora, Turrill, var. nov.<br /> +Gentiana stellata, Turrill, sp. nov.<br /> +Gentiana tenella, Fries<br /> +Swertia cuneata, Wall.<br /> +Arenaria Stracheyi, Edgew.<br /> +Swertia Kingii, Hk. f.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span><br /> +Swertia Younghusbandii, Burkill<br /> +Swertia multicaulis, D. Don<br /> +Nardostachys grandiflora, DC.<br /> +Trigonotis rotundifolia, Benth.<br /> +Eritrichium densiflorum, Duthie<br /> +Microula sikkimensis, Hemsl.<br /> +Onosma Waddellii, Duthie<br /> +Onosma Hookeri, C. B. Cl.<br /> +Verbascum Thapsus, L.<br /> +Lancea tibetica, Hk. f. & T.<br /> +Lagotis crassifolia, Prain<br /> +Pedicularis trichoglossa, Hk. f.<br /> +Pedicularis Elwesii, Hk. f.<br /> +Pedicularis megalantha, Don, forma<br /> +Pedicularis megalantha, Don, var. pauciflora, Prain<br /> +Pedicularis Roylei, Maxim.<br /> +Pedicularis siphonantha, Don<br /> +Pedicularis cheilanthifolia, Schrank<br /> +Pedicularis tubiflora, Fischer<br /> +Pedicularis integrifolia, Hk. f.<br /> +Pedicularis globifera, Hk. f.<br /> +Incarvillea Younghusbandii, Sprague<br /> +Escholtzia eriostachya, Benth.<br /> +Nardostachys Iatamansi, DC.<br /> +Dracocephalum breviflorum, Turrill, sp. nov.<br /> +Dracocephalum tanguticum, Maxim.<br /> +Dracocephalum heterophyllum, Benth.<br /> +Dracocephalum speciosum, Benth.<br /> +Veronica lanuginosa, Benth.<br /> +Nepeta discolor, Benth.<br /> +Nepeta Thomsoni, Benth.<br /> +Atriplex rosea, L.<br /> +Polygonum vaccinifolium, Wall.<br /> +Polygonum viviparum, L.<br /> +Polygonum tortuosum, Don<br /> +Polygonum affine, Don<br /> +Polygonum amphibium, L.<br /> +Stellera chamæjasme, L.<br /> +Euphorbia Stracheyi, Boiss.<br /> +Orchis cylindrostachys, Kränzl.<br /> +Liparis sp.<br /> +Goodyera fusca, Lindl.<br /> +Dendrobium alpestre, Royle<br /> +Pleione Hookeriana, S. Moore<br /> +Orchis Chusna, Don<br /> +Roscoea purpurea, Sm.<br /> +Iris nepalensis, Don<br /> +Iris goniocarpa, Baker<br /> +Iris tenuifolia, Pallas<br /> +Lloydia tibetica, Baker<br /> +Lloydia sp.<br /> +Fritillaria Hookeri, Baker<br /> +Fritillaria near F. Stracheyi, Hk. f.<br /> +Fritillaria cirrhosa, Don<br /> +Allium, sp.<br /> +Allium Wallichii, Kunth<br /> +Allium Govenianum, Wall.?<br /> +Allium cyaneum, Regel<br /> +Larix Griffithii, Hk. f.<br /> +Dryopteris Linneana, C. Chr.<br /> +Dryopteris Filix-mas, var. serrato-dentata, C. Chr.<br /> +Cryptogramma Brunoniana, Wall.<br /> +Calophaca crassicaulis, Benth.<br /> +Glaux maritima, L.<br /> +Androsace sessiliflora, Turrill, sp. nov.<br /> +Astragalus oreotrophes, W. W. Sm.<br /> +Thamnolia vermicularis, Schær.<br /> +Stereocaulon alpinus, Laur.<br /> +Thelochistes flavicans, Norm.<br /> +</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The material of some of the numbers was insufficient for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span> +accurate determination; in a few cases the material necessary for +comparison was on loan, and in the case of one or two genera, such +as <i>Aster</i>, revision of the North Asian and Indian species will have +to be undertaken before certain plants can be definitely named. The +numbers in the list coming under these categories are named “—— sp.”</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 50%;"><span class="smcap">Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.</span></p> + +<p style="margin-left: 70%;"><i>March 7, 1922.</i></p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span></p> + +<h2>INDEX</h2> + +<div class="left"> +<ul> +<li>Abdul Jalil, photographic assistant, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li> +<li>Abruzzi, Duke of the, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> +<li>Acchu, cook, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> +<li>Acclimatisation to high altitudes, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li> +<li>Alpine Club, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14–19</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li> +<li><a name="Altitude" id="Altitude">Altitude</a>, effects on human frame, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104–5</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137–8</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154–5</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206–7</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253–4</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307–8</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>; +on breathing, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243–4</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>; +on tinned fish, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> +<li>Ammo-chu, river, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> +<li>Aneroids, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li> +<li>Ang Tenze, coolie, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149–51</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> +<li>Ari, bungalow, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> +<li><a name="Arun" id="Arun">Arun, river</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104–5</a>; +gorges, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>; <a href="#Bhong"><i>see</i> Bhong-chu</a></li> +<li>Avalanches, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267–9</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308–9</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Bailey, Major, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> +<li>Bamtso, lake, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li>Bell, Sir Charles, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> +<li><ins title="Bhompos">Bhompo's</ins>, Buddhist sect, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> +<li><a name="Bhong" id="Bhong">Bhong-chu</a>, river, <a href="#Page_64">64–5</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69–71</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89–90</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>; +upper valley, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>; <a href="#Arun"><i>see</i> Arun</a></li> +<li>Bhotias, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li>Bhotia ponies, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>Bhotia Kosi, river, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li> +<li>Birds, <a href="#Page_290">290–303</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344–6</a></li> +<li>Brahma Putra, river, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>; <i>see</i> <a href="#TP"><ins title="Tsan-po">Tsangpo</ins></a></li> +<li>Bridges, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93–4</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159–60</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> +<li>Bruce, General, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li> +<li>Buchan, J., <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li>Buddhism and Buddhists, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67–8</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>; +books, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>; red cap sect, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>; yellow cap sect, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>; +regard for animal life, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>; +<a href="#Monasteries"><i>see</i> Monasteries, prayer-wheels</a></li> +<li>Bullock, G. H., <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>; <a href="#Mallory"><i>see</i> Mallory</a></li> +<li>Bullocks, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, etc; <a href="#Transport"><i>see</i> Transport</a></li> +<li>Burrard, Sir S., <a href="#Page_10">10–12</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li><ins title="Carpo-Ri">Carpo-ri</ins>, mountain, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>; ascended, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229–35</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> +<li>Chamlang, mountain, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> +<li>Chandra Nursery, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> +<li><a name="Chang_La" id="Chang_La">Chang La (North <ins title="Col)">Col),</ins></a> <a href="#Page_142">142</a>; first view of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><ins title=";">,</ins> <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>; +way to, <a href="#Page_233">233–40</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246–8</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>; camp on, <a href="#Page_259">259–60</a>; +best route to, <a href="#Page_273">273–4</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311–12</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334–5</a></li> +<li><a name="Changtse" id="Changtse">Changtse, North peak of Everest</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233–4</a></li> +<li>Chelmsford, Lord, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> +<li>Chheten Wangdi, interpreter, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> +<li>Chinese in Tibet, <a href="#Page_38">38–9</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71–2</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>; in Nepal, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> +<li>Chitayn, coolie, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> +<li>Chöbuk, monastery and bridge, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> +<li><ins title="Chodzong">Chödzong</ins>, village, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li>Chog La, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299–300</a></li> +<li>Choksum, village, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li> +<li>Chomiomo, mountain, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> +<li>Chomolhari, mountain, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li> +<li>Chomolönzo, mountain, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149–51</a></li> +<li>Chomolungma (Mount Everest or Makalu), <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> +<li>Chomo-Uri (Mount Everest), <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li>Chorabsang, mountain, <a href="#Page_77">77–8</a>; (=Cho Rapsang, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>)</li> +<li>Chortens, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, etc.</li> +<li>Cho Uyo, mountain, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_77">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li> +<li><ins title="Choyling">Chöyling</ins> monastery, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> +<li>Chulungphu, village, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li>Chumbi valley, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37–44</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177–8</a>;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span> +village, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>; fauna and flora, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> +<li>Chushar Nango, village, <a href="#Page_60">60–61</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> +<li>Chuphar, village and monastery, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> +<li>Chu-tronu, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> +<li>Collie, J. N., <a href="#Page_17">17–18</a></li> +<li>Compasses, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li> +<li>Conway, Sir M., <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> +<li><a name="Coolies" id="Coolies">Coolies</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23–5</a>; behaviour, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222–3</a>, etc.; +as carriers, <a href="#Page_92">92–4</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284–6</a>; <a href="#Transport"><i>see</i> Transport</a>; +in mountaineering, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203–6</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a> ff., <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li> +<li>Crampons, <a href="#Page_207">207–8</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li> +<li>Cups of tea, as measures of distance, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li>Curios, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> +<li>Curzon, Lord, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Dak, village, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> +<li>Dalai Lama, the, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> +<li>Darjeeling, <a href="#Page_23">23–28</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> +<li>Dasno, coolie, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> +<li>Desiccation, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li>Dochen, bungalow, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> +<li>Dokcho, village, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li> +<li><a name="Donka" id="Donka">Donka monastery</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40–42</a></li> +<li>Donkeys, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <ins title="etc.">etc.;</ins> <a href="#Transport"><i>See</i> Transport</a></li> +<li>Dorje, cook, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> +<li>Dorji Gompa, coolie, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> +<li>Doto nunnery, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li>Doya La, the, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li> +<li>Dram, village, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li> +<li>Drophung monastery, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li> +<li>Dug pass, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> +<li>Dukpa, cook, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> +<li>Dunge pokri, island, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> +<li><a name="Dzakar" id="Dzakar">Dzakar (or Zakar) Chu, river</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93–5</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Eaton, J. E. C., <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> +<li>Equipment, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li> +<li><a name="Everest" id="Everest">Everest, Mount</a>, <a href="#Page_1">1–2</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>; position, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>; +height, <a href="#Page_10">10–12</a>; names, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>; +seen from Khamba Dzong, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183–4</a>; +from Shiling, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186–88</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>; +from Rongbuk Valley, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263–4</a>; from Kama Valley, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>; +local ignorance of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>; structure, <a href="#Page_192">192–4</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>; +best season for ascent, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>; difficulties of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>; +plans for, in 1921, <a href="#Page_250">250–52</a></li> +<li>— — Committee, <a href="#Page_16">16</a> ff.</li> +<li>— — Expedition, origin of, <a href="#Page_14">14–16</a>; value of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; objects, <a href="#Page_17">17–18</a>; cost, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>; +equipment, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>; +<ins title="results">results,</ins> <a href="#Page_179">179–80</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310–12</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>. <a href="#Survey"><i>See</i> Survey</a></li> +<li>Everest, Sir G., <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Farrar, Captain J. P., <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li> +<li>Finch, Captain G., <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li> +<li>“Finger,” the, station, <a href="#Page_335">335–6</a></li> +<li>Fourteen lakes, valley of the, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>; fauna and flora, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li> +<li>Fowkes, Sergeant, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> +<li>Freshfield, D. W., <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14–16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> +<li>Fuel, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Gadompa, village and bridge, <a href="#Page_160">160–61</a></li> +<li><a name="Galinka" id="Galinka">Galinka, village and monastery</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> +<li><a name="Ganden" id="Ganden">Gandenchöfel monastery</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> +<li>Gauri Sankar, mountain, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li> +<li>Gautsa, bungalow, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> +<li>Gelupka (= Yellow Cap) sect, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> +<li>Geshe Rimpoche, Lama, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> +<li>Ghoom, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li>Glaciers, ancient extent of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>; characteristics, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>; +atmosphere, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> +<li>Gnatong, village, <a href="#Page_35">35–6</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> +<li>Gosainthan, mountain, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322–3</a></li> +<li>Graham, Dr., <a href="#Page_30">30–31</a></li> +<li><i>Graphic</i>, the, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li>Gujjar Singh, surveyor, the, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323–7</a></li> +<li>Gurkhas in Tibet, the, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li>Guru Rimpoche, saint, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> +<li>Gyachung Kang, mountain, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li> +<li>Gyalzen Kazi, interpreter, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177–8</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li> +<li>Gyangka-nangpa, house, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> +<li>Gyanka range of mountains, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Haldane, J. S., <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li> +<li>Halung, village, <a href="#Page_86">86–7</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>; valley, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> +<li>Hari Ram, explorer, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span></li> +<li>Harvest rents, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> +<li><i>Hatarana</i>, steamer, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li>Hayden, Sir H., <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li> +<li>Harvest rents, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83–4</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> +<li><a name="Heron" id="Heron">Heron, Dr. A. M.</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>; expeditions from Tingri, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77–85</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>; +first expedition to Kharta, <a href="#Page_86">86–95</a><ins title=";">,</ins> <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179–80</a>; in Upper Kharta Valley, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>; +returns by Kama Valley, <a href="#Page_146">146–153</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, and Teesta Valley, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_337">37</a>; +note on geological results, <a href="#Page_338">338–340</a></li> +<li>Himalaya, <a href="#Page_7">7–8</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a> ff.; H. and the Alps, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> +<li>Hinks, A. R., <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>; notes on scientific equipment, <a href="#Page_341">341–2</a></li> +<li>Holdich, Sir T., <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +<li>Hopaphema, landowner, <a href="#Page_91">91–3</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111–12</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157–8</a></li> +<li>Hot springs. <i>See</i> <a href="#Kambu">Kambu</a>, <a href="#Tsamda">Tsamda</a></li> +<li>Howard-Bury, Colonel C. K., <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>; author of the general narrative of the expedition, <a href="#Page_23">23–180;</a>; +expeditions from Tingri, <a href="#Page_75">75–85</a>; first expedition to Kharta, <a href="#Page_86">86–95</a>; expeditions from Kharta, <a href="#Page_106">106–111</a>; +visits Kama Valley, <a href="#Page_112">112</a> ff.; ascent of 19,500 ft. ridge, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>; of Kama Changri, <a href="#Page_136">136–7</a>; of Lhakpa La, <a href="#Page_140">140–145</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> ff.</li> +<li>Huc, abbé, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>India Office, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> +<li>India, Government of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li>— Survey of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26–7</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li> +<li>Interpreters, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>; discretion of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li>Isaacs, Mr., <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> +<li>“Island,” the, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Jack, Colonel E. M., <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li> +<li>Jannu, mountain, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> +<li>Jelep La, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a> note</li> +<li>Jetsun-Nga-Wang-<ins title="Chhöfel">Chöfel</ins>, saint, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li> +<li>Jongpens, <a href="#Page_174">174–5</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li> +<li>Jonsong, mountain, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Kabru, mountain, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> +<li>Kala-tso, lake, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li>Kalimpong, village, <a href="#Page_29">29–30</a></li> +<li>Kama Valley, <a href="#Page_112">112–119</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146–52</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225–7</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>; fauna and flora, <a href="#Page_300">300–01</a></li> +<li>Kama Changri, mountain, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136–7</a></li> +<li>Kama-chu, river, <a href="#Page_122">122–4</a></li> +<li><a name="Kambu" id="Kambu">Kambu</a> hot springs, <a href="#Page_40">40–43</a>; valley, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> +<li>Kanchenjunga, mountain, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> +<li>Kanchenjhow, mountain, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> +<li>Kang-chu, river, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li> +<li>Kangchen and -chung passes, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li> +<li>Kangdoshung glacier, <a href="#Page_115">115–16</a></li> +<li>Kangshung glacier, <a href="#Page_149">149–51</a></li> +<li>Karpo La, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> +<li>Karro Pumri, mountain, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li> +<li>Kartse, mountain, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> +<li>Kellas, A. M., <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_118">18</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>; +illness and death, <a href="#Page_46">46–49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52–54</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li> +<li>Khamba Dzong,fort and village, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53–57</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> +<li>Kharkung, village, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> +<li>Kharta, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>; first visit to, <a href="#Page_88">88–93</a>; headquarters of the expedition, <a href="#Page_104">104–5</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>; +survey of, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>; valley formation, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>; fauna and flora, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301–03</a></li> +<li>Khartaphu, mountain, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li> +<li>Khe or Khetam, village, <a href="#Page_50">50–51</a></li> +<li>Kheru, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li>Khombu pass, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78–9</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> +<li>— valley, <a href="#Page_150">150–51</a></li> +<li>Kimonanga, village, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> +<li>Korabak, rock, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> +<li>Kuti (= Nyenyam), village, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li> +<li>Kyetrak, village and valley, <a href="#Page_74">74–77</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li> +<li>— glacier, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77–79</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>; river, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li>Kyishong, village, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Lachen, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li> +<li>Lalbir Singh Thapa, surveyor, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> +<li>Lamna La, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> +<li>Langkor, village and temple, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li> +<li>Langma La, <a href="#Page_112">112–13</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> +<li>Langra, rest-house, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> +<li>Lapche, village and monastery, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325–6</a></li> +<li>Lapche Kang, mountain, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284–5</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li> +<li>Lashar, village, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span></li> +<li>Lebong, races at, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>Leeches, <a href="#Page_34">34–5</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123–4</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li> +<li>Lhakpa La (Windy Gap), <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273–4</a>; first visits to, <a href="#Page_240">240–249</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255–6</a>; +camp on, <a href="#Page_140">140–44</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257–8</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li> +<li>Lhasa, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>; road to, <a href="#Page_48">48–49</a></li> +<li>Lhonak peaks, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> +<li>Lhotse, mountain (S. peak of Everest), <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> +<li>Lingga, village, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163–4</a></li> +<li>Lingmatang, plain, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> +<li>Longstaff, Dr. T. G., <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> +<li>Lumeh, village, <a href="#Page_93">93–4</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> +<li>Lungchen La, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li> +<li><ins title="Lungdo">Lungdö</ins>, village, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> +<li>Lunghi, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Macdonald, David and family, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>LMakalu, mountain, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118–19</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225–6</a> etc.; glacier, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> +<li><a name="Mallory" id="Mallory">Mallory, G. H. L.</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>; reconnoitres N. approach to Everest, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181–220</a>; +ascends Ri-Ring (23,050 ft.), <a href="#Page_205">205–7</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>; moves to Kharta, <a href="#Page_102">102–106</a>; reconnoitres E. approach to Everest, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221–249</a>; +back to Kharta, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>; ascends Kama Changri, <a href="#Page_136">136–7</a>; final assault and ascent of North Col, <a href="#Page_131">131–145</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250–261</a>; +leaves Kharta, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>; views on weather conditions, <a href="#Page_262">262–72</a>; on the route up Everest, <a href="#Page_273">273–79</a></li> +<li>Mammals, <a href="#Page_290">290–303</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, etc.</li> +<li>Mani Walls, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, etc.</li> +<li>Maps of Tibet, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> +<li>“Marigolds, Field of,” <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> +<li>Matsang, village, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> +<li>Meade, C. F., <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li>Mendalongkyo, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> +<li>Mende, village, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> +<li>Menkhap-to and -me, villages, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li> +<li>Menlung pass, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> +<li>“Metohkangmi,” <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> +<li>Mila Respa, saint, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> +<li><a name="Monasteries" id="Monasteries">Monasteries</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <ins title="173"><a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</ins> <i>See</i> +<a href="#Donka">Donka</a>, <a href="#Galinka">Galinka</a>, <ins title="Ganden Chhofel"><a href="#Ganden">Ganden Chöfel</a></ins>, <a href="#Rongbuk">Rongbuk</a>, <a href="#Shekar">Shekar Chöte</a>, etc.</li> +<li><a name="Monsoon" id="Monsoon">Monsoon</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a> ff. +<i>See</i> <ins title="rainfall"><a href="#Rainfall">Rainfall</a></ins></li> +<li><a name="Morshead" id="Morshead">Morshead, Major H. T.</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25–27</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>; +trip to Nyenyam, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281–9</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323–5</a>; +at Kharta, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>; survey of Kharta Valley, <a href="#Page_131">131–2</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>; first ascent of Lhakpa La, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230–49</a>; +ascends Kama Changri, <a href="#Page_136">136–7</a>; second ascent of Lhakpa La, <a href="#Page_140">140–144</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253–8</a>; +map by, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>; account of survey by, <a href="#Page_319">319–28</a></li> +<li>Mountain sickness, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>. <i>See</i> <ins title="altitude"><a href="#Altitude">Altitude</a></ins></li> +<li>Mountaineering, <a href="#Page_2">2–4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6–8</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305–6</a></li> +<li><a name="Mules" id="Mules">Mules</a>, lent by Government, <a href="#Page_27">27–8</a>; breakdown of, <a href="#Page_33">33–4</a>; Tibetan, <a href="#Page_32">32–33</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, etc. <i>See</i> <a href="#Transport">Transport</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Nangba (= Khombu), pass, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li> +<li>Narsing, mountain, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li>Nathu La, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> +<li>Nawang Lobsang, first Dalai Lama, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> +<li>Nepal, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li>Nepalese coolies, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>; invasion of Tibet, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>; +traders, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>; herdsmen, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> +<li>Nezogu bridge, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li>Ngawangyonten, official, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> +<li>Nieves penitentes, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li>Nila pass, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> +<li>Noel, Major J. B. L., <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> +<li>Nomads, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> +<li>North Col of Everest, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>. <i>See</i> <a href="#Chang_La">Chang La</a></li> +<li>North cwm of Everest, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203–4</a></li> +<li>North peak. <i>See</i> <a href="#Changtse">Chang-tse</a></li> +<li>North-East Arête, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250–51</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274–6</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li> +<li>Norton, Major E. F., <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li> +<li>Nuns and nunneries, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> +<li>Nyenyam, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283–4</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li> +<li>Nyima Tendu, coolie, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149–51</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Oxygen for climbers, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307–8</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315–16</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Padamchen (= Sedongchen), <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> +<li>Padma Sambhava, saint, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li> +<li>Pashok, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> +<li>Pawhunri mountains, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> +<li>Pedong, <a href="#Page_31">31–2</a></li> +<li>Pekhu plain, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li> +<li>Peshoke, bungalow, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li>Pethang Ringmo, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> +<li>Pethangtse, mountain, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span></li> +<li>Phari, fort and village, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45–8</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>; plain, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> +<li>Pharuk, district, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> +<li>Phema, village, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li><i>Philadelphia Ledger</i>, the, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li>Photography, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72–3</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216–17</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342–3</a>, etc.; +perils of, <a href="#Page_74">74–5</a>; surveying by, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329–30</a></li> +<li>Phuri, village, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li> +<li>Phuse La. <i>See</i> <a href="#Pusi">Pusi pass</a></li> +<li>Pilgrims, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li>Plants, <a href="#Page_290">290–302</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346–50</a>, etc.</li> +<li>Pö-chu, river, <a href="#Page_284">284–5</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297–8</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323–4</a></li> +<li>Ponglet, view from, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li> +<li>Pilgrims, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, etc; <i>See</i> <a href="#Transport">Transport</a></li> +<li>Poo, coolie, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> +<li>Popti La, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126–7</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li> +<li>Postal arrangements, <a href="#Page_96">96–7</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> +<li>Prayer wheels, <a href="#Page_39">39–40</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> +<li>Primus stoves, <a href="#Page_142">142–3</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li>Pulahari, village, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> +<li>Pulme, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> +<li>Pumori, mountain, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> +<li>Punagang monastery, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> +<li><a name="Pusi" id="Pusi">Pusi pass</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a> (= Phuse La, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>)</li> +<li> </li> +<li>Quiok, pass, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Rabkar-chu, river and glacier, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> +<li>Ra-chu, river, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li> +<li><a name="Rainfall" id="Rainfall">Rainfall</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a> ff.</li> +<li>Rawling, Major, <a href="#Page_13">13–14</a></li> +<li>Reading, Lord, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li>Rebu, village, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>; valley, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> +<li>Rhenock, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> +<li>Ri-Ring, mountain, ascended, <a href="#Page_205">205–6</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li> +<li>Richengong, village, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> +<li>Ronaldshay, Lord, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> +<li><a name="Rongbuk" id="Rongbuk">Rongbuk</a>, glacier, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>; central and W. branches explored, <a href="#Page_194">194–220</a>; E. branch, +<a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216–18</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247–9</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273–4</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334–6</a>; stream from, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> +<li>— monastery, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li>— valley, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> +<li>Rongkong, village, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> +<li>Rongli, bungalow, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> +<li>Rongme, village, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> +<li>Rongshar, valley, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288–9</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325–6</a></li> +<li>Ruddamlamtso, lake, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> +<li>Rugby, Tibetan boys at, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> +<li>Ryder, Colonel C. H. D., <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Sakeding, village, <a href="#Page_121">121–22</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127–8</a></li> +<li><ins title="Samchang">Samchung</ins>, pass, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> +<li>Sand dunes, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63–4</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> +<li>Sandakphu, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li>Sanglu, coolie, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256–7</a></li> +<li>Sedongchen, village, <a href="#Page_33">33–4</a></li> +<li>Senchal, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li>Serpo-La, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li> +<li>Shao La, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> +<li>Sharto, village, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li> +<li>Shassi (= New Yatung), <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li>Shatog, village, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li><a name="Shekar" id="Shekar">Shekar-Chöte, monastery</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67–8</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> +<li>Shekar Dzong, fort and village, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66–7</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> +<li>Sherpa Bhotias, coolies, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> +<li>Shidag, nunnery, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li>Shigatse, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> +<li>Shiling, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>. <i>See</i> <a href="#Everest">Everest, Mount</a></li> +<li>Shung-chu, river, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li>Shurim Tso, lake, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> +<li>Sikkim, survey of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320–21</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>; journey through, <a href="#Page_29">29–36</a>; flora of, <ins title="ibid"><i>ibid.</i></ins></li> +<li>Siniolchum, mountain, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li>Sipri mountains, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> +<li>Skis, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> +<li><a name="Snow" id="Snow">Snow</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264–8</a>; temperature of, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>; +powdery, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>; powdery snow and wind, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_164">167–8</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259–60</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, etc.</li> +<li>Snow-blindness, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> +<li>Snowfall, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> +<li>Snow line, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> +<li>Snow men, the abominable, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> +<li>Shigatse, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211–14</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> +<li>Somers Cocks, E. L., <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> +<li>Somervell, H. T., <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li> +<li>Strutt, Colonel E. L., <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li> +<li>Sun's rays, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span></li> +<li><a name="Survey" id="Survey">Survey work of expedition</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>. <i>See</i> <a href="#Heron">Heron</a>, <a href="#Morshead">Morshead</a>, <a href="#Wheeler">Wheeler</a></li> +<li>Sutso plain, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321–22</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Takda, cantonment, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li>Tamba Sanye, saint, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li> +<li>Tameness of animals, <a href="#Page_59">59–60</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76–77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> +<li>Tang La, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li> +<li>Tang-pün-sum, plain, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li>Tangsham, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> +<li>Targyeling, village, plain, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li> +<li>Tasang, village, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> +<li>Tashi Dzom, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> +<li>Tashilumpo monastery, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> +<li>Tashishong, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li> +<li>Tatsang, nunnery, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165–6</a></li> +<li>Teesta Valley, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29–30</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li> +<li>Temperature, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li> +<li>Tents, airlessness of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> +<li>Thermometers, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li> +<li>Thrashing, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> +<li>Thung-La, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>; fauna and flora, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li> +<li>Tibet, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> ff.; geology of, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>; Government, <a href="#Page_173">173–4;</a>; +helps the expedition, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, etc.</li> +<li>Tibetans, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> ff.</li> +<li>Tibetan beer, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>; bread, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>; burial, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>; climate, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>; +coinage and currency, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>; coolies, <a href="#Page_223">223–4</a>; houses, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>; bread, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>; +marriage, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; meals, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, etc.; mules, <a href="#Page_177">177–9</a>; +ornaments, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>; ponies, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>; +superstitions, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>; tea, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, etc.</li> +<li><i>Times</i>, newspaper, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> +<li><i>Tingri</i>, newspaper, <a href="#Page_70">70–75</a>, <a href="#Page_101">95–101</a>; plain of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>; its fauna and flora, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295–7</a>; +origin of name, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li> +<li>Tinki, fort and village, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>; birds of, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>; pass, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>; flowers of, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> +<li>Trangso Chumbab, rest-house, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li><a name="Transport" id="Transport">Transport</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27–8</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34–5</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158–9</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>. +<i>See</i> <a href="#Coolies">Coolies</a>, <a href="#Mules">Mules</a>,<a href="#Yaks">Yaks</a></li> +<li>Trintang, village, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li> +<li>Tropde, village, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li> +<li>Tsakor, village, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li><a name="Tsamda" id="Tsamda">Tsamda</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li> +<li>Tsampa, <a href="#Page_172">172–3</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li> +<li>Tsang, province, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li><a name="TP" id="TP"><ins title="Tsang-po">Tsangpo</ins>, river</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319–20</a></li> +<li>Tsering, five peaks, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li> +<li>Tsogo, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> +<li>Tsomotretung, lake, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li>Tsong Kapa, monk, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> +<li>Tulsi Dass, gardener, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> +<li>Tulung, village, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li> +<li>Tuna, rest-house, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li>Turubaz Khan, surveyor, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Wakefield, Dr. A. W., <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li> +<li>Waugh, Sir A., <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li>Weather. <i>See</i> <a href="#Monsoon">Monsoon</a>, <a href="#Rainfall">Rainfall</a>,<a href="#Wind">Wind</a></li> +<li>West cwm of Everest, <a href="#Page_208">208–9</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> +<li><a name="Wheeler" id="Wheeler">Wheeler, Major, E. O.</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>; +expedition to Kyetrak, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77–81</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330–33</a>; to Rongbuk Valley, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333–36</a>; +discovers E. Rongbuk glacier, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247–8</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>; arrives at Kharta, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>; +to Lhakpa La, <a href="#Page_140">140–44</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>; to Chang La, <a href="#Page_144">144–5</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258–61</a>; +returns by Kama Valley, <a href="#Page_146">146–153</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, and Teesta Valley, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>; +map by, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>; account of photographic survey by, <a href="#Page_329">329–337</a></li> +<li><a name="Wind" id="Wind">Wind</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147–8</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>. +<i>See</i> <a href="#Snow">Snow</a></li> +<li>Wollaston, A. F. R., <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>; returns with Raeburn to Sikkim, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>; rejoins at Tingri, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>; +trip to Nyenyam, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323–25</a>; described by him, <a href="#Page_281">281–89</a>; at Kharta, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>; to Lhakpa La, <a href="#Page_140">140</a> ff., <a href="#Page_257">257–8</a>; +returns by Kama Valley, <a href="#Page_146">146–153</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>; natural history notes by, <a href="#Page_290">290–303</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344–350</a>; collections, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li><a name="Yaks" id="Yaks">Yaks</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, etc.</li> +<li>Yaru, river, <a href="#Page_56">56–7</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61–3</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101–2</a></li> +<li>Yatung, <a href="#Page_38">38–9</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>Younghusband, Sir F., <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15–17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> +<li> </li> +<li>Zachar-chu. <i>See</i> <a href="#Dzakar">Dzakar-chu</a></li> +<li>Zambu, village, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +</ul> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<p style="text-align: center;"><i>Printed in Great Britain by</i> Butler & Tanner, <i>Frome and London</i></p> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a name="img_357" id="img_357"></a> + <a href="images/img_357_h.jpg"> + <img src="images/img_357.jpg" width="200" height="122" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + </a> +<p class="caption">MAP I.<br /><br /> +PRELIMINARY MAP<br />to illustrate the route of the<br />MOUNT EVEREST EXPEDITION<br />1921.<br /><br /> +Reduced from the map on the scale 1/253440<br /> +by Major Morshead and assistants of the Survey of India, +accompanying the expedition: the neighbourhood of the Mountain from Map II.<br /> +Scale 1/750,000 or 1 Inch = 11·84 Stat. Miles.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a name="img_358" id="img_358"></a> + <a href="images/img_358_h.jpg"> + <img src="images/img_358.jpg" width="200" height="156" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + </a> +<p class="caption">MAP II.<br /><br /> +Preliminary Map<br />of<br />MOUNT EVEREST<br /><br /> +constructed at the R. G. S.<br /> +from photographs and sketches<br /> +made by the<br /> +EXPEDITION of 1921<br /><br /> +Scale 1/100,000 or 1 Inch = 1·58 Stat. Miles.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="hr65" /> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a name="img_359" id="img_359"></a> + <a href="images/img_359_h.jpg"> + <img src="images/img_359.jpg" width="200" height="123" + alt="see caption" + title="see caption" /> + </a> +<p class="caption">MAP III.<br /><br /> +THE GEOLOGY<br />of the<br />MOUNT EVEREST REGION<br />from the surveys of<br />Dr. A. M. HERON<br /><br /> +Geological Survey of India<br /> +1921.<br /><br /> +The topography from Map I.<br /><br /> +Scale 1/750,000 or 1 Inch = 11·84 Stat. Miles.</p> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Mount Everest the Reconnaissance, 1921, by +Charles Kenneth Howard-Bury and George H. Leigh-Mallory and A. F. R. 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