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diff --git a/39421.txt b/39421.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2c97918 --- /dev/null +++ b/39421.txt @@ -0,0 +1,12533 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Mount Everest the Reconnaissance, 1921, by +Charles Kenneth Howard-Bury and George H. Leigh-Mallory and A. F. R. Wollaston + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license + + +Title: Mount Everest the Reconnaissance, 1921 + +Author: Charles Kenneth Howard-Bury + George H. Leigh-Mallory + A. F. R. Wollaston + +Release Date: April 10, 2012 [EBook #39421] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOUNT EVEREST *** + + + + +Produced by Jens Nordmann, Greg Bergquist and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and +formatting have been maintained. + +Corrections applied to the original text have been listed at the end of +the text. + +The ligature oe has been marked as [oe]. + +The macron above a letter has been marked as [=letter]. + +Text in italics has been marked with underscores (_text_). + + * * * * * + + + + +[Illustration: _The Summit._] + + + + + MOUNT EVEREST + THE RECONNAISSANCE, 1921 + + By + + Lieut.-Col. C. K. HOWARD-BURY, D.S.O. + + AND OTHER MEMBERS OF THE MOUNT EVEREST EXPEDITION + + + _WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS_ + + + + LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO. + 55 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK + LONDON: EDWARD ARNOLD & CO. + 1922 + + + + + PREFACE + + +The Mount Everest Committee of the Royal Geographical Society and the +Alpine Club desire to express their thanks to Colonel Howard-Bury, +Mr. Wollaston, Mr. Mallory, Major Morshead, Major Wheeler and Dr. Heron +for the trouble they have taken to write so soon after their return an +account of their several parts in the joint work of the Expedition. They +have thereby enabled the present Expedition to start with full knowledge +of the results of the reconnaissance, and the public to follow the +progress of the attempt to reach the summit with full information at +hand. + +The Committee also wish to take this opportunity of thanking the +Imperial Dry Plate Company for having generously presented photographic +plates to the Expedition and so contributed to the production of the +excellent photographs that have been brought back. + +They also desire to thank the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation +Company for their liberality in allowing the members to travel at +reduced fares; and the Government of India for allowing the stores and +equipment of the Expedition to enter India free of duty. + + J. E. C. EATON } + A. R. HINKS } _Hon. Secretaries._ + + + + + CONTENTS + + + PAGE + + INTRODUCTION. By SIR FRANCIS YOUNGHUSBAND, K.C.S.I., K.C.I.E., + President of the Royal Geographical Society 1 + + + THE NARRATIVE OF THE EXPEDITION + By LIEUT.-COL. C. K. HOWARD-BURY, D.S.O. + + CHAP. + + I FROM DARJEELING THROUGH SIKKIM 23 + II THE CHUMBI VALLEY AND THE TIBETAN PLATEAU 37 + III FROM KHAMBA DZONG THROUGH UNKNOWN COUNTRY TO TINGRI 55 + IV TINGRI AND THE COUNTRY TO THE SOUTH 71 + V THE SEARCH FOR KHARTA 86 + VI THE MOVE TO KHARTA 98 + VII THE KAMA VALLEY 112 + VIII THE UPPER KHARTA VALLEY AND THE 20,000-FOOT CAMP 130 + IX THE RETURN TO KHARTA BY THE KAMA VALLEY 146 + X THE RETURN JOURNEY TO PHARI 156 + XI BACK TO CIVILISATION 170 + + + THE RECONNAISSANCE OF THE MOUNTAIN + By GEORGE H. LEIGH-MALLORY + + XII THE NORTHERN APPROACH 183 + XIII THE NORTHERN APPROACH (_continued_) 203 + XIV THE EASTERN APPROACH 221 + XV THE ASSAULT 250 + XVI WEATHER AND CONDITION OF SNOW 262 + XVII THE ROUTE TO THE SUMMIT 273 + + + NATURAL HISTORY + By A. F. R. WOLLASTON + + XVIII AN EXCURSION TO NYENYAM AND LAPCHE KANG 281 + XIX NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 290 + + * * * * * + + XX AN APPRECIATION OF THE RECONNAISSANCE. By $1, F.R.S., + President of the Alpine Club 304 + + + APPENDICES + + I THE SURVEY. By Major H. T. MORSHEAD, D.S.O. 319 + II THE PHOTOGRAPHIC SURVEY. By Major E. O. WHEELER, M.C. 329 + III A NOTE ON THE GEOLOGICAL RESULTS OF THE EXPEDITION. + By A. M. HERON, D.Sc., F.G.S., Geological Survey of India 338 + IV THE SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT. By A. R. HINKS, F.R.S., + Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society 341 + V MAMMALS, BIRDS AND PLANTS COLLECTED BY THE EXPEDITION. + By A. F. R. WOLLASTON 344 + INDEX 351 + + + + + LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + + FACING + PAGE + + The Summit _Frontispiece_ + Chomolhari from the South 46 + Loading up at Dochen 50 + Kampa Dzong 54 + Tinki Dzong 58 + Gyangka Range from near Chushar 62 + Shekar Dzong 66 + The Abbot of Shekar Choete 68 + Military Governor, his Wife and Mother 100 + The Dzongpen of Kharta and his Wife 106 + Lamas of Kharta Monastery 110 + Makalu from 21,500-foot peak on ridge south of Kama-chu 112 + Makalu and Chomoloenzo 114 + Cliffs of Chomoloenzo from camp at Pethang Ringmo 116 + The Kama Valley 118 + Sea of cloud from peak north of Kama Valley. Kanchenjunga in + distance 138 + Chomoloenzo from the alp below the Langma La, Kama Valley 150 + Members of the Expedition 178 + Cho-Uyo 190 + Summit of Mount Everest and North Peak from the Island, West Rongbuk + Glacier 210 + Mount Everest from the Rongbuk Glacier, nine miles north-west 214 + Summit of Mount Everest and South Peak from the Island, West Rongbuk + Glacier 218 + Pethang-tse 222 + Summit of Makalu 226 + South-east Ridge of Mount Everest from above the 20,000-foot camp, + Kharta Valley 230 + North-east of Mount Everest and Chang La from Lhakpa La 246 + Mount Everest from the 20,000-foot camp--wind blowing snow off the + mountain 278 + Temple at Lapche Kang 286 + Gauri-Sankar 288 + Lower Kama-chu 290 + Junipers in the Kama Valley 294 + Forest in the Kama Valley 300 + Mount Everest at sunset from the 20,000-foot camp, Kharta Valley 316 + + + + + LIST OF MAPS + + + I Map to illustrate the route of the Mount Everest + Expedition. Scale 1/750,000 _At end_ + II Map of Mount Everest. Scale 1/100,000 " + III Geological Map of the Mount Everest Region " + + + + + INTRODUCTION + + BY SIR FRANCIS YOUNGHUSBAND, K.C.S.I., K.C.I.E. + + +The idea of climbing Mount Everest has been vaguely in men's mind for +thirty or forty years past. Certainly that veteran mountain-climber and +mountain-lover, Douglas Freshfield, had it persistently rising within +him as he broke away from the Swiss Alps and subdued the giants of the +Caucasus and then sought still higher peaks to conquer. Lord Curzon also +had had it in his mind, and when Viceroy of India had written suggesting +that the Royal Geographical Society and the Alpine Club should make a +joint exploration of the mountain. Bruce, Longstaff and Mumm would have +made this exploration in 1905 if the permission of the Nepalese and +Tibetan Governments had been available. So also would Rawling a few +years later. All these, and doubtless others, had contemplated at least +a preliminary reconnaissance of Mount Everest. + +But, so far as I know, the first man to propose a definite expedition to +Mount Everest was the then Captain Bruce, who, when he and I were +together in Chitral in 1893, proposed to me that we should make a +glorious termination to a journey from Chinese Turkestan across Tibet by +ascending Mount Everest. And it is Bruce who has held to the idea ever +since and sought any opportunity that offered of getting at the +mountain. + +It stands to reason that men with any zest for mountaineering could not +possibly allow Mount Everest to remain untouched. The time, the +opportunity, the money, the ability to make the necessary preliminary +preparation might be lacking, but the wish and the will to stand on the +summit of the world's highest mountain must have been in the heart of +many a mountaineer since the Alps have been so firmly trampled under +foot. The higher climbers climb, the higher they want to climb. It is +certain that they will never rest content till the proudest peaks of the +Himalaya are as subdued and tamed as the once dreaded summits of the +Alps now are. + +Men simply cannot resist exercising and stretching to their fullest +tether the faculties and aptitudes with which they each happen to be +specially endowed. One born with an aptitude for painting is dull and +morose and fidgety until he can get colours and a brush into his hand +and commence painting. Another is itching to make things--to use his +hands and fashion wood or stone or metal into forms which he is +continually creating in his mind. Another is restless until he can sing. +Another is ever pining to be on a public platform swaying the audience +with his oratory and playing on their feelings as on a musical +instrument. Each has his own inner aptitude which he aches to give vent +to and bring into play. And more than this, he secretly owns within +himself an exceedingly high standard--the highest standard--of what he +wants to attain to along his own particular line, and he is never really +content in his mind and at peace with himself when he is not stretching +himself out to the full towards this high pinnacle which he has set +before him. + +Now fortunately all men are not born with the same aptitudes. We do not +all want to sing or all want to orate or all want to paint. Some few +want to climb mountains. These men love to pit themselves against what +most others would consider an insuperable obstacle. They enjoy measuring +themselves against it and being forced to exercise all their energies +and faculties to overcome it. The Duke of the Abruzzi is as good an +example of this type as I know. He was never happy until he had +discovered some inaccessible and impracticable mountain and then thrown +himself against it and come to grips with it in dead earnest and either +conquered it or been thrown back from it utterly and completely +exhausted, but with the satisfaction that anyhow he had exercised every +nerve and muscle and faculty to the full. His native mountains he had +early conquered over and over again, so he had to look further afield to +Mount Elias in Alaska and Ruwenzori in East Africa; and having +vanquished these he would doubtless have turned his eyes to Mount +Everest if for political reasons the way to that mountain had not been +barred, and he was compelled therefore to look to the next highest +mountain, namely, the peak K2 in the Karakoram Himalaya in the +neighbourhood of which he attained to a greater height, 24,600 feet, +than has yet been attained by any man on foot. + +The Duke no doubt is human and would like his name to go down to +posterity as having conquered some conspicuously lofty and difficult +peak. But undoubtedly the ruling passion with him would be this love of +pitting himself against a great mountain and feeling that he was being +forced to exert himself to the full. To such men a tussle with a +mountain is a real tonic--something bracing and refreshing. And even if +they are laid out flat by the mountain instead of standing triumphant on +its summit they have enjoyed the struggle and would go back for another +if they ever had the chance. + +Others--like Bruce--climb from sheer exuberance of spirits. Blessed with +boundless energy they revel in its exercise. It is only on the mountain +side, breathing its pure air, buffeting against its storms, testing +their nerve, running hair-breadth risks, exercising their intelligence +and judgment, feeling their manhood and looking on Nature face to face +and with open heart and mind that they are truly happy. For these men +days on the mountain are days when they really live. And as the cobwebs +in their brains get blown away, as the blood begins to course +refreshingly through their veins, as all their faculties become tuned up +and their whole being becomes more sensitive, they detect appeals from +Nature they had never heard before and see beauties which are revealed +only to those who win them. They may not at the moment be aware of the +deepest impressions they are receiving. But to those who have struggled +with them the mountains reveal beauties they will not disclose to those +who make no effort. That is the reward the mountains give to effort. And +it is because they have much to give and give it so lavishly to those +who will wrestle with them that men love the mountains and go back to +them again and again. + +And naturally the mountains reserve their choicest gifts for those who +stand upon their summits. The climber's vision is then no longer +confined and enclosed. He can see now all round. His width of outlook is +enlarged to its full extremity. He sees in every direction. He has a +sense of being raised above the world and being proudly conscious that +he has raised himself there by his own exertions, he has a peculiar +satisfaction and for the time forgets all frets and worries in the +serener atmosphere in which he now for a moment dwells. + +And it is only for a moment that he can dwell there. For men cannot +always live on the heights. They must come down to the plains again and +engage in the practical life of the world. But the vision from the +heights never leaves them. They want to return there. They want to reach +a higher height. Their standard of achievement rises. And so it has come +about that mountaineers when they had climbed the highest heights in +Europe went off to the Caucasus, to the Andes, and eventually to the +Himalaya to climb something higher still. Freshfield conquered the +Caucasus, Whymper and Conway the Andes, and the assault upon the +Himalaya is now in full swing. + +It is therefore only in the natural course of things that men should +want to climb the highest summit of the Himalaya. And though those who +set out to climb Mount Everest will probably think little of the +eventual results, being perfectly satisfied in their own minds, without +any elaborate reasoning, that what they are attempting is something +supremely worth while, yet it is easy for lookers on to see that much +unexpected good will result from their activities. The climbers will be +actuated by sheer love of mountaineering, and that is enough for them. +But climbing Mount Everest is no futile and useless performance of no +satisfaction to anyone but the climbers. Results will follow from it of +the highest value to mankind at large. + +For the climbers are unwittingly carrying out an experiment of momentous +consequence to mankind. They are testing the capacity of the human race +to stand the highest altitudes on this earth which is its home. No +scientific man, no physiologist or physician, can now say for certain +whether or not a human body can reach a height of 29,000 feet above the +sea. We know that in an aeroplane he can be carried up to a much greater +height. But we do not know whether he can climb on his own feet such an +altitude. That knowledge of men's capacity can only be acquired by +practical experiment in the field. + +And in the process of acquiring the knowledge a valuable result will +ensue. By testing their capacities men actually increase them. By +exercising their capacities to the full mountaineers seem to enlarge +them. A century ago the ascent of Mount Blanc seemed the limit of human +capacity. Nowadays hundreds ascend the mountain every year. And going +further afield men ascended the highest peaks in the Caucasus and then +in the Andes and have been reaching higher and higher altitudes in the +Himalaya. Conway reached 23,000 feet, Kellas 23,186 feet, Longstaff +23,360 feet, Dr. Workman 23,000 feet, Kellas and Meade 23,600 feet and +the Duke of the Abruzzi 24,600 feet. It looks therefore as if man by +attempting more was actually making himself capable of achieving more. +By straining after the highest he is increasing his capacity to attain +it. + +In this measuring of themselves against the mountains men are indeed +very like puppies crawling about and testing their capacities on their +surroundings--crawling up on to some obstacle, tumbling back discomfited +but returning gallantly to the attack and at last triumphantly +surmounting it. Thus do they find out what they can do and how they +stand in relation to their surroundings. Also by exercising and +stretching their muscles and faculties to the full they actually +increase their capacity. + +Men are still only in the puppy stage of existence. We are prone to +think ourselves very "grown up" but really we are only in our childhood. +In the latest discussions as to the period of time which must have +elapsed since life first appeared upon this earth a period of the order +of a thousand million years was named. But of that immense period man +has been in existence for only a quarter or half a million years. So the +probability is that he has still long years before him and must be now +only in his childhood--in his puppyhood. We certainly find that as he +inquisitively looks about his surroundings and measures himself against +them he is steadily increasing his mastery over them. In the last five +hundred years record after record has been beaten. Men have ventured +more and shown more adaptability and a sterner hardihood and endurance +than ever before. They have ventured across the oceans, circumnavigated +the globe, reached the poles, risen into the air, and it can be only a +question of time--a few months or a few years--before they reach the +highest summit of the earth. + +"What then?" some will ask. "Suppose men do reach the top of Mount +Everest, what then?" "Suppose we do establish the fact that man has the +capacity to surmount the highest summit of his surroundings, of what +good is that knowledge?" This is the kind of question promoters of the +enterprise continually have to answer. One reply is obvious. The sight +of climbers struggling upwards to the supreme pinnacle will have taught +men to lift their eyes unto the hills--to raise them off the ground and +direct them, if only for a moment, to something pure and lofty and +satisfying to that inner craving for the worthiest which all men have +hidden in their souls. And when they see men thrown back at first but +venturing again and again to the assault till with faltering footsteps +and gasping breaths they at last reach the summit they will thrill with +pride. They will no longer be obsessed with the thought of what mites +they are in comparison with the mountains--how insignificant they are +beside their material surroundings. They will have a proper pride in +themselves and a well-grounded faith in the capacity of spirit to +dominate material. + +And direct practical results flow from this increasing confidence which +man is acquiring in face of the mountains. A century ago Napoleon's +crossing of the Alps was thought an astounding feat. During the last +thirty years troops--and Indian troops--have been moved about the +Himalaya in all seasons and crossed passes over 15,000 feet above sea +level in the depth of winter. On the Gilgit frontier, in Chitral, and in +Tibet, neither cold nor snow nor wind stopped them. In winter or in +summer, in spring or in autumn, they have faced the Himalayan passes. +And they have been able to negotiate them successfully because of their +increased knowledge of men's capacities and of the way to overcome +difficulties that constant wrestling with mountains in all parts of the +world during the last half-century has given. The activities of the +Alpine Club have produced direct practical results in the movement of +troops in the Himalaya. + +More still will follow. When men have proved that they can surmount the +highest peak in the Himalaya they will take heart to climb other peaks +and become more and more at home in that wonderful region, extending for +nigh two thousand miles from the Roof of the World in the North and West +to the borders of Burma and China in the South and East and containing +more than seventy peaks over 24,000 feet in height--that is higher than +any in the Andes, the second highest range of mountains in the +world--and more than eleven hundred peaks over 20,000 feet in height. +This great mountain region which in Europe would stretch from Calais to +the Caspian is one vast mine of beauty of every varied description. And +a mine of beauty has this advantage over a mine of material wealth--that +we can never exhaust it. And not only can we never exhaust it, but the +more we take out the more we find, and the more we give away the richer +we are. We may go on digging into a gold mine, but eventually we shall +find there is no gold left. We shall have exhausted our mine. But we may +dig into that mine of beauty in the Himalaya and never exhaust it. The +more we dig the more we shall find--richer beauty, subtler beauty, more +varied beauty--beauty of mountain form and beauty of pure and delicate +colour, beauty of forest, beauty of river and beauty of lake and +combined beauty of rushing torrent, precipitous cliff, richest +vegetation and overtopping snowy summit. And when we have discovered +these treasures and made them our own we can actually increase their +value to ourselves by giving them away to others. By imparting to others +the enjoyment which we have felt we shall have increased our own +enjoyment. + +We cannot expect those who are first engaged in climbing Mount Everest +to have the time or inclination to observe and describe the full beauty +there is. They will be set on overcoming the physical difficulties and +they will be so exhausted for the moment by the effort they will have +made that they will not have the repose of mind which is so necessary +for seeing and depicting beauty. But when they have pioneered the way +and beaten down a path, others will more leisurely follow after. Many +even of these may not be able to express in words or in picture the +enjoyment they have felt and be able to communicate it to others. They +may not be given to public speech or writing and may have no capacity +for painting. The flame of their enjoyment may be kept sacred and hidden +within them, and it may be only in the privacy of colloquy with some +kindred soul that the white glow of their enjoyment may ever be shown. +But, others there may be who have the capacity for making the world at +large share with them some little of the joy they have felt--who can +make our nerves tingle and our blood course quicker, our eyes uplift +themselves and our outlook widen as we go out with them to face and +overcome the mountains. Such men as these from their very intimacy with +the mountains are able to point out beauties which distant beholders +would never suspect. And as Leslie Stephen through his love of mountains +has been able to attract thousands to the Alps and given them enjoyment, +clean and fresh, which but for him they might never have known, so we +hope that in the fulness of time a greater Stephen will tell of the +unsurpassable beauty of the Himalaya and by so doing add appreciably to +the enjoyment of human life. + + * * * * * + +Such are some of the advantages which men in general will obtain from +the attempt to climb Mount Everest. But it is time now to say something +of the mountain itself. + +Mount Everest for its size is a singularly shy and retiring mountain. It +hides itself away behind other mountains. On the north side, in Tibet, +it does indeed stand up proudly and alone, a true monarch among +mountains. But it stands in a very sparsely inhabited part of Tibet, and +very few people ever go to Tibet. From the Indian side only its tip +appears among a mighty array of peaks which being nearer look higher. +Consequently for a long time no one suspected Mount Everest of being the +supreme mountain not only of the Himalaya but of the world. At the time +when Hooker was making his Himalayan journeys--that was in +1849--Kanchenjunga was believed to be the highest. + +How it was eventually discovered to be the highest is a story worth +recording. In the very year that Hooker was botanising in the Sikkim +Himalaya the officers of the Great Trigonometrical Survey were making +observations from the plains of India to the peaks in Nepal which could +be seen from there. When they could find a native name for a peak they +called it by that name. But in most cases no native name was +forthcoming, and in those cases a Roman number was affixed to the peak. +Among these unnamed peaks to which observations to determine the +altitude and position were taken from stations in the plains was Peak +XV. The observations were recorded, but the resulting height was not +computed till three years later, and then one day the Bengali Chief +Computer rushed into the room of the Surveyor-General, Sir Andrew Waugh, +breathlessly exclaiming, "Sir! I have discovered the highest mountain in +the world." The mean result of all the observations taken from the six +stations from which Peak XV had been observed came to 29,002 feet, and +this Peak XV is what is now known as Mount Everest. + +The question is often asked, "Why twenty-nine thousand and two?" "Why be +so particular about the two?" The answer is that that particular figure +is the mean of many observations. But it is not infallible. It is indeed +in all probability below rather than above the mark, and a later +computation of the observed results puts the height at 29,141 feet. In +any case, however, there are, as Sir Sidney Burrard has pointed out in +his discussion of this point in Burrard and Hayden's _Himalaya and +Tibet_, many causes of slight error in observing and computing the +altitude of a distant and very lofty peak. The observations are made +with a theodolite. The telescope of the theodolite may not be absolutely +perfect. The theodolite may not be levelled with perfect accuracy. The +graduations on the circle of the theodolite may not be quite accurate. +The observer himself may not have observed with sufficient perfection. +An error of ten feet may have resulted from these causes. Then there are +other and greater sources of possible error. There may be error in the +assumed height of the observing station; and the altitudes of peaks are +always varying in nature with the increase and decrease of snow in +summer and winter and in a season of heavy snowfall or a season of light +snowfall. Another source of error arises from the varying effects of +gravitational attraction. "The attraction of the great mass of the +Himalaya and Tibet," says Burrard, "pulls all liquids towards itself, as +the moon attracts the ocean and the surface of the water assumes an +irregular form at the foot of the Himalaya. If the ocean were to +overflow Northern India its surface would be deformed by Himalayan +attraction. The liquid in levels is similarly affected and theodolites +cannot consequently be adjusted; their plates when levelled are still +tilted upward towards the mountains, and angles of observation are too +small by the amount the horizon is inclined to the tangential plane. At +Darjeeling the surface of water in repose is inclined about 35'' to +this plane, at Kurseong about 51'', at Siliguri about 23'', at Dehra +Dun and Mussooree about 37''. For this reason all angles of elevation +to Himalayan peaks measured from the plains, as Mount Everest was +measured, are too small and consequently all our values of Himalayan +heights are too small. Errors of this nature range from 40 to 100 feet." + +This then is a considerable source of error, but the most serious source +of uncertainty affecting the value of heights is the refraction of the +atmosphere. A ray of light from a peak to an observer's eye does not +travel along a straight line but assumes a curved path concave to the +earth. The ray enters the observer's eye in a direction tangential to +the curve at that point, and this is the direction in which the observer +sees the peak. It makes the peak appear too high. Corrections have +therefore to be applied. But there is no certainty as to what should be +the amount of the correction; and it is now believed that the computers +of the height of Mount Everest applied too great a correction for +refraction and consequently reduced its height too much. + +Burrard brings together in the following table the different errors to +which the carefully determined height of Mount Everest is liable:-- + + ---------------------------------------------------+-------------------- + Source of error. | Magnitude of + | possible error. + ---------------------------------------------------+-------------------- + Variation of snow level from the mean | Unknown + Errors of observation | 10 feet + Adoption of erroneous height for observing station | 10 feet + Deviation of gravity | 60 feet, too small + Atmospheric refraction | 150 feet, too small + ---------------------------------------------------+-------------------- + +The following table shows how the different values of the height of +Mount Everest have been deduced:-- + + HEIGHT OF MOUNT EVEREST + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + | | | | Determination + | | | Height as | of height + Observing | Year of | Distance | determined | with revised + station. | observation. | in miles. | by Waugh. | correction for + | | | | refraction. + ------------+--------------+-----------+-------------+---------------- + | | | Feet | Feet + Jirol | 1849 | 118 | 28,991 | 29,141 + Mirzapur | 1849 | 108 | 29,005 | 29,135 + Joafpati | 1849 | 108 | 29,001 | 29,117 + Ladnia | 1849 | 108 | 28,998 | 29,144 + Harpur | 1849 | 111 | 29,026 | 29,146 + Minai | 1850 | 113 | 28,990 | 29,160 + Suberkum | 1881 | 87 | -- | 29,141 + Suberkum | 1883 | 87 | -- | 29,127 + Tiger Hill | 1880 | 107 | -- | 29,140 + Sandakphu | 1883 | 89 | -- | 29,142 + Phallut | 1902 | 85 | -- | 29,151 + Senchal | 1902 | 108 | -- | 29,134 + ------------+--------------+-----------+-------------+---------------- + Mean | -- | -- | 29,002 | 29,141 + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +The height 29,141 is still, Burrard thinks, too small, as it has yet to +be corrected for the deviations of gravity. But though it is a more +reliable result than 29,002, the latter is still to be retained in maps +and publications of the Survey of India. + +As to the name, it was called Everest after the distinguished +Surveyor-General of India under whose direction the triangulation had +been carried out, one result of which was the discovery of the mountain. +From the Indian side and Nepal it is not a conspicuous peak on account +of its lying so far back. No native name for it could be discovered and +Sir Andrew Waugh, the successor of Sir George Everest, called it after +his predecessor. From the Tibetan side it is much more conspicuous and, +as General Bruce stated in his lecture to the Royal Geographical Society +in November 1920, and as Colonel Howard-Bury found in 1921, the Tibetans +call it Chomolungma, which Colonel Howard-Bury translated, the "Goddess +Mother of the Mountains"--a most appropriate name. But the name Mount +Everest is now so firmly established throughout the world that it would +be impossible to change it. It is therefore now definitely adopted. + +Now, this mountain so coveted by mountaineers is unfortunately situated +exactly on the border between two of the most secluded countries in the +world--Nepal and Tibet. To reach it the climbers must pass through one +or other of these countries and the difficulty of getting the necessary +permission is what has so far prevented any attempt being made to attack +Mount Everest. But recently access through Tibet has become more +possible, and it so happens that it is on the Tibetan side that the +summit seems most accessible. From the distant views that could be +obtained of it from Sandakphu beyond Darjeeling and from Kampa Dzong in +Tibet, a ridge running from the summit in a northerly direction seemed +to give good promise of access. Major Ryder and Captain Rawling in 1904, +viewing the mountain from a distance of sixty miles almost due north, +thought the mountain might be approached from that direction. At the +same time the Tibetans were distinctly more favourable to travellers +than they had ever been before. The chances therefore of at least +exploring Mount Everest were much more promising, and Major Rawling was +planning an expedition of exploration when the war broke out and he was +killed. + +Mr. Douglas Freshfield would certainly have taken the matter up during +his Presidency of the Royal Geographical Society, but he had the +misfortune to hold that post during the years of the war and no action +was possible. But as soon as the war was over interest in Mount Everest +revived. In March 1919 Captain J. B. L. Noel read a paper to the Royal +Geographical Society describing a reconnaissance he had made in the +direction of the mountain in the year 1913. He showed how attention +during the last few years had been focused more and more upon the +Himalaya and said, "Now that the Poles have been reached, it is +generally felt that the next and equally important task is the +exploration and mapping of Mount Everest." So he urged that the +exploration which had been the ambition of the late General Rawling with +whom he was to have joined should be accomplished in his memory. "It +cannot be long," he continued, "before the culminating summit of the +world is visited and its ridges, valleys and glaciers are mapped and +photographed." And at the conclusion of his lecture he said that "some +day the political difficulties will be overcome and a fully equipped +expedition must explore and map Mount Everest." + +It was not clear whether Captain Noel was advocating a definite attempt +to climb the mountain and reach the actual summit, and Mr. Douglas +Freshfield and Dr. Kellas who followed after him referred only to the +approaches to Mount Everest. But Captain J. P. Farrar, the then +President of the Alpine Club, seems to have considered it "a proposal to +attempt the ascent of Mount Everest," and said that the Alpine Club took +the keenest interest in the proposal and was prepared not only to lend +such financial aid as was in its power, but also to recommend two or +three young mountaineers quite capable of dealing with any purely +mountaineering difficulties which were likely to be met with on Mount +Everest. + +The hour was late, but I was so struck by the ring of assurance and +determination in the words of the President of the Alpine Club that I +could not help asking the President, Sir Thomas Holdich, to let me say a +few words. I then told how General Bruce had made to me, twenty-six +years ago, the proposal to climb Mount Everest. I said the Royal +Geographical Society was interested in the project and now we had heard +the President of the Alpine Club say that he had young mountaineers +ready to undertake the work. I added, "It must be done." There might be +one or two attempts before we were successful, but the first thing to do +was to get over the trouble with our own Government. If they were +approached properly by Societies like the Royal Geographical Society and +the Alpine Club, and a reasonable scheme were put before them and it +were proved to them that we meant business, then, I said, they would be +reasonable and do what we wanted. This was a big business and must be +done in a big way and I hoped that something really serious would come +of that meeting.[1] + + [1] In the enthusiasm of the moment I seem to have displayed a + regrettable excess of "nationalism"! According to the record, + I expressed the hope that it would be an Englishman who first + stood on the summit of Mount Everest. I trust my foreign friends + will excuse me! I have this at least to plead in extenuation, + that if I have always striven for my own countrymen when they + led the way, I have never been backward in helping explorers of + other nationalities whom I have met in the Himalaya; and I have + received the thanks of both the French and Italian Governments + for the help I have given to French and Italian explorers. + +Sir Thomas Holdich in closing the meeting advocated approaching Mount +Everest through Nepal, and hoped that at some time not very remote we +should hear more about the proposed expedition to Mount Everest. + +Only a few days after the meeting I met Colonel Howard-Bury at lunch +with a Fellow of our Society, Mr. C. P. McCarthy. He was not a +mountaineer in the Alpine Club sense of the word, but he had spent much +of his time shooting in the Alps and in the Himalaya, and becoming +deeply interested in the Mount Everest project, had a talk with +Mr. Freshfield about it and made a formal application to the Society for +their support in undertaking an expedition. Things now began to move, +and the Society applied to the India Office for permission to send an +expedition into Tibet for the purpose of exploring Mount Everest. The +Government of India in reply said that they were not prepared at the +moment to approach the Tibetan Government; but they did not return any +absolute refusal. + +During my Presidency the Society, in conjunction with the Alpine Club, +still further pressed the matter. We asked the Secretary of State for +India to receive a deputation from the two bodies, and the request being +granted and the deputation being assured of his sympathy we invited +Colonel Howard-Bury to proceed to India in June 1920 to explain our +wishes personally to the Government of India, and ask them to obtain for +us from the Dalai Lama the necessary permission to enter Tibet for the +purpose of exploring and climbing Mount Everest. Lord Chelmsford, the +Viceroy, received Colonel Howard-Bury most sympathetically and after +some preliminary difficulties had been overcome, Mr. Bell, the Political +Agent in Sikkim, who happened to be in Lhasa, was instructed to ask the +Dalai Lama for permission, and Mr. Bell being on most friendly terms +with His Holiness, permission was at once granted. + +The one great obstacle in the way of approaching Mount Everest had now +at last been removed. What so many keen mountaineers had for years +dreamed of was within sight. And as soon as the welcome news +arrived--early in January 1921--preparations were commenced to organise +an expedition. A joint Committee of three representatives each from the +Royal Geographical Society and the Alpine Club was formed under the +Chairmanship of the President of the former Society and was named the +Mount Everest Committee. The three members of the Society were Sir +Francis Younghusband, Mr. E. L. Somers-Cocks (Honorary Treasurer) and +Colonel Jack. The three members of the Alpine Club were Professor Norman +Collie, Captain J. P. Farrar and Mr. C. F. Meade. Mr. Eaton and +Mr. Hinks were Honorary Secretaries. + +Our first business was to select a leader for the Expedition. General +Bruce, who had had the idea in his mind for so many years, who knew the +Himalaya as no one else did, and who had a special aptitude for handling +Himalayan people, was now in England, and it was to him our thoughts +first turned. But he had just taken up an appointment with the +Glamorganshire Territorial Association and was not then available. In +these circumstances we were fortunate in having ready to hand a man with +such high qualifications as Colonel Howard-Bury. He had much to do on +his property in Ireland, but he willingly accepted our invitation to +lead the Expedition, and we could then proceed to the choice of the +mountaineers. + +From the very first we decided that the main object of the Expedition +was to be the ascent of the mountain and that all other activities were +to be made subordinate to the supreme object of reaching the summit. It +was to be no mere surveying or geologising or botanising expedition +which would as a secondary object try to climb the mountain if it saw a +chance. To climb the mountain was to be the first object and the mapping +and everything else was to come afterwards. The reason for this is +obvious. What men really want to know is whether man can ascend the +highest mountain. + +Knowledge of the topography, fauna and flora of that particular area is +of very small consequence in comparison with the knowledge of human +capacity to surmount the highest point in men's physical surroundings on +this earth. By some perversity of human nature there are men who shy at +putting the ascent of Mount Everest in the forefront, because it is +adventurous and must therefore, they seem to think, cease to be a +scientific object. They profess to be unconcerned with the climbing of +the mountain so long as a map is made or plants collected. But the +plain man instinctively sees the value of the adventure and knows that +the successful ascent of Mount Everest will show what man is capable of +and put new hope and heart into the human race. + +But while it was decided to make the ascent of Mount Everest the main +object of the Expedition, Professor Norman Collie and Mr. Douglas +Freshfield from the first insisted that a whole season must be devoted +to a thorough reconnaissance of the mountain with a view to finding not +only a feasible route to the summit but what was without any doubt the +most feasible route. We knew nothing of the immediate approaches to the +mountain. But we knew that the only chance of reaching the summit was by +finding some way up which would entail little rock-climbing or ice +step-cutting. The mountain had therefore to be prospected from every +side to find a comparatively easy route and to make sure that no other +easier route than the one selected existed. This was considered ample +work for the Expedition for one season, while the following season would +be devoted to an all-out effort to reach the summit along the route +selected in the first year. + +On this basis the first year's Expedition had accordingly to be +organised. The mountain party was to consist of four members, two of +whom were to be men of considerable experience and two younger men who +it was hoped would form the nucleus of the climbing party the next year. +Mr. Harold Raeburn, a member of the Alpine Club who had had great +experience of snow and rock work in the Alps, and who had in 1920 been +climbing on the spurs of Kanchenjunga, was invited to lead the mountain +party. Dr. Kellas, who had made several climbing expeditions in the +Himalaya and had in 1920 ascended to a height of 23,400 feet on Mount +Kamet, was also invited to join the climbing party. He had been making +experiments in the use of oxygen at high altitudes and was still out in +India preparing to continue these experiments on Mount Kamet in 1921. +It was suggested to him that he should make the experiments on Mount +Everest instead, and the party would thereby have the benefit of his +wide Himalayan experience. This invitation he accepted. + +The two younger members selected for the climbing party were Mr. George +Leigh Mallory and Captain George Finch, both with a very high reputation +for climbing in the Alps. Unfortunately Captain Finch was for the time +indisposed and his place at the last moment had to be taken by +Mr. Bullock of the Consular Service, who had been at Winchester with +Mr. Mallory and who happened to be at home on leave. Through the +courtesy of Lord Curzon he was able to get special leave of absence from +the Foreign Office. + +While we were finding the men we had also to be finding the money. As a +quite rough guess we estimated the Expedition for the two years would +cost about L10,000, and at least a substantial portion of this had to be +raised by private subscription. Appeals were made by their Presidents to +the Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society and to members of the +Alpine Club, and Captain Farrar was especially energetic in urging the +claims of the enterprise. As a result the members of the Alpine Club +subscribed over L3,000 and the Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society +nearly that amount. Later on with the advice and help of Mr. John Buchan +arrangements were made with _The Times_ and the _Philadelphia Ledger_ +for the purchase of the rights of publication of telegrams from the +Expedition, and with the _Graphic_ for the purchase of photographs. So +eventually the financial position of the Expedition was assured. + +The equipment and provisioning of the Expedition was undertaken by the +Equipment Committee--Captain Farrar and Mr. Meade--and the greatest +trouble was taken to ensure that the most suitable and best tents, +sleeping bags, clothing, boots, ice-axes, ropes, cooking apparatus, +provisions, etc., were purchased and that they were properly packed and +listed. + +In the same way the scientific equipment was undertaken by Colonel Jack +and Mr. Hinks. + +Finally the services of Mr. Wollaston, well known for his journeys in +New Guinea and East Africa, were secured as Medical Officer and +Naturalist to the Expedition. + +Throughout these preparations the advice and help of the best men in +every line were freely and willingly forthcoming. For such an enterprise +all were ready to give a helping hand. Whether they were scientific men, +or business men or journalists, they were ready to throw aside their own +work and devote hours to ensuring that the Expedition should be a +success along the lines on which they severally had most experience. + +And most valuable was the encouragement given to the Expedition by the +interest which His Majesty showed in conversation with the President, +and His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales in receiving Colonel +Howard-Bury--an interest which was shown in practical form by generous +subscriptions to the funds of the Expedition. + +The Expedition was able, therefore, to set out from England under the +most favourable auspices, and it was to be joined in India by two +officers of the Indian Survey Department, Major Morshead and Major +Wheeler, and by an officer of the Indian Geological Survey, Dr. Heron. +It was thus admirably equipped for the acquirement of knowledge. But +acquirement of knowledge was not the only object which the Expedition +had in view. It could not be doubted that the region would possess +beauty of exceptional grandeur. So it was hoped that the Expedition +would discover, describe and reveal to us, by camera and by pen, beauty +no less valuable than the knowledge. + + + + + THE NARRATIVE OF THE EXPEDITION + + By + + LIEUT.-COL. C. K. HOWARD-BURY, D.S.O. + + + + + CHAPTER I + + FROM DARJEELING THROUGH SIKKIM + + +Early in May most of the members of the Expedition had assembled at +Darjeeling. Mr. Raeburn had been the first to arrive there in order to +collect as many coolies of the right type as he could. I had come out a +few weeks earlier in order to visit the Indian Authorities at Simla and +to make sure that there were no political difficulties in the way. There +I found every one very kind and helpful and all were anxious to do their +best to assist the Expedition. Owing to the heavy deficit in the Indian +Budget, the expenses of every Department had been rigorously cut down, +and the Government of India were unable to give us financial assistance. +They agreed, however, to take upon themselves the whole of the expenses +of the survey, and to lend the Expedition the services of an officer of +the Geological Department. The Viceroy, Lord Reading, who, together with +Lady Reading, took the greatest interest in the Expedition, kindly gave +us a subscription of 750 rupees, and at Darjeeling the Governor of +Bengal, Lord Ronaldshay, had not only put up several members of the +Expedition at his most comfortable house, but had also given the +Expedition several rooms in which to collect their stores for separation +and division into loads. Local stores, such as tea, sugar, flour and +potatoes had to be bought on the spot. Coolies had to be collected and +arrangements made for fitting them out with boots and warm clothing. The +coolies were to receive pay at the rate of 12 annas per day while in +Sikkim, and when in Tibet were to receive another 6 annas per day, +either in cash or the equivalent in rations. The former proved the most +acceptable eventually, except during the period when the coolies were +up on the glaciers, where there were no villages and consequently +nothing could be bought. + +A passport had been sent to us by the Government at Lhasa under the seal +of the Prime Minister of Tibet, of which the following is a +translation:-- + + _To_ + _The Jongpens and Headmen of Pharijong, Ting-ke, Khamba and Kharta._ + + You are to bear in mind that a party of Sahibs are coming to see the + Chha-mo-lung-ma mountain and they will evince great friendship towards + the Tibetans. On the request of the Great Minister Bell a passport + has been issued requiring you and all officials and subjects of the + Tibetan Government to supply transport, e.g. riding ponies, pack + animals and coolies as required by the Sahibs, the rates for which + should be fixed to mutual satisfaction. Any other assistance that + the Sahibs may require either by day or by night, on the march or + during halts, should be faithfully given, and their requirements + about transport or anything else should be promptly attended to. All + the people of the country, wherever the Sahibs may happen to come, + should render all necessary assistance in the best possible way, in + order to maintain friendly relations between the British and Tibetan + Governments. + + Dispatched during the Iron-Bird Year. + Seal of the Prime Minister. + +Our start had been originally arranged for the middle of May, but the +"Hatarana," in which were most of our stores, was unable to obtain a +berth, as accommodation in the Docks at Calcutta was very insufficient +for the large number of steamers that call there; she had therefore to +lie out in the Hoogly for a fortnight before she could get room in the +Docks. However, by May 11 everything was unloaded at Calcutta. The +Darjeeling-Himalayan Railway had generously given the Expedition a free +pass over their line for all stores and goods, and as the Customs had +granted a free entry into the country, everything was up in Darjeeling +by May 14. The time of waiting at Darjeeling had, however, not been +wasted. Four cooks had been engaged for the Expedition and some forty +coolies. These were Sherpa Bhotias, whose homes were in the North-east +corner of Nepal, some of them coming from villages only a few miles to +the South of Mount Everest. They were an especially hardy type of +coolie, accustomed to living in a cold climate and at great heights. +They were Buddhists by religion and therefore had no caste prejudices +about food, and could eat anything. They proved at times quarrelsome and +rather fond of strong drink; they turned out, however, to be a useful +and capable type of man, easily trained in snow and ice work and not +afraid of the snow. We later on picked up a few Tibetan coolies in the +Chumbi Valley and these proved to be as good as the best of the Sherpas. +They were very hardy and got on well with the Tibetans, who were always +rather suspicious of our Nepalese coolies. They were also less +troublesome to manage and could carry heavy loads at great heights. +These coolies had all to be fitted with boots and very difficult this +sometimes proved to be, as often their feet were almost as broad as they +were long. Blankets, cap comforters, fur gloves and warm clothing were +issued to all of them, and for those who had to sleep at the highest +camps, eiderdown sleeping-bags were also taken. Arrangements had also to +be made for interpreters to accompany the Expedition, as with the +exception of Major Morshead, who knew a little Tibetan, no one was able +to speak the language. It was a matter of great importance to get hold +of the right type of man as interpreter. It was essential to find men of +some position and standing who knew not only the Tibetan language, but +also all their ways and customs. After many names had been suggested, we +were very lucky in getting hold of two men who possessed these +qualifications to a great extent. Gyalzen Kazi, who came from Gangtok in +Sikkim, where he was a Kazi and landowner, was a young and ambitious man +who knew the Tibetan language well and was well read in their sacred +writings and scriptures. The other one, Chheten Wangdi, was a Tibetan +who had been for a time a captain in the Tibetan army, and who had left +them and been attached to the Indian army in Egypt during the war. He +was a most energetic, hard-working man, knew all the Tibetan manners and +customs, and was up to all their tricks of procrastination and attempts +at overcharging. By his knowledge and persuasive powers the Expedition +was saved many thousand rupees. + +The Expedition when it left Darjeeling included nine Europeans. The +Alpine climbers were Mr. Harold Raeburn, Dr. A. M. Kellas, Mr. G. L. +Mallory and Mr. C. H. Bullock. Dr. Kellas had unfortunately in the early +spring of this year tried his constitution very severely by climbing +Narsing,[2] and he had also spent several nights at very low +temperatures in camps over 20,000 feet, on the slopes of Kabru,[2] so +that when he arrived at Darjeeling a few days before the Expedition was +due to start, he was not in as fit a condition as he should have been. +The two Surveyors were Major H. T. Morshead, D.S.O., and Major O. E. +Wheeler, M.C. These officers had been lent by the Survey of India. Major +Morshead had already a considerable experience of travelling in the +Eastern borders of Tibet and in the Kham country, where he had carried +out some useful survey work, and under him were three native surveyors, +one of whom was left in Sikkim to revise the existing maps, which were +very inaccurate, while the other two, Gujjar Singh and Lalbir Singh, +accompanied the Expedition and filled in all the details of the country +traversed on their plane tables at a scale of 4 miles to the inch. Major +O. E. Wheeler, the other Surveyor, was a member of the Canadian Alpine +Club and a very keen climber himself. He was an expert in the Canadian +system of Photo Survey--a method especially useful and applicable to a +difficult and mountainous country. The Indian Government had also lent +the Expedition the services of Dr. A. M. Heron, of the Geological Survey +of India, in order to study the geology of the country through which it +was about to go, and about which nothing was known, and to investigate +the problems which surround the age and the structure of the Himalayan +range. Besides these, there was Mr. A. F. Wollaston, a member of the +Alpine Club and a very distinguished traveller as well, who had made +some most interesting journeys around Ruwenzori in Africa and in the +interior of New Guinea. He accompanied the Expedition in the capacity of +Doctor, Naturalist and Botanist, and was equipped with a complete +collector's outfit. + + [2] Narsing and Kabru are two high mountains in the North of Sikkim. + +During our time of enforced waiting at Darjeeling, we came in for the +Lebong races--a unique and very amusing entertainment. The course is a +small circular one, where the top of the Lebong spur has been levelled, +and only genuine Tibetan and Bhotia ponies are allowed to race there. +There were always large entries for these races, as they were very +popular among the hill-folk, who flocked into Darjeeling from great +distances, dressed in their finest clothes and with their women covered +with jewellery and wearing clothing of brilliant shades of green and +red. There was very heavy betting on each race, and the amount of money +that the coolies, sirdars or servants were able to put up was +astonishing. In most of the races there was at least a field of ten, +which made the start a very amusing affair. The jockeys were all +hill-boys, and as they and the ponies were up to every dodge and trick, +and were equally anxious to get off first, and as most of the ponies had +mouths of iron, it was always a long time before a start could be made, +and in nearly every race one or more of the ponies would run out of the +course at the point nearest its own home. + +On May 13 Major Morshead with his assistant surveyors and fifty coolies +left Darjeeling for Khamba Dzong. They went the direct road up the +Teesta Valley correcting the Sikkim map as they went along. Their object +in going this way was to connect the Indian Survey with the new survey +that it was proposed to carry out in Tibet. This would occupy all Major +Morshead's time until we should be able to join him at Khamba Dzong in +June. + +The chief transport of the Expedition consisted of 100 mules belonging +to the Supply and Transport Corps and lent to us by the +Commander-in-Chief. These arrived at Darjeeling a few days before we +were due to start and were camped in the open on the old parade ground +at the top of Katapahar. Sub-Conductor Taylor, who had already had +experience of mule transport in Tibet in 1904-5, and was to have come in +charge of them, was unfortunately laid up at the last moment with a bad +attack of influenza. The next man chosen was passed medically unfit, and +the third man in temporary charge of the mules was, when he arrived at +Darjeeling, already suffering from ague. It was not till May 15 that +Sergeant Fowkes arrived, who was to take charge of the mules. He was a +very capable and energetic N.C.O., and their subsequent failure was in +no way due to him, but solely to the fact that the mules were in no kind +of condition to do hard work in the hills, being sleek and fat from the +plains where they had had very little work to do. The muleteers, or +drabies, were all hill-men and had been picked out specially for us and +fitted out with every kind of warm clothing. Though there were a hundred +mules, this did not mean that there were a hundred mules to carry our +loads--so much extra warm clothing and blankets had been given to the +drabies that together with all their line gear it needed twenty-seven +mules to carry their kit, which left only seventy-three mules for the +Expedition loads, each mule carrying 160 lb., and this was not nearly +sufficient for our requirements. A certain amount of our stores had +therefore to be left behind at Government House, Darjeeling, for a +second journey, and we only took with us sufficient food and supplies +for three and a half months, relying on the mules going back and +returning with the remainder of the stores in July or August. Owing to +the camping grounds being small, and bungalow accommodation limited on +the journey across Sikkim, we divided ourselves into two parties with +fifty mules and twenty coolies in each party; Wollaston, Wheeler, +Mallory and myself being with the first party and Raeburn, Kellas, +Bullock and Heron with the second. + +The first party left Darjeeling on May 18, and the second party the +following day. I remained behind to see the second party off, and then +by doing a double march I caught the first party up that evening at +Kalimpong, not, however, without noticing on the way that several of our +mules were already knocked up. The night before we started rain came +down in torrents, and it was still pouring when the mules came round in +the morning, and though the rain stopped soon afterwards yet the +hillsides were all wreathed in soft grey mists and every moss-hung +branch and tree dripped steadily with moisture all day long. The first +day's march from Darjeeling was to Peshoke--a seventeen-mile march and +down hill all the way after Ghoom. From Darjeeling we gradually ascended +some 500 feet to Ghoom and then for 6 miles followed the well-engineered +cart road which leads below Senchal to the new military cantonment of +Takda which is, I believe, about to be abandoned, as the Gurkhas, for +whom it was built, are not at all happy there. During the war it was +used as a German internment camp. Along this ridge there are magnificent +forests of evergreen oaks, all of which were covered with ferns and +orchids and long trailing mosses. This first ridge rising straight out +of the plains condenses all the moisture-laden winds that blow up from +the Bay of Bengal and causes it almost always to be enveloped in clouds +and mists. The path now rapidly descended 4,000 feet, through tea +plantations. The whole hillside was covered with tea bushes, neatly +planted in lines, and showing a very vivid green at this time of the +year. Here and there grew tall tree ferns, 20 feet to 30 feet in height, +their stems covered with ferns and Coelogene orchids. The air was now +growing hotter and hotter as we descended, but the wonderful and varied +vegetation, the beautiful and brilliantly coloured butterflies--for +which the Teesta Valley is famous--that flitted across the path in front +of us, proved an irresistible attraction, and made us forget the fact +that we were dripping with perspiration from every pore. We had already +descended nearly 5,000 feet by the time that we reached the P.W.D. +bungalow at Peshoke, which was situated in a clearing in the forest. We +were, however, still 2,000 feet above the muddy Teesta River which ran +down below us in its steamy gorge, and the next morning saw us +descending 2,000 feet through a Sal forest by a slippery path of clay +leading to the suspension bridge which crosses the mighty river that +with its affluents drains the whole of Sikkim. It rushes along with +irresistible force in mighty waves and rapids, and though attempts have +been made to float timber down it for commercial purposes, yet the +current is too swift and the logs were all smashed to pieces. Here at +the bridge we were only 700 feet above the sea and the heat was intense. +Several mules had been left exhausted at Peshoke and had been unable to +proceed the following day and several more only just reached Kalimpong, +the second day's march, only 12 miles from Peshoke, but the climb of +3,300 feet up from the bridge over the Teesta in the steamy and +enervating heat proved too much for them. The forests here were very +beautiful--huge sal trees and giant terminalia abounded with weird and +wonderful creepers embracing their stems, or hanging down from their +branches. The handsome pothos--the finest of the creepers--grew +everywhere. The curious pandanus or screw pine displayed its long and +picturesque fronds, while here and there among the dark green of the +tropical forest showed up as a brilliant patch of colour the scarlet +blooms of the clerodendrons. Above the forests the hillsides had been +terraced with immense labour into rice fields, which at this time of +year were not yet planted out, but the fields of maize were already +ripening. At Kalimpong there was a large and comfortable Dak bungalow, +surrounded by a well-kept garden full of roses and scarlet hibiscus with +a beautiful and large-flowered mauve solanum growing up the pillars on +the verandah. At Kalimpong we were entertained by Dr. Graham and his +charming daughters, who showed us true hospitality and kindness. They +live in a very pretty house embowered in roses on the crest of the hill +and commanding lovely views over the Teesta Valley and up to the snowy +peaks of Kanchenjunga. Higher up on the spur are the homes and the +industrial schools that many years of hard work have brought into +being, thanks to the indefatigable labours of Dr. Graham and the late +Mrs. Graham; these now hold between 600 and 700 pupils, both boys and +girls, who, when they leave these schools, have all been taught some +useful trade and are sent out as useful members of society. They are +given as practical an education as could be wished for anywhere. At the +Grahams' house I met David Macdonald, the British Trade Agent at Yatung, +who was acting temporarily as political agent in Sikkim until Major +Bailey arrived from England. He was an old friend of mine, as I had met +him before in Tibet. He promised us every assistance in his power and +had telegraphed to Yatung and to the Jongpen at Phari to have supplies +and anything we wanted in readiness at those places. He told me that an +old Tibetan Lama, who knew Mount Everest well, had described it as "Miti +guti cha-phu long-nga," "the mountain visible from all directions, and +where a bird becomes blind if it flies so high." Throughout our journey +across Sikkim the weather was very bad, with heavy falls of rain every +day and night. We had had the bad luck to strike the Chota Bursat, or +little monsoon, which usually heralds the coming of the proper monsoon a +fortnight or three weeks later. + +The march to Pedong was an easy one of 14 miles with a gentle climb of +3,000 feet followed by a descent of 2,000 feet past gardens beautiful +with their great trees of scarlet hibiscus, daturas and bougainvilleas, +which grew with wonderful luxuriance in this climate where frost is +almost unknown in winter and where in summer the temperature scarcely +ever exceeds 85 deg. Fahrenheit. We passed some of the most wonderful datura +hedges that I have ever seen with trees 15 feet to 20 feet in height and +laden with hundreds of enormous white trumpet-shaped blooms 8 inches in +diameter and fully a foot long. I could only stand and admire. At night +these great white flowers glowed as though with phosphorescence in the +dark and had a strangely sweet smell. I got thoroughly soaked on the +march, for a couple of minutes of these deluges are sufficient to go +through any waterproof. + +Our mules were now beginning to give us great trouble. Several had to be +left behind after each march and fresh animals had to be hired locally +to replace those left behind. At Pedong there were more wonderful +daturas, and all along the next march we kept passing grand bushes of +these flowers. It rained all that night and most of the following day, +so that we had a very wet and trying march to Rongli--the distance was +only 12 miles, but this included a very steep descent of over 3,000 feet +to the bottom of a steamy valley, followed by a climb of 3,000 feet +across an intervening ridge and then down another 2,000 feet to the +Rongli bungalow. The poor mules were very tired by the end of the march +and one had died of colic on the way. Most of the others too were +getting very sore backs from the constant rain. On the way Wollaston and +I stopped at Rhenock to have a look at the Chandra Nursery kept by Tulsi +Dass, where there were many interesting plants, chiefly collected in the +Sikkim forests. There was a tree growing everywhere in the forests with +a white flower which Sikkim people called Chilauni, and all along the +paths the Sikkim durbar had been busy planting mulberry, walnut and toon +trees. There was a curious pink ground plant that grew in the forests +which I was told belonged to the Amomum species. There were also +beautiful orchids in the trees, mauve, white and yellow, belonging to +the Dendrobium, Coelogene and Cymbidium families--some with fine sprays +of flowers 18 inches long. Here at Rongli the mules were so tired that +we had to give them a day's rest before they could go on any further. It +was a hot and feverish spot to stop in, and only necessity compelled us +to do so, as we were unable to get any extra transport the following +morning to supplement the mules that were sick. + +All that day we had passed numbers of mules coming down from Tibet laden +with bales of wool, and others were returning to Tibet with sheets of +copper, manufactured goods, grain and rice which had been bought in +exchange. The dark faces of the muleteers with their turquoise earrings +formed a pretty picture and they were full of friendly smiles and +greetings for us. The mules travelled on their own--if any mule stopped +on the path, a stone always aimed with the greatest accuracy reminded +him that it was time to go on. Owing to our having to halt a day at +Rongli, we had to stop the second party, and were able to do this at +Ari, a bungalow 3 miles short of Rongli. I rode up to see how they were +getting on, and found they were having the same trouble with their mules +that we had been having. On May 23 we left for Sedongchen, or Padamchen +as the Tibetans called it. Sedongchen is the old local name, so-called +because there once grew there a very large "Sedong" tree. This is a tree +that has a white sap which irritates the skin intensely and sets up a +rash. Sedongchen was only 9 miles from Rongli, but there was a very +steep climb, from 2,700 feet up to 7,000 feet, and our mules only just +managed to arrive there. The first part of the way is alongside the +rushing stream of the Rongli, through lovely woods and dense tropical +vegetation. Caladiums, kolocasias and begonias were growing on every +rock, and the giant pothos with its large shining leaves grew up the +stems of many of the trees. Climbers of all kinds, such as vines and +peppers, hung down from the branches. Here, too, were magnificent forest +trees, fully 150 feet high, with clean straight trunks and without a +branch for a hundred feet; others nearly equally tall, which the Sikkim +people call "Panisage," had huge buttresses and trunks nearly 40 feet in +circumference. Every branch here was covered by thick matted growth of +orchids. For the first time since leaving Darjeeling the sun shone, and +after we left the forests we found the uphill climb very hot. On +to-day's march, out of the fifty mules with which we started there were +only fourteen carrying our own kit, and of those fourteen we found on +arrival at Sedongchen that none would be fit to proceed on the following +day. It was therefore with great reluctance that I felt compelled to +send back the Government mules, as they could not only not carry their +own line gear, but had become an extra and very large source of expense +and worry to us. That the mules should have completely broken down like +this after a five days' march showed that they must have been in no kind +of training and condition and were completely unfitted for heavy work in +the mountains. The hill ponies and mules that we had hired to supplement +them, although they had been given the heaviest loads, always arrived +first, and made nothing of each march. By this failure of the Government +transport we were now thrown back on our own resources, and obliged to +depend everywhere on what local transport we could obtain, and this +often took some time to collect. + +At Sedongchen there was a pleasant bungalow, rather Swiss in appearance, +with fine views down the Rongli Valley and across all the forest ridges +over which we had come, right back to Darjeeling. Opposite us, to the +South-east, were densely wooded hills with clouds and mists drifting +along the tops, while here and there a waterfall showed up white amidst +the dark green vegetation. + +Rain came down steadily all night, but the morning proved somewhat +finer. Being on the main trade route, we were luckily able to get other +transport to replace the Government mules and to arrange for hired mules +as far as Yatung. The local animal is a wonderful beast, extremely sure +footed, and not minding in the least a climb of 6,000 feet. The path +from Sedongchen is really only a stone causeway, very slippery and +unpleasant either to walk or ride upon, but probably anything else would +be worn away by the torrential rains that fall here. At one place we had +to make a wide detour, as the rain of the night before had washed away +some hundred yards of the pathway, but luckily this was not in a very +steep part, as otherwise we might have been delayed for several days. +The constant rain had already brought out the leeches, and on most of +the stones or blades of grass beside the path they sat waiting for +their meal of blood and clung on to any mule or human being that passed +by. The mules suffered severely, and drops of blood on the stones became +frequent from the bleeding wounds. + +The climb from Sedongchen to Gnatong was very steep with a rise of over +5,000 feet in the first 5 miles, and we soon got out of the zone of the +leeches and on to the most wonderful zone of flowering rhododendrons. +The rhododendrons in the lower forest chiefly consisted of _R. +Argenteum_ and _R. Falconeri_. These grew in a great forest of oaks and +magnolias, all covered with beautiful ferns among which showed up +delightful mauve or white orchids. The lower rhododendrons had already +flowered, but as we got higher we found masses of _R. Cinnabarinum_, +with flowers showing every shade of orange and red. Then came +rhododendrons of every colour--pink, deep crimson, yellow, mauve, white +or cream coloured. It was impossible to imagine anything more beautiful, +and every yard of the path was a pure delight. Among the smaller flowers +were the large pink saxifrage, while the deep reddish-purple primula +covered every open space. There was also a very tiny pink primula--the +smallest I have ever seen--and another one like a pink primrose, that +grew on the banks above the path. We went along quite slowly all the +way, botanising and admiring the scenery. The path mostly led along the +top of a ridge, and the views and colours of the many-hued rhododendrons +in the gullies on either side were very delightful. Gnatong, where we +were to spend the night, was a very small and rather dirty village lying +in a hollow and surrounded by grassy hills. The fir trees (_Abies +Webbiana_) no longer surrounded it, as those anywhere near had been cut +down for firewood, or for building houses. From here I was able to +telephone to Mr. Isaacs, Mr. Macdonald's head clerk at Yatung, to ask +him to make arrangements for ponies and mules for us both at Yatung and +at Phari now that our transport had broken down. Wonderful rumours +seemed to have preceded our advent. Stories that we were coming with +1,000 mules and 500 men seemed to have been spread about in Tibet. + +Gnatong is a most depressing place, and only owes its existence to the +fact that it is the first stopping place for the caravans that cross +over the Jelep Pass on the British side of the frontier. Rain always +falls there, the rainfall in the year being nearly 200 inches, and when +rain does not fall the place is enveloped in mist, with the result that +the mud was horrible. It poured with rain all the time that we were +there and we left again in heavy rain for the Jelep Pass 8 miles +distant. We were already over 12,000 feet when we started, and the top +of the pass was 14,390 feet, so that it was not a very serious climb. +There was no view of any kind to be had as the rain fell steadily all +the way and the hillsides were all veiled in mist. We had occasional +glimpses of a hillside pink, white or yellow with rhododendrons, which +now grew only about 5 feet high. I counted six or seven different +varieties of primulas on the way, but near the top there was still +plenty of the old winter snow lying about and the Alpine flowers were +scarcely out. A big heap of stones marked the summit of the pass and the +frontier between Sikkim and Tibet, and a few sticks, to which were +attached strings covered with small pieces of rag on which were +inscribed prayers, fluttered out in the strong wind that always blows up +there. In the cold rain this was not a cheerful spot to linger in, so we +hurried on down a steep and stony path and after descending a few +hundred feet emerged out of the mist and rain and obtained glimpses of a +really blue sky such as we had not seen for weeks. We had arrived at +last in Tibet. + + + + + CHAPTER II + + THE CHUMBI VALLEY AND THE TIBETAN PLATEAU + + +The range of mountains which here forms the boundary between Sikkim and +Tibet runs nearly North and South, and the two main passes across it are +the Jelep La and the Nathu La, the latter being a few miles to the North +of the Jelep La and about the same height. The Jelep La being the main +trade route across which the telegraph line runs, and over which the +postal runners travel, is kept open all the year round, though often +after a heavy blizzard it is closed for ten days or a fortnight. On the +Sikkim side the snow-fall is always the heaviest; this range of +mountains stops most of the moist currents that drive up from the Bay of +Bengal, with the result that the rainfall in the Chumbi Valley on the +Tibetan side is only about a quarter of what it is at Gnatong on the +Sikkim side. + +The descent into the Chumbi Valley was very steep and stony, as there +was a drop of over 5,000 feet from the top of the pass. The beauty of +the valley and its wild flowers made up, however, for the badness of the +path. The rhododendrons on the descent were extremely fine, and the +whole character of the vegetation was altered and became more European. +The great pink rhododendron _Aucklandi_ showed up splendidly in the dark +forests of silver fir (_A. Webbiana_) which here grows into a fine tree. +There was also the yellow rhododendron Campylocarpum and a white +rhododendron, probably Decorum; the beautiful _R. Cinnabarinum_ with its +orange bells of waxy flowers relieved the darkness of the firs. There +was a small Tibetan rest-house called Langra where our coolies wanted to +stop, but we pushed on past this and descended steeply through more +wonderful forests. As we got lower we found birch, sycamore, willow and +elder still clothed in the light green of early spring. A fine white +clematis, a pink and white spiraea, a yellow berberis, white roses and +the dark purple iris grew in profusion on either side of the path. +Underneath these were the small flowers of the wild strawberry, which +the Macdonald family collected later on in the year and made into jam in +great quantities. + +Near the entrance to this side valley we came to Old Yatung with its +Chinese custom-house and wall built right across the valley to keep the +British from going any further. All this was now deserted and in ruins. +Soon afterwards we arrived in the main Chumbi Valley where were broad +fields filled with potatoes and ripening barley. The houses here were +mostly built of stone and wood and in two stories. In character they +much resembled Tirolese houses except for the elaborate carving over the +doors and windows and the many colours in which they were painted. We +passed through the prosperous villages of Richengong, Phema and Chumbi +before arriving at New Yatung, or Shassi as the Tibetans still prefer to +call it. Here was a comfortable bungalow overlooking the bazaar on the +other side of the river. Knowing that we had had a long and tiring march +and that our coolies would only arrive late that night, Mrs. Macdonald +had with much thoughtfulness sent over her servants who had tea and +dinner prepared for us on a generous scale. No attention could have been +more acceptable. It rained steadily all that night--a somewhat unusual +occurrence in this valley--but the next morning it cleared up and the +day was delightful. + +The Chumbi Valley is one of the richest valleys in Tibet. Yatung lies at +a height of 9,400 feet. Apples and pears do well here, and barley, wheat +and potatoes are grown in great quantities. At this time of the year the +air is scented by the wild roses which grow in large bushes covered with +hundreds of cream-coloured and sweetly scented flowers. The villages +all look extremely prosperous and an air of peace and contentment seems +to pervade the valley. We had to hire a new lot of animals to take us on +to Phari--28 miles further up the Chumbi Valley. These all arrived in +good time, and by eight o'clock on May 27 our loads were all on their +way. Before leaving, I sent off a telegram to Sir Francis Younghusband +to announce the arrival of the Expedition in Tibet, a telegram which +arrived opportunely at the Anniversary Dinner of the Royal Geographical +Society, just at the commencement of dinner. + +There is a small garrison at Yatung, consisting of twenty-five men of +the 73rd Carnatics. There was also a hospital and a supply depot from +which we were able to purchase sugar, flour, ata (coarse native flour) +and potatoes, while later on we were able to send back to it for further +supplies. We formed quite an imposing procession as we started off: +Wollaston and myself on our ponies, Gyalzen Kazi and Chheten Wangdi, our +interpreters, on their ponies which they had brought along with them. +There was Mr. Isaacs, the head clerk, with a red-coated chaprassi and a +syce also mounted, who accompanied us on a visit to two monasteries +further up the valley. The path followed close to the banks of the +Ammo-chu, which was now a clear stream and contained many a likely pool +for fish. The valley was full of delightful flowers; curious ground +orchids, with several beautiful varieties of the ladies' slipper grew +there; the wild roses, especially the large red one, were very +sweet-scented and filled the air with fragrance. Berberis, clematis and +some charming dwarf rhododendrons abounded. After going about 3 miles +the valley narrowed, and we passed the spot where the Chinese had built +another wall across the valley to keep us out. Just above this wall +there was a deserted Chinese village, for now all the Chinese have been +driven out of the country and are not allowed to go back and live there. +High above us on the hillside was the Punagang Monastery belonging to +the old sect of the Bhompo's, who turn their prayer wheels the opposite +to every one else and always keep to the right of Chortens and Mani +walls. This monastery was too far off the path for us to visit it. We +soon afterwards passed the large and flourishing village of Galinka +surrounded by fields of barley. Here we turned aside to visit the +Galinka Monastery, which stood in the midst of the village. This was +quite a new building, with a great gilt image of Buddha inside it. The +monks were still busy painting pictures of scenes from the life of +Buddha on the walls. They apparently did quite a good trade in selling +clay images of Buddha in his different forms and postures. These were +stamped by a very well cut brass die, which the monks told me had been +made at Shigatse. In a side room was a huge prayer wheel some 12 feet +high and 5 feet to 6 feet in diameter. It was covered over with painted +leather inscribed with the usual Om Mani Padme Hum (Hail, jewel of the +lotus flower). They told us the inside was also filled with prayers, and +that it contained one and a half million of these, so that each time the +wheel was turned a million and a half prayers were said for the person +who turned it. After each complete revolution it rings a bell. We were +allowed to turn it several times, so that I hope the many million +prayers sent up may benefit us. After leaving the monastery, the path +rose steeply and the river came down in a series of waterfalls. Above us +were masses of pink and mauve rhododendrons, flowering cherries, +viburnum, berberis, roses and other delightful shrubs. Soon afterwards, +at the entrance to the Lingmatang plain, we crossed the river and rode +up a rocky spur formed of great boulders that had some time or another +fallen down and blocked up the valley, forming a lake some 2 miles long, +but this lake no longer existed, and there was only a flat grassy plain +grazed over by yaks and ponies. On the top of the spur was the Donka +Monastery in a grand situation, commanding beautiful views up and down +the valley. I had hoped to see my friend the Geshe Lama or Geshe +Rimpoche, as he is sometimes known, with whom I had lunched last year at +the hot springs at Kambu, but unfortunately he was away at Lhasa. He is +a man of very great learning and held in high veneration throughout +these valleys. + +On entering the big stone courtyard of the monastery a crowd of children +and Lamas at once flocked round us. We were shown over the main temple, +but it was badly lit with a few butter lamps and we could see little of +its contents; amongst these were several statues of Buddha under his +different forms. There were also kept there 108 volumes of the Tangyur, +one of the Buddhist sacred writings. These books were very curious. Each +volume consisted of a number of loose oblong parchment sheets 2 to 3 +feet long and from 8 inches to a foot wide. These were kept together by +two elaborately carved boards between which they were pressed. The +writing was all done by hand by the Lamas, who copied out and +illuminated books with the greatest care and skill in the same manner +that the monks in the Middle Ages illuminated their missals. The +book-shelves of the library consisted of a number of pigeon-holes in the +walls in which these volumes were kept. Here, too, they were busy making +clay images to bury under the Chorten that they were building above the +monastery. Next door was another and newer temple, built to house the +Oracle, and called the Sanctuary of the Oracle. He, too, was +unfortunately away, as he was taking the hot waters at Kambu, but we +were shown his throne and the robes that he puts on when he prophesies. +There was a curiously shaped head-dress of silver, adorned all round +with silver skulls, and a very quaintly shaped bow and arrow which the +Oracle held in one hand while a huge trident was grasped in the other. I +am told that he is consulted far and wide and has a great reputation for +truth. We were then taken upstairs to a sunny verandah, just outside the +Geshe Rimpoche's private room and commanding fine views up and down the +valley. Here we were given Tibetan tea, made with salt and butter, and +served up in agate cups with beautifully chased silver covers. After +drinking this tea we were shown over the Geshe's private apartments and +chapel, the prevailing colour scheme of the room being yellow. The +little shrines with their silver bowls in front--the incense burner and +the flame that is never allowed to go out--were all very interesting to +us. We then took a photograph of the Lamas in front of their temple, +after which the head Lama accompanied us some way down the path to say +good-bye, hoping we would come and see them again on our return. + +I have alluded several times to the hot springs at Kambu. These springs +are two days' journey from Yatung up the Kambu Valley, but can also be +reached quite easily from Phari. There is a curious account of these +springs written by an old Lama and translated by Major Campbell. The +writer describes the Upper Kambu Valley as quite a pleasant spot where +cooling streams and medicinal plants are found in abundance. Medicinal +waters of five kinds flow from the rocks, forming twelve pools, the +waters of which are efficacious in curing the 440 diseases to which the +human race is subject. The springs are then made to describe their own +qualities in the first person:-- + + 1. THE LHAMO SPRING (The Spring of the Goddess): My virtue is derived + from the essence of stone--I am guarded by the Goddess Tsering, and my + virtue therefore consists in purging the sins and obscurities of the + human body. Those who bathe first in my waters will be purged of all + sin and the power of all diseases will be abated. + + 2. THE CHAGU SPRING (The Spring of the Vulture): My virtue is derived + from black sulphur. As regards my properties, a vulture with a broken + wing once fell into my waters and was healed. I benefit diseases of + women, also sores, gout and fractures. I possess particular virtue for + all diseases below the waist. I do not benefit neuralgia, nervous + diseases, or loss of appetite. + + 3 and 4. THE PON SPRINGS (The Springs of the Official): We two + brothers derive our properties from both yellow and black sulphur. + One of us provokes catarrh, while the other allays it. A learned man, + who wished us well, once said that we were beneficial in cases of + hemorrhoids, kidney diseases and rheumatism. We are not aware of + possessing these qualities, and rather tend to cause harm in such + cases. + + 5. THE TRAGGYE SPRING (The Spring born of the Rock): My virtue is + derived from a combination of sulphur and the essence of stone. I was + formerly efficacious in cases of diseases of the arteries and nerve + trouble, but later on the Brothers of the Pon Spring rushed down on + poor me like tyrants so that no one now regards me. The caretaker of + the Springs and visitors treats me like a beggar and pays no attention + to me. Even now if some person with the permission of the Brothers of + the Pon Spring would carry out some repairs, so as to separate my + waters from theirs, I would guarantee to benefit those suffering from + arterial diseases, nerve trouble, impurities of the blood and bile. + + 6. THE SERKA SPRING (The Spring of the Crevice): My virtues are + derived from sulphur and carbon. I am not beneficial to those + suffering from ailments arising from nerve trouble, bile and acidity. + I am beneficial to those suffering from chapped hands and feet due to + hard work among earth and stones and also in cases of diseases of the + kidneys and bladder. I am somewhat hurtful to those suffering from + headache arising from nervous catarrh, or impurities of the blood. + + 7. THE TANG SPRING (The Spring of the Plain): My virtues are derived + from carbon and a little sulphur. I am beneficial in cases of + hemorrhoids, kidney disease, rheumatism and other diseases below the + waist, also in cases of venereal disease. There is a danger of the + waist becoming bent like a bow through too much bathing in my waters. + + 8. THE TRAGGYAB SPRING (The Spring behind the Rock): I am beneficial + in cases of disease of the arteries and anaemia--I am not aware that + I am harmful in other cases. + + 9. THE TONGBU SPRING (The Spring of the Hole): My virtues are derived + from a large proportion of crystalline stone and a little sulphur. I + guarantee to be beneficial in cases of white phlegm, brown phlegm and + other forms of phlegmatic disease. Also in diseases arising out of + these, and in cases of impurities of the blood and colic pains. Please + bear this in mind. + + 10. THE NUB (The Western Spring): My virtues are derived from a little + carbon. I am beneficial in cases of liver disease, impurities of the + blood, flatulence, kidney disease, dyspepsia, brown phlegm, tumours, + gout, rheumatism, gleet, and complications arising from these. I do not + boast in the way that the other Springs do. + + 11. THE DZEPO SPRING (The Leper's Spring): I am cousin to the Western + Spring. He guarantees to cure diseases arising from two or three causes, + also kidney disease, flat foot, rheumatism and gout. I am beneficial in + cases of hemorrhoids, gout, rheumatism and diseases of the feet. I + possess particular virtue in cases of leprosy, sores and wounds. + + 12. THE LAMA SPRING (The Spring of the Lama): My virtues are derived + from a large proportion of lime and a little sulphur. I am beneficial + in cases of lung disease, tumours, dyspepsia, both chronic and recent, + poverty of the blood and venereal diseases. + + WRITTEN BY TSEWANG IN THE HOPE THAT THE PEOPLE OF BHUTAN, SIKKIM AND + THE SURROUNDING COUNTRY WILL BEAR THIS IN MIND. + + COPIED BY TENRAB, CLEARLY AND EXACTLY, FROM THE ORIGINAL IN THE MALE + IRON DOG YEAR IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE EARTH MONTH. + +After leaving the monastery we had a pleasant gallop across the +Lingmatang Plain, after which the valley narrowed again and the path +followed close beside the rushing stream. It was a delightful ride +through forests of birch, larch, juniper, spruce, silver fir and +mountain ash. Never anywhere have I seen birch trees grow to such a +size. They were grand rugged old trees that matched the rugged scenery +of the gorge. Blue poppies, fritillaries, ground orchids and +sweet-scented primulas grew along the path, and mixed up everywhere in +the forest were great bushes of _R. Cinnabarinum_, which varied in shade +from yellow and orange to deep red. Wagtails and white-crested redstarts +dodged about from rock to rock in the rushing stream, and the clear note +of the shrike could usually be heard above the noise of the waters. The +weather had luckily kept fine all day, so that we were able to dawdle +along and enjoy the scenery and flowers. + +After going about 12 miles we came to the bungalow of Gautsa, situated +at a height of about 12,000 feet, and at the bottom of the gorge; here +we spent the night. During the night there was heavy rain, and when we +woke in the morning, fresh snow was low down on all the hills and within +1,500 feet of the bungalow. However, the day again proved brilliantly +fine. For breakfast we had been given some large wild-goose eggs +belonging to the bar-headed goose. Mine I had boiled, and found +excellent, though one was sufficient for a meal. Two that the others had +were rather _passe_, and were not equally appreciated. The day's path +was at first very stony and climbed steadily uphill beside the torrent +of the Ammo-chu. Pale blue iris, yellow primulas, a pink viburnum and a +large yellow-belled lonicera grew beside the path, but the rhododendrons +were still by far the most wonderful of the flowering shrubs. We passed +many big blue meconopsis, and some of these flowers measured fully 3 +inches across. Dwarf rhododendrons, only a foot high--some pure white +and others pink, continued up until about 13,500 feet, and then the +hillsides became purple from another little rhododendron, which looked +in the distance like heather and gave the rounded hills quite a Scotch +appearance. As we rose higher the flowers decreased in number. Larks and +wheatears ran along the ground in front of us, and small tailless marmot +rats dodged in and out of their holes as we approached. The distance +from Goutsa to Phari was about 16 miles, of which the last 8 miles were +over flat country with a springy turf, on which it was a pleasure to be +able to canter again after having passed over so many miles of stony +roads. Chomolhari, the Mountain of the Goddess, stood up as a wonderful +sight with its sharp peak outlined against the clear blue sky. On its +summit the wind was evidently very strong, as we could see the fresh +snow being whirled off in clouds. + +Phari is an extremely dirty village dominated by a stone fort and lying +under the shadow of the great mountain Chomolhari, 23,930 feet high. It +is 14,300 feet above sea level, and the climate there is always cold, as +it is never without a strong wind. In the afternoon the Jongpen, or +Governor of the district, came to call on me. He was a young man with an +intelligent and pleasant face, and came from the country between Khamba +Dzong and Shekar Dzong, so that he was able to give us much useful +information about the road; he promised that he would write to his +brother, who was acting as agent for him at his home, telling him to +entertain us and give us all facilities in the matters of transport and +supplies. He told us that he had received written instructions from the +Lhasa Government to arrange for supplies and transport for us, and he +promised that he would do his best. I gave him photographs that I had +taken last year of his fort, and also of Chomolhari; these pleased him +very much, and in return he presented us with a dried sheep which looked +mummified and smelt very strongly, but which proved very acceptable to +our coolies. It was necessary to stop here for several days as the +second party had to catch up, and they too needed a day's rest. Also the +transport that was to carry us along to Khamba Dzong would not be ready +for several days, so the following morning I went to call on the +Jongpen in his fort, where I found him living in some very dark rooms. I +presented him with one of the new lever electric torches, which he much +appreciated, though at first he and his servants were rather frightened +by it. He gave us tea and sweetmeats, and soon afterwards the head-men +of all the villages came in, and were given orders about our transport. +Their quaint attitudes of respect and their darkly bronzed faces, that +just showed up in the light, reminded me forcibly of an old Dutch +picture. Some men, too, had been sent from Khamba Dzong for orders and +to know when we should be likely to arrive there. In the course of the +afternoon Dr. Heron and I rode over to a monastery about 3 miles away +where I had been last year, and where I had taken some photographs. Some +prints of these I brought back to the monastery, and the monks were very +pleased with them. They were in the middle of a service when we arrived, +as it was some kind of festival, and the dark temple was illuminated by +hundreds of little butter lamps. The monks were all chanting their +scriptures, and this they continued to do all the afternoon. + +On returning to Phari, we found that a message had come from the Jongpen +to ask us to dine with him the following evening. The change in the +climate and the bad cooking had affected the stomachs of all the members +of the Expedition, and none of us was feeling very well. Dr. Kellas was +the worst, and as soon as he arrived at Phari he retired to bed. The +following morning was misty and the ground was all white with +hoar-frost, though it was the last day in May; but as I was anxious to +get some photographs of Chomolhari we rode, with the Chaukidar as a +guide, through the mist across the plain to some hills just to the South +of the great mountain; after a few miles we found ourselves above the +clouds with the sun shining in a brilliant blue sky. The whole of the +Phari Plain was covered by a sea of clouds. On the far side rose the +Pawhunri group of mountains, while further to the South, Kanchenjunga +towered above all the other peaks, such as Siniolchum, Kabru and +Jonsong, all of which stood out very clearly in this brilliant +atmosphere. I rode up a delightful little mountain valley full of dwarf +rhododendrons and Alpine primulas until I reached a height of 16,000 +feet. We then left the ponies and climbed on to the top of the hill, +which was about 17,500 feet; from this point we had glorious views of +Chomolhari immediately across the valley, while on the other side we +looked over to the snowy peaks and ranges in Bhutan far to the South of +us. We found the wind very keen at this height, and after taking several +photographs we rode back again to Phari. + +[Illustration: CHOMOLHARI FROM THE SOUTH.] + +Here I found the place full of troubles. Our Coolie Sirdar was, as we +were beginning to find out, not only useless, but very mischievous, and +he was evidently at the bottom of an attempted mutiny among our coolies, +who refused to go on. The Sirdar strongly objected to our interpreters, +who were preventing him from fleecing us in the matter of stores and +supplies. However, after much talking they were all satisfied. Then it +was the turn of the cooks, all of whom the Sirdar had chosen. I should +not have minded one or two of these going, as they were very bad cooks +and usually drunk, and the fact that all of us had been ill was solely +due to their bad cooking; but I could not let them all go, so it was +necessary to find out which were the most useless, and this we were able +to do in the course of the next few days. Dr. Kellas was getting no +better; he refused to take any food, and was very depressed about +himself. At Phari I was able to change a certain number of our rupees +into Tibetan currency. The then rate of exchange was 33 rupees to 1 +sersang--a gold coin--and 41/2 silver trangkas to 1 rupee. The trangkas +were a thin and very badly stamped coin about the size of a two-shilling +piece. We found them, however, to be the most useful form of currency as +the gold coin, though much easier to carry, could only be exchanged at a +few places, and it was seldom that we met people who were rich enough to +be able to change them. + +That night four of us went over to have dinner with the Jongpen. First +we were given tea and sweetmeats, followed by strong ginger wine, which +was most comforting to our stomachs in their delicate condition. Then +came dishes of mutton in varying forms with vegetables and macaroni. +They were all served up in Chinese fashion in little dishes and some +were quite appetising. We were very late in starting the next morning as +all the loads had to be sorted and laid out for the very miscellaneous +transport that had been given us. This consisted of ponies, mules, +donkeys, bullocks and yaks. For riding-animals we were given mules, +which trotted well and covered the ground quite quickly, though some of +the Alpine climbers found them hard to manage and were apt to part +company with their steeds. Our transport was by now becoming rather +complicated as forty-four animals were going right through to Khamba +Dzong and forty-four were being changed at every stage. Dr. Kellas was +not well enough to ride and was carried in an arm-chair all day. Soon +after starting I passed two of our cooks on the road hopelessly drunk, +and left them there. Our way led over the Tang La, a very gentle and +scarcely perceptible pass, 15,200 feet, but important as being the main +Himalayan watershed. All day there was a very strong South wind blowing, +but it was luckily at our backs, and we did not feel it too much. We +then quickly trotted the 10 miles across the absolutely level +Tang-puen-sum Plain. Here I saw several herds of kiang, the wild ass of +Tibet, and got within 50 yards of one lot, but unfortunately the coolie +who was carrying my camera was not up with me at the time. We also +passed a certain number of Tibetan gazelle, but they were all very wary. +The Monsoon clouds came up to the South of us in great rolling billows, +but not a drop of moisture came over the Tang La. Chomolhari was a +magnificent sight all day with its 7,000 feet of precipices descending +sheer into the plain. Tuna (14,800 feet), about 20 miles from Phari, was +our first halt. We were still on the main road to Lhasa and found a +comfortable rest-house into which the eight of us all managed to stow +ourselves. Dr. Kellas, though rather better the next day, was still too +weak to ride, and was carried for the next march on a litter. We were +now in the true Tibetan climate, with brilliant sunshine, blue skies, +still mornings and strong winds all the afternoon. + +The next march from Tuna to Dochen was still on the Lhasa Road. I did +not follow the path, but rode with a local man from the village over the +great Tang-puen-sum Plain in search of goa--Tibetan gazelle. We saw many +of them on the plains, but they were the wiliest and most difficult +animals to approach, and in this flat and bare country it was not +possible ever to get within 300 yards of them. As a rule they ran off +when we were still half a mile away. They are restless little creatures, +always on the move, and never at any time an easy mark to hit. I +thoroughly enjoyed this ride over the plains and our glorious views of +Chomolhari and the great snow-covered and glaciated chain to the North +of it along the foot of which we were travelling. A curious pink +trumpet-shaped flower grew in great quantities on the plain; the leaves +were buried under the sand and only the flower showed its head above the +ground. There were also white pincushions of a kind of tiny saxifrage. +This plain, over which we were riding, was evidently once upon a time a +lake bed, as the pebbles were rounded and there were distinct evidences +of former shores along the sides of the hills. Many kiang were grazing +on it and many thousands of sheep were being pastured there. As we +approached the lake called Bamtso, the country became very marshy, and +our ponies got bogged several times. The bungalow at Dochen was situated +near the shores of the Bamtso. Never have I seen a lake with so many +colours in it. It was very shallow, and the shades varied from deep blue +and purple to light green, while in places it was almost red from a weed +that grew in it. Behind it was a background of snow and glacier-covered +mountains, which in the still mornings was reflected faithfully in its +waters and formed a charming picture. Swimming on this lake were many +bar-headed geese and Brahminy ducks, and along the shores were many +terns and yellow wagtails. + +That evening an amusing thing happened in the kitchen. One of our cooks +was heating up a tin of tinned fish and had put it in some hot water +without previously opening it. When he thought it was sufficiently hot, +he started to open it, with the result that it exploded violently, +covering him and every one else in the kitchen with small pieces of +fish. I was able then to explain to the Tibetans who were carrying our +loads that our stores were very dangerous, and that if any were at any +time stolen, they would be liable to explode and hurt them. It was, of +course, the rarefied air that had caused this, for Dochen is at a height +of 14,700 feet above sea level. + +Every day on from now the wind used to blow with great violence all the +afternoon, but would die down after sunset. It must have been of a local +nature caused by the rapid changes from high temperature to low, because +the clouds above at the same time were hardly moving. I sent back Dorje, +one of our cooks, from this place, as it was the fourth time that he had +been drunk, and this I hoped would be a lesson to the others. We now +left the Lhasa Road and turned off Westwards, having henceforward to +rely on our tents. + +[Illustration: LOADING UP AT DOCHEN.] + +From Dochen to Khe was a short march of 11 miles over the Dug Pass, +16,400 feet. I did not follow the road taken by the transport animals, +but took a local guide and rode over the hill-tops in search of ovis +ammon. I did not see any, however, though we sighted two or three goa, +but they were very wild and would not allow me to approach within 500 +yards of them. There were numbers of blue hares, however, and some ram +chakor, the Himalayan snow cock. But beyond this the hillsides were very +bare of game. There were pin-cushions of a beautiful little blue sedum +growing at a height of over 17,000 feet, also there was a big red +stonecrop. Khe is now only a small and dirty village with practically no +water except a half-dried muddy pond, but at one time it must have been +a place of some importance, as ruins and buildings of considerable size +extend over an area of more than a mile. The Kala-tso evidently at one +time came right up to this ruined town of Khetam, and the fact that it +is deserted now is probably due to the shrinkage of the lake. This was +only one of the many signs of desiccation that we saw in our travels in +Tibet. There were some curious ruins which looked like old crenellated +walls, but these walls were only places on which barley dough used to be +exposed to feed the crows as a sign of prosperity. It was a curious +custom and could only have prevailed in a very fertile valley, which +this place is no longer. The age of the city I could not find out, but +the few survivors told me that the holy shrine at Tashilumpo, which now +is at Shigatse, ought to have been built here. According to a local +legend, there was a certain stone in Khetam shaped like a ewe's-womb, +and one day a donkey driver finding that his loads were unequal in +weight, picked up this stone and put it on the light load to balance the +other, quite unaware of the importance of the stone. This stone was then +carried from Gyantse to Shigatse, where a high and important Lama saw +it, and recognising that this was a very holy stone, had it kept there. +The powerful monastery of Tashilumpo was built over this stone. We +passed two small nunneries called Doto and Shidag in snug little valleys +to the North of the plain, and on asking why there should be so many +nunneries in these parts when in the greater part of Tibet men +predominated, I was told that this was due to the fact that it was close +to the Nepalese frontier where there had always been much fighting, so +that most of the men had been killed and only women had survived. After +a short and easy march we came to a small pocket in the hills called +Kheru. Here were encamped some people belonging to a nomad tribe who +always lived in tents. They were very friendly, put tents at our +disposal, and did their best to make us comfortable. They told us that +they came here every year in the twelfth month, about January, and left +again in the fifth month of the Tibetan year (June) for a place near +Tuna, where they disposed of their wool, butter and cheese at the Phari +market. There were altogether about twenty families here owning some 200 +yaks and 3,000 sheep. Dr. Kellas was slightly better, but Raeburn was +not feeling at all well, and Wheeler was suffering from indigestion, so +that we were rather a sick party. Kheru lies at a height of 15,700 feet, +but it had been very hot all day in the brilliant sunshine, and on the +way we had passed lizards and a number of common peacock butterflies. +Next morning our march was to Tatsang (Falcon's Nest), a distance of 15 +or 16 miles, and over two passes 16,450 and 17,100 feet. The going was +easy all the way, as the gradients both up and down the passes were very +gentle. Between the two passes was a broad valley, filled with huge +flocks of sheep and herds of yaks, and after crossing the second pass, +we descended into a great barren and stony plain, more than 10 miles +across which was Tatsang and over which the wind blew very keenly. To +the South of us appeared the snowy crests of Pawhunri, Kanchenjhow and +Chomiomo and the Lhonak peaks. Again I did not keep with the transport, +but followed the crests of the hills, where I had lovely views; on the +way I saw plenty of gazelle, and was lucky enough to shoot one of them, +as they are very good eating. Our camp at Tatsang was pitched just below +the nunnery there, which is on the top of a rock and where there are +about thirty nuns. Our camp was on a pleasant grassy spot where some +excellent springs bubble up out of the ground. These within a few yards +formed quite a big stream full of small snow trout. They do not really +belong to the trout family, although they have somewhat similar spots, +and are very good to eat. Bullock, with his butterfly net, and the +coolies with their hands, managed to catch quite a number of fish, and +we had them for dinner that night. The ground round our tents was full +of holes out of which the marmot rats kept appearing. They were very +tame, and did not seem to be in the least afraid of us. Dr. Kellas had +had a very trying day. He had been rather better, and had started +riding a yak, but he found this too exhausting and coolies had to be +sent back from Tatsang to bring him on in a litter, so that he did not +arrive at Tatsang till late in the evening. Tatsang is 16,000 feet, so +the night was cold, the thermometer inside the tent registering 7 deg. of +frost, though it was June 4; outside there must have been quite 15 deg. as +the running streams were all frozen over, but once the sun had risen +everything warmed up and we had a beautiful warm day. Dr. Kellas started +off in his litter at 7 a.m. in quite good spirits. I did not start till +an hour later, as I had wanted to see everything off, and then went up +to visit the nunnery, over which the lady abbess showed me. There were +thirty nuns living there, all with shorn heads and wearing a curious +wool head-dress. The place where they worshipped was full of prayer +wheels, both large and small. They sat down behind these, and each nun +turned one or two of them if they could manage it. The room was very +dark, with a low ceiling, and at the end were several statues of Buddha +covered over with gauze veils. In another room there was a large prayer +wheel which they said contained half a million prayers. + +After leaving the nunnery we jogged along a dry and barren valley which +gradually rose in about 12 miles to a pass 17,200 feet. On the way we +passed Dr. Kellas in his litter, who then seemed to me to be still quite +cheerful. I then rode on and at the top of the pass saw three ovis +ammon, and after a chase of about a mile I shot one, which afforded +plenty of food for the coolies for some days. It was a full grown ram +about five years old and we had great trouble in getting the carcass on +to a mule, as it was enormous and very heavy. After this I rode on down +the valley for another 10 miles to Khamba Dzong. There were actually a +few bushes in this valley, which was carpeted with the pretty pink +trumpet-shaped flower mentioned above, also with light and dark blue +iris. Suddenly the valley narrowed into a fine limestone gorge, and all +at once the fort of Khamba Dzong appeared towering above us on the +cliffs. It was really a very impressive sight and some of the +architecture of the round towers was very fine. I found that Morshead +had been waiting here for about nine days, but had employed his time in +fixing the old triangulation points. Soon after I arrived the Jongpen +came down to pay us a visit. He was quite a young fellow, only about +twenty-four, but very pleasant and polite. + +While we were talking, a man came running up to us very excitedly to say +that Dr. Kellas had suddenly died on the way. We could hardly believe +this, as he was apparently gradually getting better; but Wollaston at +once rode off to see if it was true, and unfortunately found that there +was no doubt about it. It was a case of sudden failure of the heart, due +to his weak condition, while being carried over the high pass. His death +meant a very great loss to the Expedition in every way, as he alone was +qualified to carry out the experiments in oxygen and blood pressure +which would have been so valuable to the Expedition, and on which +subject he was so great an expert. His very keenness had been the cause +of his illness, for he had tried his constitution too severely in the +early months of that year by expeditions into the heart of the Himalayas +to see if he could get fresh photographs from other angles of Mount +Everest. The following day we buried him on the slopes of the hill to +the South of Khamba Dzong, in a site unsurpassed for beauty that looks +across the broad plains of Tibet to the mighty chain of the Himalayas +out of which rise up the three great peaks of Pawhunri, Kanchenjhow and +Chomiomo, which he alone had climbed. From the same spot, far away to +the West--more than a hundred miles away--could be seen the snowy crest +of Mount Everest towering far above all the other mountains. He lies, +therefore, within sight of his greatest feats in climbing and within +view of the mountain that he had longed for so many years to approach--a +fitting resting-place for a great mountaineer. + +[Illustration: KHAMBA DZONG.] + + + + + Chapter III + + FROM KHAMBA DZONG THROUGH UNKNOWN COUNTRY TO TINGRI + + +Our camp at Khamba Dzong[3] was pitched in a walled enclosure at the +foot of the fort, built on a great crag that rose 500 feet sheer above +us. They called this enclosure a Bagichah, or garden, because it once +boasted of three willow trees. Only one of these three is alive to-day, +the other two being merely dead stumps of wood. The Jongpen here, who +was under the direct orders of Shigatse, was very friendly, and after +our arrival presented us with five live sheep, a hundred eggs, and a +small carpet which he had had made in his own factory in the fort. Next +afternoon Morshead, Wollaston and myself went up to pay the Jongpen a +visit in his fort. It was a steep climb from our camp, past long +Mendongs or Mani walls covered with inscribed prayers. The Jongpen was +at the entrance waiting to receive us. He then showed us over his +stables, where he had several nice Tibetan ponies, which strongly +objected to Europeans and lashed out fiercely as we approached them. +After looking at them we went up many flights of most dangerously steep +stairs, almost in pitch darkness the whole time, until we came to a +small courtyard. Then after climbing up more steps, we were ushered into +a small latticed room where we were given the usual Tibetan tea and +sweetmeats. I presented the Jongpen with one of the new lever electric +torches, with which he was much pleased, saying it would be of much use +to him in going up and down his dark staircases. After tea he took us up +on to the roof of the fort, which was quite flat, and from which we had +a most magnificent view. We stood on the top of a great precipice and +looked straight down at our camp, which lay many hundred feet below but +almost within a stone's throw. From here too we could look across the +wide plains and valleys of the Yaru and its tributaries to the main +chain of the Himalayas which formed the Southern boundary to the +picture. From this side they do not appear nearly as imposing as they do +when seen from the South. Seen as they are from a height of over 15,000 +feet, the distance to the sky line is not nearly so great, and as a rule +we found the Northern slopes to be much less steep than those on the +Southern side. The snow line, too, was also several thousand feet +higher. Every day great masses of moist cumulus clouds came rolling up +and round the peaks to the South of us, indicating heavy falls of rain +and snow on the South, but very little of this came over the +watershed--only an occasional slight hailstorm or a few drops of rain. +From this point we could see as far West as Mount Everest, still over a +hundred miles away. After spending some time up there and admiring and +discussing the view, we descended once more into the fort, where the +Jongpen showed us some of the carpets that his womenfolk were busy +making and promised to have some ready for us by the time that we came +back. We also much admired the curious old locks by which the doors and +boxes were fastened; before leaving, he made me a present of one of +these locks. + + [3] Dzong means fort. + +June 7 saw us still at Khamba Dzong, as the transport would not be ready +till the following day. Raeburn, who for some time had been suffering +from the same complaint as Dr. Kellas, was unfortunately getting no +better and was getting weaker every day. We were therefore reluctantly +compelled to send him back again into Sikkim to Lachen, where he could +be taken charge of by the lady missionaries and properly looked after. +Wollaston and Gyalzen Kazi were to accompany him down to Lachen, and if +possible to rejoin us by the time that we got to Tingri. This break-up +of our climbing party was most annoying and seriously weakened our +party, obliging us to alter our plans for reconnoitring in a thorough +manner the various approaches to Mount Everest. The following day, after +a good deal of delay and argument about the loads, we got everything +loaded up and started off for Lingga, a march of about 16 miles to the +West. For the first few miles we rode across a great plain on which were +several small herds of goa, but these were very wary and kept well out +of shot. The path then took us alongside a small isolated rocky hill in +which we kept putting up numerous hares who often got up right under our +ponies' feet. We crossed the Yaru River, now only a small stream, at the +picturesque village of Mende with its fine willow trees, and then after +passing over a spur, formed of slaty rock, we descended into another +great plain which extended all the way to Tingri. Five miles across this +plain was the village of Lingga, surrounded by marshes and ponds, with +barley fields and rich grass growing between the patches of water. There +were several other villages in sight, so that the plain was evidently +fertile and could support a considerable population. This was the first +place where we became bothered by sand flies, which in the morning were +very troublesome; but when the wind got up, as it always did in the +afternoons, it blew them away, and for once was welcome. The villagers +were very hospitable; they produced tea and beer brewed from barley for +us as soon as we arrived there. The latter is quite a pleasant drink on +a hot day, but it did not agree with my inside at all. The people here +had never seen a European before, and though at first inclined to be +rather shy, they soon became very friendly and curious. Some pieces of +silver paper from chocolates quite won the hearts of the children who +flocked around and did not in the least mind being photographed. To the +South extended the chain of snows of the main range of the Himalayas, +and on the way we had several clear and distinct views of Mount Everest. +Morshead, who had left the day before, was camped at a small monastery a +few miles to the North of us in order to follow the crest of the ridge +of hills and to survey both sides, but was to join us again at Tinki. +The weather now was really delightful, though to the South of us we +still saw heavy clouds which brought showers of snow as far as the +mountains, but they did not reach us. + +From here to Tinki was about 13 miles over a perfectly level plain. The +midges or sand flies were very troublesome the whole way and came in +hundreds round one's head, got inside one's topee, and were thoroughly +objectionable. The plain appeared very fertile, as there seemed to be +plenty of water and great herds of yaks and flocks of sheep were grazing +upon it. In the marshes and ponds were many bar-headed geese, Brahminy +ducks, mallard and teal. After the rains, it is evident that a great +part of this plain is under water. About a couple of miles from Tinki we +crossed some curious sand dunes, about 20 feet high, which are evidently +on the move, and soon afterwards the Jongpen of Tinki came riding out to +meet us with a few mounted followers, he himself riding a fine white +pony. He was very Chinese in appearance, wearing finely embroidered +silks with a Chinese hat and a long pigtail, and his manners were +excellent. He escorted us to the place where our camp was to be, and had +had three or four tents already pitched for us. Tea and country beer +were at once served, and we rested in the shade of his Chinese tents +until our transport arrived. + +[Illustration: TINKI DZONG.] + +We were encamped in a very picturesque spot beside a large pond that was +full of bar-headed geese, Brahminy ducks and terns. On the opposite side +of this pond rose the walls and towers of the fort of Tinki. As soon as +we had settled down, the Jongpen came again to pay us a formal visit, +presented us with four sheep and a couple of hundred eggs and promised +to do everything he could to help us and to forward us on our way. Half +a mile above us was a large village and a big monastery belonging to the +Yellow Sect of Buddhists who also owned a fine grove of willows. The +bottom of the valley was all covered with barley fields, now a tender +green and coming up well. As the fresh transport had not arrived, we had +to spend the following day there. This gave an opportunity for Abdul +Jalil, our photographic assistant, to rejoin us. We had sent him back to +Phari in order to change some more rupees into Tibetan currency, as we +found that Indian notes or rupees were not accepted any further to the +West. Abdul Jalil had been very nervous about travelling with so much +money and had borrowed a revolver and a rifle from members of the +Expedition besides two large Tibetan swords and a dagger which he +obtained from the Jongpen. In the morning, with Bullock, I went to +return the call of the Jongpen. His fort at the time was under repair, +so he was living in a small house outside the main building. He was very +affable and gave us tea: we were then able to make all the arrangements +for transport except the actual fixing of the price. For this he said he +would have to consult his head-men. Just as we were about to leave he +insisted on our eating the large meal which he had had prepared for us. +He gave us small dishes of excellent macaroni and mince, seasoned up +with chillies and very well cooked--much better than anything our cooks +could produce. This we had to eat with chopsticks--a somewhat difficult +proceeding, as we were not yet used to them. Later on, however, after +much practice, we found no difficulty in consuming the numerous bowls of +this excellent dish that the Tibetans always set before one. The Jongpen +told us that he had been twenty-nine years in Government service, and he +was expecting to have a better post than this shortly. His health was +poor and he said he had been suffering much from indigestion, so I gave +him some pills and tabloids, for which he was very grateful. On the +return journey, he told me that he had greatly benefited by my +treatment. The bar-headed geese and the wild duck here were +extraordinarily tame, allowing us to approach within five yards of them +and showing no signs of fear. They would come and waddle round our +tents, picking up any scraps of food. The Jongpen had begged us not to +shoot or kill any of them, as he said a Lama had been sent specially +from Lhasa some years ago in order to tame the creatures, and certainly +the result was extraordinary; it was most interesting to watch these +birds, ordinarily so wild, from so close a distance. In the evening the +Jongpen came over to see us again, and after a good hour's bargaining +over the price of the transport, we finally reached a reasonable and +amicable agreement. Every evening, to the South of us, there were +constant flashes of lightning all along the horizon. In the morning I +woke up to the unusual sound of drops of rain, but this only lasted for +five minutes and then cleared up, though the sky remained clouded all +the morning. There was the usual fighting and confusion about the loads, +each person trying to get the lightest loads for his own animal. The +result was that there was much talking and fighting, and nothing was +actually done until some head-man would come and take control and decide +the dispute. The method of adjudication was as follows:--From each of +the families who were regarded as responsible for the supply of a +transport animal was taken one of the embroidered garters by which the +man's felt boots are kept in their place. These garters were shuffled, +as one might shuffle a pack of cards, after which a single garter was +laid upon each load. The family to which the garter belonged thereupon +became responsible for that load and had to pack it upon the animal's +back. Although we had only ninety animals, there were forty-five +different families supplying them. + +The march from Tinki to Chushar Nango was about 14 miles and was up the +valley behind Tinki to the Tinki Pass. On the way we passed +well-irrigated fields of barley and then climbed up a spur covered with +a small yellow cistus. After this a long gentle pull brought us to the +top of the pass, 17,100 feet. There was a very fine view from here to +the East looking over Tinki and Khamba Dzong and along the Northern +slopes of the Himalayas. I climbed up a hill about 600 feet above the +pass, whence I had a more extensive view still. I could see far away to +the East to Chomolhari, while in the foreground was the large and +picturesque lake called Tsomotretung backed by the rugged chain of +peaks that separated us from the valley of the Brahmaputra. To the West +we looked down into the valley of the Yaru, which flowed gently through +a broad and flat valley. To the South-west was a range of sharp granite +peaks rising up to 22,000 feet, which ran North and South and forced the +Yaru to flow round them before it could find its way into Nepal. The +descent from the pass was much steeper. We passed many of our old +friends the pink trumpet-shaped flowers, also a curious white and pink +flower, rather like a daphne in shape, and smelling very sweetly, which +grew in masses along the path. It was evidently poisonous as no animal +would touch it. I picked some flowers of it and put them in my +buttonhole, but was warned by the Tibetans not to do so, as they said it +was poisonous and would give me a headache. Lower down the valley was +full of small dwarf gorse bushes--1 foot to 18 inches high--which +carpeted the ground. Everywhere were flocks of sheep and cattle grazing +in the valley. Our camp was pitched on a grassy flat just below the +village of Chushar Nango with its fine old ruined tower of stone with +machicolated galleries all round it. To the South of us was the Nila +Pass, which afforded an easy way into Nepal. The climate here was fairly +warm, but the wind blew very strongly all that evening. Next day we saw +the mountains all covered with fresh snow down to 16,000 feet, but we +only experienced a slight drizzle as most of the snowflakes evaporated +before they reached the ground, though clouds remained overhead all the +morning. Morshead and his surveyors had been kept very busy up till now +surveying and plotting in the intervening country from the tops of the +hills, but owing to the clouds they were unable to do anything. We were +all very late in starting, as our transport animals had been changed and +the yaks that were supplied to us were very wild. In the first few +minutes after starting we saw the plain strewn with our kits and stores, +and yaks careering off in every direction with their tails in the air. + +The march to Gyangkar Nangpa to-day was only a short one and led across +a wide plain through which flowed the muddy and sluggish waters of the +Yaru. The existing maps of this country were quite misleading and we +could no longer depend on them. The rivers flowed in opposite directions +to those shown on the map and mountains were shown where there were +none. After about 2 or 3 miles, we had to ford the river, which was +about 80 yards wide and not quite 3 feet deep. We then rode on across +the plain, which was in some parts sandy and in others muddy or +gravelly; evidently during the rainy season a shallow lake. In places +the dwarf gorse grew on it. The sandy tracks were covered with curious +hillocks 5 to 6 feet in height formed by the drifting sand and the gorse +bushes. These in order to keep alive were compelled to push their +branches through the sand which in its turn became piled up around them. +Towards the West end of the plain were marshes and shallow lakes around +which we had to make big detours. + +Gyangkar Nangpa, which was our destination, was the country residence of +the Phari Jongpen. His brother, who was acting as agent for him, rode +out to meet us and escorted us to his house, a fine solid stone building +dominating all the small houses. The tops of the walls were covered with +gorse and juniper, rather suggestive of Christmas decorations. Tents +were pitched for us in a grass paddock close to a grove of willows. We +were then conducted upstairs into a pleasant room where were some fine +gilt Chinese cabinets and some good Chinese rugs. Here the Jongpen had a +meal prepared for us. We were first given tea, milk and beer, after +which some fifteen dumplings apiece, each as big as a small apple, were +put down in front of us together with three other bowls. In one of these +was a black Chinese sauce, in another a chillie paste, and a third +contained a barley soup. We were then given chopsticks with which we +were expected to convey the dumplings into the barley soup, break them +up there, season them with the various sauces, and then convey them to +our mouths--a not too easy feat. This meal was so satisfying that we +felt that we did not want to eat anything for a long time afterwards. We +were told that in the rainy season the river here was unfordable, as it +rose several feet and flooded over the plains, and it was then necessary +to keep to the North or to the South of it. In the evening the agent +came to make an official call and presented us with a sheep and a number +of eggs. We invited him to dinner and gave him his first taste of such +European cooking as could be provided by our native cooks. + +[Illustration: GYANGKA RANGE FROM NEAR CHUSHAR.] + +There was a slight frost during the night, but the day turned out very +fine. Our host accompanied us to the village of Rongkong, one of the +villages belonging to his brother, and here he said good-bye to us. The +day's march was uninteresting. We followed along the left bank of the +Yaru past well-irrigated barley fields, for there was any amount of +water here, until the valley narrowed and the sides came down steeper, +when it became covered with gorse bushes. This valley we descended for +about 10 miles until it debouched into another, a broader sandy valley +where the Yaru changed its course to the South. We forded it at a point +where it was about 90 yards wide and 31/2 feet deep, and we then sat down +and waited for our transport to come up. Beyond us lay a wide sandy +valley through which a stream flowed sometimes on the surface, but more +often underground, when it formed dangerous quicksands. When the +transport came up, our drivers were very anxious to cross immediately, +as there was a strong wind blowing and a violent sandstorm. They said +that it would be much safer to cross now that all the fresh sand had +blown over the wet sand. In the morning, they said, after a still night, +it was very dangerous, so following their advice we started off, every +one dressed up as though for a gas attack, with goggles over the eyes +and comforters or handkerchiefs tied over the mouth and nose to keep the +sand out. At first we wound our way through big sand dunes, off which +the sand was blowing like smoke. Under one of these sand dunes we found +our coolies halted and lost. Some of the donkeys, too, had been +unloaded here, as they could not find their way across in the sandstorm. +After leaving the dunes, there were wide stretches of wet sand to cross, +over which the dried sand from the dunes was being blown like long wisps +of smoke so that the whole ground appeared to be moving. In places where +the wet sand shook and quivered we galloped along. Eventually we and our +transport arrived on the far side of the plain in safety. It was now too +late, however, to go on any further, so we camped on the dunes near the +quicksands in the teeth of the gale. The sand was being whirled up on to +us and into our tents until everything and every one was full of sand. +Water was handy, but yak dung, our only fuel, was scarce and scanty. + +Just before dark a very beautiful and lofty peak appeared to the +Southwards. Our drivers called it Chomo Uri (The Goddess of the +Turquoise Peak) and we had many discussions as to what mountain this +was. In the morning, after taking its bearings carefully, we decided +that this could be no other than Mount Everest. We found out afterwards +that the name, Chomo Uri, was purely a local name for the mountain. +Throughout Tibet it was known as Chomolungma--Goddess Mother of the +Country--and this is its proper Tibetan name. + +Next morning, after an uncomfortable and windy night, we rode for +several miles across a plain covered with sand dunes 20 feet or more in +height. On reaching the entrance to the valley of Bhong-chu, I +determined to separate myself from the main party in order to explore a +peak which attracted my attention on the North side of the valley and +seemed to promise good views of Mount Everest and its surroundings. +After a climb of some 3,000 feet, I found myself on a spur from which I +had a very wonderful view. The view extended to the East from beyond +Chomolhari--over 120 miles away--and embraced practically all the high +snow peaks from Chomolhari to Gosainthan, a distance of some 250 miles. +In the centre Mount Everest stood up all by itself, a wonderful peak +towering above its neighbours and entirely without a rival. I spent +four or five hours at the top of this hill, basking in the sun, as it +was delightfully hot. I saw several swallow-tailed butterflies, also a +number of bees, wasps and horse flies. Major Morshead and his surveyors +soon afterwards joined us, intending to take advantage of the fine view. +In the afternoon I left the peak and descended into the valley in search +of our new camp, for we had now left the Yaru and had turned up into the +valley of the Bhong-chu, a river that flowed from the West, with a very +considerable volume of water. As there was rinderpest in the valley, our +transport consisted now of donkeys only, many of them being very +diminutive in size, but quite accustomed to carrying heavy loads. Our +camp was pitched at a place called Trangso Chumbab, where there was an +old Chinese rest-house. The Bhong-chu here was nearly 200 yards in +width, but there was quite a good ford across it to Tsogo. Here we found +many flourishing villages and much cultivation. We seemed to be entering +a much more populated part of the country; from the top of the hill I +counted in one valley no less than fifteen villages and quite a number +of willow groves. From here a longish march of 18 miles up the valley of +the Bhong-chu brought us to Kyishong--a pretty little village on the +banks of the river. There were a few willow trees here and a lot of sea +buckthorn. I did not keep to the road, but started early across a big +plain on which I was lucky enough to shoot a goa with quite +good horns. The day was very hot and sultry, and after crossing the +plain I went up a side valley which turned out to be extremely pretty. +It was very narrow and a mass of wild rose bushes. These roses were all +of a creamy yellow, and every bush was covered with hundreds of +sweet-smelling flowers. There was also a curious black clematis and +several species of broom and rock cistus. Here and there were grassy +patches with bubbling springs of crystal clearness. Rock pigeons, +Brahminy ducks, blackbirds and numerous other varieties of small birds +came down to drink here and did not mind us at all. About two o'clock +the weather suddenly changed and violent thunderstorms started all +round us, first on the opposite side of the valley and then on every +side. Heavy hail came down at the same time and the ground soon became +white. On descending into the valley, I put up what was to me a new kind +of partridge, also numerous mountain hares. On emerging into the main +valley, I noticed a group of five large Chortens. I was told that the +centre Chorten had been built over a very bad demon, and that it kept +him down. The other four Chortens at the corners prevented his ever +getting away. + +The next day's march to Shekar Dzong was a short one of only 12 miles. +We followed the main valley for about 6 miles through some interesting +conglomerate gorges alternating with open spaces covered with sea +buckthorn. We then turned off Northwards up a side valley which led us +to the town and fort of Shekar. This place was very finely situated on a +big rocky and sharp-pointed mountain like an enlarged St. Michael's +Mount. The actual town stands at the foot of the hill, but a large +monastery, holding over 400 monks and consisting of innumerable +buildings, is literally perched half-way up the cliff. The buildings are +connected by walls and towers with the fort, which rises above them all. +The fort again is connected by turreted walls with a curious Gothic-like +structure on the summit of the hill where incense is offered up daily. +On our arrival the whole town turned out and surrounded us with much +curiosity, for we were the first Europeans that they had ever seen. A +small tent had been pitched for us, but there was such a crowd round it +that I retreated to a willow grove close by, which was protected by a +wall. As the Jongpen had not come to see us, Chheten Wangdi went over to +find him; presently he came along with a basket of eggs and with many +apologies for not coming before, but he said that he had had no warning +of our arrival. This was but partly true, for though our passport did +not particularly mention this place, it authorised all officials to help +us to their utmost, and the Jongpen certainly knew and had heard that we +were coming. I asked him to give orders that no intoxicating spirits +should be served out to our followers, remembering the trouble we had +had in one or two places before owing to their all getting drunk. Our +tents were all pitched inside an enclosure and in the shade of the +willow grove, and above us towered the picturesque buildings of the fort +and the monastery. This was by far the largest and most interesting +place that we had yet come across. For our mess tent we were given a +fine Chinese tent such as they always seem to keep for the entertainment +of guests of honour. As in most places, there were two Jongpens residing +here, one lay and the other ecclesiastical, and finding that Tingri was +under their jurisdiction, we asked them to issue orders to their +representatives at Tingri to help us in every way with supplies and +transport. + +[Illustration: SHEKAR DZONG.] + +June 17 we spent resting at Shekar. In the morning Morshead and I went +to call on the Jongpen; he lives in a poor house at the foot of the +hill, his official residence being three-quarters of the way up, but he +wisely prefers to live at the bottom, not being very fond of exercise. +He was busy adding on to his house, and we were shown into the old part +in which he was living. He gave us the usual Tibetan tea and sweetmeats +and then insisted on our having macaroni and meat seasoned with +chillies, which was excellent, followed by junket served in china bowls. +He had some very fine teacups of agate and hornblende schist with finely +chased silver covers, which I admired very much. That afternoon several +of us went up to visit the big monastery of Shekar Choe-te. This +consisted of a great number of buildings terraced one above the other on +a very steep rocky slope. A path along the face of the rock brought us +to several archways under which we passed. We then had to go up and down +some picturesque but very steep and narrow streets until we came to a +large courtyard. On one side of this was the main temple. In this temple +were several gilt statues of Buddha decorated all over with turquoises +and other precious stones, and behind them a huge figure of Buddha quite +50 feet high. Every year, they told us, they had to re-gild his face. +Around were eight curious figures about 10 feet high and dressed in +quaint flounces which they said were the guardians of the shrine. We +then went up steep and slippery ladders, in almost pitch darkness, and +came out on a platform opposite the face of the great Buddha. Here were +some beautifully chased silver teapots and other interesting pieces of +silver, richly decorated in relief. Inside the shrine, which was very +dark, the smell of rancid butter was almost overpowering as all the +lamps burnt butter. The official head of the monastery showed us round. +He was apparently appointed from Lhasa and was responsible for all the +revenues and financial dealings of the monastery. We were given very +buttery tea in the roof courtyard, which was a pleasant spot, and here I +photographed a group of several monks. They had never seen a camera or +photographs before, but they had heard that such a thing was possible +and were very much interested in it. Before leaving we went in to see +the Head Lama who had lived over sixty-six years in this monastery. He +was looked upon as being extremely holy and as the re-incarnation of a +former abbot, and they therefore practically worshipped him. There was +only one tooth left in his mouth, but for all that he had a very +pleasant smile. All around his room were silver-gilt Chortens inlaid +with turquoises and precious stones and incense was being burnt +everywhere. After much persuasion the other monks induced him to come +outside and have his photograph taken, telling him that he was an old +man, and that his time on earth was now short, and they would like to +have a picture of him to remember him by. He was accordingly brought +out, dressed up in robes of beautiful golden brocades, with priceless +silk Chinese hangings arranged behind him while he sat on a raised dais +with his dorje and his bell in front of him, placed upon a finely carved +Chinese table. The fame of this photograph spread throughout the country +and in places hundreds of miles away I was asked for photographs of the +Old Abbot of Shekar Choe-te, nor could I give a more welcome present at +any house than a photograph of the Old Abbot. Being looked upon as a +saint, he was worshipped, and they would put these little photographs in +shrines and burn incense in front of them. + +[Illustration: THE ABBOT OF SHEKAR CHOeTE.] + +About midnight that night I was suddenly awakened by yells and loud +shouting and hammering close to my tent and next to that in which +Bullock and Mallory were sleeping. The latter turned out and found that +a Tibetan had seized an ice axe and a mallet and was busy hammering on +our store boxes. He gave chase, but failed to catch the intruder. Some +of our coolies, however, found out where he had gone to, and Chheten +Wangdi had him handed over to the Jongpen. On investigation in the +morning the man proved to be a madman whom his parents always kept +locked up during nights when the moon was full, but he had managed to +escape, so we handed him back to his family. + +Our transport was very slow in arriving, and there were so many delays +that it was midday before the procession finally moved off. The loads, +too, were very badly put on and kept falling off, also the transport was +quite the worst that we had yet had. For about 5 miles the path went up +and down hill and through much sand until we came to the bridge over the +Bhong-chu. This bridge consisted of four or five stout pillars of loose +stones which acted as piers, on which were laid a few pieces of wood, on +which flat stones were placed. It was a rough form of bridge, but served +at ordinary times for its purpose. During the course of this summer, +however, after heavy rain, these piers so dammed up the water as to +cause it to rise some 4 or 5 feet on the upper side of them with the +result that the immense weight of water swept the whole bridge away. +Bullock and Mallory with half a dozen coolies had left early in the +morning, intending to bivouac out for a couple of nights and climb one +of the hills to the South of the Bhong-chu in order to get a view of +Mount Everest. After we had gone about 5 miles we met them close to the +bridge, as they had lost their way and had been walking for about 15 +miles: not having found the bridge, they had forded the river and had +got wet up to their necks in crossing it. At dusk we reached the village +of Tsakor, where we found a tent pitched for us, and here we spent the +night. Our transport did not turn up till nearly nine o'clock, and so we +all slept in the mess tent. From here to Tingri was still another 20 +miles--the path following the right bank of the Bhong-chu the whole way. +In places the river was as much as 200 yards wide and flowed very +sluggishly. We were told that the waters were very low, but that next +month, when the rains had broken, the river often filled the whole of +the bottom of the valley. On the way we passed some very handsome +black-necked cranes as large as the Saurus crane. These had black heads +and bills, with red eyes, light grey bodies and black tails with fine +feathers. On this march the midges were dreadfully annoying the whole +way, and we were surrounded with clouds of them the whole time. Their +bite was very tiresome and extremely irritating. On the way we passed a +Mongolian who had taken eleven months in coming from Lhasa and who was +on his way to Nepal. His method of progression was by throwing himself +at full length down on the ground. He then got up and at the spot where +his hands touched the ground repeated the motion again. As we approached +Tingri, the valley widened out and bent round to the South. Tingri +itself was situated on the side of a small hill in the middle of a great +plain, from which, looking to the South, was visible the wonderful chain +of snowy peaks, many of them over 25,000 feet in height, which extends +Westwards from Mount Everest. We crossed the Ra-chu--a tributary of the +Bhong-chu, partly by bridges and partly by fords; it was split up into a +number of small and very muddy channels that took their rise from the +Kyetrak Glacier. Tingri was to be our first base for reconnoitring the +Northern and North-western approaches to Mount Everest. It was June 19 +when we arrived there, so that it had taken us just a month's travelling +from Darjeeling to perform this part of our journey. + + + + + CHAPTER IV + + TINGRI AND THE COUNTRY TO THE SOUTH + + +Tingri is a place of some importance, with a considerable trade at +certain seasons of the year. It is the last place of any size on this +side of the Nepalese frontier and boasts of a military governor. The +garrison, however, when we visited it, consisted only of a sergeant and +four or five soldiers. There were about three hundred houses in Tingri, +all clustered together on the slopes of a small isolated hill standing +in the middle of the great plain. On the top of the hill was the old +Chinese fort, now all falling into ruin, but still littered with papers +and books, written in Chinese characters, left behind by the Chinese on +their hasty departure. Inside were quaint mural frescoes of curious old +men riding stags or winged dragons painted in many colours. All the way +up the valley of the Bhong-chu we had seen ruins of walls and evidences +of much fighting. These all dated back, we were told, to the time of the +Nepalese invasions of Tibet in the eighteenth century when the Gurkhas +penetrated so far into Tibet that they actually got to Shigatse, and the +Tibetans had to call upon the Chinese Empire for help. The Chinese came +into the country with a large army, defeated the Gurkhas, drove them out +of Tibet and crossed the Himalayas with a considerable army into Nepal, +an extraordinary military feat considering the enormous difficulty of +moving an army in these unhospitable regions over the high mountain +passes through which it is approached. The Chinese, after this, never +left Tibet until they were driven out by the Tibetans only a few years +ago. In the hills round Tingri we came across many evidences of the +fighting which then took place. This probably accounted for the large +number of ruined and deserted villages that we saw in the valleys +around. At the foot of the hill was a large Chinese rest-house which was +only used to house Tibetan officials when they came there on duty. The +Tibetans themselves did not like to live in or use the place, as many +Chinese had died there and they thought that their ghosts haunted the +spot. This rest-house was, however, swept out and prepared for our +reception, as we had told the Tibetans that we should probably stay +there for some time and should want a house to protect us from the wind +and to provide a dark room for developing our photographs. The +rest-house consisted of three courtyards in the outer one we put the +coolies, in the middle one the surveyors, and the inner one we kept for +ourselves. In appearance the building was quite picturesque with its +mural paintings of flying dogs and fierce dragons; but in spite of its +picturesqueness outside and its handsome appearance, the rooms inside +were small, and when the rain came it poured through the roof and our +beds had to be shifted many times during the night to avoid the drips of +water. It however provided an excellent dark room for us after we had +well plastered the walls, the floor and the ceiling with mud and got rid +of the dust of ages. To do any photographic work in Tibet a house is a +necessity, as with the violent wind that blows every day all one's +belongings get covered with dust which would ruin any negative. At first +we found water a great difficulty as the local water was full of mud, +but we eventually discovered a beautifully clear spring, about half a +mile away, which bubbled up in a deep bluey green basin, and this water +we used always, both for drinking and for photographic work. Tingri had +many advantages as a base. Stores, supplies and transport were always +available there, as it was the headquarters of the district. It also +provided an easy means of approach to Mount Everest from the North-west +and to the high group of mountains that lay to the West of Mount +Everest. After sorting out all our stores and equipment and seeing in +what state they were after the journey, our next business was the making +of a dark room, as we had taken many photographs on the journey that +required developing. The weather at this time was very fine, but the +Tibetans kept on telling us that the rainy season ought to be starting, +so we determined as soon as possible to send out parties in different +directions to make the most of the favourable opportunity. The first +morning after our arrival we were up on the top of the hill by six +o'clock in the hope of getting a good view to the South, but the clouds +were already over most of the mountains. Everest we could see quite +clearly, and Cho-Uyo, the great 26,800 feet peak that lies to the West +of Mount Everest. The Depon here, who was acting as the Governor of the +place, was a nice young fellow and very cheery, and later on I got to +know him very well and went over to his house and was entertained by him +and his wife. He told me that the Tibetans still paid tribute to Nepal +for all that part of the country, and that the amount they had to pay +was the equivalent of 5,000 rupees per annum. The Nepalese kept a +head-man at Tingri and another at Nyenyam to deal with all criminal +cases and offences committed by Nepalese subjects when in Tibet. I found +later on that the Tibetans were very frightened of the Nepalese, or of +having any dealings with a Gurkha. I took photographs of the Depon's +wife and all their children, and of his mother-in-law, which delighted +them immensely; the wife at first was very shy of coming forward, but +after many tears and protestations her husband finally induced her to be +photographed. The great semi-circular head-dresses that the women wear +are usually covered with turquoises, and coral, and often with strings +of seed pearls across them. Round their necks hang long chains of either +turquoise or coral beads, sometimes mixed with lumps of amber. Suspended +round the neck by a shorter chain is generally a very elaborately +decorated charm box, those belonging to the richer or upper classes +being of gold inlaid with turquoises, the poorer people having them +made of silver with poorer turquoises. The officials, as a rule, have a +long ear-ring, 4 or 5 inches long, of turquoises and pearls, suspended +from the left ear, while in the right ear they wear a single turquoise +of very good quality. Nearly every one carries a rosary, with which +their hands are playing about the whole day. We were told that the laws +governing marriage in those parts were strictly regulated. Owing to the +excessive number of males, a form of polyandry prevails. If there were +four brothers in a family, and the eldest one married a wife, his wife +would also be the property of the three younger brothers; but if the +second or third brother married, their wives would be common only to +themselves and their youngest brother. In Tibet, when, owing to the +severe climate, digging is impossible for about six months in the year, +if a man dies his body is handed over to professional corpse butchers, +of whom there are one or two in every village. These butchers cut the +body up into small pieces, which are taken out on to a hill-top and +scattered about for the birds of the air or the wolves to devour. If by +any chance there is a delay in consuming these remains, this is looked +upon as a sign that the man has led an evil life during his lifetime. + +On June 22 Wollaston rejoined us again. He had escorted Raeburn to +Lachen, and had there arranged for an assistant surgeon to come up and +take him back as far as Gangtok. Wollaston had then come on as fast as +possible to rejoin us. His kit did not arrive till the following day, as +he had ridden in direct from Shekar Dzong. The following day Bullock and +Mallory left us, making direct for Mount Everest, and intending to +reconnoitre the North and Northwestern slopes. Looked at from here it is +certainly a very wonderful mountain, as it seems to stand up all by +itself, but from this side it looks far too steep to be climbed. On June +25 Wheeler and Heron went off to Kyetrak, from which point Wheeler was +to begin his photographic survey. I had intended to start the following +day and join them, but the acid hypo that I had been using for fixing +had given off so many sulphur fumes that I had been quite "gassed" for +several days and had lost my voice in consequence. Unfortunately my +orderly and Wheeler's bearer, who were both Mahommedans, were taken ill +with enteric. Wheeler's bearer was in a very bad way, and a few days +after my departure he died, but my orderly, after a bad attack, +recovered, and when I returned three weeks later he was able to be up +and to walk about a little. As Wollaston was likely to be detained here +for some time owing to these cases of sickness, and as Morshead wanted +to get in some surveying all round Tingri, I thought it would be a good +opportunity to visit the different parties that we had sent out, and +also to get, if possible, some information about Kharta, which I +intended should be our second base. The coolies that we had still with +us at Tingri were kept busy by Wollaston, and daily they would bring in +rats, birds, lizards, beetles, or fish which they had collected for him. +The local people would not make any attempt to collect these animals, as +they said it was against their religion. On June 26 I started out to the +South and camped the first night at Sharto, a small village about 9 +miles across the plain to the South of Tingri. On the way we passed +numbers of bees that seemed to be coming up out of the ground and +swarming. These were all of a very light brown colour. Sharto is only a +small village, but there are no other houses between it and Kyetrak, so +that it was necessary to stop there. As the wind always blows with great +strength here, the tents were pitched within some sheltering walls. In +every place that we went to now we managed to get some kind of green +food which was turned into spinach; a small kind of weed that grows in +the barley fields was generally thus used. At other times we tried +turnip leaves, or again, when we were higher and above the limits of +cultivation, the young shoots of the nettle which grows up to 17,000 +feet, and is really very good. I had taken with me this time a Tibetan +whom we had picked up on the way. He was called Poo, and he turned out +to be an excellent cook who could make any of the Tibetan dishes. As he +was a sensible fellow, and very seldom drunk, I made a good deal of use +of him. He accompanied me in all my wanderings, and I could not have +found a more useful servant when travelling, as he never seemed to mind +the cold or the height and could always produce a fire of some kind, +even though he had forgotten to bring any matches. That evening at +Sharto there was a curious false sunset in the East with rays of light +in the deep purple of the sky. All the hills stood out with wonderful +sharpness, and the colours were very beautiful. Towards nightfall we saw +a number of kiang, which came quite close up to the camp and started +feeding on the barley fields in spite of the pillars of stones and the +strings which are put round the fields to keep both them and the hares +away from the crops. The next morning I started off early as I intended +to climb a hill 17,700 feet, on the way to Kyetrak. This hill, however, +proved further off than I anticipated, and we had some difficulty in +crossing a glacier stream, so that I did not get up to the top till 9 +a.m., by which time the clouds had hidden a great part of the mountains +to the South of us. The view, nevertheless, was extraordinarily fine. +The top of Everest just showed above a great icy range to the East of +us, and South-east was that great group of mountains of which Cho-Uyo, +26,800 feet, is the highest. Immense granite precipices descended sheer +for several thousand feet until they reached great winding glaciers, +while from over the Khombu Pass long wisps of cloud came sailing round +these peaks and eventually hid them from our view. To the North the view +extended right up to the watershed of the Brahmaputra, 80 to 100 miles +distant. The different colours of the hills, the light and shade from +the clouds, all formed a charming picture. Once over 17,000 feet, I met +my old friend the dwarf blue poppy (_Meconopsis_) and many pretty white, +blue and yellow saxifrages that grew on the rocks. Descending from this +hill into the Kyetrak Valley, we passed a number of goa which were quite +tame, but unfortunately they were all females. We had two more big +glacial torrents to cross which later in the afternoon would probably +have been impassable as by that time they would have risen another 2 +feet, due to the melting of the snow and the ice by the hot sun in the +morning; indeed, we only just managed to get across when we did. The +main Kyetrak stream comes from the great glacier that descends from +Cho-Uyo and the Khombu Pass. Opposite the village of Kyetrak it is +luckily divided into a number of small streams, so that it is usually +possible to get across it, though in the afternoons it is always +somewhat difficult. + +This village lies at a height of 16,000 feet, at the foot of the Khombu +or Nangba Pass and the Pusi Pass. The former is a high glacier-covered +pass, about 19,000 feet, that leads into the Khombu Valley in Nepal. The +other, the Pusi Pass, is a much lower and easier pass that leads into +the Rongshar Valley. Between these two passes lies a very beautiful +glacier-covered peak called Chorabsang. Here at Kyetrak I met Heron and +Wheeler encamped in the shelter of some walls close to the village, +which consisted of a few dirty stone houses and a big Chorten. The +people told me that they lived here all the year round, and that they +owned the grazing for many miles to the North and possessed herds of +yaks several thousand in number. Traffic could be kept up over these +passes, they said, at all times of the year, though only with great +difficulty, and with much danger, whole convoys being sometimes wiped +out by blizzards when trying to cross the Khombu Pass, as the fine +powdery snow is blown down into their faces from every direction and +they finally get suffocated by it. That night there was a sharp frost, +and the following morning Heron and I started to go up towards the +Khombu Pass, following at first the East side of the Kyetrak Glacier. +For about 6 or 7 miles we rode beside the great moraine that extended +along the East side of this glacier; every now and then we climbed up on +to a mound on the edge of the glacier in order to take photographs of +it. The ice was all torn and riven into wonderful shapes and opposite +us was the finely crevassed peak of Chorabsang. I pushed on, leaving +Heron to come on at a slower pace, as I was anxious to get to the top of +the pass before the clouds should have come up and hidden all the views. +Every day it cost us a race to get up to a point of vantage before the +clouds should have come up and hidden everything. Leaving the pony +behind, with one coolie, I pressed forward for some 4 miles up a very +stony and slippery moraine on the glacier. Here were many curious ice +formations--ice tables with a big flat rock superimposed, curious +upright pillars of ice, and the main glacier itself was worn by stone +and water into the weirdest shapes and forms. In places, too, we came +across that curious formation which in South America is called Nieve +Penitentes. As we passed onwards, new glaciers opened up in every +valley. The views up some of these side valleys, which often widened out +into great amphitheatres, were very grand, especially that of the huge +glacier that swept down from below the rock walls of Cho-Uyo. + +On arriving at the end of the moraine, the boots that my coolie was +wearing came to pieces and he said he could go no further across the +snow, so shouldering the big camera, I started off alone. At first the +ice was firm, but soon I came to soft snow and much water underneath it: +they made the going very unpleasant and I kept floundering about up to +my knees in snow and water. At length I came to a large crevasse along +the edge of which I followed for over half a mile as most of the snow +bridges across it were unsafe. At last I found my way across and by +climbing on to some rocks was able to look over the top of the pass and +down into Nepal. The height of the pass seemed to be about 19,000 feet, +and as the day was very hot, I lay down and went sound asleep, only +waking up when it began to snow. I then started, none too soon, on my +homeward journey: all the way back snow fell heavily. I was very +thankful to meet my coolie again and to hand over the camera to him: +carrying a camera for five or six hours in soft snow at a height of +over 18,000 feet is a heavy tax upon the endurance of anyone +unaccustomed to carrying weights. Wheeler meanwhile had moved up his +camp from Kyetrak to a spot on the moraine East of the glacier and +intended to spend a week or fortnight in that valley. + +The next morning Heron and I started to go over the Pusi Pass (Marmot +Pass), so called because of the number of marmots that frequent the +Southern slopes. After fording the Kyetrak River, we climbed up the +moraine to the West of the Kyetrak Glacier and then turned up some easy +grass hills until we came to the top of the pass, 17,700 feet. +Here at the very top were growing some delightful little dwarf +forget-me-nots--not an inch high--also many white and yellow saxifrages. +Most of the views were unfortunately hidden by clouds, though one fine +triple-headed peak showed up well to the South. We passed several flocks +of female burhel (_Ovis nahura_), which were quite tame, and allowed us +to ride up to within 50 yards of them. The hillsides were bare at first +and grassy and the air felt distinctly cold and damp. We now commenced +our long descent, and at 16,000 feet began to meet with juniper bushes +and many dwarf rhododendrons. As we got lower, many more varieties of +bushes appeared. There were two or three kinds of berberis, loniceras, +white and pink spiraeas, and quantities of white roses; besides these +were masses of primulas and anemones, and pink, white or mauve +geraniums. We now followed the right bank of the Shung-chu, a great +glacial torrent, which joined by several others became an unfordable +stream. The path was well engineered, sometimes close to the river, and +sometimes built out on rocks high above the stream. All of a sudden the +valley narrowed into a great gorge. We had left all the granites and +slates behind and had suddenly come into the zone of the gneiss, which +extended many miles to the South. A little way further down, at a place +where two other valleys meet, we caught sight of some green barley +fields lying round the small village of Tasang where we encamped on a +terrace for the night. We were now at a height of only 13,300 feet, and +were able to get fresh eggs and vegetables again. It was a great +pleasure once more to have wood fires in place of the yak dung with its +acrid smoke, which caused all one's food to taste unpleasantly. Here we +used as fuel the aromatic wood of the juniper. + +This valley is looked upon as a holy one, owing to the number of juniper +bushes that grow in it, and several hermits and nuns had taken up their +abode in it and shut themselves up in caves in order to meditate. The +nearest village used to supply them with food, and morning and evening +could be seen ascending the blue smoke of the juniper, which they burnt +as incense before the entrances of their dwelling places. There was a +hermit who lived close to the village and whose cave we could see high +up in the rocks above. The villagers told us that after meditating for a +period of ten years, he would be able to live on only ten grains of +barley a day, and they were looking forward to that day. There was +another anchorite female who was supposed to have lived here for 138 +years and who was greatly revered. She had forbidden any of the animals +in the valley to be killed, and that was the reason why the flocks of +burhel we had passed were so extremely tame. The next day, giving our +transport a rest, Heron and I walked for 7 or 8 miles down the valley. +On the opposite side of the valley the only trees were birches and +willow, and it was curious that, at these comparatively low heights, +there were no large rhododendrons or fir trees. On the other side of the +valley, the vegetation consisted wholly of juniper, berberis or wild +roses. We descended to 12,000 feet, most of the time going through +narrow gorges. At one place we came across a number of gooseberry bushes +covered with young gooseberries, of which we gathered a sufficient +supply to last us for several days. The rose bushes were charming all +the way. At first they were all of the white creamy coloured variety, +but lower down we came on the big red one with flowers often more than 3 +inches in diameter. Wherever there were springs of water there grew +masses of anemones and yellow primulas. We now returned to our camp at +Tasang, and rain then started and continued the remainder of the day. +The people told us that this valley was passable for animals for three +days' journey, after which the river entered into some terrible gorges +down which it was only just possible for a coolie to get along, and +these latter gorges formed the boundary between Tibet and Nepal. On +July 1 we started to return to Kyetrak; the morning was misty when we +started, and though the higher peaks were all hidden in the clouds, the +sun shone brightly and the day was quite hot. Our kit did not arrive +till between five and six o'clock, and the yaks had a great deal of +trouble in getting across the Kyetrak River, as it had risen +considerably. Wheeler was still at his high camp further up the valley, +waiting for a really clear day. The clouds, too, were his great enemies, +as they came up very early every morning from over the Khombu Pass. + +From here Heron and I had decided to go on and see how Mallory and +Bullock had been faring in the next valley, so the next morning, after +breakfasting at 5 a.m., we started off. It was one of the coldest +mornings we had had, with a very hard frost, and being on the shady side +of the valley we did not get the sun till several hours after we had +started. After going down the valley for about 6 miles, we turned off to +the East and crossed several easy passes, the higher of them, the Lamna +La, being 16,900 feet. The country was very barren of flowers and +vegetation, but there was a certain amount of grazing for yaks and +sheep. The march to Zambu was a fairly long one of 20 miles, but the +yaks came along well. This was a more prosperous-looking village than +most of them, and the houses were all whitewashed. We were still too +high for barley fields as we were just 16,000 feet, but the wealth of +the village lay in its herds of yaks and sheep; the villagers told us +they owned 3,000 yaks. Shepherds in this country are but poorly paid, +getting only thirty trangkas (10_s._) per annum. But house servants are +still worse off, getting only eight trangkas (2_s._ 8_d._) per annum. +However, they seem to thrive under those wages and there is no +discontent or trades unionism among them. Our camp was pitched in a +sunny spot not far from the village, looking straight over towards Mount +Everest, whose top appeared over the opposite hills. From this side its +precipices looked most formidable and there was also a magnificent ridge +which we had not seen before. There was a slight frost again that night. + +Breakfasting, as usual, at 5 a.m., I started up the hill South of the +camp and was lucky enough to get a clear view of Everest and the Rongbuk +Valley that led up to it. This valley ran right up to the foot of Mount +Everest and seemed an easy enough approach, but the mountain itself +looked absolutely unscalable from this side, showing nothing but a +series of very steep precipices. The day turned out to be a very hot +one. I descended into the valley below, and started to ride up towards +Mount Everest. Presently I came to an unfordable stream, and after +making several attempts to get across this, found myself compelled to +return several miles down the valley to the monastery of Choebu, where +there was a slender footbridge. The pony that I was riding was swum +across, a rope being attached to its head. He was then pulled over to +the far side, a proceeding he did not at all enjoy. The yaks, too, were +unladen, and the loads carried by hand over the bridge. After this the +yaks were driven into the river and made to swim across, but they only +went as far as an island in the middle of the river. From this place +they would not budge in spite of stones, curses and threats, until at +length a man with a sling, fetched from the monastery, hurled stones at +them with great violence: this procedure apparently so stung them up +that they thought it advisable to cross the remainder of the stream. At +the entrance to the valley, we passed some very tame burhel within a few +yards of the path, and then went along at the foot of some fine cliffs +with limestone on the top and layers of hornblende and granite below. +At first there was quite a rich vegetation growing here, considering we +were just on 16,000 feet. There were juniper bushes, clematis, willows, +a genista, rock roses, and even some yellow primulas, but as we got +further into the valley it became more stony, and on either side of the +path were small piles of stones heaped up by pilgrims. The valley was +considered very sacred and was apparently a great place of pilgrimage. +We found the base camp of the Alpine climbers pitched close to the +Rongbuk Monastery, where there lived a very high re-incarnated Lama who +was in meditation and not allowed to see anyone. This valley was called +the Rongbuk, or inner valley--a name well suited to it; the legend was +that from this valley there used to be a pass over into the Khombu +Valley, but the high Lama who lived here forbade the use of it, as it +disturbed the meditations of the recluses and hermits, of which there +were several hundred here. At first these good people did not at all +approve of our coming into this valley, as they thought we should be +likely to disturb and distract their meditations. + +The Rongbuk Monastery lies at a height of 16,500 feet, and is an +unpleasantly cold spot. This monastery contains twenty permanent Lamas +who always live there, together with the re-incarnated Lama. Besides +these, there are three hundred other associated Lamas who come in +periodically, remaining there for periods of varying length. These +Associate Lamas are mostly well-to-do, and having sufficient money to +support themselves are not a drain upon the villagers. They will often +invest several thousand trangkas with some village, and in return for +this money the village will supply them with food, barley, milk, eggs +and fuel. Higher up the valley there was a smaller monastery, and dotted +along the hillside were numerous cells and caves where monks or nuns had +retired to meditate. Every animal that we saw in this valley was +extraordinarily tame. In the mornings we watched the burhel coming to +some hermits' cells not a hundred yards away from the camp, to be fed, +and from there they went on to other cells. They seemed to have no fear +whatever of human beings. On the way up the valley we passed within 40 +to 50 yards of a fine flock of rams, but they barely moved away, and on +the way back we passed some females that were so inquisitive that they +actually came up to within 10 yards of us in order to have a look at us. +The rock pigeons came and fed out of one's hand, and the ravens and all +the other birds here were equally tame; it was most interesting to be +able to watch all their habits and to see them at such close quarters. +On July 4, Heron and I walked up the valley to see Mallory and Bullock, +who had got an Alpine camp some 7 miles further up the valley at a +height of 18,000 feet, where they were training their coolies in snow +and ice work and trying to find out whether there was any possible way +of attacking Mount Everest from this side. It was a beautiful morning +when we started, and on the way we passed one or two small monasteries +and numerous cells where hermits and recluses were living in retirement +and meditation. After crossing several small lake beds and old +moraines--for the big Rongbuk Glacier seemed to have been retiring in +the last few years--we came to the big moraine-covered Rongbuk Glacier. +This glacier appeared to be about 8 or 9 miles long, starting +immediately below an immense circle of cliffs which formed the North +face of Mount Everest. We found afterwards that there were several other +side glaciers that joined in it, which were even larger and longer than +the centre glacier. After some steep scrambles up the moraine-covered +glacier and on to a high terrace on the West side of it, we found +Mallory and Bullock with their coolies encamped in a pleasantly +sheltered spot with plenty of water close at hand and commanding the +most magnificent views of Mount Everest, which here seemed to be only +about 6 miles away and towered up above the glacier, showing immense +cliffs 10,000 feet high. Mallory and Bullock were hard at work training +the coolies in snow and ice work and exploring all the different +glaciers from that side. They were, however, much handicapped by there +only being two of them, which made the work more strenuous. After +spending the day with them, Heron and I returned to our camp in the +evening. The evening light on Mount Everest was wonderfully beautiful. +The weather seems nearly always to clear up about sunset, and its summit +then usually towers far above the clouds in a clear sky. At dusk several +of the Lamas came for medicines of different kinds, which we gave them, +and much to our surprise in the morning they presented us with a number +of fresh eggs in gratitude. Having seen Mallory and Bullock well +established in this valley, our next most important duty seemed to be to +select a site for our next base camp. Some place on the East side of +Mount Everest would have to be chosen, and it seemed that somewhere in +the Kharta Valley would be the most likely spot. Heron and I therefore +determined that we would make a quick reconnaissance of that district +before returning to Tingri. On the following day we moved down from the +Rongbuk Monastery. + + + + + CHAPTER V + + THE SEARCH FOR KHARTA + + +After leaving Mallory and Bullock to continue the search for a possible +route up Mount Everest from the Rongbuk side, Heron and I, on July 5, +started off down the Rongbuk Valley in order to visit Kharta. We had +been told that it was only two days' easy march from the monastery to +get there. It was a cold morning when we started off; there had been a +sharp frost during the night and the sun did not reach us till late in +the morning. Mount Everest stood out at the head of the valley +wonderfully clear and clothed with a fresh mantle of white. Instead of +crossing over the river by the bridge, at Choebu, we kept straight on +down the valley till we came to Choedzong, where were the first barley +fields and cultivation. There was plenty of water here for irrigation +purposes, and some fine grassy fields on which many ponies were grazing. +We had to change our transport in this village and get fresh animals, so +that it was not till three o'clock in the afternoon that we got started +again. In Tibet they have a system of stages, and animals from one +village are taken, as a rule, for one stage only. As each stage usually +ends at the next village, and as villages are frequent, this is a most +awkward and inconvenient arrangement--as it necessitates three or four +changes a day. In order to avoid these constant changes, we used to +persuade the villagers by promises of extra baksheesh, especially where +we had a large number of animals, to undertake two or three stages. +After leaving Choedzong we climbed up over a steep pass 1,200 feet above +the valley and found a still deeper descent to the village of Halung, +which lay at our feet. Here we waited for our transport, but as this +did not arrive till dark, we decided to camp there, though we had only +done 18 miles from Rongbuk; the yak travels very slowly. We were now +again at 14,800 feet and found a much warmer climate, with green barley +fields and here and there patches of yellow mustard. A large rhubarb +with a curious crinkled leaf grew here and there in the fields. We tried +to eat this rhubarb; it had an unpleasant taste, but this disappeared +when it was cooked and it proved a welcome addition to our diet. The +Tibetans do not use it for food, as sugar--without which it would be +uneatable--is scarce and expensive in the country. The plant serves, +however, as an acid for dyes. + +Halung is a very prosperous-looking village with well-built houses. The +villagers soon had three tents pitched for us on a grassy field between +the village and the river; cushions, cooking pots and fuel were also +brought out for us. Here we camped for the night in reasonable comfort. +On the following morning the loads were all carried by hand across a +fragile bridge over the glacier stream, while the yaks and the ponies +were driven across it. We then rode for a mile down the green and +well-watered valley, and afterwards turned up into another valley where +every flat space was green with barley-fields intermixed with brilliant +patches of yellow from the fields of mustard. A small glacier stream fed +this valley and supplied plenty of water for irrigation. After passing +several small villages we rode across a spur also covered with +barley-fields to Rebu, where we had to change our transport. This was +quite a picturesque village situated on a rocky knoll, part of the +village being on one side and part on the other of the river. Along the +various irrigation canals were wild flowers of all kinds. Monkshood grew +there, also black and yellow clematis, rhubarb, ranunculus and primulas +of different kinds. By ten o'clock our transport was changed and we were +given ponies instead of yaks: they travel much quicker and we had +apparently a long way to go yet before we could reach the next village. +We were expecting all the time to get to Kharta that evening, but where +distances are concerned all Tibetans are liars, and after doing 26 miles +we stopped, Kharta being apparently as far off as ever. After leaving +Rebu the path led for some miles up an uninteresting valley, in which +limestone cliffs on one side and sandstone cliffs on the other came down +almost to the stream, the waters of which, in contrast to the muddy +glacier streams that we had been meeting the whole time, were as clear +as crystal. There were many small birds along the banks, all of them +wonderfully tame; these, when we were resting for lunch, hopped all +round us and under our legs, carrying off crumbs or any morsels of food. +We now climbed up on to a pass called the Doya La, 17,000 feet, from the +top of which were fine views of great rocky peaks on either side, those +on the South being covered in parts with hanging glaciers. About a +quarter of a mile from the top of the pass we struck some granite soil +on which grew an extraordinary variety of Alpine flowers; the blue poppy +abounded, pink, yellow and white saxifrages covered all the rocks, and +besides these were many other plants which I had not seen before and +which were quite new to me. The range which we now crossed acts as a +barrier against the approach of the Monsoon clouds and prevents them +from passing over into Tibet. Over on the North side the country is +mostly dry and very little grows there, whereas on the South there is a +rich and varied vegetation and the air feels soft and moist. The road +from the pass led by an easy descent into a fine valley with a green +lake lying at its head under the dark cliffs of some bold rocky peaks. +We followed this valley for many miles, a strong head wind blowing +against us the whole of the time, and found ourselves before long once +more among the junipers and willows. We also saw pink and white +rhododendrons, and in places a small yellow one with waxy blossoms. The +yellow rock cistus, spiraeas, roses, yellow primulas, blue monkshood, +campanulas, blue anemones, and hundreds of other wild flowers formed a +rich flora which showed that a considerable precipitation from the +Monsoon fell in this valley. + +At last we came to a village, but every one fled at our approach, and we +could get no information about the route. A little further on we came +across more villages, in one of which, with much difficulty and after a +long chase, we captured a man and made him guide us to the village of +Chulungphu, where we decided to stop the night. After a little time we +induced some of the villagers to come out from their hiding-places, and +to produce tents and fuel for us. The camp was pitched in a field of +sweet-scented primulas near the village. The architecture of these +houses was quite different from what we had met before--they all appear +to be strongly fortified, as they have practically no windows and there +are only small loopholes facing outwards. They are all built of a brown +stone--a kind of gneiss, and have sods on the parapet over which are +laid branches of juniper. The next morning we woke to the sound of +pattering rain and found all the hills wreathed in grey mist. This was +their first rain this year, so the inhabitants told us. It was pleasant +to one's skin after the dry climate and biting winds that we had been +experiencing on the other side of the passes to feel oneself wrapped in +a softer and milder air. We rode down this valley for about 6 miles +until it debouched into the main Arun Valley. The people, however, do +not know it by this name here, but call it still the Bhong-chu until it +reaches Nepal. We passed villages all the way, villages brown in colour +and built of a brown gneiss, around which grew fields of barley and +mustard. After the barren valleys which we had left, these appeared very +fertile; rose and currant bushes surrounded every field, while the +hillsides were covered with juniper and willows. Along the path grew +spiraeas and clematis, while beside every watercourse were yellow marsh +marigolds and primulas. A feature of the Arun Valley, which was fairly +wide here, was the old terraces on its slopes, now all covered with +barley, pea and mustard fields, the latter being a blaze of yellow. +There were many villages here and some pleasant country houses +surrounded by groves of willows and poplars. Down here the people were +not quite so frightened of us as they were in the valley from which we +had just come, where they had run away from us whenever we approached. +The Bong-chu here is a large river with a very great flow of water, and +quite unfordable. The nearest place where it could be crossed is at a +rope bridge some 18 miles higher up, and during the rainy season this +bridge is impassable, and communication with the other side completely +cut off. To the South and close by, at a height of 12,000 feet, the +Bhong-chu enters a terrific gorge on either side of which tower up great +cliffs with snowy peaks high above them. On some of the slopes which are +not quite so steep there are thick forests of fir trees and +rhododendrons where, I was told, the muskdeer lived. After descending +the valley for 3 miles, we turned up a side valley pointing Westwards. +Down this flowed a very large and unfordable glacial stream. This +evidently came down from the neighbourhood of Mount Everest, but local +information as to its source was very vague, and it was evident that we +should have to prospect for ourselves. Some 3 miles up this valley we +came to a place called by the natives Kharta Shika, where the Governor +of the Kharta District resides. Kharta was not apparently a village at +all, but a district including a number of small villages. We halted a +short distance below Kharta Shika and presently the Governor came out to +meet us with a present of sweetmeats and the usual scarf. He apologised +for not meeting us before, as he said that he had no information as to +the date of our arrival. He begged that we would come over to his garden +where he had ordered a fine Chinese tent to be pitched for us. We +crossed the river by a wooden bridge, and after going through the +village came to the Governor's house. Crossing through the courtyard we +entered his garden, which lay in a nice sheltered spot surrounded by +willow trees with a stream of clear water running through it. Big wild +roses grew there and a few European flowers that he had planted, while +under a very ancient poplar there was a large painted prayer wheel, some +8 feet high, which was turned by a stream of water. Here in his garden +he provided us with a meal of excellent macaroni and a very hot chilli +salad. It was very pleasant to rest the eyes on the luscious green of +the well irrigated garden, and to be for once sheltered from the wind. +During the night we were awakened by a regular shower bath. The Chinese +tent, beautiful as it was in outward appearance, was sadly lacking in +waterproof qualities. As it rained steadily most of the night, we had to +take cover under our mackintoshes on which were pools of water in the +morning. There seemed to be no doubt that the proper Monsoon had at last +broken, and the Jongpen himself told us that this was the first really +heavy rain that they had had. All the people considered that we had +brought this rain with us and were very grateful in consequence; later +on, when we left, they begged us not to stop the rain, as they wanted it +badly for their crops. + +As it cleared up a little about nine o'clock in the morning, though the +hills were still all in cloud, we rode out with Chheten Wangdi, the +Jongpen and Hopaphema, who was the largest landowner about here, to look +out for a site for our next base camp. We wanted, if possible, to get a +house that could be used as a store-room and also for photographic +purposes. We rode down into the main valley, and after looking over +several houses, we eventually selected one on an old river terrace with +fine views all around and standing quite by itself well away from any +village. The water supply was good and handy, and there was a pleasant +garden of poplars and willows, in which we could pitch our tents. After +a certain amount of bargaining, the owners were willing to let us have +the house and the garden for the large rent of one trangka (31/2_d._) a +day. It was apparently the first time anyone in that valley had ever +wanted to rent a house, and there were no house agents there to run one +up into exorbitant prices. We then rode on to Hopaphema's house, which +was a fine solidly built dwelling surrounded by large juniper trees, +willows and poplars. Later on we got to know this man very well, and +used to call him always the "Sergeant," as he was supposed to do any +recruiting for the Tibetan army that was needed in that valley. He had a +very kindly disposition, was always very hospitable, and had a great +sense of humour. He had a tent pitched for our reception under a very +old poplar with a grass plot in front surrounded by bushes of wild red +roses. Here we were given tea, milk and beer, and then the usual +macaroni and mince was produced. On leaving, he insisted on my taking +away a large quantity of turnip leaves, as he knew I was very fond of +green food, and they made an excellent "spinach." The Tibetans that we +met have invariably proved very kindly and hospitable. + +On returning to Kharta, where I had left Heron, I found that it had been +raining all the time, though in the main valley we had had it quite +fine. In the evening I took a walk up to an old fort not far from our +camp. This fort in old days had commanded the only path from here that +led into Nepal, but now it had all fallen into ruin. Close by it, +however, was a delightful dell full of hoary willow trees, underneath +which the ground was carpeted with yellow primulas growing among the +bushes of scarlet roses. Near by were two old poplar trees, whose trunks +measured between 20 and 30 feet in circumference and were evidently of a +very great age. The primulas everywhere were really astonishing. They +outlined every watercourse with yellow and often grew between 2 and 3 +feet high with enormous heads of sweet cowslip-scented yellow flowers. +It rained again during the whole of the night, and the fine spray that +came through the Chinese tent made sleep rather difficult. The next +morning we started to go back to Tingri, and for the first day's march +were given coolies for our transport. In this district coolies are used +a great deal as all the trade with Nepal has to be carried on by them, +the paths over the passes being quite impassable for pack transport; +the Jongpen told us that we would find them quite as fast as ponies. + +To-day's march was to Lumeh--a distance of about 17 miles--and the +coolies arrived very soon after we did, having come along +extraordinarily well. Our route for the first 3 miles was down the +Kharta Valley until it joined the valley of the Bhong-chu; we then +followed the right bank of this for some 10 miles. On the way we stopped +at the house of Hopaphema, who insisted on giving us a meal of milk, +macaroni and mince, although it was only just over an hour since we had +had breakfast. On our departure he gave us a basket of eggs and some +more turnip leaves to take along with us, and altogether showed himself +a most friendly and hospitable host. At first we rode through fields of +barley, peas and mustard for several miles, the valley then became much +more barren and the path occasionally was taken high up on the face of a +cliff, where the river swept round close beneath the mountain side. At +other times we crossed broad stony terraces. We came eventually to the +village of Dak, where the monks from the monastery had pitched tents for +us and had another meal provided for us. Coolies had to be changed here, +our old coolies arriving while we were having our meal; after the loads +had been transferred, our new transport proceeded along to Lumeh, where +we intended to spend the night. The path after Dak was in places +dangerous owing to falling stones, and our guide every now and then +urged us to hurry, as owing to the heavy rain of the preceding night +many stones had been loosened. The main Bhong-chu suddenly turned off to +the East from here, unexpectedly forcing a passage through a very +curious and deep gorge, where it burst its way through the highest +mountains. We did not, however, follow the valley of the Bhong-chu, but +kept on up what appeared to be the main valley; this was really only the +valley of the Lower Rongbuk that in its lower portion is called the +Dzakar-chu. This river we crossed by a wooden bridge, built on the +cantilever principle, and which a couple of months later was washed +away. After riding for a couple of miles over a nice grassy turf we came +to Lumeh. Here was a very fine country house around which were grouped a +few smaller houses. This was the residence of Ngawangyonten, who was +managing the district for the big monastery at Shekar Dzong, whose +property it was. He had tents already pitched for us, and fuel, milk and +eggs already prepared. Around this house were five of the largest poplar +trees that I have ever seen. The largest was almost 40 feet in +circumference at the base, and the others were all between 20 and 25 +feet in circumference. The villagers told us that they thought these +trees had been planted about 500 years ago. Magpies and hoopoes were +very common in this valley--the former were quite tame and allowed us to +approach very close. The barley-fields seemed to hold many hares. Some +fine crops of wheat as well as barley were grown here, although the +height was 12,800 feet. Every night now we had heavy rain which brought +fresh snow down to 16,000 feet. As the clouds remained low all day we +seldom got any distant views. + +The march to Pulme, our next point up the valley of the Dzakar-chu, was +22 miles, a very dull and uninteresting ride. The going was bad--we +often had to follow the bed of the river, which was now in flood and +extended to the cliffs on both sides--at other times we kept high up on +the steep sides of a gorge, sometimes of gneiss, sometimes of limestone +rock. In places where the valley widened out, the river bed was full of +bushes of tamarisk and sea buckthorn, but otherwise the vegetation was +scanty. After going 15 miles we were to change coolies; but the Lumeh +coolies, who were extremely poor and very different from those that we +had taken from Kharta, took eleven hours to cover the 15 miles, and did +not arrive till six in the evening. Much to Heron's disgust, I proposed +to push on to Pulme, late as it was; but the road was good, and we +trotted the 7 miles in an hour and a half, though the coolies and the +donkeys did not arrive till well after dark. Fortunately we found tents +as usual pitched for our reception. We had originally intended to ford +the Dzakar-chu that evening and camp on the far side, but it was too +dangerous to do it in the dark, though the villagers told us that by +morning the stream would be a couple of feet higher. The river is a +great obstacle at this time of the year, as there is no bridge over it +here, the next bridge being at Choebu, 20 miles higher up the valley. + +The following day I started on my return journey to Tingri, leaving at +5.30 in the morning with Chheten Wangdi. I succeeded in fording the +Dzakar-chu, which was deep and very swift. My pony was swept off his +legs once and I got very wet, the icy cold water coming right over the +saddle. + +Heron and the coolies were to follow on slowly and were to take two days +in reaching Tingri, but I was anxious to get back, having been away +already longer than I intended. Four miles away, at Tashi Dzom, I +changed ponies and procured a guide who was to take me on to Tingri, +leaving Chheten Wangdi behind with Heron. This guide proved quite an +amusing fellow, and suddenly surprised me by counting in English one, +two, three, four, and then saying "Right turn" and "Left turn," and +other military words of command. On inquiring where he had learned this +English, I found that at one time he had served as a soldier at Lhasa, +where the military words of command are in English, and these were the +only English words that he knew. After leaving Tashi Dzom we turned up +into a broad side valley with villages every half-mile and surrounded by +barley, mustard and pea fields. What was, however, especially noticeable +about all these valleys that we had been passing through for the last +two days, was the extraordinary number of ruined villages that there +were everywhere. This was not due to lack of water, for there was plenty +of water in all the streams; these valleys, however, must have at one +time been very thickly inhabited, and it is probable that the dearth of +population to-day is due to the wars with the Gurkhas in the eighteenth +century. We had a very wet ride--one storm after another overtook us, +and a cold rain fell heavily all the way to Tingri. We gradually +ascended out of the cultivation and crossing a low pass, about 16,000 +feet, looked down again on the great Tingri Plain. There was still, +however, a long way to go, and it was not till after five o'clock in the +evening that I reached Tingri, drenched to the skin. It had been a ride +of between 36 and 40 miles. + +At Tingri I found Wollaston and Morshead. The former had been very busy +all the time I had been away in collecting insects, butterflies, rats, +mice, birds and flowers, and had amassed quite a number of specimens. +Morshead had been out a good deal with his surveyors to the North and to +the West, but had been driven in by the bad weather of the last few +days. This had apparently been general and we might say that the rainy +season this year had begun on July 7, which the Tibetans considered very +late for those parts. The following afternoon Heron arrived, and my kit +also, which I was very glad to get, as I had only had a spare tent to +roll around me the previous night. + +The next day or two was spent mostly in reading letters and newspapers. +Our postal arrangements were at first rather complicated, there being no +regular postal service to the provinces in Tibet. We had, therefore, to +make an arrangement with each Jongpen to forward on our mail. Phari was +the last post office, and the postmaster there had to arrange with the +Phari Jongpen for a messenger every week to go with our posts to Khamba +Dzong; we had left money with him for the purpose of paying the postman. +At Khamba Dzong we had arranged with the Jongpen there that he should +forward our letters to Tinki, and at Tinki we had made further +arrangements for them to be sent on to Shekar Dzong and from Shekar +Dzong they were to be sent to Tingri. We had left money for this purpose +with the various Jongpens, and each Jongpen as he received the mail bag +was to affix his seal on it and send it on as quickly as he could to the +next Jongpen. This system worked very well for the first two months, +but after we had moved to Kharta, partly owing to floods, and partly +perhaps to the laziness of the Shekar Jongpen, our mails were all held +up and we eventually had to send coolies back from our camp to Phari to +bring them along. The best plan another time would be to take with the +Expedition a certain number of coolies to be used purely for going +backwards and forwards with the mails. On July 13 Morshead and Wollaston +left to go to Nyenyam in response to a cordial invitation from the +Jongpen, asking that some of the Expedition should visit the place. We +were glad to accept, and this should be a very interesting part of the +country botanically. + + + + + CHAPTER VI + + THE MOVE TO KHARTA + + +I had arrived back at Tingri on July 11, and remained there in the +Chinese rest-house until July 24, when I started to move the base camp +and all the stores round to Kharta. During the time I was not left +always alone, for Heron came in occasionally for a night between his +various geological expeditions to the North. Wheeler also came down for +a change and a rest, and to develop the photographs that he had taken. +He had been having a very trying and provoking time in the high camps, +as the weather had been bad, with frequent snowfalls. Nearly every day +he climbed up to a spur 20,000 feet or more in height, yet in spite of +waiting all day there in the icy cold winds or driving snow, it was but +seldom that he was able to get a photograph, and then the clouds would +only lift for a few minutes. + +There was always plenty to do at Tingri, so the time passed quickly. +Much photographic work had to be done and much developing and printing +of the many photographs that were being sent in by the various members +of the party. Supplies had also to be sent out and arrangements made for +the comforts of the climbing party in the Rongbuk Valley. There were +also several expeditions to be made round Tingri, and these were full of +interest. Anemometers were very popular in this district; they were +fixed by the Tibetans above small prayer wheels, and owing to the +constant winds, it was seldom that the prayer wheels were not revolving. +Many yaks' horns, carved all over with prayers, were lying about on the +different Chortens or Mani walls. The barley, which was only just coming +up when we arrived, was now 18 inches high and coming into ear, and +though we were over 14,000 feet, the crops looked very healthy and +even. Every evening during this period we had heavy storms of rain with +much lightning and thunder, and fresh snow used to fall during the night +as low as 15,000 feet, but most of it melted again during the day. +During this period the plains round Tingri were rapidly becoming marshes +and the rivers quite unfordable. The storms always gathered to the North +of us, along the Sipri limestone ridge, and the high mountain chain that +formed the watershed between the Brahmaputra and the Bhong-chu. These +storms generally worked down towards the South. Occasionally fine days +came to us when there was a strong South wind to blow the rain back, and +it was seldom that the Monsoon clouds brought rain directly to us from +the South. The Sipri range was a very conspicuous limestone range to the +North of us, the limestone being worn into the most curious shapes. It +was looked upon by the Tibetans as being a holy mountain, and on its +slopes were many small monasteries. Hermits also took up their abode in +the limestone caves below the summit. Pilgrims used to come from great +distances to make the circuit of the mountain. This took generally five +days, and much merit was acquired by doing so. + +On July 17 I made an excursion out to the Hot Springs at Tsamda, about 7 +miles away to the North-west across the plain. The valley of the +Bhong-chu narrows there for a few miles before opening out again into +the wide Sutso Plain. There were two or three hot springs here, but only +one large one, and this was enclosed by walls within which were little +stone huts in which people could change their clothes. The water was +just the right temperature for a nice hot bath. When I went there, there +was one man bathing and also washing his clothes in it. The Tibetans +said, however, that this was not the proper season for bathing. The +autumn was the correct time for them to have their annual bath before +the winter sets in. The water was saline and had, I think, a little iron +in it, but was not very unpleasant to the taste. The rocks from which it +gushes out are very extraordinary, the strata forming a very steep +arch, on the top of which there is a crack, from the very end of which, +and at its lowest point, the springs came bubbling out. Near by in the +valley there were also a good many saline deposits. In one of the +smaller springs there were a number of little pink worm-like animals +that were swimming about and clinging with their mouths to the sides of +the rock. Riding back to Tingri by a different way across the plain, I +saw a number of kiang and a few goa, but they were very wild and would +not allow us to approach to within 500 yards. I also passed three of the +handsome black-necked cranes. The way across the plain was rather boggy, +and we had some difficulty in finding it. When I got back I found that +Heron had come in for a couple of nights, and the following day Wheeler +too joined us, having walked in from Nezogu, the bridge over the Kyetrak +River. He was anxious to develop some photographs, and as the weather +was very bad, he could do no good by remaining in his high camp. + +On July 20 we had very brilliant flashes of lightning, followed by a +heavy storm of rain during the night. This was too much for the flat +earth roof of the rest-house, and the water poured into all our rooms, +causing us to move our beds many times during the night in search of a +dry spot. I started off early in the morning as I had intended to climb +the hills to the East of Tingri, but the rain that had fallen at Tingri +had meant a heavy fall of snow on the mountains and the snow had fallen +as low down as 15,000 feet. We passed several goa on the way, but they +were too shy to allow us to get a shot, also some kiang, which were very +tame, and showed up well in the snow. As we got higher, the snow became +about 4 inches deep, but was melting rapidly. The glare and the heat +were intense. I saw a good many flocks of burhel, but no very large +heads. The views as I followed the crests of the hills were extremely +fine; on the North I looked down into the valley of the Bhong-chu, which +was in flood and had filled the whole of the bottom of the valley with +water, and on the other side I looked over the Tingri Plain to the great +range of snow peaks which finally ended in the mighty mass of +Gosainthan. The weather had been very hot and oppressive all day, and as +usual in the evening we had another very severe thunderstorm with heavy +rain all through the night. The following day was more like an English +November day--cold and grey with drizzling rain--and with the snow on +the hills down to 15,000 feet. I bought a Tibetan pony during the +morning for the large sum of L7. It was a bay, an excellent ambler, and +very surefooted. The Tibetan name by which he was known was +Dug-dra-kyang-po, which means "The bay pony like a dragon." + +[Illustration: MILITARY GOVERNOR, HIS WIFE AND MOTHER.] + +I went over to have lunch with the Depon's representative. His family +were all dressed up very smartly for the occasion, the women folk +wearing their best head-dresses of turquoises, coral and pearls. He gave +us rice and raisins as an _hors d'[oe]uvre_, and an _entree_ of junket, +followed by some pickled turnips, which I thought very nasty, after +which we had the usual macaroni and mince. He had been very friendly and +kindly to us the whole time that we were at Tingri, and had always +supplied us with everything we asked for. On July 22 we saw a very fine +solar halo with well-marked rings of yellow, brown, green and white, but +the rain continued steadily nearly all the time. The day before we were +to leave Tingri I sent away my orderly, together with two coolies who +had been sick, and whom the doctor had recommended that we should send +back to Darjeeling. They were given sufficient food to take them back to +Darjeeling and an extra fifteen days' pay, the orderly also being given +a horse to ride. Towards evening the weather improved and we had some +lovely views of Mount Everest and that great group of snow peaks of +which Cho-Uyo is the highest. They all looked very white under their new +coating of snow, which lies thickly down to 16,000 feet. + +On July 24 we eventually got off from Tingri; the last few days had been +spent in packing up and re-arranging all the stores. There was the +usual talking, shouting and arguing, but all the loads were eventually +packed on to the animals, or loaded on to the backs of the coolies by +nine o'clock. We then took a last farewell of the Depon's +representative, who was very sorry to see us go, and who had done so +much to make our stay pleasant there. + +The first march was to Nezogu, where there was a bridge over the +Kyetrak; this was about 19 miles, partly across the Tingri Plain and +then over a tiresome moraine. While crossing the moraine, I shot a goa +which had quite a good head. Wheeler had accompanied me, as he had left +his camp at the bridge, and on arrival there we found his tents all +pitched and his cook waiting ready to receive us. Our own kit did not +arrive till it was getting dark, when the weather looked very ominous. +Rain fell steadily most of the night, and just before dawn this turned +to snow, so that when we woke up there were a couple of inches of fresh +snow on the ground. As it was still snowing steadily, we were in no +great hurry to start, and did not get off until nine o'clock. The +weather than gradually improved and the fresh snow soon melted, though +the ground was left in a very boggy condition. The march to Choebu was +about 15 miles over the easy Lamna Pass. Knowing the way, I climbed on +to a ridge to the South, where I had a fine view again of Mount Everest +and the Rongbuk Valley. We pitched our camp on the far side of the +Rongbuk River, our loads being carried across the frail bridge by the +villagers, and our ponies being swum across. Here Mallory and Bullock +joined us. They had been experiencing latterly very bad weather in the +Upper Rongbuk Valley, and constant heavy falls of snow had seriously +hindered their reconnaissance work. Their coolies, too, were getting +rather tired and stale from remaining at such heights for a considerable +time, and were badly in want of a rest. I had therefore arranged for +them to meet me here and to accompany me round to Kharta, from which +place they could then explore the Eastern approaches of Mount Everest. +During the night I suffered much from inflammation of the eyes, due to +the snow that had fallen the day before. They were so painful as to make +sleep quite impossible. I was not, however, the only one to suffer, as +Chheten Wangdi, the interpreter, Acchu, the cook, and several of the +coolies that were with me were all suffering from the same complaint in +the morning. Though the sun had not been shining and the day had been +misty, the glare from the new snow had been very much more powerful than +anything we had expected and taught us a lesson that whenever there was +the slightest fall of snow, we should always wear our snow goggles. From +Choebu we marched to Rebu--a distance of about 15 miles. Knowing the way, +I took Mallory and Bullock by the upper road over a pass to Halung; from +the top of this pass we branched off on to a spur where there was a very +fine view of Mount Everest and the mountains to the North and North-east +of it. There had been so much fresh snow everywhere that it was often +very difficult to recognize the peaks, but Mount Everest from this side +looked as impossible as ever with the great black bands of perpendicular +cliffs that seemed to encircle it. + +The day was actually fine and the march was a pleasant one through a +fertile valley full of fields of barley, mustard and peas. The wild +flowers all round Rebu were still very beautiful. Our camp was pitched +on a grassy spot on the bank of a rushing stream and close to the +village of Rebu. + +The following morning the weather was again fine, and as the yaks were +all ready for us, we were started by 7.30 a.m. This start was quite +amusing; we ourselves had first to cross a flooded stream over which +there was a very wobbly stone bridge. With much excitement and noise the +yaks were then driven across the stream, but the current was too strong +for the bullocks, which had to be unloaded and their loads carried over. +While this was being done, the bridge collapsed, and a good lady and a +bullock that were trying to get over by the bridge all fell into the +water together. There was then a terrible excitement and mix-up, every +one shouting and screaming, but they both scrambled safely to the shore, +and beyond a wetting, no one was any the worse. We then took the road +that I had travelled three weeks before over the Doya La. Knowing that +there was a good view to be got from the top of the pass, I hurried +ahead and climbed a rocky hill, 17,700 feet, close to the pass, where I +saw a wonderful scene. Range upon range of snowy mountains extended +right away to Kanchenjunga, and the course of the Arun could be traced +wandering down through Nepal, while to the South towered up the great +walls of Makalu. Mount Everest itself I could not see, as there were a +good many clouds about, but to the South-west were some fine snow and +rock peaks of which I took several photographs. I then basked in the sun +for a couple of hours and enjoyed the view. The wild flowers on the top +of the pass were delightful; I found three different kinds of gentians +and the blue poppies were as numerous as ever. The primulas, however, +had many of them already gone to seed, but the saxifrages still covered +the rocks, and it was a delight to wander along and note the different +varieties. Riding on to Chulungphu, we found tents pitched for us and +fuel and milk all ready. In place of the primulas the ground was now +carpeted with gentians. From here to Kharta the march was only a short +one, but we thoroughly enjoyed riding along between the bushes of wild +rose or juniper. The former were no longer in blossom, but there were +many other new varieties of flowers appearing. I rode on ahead to the +spot that I had chosen, three weeks previously, for our new base camp, +and I found that Hopaphema had already pitched some tents for us. He had +also prepared a meal for us and made every arrangement for our comfort. +Our camp was pitched under the willows and poplar trees in the garden, +and it was pleasant to hear the rustle of the leaves in the wind once +more. We were now at a height of only 12,300 feet, and the change in +altitude was a very great relief to the climbing party and the coolies +who had come down from the high camps. There were also plenty of green +vegetables to be got here, and the coolies appreciated the change +enormously. Just below us flowed the Arun, now a majestic river over a +hundred yards wide. A mile lower down in its course it entered into the +great gorges in which within a space of 20 miles it dropped from 12,000 +feet to 7,500 feet, a drop of over 200 feet in the mile. From our camp +we used to watch the Monsoon clouds come up every day through the gorge +in thin wisps, but every day they melted away always at the same spot; +and though rain fell heavily a mile below us, yet with us the sun shone +brightly, and it was rare for any rain to reach us. Twenty miles away to +the North again were heavy clouds and storms, and rain fell there daily, +so that we seemed to be living in a dry zone between the two storm +systems. The forests of fir and birch trees came up to the limit of the +rainfall and then ceased suddenly where the rain stopped a mile below +us. At this point the Kharta River formed a sharp dividing line between +the wet and dry zones. + +The next day was spent in settling down, arranging all our stores and +making a new dark room in the house we had rented. The climate here was +delicious and a great change from Tingri. The temperature in my tent +used to go up to 75 deg. Fahr. during the day. + +The day after we arrived the Jongpen came down to pay an official call +and brought a welcome present of a hundred eggs and five animals laden +with fuel. He apologised for not coming the day before, but said he had +been very busy trying a murder case where eighteen people had been +poisoned by a family that had a feud with them, the poison used being +aconite, with which they were evidently quite familiar. He told us that +our coolies could collect fuel anywhere on the right bank of the Kharta +River, but begged that we would not collect it anywhere near where we +were living, as the villagers would object. + +On July 30 I started off to explore a neighbouring pass and valley +which looked interesting. Mallory and Bullock were having a few days' +rest before starting off again, and so they remained in camp. Riding a +few miles up the Kharta Valley, I crossed the river by a bridge at the +first village, and then had a very steep and stony climb of nearly 3,000 +feet to the Samchung Pass, 15,000 feet. As we approached the pass, and +entered a moister climate, the vegetation increased rapidly. On these +slopes there were rhododendrons 5 feet high, mountain ash, birch, +willows, spiraeas and juniper. At the top of the pass there was not much +of a view, but prowling round I came across some very fine saussuraeas +with their great white woolly heads and a wonderful meconopsis of a deep +claret colour that I had never seen before. There were fifteen to twenty +flowers on each stem, and it grew from 2 to 3 feet high. Eight varieties +of gentians also grew in the same valley, and a quantity of other +attractive Alpine plants. From the pass we descended about 500 feet into +a delightful high level glen full of small lakes, evidently once upon a +time formed by glaciers which must have filled the whole of the valley. +I counted fourteen lakes in this valley, two or three of them being +nearly half a mile long, and all of them of different colours varying +from a turquoise blue to green and black. For some miles we rode and +walked up the valley. The road consisted of big loose stones, often with +water flowing underneath them, and usually with big holes in between, so +that our ponies were lucky in not breaking their legs. There was then a +steep climb which brought us on to a second pass, the Chog La, 16,100 +feet, close to which were three small glaciers. Across the top of the +pass there was a wall built many years ago as a second line of defence +against the Gurkhas, the first line being on the top of the Popti Pass. +Unfortunately the clouds now came up, and it began to rain, so that we +had no view into the Kama Valley, though later on I was to make the +acquaintance of this most charming valley. For an hour and a half I +sheltered behind the wall, but as the clouds did not lift I returned +towards Kharta. As we descended into the valley again the glimpses of +the lakes seen between the mists reminded me much of the upper lakes at +Killarney. There were the same ferns, willows, birch and rhododendrons, +and much the same moist atmosphere. + +[Illustration: THE DZONGPEN OF KHARTA AND HIS WIFE.] + +Next day, with Bullock, I went to pay an official visit to the Jongpen +at Kharta Shiga. He had made great preparations to receive us, and had +put up a large tent in which Chinese carpets and tables were set out +with pots of flowers arranged all round. Soon after our arrival we were +given a most copious meal: bowl after bowl of well cooked macaroni and +mince with pickled radishes and chillies were set before us. After we +had finished this meal, I induced the Jongpen and his young wife to be +photographed. She had a most elaborate head-dress of coral and pearls, +with masses of false hair on either side of her head. It was not +becoming. Barely had we finished taking the photograph when another meal +was put in front of us: this time it consisted of Tibetan dumplings and +mince patties, of which I gave the Jongpen's little dog the greater part +surreptitiously; I then hurried off before I should be compelled to eat +a third meal. + +On August 2 Mallory and Bullock started off with thirty-two coolies to +explore the Eastern approaches to Mount Everest. It had been very hard +to get any information about Mount Everest. The people knew the mountain +by name, but told us that the only way to get near it was by crossing +over the ridge to the South of the Kharta Valley, when we should find a +big valley that would lead right up to Chomolungma. Where the Kharta +River came from they could not tell me, and whether it took its source +from the snows of Mount Everest they did not know. Tibetans' ignorance +of any valleys outside their own was really extraordinary. I could +seldom get any definite information about places outside their valley, +and on asking two or three people, they would invariably give +contradictory answers. It was the same as regards distance. They would +tell you a place was one, two or three days' march away, but for +shorter distances they had no time-table, and the nearest approach to +this was a measurement by cups of tea. I remember one day asking a +village yokel how far off the next village was, and he surprised me by +answering, "Three cups of tea." Several times afterwards I got the +answer to a question about distance given me in cups of tea, and I +eventually worked out that three cups of tea was the equivalent of about +5 miles, and was after that able to use this as a basis for measurements +of distances. + +Two or three hours after Mallory and Bullock had gone, Wollaston and +Morshead arrived from their trip to Nyenyam. They had had bad weather +the whole time. Here, too, the weather remained overcast and +threatening, with a strong South wind, the mountains remaining covered +in clouds above 16,000 feet. To the South of us rain fell steadily all +day, but the rain did not come up as far as our camp. One afternoon +Morshead, Wollaston and I went over to have tea with our hospitable +Zemindar Hopaphema about a mile away from us. On this occasion he gave +us pods of fresh peas and the red hips and haws of the wild rose as a +kind of _hors d'[oe]uvre_, followed by a junket served with pea flour. +Then came bowls of hot milk with macaroni and minced meat, seasoned with +chillies, together with potatoes and a kind of fungus that grew in the +woods. After this meal, from which we suffered no ill effects, for our +stomachs were getting accustomed to queer foods, he produced an old +painted musical instrument with two sounding boards, on which he played +and sang at the same time some old Tibetan love songs. Some of these had +quite a catching and plaintive melody. He showed us also some Tibetan +dances. Our interpreter, unfortunately, refused to give us a literal +translation of some of the love songs, though he seemed very amused at +them. + +Another afternoon I rode with Wollaston some 5 miles up the Kharta +Valley to the Gandenchoefel Monastery. This was situated in a +delightfully sheltered spot surrounded by poplars and ancient gnarled +juniper trees of great size. On arrival we were shown into a +picturesque courtyard, the walls of which were covered with paintings +depicting scenes from the life of Buddha. Cushions and tables had been +arranged for our reception and placed on a verandah where, on arrival, +we were given cups of tea and hot milk. The Head Lama presently came out +and after taking some tea with us, proceeded to show us round his +temple. This was a curious building, square in shape, and surmounted by +a cupola. It was very solidly built of stone and was, they +told us, about 500 years old. It was founded by a saint called +Jetsun-Nga-Wang-Choefel, who after a great flood which swept down the +valley, destroying all the houses in it, had taken a large frog (which +animal is believed to represent the Water God) and buried it under the +centre pillar of the temple. With great reverence they showed us the +spot under which this unfortunate frog had been immured in the centre of +the shrine. This immolation of the frog had apparently not been +completely efficacious in preventing the floods as two other floods had +subsequently occurred, and two small Chortens had been erected to make +quite certain that the frog could not get out again and cause more +floods. The interior of the temple was very dark in spite of numerous +butter lamps. As our eyes gradually became accustomed to the dim light, +we made out three figures of Buddha--a large one in the centre and +smaller ones on either side. On the pillars were figures of the saint +who had founded the monastery. In this temple were also represented some +Indian saints, but these were shown as dark figures, very black and very +ugly. Tibetans always despise the Indian and they therefore represent +him as quite black and with the ugliest features imaginable. Around the +shrine were twelve great plaster figures--about 12 feet to 15 feet in +height--the guardians of the shrine, figures monstrously ugly, and +evidently made so in order to frighten away the evil-doer. Outside the +sanctuary there was a curious passage in the thickness of the walls +leading all round the building, in which were stencilled and painted +curious representations of Buddha. In one of the side rooms there was a +huge prayer wheel, which rang a bell every time it was turned; it +contained, the priests told us, many million prayers. After visiting the +shrine, I took a photograph of the monks with their long trumpets, their +bejewelled clarionets and their drums. After our tour of inspection we +were given further refreshment in the way of macaroni and meat in a +small secluded garden where the monks used to walk reading the +Scriptures and meditating. + +On another day Wollaston and I made an excursion down to the gorges of +the Arun. We first rode up the Kharta Valley, crossing the river by the +first bridge, and then following the right bank of the river as far as +we could go. After riding only a short way, we entered into a country +and a scenery where we might have been a hundred miles away from Tibet. +The change was extraordinarily sudden--a dense forest covered the +hillsides, mostly of fir (_Abies Webbiana_) and birch, many of them fine +old trees. The undergrowth consisted of rhododendrons, 8 feet to 10 feet +in height and extremely difficult to get through. Besides these there +were many larch and willow trees growing on the hillside, together with +many new and delightful flowers. We went on until we were brought up by +a series of perpendicular cliffs that descended 700 feet sheer down to +the river below us. It was a grand sight from here to see the mighty +Bhong-chu or Arun River, narrowed now to one-third of its former width, +forcing its way in a series of rapids through these stupendous gorges +covered with woods wherever the precipices allowed a tree to grow and +with trees dipping their branches far below us in the flooded waters of +the river. On the opposite side of the gorge we saw a small track +wandering along the cliffs; the inhabitants told us it was impossible to +get across the river lower down at this time of the year until you reach +Lungdoe, where there was a bridge some 20 miles lower down. Kharta now +remained the base headquarters of the Expedition until it was time to +return to India in October, and all the expeditions that we made up the +Kharta Valley, or into the Kama Valley, were made from Kharta. The +Jongpen there and Hopaphema did everything they could to assist us by +giving us coolies and arranging for supplies to be sent up to the +various camps. + +[Illustration: LAMAS OF KHARTA MONASTERY.] + + + + + CHAPTER VII + + THE KAMA VALLEY + + +We had not been able to gather much information locally about Mount +Everest. A few of the shepherds said that they had heard that there was +a great mountain in the next valley to the South, but they could not +tell us whether the Kharta River came from this great mountain. The +easiest way to get to this valley, they told us, was by crossing the +Shao La, or the Langma La, both of which passes were to the South of the +Kharta Valley, and, they said, led into this new valley. They called +this valley the Kama Valley, and little did we realise at the time that +in it we were going to find one of the most beautiful valleys in the +world. Mallory and Bullock had already left Kharta on August 2 to +explore this route, which we thought would lead us to the Eastern face +of Mount Everest. As Wollaston and Morshead had now arrived at Kharta, +there was nothing to prevent my following the others and learning +something about the geography of the country. Eleven mule-loads of +rations, consisting of flour, potatoes, sugar and rations for the +surveyors, had just arrived; there was therefore now no cause for me to +worry about shortage of supplies. These had been sent off from Yatung on +June 15, but had only arrived at Kharta on August 2. Learning that I was +about to start off, Hopaphema, the old Zemindar, hurriedly came round +with a large basket full of spinach, potatoes, and turnips, which he +insisted on my taking with me. + +[Illustration: MAKALU from 21,500 foot peak on ridge south of Kama-chu.] + +On August 5, taking with me Chheten Wangdi and a dozen coolies, I +started off in the tracks of Mallory and Bullock. For the first few +miles we travelled up the Kharta Valley, through rich fields of barley, +by far the best that I had seen so far in Tibet. The crops were very +even and everywhere quite 3 feet in height. The valley was thickly +inhabited, containing villages nearly every mile, and many monasteries, +some of which were surrounded by fine old gnarled juniper trees. Our +local coolies made very poor progress, taking six hours to cover the +first 6 miles, as they stopped at every village for a drink. After +passing the last village, there was a steep climb of 1,000 feet. Here +our coolies were very anxious to stop and spend the night, but I pushed +on ahead, and they came on behind very slowly and reluctantly. Seeing +that it was impossible to get over the Langma La, I stopped at the limit +of firewood and camped at a height of 16,100 feet. Poo, who was acting +as my cook, had forgotten to bring any matches with him, and I watched +him with much interest lighting a fire of damp rhododendron bushes with +the flint and tinder that he always carried. The day had been clear and +very warm; and on the way up we had had some fine views of the great +snowy peaks on the Eastern side of the Arun River. The villagers had +told us that this pass was impossible for ponies, and I accordingly left +mine behind at Kharta, though we found out that ponies could quite well +have crossed the pass. Opposite our camp was a peak of black rock with a +glacier just below it. During the night there was a little rain and the +morning was unfortunately cloudy. As our coolies had informed us that +there were three passes to be crossed in the next march, I had them all +started off by 5.30 a.m., after which I left with my coolies, Ang Tenze +and Nyima Tendu, who always accompanied me carrying a rifle, a shot-gun +and three cameras of different sizes. Above the camp there was a steep +climb of 1,000 feet on to a broad, rocky shelf in which was a pretty +turquoise-blue lake. This was followed by another steep climb of 500 +feet on to another great shelf, after which a further climb of 500 feet +brought us to the top of the Langma La, 18,000 feet. The three steps up +to this pass were evidently the three passes that the coolies had told +us about, as from the top we looked down into the next valley. All the +coolies who were carrying loads complained of headaches, due no doubt +to the steep climb and the high elevation of the pass. To the East there +was a curious view looking over the Arun towards some high snow peaks. +Clouds were lying in patches everywhere on the hillsides, as the air was +saturated with moisture. To the West our gaze encountered a most +wonderful amphitheatre of peaks and glaciers. Three great glaciers +almost met in the deep green valley that lay at our feet. One of these +glaciers evidently came down from Mount Everest, the second from the +beautiful cliffs of Chomoloenzo, the Northern peak of Makalu, of which we +unfortunately could only get occasional and partial glimpses, an ice or +rock cliff peeping out of the clouds every now and then at incredible +heights above us. The third glacier came from Kama Changri, a fine peak +to the North of the Kama Valley which later on we climbed. The clouds +kept mostly at a height of about 22,000 feet, and prevented us from +seeing the tops of the mountains. After waiting for an hour at the top +of the pass in hopes of the clouds lifting, I started the descent, +catching on the way a very pretty Marmot rat, with huge eyes and ears +for his size, and a pretty bluish grey fur. Meeting shortly afterwards +some of Mallory and Bullock's coolies, I gave this animal to them to +take back to Wollaston. We now descended through grassy uplands for +nearly 3,000 feet, past another beautiful blue lake called Shurim Tso, +and came to a curious long and narrow terrace about 1,000 feet above the +bottom of the valley. Here there was a tent belonging to some yak herds; +and as wood and water were plentiful I determined to stop and spend the +night with them. They called the place Tangsham. It was certainly a most +glorious place for a camp, for it overlooked three great valleys and +glaciers. Opposite us, on the other side of the valley, were the immense +cliffs of Chomoloenzo, which towered up to nearly 26,000 feet, while +Mount Everest and its great ridges filled up the head of the valley. I +spent the whole afternoon lying among the rhododendrons at 15,000 feet, +and admiring the beautiful glimpses of these mighty peaks revealed by +occasional breaks among the fleecy clouds. The shepherds were able to +give me much information about the district, which proved very useful to +us afterwards. They come up here every year for a few months in the +summer and in the winter cross over to the valley of the Bong-chu. + +[Illustration: MAKALU AND CHOMOLOeNZO.] + +After a slight frost during the night, we had one of the few really +perfect days that fell to our lot in the Kama Valley. As soon as I had +finished breakfast I climbed up 1,000 feet behind the camp; opposite me +were the wonderful white cliffs of Chomoloenzo and Makalu, which dropped +almost sheer for 11,000 feet into the valley below. Close at hand were +precipices of black rock on which, in the dark hollows, nestled a few +dirty glaciers. Mount Everest being some way further off, did not appear +nearly as imposing. Our object now was to get as close to it as +possible; we therefore descended into the valley, a steep drop of nearly +1,000 feet, through luxuriant vegetation. A very beautiful blue primula +was just beginning to come out. This Wollaston had already discovered a +fortnight before near Lapchi-Kang. We then crossed the Rabkar Chu, a +stream which came out of the Rabkar Glacier, by a very rickety bridge +over which the water was washing. Beyond this was a very fertile plain +covered with rhododendrons, juniper, willow and mountain ash. On it were +a couple of small huts which were occupied by some yak herds. From here +we had to follow along the edge of the Kang-do-shung Glacier which, +coming down from Chomoloenzo, plunges across the valley until it strikes +against the rocks of the opposite side. Between the glacier and these +cliffs was an old water-course up which we travelled, but +stones kept frequently falling from the cliffs above and the passage was +somewhat dangerous. This had evidently been the old channel of the +stream that has its source in the glaciers of Mount Everest, but owing +to the advance of the Kang-do-shung Glacier, is now compelled to find +its way through this glacier and hurls itself into a great ice cavern in +it. Opposite this ice cavern we had a steep climb for 500 feet, and +found ourselves among pleasant grassy meadows, after a few miles of +which we came to a place called Pethang Ringmo, where we found some yak +herds living. We found that Mallory and Bullock had chosen this place to +be their base camp. It was a most delightfully sunny spot at 16,400 +feet, right under the gigantic and marvellously beautiful cliffs of +Chomoloenzo, now all powdered over with the fresh snow of the night +before and only separated from us by the Kangshung Glacier, here about a +mile wide. Great avalanches thunder down its sides all the day long with +a terrifying sound. Everest from here is seen to fill up the head of the +valley with a most formidable circle of cliffs overhung by hanging +glaciers, but it is not nearly such a beautiful or striking mountain as +Makalu or Chomoloenzo. The shepherds would insist that Makalu was the +higher of the two mountains, and would not believe us when we said that +Mount Everest was the higher. Next morning was foggy, but there was a +glimpse of blue sky behind the mists, so after breakfast I hurried up +the valley, intending to climb a ridge exactly opposite to Mount Everest +which I had marked down the night before. After walking for an hour up +the valley in a thick fog, by luck I struck the right ridge, which +proved a very steep climb. Glimpses of blue sky and white peaks, +however, gave us hopes of better views higher up. It took me two and a +half hours to climb 3,000 feet, which at last brought me above the +mists. The top of the ridge was 19,500 feet high, and from it we had +most superb views. Mount Everest was only 3 or 4 miles away from us. +From it to the South-east swept a huge amphitheatre of mighty peaks +culminating in a new and unsurveyed peak, 28,100 feet in height, to +which we gave the name of Lhotse, which in Tibetan means the South Peak. +From this side the mountain appeared quite unclimbable, as the cliffs +were all topped with hanging glaciers, from which great masses of ice +came thundering down into the valley below all the day long. Between +Mount Everest and Makalu, on the watershed between Tibet and Nepal, +there stands up a very curious conical peak, to which we gave the name +of Pethangtse. On either side of it are two very steep, but not very +high, passes into Nepal; both of them are, however, probably +unclimbable. To the South-east towered up the immense cliffs of Makalu, +far the more beautiful mountain of the two. The whole morning I spent on +this ridge, taking photographs whenever opportunity offered. The clouds +kept coming up and melting away again and were most annoying, but they +occasionally afforded us the most beautiful glimpses and peeps of the +snow and rock peaks by which we were surrounded. At a height of over +19,000 feet, I had a great chase after a new kind of rat; but it finally +eluded me, and I was not able to add it to our already large collection. +Even at these heights I found both yellow and white saxifrages and a +blue gentian. From the top of this ridge I had been able to see +Kanchenjunga and Jannu, though nearly 100 miles away, but their summits +stood up out of the great sea of clouds which covered Nepal. + +[Illustration: CLIFFS OF CHOMOLOeNZO from camp at Pethang Ringmo.] + +On returning to camp in the afternoon, I found that Mallory and Bullock +were there. They had climbed a snow peak on the North side of the Kama +Valley, about 21,500 feet, and from this view point had been unable to +discover a possible route up Mount Everest on the Eastern face; they +thought, however, that there might be an alternative approach from the +next valley to the North. They therefore intended returning to the +Kharta Valley to follow that river to its source. + +Next morning was cloudy, and neither Everest nor Makalu were to be seen; +but towards the East the view was clear, though the mountains appeared +to be much too close. We started all together down the valley. On the +way I climbed 1,000 feet up among the rocks opposite to the big glacier +that descends from Chomoloenzo. I failed, however, to get the good view +of Makalu which I had been hoping for, owing to the clouds, and returned +to my old camping ground at Tangsham, Mallory and Bullock branching off +from here towards the Langma La. The shepherds had told us that there +was another pass into the Kharta Valley called the Shao La, rather more +to the South. I therefore intended to make use of this pass on the +return journey to Kharta. As usual, in the evening, the clouds came up +and enveloped us in a thick mist. Every night this happened in the Kama +Valley, and was evidently due to the excessive moisture of the air. When +we started the following morning, there was still a thick Scotch mist +which made the vegetation very wet. We descended the Kama Valley, most +of the time keeping high up above the river. On the opposite side of the +valley were immense black cliffs descending sheer for many thousand +feet. On the way we passed through acres of blue iris, mostly over now, +and then through a very luxuriant vegetation which grew more and more +varied as we descended lower. There was a lovely emerald-green lake +beside the path, and like white sentinels on the hillsides grew the +great rhubarb of Sikkim, the _Rheum nobile_. This was a most conspicuous +plant with columns of the palest green leaves sheathing the flower +spikes which grew fully 5 feet in height. There were several other +varieties of rhubarb here, but none were as handsome as this. At one +place we descended as low as 13,000 feet and came once more amongst +dense forests of juniper, silver firs (_Abies Webbiana_), mountain ash, +willow, birch and tall rhododendrons. From every tree hung long grey +lichens attesting the moisture of the climate. Wherever there was an +open space in the forest, it was carpeted with flowers. Two delightful +varieties of primula were new to me, and were just coming out, one of +them being almost black in colour. The big deep red meconopsis grew +here, too, in great luxuriance. Gentians of all kinds abounded and many +other varieties of flowers and ferns, due to the fact that Makalu seems +to attract all the storms, causing the moist Monsoon currents to be +drawn into this valley. As the day went on, the weather improved; the +sun came out, and the clouds melted away, disclosing the magnificent +peaks of Makalu. A big glacier descended from the East face from a side +valley into the floor of the valley below us at a height of about 12,000 +feet. It was very curious to see fir trees, birch and juniper, and a +very luxuriant vegetation growing on either side of the ice and on the +moraines beside it. + +[Illustration: THE KAMA VALLEY.] + +Below this glacier the valley became quite flat with grassy meadows and +patches of forest dotted about the pastures--a very unusual type of +valley for the Himalayas. Almost opposite to this glacier we turned into +a side valley; the path and the stream that came down this valley were +often indistinguishable. All round the valley were great black cliffs; +in one place where they were less precipitous the path found its way +upwards. Our camp was pitched that night on a shelf above the cliffs +where for a short time we had some very wonderful views. This place was +called in Tibetan "The Field of Marigolds," though at the time we were +there they were all over. We were at a height of 15,300 feet, and +Makalu's two peaks were almost exactly opposite to us. The cloud effects +were very striking; the storms seemed to gather round Makalu, and first +one peak and then the other would appear out of the great white cumulus +clouds whose shapes changed every minute. As usual, the mists came up in +the evening, and we were enveloped in a very wet Scotch mist with a +temperature of 46 deg. Fahr. Next morning, instead of getting the lovely +view that we had expected, a thick Scotch mist prevented our seeing more +than 20 yards away. We crawled up to the top of the Shao La, 16,500 +feet, in driving rain, but after crossing over it we emerged into finer +weather. On the descent we passed several fine lakes, on the cliffs +above which were numerous ram chakor (Himalayan snowcock). I pursued a +covey of these, and after a chase managed to shoot one. They are very +fine birds, weighing between 5 and 6 lb.; they are extremely noisy and +fond of their own voices. The parent birds are always very loth to leave +their young, and early in the summer it is possible to approach very +close to them; but later on in the year, when the young have become +nearly full grown, they are very wily, and having excellent eyesight, +do not allow anyone to approach within a couple of hundred yards. That +afternoon I arrived back at Kharta, where the weather had been quite +fine, and where there had been but little rain during my absence. + +During that night a thief broke into our store-room, forcing and +breaking the lock outside. The only thing he took, as far as we could +find out, was one of Wheeler's yak-dans (a leather mule trunk). The +thief had probably mistaken this one for one of mine, which contained a +considerable amount of money, and knowing that I was away, he thought +that my kit must be packed away in the store-room. We informed the +Jongpen and the head-men of the villages around of the theft, and had a +couple of suspicious characters watched; but we never found any trace of +the stolen articles, which luckily were of very small value. For the +next fortnight I remained at Kharta. + +On August 19 Heron suddenly arrived back after a very interesting trip, +during which he had explored all the mountains North of Tingri and +Shekar Dzong up to the Brahmaputra watershed. He had had very bad +weather all the time. Every night there had been heavy thunderstorms and +practically all the bad weather had come from the North. The whole +country was under water, and it was very difficult to get about. Some of +the rivers that we had crossed earlier in the season were now a mile or +more wide. + +On the following day Bullock and Mallory returned to Kharta after having +explored the Upper Kharta Valley. They thought that they had found a +possible way up Mount Everest from this valley, but at present the +weather was too bad for them to carry on with their reconnaissance, and +they had come down for a fortnight's rest, hoping that the Monsoon would +be over by the beginning of September and that they would then be able +to make a proper attack on the mountain. As Mallory and Bullock were +likely to be at Kharta for some time, Wollaston and I seized this +opportunity to visit the lower valley of the Kama-chu. + +Therefore, on August 23, with eleven of our own coolies and several +Tibetan coolies, we climbed the Samchung Pass (15,000 feet), and then +descended into the valley of the fourteen lakes, and after crossing the +Chog La camped on the far side of the pass near a dark green and sacred +lake called Ruddamlamtso. On the way we saw a new species of black rat +in the moraine of a glacier; but Wollaston's servant, who had the +collecting gun with him, was unfortunately far behind; he was always +rather fond of drink and loth to leave the villages. The weather was +cloudy, and there were no views from the top of either pass. The march +was a strenuous one, taking the coolies thirteen hours to cover the +whole distance, and they did not arrive till after dark. The +Ruddamlamtso, the lake by which we were camped, had wonderfully clear +water; I could see every stone at a depth of 20 feet, and it was +evidently very deep. It is looked upon as a sacred lake, and to it +people make yearly pilgrimages, walking round it burning incense and +throwing spices into its waters. + +The following morning the clouds were low down everywhere on the +hillsides and we had no views. There was a steep descent for 4 miles to +Sakeding--12,100 feet, through the most interesting zones of vegetation. +We followed the edge of the rushing stream, always white from the +rapidity of its descent. On one side of the valley grew rhododendrons of +many varieties and mountain ash, and on the other were hoary old +junipers with twisted stems. Grey lichens hung down from every branch, +and were often 5 or 6 feet in length. We came across some of the finest +and largest red currants that we had yet seen. Of these we collected a +great quantity, and they formed a very excellent stew. Birches, wild +roses and berberis were the commonest shrubs, while nearly every rock +was covered with an extremely pretty rose-coloured creeper, which in +places caused the hillsides to look quite pink. Earlier in the year the +iris must have been a very beautiful sight, as we passed through acres +of their leaves. A big yellow rock-rose with flowers 2 inches across +was also to be met with here, and many of the lower leaves of the +rhododendrons were turning yellow to scarlet, making a great show of +colour on the dark green of the hillside. Deep purple-coloured primulas +and monkshood, as well as a curious hairy mauve-red monkshood with a +very graceful growth, were also to be seen. The pretty white-crested +red-start flitted about from rock to rock, and numerous tits of various +kinds flew about in flocks from tree to tree as we descended. + +Sakeding (Pleasant terrace) had been at one time a village of +considerable size, but a pestilence sent by the local demon had wiped +out all its inhabitants. This demon was still reputed to be very active, +and no one had dared to re-build the old houses of which the ruins, +overgrown with weeds and bushes, could be seen here and there. It was a +very pleasant site for a village, situated as it was on a terrace that +projected out into the valley 1,000 feet above the stream below. During +the summer months there is quite a trade passing through this place, the +Tibetans bringing salt from the North, and the Nepalese coming up from +Nepal with rice, dyes and vegetables, which they exchange. The rate of +barter at this time was two measures of rice or three measures of madder +dye for one measure of salt, and no money changes hands. Everything that +was brought here was brought on the backs of coolies, and these Nepalese +coolies were sturdy, cheery fellows, and thought nothing of carrying 80 +lb. of salt on their backs up and down the execrable paths of the +district. + +From Sakeding we descended steeply through a forest of the finest +juniper trees that I had yet seen. These grew 80 to 90 feet high, and +many of their trunks were 18 feet to 20 feet in circumference. As a rule +they had clean stems, without a branch for 50 feet or 60 feet. The +branches were all hung with grey lichens. We now descended beside the +muddy and tempestuous waters of the Kama-chu. The juniper forest +gradually gave way to silver firs--wonderful trees of enormous size and +great age. We passed through many open glades, park-like in appearance, +with grand clumps of fir trees or sycamore dotted here and there. The +hillsides were absolutely running over with water, and often for several +hundred yards we walked along logs put down to try and avoid the mud and +the running water. As many of these rounded logs were very slippery, +both we and our coolies had to proceed with caution, and even so we +experienced many a fall. At Chu-tronu--10,200 feet--there was a +well-made wooden bridge, 60 feet long, which spanned the river where it +flowed in a narrow channel between two great rocks. We crossed this +bridge, and finding a broad open space there, I selected a spot suitable +for our camp and ordered the coolies to cut down some of the grass where +we intended to pitch the tents. I could not at first make out why they +kept jumping about when thus engaged, but on going to investigate, I +found that the place was alive with leeches; however, as there was no +other better place in which to camp, we had to make the best of it. The +men collected some dry bamboos out of an old shepherd's hut which was +close by; these they burnt on the sites where we were to pitch our +tents, hoping by this means to drive away the leeches. This method, +however, was not very successful, for all that evening we were busy +picking leeches off our clothes, legs, hands or heads. They climbed up +the sides of the tents and dropped down into our food, our cups and on +to our plates. Wollaston invented the best way of killing them, which +was by cutting them in two with a pair of scissors. Our interpreter +remonstrated with him, as he said this method increased the number of +leeches, thinking that both ends of them would grow. After a somewhat +restless and disturbed night, due to these leeches, we started off next +morning to go down to the junction of the Kama River with the Arun. The +distance as the crow flies was only about 6 miles, but we did not +realise the kind of path that we should have to traverse. In that short +distance we must have risen and fallen quite 5,000 feet. The path was +never level and always very rough and stony. At first it led through +beautiful glades running with moisture and over logs buried, most of +them, inches deep in the water; they were, however, better to walk on +than the soft mud there was on either side. The silver firs were now at +their best--trees over 100 feet in height, and with stems 20 feet to 25 +feet in circumference. Here grew great hydrangeas 20 feet or more in +height covered with flowers. Our only halts on the way down, and they +were pretty frequent, were to pick off the leeches from our clothes. We +took them off by tens at a time; they were very hungry, and varied in +size from great striped horse-leeches to tiny ones as thin as a pin and +able to penetrate anywhere. The track now left the upper terraces and +descended very steeply towards the river, at times climbing sharply +upwards again to avoid precipitous rocks and cliffs. During the descent, +we gradually passed from the zone of the silver firs into that of the +spruce, meeting the lovely _Picea Brunoniana_, which grew to an even +greater size than the silver firs. Many of the trees were over 150 feet +in height and without a branch for 70 feet or 80 feet; their stems too, +were often 25 feet to 30 feet in circumference. This valley is so +inaccessible that I am glad to think that these glorious forests can +never be exploited commercially. After passing a great overhanging rock +called Korabak, which is evidently much used as a halting-place, we +descended steeply to the river, which now forms a series of cascades, +leaping from rock to rock, a very remarkable spectacle. During the last +6 miles of its course, this river--the product of four large glacier +streams--descends at the rate of 450 feet every mile. In places there +were waterfalls of 20 feet and more, where the river hurled itself into +seething cauldrons; in one place I saw it confined to a breadth of +barely 5 feet. The junction of this river with the Arun is only 7,500 +feet above the sea; just above the junction is a bridge which leads to +the village of Kimonanga, a picturesque village situated on a terrace +some 700 feet above the river and surrounded by some fine trees. In this +valley we came across a few blue pines (_Pinus excelsa_) and also a +large-leafed alder; near its junction with the Arun were many trees and +orchids of a semi-tropical character. On the opposite side of the valley +is a forest of evergreen oak trees, but as I was unable to cross the +river I could not say to what species they belonged. On the way we +passed many yellow raspberries on which we slaked our thirst. Our guide +also dug up some of the roots of the wild arum to show us; it is a great +flattish tuberous root, rather oval in shape. This the inhabitants dig +up and, after allowing it to ferment by burying it in a hole for several +days, pound it up, and then eat it; it was much esteemed by the +villagers. It is necessary to ferment it first, as otherwise the root is +extremely poisonous. We tasted a slice of bread made out of this root, +and I have seldom tasted anything nastier. It is supposed, if not +properly fermented, to cause all the hair to fall out of the head; but I +should be inclined to imagine that it would do this even if it were +properly fermented. Near the junction of the Kama and Arun Rivers, we +climbed up on to a terrace 1,200 feet above, on which was situated the +village of Lungdoe. The great Arun gorges here become a considerable +valley; for 20 miles above this point up to Kharta the Arun runs through +a narrow and practically impassable gorge, but here the valley widens +out for a few miles and contains several villages; a short distance +below it enters again into another great gorge. The river now was in +full flood and covered the whole of the bottom of the valley, being in +places many hundred yards in width. At one spot, where it contracted, +there was a well-made bridge leading to the village of Matsang. I was +astonished to meet with maize growing at this height--8,700 feet. The +villagers also grew cucumbers, pumpkins and several kinds of millet, +including an extremely pretty red one. The head-man of Lungdoe gave me +some millet beer, which was very refreshing after the long march. +Wollaston did not care for it, but between us we managed to eat three +large and juicy cucumbers. The head-man was very friendly; and a local +official was staying here who had just come from Kharta, who recognised +us, and presented us with some excellent honey cakes. We neither of us +looked forward to the uphill return journey, but after five and a half +hours' hard walking I reached camp just before dark. Wollaston did not +arrive till later, and I had to send a coolie with a lamp to bring him +in. We were both of us much exhausted, as the day had been a long and +trying one. That night we had a grand camp fire of rhododendron and fir +logs. Hundreds of moths insisted on flying into the fire instead of +entering the tent where Wollaston was ready with his cyanide bottle to +catch them. + +The following morning the weather was dull and cloudy, and did not look +very promising. We determined, however, to visit the Popti La, the pass +between Tibet and Nepal, over which all the local traffic passes. +Leaving the camp, we entered a small side valley to the South, the path +climbing steeply upwards under big rhododendrons (_R. Falconeri_ and _R. +Argenteum_) with leaves 18 inches long. Noticing many of their leaves +strewn on the path, I inquired the reason for this. Our guide informed +us that the carriers fastened these leaves together with thin strips of +bamboo and thus provided an excellent waterproof cover for themselves +and for their loads. After climbing about a mile, we saw some bamboo +huts in the forest and a number of cows were grazing round them. These +belonged to some Nepalese herds who come over here in the summer, +bringing their cattle to graze. The path now followed the side of a +rushing torrent, peaty brown in colour, which came hurrying down under +the shade of birch, sycamore, silver firs, juniper and rhododendrons. As +we ascended higher, the open spaces became more frequent, though the +grass and weeds grew fully 3 feet in height, attesting the constant +rainfall of this district. On leaving the path to collect a few seeds +from some plants growing a short distance away from it, I found myself +in a few moments covered with leeches which apparently thrive here at an +altitude of over 12,000 feet; this must be almost a record height for +these pests. The path climbed up steeply, the rhododendrons growing +gradually smaller in size as we ascended. After going for four hours, we +reached the top of the pass--14,000 feet. Here on the top was a stone +half hidden in a pile of rocks with a notice, written in Chinese +characters, that this was the boundary between Tibet and Nepal. Across +the top of the pass was a long wall, mostly overgrown with grass, +evidently at one time considered to be some kind of defence. Owing to +the clouds being very low, we unfortunately had no view from the top, +but just below us, on the Nepalese side, was a fine black lake, about +half a mile long, with an island in the centre, which the Nepalese +called Dungepokri. On the top were many interesting Alpine flowers, +amongst them a charming white potentilla with a red centre; and a large +cream-coloured primula, shading into deep orange. We also came across +several new varieties of gentians. Here we rested for a couple of hours, +hoping that the clouds might lift, but a nasty rain began to fall +heavily. While we were waiting several coolies from Nepal passed by: +from these we found out that the pass was closed by snow for five months +in the year and that the trade market at Sakeding was closed by the end +of October. We now turned our footsteps homeward, urged on by cold +showers of rain. On the descent we were able to collect a few seeds. +Autumn was approaching, though the trees had not yet begun to assume +their autumn colours owing to the warm nights. That evening in the camp +we had an enormous bonfire of birch, juniper and rhododendrons, which +made the prettiest blaze imaginable, with flames of green, blue, violet +and orange. The large fire also helped to keep away the leeches. Heavy +rain fell again all night, and the thermometer did not descend below 55 deg. +Fahr. The morning, however, broke fine, and we started back again up the +valley to Sakeding. The sun shone every now and then, giving us +occasional glimpses of distant glaciers at the head of the valley. The +walk through the forest, with the sunlight shining on the dark green +leaves of the rhododendron and the dripping foliage, was very +delightful. The undergrowth consisted of wild roses, berberis with its +necklaces of scarlet berries, wild currants of a great size--sour to the +taste, but excellent when stewed--wild raspberries, light feathery +bamboos, birch, willow and a most luxuriant vegetation of flowers and +grasses. In one or two places the mountain ash were just beginning to +show traces of colour. We soon left the leeches behind us and followed +our old track through the forest beside the rushing waters of the +Kama-chu. Enormous rocks which had fallen from above had in places +almost blocked up the river. Often on these great boulders in the middle +of the stream were growing the graceful Himalayan larch. On the steepest +rock faces grew vegetation of every kind, thanks to the excessive +moisture of the climate, and from every tree and from every bush hung +long and picturesque lichens. Crested tits and bullfinches lived in +great numbers in this forest and gave it quite a homelike appearance. +The climb from the river had been a steep one, and we pitched our camp +at Sakeding in a downpour of rain, but towards the evening the weather +cleared up, allowing us fine views of great snow peaks which showed +above the mists on the opposite sides of the valley. It was too far to +go from Sakeding to Kharta in one day; we therefore decided to camp +before crossing the Chog La. We passed our old camp by the green lake +Ruddamlamtso, and I had a long chase after some ram chakor, but they +were too clever for me and ran up the hill faster than I could follow +them. The large moraines which converged in this valley were specially +interesting, and threw much light on its past history. Each moraine had +its own long line of boulders formed of different kinds of rock, +according to the character of the mountains from which they had been +carried down by the ice. It was not difficult to imagine the vast +glaciers by which these lines of boulders had been deposited; glaciers +which must at one time have completely blocked the valley and the +disappearance of which has made room for the chain of lakes which now +occupy the valley. We pitched our camp at a place called +Mendalongkyo--15,500 feet--in a pleasantly sheltered spot where a +gurgling stream disappeared under an old moraine. In the afternoon +Wollaston went out after rats, of which he secured a new variety. Our +coolies had a great chase after a fat marmot, which they very nearly +caught, but he got down into his hole just in time. Around the camp were +quantities of a very beautiful pale blue gentian--a regular Eton blue +colour. Wandering up the spur North-west of the camp I counted nine +lakes in the next valley and four lakes in the one that we were in; as +the rain began to fall again, I returned to camp. + +The next morning, August 29, we began our homeward journey to Kharta. +Getting up early, we climbed on to the high ridge North-west of the +camp, from which we had a fair view; but unfortunately both Makalu and +Mount Everest were hidden by clouds. We waited for a long time in hopes +of a better view, but the clouds only grew thicker. We therefore +followed the ridge above the Chog La. On the way I shot a Tibetan snow +partridge (_Lerwa nivicola_), an extremely pretty bird with lovely +markings. This was the first I had seen. + +We now turned our backs upon the Kama Valley with much regret. We had +explored many of these Himalayan valleys, but none seemed to me to be +comparable with this, either for the beauty of its Alpine scenery, or +for its wonderful vegetation. We shall not easily forget the smiling +pastures carpeted with gentians and every variety of Alpine flower that +rise to the very verge of icebound and snow-covered tracks, where mighty +glaciers descend among the forests which clothe the lower slopes. + +After crossing the Chog La, we went down once more into the valley of +the lakes and then, crossing the Samchung La, descended to Kharta which +we found bathed in sunshine. + + + + + CHAPTER VIII + + THE UPPER KHARTA VALLEY AND THE 20,000 FOOT CAMP + + +During the early part of August Mallory and Bullock, after they had +found that there was no possible means of attacking Mount Everest from +the Kama Valley, crossed the Langma La and returned to the Kharta +Valley. Up this valley they now proceeded until they reached the +glaciers in which the Kharta River has its source. After exploring a +number of valleys, they at last found one which led straight to Mount +Everest. Accompanied by Major Morshead, who had joined them during their +excursion, they made a long and tiring reconnaissance of this valley, +and satisfied themselves that it afforded a practicable approach to the +North-eastern ridge of Mount Everest. The slopes were fairly gentle, but +were at that time covered with soft fresh snow, knee deep. Over these +snow-covered glaciers, up which they had proceeded with great +difficulty, they found a col from which it was possible to attack the +mountain. Under the existing conditions of soft snow and warm weather it +would have been quite impossible to take laden coolies along this route, +and they therefore returned to Kharta to wait until the monsoon +conditions had abated and the snow should have become hard and frozen. + +On our return from the Kama Valley on August 29, we found Mallory and +Bullock still at Kharta, waiting for the weather to improve. About this +time it was showing distinct signs of improvement. The clouds were not +so thick and there were many more bright intervals with blue skies. They +therefore determined to start off on August 31, to form an advanced base +camp up the Kharta Valley. + +On September 1, much to the surprise of every one, Raeburn arrived back +from Darjeeling. He reported very wet conditions throughout Tibet, the +rivers everywhere being unfordable, and most of the bridges washed away. +He also reported having seen five bags of our mails at Chushar. Our +posts had latterly been very erratic, and for five weeks no mails had +arrived. We did not know what had happened to them. We were sending in a +couple of our own coolies every fortnight to Phari with our outgoing +mail, and the first lot of these coolies had not yet returned, so that +we were all without news of the outside world. Although it was the +beginning of September, the night temperatures at Kharta were still much +too high, ranging from 52 deg. Fahr. to 47 deg. Fahr. On September 3 Morshead +and Wheeler left for the Upper Kharta Valley, intending to go slowly and +to map and fill in the detail of the valley as they went along. + +The tameness of the birds gave us many opportunities of studying their +habits. A large family of redstarts lived in our garden at Kharta, and +used to amuse me very much. The young birds were now fully fledged and +spent most of the day in hopping in and out of my tent; they were not in +the least degree afraid, and the mother would come and feed them +actually inside my tent. On the terrace near the camp there were a +number of prettily marked white rock pigeons which formed a welcome +addition to our diet of Tibetan mutton, of which we were getting very +tired. + +On September 5 Wollaston, Raeburn and I, with twenty-six Tibetan +coolies, and eleven of our own, started off to join the climbing party +up the Kharta Valley. The first 7 miles of this valley I knew well, +having traversed them many times before. The barley fields were now fast +ripening, and were a beautiful golden colour. Curious to relate, the +barley that grew at 14,000 feet was riper than that which grew at 12,000 +feet. Two kinds of barley seemed to be grown here--the ordinary variety, +and another with a red ear such as is, I believe, grown in the +Shetlands. We rode past the tidy-looking monastery of Gandenchoefel, +surrounded by its juniper trees, and after a steep climb past the +entrance of the valley leading to the Langma La, descended on to some +fine river terraces, on which were many prosperous farms and well-tilled +fields. These extended for several more miles up the valley. We pitched +our camp on a grassy flat a couple of miles above the last house, where +willows, rhododendrons and junipers grew plentifully; the marshy ground +was carpeted with gentians, one of the commonest being dark blue in +colour with ten petals, and rather like a star in shape, the other being +larger and of a pale Eton-blue colour. I managed to collect a certain +number of seeds of both of these. We had a grand bonfire that evening, +made of juniper and willow, the last that we were to have for a long +time. The weather was disappointing and a drizzling rain fell all night +with a temperature of 42 deg. Fahr. + +It was still raining when we started in the morning, so that there were +no views. A white andromeda was still in flower on the hillsides, but +the rhododendrons were all over. On the opposite side of the valley +juniper alone flourished and grew to an altitude of nearly 17,000 feet. +After going a couple of miles, we passed Morshead and Wheeler's tents +pitched on an old yak camp. When we arrived, they were still having +breakfast, as the weather was too bad to do any surveying. On leaving +them we had a steep climb over grassy slopes, where the drizzling rain +now changed to snow, and for the rest of the day it fell steadily. There +appeared to be many branch valleys, and as our views in the mist were +very curtailed, we were not at all certain as to whether we were going +up the right valley--I only knew approximately the height of the place +at which we were to camp. Therefore, on arriving at that height, I sent +my coolies off in two different directions up two different valleys to +see where Mallory and Bullock's camp might be. The mist lifted for a +moment, and one of them luckily saw Mallory, whose camp was only a few +hundred yards from us. We decided to call this our "Advanced base camp." +It was pitched in some small grassy hollows at a height of 17,350 feet. +The site was well sheltered from the winds, and was a regular Alpine +garden. Gentians of three different kinds were growing there, including +the lovely light-blue one. There was also a beautiful little white +saxifrage with yellow and brown spots inside the flower, a delightful +pink androsace, and dwarf delphiniums with their single deep-blue +flowers. Here grew also the musk-scented hairy light-blue delphinium +with its overpowering smell of musk. The latter flower, the Tibetans +told me, was a great preventative of lice, and I noticed that our cooks +and most of our servants had picked great bundles of it. They also told +me that if a man habitually wears this flower about him during his +lifetime, after his death when cut up and exposed to the birds, no bird +or wolf will touch his flesh owing to the strong scent apparently left +by the musk. A pretty pink aster grew here in great clusters, and a few +blue poppies were still out. Acchu, our cook, and Gyalzen Kazi, who were +coming along behind us, both missed their way and wandered several miles +further up the valley before they found out their mistake, and when they +eventually arrived in camp, were both suffering from severe headaches, +due to the great height. During our stay at this camp we had plenty of +time and many opportunities of observing bird and animal life. Some of +the birds were very brilliantly coloured. There was a snow bunting with +bright scarlet breast and head, also a beautiful redstart with red body +and black and white wings. Overhead the great Laemmergeier, or bearded +vulture, sailed in graceful circles, while the big black raven croaked +on the rocks by the camp. Morning and evening we could hear the +ramchakor (_Tetraogallus tibetanus_) calling on the opposite side of the +valley, and with glasses we could see them chasing one another and +running round in circles. Red foxes I met with on several occasions over +18,000 feet. + +Mallory and Bullock, who had already been here for a few days, had spent +their time in carrying wood and stores up to a higher camp further up +the valley; they had been having a certain amount of trouble with their +coolies, due to the Sirdar, who was always trying to create +difficulties. I therefore sent him away on a job to Chushar to collect +some of our stores which were supposed to have been detained there, and +which would keep him busy for a number of days and prevent him from +interfering with our coolies at a critical period. We had brought up +with us six live sheep, and very lively these proved. Dukpa, Mallory's +cook, let three of them escape, but luckily some coolies coming up the +valley saw two of them, and after a great chase brought them back. The +third they could not catch and eventually drove him under a cliff, where +they killed him with stones and brought his carcass back to us. The +weather continued very unsettled. During the night a couple of inches of +snow fell, but until the temperature became colder and the sky cleared, +it was no use trying to go up to the upper camp. I shot a ramchakor on +the opposite side of the valley. They are the most tasty of the Tibetan +birds, and are quite excellent eating. + +On September 8, after a frosty night, Bullock, Mallory and I with three +coolies, for the purpose of keeping fit, made a little excursion along a +rocky ridge that lay to the South of us. On the top of the ridge there +were a number of sharp rock pinnacles that had to be climbed. I found +these gymnastics at a height of over 19,000 feet to be very exhausting, +but Mallory did not seem to mind them in the least. There should have +been a lovely view from here, but all we got was an occasional glimpse +of glaciers and rocky peaks through the mist. The sun was trying to +shine through the clouds and at first it was beautifully warm; but after +a couple of hours snow began to fall, so we hurriedly descended on to +the glacier below. Snow fell all the way back to camp, and by nightfall +there were 3 inches of fresh snow round our tents. During the night the +thermometer dropped to 21 deg. Fahr., and the morning broke clear and +frosty. I started off early to climb the hill behind the camp, from +which there was a very extensive view, both Everest and Makalu being for +the moment quite clear and free from cloud. To the North extended a +great range of snow peaks between 23,000 feet and 24,000 feet in height, +rather uninteresting in appearance, and to the East stretched a great +sea of accumulating cloud, out of which appeared the tops of +Kanchenjunga and Jannu. The peak on which we stood was just under 20,000 +feet; I spent several hours basking in the hot sunshine, which was +rapidly melting the fresh snow. I was surprised to find growing at this +height a tiny yellow saxifrage. + +That evening eight coolies arrived with our long-expected mail, and the +rest of the day was spent in reading letters and sorting out papers, for +over two hundred letters and papers had arrived for me alone. There was +again a sharp frost of 10 deg. that night and the early morning was +beautiful, but clouds came quickly drifting up the valley and obscured +the fine views we had from the camp of Mount Everest and the rocky peaks +to the North of the camp. On September 11, in spite of a warm night, +Mallory and Bullock, being very optimistic, left for the upper camp, +while Morshead and Wheeler rejoined us from their camp below, not having +been able to do any work down there owing to bad weather. Snow fell +steadily all the evening to a depth of about 3 inches. Next day was +cloudy, but warm, and the snow disappeared again with extraordinary +rapidity. I went out with a shotgun to try and shoot some ramchakor, and +while after them saw a very fine grey wolf who was also stalking the +ramchakor. He came up to within 50 yards of me, so that I was able to +have a good look at him. He had a beautiful coat, and it was very +unfortunate that I did not have a rifle with me. I wandered some way up +a side valley to the foot of a glacier, but saw no signs of birds, as +the wolf had evidently been there before me. In the afternoon Mallory +and Bullock returned from the upper camp, having been driven down by the +bad weather: another 5 inches of snow fell that evening, so that we were +kept busy beating our tents to keep the ridge poles from breaking. On +September 13, 14 and 15, snow fell on and off the whole time; but in +spite of the bad weather I managed to shoot a burhel for food. Their +meat is very much better than that of the tame sheep. On September 16 we +had at last a fine day with a sharp frost at night. Wheeler at once +seized this opportunity and took up a station on a hill-top on the +opposite side of the valley, from which he was able to get some useful +views. The next day, after 13 deg. of frost in the night, Mallory, Morshead +and I started off to climb Kama Changri, a peak to the South of the +camp, that overhung the Kama Valley. We left the camp at 2 a.m., by the +light of a full moon, which made the going as light as though it were +day. We soon reached our view-point of a few days before, where, except +for the distant roar of the stream far away below in the valley, there +was no other sound, only an intense stillness. Never anywhere have I +seen the moon or the stars shine so brightly. To the South, far away +from us, there were constant flashes of lightning--the valleys in Tibet, +the great gorges of the Arun, the wooded valleys of Nepal all lay buried +under a white sea of clouds, out of which emerged the higher mountains +like islands out of a fairy sea. In this bright moonlight, mountains +like Kanchenjunga--100 miles away--stood out sharp and distinct. Here on +this sharp ridge, at a height of 21,000 feet, with no obstruction to +hide the view, sunrise came to us in all its beauty and grandeur. To the +West, and close at hand, towered up Mount Everest, still over 8,000 feet +above us; at first showing up cold, grey and dead against a sky of deep +purple. All of a sudden a ray of sunshine touched the summit, and soon +flooded the higher snows and ridges with golden light, while behind, the +deep purple of the sky changed to orange. Makalu was the next to catch +the first rays of the sun and glowed as though alive; then the white sea +of clouds was struck by the gleaming rays of the sun, and all aglow with +colour rose slowly and seemed to break against the island peaks in great +billows of fleecy white. + +Such a sunrise has seldom been the privilege of man to see, and once +seen can never be forgotten. After sunrise the climbing became more +unpleasant. We tried to follow the direct way up the mountain, but the +snow was in bad condition and the slope very steep. We therefore crossed +the glacier, putting on our snow-shoes, and followed easier snow slopes +but bad owing to the soft snow. The going was very tiring; Mallory and +Morshead appeared to feel the height very much. After six hours we +reached the top, 21,300 feet, from which we had a most superb view. We +looked straight down on to the Kama Valley. Makalu was immediately +opposite us with its colossal precipices. Glaciers, cliffs of ice, rock +peaks, fluted snow ridges and immense mountains towered all around us +above a vast sea of clouds which stretched for hundreds of miles away to +the plains of India. Here I was able to take many photographs, but no +photograph can adequately portray the grandeur or the impressiveness of +such a scene. We stopped on the top of Kama Changri for over three +hours. It was extraordinarily warm; there was not a breath of air, and +the sun seemed to shine with an intense heat. Clouds then began to roll +up, and we returned to camp by an easier way down the glacier. + +Next day, in spite of 13 deg. of frost at night, snow and sleet fell all day +again, and made us very depressed. In order to prevent our going to +sleep too soon after dinner, four of us used to play bridge every night, +and I do not suppose that bridge has often been played at so great a +height. + +On September 19, after a cold night with 16 deg. of frost, Mallory, Bullock, +Morshead and Wheeler started off for the 20,000-foot camp. The weather +was now steadily growing colder every night. On September 20 we had 18 deg. +of frost, as well as a further fall of snow. During the night a very +fine lunar halo was seen, but the morning broke clear. Wollaston, +Raeburn and I started to join the remainder of the party at the +20,000-foot camp, leaving Gyalzen Kazi, our second interpreter, behind +in charge of the advance base camp. It was very necessary to have some +one here to whom we could send back for any extra stores or supplies +that might be wanted, and who would be able to forward to us anything +that might be sent up from Kharta. A four hours' walk brought us to the +camp. I had a thorough feeling of lassitude all the way. It required, +indeed, some effort to walk at all, and a strong effort, both of mind +and body, to reach camp. On the way beautiful views of Mount Everest +gave us encouragement. The foot of the Kharta Glacier descends to 19,000 +feet. From that point on to the camp we travelled beside it. At first +the glacier is cut up into wonderfully shaped "seracs," but as we got +higher the surface became smoother. It was an exceptionally white +glacier; there were no moraines on its surface, and it was covered +everywhere with a fresh coating of thick snow. We found the camp on a +terrace between two glaciers. That above the camp resembled the pictures +of a Greenland ice cap. A thick coating of ice, to a depth of 50 to 60 +feet, covered the gentle slopes above us, and came down to within a +couple of hundred yards of the camp. The drainage from the melting ice +percolated through the stony ground, so that on digging to a depth of 6 +inches we came upon water. A couple of hundred feet below the camp was +the big white glacier which descended from the Lhakpa La. The day was +gloriously fine, and we obtained magnificent views of Mount Everest and +the snowy chain to the South of us across the Kharta Glacier. Over the +top of this snowy chain appeared the great rocky crests of Makalu. At an +altitude of over 19,800 feet I saw a hare and heard several ramchakor +calling. There grew close to the camp a few gentians with their curious +square leaves, also a dwarf blue delphinium and a little white +saxifrage. It was an extraordinary height at which to find flowers and +their season of summer cannot last long. On arrival at the camp, we +found only Wheeler and Bullock there, as Mallory and Morshead with +fourteen coolies had gone on ahead to carry loads up to the Lhakpa La, +which was to be our next camp. They returned in a very exhausted +condition in the course of the afternoon. The snow, they reported, was +in better condition than last time on the lower slopes; but as they got +higher, they found it still very soft and powdery. These extra loads +that they had taken up to this camp would enable the whole party to go +up to it and to sleep there, if necessary, for several days. As the sun +was setting behind Mount Everest, we were treated to a glorious view. +The ring of clouds that surrounded it were all touched by the bright +evening sunlight, while the mountain itself was in deep shadow except +for great streamers of powdery fresh snow which were being blown off the +whole length of its crests. We stood and watched this extraordinary +sight for some time, devoutly hoping that the wind would soon die down. +Unfortunately we were soon to experience what a strong wind meant at +these heights. + +[Illustration: SEA OF CLOUD FROM PEAK NORTH OF KAMA VALLEY. Kanchenjunga +in distance.] + +On the following night we had 20 deg. of frost, and the weather appeared to +be getting rather more settled. We were now sufficiently high up to be +above the ordinary clouds, and we could look down upon the great sea of +them which overhung the Arun Valley and the greater part of Nepal. As +the sun warmed the clouds, they used to rise higher, but they seldom +arrived as far as our camp owing to a strong North-westerly wind always +blowing in the upper regions of the air which drove them back again. +Watching the movements of the clouds day by day gave me the impression +that the Mount Everest group forms a dividing line between the two +monsoon systems. The monsoon that causes so much rain in Sikkim comes +from the Bay of Bengal, and these moist currents sweep up to Mount +Everest, but it is only when the current is very strong that they pass +beyond it. At this time of year this monsoon was still active, whereas +the Arabian Sea monsoon--that is to say, the moist winds from the +Arabian Sea--which had given us previously much rain and snow on the +Western sides and slopes of Mount Everest, was now over, with the result +that on the West side of Everest we had blue skies every day and no rain +clouds, whereas on the East side the clouds and the moisture brought up +by the Bengal monsoon still prevailed. During the course of the morning +I climbed an easy hill to the East side of the camp and some 500 feet +above it. We walked along at first just below the ice cap, which was +very pretty with its long icicles gleaming in the sunlight. We then +crossed on to the ice cap and found the snow in excellent condition, +firm and crisp to the tread, so that it was a pleasure to walk along it. +From the top of this hill, 20,500 feet, was a very fine view to the +East, over the great sea of cloud which filled up all the valleys as far +as the Massif of Kanchenjunga which towered up in the distance, and the +more slender peak of Jannu. Amongst the Sikkim peaks I could also +recognise Chomiomo and the Jonsong peak. To the South Makalu towered up +above all the other mountains: while between it and Mount Everest, +beyond the Southern watershed of the Kama Valley, showed up some of the +great Nepalese peaks, among which we noted Chamlang, 24,000 feet. To the +West of us Mount Everest showed up sharp and clear and very white after +all the fresh snow that had fallen in the last month. From this side +Mount Everest certainly looks its best, standing up as a solitary peak +instead of being rather dwarfed by the high ridges that radiate from it. +The weather remained fine all day, and it was a real pleasure to sit +outside one's tent and bask in the sun. Though we were 20,000 feet, we +had breakfast, lunch and tea out of doors in front of our tents, and we +could not have been warmer or enjoyed pleasanter conditions if we had +been down at 5,000 feet. + +On September 22, leaving Raeburn behind, Mallory, Bullock, Morshead, +Wheeler, Wollaston and myself started off to Lakhpa La camp. We left the +20,000-foot camp in 22 deg. of frost at four o'clock in the morning, +accompanied by twenty-six coolies, who were divided up into four +parties, each of which was properly roped. It was a beautiful moonlight +night, and the mountains showed up nearly as brightly as in the daytime. +We rapidly descended the 200 feet from our terrace to the glacier, when +we all "roped up." The snow on the glacier was in excellent condition, +and as it was frozen hard we made good progress. Dawn overtook us on +the broad flat part of the glacier, the first beams of the sun falling +on the summit of Mount Everest, which lay straight in front of us, and +changing the colour of the snow gradually from pink to orange, all the +time with a background of deep purple sky, every detail showing up sharp +and clear in the frosty air. We mounted gradually past Kartse, the white +conical-shaped peak climbed by Mallory and Bullock a month ago from the +Kama Valley. We wended our way without much difficulty through the +ice-fall of the glacier, below some superbly fluted snow ridges that +rose straight above us. Then followed a long and at times a somewhat +steep climb over soft powdery snow to the top of the pass. Even at these +heights we came across tracks in the snow. We were able to pick out +tracks of hares and foxes, but one that at first looked like a human +foot puzzled us considerably. Our coolies at once jumped to the +conclusion that this must be "The Wild Man of the Snows," to which they +gave the name of Metohkangmi, "the abominable snow man" who interested +the newspapers so much. On my return to civilised countries I read with +interest delightful accounts of the ways and customs of this wild man +whom we were supposed to have met. These tracks, which caused so much +comment, were probably caused by a large "loping" grey wolf, which in +the soft snow formed double tracks rather like those of a barefooted +man. Tibet, however, is not the only country where there exists a "bogey +man." In Tibet he takes the form of a hairy man who lives in the snows, +and little Tibetan children who are naughty and disobedient are +frightened by wonderful fairy tales that are told about him. To escape +from him they must run down the hill, as then his long hair falls over +his eyes and he is unable to see them. Many other such tales have they +with which to strike terror into the hearts of bad boys and girls. + +I reached the top of the pass (22,350 feet) by 10.30 a.m., and was +rewarded by a wonderful view of Mount Everest, now only a couple of +miles away. From the pass there was a steep descent of about 1,200 feet +to a glacier which after many wanderings finds its way into the Rongbuk +Glacier. This valley had never been thoroughly investigated by Mallory +and Bullock in their visit to the Rongbuk Valley. It does not, however, +actually form the main Rongbuk Glacier, but stops several miles short of +it, the entrance to the valley containing this huge glacier being both +small and very insignificant. The bad weather that they had experienced +in the Rongbuk Valley during the latter half of their stay there had +made it impossible for Mallory and Bullock to explore this valley, or +see what lay at its head. + +We were now opposite the Chang La (North Col) which joins Mount Everest +to Changtse (the North peak), and from this col was, so far as we were +able to judge, the only route to the summit. The way from the glacier up +to the Chang La looked steep and unpromising, and we doubted whether it +would be possible to take laden coolies up, even to this point. I took +as many photographs as I could, and as quickly as possible, for there +was an icy wind blowing which almost froze my hands. This wind blew the +fine powdery snow off all the crests of the ridges and it penetrated +everywhere. We found a little hollow in the snow a few feet below the +crest, and here we set to work to pitch our camp. There was not much +shelter, but it was the only possible place. We had only brought small +Alpine Meade and Mummery tents with us. Two of us occupied each tent. +They were very small and uncomfortable, and in order to enter them we +had to crawl through a narrow funnel almost as though we were entering a +dog kennel. The effort of crawling in was very exhausting and caused us +to remain out of breath for a considerable time afterwards. Even these +small tents were with difficulty pitched owing to the strong winds: +cooking was quite out of the question until dark when the wind +temporarily lulled. We had brought up with us some Primus stoves and +spirit lamps. No one, except perhaps Wheeler, was very expert with the +Primus stove, and though no doubt under favourable conditions they +would be easy to work, even at these heights, we were never very +successful with them and were forced to rely upon the spirit stoves. +After sunset we had a scratch meal of consomme, which we managed to warm +up, followed by some cold ham and biscuits, after which we retired to +bed. The moment the sun went down there were 25 deg. of frost. Up till now I +had felt no ill-effects from the rarefied air; I had not even had a +headache and my appetite was good, though I owned to feeling rather lazy +and it always needed an effort to concentrate one's thoughts. The +coolies who had accompanied us up to this camp all seemed to be well and +were very cheerful. The eiderdown sleeping-bags were a great comfort; +they were our only means of keeping thoroughly warm with 34 deg. of frost +outside. But I cannot say that I felt comfortable or, in fact, that I +slept at all, as the snow which at most times had been much too soft, +seemed here to freeze into uncomfortable lumps and bumps underneath +one's back, so that I could never get comfortable all night. The wind +howled round our flimsy tents, and I do not think anyone, except perhaps +Mallory, got any sleep that night. In the morning we were all suffering +from bad headaches, due to the airlessness of these little tents, and I +am sure that anyone camping at high altitudes ought to have a much +larger type of tent in which to sleep if he is to avoid headaches. We +blessed the early morning sun when it appeared and began to unfreeze us. +I noticed then that our faces and hands were all a curious blue colour +in the morning, due to what is called, I believe, cyanosis of the blood. +With much difficulty Wheeler made us a little tea, which if not drunk at +once, froze; Mallory thawed out some sardines which had all been frozen +solid. There was luckily less wind than during the night, and as the sun +rose higher, we all became more alive. The coolies, too, were at first +all torpid and complained of bad headaches, but on getting into the +fresh air, out of their small and stuffy tents, the headaches rapidly +passed away. After consultation, we decided that there was no object--in +fact, that it would be dangerous--for the whole party to go on, so we +decided that it would be best for the expert Alpine climbers only, +together with a few picked coolies, to attempt the Chang La. If weather +conditions were favourable, they might, we thought, see how high they +could get on Mount Everest itself. We therefore quickly sorted out and +divided up the stores, and after seeing Mallory, Bullock and Wheeler +off, unpitched our own tents, being satisfied that we could be of no use +by remaining where we were, and that it would be best that we should +return to our 20,000-foot camp and carry down with us as many stores as +we could. We accomplished this without any difficulty, and arrived back +during the course of the afternoon. The contrast here was extraordinary. +We seemed to be in a totally different climate, and our larger tents and +camp beds appeared to us to be the height of luxury. We spent a very +comfortable night in spite of 22 deg. of frost, and all slept soundly after +our exertions, though once or twice during the night I was awakened by +rats gnawing at the food which had been left out on the boxes in my +tent. One of the coolies also started to say his prayers in a loud tone +of voice at 1 a.m., but after a few winged words he relapsed into +silence. + +The next day was delightfully warm and sunny, though there had been +during the night a good deal of lightning towards the South. The snow +could be seen whirling off the crest of Mount Everest during the +morning, and in the course of the afternoon the wind grew much stronger, +and blew huge clouds of snow off the slopes of the mountain, and from +all the surrounding ridges. We could see great wisps of snow being blown +off the pass that we had just left, so that the climbing party must have +been having a very cold time in their new camp. In the evening there was +a curious false sunset in the East with fine purple and orange rays, +while as usual the Kama and the Kharta Valleys were filled with a sea of +cloud. Here, however, we seemed to be above and beyond the reach of the +clouds. Next night there was again constant lightning to the South and +23 deg. of frost, but the weather kept fine and sunny. On climbing a +snow-covered hill to the West of the camp, about 21,000 feet, I had some +superb views of Everest and Makalu with their appalling cliffs and +beautifully-fluted snow slopes. A strong North-westerly gale still +continued in the upper regions of the air above 22,000 feet, and every +ridge of Everest was smothered with clouds of blown snow. I had a +pleasant glissade down steep snow slopes back to the camp, where the +climate was delicious and where I could bask in the sun at the entrance +of my tent with a sun temperature of 173 deg. Fahr. Earlier in the season we +had often recorded temperatures of 195 deg. and 197 deg. Fahr. in the sun with +the black bulb thermometer. During the afternoon we were able with our +glasses to see black specks appearing on the top of the Lhakpa La. These +were the Alpine climbers and their coolies returning after their +strenuous efforts on Mount Everest. We watched them with the greatest +interest descending the glacier and wondered how far they had been +successful. They all arrived back safely in the course of the evening, +having been extraordinarily lucky in not having had any casualties or +frost-bites in spite of the Arctic gales. Mallory will, however, tell of +their adventures in another chapter. + + + + + CHAPTER IX + + THE RETURN TO KHARTA BY THE KAMA VALLEY + + +Winter was now rapidly approaching. Every night was growing steadily +colder, and we were all anxious to get down to lower altitudes. Every +one had been feeling the strain of life at these high altitudes. It had +been, however, a great relief to us that all the party had got back to +the 20,000-foot camp in safety, and that we had had no cases of sickness +or frost-bite. The coolies had throughout worked most willingly and to +the best of their ability. They had been well supplied with boots and +socks, warm clothing of all kinds, cap comforters and fur gloves, as +well as blankets, and for those who had slept at the higher camps, +eiderdown sleeping-bags had been provided capable of holding four or +five. Here at the 20,000-foot camp we did not have to depend on Primus +stoves or spirit lamps, as while we were waiting at the advanced base +camp we had daily sent up coolies with loads of wood for our future use, +and even during our stay here the coolies who had been left behind under +Gyalzen Kazi had been sending up further loads. We now divided our party +into two: Mallory, Bullock, Raeburn and Morshead were to be responsible +for taking all the stores back to Kharta, and for this purpose we had +arranged with Chheten Wangdi and the Kharta Jongpen for a number of +Tibetan coolies to help in the work of removal. The remainder of us, +that is to say, Wollaston, Wheeler and myself, were to cross over a snow +pass and return to Kharta via the Kama Valley. Wheeler was anxious to do +this in order to complete his survey work, for up till now he had been +unable to visit the Kama Valley. Wollaston had already seen the lower +parts of the Kama Valley, but was very anxious to see the upper end, +particularly after my descriptions of the scenery and the Alpine flowers +that were to be met with there. + +On September 26 the two parties started off in different directions. +Taking with us fifteen coolies, all pretty heavily laden, we descended +to the great Kharta Glacier, which it was necessary for us to cross. We +were not at all certain as to the conditions we were likely to meet with +on the other side of the pass. The climb from the Kharta Glacier to the +Karpo La, 20,300 feet, was quite gentle, though the snow was very soft +and powdery. On the North side of the pass we found the slopes to be a +snow-covered glacier, but on the South side there was a very steep rocky +descent which had to be faced. From the top of the pass we had a +remarkably fine view into the Kama Valley which lay below us. Makalu, +Pethangtse and Everest stood up clear above the clouds which floated +along the bottom of the Kama Valley. Across the gaps between these peaks +we could see other snow ranges in Nepal. Here at the top of the pass we +were luckily just sheltered from the Northwest and the gale, but on +either side of us snow was being blown off the mountains in long white +streamers. Our descent was down a very steep rocky rib. We began by +roping ourselves together, but the coolies were all of them heavily +laden and were, moreover, very clumsy on the rope, sending down so many +loose stones that I found my position as foremost man quite untenable +owing to the amount of debris and rocks which were dislodged above me. +We therefore unroped, and Wollaston lowered the coolies one by one over +the steepest part--a somewhat long proceeding--after which they were +able independently to make their way down to the glacier below without +mishap. We now put on the rope again, and so crossed the easy glacier +which led down to the moraine on which I had been two months before. +Wheeler branched off here and took up a position on one of the ridges. +Here he found the gale very troublesome, his theodolite being nearly +blown over several times. He managed, however, to take a number of +readings and to get a good many photographs--sufficient to map the whole +of the upper part of the Kama Valley. All that day the gale continued +above 20,000 feet. Below this the valley was filled with clouds, over +which at first we had magnificent views. As soon as we descended into +the valley, we gradually became enveloped in the autumn mists, which +lasted all the remainder of the way to Pethang Ringmo. This was the +place where I had met the yak herds two months before when they were +pasturing their yaks on the grassy uplands. They had left the place, and +we were therefore no longer able to draw on them for butter and milk. I +had, however, arranged for Wheeler's fat cook to be sent up from Kharta +to this place to meet us and to bring with him some fresh meat and +vegetables. These we found on arrival, the fat cook having only arrived +an hour before. We all of us slept that night much better than we had +been doing at the higher camps, and though even down here we had 14 deg. of +frost, I was delighted to find that my boots were not frozen as hard as +nails, as they had been all the last week. + +From this camp I determined to attempt an expedition which I had long +desired to make. My ambition was to reach the ridge between Makalu and +Everest, and from it to have a look right down into Nepal. Mallory and +Bullock did not much encourage me in my project, and doubted whether it +could be accomplished within the short time which was now available. I +decided, nevertheless, to make the attempt. On the night of the 26th all +our servants overslept themselves, and I had some difficulty in waking +them next morning. We succeeded, however, after a hurried breakfast in +making a start at 5.45 a.m., just as the first sunlight was touching the +highest peak of Mount Everest. It was a most perfect autumn morning, +without a cloud in the sky and with the ground underfoot white with +hoar-frost. After going a mile up the valley, we had to cross the +Kangshung Glacier--here about a mile wide and consisting of a great mass +of ice hummocks, often 100 feet or more in height, mostly covered with +boulders, with the ice showing every now and then below us in curious +caverns and lakes. It took us an hour to cross this glacier, as the +walking was very tiring up and down hill over loose stones all the time; +luckily, however, many of the stones were frozen to the ice, which made +the crossing easier than it might have been later in the day. We then +climbed on to a spur, over 19,000 feet, which jutted out into the +valley. From this we had marvellous views right away to Kanchenjunga in +the East. On the opposite side Mount Everest stood out with every detail +showing clearly in the autumn sunshine. Above us towered the +perpendicular cliffs of Chomoloenzo, opening out into a most astonishing +series of peaks, the existence of which we had never suspected when +looking at the mountain from the valley below. For once in a way the air +was drier and the valleys below were not filled with cloud, so there was +a prospect of our having clear views all day. Wheeler had come a short +way along the ridge until he got a good view-point, when he stopped to +set up his theodolite and camera for a station, after which he came +along no further. I followed the crest of the ridge as far as I could, +finding it at times very difficult and rocky and having to make many +detours to get along. A descent of about 500 feet was followed by a +climb of another 1,000 feet, at the end of which we found ourselves +exactly opposite to the great amphitheatre of granite formed by +Chomoloenzo and Makalu and facing Westwards. So steep were these great +white granite cliffs that no snow lodged on them. Above them were other +cliffs of ice with rather gentler slopes; at their feet was a great +glacier that filled up the whole of this basin and then swept down till +it almost joined the Kangshung Glacier. I had taken with me as usual Ang +Tenze and Nyima Tendu, the two coolies who always accompanied me, each +of them carrying a camera. We now came to a glacier which it was +necessary to cross, and therefore roped up once more. The snow by this +time had become rather soft, and we were constantly breaking through the +crust. The glare and heat of the sun on this glacier were very intense, +and both Nyima and I were feeling very limp from the heat. Ang Tenze was +extraordinarily active and did not seem to mind heat or height--a quite +exceptionally gifted mountaineer. Having successfully crossed the +glacier, we left the soft snow and found our way over some easy rocks +and eventually reached the top of the ridge for which we were making, at +a height of about 21,500 feet, and some 500 feet above the snow-covered +pass to the East of us. From the top of the ridge we had a most glorious +view looking across range upon range of snowy mountains in Nepal. +Immediately below us was a large snow "neve," towards which glaciers +descended from a number of snow-covered peaks. From this neve a great +glacier swept round towards the Southern side of Makalu, apparently +descending into a valley that ran parallel to the Kama Valley and on the +South side of Makalu. Chamlang and other snow peaks to the South showed +up very clearly, covered with snow and ice to very much lower elevations +than any mountain on the North side of the Himalayas. On either side of +us towered up Makalu and Everest, but seen from this point the huge +cliffs of Chomoloenzo presented by far the most astounding sight. From +here I could see a few thousand feet of the Southern slopes of Mount +Everest which we had been unable to see from any other point before. +From the angle at which I saw them these appeared very steep, and even +if it were possible and permissible to go into Nepal, it seems +improbable that a practicable route lies up that face of the mountain. I +spent a couple of hours up here taking photographs, enjoying the views, +and eating my lunch in comfort, for the sun was hot and for once in a +way there was no wind. To the South-west of us, across the neve, there +appeared to be another easy pass which seemed to lead round to the South +of Mount Everest, and Ang Tenze, who came from the Khombu Valley, said +that he thought that he recognised some of the mountain tops that he saw +over this, and that if we crossed this pass, we should eventually +descend into the Khombu Valley. He also told me that there were stories +that once upon a time there was a pass from the Khombu Valley into the +Kama Valley, and that this was probably the pass in question, but that +it had been disused for a great number of years. To support his theory +we found on the way down a kind of shelter built of stones and some +pieces of juniper hidden under a big rock. This would have been too high +up for any yak herds to camp, as it was above the grazing pastures, and +seemed to prove that the spot might have been used as a halting-place +for smugglers or people fleeing from the law before they crossed these +passes. It had taken us six and a half hours from camp to get up to the +top of this pass; and we had had no halts on the way beyond what were +necessary to take photographs. The downward journey took us four hours. +We tried another way by the side of the Makalu Glacier, desiring thereby +to avoid the tiresome and rather difficult bit along the top of the +ridge. This short cut proved, however, to be still more trying and +wearisome. From the cliffs above there had been great rock falls down to +the edge of the glacier, and for a couple of miles we had to jump from +boulder to boulder and to clamber either up or down the whole time. +There was still the Kangshung Glacier to cross, with more up and down +hill work, the stones being much looser and more inclined to slip under +foot than they were in the morning. Eventually we reached camp, just +before dark, and feeling very tired. A cup of tea, however, with a +little brandy in it, completely removed all fatigue. Wollaston had been +able during the day to get some beautiful photographs of the +snow-powdered cliffs of Chomoloenzo, and also some interesting ones of +the Kangshung Glacier. Besides these he had been able to collect a +number of seeds. It is astonishing how quickly at these heights seeds +ripen, and how short a time it is after flowering that they are fit for +picking. + +[Illustration: CHOMOLOeNZO. from the alp below the Langma La, Kama +Valley.] + +We had been very lucky in getting such a perfect day in the Kama +Valley, for fine days there were very few. After our one perfect day the +weather changed again, and for the next three days we descended the Kama +Valley in sleet and snow. The first morning our march was only to our +old camp at Tangsham on a glacial terrace 1,000 feet above the valley. +At first Everest was clear and all the mountains to the West, but heavy +clouds came rolling up from the South-east and soon enveloped +everything. On the way I managed to collect for Wollaston a number of +the seeds of that lovely blue primula which I had found in flower here +in August. I shot, too, a common snipe, which I was very surprised to +meet at these altitudes. I flushed him beside a small spring close to +the camp. During the afternoon it snowed and sleeted, and Wheeler came +in very tired in the evening after having spent the whole of the day on +a prominent peak, from which he had been unable to get a single +photograph or to take any bearings. In spite of the snow that evening we +had a cheery bonfire of juniper, willow and rhododendron. The next +morning, though we were down at 15,000 feet, there were a couple of +inches of fresh snow on the ground. The weather at first was very misty, +and we had no views at all. We soon, however, descended below the snow, +and the autumnal colours in the valley began to show. On the opposite +side of it below the great black cliffs, the bushes were all shades of +brown and gold. In the forests the rose bushes had turned a brilliant +red, and the mountain ash showed every shade of scarlet and crimson, +contrasting well with the shiny dark green leaves of the rhododendron. +The golden colours of the birch and the dark junipers also made a +beautiful combination of colour. Rain set in again steadily, and as snow +was falling on the "field of marigolds" where we had intended to camp, +we pitched our tents in the midst of a huge rock-fall--1,000 feet lower +down. Our coolies did not pitch any tents for themselves, but preferred +to scatter in twos and threes and to camp under the overhanging rocks +which they found apparently warmer and more comfortable than the tents. +There had been a wonderful growth of vegetation among these huge +boulders, many of them 40 feet to 50 feet in height, which had come down +from the cliffs above. Wollaston and I spent most of the afternoon +pottering round and collecting seeds of plants of different kinds. The +next morning we had trouble in getting hold of the coolies; they were +scattered among the rocks, and in spite of shouts, refused to budge +until I went round with a big stick and poked them out of their holes. I +crossed the Shao La in thick mist, though Wollaston and Wheeler, who +came along an hour behind, had some beautiful glimpses of Makalu in the +clouds and were able to get some photographs. After crossing the pass, +we descended past several beautiful lakes and arrived in fine weather at +Kharta in the afternoon. The autumn tints on the way down were again +very beautiful, and most of the crops had already been gathered in. +Mallory and Bullock had, we found, left Kharta, being in a great hurry +to get back to civilisation again. + +It was September 30 when we reached Kharta. We had now finished our +reconnaissance. We had investigated all the valleys to the West, +North-west, North, North-east and East of the mountain, and had +eventually found that there was only one possible route of approach to +the summit. The bad weather and the furious North-westerly gales had +prevented our attaining any great height this year. The rainy season had +begun some three weeks later than usual. The rains, they told us, had +been much heavier than in most years in Tibet, and the wet season had +lasted until very nearly the end of September, after which time a period +of gales set in which made climbing at heights above 23,000 feet a +physical impossibility. Undoubtedly the best time to try and climb the +mountain would be before the monsoon breaks in May or early June. It +might be possible, if the monsoon happened to end by the beginning of +September, to tackle the mountain early in September, but after the +middle of that month the chances of doing any good grow steadily weaker +and the cold increases with great rapidity. Whether it will be possible +in any conditions to reach the summit I am very doubtful. We, however, +had never intended to make a sustained effort to reach the top in 1921. +The reconnaissance of the mountain and its approaches afforded us indeed +no time to make such an effort, and we felt bound to investigate every +valley that led up to it. The Everest Committee had already before we +left for India in 1921 decided to send out a second Expedition in the +following year, for the express purpose of climbing Mount Everest, and +for this purpose had already then promised the leadership to +Brig.-General C. G. Bruce, whose unrivalled knowledge of climbing and +climatic conditions in the Himalayas specially fitted him for the work. +Whether the task is capable of accomplishment I will not attempt to say, +though I should think the chances are on the whole against success. If +Mount Everest were 6,000, or even 5,000 feet lower, I think there can be +no doubt that it could be climbed. There are no physical difficulties in +the shape of the mountain which prevent it being climbed--the +difficulties are all connected with its altitude. If the snow is soft +and powdery, and the conditions are such as we met with so often; or if, +again, there is difficult rock climbing in the last 2,000 or 3,000 feet +of the climb, I do not think the summit will be reached. I cannot say +what the effect will be if oxygen is taken to aid the human effort. I +only know that cylinders of oxygen are very uncomfortable and heavy to +carry, and that to wear a mask over the mouth and to climb so equipped +would not seem to be very feasible or pleasant. Living at great heights, +and trying to sleep at great heights, lowers the vitality enormously. +Larger tents than those with which we were supplied might well be taken +in order to prevent the depressing headaches that follow from sleeping +in a confined and airless space. Among minor discomforts which count for +much may be mentioned the difficulty of preparing good warm food, and +for this purpose a coolie should be trained in cooking and in the use of +the "Primus" and spirit stoves. This coolie should be a man accustomed +to great heights, and he should accompany the party up to the highest +camps in order to avoid the difficulties we had in connection with the +preparation of our food and then having to live on such makeshifts as +sardines and biscuits. I never lost my appetite at heights over 20,000 +feet--I was always able to eat well, though not everything appealed to +the palate. Sweet things were especially wanted. That it is possible to +acclimatise the system to live at heights is true, but only to a certain +extent--up to about 18,000 feet we could acclimatise ourselves very +comfortably, and I know in my own case that after six months' living in +Tibet, I was able to do far more than when I first came into the +country, but at greater heights I think a prolonged stay permanently +lowers the vitality. Sleeplessness is another great enemy at heights, +and most of the party I found slept very poorly at the highest camp. +Mallory, I think, was the only exception. It ought to be possible to +pick out a few coolies capable of carrying loads able to go as far as +any European can get. Some of them seem to feel the height much less +than others, and I believe that an unladen native would be able to go +much higher if he had the knowledge of ice and snow that Alpine climbers +have, and would not improbably reach a greater height than any European. +Twenty-nine thousand feet is, however, a tremendous height for anyone to +attain, and I own that I am not at all sanguine that the summit will be +reached, though I have no doubt that this year will see the Duke of the +Abruzzi's record of 24,600 broken, and I shall not be at all surprised +to see a height of 25,000 or 26,000 feet arrived at. + + + + + CHAPTER X + + THE RETURN JOURNEY TO PHARI + + +Autumn had already come to Kharta. The willows and the poplars under +which we were camped were fast shedding their leaves, which rustled on +the ground, or blew into our tents, a warning that winter was not far +off. Even here there were one or two degrees of frost every night. The +days, however, were still warm and sunny. The next five days were fully +occupied with strenuous work. Wheeler and I took alternate mornings and +afternoons in the dark room. We had each taken a large number of +photographs during the past month. These had to be developed before we +started on our return journey to Darjeeling, and this would be our last +opportunity. An account of our last month's doings and our final +reconnaissance had to be written out for _The Times_, and this, together +with many other letters, had to be sent off to Phari as soon as +possible. Our stores, tents, Alpine equipment, had all to be collected +and sorted out. Lists had to be made of all of them, and most of them +had to be re-packed. The coolies were perpetually worrying us for money +and advances of pay in order that they might be able to buy Tibetan +clothing, or have money which they could spend on drink at Kharta, where +it was apparently very cheap. Our cook and most of the coolies used +constantly to return to camp in the evening blind drunk, and I had to +see that the cook was never allowed near the kitchen under these +conditions. On such an occasion my servant, Poo, would have to do the +cooking in his place. The chang, or barley beer, that they got must have +been a much stronger brew than what was given to us, as what we had did +not appear intoxicating at all, but the interpreters told us that +coolie beer was double strength. + +The Jongpen was rather sad as the moment of our departure drew near. We +invited him to lunch one day, and he seemed to appreciate the beauties +of Scotch whisky, which he said was very much better than his own chang. +We had to pay him a return visit the following day, when he gave us a +great spread. Knowing that we were anxious to collect such curios as +were available, he produced all kinds of things for our inspection. I +bought from him a curious old Tibetan musket, elaborately decorated with +silver, and fitted with a pair of antelope horns on which to rest it +when firing. Some interesting copper and silver teapots we were also +able to get from him, and I remember his showing Wollaston many pieces +of finely embroidered Chinese silk. Both Hopaphema and the Jongpen had a +very good idea of the value of money, and were not at all afraid of +asking a stiff price for any of the curios which they produced. We +managed, however, to pick up some interesting Chinese snuff bottles of +carved agate, some with pictures painted inside. China cups of the +Chienlung and Kanghe periods we were also able to get; there were, +however, many things in the monasteries which we rather coveted, but +which the Lamas would not sell. Their tables were very ornamentally +carved with dragons and weird designs, all painted over in brilliant +colours. The Jongpen had one such table, but unfortunately I found out +that he had only borrowed it from the nearest monastery for the purpose +of entertaining us, and therefore he could not sell it. We left behind +us a good many stores which it was not worth while to bring along. Among +them was a lot of acid hypo-sulphite of soda, which the Jongpen at once +seized upon, and which he said he intended to make use of in washing his +clothes, knowing that soda was used occasionally for this purpose. The +Jongpen, of whom we had taken many photographs, and who had seen the +results, was anxious to buy one of our cameras, and to develop and print +everything himself. He imagined the whole process was very easy, and +was extremely anxious to get hold of one of the Expedition's cameras, +but we had to disappoint him in this. Nothing small would content +him--he wanted the biggest of the lot, and was quite willing to exchange +a sword or any other weapon for a camera. We, however, left behind with +him three pairs of skis, which we had brought out with us, but which had +never been unpacked. These skis had throughout our journeys been looked +upon by the Tibetans with the greatest interest. They had heard about +flying machines, and they thought that these were the framework of a +flying machine which we had brought with us, and on which we intended to +fly to the top of the mountains. Wherever we arrived there was always a +great crowd assembled round these skis, discussing the various methods +by which they could be put together and describing how the white man +would then fly. I left them with the Jongpen and told him that they were +very good exercise for him in the winter time, when the snow was deep, +and that if he wanted to reduce his weight, which was already +considerable, there could be no better method than by making use of them +in the snow. + +At last, on October 5, we managed to leave Kharta. There were no pack +animals available; we had therefore to make use of coolies for our +transport for the first march; it took 140 of them to carry all our +loads. For some time the scene of confusion was very amusing. The +Jongpen himself came down, and it was only owing to his help that by +mid-day we got all the loads sorted out and put on the backs of the +coolies. Before he was able to do this he had to have recourse to the +system of drawing lots by putting garters on each load, a system which I +have already described in a previous chapter. Before we left, the +Jongpen and Hopaphema brought us presents of sheep and vegetables, and +they and all the people of the valley seemed genuinely sorry that we +were departing. Throughout our long stay at Kharta they had been most +helpful and had done everything they could for our comfort. They were +both of them very human, with a delightful sense of humour, and we +quickly became great friends. It was with much regret that we turned our +backs on Kharta. + +We started off without a cloud in the sky, but with a strong South wind +blowing. High up on the mountains we could see the snow still being +blown off in white clouds. Our route lay up the valley of the Bhong-chu +for about 10 miles until the river suddenly turned to the East to go +through a deep and impassable gorge. We had then to follow the valley of +the Zachar-chu for 4 miles to Lumeh, where we camped beside the great +poplar trees. The bridge by which we had crossed the Zachar-chu in July +no longer existed. It had been washed away in August, but now that the +snows were no longer melting higher up, and the rainy season was over, +the river was very much lower, and it was possible to ford it. The +people at Lumeh were very pleased to see us again; we found tents +pitched and food prepared for our reception. From here there were two +routes open to us. We could either, by crossing two passes, drop down to +Tsogo in the valley of the Bhong-chu, and after fording the river there, +follow our previous route (of the outward journey) to Tingri, or we +could cross a small pass just above Lumeh, meeting the Bhong-chu again +immediately above the gorge, where there was a bridge across it. We +chose the latter route, as it was probably a couple of days shorter and +would take us through new country. On leaving Lumeh, for the first time +for several days we had a cloudy morning, which was unfortunate, as from +the top of the Quiok (Cuckoo Pass) we had hoped for a fine view. Our +transport to-day consisted of yaks and donkeys, which came along very +well. There was a steep climb of 2,000 feet to the top of the pass, +15,000 feet, where we just managed to get a glimpse of Makalu in the +clouds, but Everest was hidden. We thought that this would be our last +chance of a view of the Everest and Makalu group, but it turned out not +to be so. By going over this pass we had avoided the curious and +impassable gorge by which the Bhong-chu cuts through a high range of +mountains. It was only a little over 6 miles to the famous rope bridge +at Gadompa. I could not help laughing when I first saw the bridge. It +was such a comical, ramshackle-looking affair, and everything about it +seemed torn and ragged and uneven. Two crooked wooden posts set up in +piles of stones supported the ropes of raw hide which spanned the river. +During the rainy season one of these posts and all the ropes had been +buried deep under the water, but now that the river had dropped over 10 +feet, the posts were out of the water. Between these two wooden posts +were three raw hide ropes, very frail and much frayed, and looking as +though they might break at any moment. On these ropes was laid a +semi-circular piece of wood, like the framework of a saddle, to which +were attached two leather thongs. The person or bale of goods that had +to be pulled across was tied by these two thongs to the framework, and +this was allowed to slide rapidly with its load down to the point at +which the "bridge" sagged most--somewhere about the middle of the +river--which here rushed along in a formidable rapid. If the Tibetans on +the far side failed to pull up the passenger or load and he or it was +left for a minute, either would certainly get the full benefit of one of +the ice-cold waves of the rapids and get thoroughly soaked before +reaching the far side. The Tibetans had great fun with our coolies in +transit, and very few of them were allowed to get over dry. The villages +on either side are exempt from the duty of producing transport, and have +instead to make themselves responsible for working the bridge. On one +side the operators were all women and on the other all men. It took an +average of five minutes to get each load or person across, and we spent +twelve hours before we got all our loads over. For part of the time I +superintended while Wheeler went to get some dinner, and after dinner, +owing to there being a certain amount of moonlight, Wheeler carried on +until the last load was brought over at midnight. It was a very chilly +proceeding, as the wind blew very cold, with a suspicion of snow every +now and then. It was a weird experience to see the loads of baggage +suddenly appearing out of the darkness and then being unloaded and +transferred to the yaks, who apparently were able to find their way +about in the dark. We got everything over in safety without losing +anything except a few eggs, which I saw drop out during the passage +across, and I felt very much relieved that we had had no accident. + +That night we camped in a pleasant willow grove at the village of +Kharkhung. In the morning we awoke to find fresh snow on the ground, but +this speedily disappeared when the sun came out. Our new transport +consisted of donkeys and some very wild yaks, which rapidly got rid of +their loads. The march was only a short one of about 12 miles up the +valley of the Bhong-chu. The valley was uninteresting and stony, with +practically no undergrowth, and we eventually camped in a windy spot +near the village of Lashar, nearly opposite to the sandy camp at Shiling +where we had halted on our outward journey after crossing the +quicksands. The night proved much colder here, with 18 deg. of frost, but +the wind luckily died down and the next morning was beautiful. We +continued up the sandy valley of the Bhong-chu, which is here several +miles wide, until we came to its junction with the Yaru, where we +regained the route which we had followed on the outward journey. Just +before leaving the main valley we found, on looking behind us, that we +were in full sight of Mount Everest and its great South-eastern ridge, +and also of the Lhakpa La where we had camped. This was our final view +of Mount Everest, and knowing the geography of these peaks as we now +did, this view gave us an added interest in them. We had climbed slowly +and had not realised the great height which we had reached or the +conspicuous position of our camp on the Lhakpa La which we now saw +sharply defined against the horizon from a distance of 50 miles. + +We rode up the gorge of the Yaru, and at the village of Rongme we met +the Phari Jongpen's brother. He was busy collecting the harvest rents, +which are a fixed percentage of the crops. I gave him some of the +photographs that I had taken of him and his house on the way up and very +soon after a big crowd collected around. The Tibetans are very quick at +recognising persons in a photograph, and they at once picked out all the +people by name in a group. I then rode on past his house to the village +of Shatog, where we camped. On the way I shot a couple of snipe and also +saw a number of teal, wild geese and kulan (grey crane), but they were +very wild and I could not get near enough for a shot. Heron joined us +here. He had been exploring some of the valleys to the North, but had +found nothing interesting or remarkable, geologically, and he +accompanied us back as far as Khamba Dzong. We were anxious to push on +as fast as possible, and determined to do a double march from here to +Tinki Dzong, which our transport drivers said they could do quite +easily. We started on a beautiful day after a sharp frost at night, +causing many of the ponds to be frozen over. We crossed the broad swampy +plain to Chushar. Wheeler, going on ahead at first, had a shot at some +geese, but did not succeed in getting anything. We crossed the Yaru +River by a very deep ford, and then kept along the North side of it, +past numerous ponds on which were swimming many bar-headed geese; these +were, however, very wily and would not allow us to approach within shot. +We now had a steep 3,000-foot climb to the Tinki Pass. On the way up I +came across some partridges; they were terrible runners, but after a +good chase I managed to collect two. They turned out to be the ordinary +Tibetan partridge (_Perdrix hodgsoniae_). I then rode on down to Tinki, +to which place I had sent on Chheten Wangdi in order to make +arrangements for our reception and to have transport ready for us on the +following day. The two Jongpens rode out to meet us; the elder of the +two had been at Tinki when we passed through on the way out, but the +other one I had not seen before as he had been away. I had very pleasant +recollections of our reception there before, and was delighted to see +the elder Jongpen, who was a most pleasant and agreeable gentleman. +They presented us with a couple of hundred eggs, rice and some grain for +the ponies, and had tents already pitched for us under the walls of the +fort. Here the Jongpens came and sat talking with us for a long time. +Our transport showed no signs of turning up, so we were very glad to +make our dinner off the rice and eggs that had been given us. The bulk +of the transport did not arrive till midnight. They had made every +effort to stop at Chushar, and it was with great difficulty that Gyalzen +Kazi had induced them to go on. The animal which was carrying Wheeler's +kit died on the way, and his bedding did not arrive till noon the +following day, another animal having been sent to bring it in. I had had +my maximum and minimum thermometers exposed as usual under the fly of my +tent, but during the night some wretch came and stole them. What good +they could have been to him I cannot imagine, but it was very annoying +and I hope he will drink the mercury. The weather had now changed again +for the worse: all day there were heavy snow showers with snow falling +on the mountains around and preventing any views. The march was only a +short one to Lingga. The wild birds in the lake beside the fort were as +tame as ever, the Brahminy ducks (ruddy sheldrake) almost waddling into +our tents and not paying the slightest attention to us. On the water +were swimming about thousands of duck, bar-headed geese and teal which +the Jongpen's little dog used to have great fun in chasing. We were not +able to follow our former route from Tinki to Lingga as the country had +altered considerably. Most of the plain was now a broad lake several +miles long, and we had to follow the North side of the water along the +foot of the hills. On these big lakes were many duck, but they were very +wild. I managed on the way, however, to shoot two bar-headed geese, a +couple of Garganey teal and a pochard, which proved a very welcome +addition to our bill of fare. One shot was a most extraordinary one. I +was stalking some geese which were getting very restless and starting to +fly away, when just in front of me got up two teal close together. I +fired at the teal and both fell to my shot, and at the same time, to my +great surprise, a goose, which was in the direct line of fire, and about +40 yards away, also fell. + +We found the people at Lingga busy thrashing. The thrashing time in +Tibet is a favourite one for drinking, and often the whole village after +a day's harvest will be completely incapacitated as the result of too +great an indulgence in chang. Their thrashing floors consist of an area +of about half an acre of hard beaten earth on which the barley is spread +to a depth of 6 to 8 inches. Fifty or sixty yaks are then driven into +this enclosure, followed by thirty people or more, beating drums, +rattling kerosene oil tins, ringing bells and shouting and yelling in +order to frighten the yaks, who, tail in air, are driven backwards and +forwards over the barley. This they continue doing until every one is +tired and hoarse, when the whole of the workers, both male and female, +adjourn for a long drink of beer, after which the same process is +repeated. + +On October 11 we arrived at Khamba Dzong. We were having sharp frosts +now every night, and the mountains, both to the North and South of us, +were covered low down with a thick white coating of snow. It was not, +however, unpleasantly cold, and the cloud effects were very beautiful. +On the way I shot two goa--Tibetan gazelle--with good heads, and horns +over 14 inches long. We had to halt here in order to rest our coolies. +All day to the South there was a furious storm raging along the +Himalayas, and when it cleared up in the evening there had evidently +been a heavy snowfall. In the course of the afternoon we put up over +Dr. Kellas's grave the stone which the Jongpen had had engraved for us +during our absence. On it were inscribed in English and Tibetan +characters his initials and the date of his death, and this marks his +last resting-place. + +Raeburn, Wheeler and Heron now left us, as they wanted to return to +Darjeeling by the short way over the Serpo La and down the Teesta +Valley. This route is only possible for small parties; with all our +transport we were unable to return that way as the villages on the way +and in the Teesta Valley are small and can supply but very few animals +or coolies. Wollaston and I had therefore to return to Phari and then to +follow the main trade route, along which it is always possible to pick +up any amount of hired transport. We left Khamba Dzong on October 13 in +20 deg. of frost. Kanchenjunga and the Everest group were just visible, but +ominous clouds were rapidly coming up. Our march was the same as on the +outward journey to Tatsang (Falcon's Nest)--a distance of about 21 +miles. We rode through the fine limestone gorge behind the fort, +shooting on the way several Tibetan partridge (_Perdrix hodgsoniae_). On +reaching the top of the pass, I climbed another thousand feet on to the +ridge to the South of the pass, where I had a wonderful panorama of +snowy peaks, both to the South and to the North. Snow storms appeared to +be raging on either side and the wind was extremely cold. I came across +a fine flock of burhel (_Ovis nahura_), and had an easy shot at a fine +ram, but missed him hopelessly, and they never gave me another chance. A +little further on I missed a gazelle. On the plain below were grazing +numerous kiang (_Equus hemionus_), their reddish-chestnut coats being +well shown off by their white bellies and legs. Their mane appears to be +of a darker colour, which is continued as a narrow stripe down the back. +On the same plain I could see also a large flock of nyan (_Ovis +hodgsoni_), all fair-sized rams. I had a long chase after the latter, +but they never allowed me to approach close to them. Snow began to fall +now and a regular blizzard set in, the fine powdery snow being blown +along the ground into our faces. While riding along in this storm, I saw +two fine nyan which I stalked. My 2.75 rifle was rather small for such a +large animal, and though the larger of the two was badly hit by the +first shot, he went off as though he were untouched and gave me a long +chase after him. It was only possible to get a glimpse of him every now +and then in the blizzard, and whenever I lay down to try and get a shot, +the fine powdery snow blown along the surface of the ground nearly +blinded me, so that it took five more bullets before he finally expired. +He was a magnificent old beast with a grand head and horns, well over 40 +inches in length and of great thickness. The weight of the body was +enormous. I had only Ang Tenze with me. With much difficulty we cut off +the nyan's head and then tried to lift the carcass, which must have +weighed well over 200 lb., on to one of the ponies. With the greatest +trouble we eventually managed to get the carcass on to the pony's back, +but the pony seemed gradually to subside on to the ground under the +weight and was quite unable to move. While we were doing this, my pony +took it into his head to run away, and though we made every attempt to +catch him, he completely defeated us, and was last seen galloping away +towards his home. I had therefore an 8 mile trudge through the snow to +get back to camp, not arriving there till well after dark. Five of the +coolies went back after dark to get the meat. They cut off as much as +they could carry, and the remainder had to be left for the nuns, who +sent out their servants to bring it in. I was cheered up, however, by +getting an English mail and many letters. Among these was one from Sir +Charles Bell from Lhasa, who wrote to ask the Expedition not to do any +more shooting in Tibet, as the Tibetans did not approve of it; for the +remainder of the time, therefore, the guns had to be put away. + +During the night there were 32 deg. of frost, and everything inside our +tents was frozen solid in the morning; but the wind luckily died down, +and the next day was a most beautiful one. We knew that there was a long +march before us, so our transport was off by eight o'clock. At Tatsang +we were already 16,000 feet, and we gradually climbed higher, spending +most of the day between 17,000 and 18,000 feet. For several miles we +rode across a snow-covered plain over which the tops of Pawhunri, +Chomiomo, and Kanchenjhow appeared to the South. As we rose higher, the +snow gradually deepened to 6 inches and made the going very heavy. We +had to cross three spurs of Pawhunri by passes of over 17,500 feet. +Here the snow had been blown by the wind into drifts over 2 feet deep. +We had arranged to camp at a place called Lunghi, but on our arrival +there found that the nomads, who ordinarily spent the summer there, had +already left and were encamped some 4 miles further down the valley. In +a side valley I found some of their tents where I was able to warm +myself and get some hot milk before moving on down the valley, where we +were told that preparations had been made to receive us. There was +luckily a bright moon and we rode on down to the spot, where we found +some Tibetan tents which had been pitched for us; their owners had, +moreover, had the forethought to have great braziers of cow dung burning +in these tents. The smell was not agreeable, but we sat and warmed +ourselves, waiting for our transport, which did not arrive until eleven +o'clock that night. It was a bitterly cold wait, as the wind got up and +blew down the valley with 25 deg. of frost behind it. We were very glad to +see our transport and coolies when they arrived; they had really come +along very well, as a march of 23 miles in soft snow and at a great +height all the time is no light feat. + +Breakfast the next morning was very comfortless, as the wind was still +blowing with 28 deg. of frost, and everything--boots and foodstuffs of all +kinds--was frozen inside our tents. We looked forward with no little +pleasure to finding ourselves inside once more and sitting in front of a +fire out of the everlasting wind which makes Tibet so trying. The march +was a fairly easy one of about 20 miles over gentle undulating country +until we reached the West side of the Tang La; there was, however, a +bitterly cold strong South wind which blew with great violence all day +and penetrated through everything. Many of our coolies had much +difficulty in coming along, as they were suffering from snow blindness +and their feet were also very tender from the cold and the deep snow of +the last few days. Chomolhari was a glorious sight all the way. We were +gradually approaching it, and it seemed to rise directly from the plain +in front of us. From its summit and from its ridges great streamers of +snow were being blown off and the gale--apparently from the +North-west--still continued. Nearly every day since we left Kharta we +saw along the higher peaks of the Himalayas the snow being blown off in +great wisps, showing that a strong Northwesterly current of air sets in +at great heights after the monsoon is over. After reaching Darjeeling we +noticed the same thing; every day, from Kanchenjunga and Kabru, could be +seen the same great wisps of wind-blown snow. That night at Phari we +were once more in a bungalow and out of the wind, and able to spend a +very comfortable and pleasant evening reading our letters and papers in +front of a fire which, though still mostly yak dung, was in a fireplace. +October 16 we spent resting at Phari. Our coolies were much exhausted by +the three days' march from Khamba Dzong, in which we had covered 65 +miles, most of the time at considerable heights and in deep snow. We had +returned by the short way, which the people of Phari had told us in the +spring was impassable, and over which they would not go, sending us +instead around by the long way to Dochen, which took us six days instead +of three. + +Phari is a place unfortunately too near civilisation. The Tibetans there +have lost their good manners, such as we had been accustomed to meet in +the more distant and out-of-the-way parts of the country. Much trade +passes through the town, and the people there are too well off. They had +an idea that the Expedition was a kind of milch cow out of which money +could be extracted to their hearts' content. Of this view we had to +disabuse them, and in consequence found them all very tiresome. The +transport turned up the following morning, but they refused to load up +unless they were paid in full beforehand and at a most exorbitant rate. +This I refused to do, telephoning at the same time to the trade agent at +Yatung. I sent for the Jongpen, and both Jongpens turned up. I rather +imagine that they were at the bottom of this trouble, for one of them +owed the Expedition some money; he had also, when forwarding on stores +to us, seized the opportunity to charge five times the ordinary rate, on +the pretext that he had supplied some of his own mules. After long +arguments I eventually induced them to accept part of the payment, the +remainder to be paid at Yatung, whereupon the Jongpens gave orders for +the animals to be loaded. It was not, however, until the afternoon that +we were able to leave Phari and to start on our downward march to +Yatung. + + + + + CHAPTER XI + + BACK TO CIVILISATION + + +When we turned our backs on Phari and started to march down the Chumbi +Valley, we had left the real Tibet behind us. I could not somehow look +upon the Chumbi Valley as being a part of Tibet. Its characteristics, +its houses, its people, its vegetation, are all so different from the +greater part of Tibet. There are not the same cold winds that freeze the +very marrow, nor are there the wide plains and the undulating hills with +their extensive views. + +In spite of all discomforts, there is a very great charm and fascination +about travelling in Tibet. Is it partly because it is an unknown +country, and the unknown is always fascinating, or is it rather because +of the innate beauty of the country itself, with its landscapes so free +from all restraint and a horizon often 150 to 200 miles distant? Never +anywhere have I seen a country so full of colour as is Tibet. There is +not enough vegetation to hide the rocks and the stones. The foreground +as well as the distant view is wonderfully full of colour and variety. +Contrasts are one of the charms of life, and probably in this lies the +secret of the charm and attractiveness of Tibet. It is essentially a +country of contrasts. The climate, above all, has contrasts of its own. +The sun is burningly hot, but in the shade the cold may be intense. To +such a pitch can the extremes of heat and cold arrive, that a man may +suffer from sunstroke and frost-bite at one and the same time. + +The Tibetans themselves are a strong, well-built and hardy +race--Mongolian in type. The women usually put a mixture of grease and +soot on their faces to protect them against the glare of the fresh snow +or the biting winds, for even they, with their thick skins, do not seem +to get used to the severity of the changes. How much more does the +European suffer when he travels in Tibet and seems to need a fresh skin +almost every day. The soot mixture does not add to the beauty of the +women, though I came across some who were not bad looking. Many of the +people are nomads, living in tents all the year round and moving about +from camp to camp pasturing their herds of yaks and their flocks of +sheep. It is curious that even in the winter-time they can find grazing +places, but the secret lies in the fact that the slopes face the South +in the regions where the wind blows strongest, so that the surface is +usually bare. The snowfall in winter in most parts of Tibet is not +heavy, and the climate being so dry, the snow is powdery, and the wind +blows it along and forms great drifts in the hollows, leaving the +exposed slopes usually clear. On these the herds, or flocks of sheep, +obtain sufficient nourishment from such scattered patches of frozen +grass or lichens as they are able to find. Of all the animals that the +Tibetans have, the yak is the most useful. His long black hair, which +reaches to the ground under his belly, is woven into tents or ropes. The +milk, after they have drunk what they want, is turned into butter and +cheese, of which they produce great quantities. When old, he is killed +and his flesh is dried, providing meat for a long time. His hide +supplies leather of every kind. It is always used untanned, for no +tanning is ever done in Tibet and any tanned skins always come up from +India. The yak dung is in many places the only fuel to be got and is +most carefully picked up. To the present generation of young children +the yak is probably familiar from that delightful rhyme in "The Bad +Child's Book of Beasts":-- + + As a friend to the children, commend me the Yak-- + You will find it exactly the thing; + It will carry and fetch, you can ride on its back + Or lead it about with a string. + + The Tartar who dwells on the plains of Tibet, + A desolate region of snow, + Has for centuries made it a nursery pet, + And surely the Tartar should know. + + Then tell your papa where the Yak can be got, + And if he is awfully rich, + He will buy you the creature--or else he will not; + I cannot be positive which. + +The traveller in Tibet can easily live on such supplies as can be drawn +from the country. The Tibetan is always hospitable and will provide +sheep, milk, cheese and butter almost everywhere. Vegetables, however, +of any kind are very scarce, though in the summer a species of spinach +can be got in some places. Living, as the Tibetans do, far away from all +outside influences, their customs and manners have not changed, and are +the same as they were several hundred years ago. I can fully sympathise +with their present desire for seclusion and their eagerness not to be +exploited by foreigners. They sent a few years ago some young Tibetan +boys to Rugby to be educated in different professions. These boys have +now returned again to Lhasa, and with their aid, and with the aid of +others who are being sent out into the world to learn, they hope to be +able to develop the resources of their own country at leisure, in their +own way, and by themselves, without being exploited commercially by +foreigners. + +The staple food of the Tibetans is tsampa (parched barley). This is +ground up and either milk or tea is added, forming it into a kind of +dough. This is put in a little bag, which they carry about with them +when travelling, and is often their only food for several days. Tsampa +can be obtained everywhere in Tibet, though it is easier to get it in +the villages than from the tents of the nomads. Tea can, of course, be +obtained everywhere, and, as I have described before, is mixed with salt +and butter, churned up with great violence, and then poured into +teapots. At every camp, and at every house, will be met fierce dogs. +These dogs guard the flocks, or the nomad camps, and rather resemble +large collies; as a rule, they are black and very fierce. The Tibetans +were, however, always very good in tying them up before we approached +their camps. In many of the houses we found tied up just outside the +door another kind of dog, a huge brute of the mastiff type, always +extremely savage and ready, if he had not been tied up, to tear the +intruder to pieces. The peasants are still treated as serfs, though only +in a mild form. For all Government officials, when on tour, they have to +supply free transport and supplies of all kinds, so that official visits +are not popular. At first the villagers were afraid that we might follow +the example of the Tibetan officials and were much relieved to find that +we did not do so. + +I cannot leave the subject of Tibet without a few words about the +monasteries. These are divided into two great schools, the Red Cap +School and the Yellow Cap School. The former was founded by the Buddhist +Saint, Padma Sambhava or Guru Rimpoche, in A.D. 749. They are the older +of the two monastic sects, but their morals are much looser than those +of the Yellow Sect, and the Lamas or monks of this sect are often +married. In one monastery belonging to the Red Sect near Kharta, the +Lamas and their wives were all living together. The Yellow Cap, or +Gelukpa Sect, was founded in the fifteenth century by Tsong Kapa, who +instituted a very much stricter moral code, and this sect looks down +very much upon the Red Caps. The State religion of the country is +Buddhism. By the middle of the seventeenth century, after a series of +reincarnations, Nawang Lobsang had made himself master of Tibet and +transferred his capital to Lhasa. He accepted the title of Dalai Lama +(Ocean of Learning) from the Chinese, hence the Dalai Lama at Lhasa, by +this doctrine of political reincarnation, has absorbed all the political +power in the country into his own hands, although the Tashi Lama at +Tashilumpo is in theory his senior and superior in spiritual matters. +The old simple creed of the Buddhists can scarcely be recognised +nowadays and is overlaid with devil worship in all its forms, +supernatural agencies abounding everywhere. The top of a pass, a +mountain, a river, a bridge, a storm; each will have its own particular +god who is to be worshipped and propitiated. In many of the larger +monasteries, too, they have oracles who are consulted far and wide and +supposed to be able to foretell the future. These often acquire +considerable power and influence by methods not unlike those resorted to +in ancient Greece. It has been estimated that a fifth of the whole +population of Tibet has entered monastic life. The conditions probably +much resemble those which prevailed in mediaeval Europe. The monasteries +contain nearly all the riches of the country. They own large estates; +they are the source of all learning, and all the arts and crafts seem to +take their inspiration from articles for use in the monasteries. The +ordinary Tibetan, surrounded as he is by the various spirits which +occupy every valley and mountain top, is very superstitious. He +therefore has inside his house his prayer wheel and his little shrine, +before which he offers up incense daily. His Mani walls or mendongs, +covered with inscribed stones or carved figures of Buddha, are alongside +the paths he daily uses; on the top of the mountains or passes, in +addition to these prayer-covered stones, flutter rags printed over with +prayers. All these are intended to propitiate the evil spirits. In +places where there are particularly malignant devils, it may be +necessary to build several Chortens in order to keep them in subjection, +and these Chortens are filled with several thousands of prayers and +sacred figures stamped in the clay. + +The country is divided up into districts, each under its own Jongpen, +who is responsible direct to Lhasa or Shigatse and has yearly to send +the revenue collected to headquarters. A certain percentage of the crops +is collected every year, and in a year of good harvest the Jongpen is +able to make a certain amount of money for himself in addition to what +he has to send to Lhasa. Our visit to the Kharta Valley was an +unexpected windfall for the Kharta Jongpen, as I fancy that much of the +money that we paid out to the different villages for supplies or coolie +hire eventually found its way into his pocket and was not likely to find +its way to Lhasa. This may possibly have accounted for his pleasure in +entertaining us and his desire to keep us there as long as possible. The +Tibetans, however, everywhere have good manners and are invariably most +polite--a pleasant characteristic. Although they are all Buddhists, and +accordingly object to the taking of life, they do not in the least mind +killing their sheep or their yaks for food, but they objected to our +shooting wild sheep or gazelles or wild birds for food. I could have +understood this objection better had they been vegetarians and not +killed their sheep for eating purposes, but a real vegetarian, except in +the strictest monasteries, is very rare in Tibet. + +There was a great fascination in roaming through the country as we did. +It was the fascination of the unknown, this travelling in regions where +Europeans had never travelled before, and where they had never even been +seen. The people had exaggerated notions of our ferocity, and were full +of fears as to what we might be like and as to what we might do. In +these out-of-the-way parts they had heard vaguely of the fighting in +1904, and they imagined that our visit might be on the same lines. They +imagined, too, that all Europeans were cruel and seized what they wanted +without payment. They were therefore much surprised when they found that +we treated them fairly and paid for everything that we wanted at very +good rates. The Expedition may, I venture to think, take credit to +itself for having certainly done a great deal of good in promoting more +friendly relations between the Tibetans and ourselves, and in giving +them a better understanding of what an Englishman is. Their ignorance of +the outside world was at times astounding. Tibetan officials and traders +were an exception, but it was seldom that the ordinary Tibetan ever left +the valley in which he was born and bred, with the result that except +for the wildest rumours, they knew nothing of the outside world. For +long-distance journeys, the Tibetans used ambling mules or ponies, which +were capable of going long distances and keeping up a speed of about 5 +miles an hour. To our idea, the Tibetan saddle with its high wooden +framework is very uncomfortable, but on the top of their saddles they +would put their bedding, spreading over it a brilliant and often +beautifully coloured carpet as a saddle cloth. On the top of this the +rider would sit perched, and, with a good ambling pony, could get along +very comfortably. + +I always enjoyed travelling and moving about in Tibet. It hardly has the +climate of Tennyson's Island Valley of Avilion--"Where falls not hail or +rain or snow, nor ever wind blows loudly"--for we used to get samples of +nearly all of these almost every day. But no matter how barren nor how +bare the immediate surroundings were there was a sense of exhilaration +and freedom in the air. There was never a sense of being confined in a +narrow space. There was always some distant view where the colours would +be continually changing. In the summer-time the climate was not +unpleasant, and there was always the pleasure of finding some new and +beautiful flower, oftentimes springing up out of the driest sand. +Wherever there was water, there was sure to be vegetation and many +bright-coloured flowers with every kind of wild-bird life. The shrill +whistle of the marmot would often alone break the silence of the scene. +Animal life in some form was almost always visible, whether it was the +wild kiang roaming on the plains, or the gazelle, or the wild sheep, +there was always something of interest to watch. The little mouse hares +which lived in great colonies would constantly dodge in and out of their +holes and the song of the larks could always be heard. + +By the end of October the climate was beginning to get very cold, the +thermometer descending at times to Zero Fahrenheit, so that we were +quite ready to leave the country, being anxious to get warm again, if +only for a short time. There was sorrow in our hearts, however, at +parting with the friendly and hospitable folk whom we had encountered, +and at leaving behind us the familiar landscapes with the transparent +pale blue atmosphere that is so hard to describe, and the distant views +of range upon range of snowy mountains often reflected in the calm +waters of some blue coloured lake. The attractions of Tibet may yet be +strong enough to draw us back again once more. Many years ago the same +attraction impelled me to cross the Himalayan mountains and to visit +another part of Tibet, but my excursion was, I am afraid, not favourably +regarded by the Indian Government and my leave was stopped for six +months. The same attraction, however, still exists for this land of many +colours with its lonely sunsets full of beauty, with its nights where +the eager stars gleam bright as diamonds, and where the full moon shines +upon the nameless mountains covered with snow and still as death. + +As we turned our backs upon the country we left winter behind us, and +descending the Chumbi Valley once more found ourselves in autumnal +surroundings. The Himalayan larch were all of a beautiful golden colour; +the birch were all turning brown, and the berberis were a brilliant +scarlet. Red currants and the scarlet haws of the rose were still on the +bushes. The currants were no longer sour to eat raw, and we picked many +of them on the way down. Our pockets, too, were filled with seeds of +rhododendrons and other flowers. On the way I was met by the native +officer commanding the garrison at Yatung, which was now found by the +90th Punjabis. As I passed their quarters, the guard turned out, +presenting arms very smartly, and all the detachment came out and +saluted. They were certainly a very well-trained detachment. Once more +the Macdonald family most kindly sent over a generous meal, besides +presents of every sort and kind of European vegetable. From Yatung we +obtained forty-five mules for our transport. These came along very much +faster than the yaks and the donkeys that we had been using. Here +Gyalzen Kazi, one of our interpreters, left us to return to his home at +Gangtok. I was very sorry to lose him. He had been a pleasant companion +and had been of great assistance to the Expedition. He was always most +willing to undertake any difficult or unpleasant job there might be, and +I never heard a murmur or grumble from him of any kind during the whole +time that he was with us. Our march was only a short one of 11 miles to +Langra, where there was a Tibetan rest-house built in the Chinese style +and rather reminding me of our rest-house at Tingri. It was a most +perfect autumnal day, with scarcely a cloud in the sky. The woods +everywhere were very beautiful, the dark silver fir trees showing up the +scarlet and yellow of the bushes and the gold of the larch. Our cook, +Acchu, was drunk again, but Poo prepared us a good meal instead. The +next morning, to our surprise, on looking out we found a couple of +inches of fresh snow on the ground and the snow was still falling +steadily. The mules, nevertheless, were all loaded up in good time, and +I followed on foot to the top of the Jelep Pass, snow falling steadily +all the way--a fine granular snow. At the top of the pass the wind was +blowing keenly, driving the snow into our faces. Besides the 6 inches of +fresh snow here, there was a good deal of the old snow that had fallen a +week or more ago, and in some places formed drifts several feet deep. It +is seldom that a clear view is ever obtained on the Jelep Pass. It +rained when we came over in May and it snowed now, and twice before, +when I have crossed it, it rained all the time. Snow fell all the way +down to Gnatong, where there were already a couple of inches of slush. +The next morning was luckily fine, as we were to do a long march to +Rongli--a distance of only 18 miles, but with a descent of 9,500 feet. +The first few miles we walked through the fresh snow, but in the +afternoon we were wandering among the sweet scents of a tropical jungle +with orchids still flowering on the trees and ripe oranges in the garden +of our bungalow. We had jumped from winter to summer in a few hours. The +Tibetan mules came along excellently, doing the march in just over eight +hours, a very different proceeding to our Government mules on the way +up, which we were compelled to discard at Sedongchen. We reached +Darjeeling on October 25. Lord Ronaldshay was unfortunately away on tour +on his way to Bhutan, and as he had travelled via Gangtok, we had missed +seeing him on the way. The next few days we spent in getting rid of the +remainder of our stores, selling anything perishable that we could, +getting tents dried and mended, and storing everything else in view of a +second Expedition. We here said good-bye to our other interpreter, +Chheten Wangdi, who had served us most faithfully throughout the +Expedition, and it was with the greatest regret that we took leave of +him on the railway station at Darjeeling. + +[Illustration: MEMBERS OF THE EXPEDITION. + _Standing_: WOLLASTON. HOWARD-BURY. HERON. RAEBURN. + _Sitting_: MALLORY. WHEELER. BULLOCK. MORSHEAD.] + +Our Expedition had accomplished all that it had set out to do. All the +approaches to Mount Everest from the North-west, North, North-east and +East had been carefully reconnoitred and a possible route to the top had +been found up the North-east ridge. Climatic conditions alone had +prevented a much greater height being attained. Friendly relations had +been established with the Tibetan officials and people wherever we went. +Our travels had taken us through much unexplored and new country wherein +we had discovered some magnificent and undreamt-of valleys where +primeval forests existed such as we had never imagined to find in Tibet +and where deep filled glens with the richest semi-tropical vegetation +descended as low as 7,000 feet. Many beautiful flowers were discovered +in these Alpine valleys, and we were able to collect a quantity of seeds +from these which I hope may help to enrich and to beautify our gardens +at home. A new part of the country has been opened up to human +knowledge. It has been photographed and described. The surveyors have +made an original survey at a scale of 4 miles to the inch of an area of +some 12,000 square miles; a detailed photographic survey of 600 square +miles of the environs of Mount Everest has been worked out, and, besides +this, the maps of another 4,000 square miles of country have been +revised. Dr. Heron, our indefatigable geologist, himself travelled over +the greater part of this area, and has carefully investigated the +geology of the whole region. That the Expedition was able to accomplish +so much in such a short time was due to the hearty co-operation and +keenness of all the members of the party. We were a happy family and, to +use a rowing expression, we all "pulled together." Such success as we +attained is entirely due to their strenuous and ceaseless efforts, and I +can only express my gratitude to them for the unselfish way in which +they helped and assisted me on every occasion. + +The Expedition of 1921 is over; many problems have been solved, much new +country has been brought within our ken, and many new beauties have been +revealed, but the soul of man is never content with what has been +attained. The solution of one problem only brings forward fresh problems +to be solved, so this Expedition into unknown country brings within the +realms of possibility further travels and further problems to be solved. +There is much that yet remains to be done, much that remains to be +discovered; and though we may not be privileged to discover a new race +of hairy snow men, yet there is a wild and uncharted country full of +beauty and interest that awaits those who dare face the discomfort and +hardships of travelling in Tibet--discomforts which are soon forgotten +and leave behind them only the memories of very wonderful scenes and +places which the passing of time can never efface. + + Let us probe the silent places, let us seek what luck betide us, + Let us journey to a lonely land I know; + There's a whisper in the night wind, there's a star, a gleam to guide us, + And the wild is calling, calling, let us go. + + R. W. S. + + + + + THE RECONNAISSANCE OF THE MOUNTAIN + + By + + GEORGE H. LEIGH-MALLORY + + + + + CHAPTER XII + + THE NORTHERN APPROACH + + +As a matter of history it has been stated already in an earlier chapter +of this book that the highest mountain in the world attracted attention +so early as 1850. When we started our travels in 1921, something was +already known about it from a surveyor's point of view; it was a +triangulated peak with a position on the map; but from the mountaineer's +point of view almost nothing was known. Mount Everest had been seen and +photographed from various points on the Singalila ridge as well as from +Kampa Dzong; from these photographs it may dimly be made out that snow +lies on the upper part of the Eastern face at no very steep angle, while +the arete bounding this face on the North comes down gently for a +considerable distance. But the whole angle subtended at the great summit +by the distance between the two of these view-points which are farthest +apart is only 54 deg.. The North-west sides of the mountain had never been +photographed and nothing was known of its lower parts anywhere. Perhaps +the distant view most valuable to a mountaineer is that from Sandakphu, +because it suggests gigantic precipices on the South side of the +mountain so that he need have no regrets that access is barred in that +direction for political reasons. + +The present reconnaissance began at Kampa Dzong, no less than 100 miles +away, and in consequence of misfortunes which the reader will not have +forgotten was necessarily entrusted to Mr. G. H. Bullock and myself, the +only representatives of the Alpine Club now remaining in the Expedition. +It may seem an irony of fate that actually on the day after the +distressing event of Dr. Kellas' death we experienced the strange +elation of seeing Everest for the first time. It was a perfect early +morning as we plodded up the barren slopes above our camp and rising +behind the old rugged fort which is itself a singularly impressive and +dramatic spectacle; we had mounted perhaps a thousand feet when we +stayed and turned, and saw what we came to see. There was no mistaking +the two great peaks in the West: that to the left must be Makalu, grey, +severe and yet distinctly graceful, and the other away to the right--who +could doubt its identity? It was a prodigious white fang excrescent from +the jaw of the world. We saw Mount Everest not quite sharply defined on +account of a slight haze in that direction; this circumstance added a +touch of mystery and grandeur; we were satisfied that the highest of +mountains would not disappoint us. And we learned one fact of great +importance: the lower parts of the mountain were hidden by the range of +nearer mountains clearly shown in the map running North from the Nila La +and now called the Gyanka Range, but it was possible to distinguish all +that showed near Everest beyond them by a difference in tone, and we +were certain that one great rocky peak appearing a little way to the +left of Everest must belong to its near vicinity. + +It was inevitable, as we proceeded to the West from Kampa Dzong, that we +should lose sight of Mount Everest; after a few miles even its tip was +obscured by the Gyanka Range, and we naturally began to wonder whether +it would not be possible to ascend one of these nearer peaks which must +surely give us a wonderful view. I had hopes that we should be crossing +the range by a high pass, in which case it would be a simple matter to +ascend some eminence near it. But at Tinki we learned that our route +would lie in the gorge to the North of the mountains where the river +Yaru cuts its way through from the East to join the Arun. + +From Gyanka Nangpa, which lies under a rocky summit over 20,000 feet +high, Bullock and I, on June 11, made an early start and proceeded down +the gorge. It was a perfect morning and for once we had tolerably swift +animals to ride; we were fortunate in choosing the right place to ford +the river and our spirits were high. How could they be otherwise? Ever +since we had lost sight of Everest the Gyanka Mountains had been our +ultimate horizon to the West. Day by day as we had approached them our +thoughts had concentrated more and more upon what lay beyond. On the far +side was a new country. Now the great Arun River was to divulge its +secrets and we should see Everest again after nearly halving the +distance. The nature of the gorge was such that our curiosity could not +be satisfied until the last moment. After crossing the stream we +followed the flat margin of its right bank until the cliffs converging +to the exit were towering above us. Then in a minute we were out on the +edge of a wide sandy basin stretching away with complex undulations to +further hills. Sand and barren hills as before--but with a difference; +for we saw the long Arun Valley proceeding Southwards to cut through the +Himalayas and its western arm which we should have to follow to Tingri; +and there were marks of more ancient river beds and strange inland +lakes. It was a desolate scene, I suppose; no flowers were to be seen +nor any sign of life beyond some stunted gorse bushes on a near hillside +and a few patches of coarse brown grass, and the only habitations were +dry inhuman ruins; but whatever else was dead, our interest was alive. + +After a brief halt a little way out in the plain, to take our bearings +and speculate where the great mountains should appear, we made our way +up a steep hill to a rocky crest overlooking the gorge. The only visible +snow mountains were in Sikkim. Kanchenjunga was clear and eminent; we +had never seen it so fine before; it now seemed singularly strong and +monumental, like the leonine face of some splendid musician with a glory +of white hair. In the direction of Everest no snow mountain appeared. We +saw the long base tongues descending into the Arun Valley from the +Gyanka Range, above them in the middle distance an amazingly sharp rock +summit and below a blue depth most unlike Tibet as we had known it +hitherto. A conical hill stood sentinel at the far end of the valley, +and in the distance was a bank of clouds. + +Our attention was engaged by the remarkable spike of rock, a proper +aiguille. As we were observing it a rift opened in the clouds behind; at +first we had merely a fleeting glimpse of some mountain evidently much +more distant, then a larger and clearer view revealed a recognizable +form; it was Makalu appearing just where it should be according to our +calculations with map and compass. + +We were now able to make out almost exactly where Everest should be; but +the clouds were dark in that direction. We gazed at them intently +through field glasses as though by some miracle we might pierce the +veil. Presently the miracle happened. We caught the gleam of snow behind +the grey mists. A whole group of mountains began to appear in gigantic +fragments. Mountain shapes are often fantastic seen through a mist; +these were like the wildest creation of a dream. A preposterous +triangular lump rose out of the depths; its edge came leaping up at an +angle of about 70 deg. and ended nowhere. To the left a black serrated crest +was hanging in the sky incredibly. Gradually, very gradually, we saw the +great mountain sides and glaciers and aretes, now one fragment and now +another through the floating rifts, until far higher in the sky than +imagination had dared to suggest the white summit of Everest appeared. +And in this series of partial glimpses we had seen a whole; we were able +to piece together the fragments, to interpret the dream. However much +might remain to be understood, the centre had a clear meaning as one +mountain shape, the shape of Everest. + +It is hardly possible of course from a distance of 57 miles to formulate +an accurate idea of a mountain's shape. But some of its most remarkable +features may be distinguished for what they are. We were looking at +Everest from about North-east and evidently a long arete was thrust out +towards us. Some little distance below the summit the arete came down to +a black shoulder, which we conjectured would be an insuperable obstacle. +To the right of this we saw the sky line in profile and judged it not +impossibly steep. The edge was probably a true arete because it appeared +to be joined by a col to a sharp peak to the North. From the direction +of this col a valley came down to the East and evidently drained into +the Arun. This was one fact of supreme importance which was now +established and we noticed that it agreed with what was shown on the +map; the map in fact went up in our esteem and we were inclined +hereafter to believe in its veracity until we established the contrary. +Another fact was even more remarkable. We knew something more about the +great peak near Everest which we had seen from Kampa Dzong; we knew now +that it was not a separate mountain; in a sense it was part of Everest, +or rather Everest was not one mountain but two; this great black +mountain to the South was connected with Everest by a continuous arete +and divided from it only by a snow col which must itself be at least +27,000 feet high. The black cliffs of this mountain, which faced us, +were continuous with the icy East face of Everest itself. + +A bank of cloud still lay across the face of the mountain when Bullock +and I left the crest where we were established. It was late in the +afternoon. We had looked down into the gorge and watched our little +donkeys crossing the stream. Now we proceeded to follow their tracks +across the plain. The wind was fiercely blowing up the sand and swept it +away to leeward, transforming the dead flat surface into a wriggling sea +of watered silk. The party were all sheltering in their tents when we +rejoined them. Our camp was situated on a grassy bank below which by +some miracle a spring wells out from the sand. We also sought shelter. +But a short while after sunset the wind subsided. We all came forth and +proceeded to a little eminence near at hand; and as we looked down the +valley there was Everest calm in the stillness of evening and clear in +the last light. + +I have dwelt upon this episode at some length partly because in all our +travels before we reached the mountain it is for me beyond other +adventures unforgettable; and not less because the vision of Everest +inhabiting our minds after this day had no small influence upon our +deductions when we came to close quarters with the mountain. We made +other opportunities before reaching Tingri to ascend likely hills for +what we could see; notably from Shekar Dzong we made a divergence from +the line of march and from a hill above Ponglet, on a morning of +cloudless sunrise, saw the whole group of mountains of which Everest is +the centre. But no view was so instructive as that above Shiling and we +added little to the knowledge gained that day. + +On June 23, after a day's interval to arrange stores, the climbing party +set forth from Tingri Dzong. We were two Sahibs, sixteen coolies, a +Sirdar, Gyalzen and a cook Dukpa. The process of selecting the coolies +had been begun some time before this; the long task of nailing their +boots had been nearly completed on the march and we were now confident +that sixteen of the best Sherpas with their climbing boots, ice axes and +each a suit of underwear would serve us well. The Sirdar through whom +coolies had been engaged in the first instance seemed to understand what +was wanted and to have sufficient authority, and Dukpa, though we could +not expect from him any culinary refinements, had shown himself a person +of some energy and competence who should do much to reduce the +discomforts of life in camp. Our equipment was seriously deficient in +one respect: we were short of words. A few hours spent in Darjeeling +with a Grammar of Tibetan had easily convinced me that I should profit +little in the short time available by the study of that language. It had +been assumed by both Bullock and myself that our experienced leaders +would give the necessary orders for organisation in any dialect that +might be required. We had found little opportunity since losing them to +learn a language, and our one hope of conversing with the Sirdar was a +vocabulary of about 150 words which I had written down in a notebook to +be committed to memory on the march and consulted when occasion should +arise. + +The task before us was not likely to prove a simple and straightforward +matter, and we had no expectation that it would be quickly concluded. It +would be necessary in the first place to find the mountain; as we looked +across the wide plains from Tingri and saw the dark monsoon clouds +gathered in all directions we were not reassured. And there would be +more than one approach to be found. We should have to explore a number +of valleys radiating from Everest and separated by high ridges which +would make lateral communication extremely difficult; we must learn from +which direction various parts of the mountain could most conveniently be +reached. And beyond all investigation of the approaches we should have +to scrutinise Mount Everest itself. Our reconnaissance must aim at a +complete knowledge of the various faces and aretes, a correct +understanding of the whole form and structure of the mountain and the +distribution of its various parts; we must distinguish the vulnerable +places in its armour and finally pit our skill against the obstacles +wherever an opportunity of ascent should appear until all such +opportunities were exhausted. The whole magnitude of the enterprise was +very present in our minds as we left Tingri. We decided that a +preliminary reconnaissance should include the first two aims of finding +the approaches to Mount Everest and determining its shape, while +anything in the nature of an assault should be left to the last as a +separate stage of organisation and effort. In the result we may claim to +have kept these ends in view without allowing the less important to prey +upon the greater. So long as a doubt remained as to the way we should +choose we made no attempt to climb the peak; we required ourselves first +to find out as much as possible by more distant observations. + +Mount Everest, as it turned out, did not prove difficult to find. Almost +in the direct line from Tingri are two great peaks respectively 26,870 +and 25,990 feet high--known to the Survey of India as M_{1} and M_{2} +and to Tibetans as Cho-Uyo and Gyachung Kang. They lie about W.N.W. of +Everest. We had to decide whether we should pass to the South of them, +leaving them on our left, or to the North. In the first case we surmised +that we might find ourselves to the South of a western arete of Everest, +and possibly in Nepal, which was out of bounds. The arete, if it +existed, might perhaps be reached from the North and give us the view we +should require of the South-western side, in which case one base would +serve us for a large area of investigation and we should economise time +that would otherwise be spent in moving our camp round from one side to +another. Consequently we chose the Northern approach. We learned from +local knowledge that in two days we might reach a village and monastery +called Choebuk, and from there could follow a long valley to Everest. And +so it proved. Choebuk was not reached without some difficulty, but this +was occasioned not by obstacles in the country but by the manners of +Tibetans. At Tingri we had hired four pack animals. We had proceeded 2 +or 3 miles across the plain when we perceived they were heading in the +wrong direction. We were trusting to the guidance of their local drivers +and felt very uncertain as to where exactly we should be aiming; but +their line was about 60 deg. to the South of our objective according to a +guesswork compass bearing. An almost interminable three-cornered +argument followed. It appeared that our guides intended to take five +days to Choebuk. They knew all about "ca' canny." In the end we decided +to take the risk of a separation; Gyalzen went with the bullocks and our +tents to change transport at the village where we were intended to stay +the night, while the rest of us made a bee line for a bridge where we +should have to cross the Rongbuk stream. At the foot of a vast moraine +we waited on the edge of the "maidan," anxiously hoping that we should +see some sign of fresh animals approaching; and at length we saw them. +It was a late camp that evening on a strip of meadow beside the stream, +but we had the comfort of reflecting that we had foiled the natives, +whose aim was to retard our progress; and in the sequel we reached our +destination with no further trouble. + +[Illustration: CHO-UYO.] + +On June 25 we crossed the stream at Choebuk. Tibetan bridges are so +constructed as to offer the passenger ample opportunities of +experiencing the sensation of insecurity and contemplating the +possibilities of disaster. This one was no exception. We had no wish to +risk our stores, and it was planned that the beasts should swim. They +were accordingly unladen and driven with yell and blow by a willing +crowd, until one more frightened than the rest plunged into the torrent +and the others followed. We now found ourselves on the right bank of the +Rongbuk stream, and knew we had but to follow it up to reach the glacier +at the head of the valley. An hour or so above Choebuk we entered a gorge +with high red cliffs above us on the left. Below them was a little space +of fertile ground where the moisture draining down from the limestone +above was caught before it reached the stream--a green ribbon stretched +along the margin with grass and low bushes, yellow-flowering asters, +rhododendrons and juniper. I think we had never seen anything so green +since we came up on to the tableland of Tibet. It was a day of brilliant +sunshine, as yet warm and windless. The memory of Alpine meadows came +into my mind. I remembered their manifold allurements; I could almost +smell the scent of pines. Now I was filled with the desire to lie here +in this "oasis" and live at ease and sniff the clean fragrance of +mountain plants. But we went on, on and up the long valley winding +across a broad stony bay; and all the stony hillsides under the midday +sun were alike monotonously dreary. At length we followed the path up a +steeper rise crowned by two chortens between which it passes. We paused +here in sheer astonishment. Perhaps we had half expected to see Mount +Everest at this moment. In the back of my mind were a host of questions +about it clamouring for answer. But the sight of it now banished every +thought. We forgot the stony wastes and regrets for other beauties. We +asked no questions and made no comment, but simply looked. + +It is perhaps because Everest presented itself so dramatically on this +occasion that I find the Northern aspect more particularly imaged in my +mind, when I recall the mountain. But in any case this aspect has a +special significance. The Rongbuk Valley is well constructed to show off +the peak at its head; for about 20 miles it is extraordinarily straight +and in that distance rises only 4,000 feet, the glacier, which is 10 +miles long, no more steeply than the rest. In consequence of this +arrangement one has only to be raised very slightly above the bed of the +valley to see it almost as a flat way up to the very head of the glacier +from which the cliffs of Everest spring. To the place where Everest +stands one looks along rather than up. The glacier is prostrate; not a +part of the mountain; not even a pediment; merely a floor footing the +high walls. At the end of the valley and above the glacier Everest rises +not so much a peak as a prodigious mountain-mass. There is no +complication for the eye. The highest of the world's great mountains, it +seems, has to make but a single gesture of magnificence to be lord of +all, vast in unchallenged and isolated supremacy. To the discerning eye +other mountains are visible, giants between 23,000 and 26,000 feet high. +Not one of their slenderer heads even reaches their chief's shoulder; +beside Everest they escape notice--such is the pre-eminence of the +greatest. + +Considered as a structure Mount Everest is seen from the Rongbuk Valley +to achieve height with amazing simplicity. The steep wall 10,000 feet +high is contained between two colossal members--to the left the +North-eastern arete, which leaves the summit at a gentle angle and in a +distance of about half a mile descends only 1,000 feet before turning +more sharply downwards from a clearly defined shoulder; and to the +right the North-west arete (its true direction is about W.N.W.), which +comes down steeply from the summit but makes up for the weaker nature of +this support by immense length below. Such is the broad plan. In one +respect it is modified. The wide angle between the two main aretes +involves perhaps too long a face; a further support is added. The +Northern face is brought out a little below the North-east shoulder and +then turned back to meet the crest again, so that from the point of the +shoulder a broad arete leads down to the North and is connected by a +snow col at about 23,000 feet with a Northern wing of mountains which +forms the right bank of the Rongbuk Glacier and to some extent masks the +view of the lower parts of Everest. Nothing could be stronger than this +arrangement and it is nowhere fantastic. We do not see jagged crests and +a multitude of pinnacles, and beautiful as such ornament may be we do +not miss it. The outline is comparatively smooth because the +stratification is horizontal, a circumstance which seems again to give +strength, emphasising the broad foundations. And yet Everest is a rugged +giant. It has not the smooth undulations of a snow mountain with white +snow cap and glaciated flanks. It is rather a great rock mass, coated +often with a thin layer of white powder which is blown about its sides, +and bearing perennial snow only on the gentler ledges and on several +wide faces less steep than the rest. One such place is the long arm of +the North-west arete which with its slightly articulated buttresses is +like the nave of a vast cathedral roofed with snow. I was, in fact, +reminded often by this Northern view of Winchester Cathedral with its +long high nave and low square tower; it is only at a considerable +distance that one appreciates the great height of this building and the +strength which seems capable of supporting a far taller tower. Similarly +with Everest; the summit lies back so far along the immense aretes that +big as it always appears one required a distant view to realise its +height; and it has no spire though it might easily bear one; I have +thought sometimes that a Matterhorn might be piled on the top of Everest +and the gigantic structure would support the added weight in stable +equanimity. + +On June 26 we pitched our tents in full view of Everest and a little way +beyond the large monastery of Choeyling which provides the habitations +nearest to the mountain, about 16 miles away. After three days' march +from the Expedition's headquarters at Tingri we had found the object of +our quest and established a base in the Rongbuk Valley, which was to +serve us for a month. + +The first steps in a prolonged reconnaissance such as we were proposing +to undertake were easily determined by topographical circumstances. +Neither Bullock nor I was previously acquainted with any big mountains +outside the Alps; to our experience in the Alps we had continually to +refer, both for understanding this country and for estimating the +efforts required to reach a given point in it. The Alps provided a +standard of comparison which alone could be our guide until we had +acquired some fresh knowledge in the new surroundings. No feature of +what we saw so immediately challenged this comparison as the glacier +ahead of us; in so narrow a glacier it was hardly surprising that the +lower part of it should be covered with stones, but higher the whole +surface was white ice, and the white ice came down in a broad stream +tapering gradually to a point when it was lost in the waste of the brown +grey. What was the meaning of this? Even from a distance it was possible +to make out that the white stream contained pinnacles of ice. Was it all +composed of pinnacles? Would they prove an insuperable obstacle? In the +Alps the main glaciers are most usually highways, the ways offered to +the climber for his travelling. Were they not to prove highways here? + +Our first expedition was designed to satisfy our curiosity on this head. +Allowing a bountiful margin of time for untoward contingencies we set +forth on June 27 with five coolies at 3.15 a.m., and made our way up the +valley with a good moon to help us. To be tramping under the stars +toward a great mountain is always an adventure; now we were adventuring +for the first time in a new mountain country which still held in store +for us all its surprises and almost all its beauties. It was not our +plan at present to make any allowance for the special condition of +elevation; we expected to learn how that condition would tell and how to +make allowances for the future. We started from our camp at 16,000 +feet--above the summit of Mont Blanc--just as we should have left an +Alpine hut 6,000 feet lower, and when we took our first serious halt at +7 a.m. had already crossed the narrow end of the glacier. That short +experience--an hour or so--was sufficient for the moment. The hummocks +of ice covered with stones of all sizes--like the huge waves of a brown +angry sea--gave us no chance of ascending the glacier; one might +hopefully follow a trough for a little distance but invariably to be +stopped by the necessity of mounting once more to a crest and descending +again on the other side. Nevertheless, we were not dissatisfied with our +progress. We were now in a stream bed between the glacier and its left +bank and above the exit of the main glacier stream, which comes out on +this side well above the snout. The watercourse offered an opportunity +of progress; it was dry almost everywhere and for a bout of leaping from +boulder to boulder we were usually rewarded by a space of milder walking +on the flat sandy bed. Our pace I considered entirely satisfactory as we +went on after breakfast; unconsciously I was led into something like a +race by one of the coolies who was pressing along at my side. I noticed +that though he was slightly built he seemed extremely strong and active, +compact of muscle; but he had not yet learnt the art of walking +rhythmically and balancing easily from stone to stone. I wondered how +long he would keep up. Presently we came to a corner where our stream +bed ended and a small glacier-snout was visible above us apparently +descending from the Northwest. We gathered on a high bank of stones to +look out over the glacier. I observed now that the whole aspect of the +party had changed. The majority were more than momentarily tired, they +were visibly suffering from some sort of malaise. It was not yet nine +o'clock and we had risen barely 2,000 feet, but their spirits had gone. +There were grunts instead of laughter. + +The glacier's left bank which we were following was now trending to the +right. To the South and standing in front of the great North-west arm of +Everest was a comparatively small and very attractive snow peak, perhaps +a little less than 21,000 feet high. We had harboured a vague ambition +to reach its shoulder, a likely point for prospecting the head of the +Rongbuk Glacier. But between us and this objective was a wide stretch of +hummocky ice which had every appearance of being something more than a +mere bay of the main glacier. We suspected a western branch and +proceeded to confirm our suspicion. After a rough crossing below the +glacier above us we were fortunate enough to find another trough wider +than the first and having a flat sandy bottom where we walked easily +enough. Presently leaving the coolies to rest on the edge of the glacier +Bullock and I mounted a high stony shoulder, and from there, at 18,500 +feet, saw the glacier stretching away to the West, turning sharply below +us to rise more steeply than before. Cloud prevented us from +distinguishing what appeared to be a high mountain ridge at the far end +of it. + +It was evident that nothing was to be gained at present by pushing our +investigations further to the West. Our curiosity was as yet unsatisfied +about those white spires of ice to which our eyes had constantly +returned. We declined the alternative of retracing our steps and without +further delay set about to cross the glacier. It was now eleven o'clock +and we were under no delusion that the task before us would be other +than arduous and long. But the reward in interest and valuable +information promised to be great, for, by exploring the glacier's right +bank during our descent we should learn all we wanted to know before +making plans for an advance. And we hoped to be in before dark. + +The stone-covered ice on which we first embarked compared favourably +with that of our earlier experience before breakfast. The sea, so to +speak, was not so choppy; the waves were longer. We were able to follow +convenient troughs for considerable distances. But at the bottom of a +trough which points whither it will it is impossible to keep a definite +direction and difficult to know to what extent one is erring. An hour's +hard work was required to bring us to the edge of the white ice. Our +first question was answered at a glance. It had always seemed improbable +that these were seracs such as one meets on an Alpine icefall, and +clearly they were not. We saw no signs of lateral crevasses. The shapes +were comparatively conical and regular, not delicately poised but firmly +based, safely perpendicular and not dangerously impending. They were the +result not of movement but of melting, and it was remarkable that on +either side the black ice looked over the white, as though the glacier +had sunk in the middle. The pinnacles resembled a topsy-turvy system of +colossal icicles, icicles thrust upwards from a common icy mass, the +whole resting on a definable floor. The largest were about 50 feet high. + +We were divided from this fairy world of spires by a deep boundary moat +and entered it on the far side by what may be described as a door but +that it had no lintel. An alley led us over a low wall and we had +reached the interior. A connected narrative of our wanderings in this +amazing country could hardly be true to its disconnected character. The +White Rabbit himself would have been bewildered here. No course seemed +to lead anywhere. Our idea was to keep to the floor so far as we were +able; but most usually we were scrambling up a chimney or slithering +down one, cutting round the foot of a tower or actually traversing along +an icy crest. To be repeatedly crossing little cols with the continued +expectation of seeing a way beyond was a sufficiently exciting labour; +it was also sufficiently laborious since the chopping of steps was +necessary almost everywhere; but fatigue was out of sight in the +enchanted scene, with the cool delight of little lakes, of the ice +reflected in their unruffled waters and of blue sky showing between the +white spires. We had but one misadventure, and that of no +consequence--it was my fate when crossing the frozen surface of one +little lake to suffer a sudden immersion: the loss of dignity perhaps +was more serious than the chilling of ardour, for we soon came upon a +broadening alley and came out from our labyrinth as suddenly as we +entered it, to lie and bask in the warm sun. + +Our crossing of the white ice after all had taken little more than two +hours, and we might well consider ourselves fortunate. But it must be +remembered that we were far from fresh at the start and now the reaction +set in. The stone-covered glacier on this side, besides being a much +narrower belt was clearly not going to give us trouble, and after an +ample halt we started across it easily enough. On the right bank we had +noticed many hours before above the glacier a broad flat shelf, +presumably an old moraine, and a clear mark along the hillside away down +to a point below the snout. This was now our objective and no doubt once +we had gained it our troubles would be ended. But in the first place it +had to be gained. In the Alps it has often seemed laborious to go up +hill towards the end of a day: it was a new sensation to find it an +almost impossible exertion to drag oneself up a matter of 150 feet. And +further exertions were to be required of us. A little way down the +valley a glacier stream came in on our right; we had observed this +before and hopefully expected to follow our terrace round and rejoin it +on the far side of the gully. But it was late in the afternoon and the +stream was at its fullest. We followed it down with defeated +expectations; it always proved just too dangerous to cross. Finally it +formed a lake at the edge of the glacier before disappearing beneath it +and obliged us to make a detour on the ice once more. I suppose this +obstacle was mild enough; but again an ascent was involved, and after it +at least one member of the party seemed incapable of further effort. +Another halt was necessary. We were now down to about 17,000 feet and at +the head of a long passage at the side of the glacier, similar to that +we had ascended in the morning on the other bank. Those who suffer from +altitude on a mountain have a right to expect a recovery on the descent. +But I saw no signs of one yet. It was a long painful hour balancing from +boulder to boulder along the passage, with the conscious effort of +keeping up the feat until we came out into the flat basin at the glacier +end. Then as we left the glacier behind us the day seemed to come right. +One obstacle remained, a stream which had been crossed with difficulty +in the morning and was now swollen to a formidable torrent. It was +carried with a rush--this was no moment for delay. Each man chose his +own way for a wetting; for my part, after a series of exciting leaps on +to submerged stones I landed in the deepest part of the stream with the +pick of my axe dug into the far bank to help me scramble out. After this +I remember only of the last 4 miles the keen race against the gathering +darkness; fatigue was forgotten and we reached camp at 8.15 p.m., tired +perhaps, but not exhausted. + +It has seemed necessary to give an account of this first expedition in +some detail in order to emphasise certain conditions which governed all +our movements from the Rongbuk Valley. We now knew how to get about. +Flat though the glacier might be, it was no use for travelling in any +part we had seen, not a road but an obstacle. The obstacle, however, had +not proved insurmountable, and though the crossing had been laborious +and long, we were not convinced that it need be so long another time; +careful reconnaissance might reveal a better way, and we had little +doubt that both the main glacier and its Western branch could be used +freely for lateral communication if we chose. It would not always be +necessary in organising an expedition to be encamped on one side of the +glacier rather than the other. And we had discovered that it was not a +difficult matter to make our way along the glacier sides; we could +choose either a trough or a shelf. + +We had also been greatly interested by the phenomena of fatigue. The +most surprising fact when we applied our standard of comparison was that +coming down had proved so laborious; Bullock and I had each discovered +independently that we got along better when we remembered to breathe +hard, and we already suspected what we afterwards established--that it +was necessary to adopt a conscious method of breathing deeply for coming +down as for going up. Another inference, subsequently confirmed on many +occasions, accused the glacier. The mid-day sun had been hot as we +crossed it and I seemed to notice some enervating influence which had +not affected me elsewhere. It was the glacier that had knocked me out, +not the hard work alone but some malignant quality in the atmosphere, +which I can neither describe nor explain; and in crossing a glacier +during the day I always afterwards observed the same effect; I might +feel as fit and fresh as I could wish on the moraine at the side but +only once succeeded in crossing a glacier without feeling a despairing +lassitude. + +I shall now proceed to quote from my diary: + +_June_ 28.--A slack day in camp. It is difficult to induce coolies to +take any steps to make themselves more comfortable. We're lucky to have +this fine weather. The mountain appears not to be intended for climbing. +I've no inclination to think about it in steps to the summit. +Nevertheless, we gaze much through field-glasses. E. is, generally +speaking, convex, steep in lower parts and slanting back to summit. Last +section of East arete[4] should go; but rocks up to the shoulder are +uninviting. An arete must join up here, coming down towards us and +connecting up with first peak to N.[5] There's no true North arete to +the summit, as we had supposed at first. It's more like this: + + [4] It had not yet been established that the true direction of this + arete is North-east. + + [5] i.e. the North Peak (Changtse). + +[Illustration] + +G. H. B. thinks little of the North-west arm. But I'm not so sure; much +easy going on that snow if we can get to it and rocks above probably +easier than they look--steep but broken. Are we seeing the true edge? I +wish some folk at home could see the precipice on this side--a grim +spectacle most unlike the long gentle snow slopes suggested by photos. +Amusing to think how one's vision of the last effort has changed; it +looked like crawling half-blind up easy snow, an even slope all the way +up from a camp on a flat snow shoulder; but it won't be that sort of +grind; we'll want climbers and not half-dazed ones; a tougher job than I +bargained for, sanguine as usual. + +E. is a rock mountain. + +Obviously we must get round to the West first. The Western glacier looks +as flat as this one. Perhaps we shall be able to walk round into +another cwm[6] on the far side of North-west buttress. + + [6] Cwm, combe or corry--the rounded head of a valley. + +_June_ 29.--Established First Advanced Camp. + +The start late, about 8 a.m., an hour later than ordered. Loads must be +arranged better if anything is to be done efficiently. Gyalzen's +response to being hustled is to tie knots or collect tent pegs--with no +idea of superintending operations. An exciting day with destination +unfixed. We speculated that the shelf on the left bank would resemble +that on right. A passage on stone-covered glacier unavoidable and bad +for coolies--perhaps to-day's loads were too heavy for this sort of +country. From breakfast place of 27th I went on with Gyalzen, following +up a fresh-water stream to the shelf; good going on this shelf for forty +minutes, with no sign of more water, and I decided to come back to the +stream. Just as we were turning I saw a pond of water and a spring, an +ideal place, and it's much better to be further on. Real good luck. Wind +blows down the glacier and the camp is well sheltered. Only crab that we +lose the sun early--4 p.m. to-day; but on the other hand it should hit +us very soon after sunrise. + +Coolies in between 3.30 and 4.30. Dorji Gompa first, stout fellow, with +a big load. They seem happy and interested.... It should now be possible +to carry reconnaissance well up the main glacier and to the basin +Westwards without moving further--once we get accustomed to this +elevation. + +_June_ 30.--A short day with second[7] party, following the shelf to a +corner which marks roughly the junction of the main glacier with its +Western branch. A clearing day after a good night; we found a good way +across to the opposite corner, about an hour across, and came back in +leisurely fashion. Neither B. nor I felt fit. + + [7] The coolies had been divided into three parties which were to + spend four or five days in the advanced camp by turns to be + trained in the practice of mountaineering while the rest supplied + this camp from our base. + + + + + CHAPTER XIII + + THE NORTHERN APPROACH--_continued_ + + +The reader will gather from these notes some idea of the whole nature of +our problem and the subjects of our most anxious thoughts. The camp +established on June 25 lasted us until July 8. Meanwhile the idea was +growing, the vision of Everest as a structural whole, and of the +glaciers and lower summits to North and West. This idea resembled the +beginning of an artist's painting, a mere rough design at the start, but +growing by steps of clearer definition in one part and another towards +the precise completion of a whole. For us the mountain parts defined +themselves in the mind as the result of various expeditions. We set out +to gain a point of view with particular questions to be answered; +partial answers and a new point of view stimulated more curiosity, other +questions, and again the necessity to reach a particular place whence we +imagined they might best be answered. And at the same time another aim +had to be kept in mind. The coolies, though mountain-men, were not +mountaineers. They had to be trained in the craft of mountaineering, in +treading safely on snow or ice in dangerous places, in climbing easy +rocks and most particularly in the use of rope and ice-axe--and this not +merely for our foremost needs, but to ensure that, whenever we were able +to launch an assault upon Mount Everest, and all would be put to the +most exhausting test, they should have that reserve strength of a +practised balance and ordered method on which security must ultimately +depend. + +On July 1 I set out with five coolies to reach the head of the great cwm +under the North face of Mount Everest. The snow on the upper glacier was +soft and made very heavy going. Bad weather came up and in a race +against the clouds we were beaten and failed to find out what happened +to the glacier at its Western head under the North-west arete. My view +of the col lying between Everest and the North Peak (Changtse)--the +North Col as we now began to call it, or in Tibetan Chang La--was also +unsatisfactory; but I saw enough to make out a broken glacier running up +eastwards towards the gap with steep and uninviting snow slopes under +the pass. I was now sure that before attempting to reach this col from +the Rongbuk Glacier, if ever we determined to reach it, we should have +to reconnoitre the other side and if possible find a more hopeful +alternative; moreover, from a nearer inspection of the slopes below the +North-west arete I was convinced that they could be chosen for an attack +only as a last resort; if anything were to be attempted here, we must +find a better way up from the East. + +I had vaguely hoped to bring the party home sufficiently fresh to climb +again on the following day. But the fatigue of going in deep snow for +three hours up the glacier, though we had been no higher than 19,100 +feet, had been too great, and again we had noticed only a slight relief +in coming down; it was a tired party that dragged back over the glacier +crossing and into camp at 6.15 p.m., thirteen hours after starting. + +July 3 was devoted to an expedition designed chiefly to take coolies on +to steeper ground and at the same time to explore the small glacier +which we had observed above us on the first day to the North-west; by +following up the terrace from our present camp we could now come to the +snout of it in half an hour or less. After working up the glacier we +made for a snow col between two high peaks. On reaching a bergschrund we +found above its upper lip hard ice, which continued no doubt to the +ridge. While Bullock looked after the party below I cut a staircase +slanting up to a small island of rock 100 feet away; from that security +I began to bring the party up. We had now the interesting experience of +seeing our coolies for the first time on real hard ice; it was not a +convincing spectacle, as they made their way up with the ungainly +movements of beginners; and though the last man never left the secure +anchorage of the bergschrund, the proportion of two Sahibs to five +coolies seemed lamentably weak, and when one man slipped from the steep +steps at an awkward corner, though Bullock was able to hold him, it was +clearly time to retire. But the descent was a better performance; the +coolies were apt pupils, and we felt that with practice on the glacier +the best of them should become safe mountaineers. And on this day we had +reached a height of 21,000 feet[8] from our camp at 17,500 feet. I had +the great satisfaction of observing that one could cut steps quite +happily at this altitude. The peak lying to the North of the col, which +had been our objective on this day, attracted our attention by its +position; we thought it should have a commanding view over all this +complicated country, and after a day in camp very pleasantly spent in +receiving a visit from Colonel Howard-Bury and Dr. Heron, set out on +July 5 determined to reach its summit. The start was made at 4.15 a.m. +in the first light, an hour earlier than usual; we proceeded up the +stone shoots immediately above our camp and after a halt for photography +at the glorious moment of sunrise had made 2,500 feet and reached the +high shoulder above us at 7 a.m. This place was connected with our peak +by a snowy col which had now to be reached by a long traverse over a +South-facing slope. Though the angle was not steep very little snow was +lying here, and where the ice was peeping through it was occasionally +necessary to cut steps. I felt it was a satisfactory performance to +reach the col at 9.30 a.m.; the coolies had come well, though one of +them was burdened with the quarter-plate camera; but evidently their +efforts had already tired them. Ahead of us was a long, curving snow +arete, slightly corniced and leading ultimately to a rocky shoulder. We +thought that once this shoulder was gained the summit would be within +our reach. Shortly after we went on two coolies dropped out, and by +11.30 a.m. the rest had given up the struggle. It was fortunate that +they fell out here and not later, for they were able to make their way +down in our tracks and regain the col below in safety. The angle +steepened as we went on very slowly now, but still steadily enough, +until we reached the rocks, a frail slatey structure with short +perpendicular pitches. From the shoulder onwards my memories are dim. I +have the impression of a summit continually receding from the position +imagined by sanguine hopes and of a task growing constantly more severe, +of steeper sides, of steps to be cut, of a dwindling pace, more frequent +little halts standing where we were, and of breathing quicker but no +less deep and always conscious; the respiratory engine had to be kept +running as the indispensable source of energy, and ever as we went on +more work was required of it. At last we found ourselves without an +alternative under an icy wall; but the ice was a delusion; in the soft +flaky substance smothering rocks behind it we had strength left to cut a +way up to the crest again, and after a few more steps were on the summit +itself. + + [8] Calculated from the readings of two aneroids, allowing a correction + for the height of the camp as established later by Major Wheeler. + +It was now 2.45 p.m. The aneroid used by Bullock, which, after +comparison with one of Howard-Bury's was supposed to read low, +registered 23,050 feet,[9] and we puffed out our chests as we examined +it, computing that we had risen from our camp over 5,500 feet. The views +both earlier in the day and at this moment were of the highest interest. +To the East we had confirmed our impression of the North Peak as having +a high ridge stretching eastwards and forming the side of whatever +valley connected with the Arun River in this direction; the upper parts +of Everest's North face had been clearly visible for a long time, and we +could now be certain that they lay back at no impossibly steep angle, +more particularly above the North col and up to the North-east shoulder. +All we had seen immediately to the West of the mountain had been of the +greatest interest, and had suggested the idea that the crinkled summit +there might be connected not directly with Mount Everest itself, but +only by way of the South peak. And finally we now saw the connections of +all that lay around us with the two great triangulated peaks away to the +West, Gyachung Kang, 25,990 and Cho-Uyo, 26,870 feet. While complaining +of the clouds which had come up as usual during the morning to spoil our +view we were not dissatisfied with the expansion of our knowledge and we +were elated besides to be where we were. But our situation was far from +perfectly secure. The ascent had come very near to exhausting our +strength; for my part I felt distinctly mountain-sick; we might reflect +that we should not be obliged to cut more steps, but we should have to +proceed downwards with perfect accuracy of balance and a long halt was +desirable. However, the clouds were now gathering about us, dark +thunder-clouds come up from the North and threatening; it was clear we +must not wait; after fifteen minutes on the summit we started down at +three o'clock. Fortune favoured us. The wind was no more than a breeze; +a few flakes of snow were unnoticed in our flight; the temperature was +mild; the storm's malice was somehow dissipated with no harm done. We +rejoined the coolies before five o'clock and were back in our camp at +7.15 p.m., happy to have avoided a descent in the dark. + + [9] The survey established the height of this peak as 22,520 feet, + and our subsequent experience suggests that aneroid barometers + habitually read too high when approaching the upper limit of + their record. + +Our next plan, based on our experience of this long mountain ridge, was +to practise the coolies in the use of crampons on hard snow and ice. But +snow fell heavily on the night of the 6th; we deferred our project. It +was the beginning of worse weather; the monsoon was breaking in earnest. +And though crampons afterwards came up to our camps wherever we went +they were not destined to help us, and in the event were never used. + +On July 8 we moved up with a fresh party of seven coolies, taking only +our lightest tents and no more than was necessary for three nights, in +the hope that by two energetic expeditions we should reach the Western +cwm which, we suspected, must exist on the far side of the North-west +arete, and learn enough to found more elaborate plans for exploring this +side of the mountain should they turn out to be necessary. Again we were +fortunate in finding a good camping ground, better even than the first, +for the floor of this shelf was grassy and soft, and as we were looking +South across the West Rongbuk Glacier we had the sun late as well as +early. But we were not completely happy. A Mummery tent may be well +enough in fair weather, though even then its low roof suggests a +recumbent attitude; it makes a poor dining-room, even for two men, and +is a cold shelter from snow. Moreover, the cold and draught discouraged +our Primus stove--but I leave to the imagination of those who have +learned by experience the nausea that comes from the paraffin fumes and +one's dirty hands and all the mess that may be. It was chiefly a +question of incompetence, no doubt, but there was no consolation in +admitting that. In the morning, with the weather still very thick and +the snow lying about us we saw the error of our ways. Is it not a first +principle of mountaineering to be as comfortable as possible as long as +one can? And how long should we require for these operations in such +weather? It was clear that our Second Advanced Camp must be organised on +a more permanent basis. On the 9th therefore I went down to the base and +moved it up on the following day so as to be within reach of our present +position by one long march. The new place greatly pleased me; it was +much more sheltered than the lower site and the tents were pitched on +flat turf where a clear spring flowed out from the hillside and only a +quarter of an hour below the end of the glacier. Meanwhile Bullock +brought up the Whymper tents and more stores from the First Advanced +Camp, which was now established as a half-way house with our big 80-foot +tent standing in solemn grandeur to protect all that remained there. On +July 10 I was back at the Second Advanced Camp and felt satisfied that +the new arrangements, and particularly the presence of our cook, would +give us a fair measure of comfort. + +But we were still unable to move next day. The snowfall during the night +was the heaviest we had yet seen and continued into the next day. +Probably the coolies were not sorry for a rest after some hard work; and +we reckoned to make a long expedition so soon as the weather should +clear. Towards evening on the 10th the clouds broke. Away to the +South-west of us and up the glacier was the barrier range on the +frontier of Nepal, terminated by one great mountain, Pumori, over 24,000 +feet high. To the West Rongbuk Glacier they present the steepest slopes +on which snow can lie; the crest above these slopes is surprisingly +narrow and the peaks which it joins are fantastically shaped. This group +of mountains, always beautiful and often in the highest degree +impressive, was now to figure for our eyes as the principal in that +oft-repeated drama which seems always to be a first night, fresh and +full of wonder whenever we are present to watch it. The clinging +curtains were rent and swirled aside and closed again, lifted and +lowered and flung wide at last; sunlight broke through with sharp +shadows and clean edges revealed--and we were there to witness the +amazing spectacle. Below the terrible mountains one white smooth island +rose from the quiet sea of ice and was bathed in the calm full light of +the Western sun before the splendour failed. + +With hopes inspired by the clearing views of this lovely evening, we +started at 5.30 a.m. on July 12 to follow the glacier round to the South +and perhaps enter the Western cwm. The glacier was a difficult problem. +It looked easy enough to follow up the medial moraine to what we called +the Island, a low mountain pushed out from the frontier ridge into the +great sea of ice. But the way on Southwards from there would have been a +gamble with the chances of success against us. We decided to cross the +glacier directly to the South with a certainty that once we had reached +the moraine on the other side we should have a clear way before us. It +was exhilarating to set out again under a clear sky, and we were +delighted to think that a large part of this task was accomplished when +the sun rose full of warmth and cheerfulness. The far side was cut off +by a stream of white ice, so narrow here that we expected with a little +good fortune to get through it in perhaps half an hour. We entered it by +a frozen stream leading into a bay with high white towers and ridges +above us. A side door led through into a further bay which took us in +the confidence of success almost through the maze. With some vigorous +blows we cut our way up the final wall and then found ourselves on a +crest overlooking the moraine with a sheer ice-precipice of about 100 +feet below us. + +The only hope was to come down again and work round to the right. Some +exciting climbing and much hard work brought us at length to the foot of +the cliffs and on the right side. The performance had taken us two and a +half hours and it was now nearly ten o'clock. Clouds had already come up +to obscure the mountains, and from the point of view of a prolonged +exploration the day was clearly lost. Our course now was to make the +best of it and yet get back so early to camp that we could set forth +again on the following day. We had the interest, after following the +moraine to the corner where the glacier bends Southwards, of making our +way into the middle of the ice and finding out how unpleasant it can be +to walk on a glacier melted everywhere into little valleys and ridges +and covered with fresh snow. We got back at 3 p.m. + +[Illustration: SUMMIT OF MOUNT EVEREST AND NORTH PEAK from the Island, +West Rongbuk Glacier.] + +On July 13, determined to make good, we started at 4.15 a.m. With the +knowledge gained on the previous day and the use of 250 feet of spare +rope we were able to find our way through the ice pinnacles and reached +the far moraine in less than an hour and a half; and we had the further +good fortune when we took to the snow to find it now in such good +condition that we were able to walk on the surface without using our +snow-shoes. As we proceeded up the slopes where the snow steepened the +weather began to thicken and we halted at 8 a.m. in a thick mist with a +nasty wind and some snow falling. It was a cold halt. We were already +somewhat disillusioned about our glacier, which seemed to be much more +narrow than was to be expected if it were really a high-road to the +Western cwm, and as we went on with the wind blowing the snow into our +faces so that nothing could be clearly distinguished we had the sense of +a narrowing place and a perception of the even surface being broken up +into large crevasses on one side and the other. At 9.30 we could go no +further. For a few hundred yards we had been traversing a slope which +rose above us on our left, and now coming out on to a little spur we +stood peering down through the mist and knew ourselves to be on the edge +of a considerable precipice. Not a single feature of the landscape +around us was even faintly visible in the cloud. For a time we stayed on +with the dim hope of better things and then reluctantly retired, baffled +and bewildered. + +Where had we been? It was impossible to know; but at least it was +certain there was no clear way to the West side of Everest. We could +only suppose that we had reached a col on the frontier of Nepal. + +A further disappointment awaited us when we reached camp at 1 p.m. I had +made a simple plan to ensure our supply of gobar[10] and rations from +the base camp. The supplies had not come up and it was not the sort of +weather to be without a fire for cooking. + + [10] In the Rongbuk Valley there was no wood and our supply of yak dung + had to come up from Choebuk. + +I shall now proceed to quote my diary:-- + +_July_ 14.--A day of rest, but with no republican demonstrations. Very +late breakfast after some snow in the night. Piquet after tiffin and +again after dinner was very consoling. The little streams we found here +on our arrival are drying up; it seems that not much snow can have +fallen higher. + +_July_ 15.--Started 6 a.m. to explore the glacier to West and +North-west. A very interesting view just short of the Island; the South +peak appearing. Fifty minutes there for photos; then hurried on in the +hope of seeing more higher up and at a greater distance. It is really a +dry glacier here but with snow frozen over the surface making many +pitfalls. We had a good many wettings in cold water up to the knees. The +clouds were just coming up as we halted on the medial moraine. I waited +there in hope of better views, while Bullock took on the coolies. They +put on snow-shoes for the first time and seemed to go very well in them. +Ultimately I struggled across the glacier, bearing various burdens, to +meet them as they came down on a parallel moraine. Snow-shoes seemed +useful, but very awkward to leap in. Bullock went a long way up the +glacier, rising very slightly towards the peak Cho-Uyo, 26,870 feet. +Evidently there is a flat pass over into Nepal near this peak, but he +did not quite reach it. + +The topographical mystery centres about the West Peak. Is there an arete +connecting this with the great rock peak South of Everest or is it +joined up with the col we reached the day before yesterday? The shape of +the West cwm and the question of its exit will be solved if we can +answer these questions. Bullock and I are agreed that the glacier there +has probably an exit on the Nepal side. It all remains extremely +puzzling. We saw the North col quite clearly to-day, and again the way +up from there does not look difficult. + +A finer day and quite useful. Chitayn[11] started out with us and went +back. He appears to be seedy, but has been quite hopeless as Sirdar down +in the base camp and is without authority. It is a great handicap +having no one to look after things down there. Chitayn is returning to +Tingri to-morrow. I hope he will cheer up again. + + [11] A useful coolie with experience in the Indian Army. I had used him + as second Sirdar. + +_July_ 16.--I made an early start with two coolies at 2.45 a.m. and +followed the medial moraine to the Island. Reached the near summit at +sunrise about 5.30. Difficult to imagine anything more exciting than the +clear view of all peaks. Those near me to the South-west quickly bathed +in sun and those to the South and East showing me their dark faces. To +the left of our col of July 13 a beautiful sharp peak stood in front of +the gap between Everest and the North Peak, Changtse. Over this col I +saw the North-west buttress of Everest hiding the lower half of the West +face which must be a tremendous precipice of rock. The last summit of +the South Peak, Lhotse, was immediately behind the shoulder; to the +right (i.e. West) of it I saw a terrible arete stretching a long +distance before it turned upwards in my direction and towards the West +Peak. This mountain dropped very abruptly to the North, indicating a big +gap on the far side of our col. There was the mysterious cwm lying in +cold shadow long after the sun warmed me! But I now half understand it. +The col under the North-west buttress at the head of the Rongbuk Glacier +is one entrance, and our col of July 13, with how big a drop one knows +not, another. + +I stayed till 7 a.m. taking photos, a dozen plates exposed in all. The +sky was heavy and a band of cloud had come across Everest before I left. + +Back to breakfast towards 9 a.m. A pleasant morning collecting flowers, +not a great variety but some delicious honey scents and an occasional +cheerful blue poppy. + +_July_ 17.--More trouble with our arrangements. The Sirdar has muddled +the rations and the day is wasted. However, the weather is bad, constant +snow showers from 1 to 8 p.m., so that I am somewhat reconciled to this +reverse. + +_July_ 18.--Yesterday's plan carried out--to move up a camp with light +tents and make a big push over into the West cwm; eight coolies to +carry the loads. But the loads have been too heavy. What can be cut out +next time? I cannot see many unnecessary articles. Heavy snow showers +fell as we came up and we had rather a cheerless encampment, but with +much heaving of stones made good places for the tents. A glorious night +before we turned in. Dark masses of cloud were gathered round the peak +above us; below, the glacier was clear and many splendid mountains were +half visible. The whole scene was beautifully lit by a bright moon. + +_July_ 19.--Started 3 a.m.; still some cloud, particularly to the West. +The moon just showed over the mountains in that direction which cast +their strange black shadows on the snowfield. One amazing black tooth +was standing up against the moonlight. No luck on the glacier and we had +to put on snow-shoes at once. An exciting walk. I so much feared the +cloud would spoil all. It was just light enough to get on without +lanterns after the moon went down. At dawn almost everything was +covered, but not by heavy clouds. Like guilty creatures of darkness +surprised by the light they went scattering away as we came up and the +whole scene opened out. The North ridge of Everest was clear and bright +even before sunrise. We reached the col at 5 a.m., a fantastically +beautiful scene; and we looked across into the West cwm at last, +terribly cold and forbidding under the shadow of Everest. It was nearly +an hour after sunrise before the sun hit the West Peak. + +But another disappointment--it is a big drop about 1,500 feet down to +the glacier, and a hopeless precipice. I was hoping to get away to the +left and traverse into the cwm; that too quite hopeless. However, we +have seen this Western glacier and are not sorry we have not to go up +it. It is terribly steep and broken. In any case work on this side could +only be carried out from a base in Nepal, so we have done with the +Western side. It was not a very likely chance that the gap between +Everest and the South Peak could be reached from the West. From what we +have seen now I do not much fancy it would be possible, even could one +get up the glacier. + +[Illustration: MOUNT EVEREST FROM THE RONGBUK GLACIER nine miles +north-west.] + +We saw a lovely group of mountains away to the South in Nepal. I wonder +what they are and if anything is known about them. It is a big world! + + * * * * * + +With this expedition on July 19 our reconnaissance of these parts had +ended. We proceeded at once to move down our belongings; on July 20 all +tents and stores were brought down to the base camp and we had said +good-bye to the West Rongbuk Glacier. + +So far as we were concerned with finding a way up the mountain, little +enough had been accomplished; and yet our growing view of the mountain +had been steadily leading to one conviction. If ever the mountain were +to be climbed, the way would not lie along the whole length of any one +of its colossal ridges. Progress could only be made along comparatively +easy ground, and anything like a prolonged sharp crest or a series of +towers would inevitably bar the way simply by the time which would be +required to overcome such obstacles. But the North arete coming down to +the gap between Everest and the North Peak, Changtse, is not of this +character. From the horizontal structure of the mountain there is no +excrescence of rock pinnacles in this part and the steep walls of rock +which run across the North face are merged with it before they reach +this part, which is comparatively smooth and continuous, a bluntly +rounded edge. We had still to see other parts of the mountain, but +already it seemed unlikely that we would find more favourable ground +than this. The great question before us now was to be one of access. +Could the North col be reached from the East and how could we attain +this point? + +At the very moment when we reached the base camp I received a note from +Colonel Howard-Bury telling us that his departure from Tingri was fixed +for July 23 and that he would be sleeping at Choebuk in the valley below +us two days later on his way to Kharta. It was now an obvious plan to +synchronise our movements with his. + +Besides the branch which we had already explored the Rongbuk Glacier has +yet another which joins the main stream from the East about 10 miles +from Everest. It had always excited our curiosity, and I now proposed to +explore it in the initial stages of a journey across the unknown ridges +and valleys which separated us from Kharta. I calculated that we should +want eight days' provisions, and that we should just have time to +organise a camp in advance and start on the 25th with a selected party, +sending down the rest to join Howard-Bury. And it was an integral part +of the scheme that on one of the intervening days I should ascend a spur +to the North of the glacier where we proposed to march in order to +obtain a better idea of this country to the East. But we were now in the +thickest of the monsoon weather; the 21st and 22nd were both wet days +and we woke on the 23rd to find snow all around us nearly a foot deep; +it had come down as low as 16,000 feet. It was hardly the weather to cut +ourselves adrift and wander among the uncharted spurs of Everest, and we +thought of delaying our start. Further it transpired that our +organisation was not running smoothly--it never did run smoothly so long +as we employed, as an indispensable Sirdar, a whey-faced treacherous +knave whose sly and calculated villainy too often, before it was +discovered, deprived our coolies of their food, and whose acquiescence +in his own illimitable incompetence was only less disgusting than his +infamous duplicity. It was the hopeless sense that things were bound to +go wrong if we trusted to this man's services--and we had no one else at +that time through whom it was possible to order supplies from the +natives--that turned the scale and spoilt the plan. Even so, in the +natural course of events, I should have obtained my preliminary view. +But on the night of the 22nd I received from Howard-Bury an extremely +depressing piece of news, that all my photos taken with the +quarter-plate camera had failed--for the good reason that the plates +had been inserted back to front, a result of ignorance and +misunderstanding. It was necessary as far as possible to repair this +hideous error, and the next two days were spent in a photographic +expedition. And so it came about that we saw no more until a much later +date of the East Rongbuk Glacier. Had our plan been carried out even in +the smallest part by a cursory survey of what lay ahead, I should not +now have to tell a story which is lamentably incomplete in one respect. +For the East Rongbuk Glacier is one way, and the obvious way when you +see it, to the North Col. It was discovered by Major Wheeler before ever +we saw it, in the course of his photographic survey; but neither he, nor +Bullock, nor I have ever traversed its whole length. + +[Illustration] + +We should have attached more importance, no doubt, in the early stages +of reconnaissance, to the East Rongbuk Glacier had we not been deceived +in two ways by appearances. It had been an early impression left in my +mind, at all events, by what we saw from Shiling, that a deep valley +came down to the East as the R.G.S. map suggests, draining into the Arun +and having the North-east arete of Everest as its right bank at the +start. Further, the head of this valley seemed to be, as one would +expect, the gap between Everest and the first peak to the North which +itself has also an Eastern arm to form the left bank of such a valley. +The impression was confirmed not only by an excellent view from a hill +above Ponglet (two days before Tingri and about 35 miles North of +Everest), but by all nearer and more recent views of the mountains East +of the Rongbuk Glacier. The idea that a glacier running parallel to the +Rongbuk started from the slopes of Everest itself and came so far to +turn Westward in the end hardly occurred to us at this time. From +anything we had seen there was no place for such a glacier, and it was +almost unimaginable that the great mountain range running North from the +North Col, Chang La, was in no part a true watershed. We saw the East +Rongbuk Glacier stretching away to the East and perceived also a bay to +the South. But how, if this bay were of any importance, could the +glacier stream be so small? We had found it too large to cross, it is +true, late in the afternoon of our first expedition, but only just too +large; and again it seems now an unbelievable fact that so large an area +of ice should give so small a volume of water. The glacier streams are +remarkably small in all the country we explored, but this one far more +surprisingly small than any other we saw. + +[Illustration: SUMMIT OF MOUNT EVEREST AND SOUTH PEAK from the Island, +West Rongbuk Glacier.] + +It was some measure of consolation in these circumstances to make use of +a gleam of fine weather. When the bad news arrived on July 22 about the +failure of my photographs we had ceased to hear the raindrops pattering +on the tent, but could feel well enough when we pushed up the roof that +snow was lying on the outer fly. It was a depressing evening. I thought +of the many wonderful occasions when I had caught the mountain as I +thought just at the right moment, its moments of most lovely +splendour--of all those moments that would never return and of the +record of all we had seen which neither ourselves nor perhaps anyone +else would ever see again. I was not a cheerful companion. Moreover, +from the back of my mind I was warned, even in the first despair of +disappointment, that I should have to set out to repair the damage so +far as I was able, and I hated the thought of this expedition. These +were our days of rest after a month's high-living; we were off with one +adventure and on with another; tents, stores, everything had been +brought down to our base and we had said good-bye to the West Rongbuk +Glacier. The clouds were still about us next morning and snow lay on the +ground 9 inches deep. But by midday much of the snow had melted at our +level and the clouds began to clear. At 2 p.m. we started up with the +Mummery tents and stores for one night. I made my way with one coolie to +a spot some little distance above our First Advanced Camp. As we pushed +up the stormy hillside the last clouds gathered about Everest, and +lingering in the deep North cwm were dispersed and the great +white-mantled mountains lay all clear in the light of a glorious +evening. Before we raced down to join Bullock my first dozen plates had +been duly exposed; whatever the balance of hopes and fears for a fine +morning to-morrow something had been done already to make good. + +My ultimate destination was the Island which I had found before to +command some of the most splendid and most instructive views. I was +close up under the slopes of this little mountain before sunrise next +morning. It has rarely been my lot to experience in the course of a few +hours so much variety of expectation, of disappointment and of hope +deferred, before the issue is decided. A pall of cloud lying like a +blanket above the glacier was no good omen after the clear weather; as +the sun got up a faint gleam on the ice encouraged me to go on; +presently the grey clouds began to move and spread in all directions +until I was enveloped and saw nothing. Suddenly the frontier crest came +out and its highest peak towering fantastically above me; I turned about +and saw to the West and North-west the wide glacier in the sun--beyond +it Gyachung Kang and Cho-Uyo, 26,870 to 25,990 feet: but Everest +remained hidden, obscured by an impenetrable cloud. I watched the +changing shadows on the white snow and gazed helplessly into the grey +mass continually rolled up from Nepal into the deep hollow beyond the +glacier head. But a breeze came up from the East; the curtain was +quietly withdrawn; Everest and the South Peak stood up against the clear +blue sky. The camera was ready and I was satisfied. A few minutes later +the great cloud rolled back and I saw no more. + +Meanwhile Bullock had not been idle. He paid a visit to the North cwm, +more successful than mine in July, for he reached the pass leading over +into Nepal under the North-west arete and had perfectly clear views of +Chang La, of which he brought back some valuable photos. But perhaps an +even greater satisfaction than reckoning the results of what we both +felt was a successful day was ours, when we listened in our tents that +evening at the base camp to the growling of thunder and reflected that +the fair interval already ended had been caught and turned to good +account. + +In snow and sleet and wind next morning, July 25, our tents were struck. +We turned our backs on the Rongbuk Glacier and hastened along the path +to Choebuk. The valley was somehow changed as we came down, and more +agreeable to the eye. Presently I discovered the reason. The grass had +grown on the hillside since we went up. We were coming down to summer +green. + + + + + CHAPTER XIV + + THE EASTERN APPROACH + + +The new base at Kharta established by Colonel Howard-Bury at the end of +July was well suited to meet the needs of climbers, and no less +agreeable, I believe, to all members of the Expedition. At the moderate +elevation of 12,300 feet and in an almost ideal climate, where the air +was always warm but never hot or stuffy, where the sun shone brightly +but never fiercely, and clouds floated about the hills and brought +moisture from the South, but never too much rain, here the body could +find a delicious change when tired of the discipline of high-living, and +in a place so accessible to traders from Nepal could easily be fed with +fresh food. But perhaps after life in the Rongbuk Valley, with hardly a +green thing to look at and too much of the endless unfriendly +stone-shoots and the ugly waste of glaciers, and even after visions of +sublime snow-beauty, a change was more needed for the mind. It was a +delight to be again in a land of flowery meadows and trees and crops; to +look into the deep green gorge only a mile away where the Arun goes down +into Nepal was to be reminded of a rich vegetation and teeming life, a +contrast full of pleasure with Nature's niggardliness in arid, +wind-swept Tibet; and the forgotten rustle of wind in the willows came +back as a soothing sound full of grateful memories, banishing the least +thought of disagreeable things. + +The Kharta base, besides, was convenient for our reconnaissance. Below +us a broad glacier stream joined the Arun above the gorge; it was the +first met with since we had left the Rongbuk stream; it came down from +the West and therefore, presumably, from Everest. To follow it up was +an obvious plan as the next stage in our activities. After four clear +days for idleness and reorganisation at Kharta we set forth again on +August 2 with this object. The valley of our glacier stream would lead +us, we supposed, to the mountain; in two days, perhaps, we should see +Chang La ahead of us. A local headman provided by the Jongpen and +entrusted with the task of leading us to Chomolungma would show us where +it might be necessary to cross the stream and, in case the valley +forked, would ensure us against a bad mistake. + +The start on this day was not propitious. We had enjoyed the sheltered +ease at Kharta; the coolies were dilatory and unwilling; the +distribution of loads was muddled; there was much discontent about +rations, and our Sirdar was no longer trusted by the men. At a village +where we stopped to buy tsampa some 3 miles up the valley I witnessed a +curious scene. As the tsampa was sold it had to be measured. The Sirdar +on his knees before a large pile of finely ground flour was ladling it +into a bag with a disused Quaker Oats tin. Each measure-full was counted +by all the coolies standing round in a circle; they were making sure of +having their full ration. Nor was this all; they wanted to see as part +of their supplies, not only tsampa and rice, but tea, sugar, butter, +cooking fat and meat on the Army scale. This was a new demand altogether +beyond the bargain made with them. The point, of course, had to be +clearly made, that for their so-called luxuries I must be trusted to do +my best with the surplus money (100 tankas or thereabouts) remaining +over from their allowances after buying the flour and rice. These luxury +supplies were always somewhat of a difficulty; the coolies had been very +short of such things on the Northern side--we had no doubt that some of +the ration money had found its way into the Sirdar's pockets. It would +be possible, we hoped, to prevent this happening again. But even so the +matter was not simple. What the coolies wanted was not always to be +bought, or at the local price it was too expensive. On this occasion a +bountiful supply of chillies solved our difficulty. After too many +words, and not all in the best temper, the sight of so many of the red, +bright, attractive chillies prevailed; at length my orders were obeyed; +the coolies took up their loads and we started off again. + +[Illustration: PETHANG-TSE.] + +With so much dissatisfaction in the air it was necessary for Bullock and +me to drive rather than lead the party. In a valley where there are many +individual farms and little villages, the coolies' path is well beset +with pitfalls and with gin. Without discipline the Sahib might easily +find himself at the end of a day's march with perhaps only half his +loads. It was a slow march this day; we had barely accomplished 8 miles, +when Bullock and I with the hindmost came round a shoulder on the right +bank about 4 p.m. and found the tents pitched on a grassy shelf and +looking up a valley where a stream came in from our left. The Tibetan +headman and his Tibetan coolies who were carrying some of our loads had +evidently no intention of going further, and after some argument I was +content to make the stipulation that if the coolies (our own as well as +the Tibetans) chose to encamp after half a day's march, they should do a +double march next day. + +The prospect was far from satisfactory: we were at a valley junction of +which we had heard tell, and the headman pointed the way to the left. +Here indeed was a valley, but no glacier stream. It was a pleasant green +nullah covered with rhododendrons and juniper, but presented nothing +that one may expect of an important valley. Moreover, so far as I could +learn, there were no villages in this direction: I had counted on +reaching one that night with the intention of buying provisions, more +particularly goats and butter. Where were we going and what should we +find? The headman announced that it would take us five more days to +reach Chomolungma: he was told that he must bring us there in two, and +so the matter was left. + +If the coolies behaved badly on this first day, they certainly made up +for it on the second. The bed of the little valley which we now +followed rose steeply ahead of us, and the path along the hill slopes on +its left bank soon took us up beyond the rhododendrons. We came at last +for a mid-day halt to the shores of a lake. It was the first I had seen +in the neighbourhood of Everest; a little blue lake, perhaps 600 yards +long, set on a flat shelf up there among the clouds and rocks, a +sympathetic place harbouring a wealth of little rock plants on its steep +banks; and as our present height by the aneroid was little less than +17,000 feet, we were assured that on this Eastern side of Everest we +should find Nature in a gentler mood. But we were not satisfied with our +direction; we were going too much to the South. Through the mists we had +seen nothing to help us. For a few moments some crags had appeared to +the left looming surprisingly big; but that was our only peep, and it +told us nothing. Perhaps from the pass ahead of us we should have better +fortune. + +At the Langma La when we reached it we found ourselves to be well 4,000 +feet above our camp of the previous night. We had followed a track, but +not always a smooth one, and as we stayed in hopes of a clearing view, I +began to wonder whether the Tibetan coolies would manage to arrive with +their loads; they were notably less strong than our Sherpas and yet had +been burdened with the wet heavy tents. Meanwhile we saw nothing above +our own height. We had hoped that once our col was crossed we should +bear more directly Westward again; but the Tibetan headman when he came +up with good news of his coolies, pointed our way across a deep valley +below us, and the direction of his pointing was nearly due South. +Everest, we imagined, must be nearly due West of Kharta, and our +direction at the end of this second day by a rough dead reckoning would +be something like South-west. We were more than ever mystified. +Fortunately our difficulties with the coolies seemed to be ended. Two of +our own men stayed at the pass to relieve the Tibetans of the tents and +bring them quickly on. Grumblings had subsided in friendliness, and all +marched splendidly on this day. They were undepressed with the gloomy +circumstance of again encamping in the rain. + +In the Sahibs' tent that night there took place a long and fragmentary +conversation with the headman, our Sirdar acting as interpreter. We +gained one piece of information: there were two Chomolungmas. It was not +difficult to guess that, if Everest were one, the other must be Makalu. +We asked to be guided to the furthest Chomolungma. + +The morning of August 4 was not more favourable to our reconnaissance. +We went down steeply to the valley bed, crossed a stream and a rickety +bridge, and wound on through lovely meadows and much dwarf rhododendron +till we came to the end of a glacier and mounted by its left bank. +Towards mid-day the weather showed signs of clearing; suddenly on our +left across the glacier we saw gigantic precipices looming through the +clouds. We guessed they must belong in some way to Makalu. We were told +that this was the first Chomolungma, while the valley we were now +following would lead us to the other. It was easy to conclude that one +valley, this one, must come up on the North side of Makalu all the way +to Everest. But we saw no more. In a few moments the grey clouds blowing +swiftly up from below had enveloped us, rain began to fall heavily, and +when eventually we came to broad meadows above the glaciers, where yaks +were grazing and Tibetan tents were pitched, we were content to stop. At +least we should have the advantage here of good butter and cream from +this dairy farm. There was indeed no point in going farther; we had no +desire to run our heads against the East face of Everest; we must now +wait for a view. + +The weather signs were decidedly more hopeful as I looked out of our +tent next morning, and we decided at once to spend the day in some sort +of reconnaissance up the valley. Presently away at the head of it we saw +the clouds breaking about the mountain-sides. Everest itself began to +clear; the great North-east arete came out, cutting the sky to the +right; and little by little the whole Eastern face was revealed to us. + +As I recall now our first impression of the amazing scenery around us, I +seem chiefly to remember the fresh surprise and vivid delight which, for +all we had seen before, seemed a new sensation. Even the map of the Kama +Valley, now that we have it, may stir the imagination. Besides Everest +itself the crest of the South Peak, 28,000 feet high, and its prodigious +South-east shoulder overlook the Western end; while Makalu, 12 miles +from Everest, thrusts out Northwards a great arm and another peak to +choke the exit; so that whereas the frontier ridge from Everest to +Makalu goes in a South-easterly direction, the Kangshung Glacier in the +main valley runs nearly due East. In this spacious manner three of the +five highest summits in the world overlook the Kama Valley. + +And we now saw a scene of magnificence and splendour even more +remarkable than the facts suggest. Among all the mountains I have seen, +and, if we may judge by photographs, all that ever have been seen, +Makalu is incomparable for its spectacular and rugged grandeur. It was +significant to us that the astonishing precipices rising above us on the +far side of the glacier as we looked across from our camp, a terrific +awe-inspiring sweep of snow-bound rocks, were the sides not so much of +an individual mountain, but rather of a gigantic bastion or outwork +defending Makalu. At the broad head of the Kama Valley the two summits +of Everest are enclosed between the North-east arete and the South-east +arete bending round from the South Peak; below them is a basin of +tumbled ice well marked by a number of moraines and receiving a series +of tributaries pouring down between the buttresses which support the +mountain faces in this immense cirque. Perhaps the astonishing charm and +beauty here lie in the complications half hidden behind a mask of +apparent simplicity, so that one's eye never tires of following up the +lines of the great aretes, of following down the arms pushed out from +their great shoulders, and of following along the broken edge of the +hanging glacier covering the upper half of this Eastern face of Everest +so as to determine at one point after another its relation with the +buttresses below and with their abutments against the rocks which it +covers. But for me the most magnificent and sublime in mountain scenery +can be made lovelier by some more tender touch; and that, too, is added +here. When all is said about Chomolungma, the Goddess Mother of the +World, and about Chomo Uri, the Goddess of the Turquoise Mountain, I +come back to the valley, the valley bed itself, the broad pastures, +where our tents lay, where cattle grazed and where butter was made, the +little stream we followed up to the valley head, wandering along its +well-turfed banks under the high moraine, the few rare plants, +saxifrages, gentians and primulas, so well watered there, and a soft, +familiar blueness in the air which even here may charm us. Though I bow +to the goddesses I cannot forget at their feet a gentler spirit than +theirs, a little shy perhaps, but constant in the changing winds and +variable moods of mountains and always friendly. + +[Illustration: SUMMIT OF MAKALU.] + +The deviation from our intended line of approach involved by entering +the Kama Valley was not one which we were likely to regret. In so far as +our object was to follow up a glacier to the North Col we were now on +the wrong side of a watershed. A spur of mountains continues Eastwards +from the foot of Everest's North-east arete; these were on our right as +we looked up the Kama Valley; the glacier of our quest must lie on the +far side of them. But the pursuit of this glacier was not our sole +object. We had also to examine both the East face and North-east arete +of our mountain and determine the possibilities of attack on this side. +A plan was now made to satisfy us in all ways. We chose as our objective +a conspicuous snowy summit, Carpo-ri, on the watershed and apparently +the second to the East from the foot of the North-east arete. Could we +climb it we should not only see over into the valley North of us and up +to Chang La itself, we hoped, but also examine, from the point most +convenient for judging the steepness of its slopes, the whole of the +Eastern side of Mount Everest. + +On August 6 the Whymper tents were taken up, and a camp was made under a +moraine at about 17,500 feet, where a stream flows quietly through a +flat space before plunging steeply down into the valley. In this +sheltered spot we bid defiance to the usual snowstorm of the afternoon; +perhaps as night came on and snow was still falling we were vaguely +disquieted, but we refused to believe in anything worse than the +heavens' passing spite, and before we put out our candles the weather +cleared. We went out into the keen air; it was a night of early moons. +Mounting a little rise of stones and faintly crunching under our feet +the granular atoms of fresh fallen snow we were already aware of some +unusual loveliness in the moment and the scenes. We were not kept +waiting for the supreme effects; the curtain was withdrawn. Rising from +the bright mists Mount Everest above us was immanent, vast, +incalculable--no fleeting apparition of elusive dream-form: nothing +could have been more set and permanent, stedfast like Keats's star, "in +lone splendour hung aloft the night," a watcher of all the nights, +diffusing, it seemed universally, an exalted radiance. + +It is the property of all that is most sublime in mountain scenery to be +uniquely splendid, or at least to seem so, and it is commonly the fate +of the sublime in this sort very soon to be mixed with what is trivial. +Not infrequently we had experience of wonderful moments; it is always +exciting to spend a night under the stars. And such a situation may be +arranged quite comfortably; lying with his head but just within the tent +a man has but to stir in his sleep to see, at all events, half the +starry sky. Then perhaps thoughts come tumbling from the heavens and +slip in at the tent-door; his dozing is an ecstasy: until, at length, +the alarm-watch sounds; and after?... Mean considerations din it all +away, all that delight. On the morning of August 7 the trivial, with us, +preponderated. Something more than the usual inertia reigned in our +frozen camp at 2 a.m. The cook was feeling unwell; the coolies prolonged +their minutes of grace after the warning shout, dallied with the thought +of meeting the cold air, procrastinated, drew the blankets more closely +round them, and--snored once more. An expedition over the snow to the +outlying tents by a half-clad Sahib, who expects to enjoy at least the +advantage of withdrawing himself at the last moment from the friendly +down-bag, is calculated to disturb the recumbency of others; and a +kick-off in this manner to the day's work is at all events exhilarating. +The task of extricating our frozen belongings, where they lay and ought +not to have lain, was performed with alacrity if not with zeal; feet did +not loiter over slippery boulders as we mounted the moraine, and in +spite of the half-hour lost, or gained, we were well up by sunrise. Even +before the first glimmer of dawn the snow-mantled, slumbering monsters +around us had been somehow touched to life by a faint blue light showing +their form and presence--a light that changed as the day grew to a pale +yellow on Everest and then to a bright blue-grey before it flamed all +golden as the sun hit the summit and the shadow crept perceptibly down +the slope until the whole mountain stood bare and splendid in the +morning glory. With some premonition of what was in store for us we had +already halted to enjoy the scene, and I was able to observe exactly how +the various ridges and summits caught the sun. It was remarkable that +while Everest was never, for a moment, pink, Makalu was tinged with the +redder shades, and the colour of the sky in that direction was a livid +Chinese blue red-flushed. Its bearing from us was about South-east by +South, and its distance nearly twice that of Everest, which lay chiefly +to the South-west. + +The first crux of the expedition before us would evidently be the ascent +of a steep wall up to the conspicuous col lying East of our mountain. +The least laborious way was offered by an outcrop of rocks. The obstacle +looked decidedly formidable and the coolies had little or no experience +of rock-climbing. But it proved a pleasure reminiscent of many good +moments once again to be grasping firm granite and to be encouraging +novices to tread delicately by throwing down an occasional stone to +remind them of the perils of clumsy movements. The coolies, as usual, +were apt pupils, and after agreeable exertions and one gymnastic +performance we all reached the col at 9 a.m. with no bleeding scalps. + +We had already by this hour taken time to observe the great Eastern face +of Mount Everest, and more particularly the lower edge of the hanging +glacier; it required but little further gazing to be convinced--to know +that almost everywhere the rocks below must be exposed to ice falling +from this glacier; that if, elsewhere, it might be possible to climb up, +the performance would be too arduous, would take too much time and would +lead to no convenient platform; that, in short, other men, less wise, +might attempt this way if they would, but, emphatically, it was not for +us. + +Our interest was rather in the other direction. We had now gained the +watershed. Below us on the far side was a glacier flowing East, and +beyond it two important rock peaks, which we at once suspected must be +two triangulated points each above 23,000 feet. Was this at last the +valley observed so long ago from the hill above Shiling, more than 50 +miles away, to point up towards the gap between Changtse and Everest? As +yet we could not say. The head of the glacier was out of sight behind +the Northern slopes of our mountain. We must ascend further, probably to +its summit, to satisfy our curiosity--to see, we hoped, Changtse and its +relation to this glacier, and perhaps the Chang La of our quest. + +[Illustration: SOUTH-EAST RIDGE OF MOUNT EVEREST +from above the 20,000 foot camp, Kharta Valley.] + +The task before us was not one which had suggested from a distant view +any serious difficulties. The angle of sight from our breakfast-place on +the col to the next white summit West of us was certainly not very +steep. But no continuous ridge would lead us upwards. The East face in +front of us and the South face to our left presented two bands of +fortification, crowned each by a flat emplacement receding a +considerable distance, before the final cone. We knew already that the +snow's surface, despite a thin crust, could not hold us, and counted on +snow-shoes to save labour at the gentler angles. But the escarpments in +front of us were imposing. The first yielded to a frontal attack pushed +home with a proper after-breakfast vigour. The second when we reached it +was a more formidable obstacle. The steepness of the Eastern slope was +undeniable and forbidding and the edge of its junction with the South +side was defined by a cornice. On that side, however, lay the only hope. + +We had first to traverse a broad gully. The powdery snow lay deep; we +hesitated on the brink. Here, if anywhere, the unmelted powdery +substance was likely to avalanche. Confidence was restored in sufficient +measure by contemplating an island of rock. Here lay a solution. By the +aid of its sound anchorage the party was secured across the dangerous +passage. With his rope adequately belayed by a coolie, though the manner +was hardly professional, the leader hewed at the cornice above his head, +fixed a fist-and-axe hold in the crest and struggled over. Such +performances are not accomplished at heights above 20,000 feet without +the feeling that something has been done. Appearances suggested the +necessity of establishing the whole party firmly above the cornice +before proceeding many steps upward, and the first man had the diversion +of observing at his leisure the ungraceful attitudes and explosive +grunts of men strong indeed, but unaccustomed to meet this kind of +obstacle. But with the usual menace of clouds, which even now were +filling the head of the Kama Valley, it was no season for delay; and it +was no place to be treated lightly. The angle was quite as steep as we +liked; on the slopes to our left again we should evidently be exposed to +the danger of an avalanche. It was necessary to avoid treading on our +frail cornice and no less important to keep near the edge. Here a foot +of powdery snow masked a disintegrated substance of loose ice. Nothing +less than a vigorous swinging blow had any other effect than to bury +the pick and require a fourfold effort to pull it out again. Luckily one +or even two such blows usually sufficed to make a firm step. But 400 +feet of such work seemed an ample quantity. If was a relief at length to +reach level snow, to don our rackets again and to follow a coolie +bursting with energy now sent first to tread a path. At 12.15 p.m. we +reached the far edge of this flat shoulder lying under the final slopes +of our mountain and at the most 500 feet below the summit. + +No one without experience of the problem could guess how difficult it +may be to sit down on a perfectly flat place with snow-shoes strapped to +the feet. To squat is clearly impossible; and if the feet are pushed out +in front the projection behind the heel tends to tilt the body backwards +so that the back is strained in the mere effort to sit without falling. +The remedy of course is to take off the snow-shoes; but the human +mountaineer after exhausting efforts is too lazy for that at an +elevation of 21,000 feet. He prefers not to sit; he chooses to lie--in +the one convenient posture under the circumstances--flat upon his back +and with his toes and snow-shoes turned vertically upwards. On this +occasion the majority of the party without more ado turned up their +toes. + +[Illustration: DIAGRAM SHOWING THAT THE KHARTA GLACIER DOES NOT LEAD TO +THE NORTH COL.] + +The situation, however, was one of the greatest interest. We were still +separated from Mount Everest by a spur at our own height turning +Northwards from the foot of the North-east arete and by the bay enclosed +between this and its continuation Eastward to which our mountain +belonged. But the distance from the North-east arete was small enough +and we were now looking almost directly up its amazing crest. If any +doubts remained at this time as to that line of attack, they now +received a _coup de grace_. Not only was the crest itself seen to be +both sharp and steep, suggesting an almost infinite labour, but the +slopes on either hand appeared in most places an impracticable +alternative; and leading up to the great rock towers of the North-east +shoulder, the final section, the point of a cruel sickle, appeared +effectually to bar further progress should anyone have been content to +spend a week or so on the lower parts. To discern so much required no +prolonged study; to the right (North) the country was more intricate. +The summit of Changtse was eventually revealed, as the clouds cleared +off, beyond, apparently a long way beyond, the crest of the spur in +front of us. To the extreme right, looking past the final slopes of the +white cone above us was a more elevated skyline and below it the upper +part of the glacier, the lower end of which we had seen earlier in the +day descending Eastward. But its extreme limit was not quite visible. We +had still to ask the question as to where exactly it lay. Could this +glacier conceivably proceed in an almost level course up to Chang La, +itself? Or was it cut off much nearer to us by the high skyline which we +saw beyond it? Was it possible, as in the second case must be, that this +skyline was continuous with the East arete of Changtse, the whole +forming the left bank of the glacier? If no answer was absolutely +certain, the probability at least was all on one side--on the wrong +side alike for our present and our future plans. We could hardly doubt +that the glacier-head lay not far away under Chang La, but here near at +hand under another col; beyond this must be the glacier of our quest, +turning East, as presumably it must turn beyond the skyline we saw now, +and beyond the rock peaks which we had observed to the North of us when +first we reached the watershed. + +One more effort was now required so that we might see a little more. +Chang La itself was still invisible. Might we not see it from the summit +of our mountain? And was it not in any case an attractive summit? An +examination of the various pairs of upturned toes where the prostrate +forms were still grouped grotesquely in the snow was not encouraging. +But the most vigorous of the coolies was with us, Nyima, a sturdy boy of +eighteen, who from the very start of the Expedition had consistently +displayed a willing spirit in every emergency. To my demand for +volunteers he responded immediately, and soon persuaded a second coolie, +Dasno, who had been going very strongly on this day, to accompany him. +As the three of us started off the clouds suddenly boiled up from below +and enveloped us completely. A few minutes brought us to the foot of the +steepest slopes; we took off our snow-shoes and crossed a bergschrund, +wading up to our thighs. Dasno had already had enough and fell out. But +the conical shape of our peak was just sufficiently irregular to offer a +defined blunt edge where two surfaces intersected. Even here the snow +was deep enough to be a formidable obstacle at that steep angle; but the +edge was safe from avalanches. As we struggled on I glanced repeatedly +away to the left. Presently through a hole in the clouds all was clear +for a moment to the West; again I saw Changtse, and now my eyes followed +the line of its arete descending towards Everest until the col itself +was visible over the spur in front of us. The view was little enough; +the mere rim appeared; the wall or the slopes below it, all that I most +wanted to see, remained hidden. We struggled on to the top, in all +nearly an hour's work of the most exhausting kind. The reward was in the +beauty of the spot, the faintly-defined edges of clean snow and the +convex surfaces bent slightly back from the steepness on every side to +form the most graceful summit I have seen. To the North-east we saw +clearly for a minute down the glacier. The rest was cloud, a thin veil, +but all too much, inexorably hiding from us Changtse and Chang La. + +A disappointment? Perhaps. But that sort of suffering cannot be +prolonged in a mind sufficiently interested. Possibly it is never a +genuine emotion; rather an automatic reaction after too sanguine hopes. +And such hopes had no part in our system. We counted on nothing. Days as +we found them were not seldom of the disappointing kind; this one had +been of the best, remarkably clear and fine. If we were baffled that was +no worse than we expected. To be bewildered was all in the game. But our +sensation was something beyond bewilderment. We felt ourselves to be +foiled. We were unpleasantly stung by this slap in the face. We had +indeed solved all doubts as to the East face and North-east arete, and +had solved them quickly. But the way to Chang La, which had seemed +almost within our grasp, had suddenly eluded us, and had escaped, how +far we could not tell. Though its actual distance from our summit might +be short, as indeed it must be, the glacier of our quest appeared now at +the end of a receding vista; and this was all our prospect. + +Our next plans were made on the descent. With the relaxation of physical +effort the feeling of dazed fatigue wears off and a mind duly strung to +activity may work well enough. The immediate object was to reach our +tents not too late to send a coolie down to the base camp the same +evening; on the following morning a reinforcement of four men would +enable us to carry down all our loads with sufficient ease, and with no +delay we should move the whole party along the next stage back towards +Langma La--and thus save a day. The main idea was simple. It still +seemed probable that the elusive glacier drained ultimately Eastwards, +in which case its waters _must_ flow into the Kharta stream; thither we +had now to retrace our steps and follow up the main valley as we had +originally intended; it might be necessary to investigate more valleys +than one, but there sooner or later a way would be found. Only, time was +short. At the earliest we could be back in the Kharta Valley on August +9. By August 20 I reckoned the preliminary reconnaissance should come to +an end, if we were to have sufficient time before the beginning of +September for rest and reorganisation at Kharta--and such was the core +of our plan. + +These projects left out of account an entirely new factor. In the early +stages of the reconnaissance I had taken careful note of the party's +health. One or two of the coolies had quickly fallen victims to the high +altitudes; but the rest seemed steadily to grow stronger. Nothing had so +much surprised us as the rapid acclimatisation of the majority, and the +good effects, so far as they appeared, of living in high camps. Both +Bullock and myself left the Rongbuk Valley feeling as fit as we could +wish to feel. All qualms about our health had subsided. For my part I +was a confirmed optimist, and never imagined for myself the smallest +deviation from my uniform standard of health and strength. On August 7, +as we toiled over the neve in the afternoon, I felt for the first time a +symptom of weariness beyond muscular fatigue and beyond the vague +lassitude of mountain-sickness. By the time we reached the moraine I had +a bad headache. In the tent at last I was tired and shivering and there +spent a fevered night. The next morning broke with undeniable glory. A +photograph of our yesterday's conquest must be obtained. I dragged +myself and the quarter-plate camera a few steps up to the crest of the +moraine--only to find that a further peregrination of perhaps 300 yards +would be necessary for my purpose: and 300 yards was more than I could +face. I was perforce content with less interesting exposures and +returned to breakfast with the dismal knowledge that for the moment at +all events I was _hors de combat_. We learned a little later that +Colonel Howard-Bury had arrived the night before in our base camp. It +was easily decided to spend the day there with him--the day I had hoped +to save; after the long dragging march down the green way, which on the +ascent had been so pleasant with butterflies and flowers, I was obliged +to spend it in bed. + +Three days later, on August 11, our tents were pitched in a sheltered +place well up the Kharta Valley, at a height of about 16,500 feet. Two +tributary streams had been passed by, the first coming in from the North +as being clearly too small to be of consequence, and the second from the +South, because wherever its source might be, it could not be far enough +to the North. Ahead of us we had seen that the valley forked; we must +follow the larger stream and then no doubt we should come soon enough to +the glacier of our quest and be able at last to determine whether it +would serve us to approach Chang La. August 12, a day of necessary +idleness after three long marches, was spent by the coolies in +collecting fuel, of which we were delighted to observe a great +abundance, rhododendron and gobar all about us, and, only a short way +down the valley, the best we could hope for, juniper. The last march had +been too much for me, and again I was obliged to keep my bed with a sore +throat and swollen glands. + +It seemed certain that the next two days must provide the climax or +anticlimax of our whole reconnaissance. The mystery must surely now be +penetrated and the most important discovery of all be made. A +competition with my companion for the honour of being first was, I hope, +as far from my thoughts as ever it had been. From the start Bullock and +I had shared the whole campaign and worked and made our plans together, +and neither for a moment had envied the other the monopoly of a +particular adventure. Nevertheless, after all that had passed, the +experience of being left out at the finish would not be agreeable to +me; I confess that not to be in at the death after leading the hunt so +long was a bitter expectation. But the hunt must not be stopped, and on +the morning of August 13, from the ungrateful comfort of my +sleeping-bag, I waved farewell to Bullock. How many days would he be +absent before he came to tell his story, and what sort of story would it +be? Would he know for certain that the way was found? or how much longer +would our doubts continue? + +It was impossible to stay in bed with such thoughts, and by the middle +of the morning I was sitting in the sun to write home my dismal tale. A +hint from one of the coolies interrupted my meditations; I looked round +and now saw, to my great surprise and unfeigned delight, the approaching +figure of Major Morshead. I had long been hoping that he might be free +to join us; and he arrived at the due moment to cheer my present +solitude, to strengthen the party, and to help us when help was greatly +needed. Moreover, he brought from Wollaston for my use a medical dope; +stimulated by the unusual act of drug-taking, or possibly by the drug +itself, I began to entertain a hope for the morrow, a feeling +incommunicably faint but distinguishably a hope. + +Meanwhile Bullock, though he had not started early, had got off soon +enough in the morning to pitch his tents if all went well some hours +before dark, and in all probability at least so far up as to be within +view of the glacier snout. As the night was closing in a coolie was +observed running down the last steep sandy slope to our camp. He brought +a chit from Bullock: "I can see up the glacier ahead of me and it ends +in another high pass. I shall get to the pass to-morrow morning if I +can, and ought to see our glacier over it. But it looks, after all, as +though the most unlikely solution is the right one and the glacier goes +out into the Rongbuk Valley." + +Into the Rongbuk Valley! We had discussed the possibility. The glacier +coming in there from the East remained unexplored. But even if we left +out of account all that was suggested by the East arete of Changtse and +other features of this country, there remained the unanswerable +difficulty about the stream, the little stream which we had but just +failed to cross in the afternoon of our first expedition. How could so +little water drain so large an area of ice as must exist on this +supposition? + +In any case we were checked again. The mystery deepened. And though the +interest might increase, the prospect of finding a way to Chang La, with +the necessary margin of time before the end of the month, was still +receding, and, whether or no the unexpected should turn out to be the +truth, the present situation suggested the unpleasant complication of +moving our base once more somewhere away to the North. + +On the following day with the gathering energy of returning health I set +forth with Morshead: we walked in a leisurely fashion up the valley +rejected by Bullock and had the surprising good fortune of a clear sky +until noon. I soon decided that we were looking up the glacier where we +had looked down on the 7th, as Bullock too had decided on the previous +day: at the head of it was a high snow col and beyond that the tip of +Changtse. What lay between them? If a combe existed there, as presumably +it did, the bed of it must be high: there could hardly be room, I +thought, for a very big drop on the far side of the col. Might not this, +after all, be a sufficiently good approach, a more convenient way +perhaps than to mount the glacier from its foot, wherever that might be? +The near col, so far as I could judge, should easily be reached from +this side. Why not get to the col and find out what lay beyond it? The +time had come to abandon our object of finding the foot of a glacier in +order to follow it up; for we could more easily come to the head of it +and if necessary follow it down. + +I was sanguine about this new plan, which seemed to have good prospects +of success and might obviate the difficulties and inconvenience of +shifting the base (possibly again to the Rongbuk side, which I had no +desire to revisit) and, as I still felt far from fit, I was in some +hopes now that two more days would bring us to the end of our present +labours. Bullock very readily agreed to the proposal. He brought no +positive information from the col which he had reached, though he +inclined to the idea that the water crossed at Harlung on our journey to +Kharta, a moderate stream, but perhaps too clear, might provide the +solution of our problem. A fresh bone was now thrown into our stew. A +letter arrived from Howard-Bury with an enclosure from Wheeler, a sketch +map of what he had seen more particularly East of the Rongbuk Glacier, +on which the Eastern branch, with its Western exit, was clearly marked +where we now know it to be. It was, unfortunately, a very rough map, +professedly nothing more, and was notably wrong in some respects about +which we had accurate knowledge. We were not yet convinced that the head +of the East Rongbuk Glacier was really situated under the slopes of +Everest, and not perhaps under the Eastern arm of Changtse. Still, we +had some more pickings to digest. Our business was to reach the nearer +pass, and I felt sure that once we had looked over it to the other side +whatever doubts remained could be cleared up in subsequent discussion +with Wheeler. Meanwhile, I hoped, we should have discovered one way to +Chang La, and a sufficiently good one. + +It took us in the sequel not two but four days to reach the pass which +was ultimately known as Lhakpa La (Windy Gap). The story may serve as a +fair illustration of the sort of difficulty with which we had to +contend. It was arranged on the 15th that we should meet Bullock's +coolies at the divide in the valley; they were bringing down his camp +and we could all go on together: but our messenger succeeded in +collecting only half their number and much delay was caused in waiting +for the others. From here we followed the Western stream, a stony and +rather fatiguing walk of two hours or so (unladen) up to the end of the +glacier, and then followed a moraine shelf on its left bank, I hoped we +should find an easy way round to the obvious camping place we had +previously observed from the Carpo-ri. But the shelf ended abruptly on +steep stony slopes, clouds obscured our view, and after our misfortunes +in the morning we were now short of time, so that it was necessary to +stay where we were for the night. A thick layer of mist was still lying +along the valley when we woke, and we could see nothing, but were +resolved, nevertheless, to reach the col if possible. We went up, for +the best chance of a view, to the crest of the hill above us, and +followed it to the summit (6.30 a.m.). The view was splendid, and I took +some good photographs; but the drop on the far side was more serious +than our hopes had suggested. We tried to make the best of things by +contouring and eventually halted for breakfast on the edge of the +glacier a long way North of the direct line at 8.45 a.m. Before we went +on we were again enveloped in mist, and after stumbling across the +glacier in snow-shoes to the foot of an icefall, we turned back at 11 +a.m. By that time we were a tired party and could not have reached the +col; and even had we reached it, we should have seen nothing. Still we +felt when we found our tents again that with all we had seen the day had +not been lost, and we determined, before renewing our attempt on Lhakpa +La, to push on the camp. There was still time to send a message down to +the Sirdar so as to get up more coolies and supplies and move forward +next day. From this higher camp we hoped that the col might be reached +at an early hour, and in that case it would be possible for a party to +cross it and descend the glacier on the other side. + +The first coolies who came up in the morning brought a message from the +Sirdar to the effect that supplies were short and he could send none up. +The rations were calculated to last for another three days, but their +distribution had been muddled. However, enough was subsequently sent up +to carry us over into the next day, though it was necessary of course to +abandon our project of a more distant reconnaissance. Our camp was +happily established in the usual snowstorm. The weather, in fact, was +not treating us kindly. Snow was falling in these days for about eight +to ten hours on the average and we were relieved at last to see a fine +morning. + +On August 18, with the low moon near setting, the three of us with one +coolie set forth on the most critical expedition of our whole +reconnaissance. Failure on this day must involve us in a lamentable +delay before the party could again be brought up for the attack; at the +earliest we should be able to renew the attempt four days later, and if +in the end the way were not established here the whole prospect of the +assault in September would be in jeopardy. We scaled the little cliff on +to the glacier that morning with the full consciousness that one way or +another it was an imperative necessity to reach the col. The first few +steps on the glacier showed us what to expect; we sank in to our knees. +The remedy was, of course, to put on rackets--which indeed are no great +encumbrance, but a growing burden on a long march and on steep slopes +most difficult to manage. We wore them for the rest of the day whenever +we were walking on snow. About dawn the light became difficult; a thin +floating mist confused the snow surfaces; ascents and descents were +equally indistinguishable, so that the errant foot might unexpectedly +hit the slope too soon or equally plunge down with sudden violence to +unexpected depths. Crevasses forced, or seemed to force, us away to the +right and over to the rocks of the left bank. We were faced with one of +those critical decisions which determine success or failure. It seemed +best to climb the rocks and avoid complications in the icefall. There +was an easy way through on our left which we afterwards used; but +perhaps we did well; ours was a certain way though long, and we had +enough trudging that day; the rocks, though covered with snow to a depth +of several inches, were not difficult, and a long traverse brought us +back to the glacier at about 8.30 a.m. + +Our greatest enemy as we went on was not, after all, the deep powdery +snow. The racket sank slightly below the surface and carried a little +snow each step as one lifted it; the work was arduous for the first man. +But at a slow pace it was possible to plod on without undue exhaustion. +The heat was a different matter. In the glacier-furnace the thin mist +became steam, it enveloped us with a clinging garment from which no +escape was possible, and far from being protected by it from the sun's +fierce heat, we seemed to be scorched all the more because of it. The +atmosphere was enervating to the last degree; to halt even for a few +minutes was to be almost overwhelmed by inertia, so difficult it seemed, +once the machinery had stopped and lost momentum, to heave it into +motion again. And yet we must go on in one direction or the other or +else succumb to sheer lassitude and overpowering drowsiness. The final +slopes, about 700 feet at a fairly steep angle, undoubtedly called for +greater efforts than any hitherto required of us. + +The importance of breathing hard and deeply had impressed itself upon us +again and again. I had come to think of my own practice as a very +definite and conscious performance adopted to suit the occasion. The +principles were always the same--to time the breathing regularly to fit +the step, and to use not merely the upper part of the lungs, but the +full capacity of the breathing apparatus, expanding and contracting not +the chest only, but also the diaphragm, and this not occasionally but +with every breath whenever the body was required to work at high +pressure. Probably no one who has not tried it would guess how difficult +it is to acquire an unconscious habit of deep breathing. It was easy +enough to set the machine going in the right fashion; it was another +task to keep it running. The moment attention to their performance was +relaxed, the lungs too would begin to relax their efforts, and often I +woke from some day-dream with a feeling of undue fatigue, to find the +cause of my lassitude only in the lungs' laziness. The best chance of +keeping them up to their work, I found, was to impose a rhythm +primarily upon the lungs and swing the legs in time with it. + +The practice employed for walking uphill under normal conditions is +exactly contrary, in that case the rhythm is consciously imposed on the +legs and the rest of the body takes care of itself. + +During the various expeditions of our reconnaissance I came to employ +two distinct methods of working the legs with the lungs. As soon as +conscious breathing was necessary it was my custom deliberately to +inhale on one step and exhale on the next. Later, at a higher elevation, +or when the expenditure of muscular energy became more exhausting, I +would both inhale and exhale for each step, in either case timing the +first movement of lifting the leg to synchronise with the beginning, so +to speak, of the breathing-stroke. On this occasion as we pushed our way +up towards Lhakpa La I adopted a variation of this second method, a +third stage, pausing a minute or so for the most furious sort of +breathing after a series of steps, forty or thirty or twenty, as the +strength ebbed, in order to gain potential energy for the next spasm of +lifting efforts. Never before had our lungs been tested quite so +severely. It was well for us that these final slopes were no steeper. It +was difficult and tiring enough as it was to prevent the rackets +sliding, though without them we could not possibly have advanced in such +snow. But happily the consequences of a slip were not likely to be +serious. We were able to struggle on without regarding dangers, +half-dazed with the heat and the glare and with mere fatigue, +occasionally encouraged by a glimpse of the skyline above us, a clean +edge of snow where the angle set back to the pass, more often enveloped +in the scorching mist which made with the snow a continuous whiteness, +so that the smooth slope, even so near as where the foot must be placed +next, was usually indistinguishable. We had proceeded a considerable +distance and I was satisfied with our progress, when the leader broke +the monotony; he was seen to hesitate in the act of stepping up, to +topple over and fall headlong downwards. This time he had guessed +wrong; his foot had hit unexpectedly against the steepening slope. +Somehow he had passed in extreme fatigue from the physical state of +stable equilibrium; he had become such a man as you may "knock down with +a feather," and this little misadventure had upset his balance. Mere +surprise gave him strength to stop his slide. He raised himself, +disgusted, to his feet again and after sundry gruntings the party went +on. + +Some little way further up Major Morshead, who was walking last in the +party, with one brief exclamation to tell us what he intended, quietly +untied the rope and remained where he was in his steps, unable to go +further. + +At length we found ourselves on flatter ground; the pass was still +invisible, how far ahead of us we could not guess. Unexpectedly we came +upon the brink of a crevasse. We worked round it, vaguely wondering +whether after all our pains we were to meet with many troubles of this +sort. And then after a few more steps we were visibly on some edge of +things; we had reached the col itself. + +Some twenty minutes later, as we sat on the snow gazing most intently at +all that lay about us, Bullock and I were surprised by a shout. A moment +later Major Morshead rejoined us, to the great rejoicing of all three. + +It was about 1.15 p.m. when the first two of us had reached Lhakpa La; +the clouds, which had been earlier only a thin veil, rent occasionally +to give us clear glimpses, had thickened perceptibly during the last +hour, so that we had now no hope of a clear view. In a sense, despite +our early start from a high camp, we were too late. Little was to be +seen above our level. The slopes of Everest away on our left were +visible only where they impinged upon the glacier. But we were not +actually in cloud on the col. The South-facing rocks of Changtse +presented their profile, steep and jagged, an imposing spectacle so far +up as we could see; between them and Everest we looked down on a broad +bay, the smooth surface of which was only occasionally broken by large +crevasses. The descent to it from where we were could also be seen well +enough, and we judged it perfectly simple and not much more than 800 +feet.[12] The East ridge of Changtse had no existence for us; we looked +across at what presumably were the splayed-out slopes supporting it. +Below them was a narrow glacier (it grew when we crossed it to broader +dimensions), shaping its course somewhat to the West of North, joined +after losing its white snow-covering by another and cleaner glacier +coming steeply down from the left, then apparently bending with this +confluent to the right, and finally lost to view. We could see no more; +the mountain sides, which must hem it in on the North, remained +completely hidden, and for all we had seen the exit of this glacier was +still a mystery. + + [12] It turned out to be a full 1,200 feet. + +Another great question remained unsolved. We had been able to make out +the way across the head of the glacier towards the wall under Chang La; +and the way was easy enough. But the wall itself, in spite of some +fleeting glimpses and partial revelations, we had never really seen. We +conjectured its height should be 500 feet or little more; and it was +probably steep. It had been impossible to found an opinion as to whether +the col were accessible. Nevertheless, I held an opinion, however flimsy +the foundations. I had seen the rim of the col from both sides, and knew +that above it on either hand were unserrated edges. When we added to +whatever chances might be offered by the whole extent of the wall, which +was considerable, the possibilities of finding a way to the col by the +slopes of Everest to the South or by those of Changtse to the North, I +felt we had enough in our favour. I was prepared, so to speak, to bet my +bottom dollar that a way could be found, and was resolved that before we +turned homewards this year we must get up from the East. When I thought +of the 4,000 feet on the other side, the length combined with the +difficulties, the distance that would necessarily separate us there from +any convenient base and all the limitations in our strength, I could +have no reasonable doubt that here to the East lay the best chance of +success. + +[Illustration: NORTH-EAST OF MOUNT EVEREST AND CHANG LA +from Lhakpa La.] + +It remained to determine by which of two possible routes we should reach +the glacier-head between Lhakpa La and Chang La. Presuming that Wheeler +was right we could use the old base at the foot of the Rongbuk Glacier +which was only one stage, though a very long one, from Choebuk, and +proceed simply enough by two rough marches and one which should be +easier to a camp at the foot of the wall or possibly to the col itself. +On the East we could use as an advanced base a place two easy marches +from Kharta; from there I reckoned one long day and two easy ones, +provided the snow were hard, to Chang La. Against this route was the +loss of height in crossing Lhakpa La; and for it the convenience of a +good encampment on stones at 20,000 feet, better than anything we might +expect to find at a similar elevation on the other side. So far the pros +and cons were evenly balanced. But there was one great and perhaps +insuperable obstacle in working from the Rongbuk Valley. We had always +found difficulties there in obtaining an adequate supply of fuel. There +is no wood at Choebuk or for some distance below it. A few small bushes +grow in a little patch of vegetation by the riverside an hour higher up. +But it is a very niggardly supply, and when I thought of the larger +scale of the preparations we should now have to make, it became clear +that we should have to rely on gobar, which, besides being a more +extravagant fuel in the sense that it gives less fire for a given weight +than wood, is also difficult to get in the Rongbuk Valley, for little +enough is to be found there, and the monastery at Choeyling is a large +consumer. On the other hand, in the Kharta Valley we were in a land of +plenty. Gobar and rhododendron were to be had within a stone's throw of +our present advanced base camp, and a little lower was an abundance of +juniper. Food supplies also were better here; fresh vegetables and eggs, +luxuries never seen on the other side, could easily be obtained from +Kharta, and even the sheep in this region could be praised at the +expense of the Rongbuk breed, which was incomparably skinny; lurking in +the thigh of one recently killed we had actually discovered a nugget of +fat. + +And presuming Wheeler were wrong? In any case we knew enough of the +country to be sure that a valley further to the North would offer us +little better than the Rongbuk Valley, for it must be situated in the +drier area unvisited by the monsoon currents from the Arun. The +conclusion was drawn as we came down from Lhakpa La more swiftly than +the reader of these arguments might suppose. We had now found a way to +approach Chang La--not an ideal way, because it would involve a descent, +and not one that could be used immediately; but good enough for our +purpose. If laden coolies could not be brought to the Lhakpa at present +over so much soft snow they might find the march to their liking later; +for good snow at angles not too steep involves far less labour than +rougher ground; and might we not expect the snow to harden before long? +The whole plan of campaign had been founded upon the belief that +September would be the best month for climbing, and our greatest +efforts, some sort of an assault upon the mountain, were timed to take +place then. We must now proceed upon the assumption that what the wise +men prophesied about the matter would come true; and they promised a +fine September. About the beginning of the month the monsoon would come +to an end; then we should have a succession of bright, clear days to +melt the snow and cold, starry nights to freeze it hard. At worst the +calm spell would only be broken by a short anger. In September, perhaps +a fortnight hence, on these same slopes where now we toiled we should +find a solid substance beneath our feet and an easy way. + +The abiding thought, therefore, after the first rush downwards on the +steep slopes below the col contained a measure of solid satisfaction. We +had now brought to an end our preliminary reconnaissance. Ahead of us +was a new phase in our operations, and one which should hold in store +for us the finest adventure of all, the climax of all reconnoitring +expeditions, that advance which was to bring us as near to the summit as +our strength would take us. As we plodded on, retracing our steps, some +little satisfaction was highly acceptable. To the tired party even +descent seemed laborious. We reached the edge of the glacier where we +had come on to it at 5.30 p.m. But the march from there to our lower +camp was both long and rough. Major Morshead, who had not been trained +with Bullock and me to the pace of such expeditions, had kept up so far +in the gamest fashion; but he was now much exhausted. The day ended with +a series of little spurts, balancing over the snow-sprinkled boulders +along and along the valley, in the dim misty moonlit scene, until at 2 +o'clock in the morning we reached our lower camp, twenty-three hours +after the early start. + +On August 20 we went down to Kharta for ten days' rest and +reorganisation. The party was gathering there for the assault, in which +all were to help to the best of their powers. Col. Howard-Bury and +Mr. Wollaston were there; Dr. Heron came in on the following day, and a +little later Major Wheeler. A conversation with this officer, who had +been working in the Rongbuk Valley since Bullock and I had left it, was +naturally of the highest interest, and he now confirmed what his +sketch-map had suggested: that the glacier on to which we had looked +down from Lhakpa La drained into the Rongbuk Valley. But this certain +knowledge could have no bearing on our plans; we remained content with +the way we had found and troubled our heads no more for the present +about the East Rongbuk Glacier. + + + + + CHAPTER XV + + THE ASSAULT + + +In the agreeable climate of Kharta we were sufficiently occupied with +the results of photography and preparations for the future; and there +was time besides for unmixed idleness, which we knew how to appreciate. +Our thoughts turned often to the weather. Local lore confirmed our +expectations for September, and we looked each day for signs of a +change. It was arranged, in hope if not in confidence, to move up on the +first signs of improvement. Already before we came down to Kharta our +Advanced Base Camp had been moved up; it was now situated at about +17,300 feet on a convenient grassy plateau and only a reasonable stage +below our 20,000-foot camp, where some light tents and stores had also +been left. At these two camps we had, in fact, left everything which we +should not absolutely require at Kharta, so that few mountaineering +stores would have to be carried forward from the Base when we came up +again. Our first task would be to supply the Advanced Base with food and +fuel, and a start had already been made by collecting here a pile of +wood, nominally thirty loads. Transport in any case was not likely to be +a difficulty in the early stages. Local coolies could easily be hired, +and Howard-Bury was to follow us up after a short interval with all +available strength to help in every possible way. + +The first object which our plans must include was, of course, to reach +Chang La; by finding the way to this point we should establish a line of +attack and complete a stage of our reconnaissance. Secondly we must aim +at reaching the North-east Shoulder. In so far as it was an object of +reconnaissance to determine whether it was possible to climb Mount +Everest, our task could never be complete until we had actually climbed +it; but short of that it was important to have a view of the final +stage, and could we reach the great shoulder of the arete we should at +least be in a better position to estimate what lay between there and the +summit. Finally we saw no reason to exclude the supreme object itself. +It would involve no sacrifice of meaner ends; the best would not +interfere with the good. For if it should turn out that the additional +supplies required for a longer campaign were more than our coolies could +carry, we would simply drop them and aim less high. + +In organising the assault we had first to consider how our camps could +be established, at Lhakpa La or perhaps better beyond it at a lower +elevation, at Chang La, and finally as high as possible, somewhere under +the shoulder, we thought, at about 26,500 feet. From the camp on Chang +La we should have to carry up ten loads, each of 15 lb., which would +provide tents enough, and sleeping-sacks and food for a maximum of four +Sahibs and four coolies; sixteen coolies were allowed for this task; +twelve therefore would have to return on the day of their ascent and +sleep at Chang La, and on the assumption that they would require an +escort of Sahibs who must also sleep at this camp, four small tents must +remain there, making six in all to be carried up to this point. The +lower end of the ladder must be so constructed as to support this weight +at the top. It was comparatively a simple matter to provide the earlier +camps. The first above the advanced base--that at 20,000 feet--could be +filled before we moved up to sleep there, the coolies returning on the +same day whenever they carried up loads. And the same plan could be +adopted for the second at Lhakpa La; only one journey there, I +calculated, would be required before we started in force from the +20,000-foot camp to go straight ahead without delay. The crux would lie +in the stage from Lhakpa La to Chang La. At the most we should have +twenty-three coolies, sixteen who had been all along with the climbing +party, three whom Wheeler had partially trained, and four more Sherpas, +the maximum number being determined by the supply of boots. But it would +not be necessary to carry on all the loads from Lhakpa La; and return +journeys could be made from Chang La both by those who were not to stay +there and by the twelve already mentioned who might fetch supplies if +necessary on the final day of the assault. This plan was never executed +in its later stages, and we cannot know for certain whether it would +have held good. But it may be conjectured, in view of our experience, +that the weakest link would have broken; either an extra day would have +been spent between Lhakpa La and Chang La, or, if we had reached Chang +La according to programme with the minimum of supplies, the coolies +would not have been brought to this point a second time and the climbing +party would have been cut off from its reserves. And, granted the most +favourable conditions for the attempt, in asking the coolies to carry +loads of 30 lb. on two consecutive days at these high altitudes, we were +probably expecting too much of them. It must be concluded, if this +opinion is correct, that we had not enough coolies for what we intended. + +On the last day of August, Bullock and I were established once again at +our Advanced Base. The weather had not yet cleared, though it was +showing some signs of change. But it had been necessary to move up for +the coolies' sake. At Kharta, where they found little to amuse them and +no work to employ their time, they had sought diversion with the aid of +liquor and become discontented and ill-affected. They were badly in need +of a routine, which at the Advanced Base was easily enough provided. +Besides, I wanted to be ready, and it seemed not too soon to begin +carrying loads up to the next camp. There was no occasion for hurry in +the event. We were obliged to wait nearly three weeks, until September +19, before moving forward. The delay served no useful purpose, the work +of supplying our present needs and providing for the future was +sufficiently spread over the long tale of days, but interspersed with +more rest and leisure than anyone required. + +In some respects life at the Advanced Base compared favourably with our +experience at other camps. The place had a charm of its own. The short +turf about us, the boulders and little streams reminded me of Welsh +hillsides; and these high pastures were often decorated by the brilliant +blues of _Gentiana ornata_ and by the most exquisite of saxifrages, +which, with the yellow and ochre markings on the cream glaze of its tiny +bowl, recalls the marginal ornament on some Persian page. Whenever the +weather cleared for a few hours we saw down the valley a splendid peak +in a scene of romantic beauty, and by walking up to a stony shoulder +only 2,000 feet above us, we had amazing views of Everest and Makalu. +And it was an advantage during these days of waiting to be a larger +party, as we soon became. + +Bury and Wollaston, and also Raeburn whom we rejoiced to see again, had +come up on the 6th, Morshead and Wheeler on the 11th, and for two nights +Heron was of our company. We made little excursions to keep ourselves +fit, and on one occasion enjoyed some rock-climbing. But it amused +nobody to watch the procession of clouds which precipitated sleet by day +and snow by night, and our appetite for adventure could not be +stimulated by making time pass in some endurable fashion and counting +the unhopeful signs. + +Under these circumstances I became more than ever observant of the +party's physical condition. I find a passage in one of my letters +written during this period of waiting in which I boast of finding myself +"still able to go up about 1,500 feet in an hour--not bad going at these +altitudes"--a reassuring statement enough but for the one word "still," +which betrays all my anxiety. In fact there was too much cause to be +anxious. Three of our strongest coolies were ill at this camp; others +seemed to be tired more easily than they should be. And what of the +Sahibs? At least it must be said that several of them were not looking +their best. Bullock, though he never complained, seemed no longer to be +the fit man he was at the end of July. And for my part I began to +experience a certain lack of exuberance when going up hill. I came to +realise that all such efforts were unduly exhausting; my reserve of +strength had somehow diminished. The whole machine, in fact, was running +down; the days continued to pass with their cloud and rain and snow, +always postponing our final effort to a later date and a colder season; +and with them our chances of success were slowly vanishing. + +When at last the weather cleared, it was evident that the fate of our +enterprise would be decided by the sun's power to melt the snow. In a +subsequent chapter I shall have more to say about the snow's melting; it +may suffice to remark here that, before we left the Advanced Base, I had +good reason to expect that we should meet adverse conditions, and was +resolved at the same time that nothing was to be gained by waiting. The +coolies were lightly laden up to the First Advanced Camp and +sufficiently unfatigued to proceed next day. On the 20th, therefore, +leaving Bullock to accompany Wheeler, Morshead and I set forth to get +fourteen loads up to Lhakpa La. We had one spare coolie who carried no +load, and Sanglu, who was now our acting Sirdar, four of us in all, to +break the trail for the loaded men. Snow-shoes were not carried because +there were not enough to go round. Though our prospects of reaching a +high point on Everest were already sufficiently dim, I intended to carry +out the original plan until obliged by circumstances to modify it; it +might prove necessary to spend an extra day in reaching Chang La, and in +that case we could perhaps afford to stop short of Lhakpa La and +establish our camp below its final slopes. But if the strain on this +first day was likely to be severe, I argued that the coolies could rest +to-morrow, and that the second journey in frozen tracks would be easy +enough. That we should be passing the night a few hundred feet higher +(at 22,500 feet) was a relatively unimportant consideration. The great +matter was to put heart into the coolies; it would be infinitely more +encouraging to reach the crest with a sense of complete achievement, to +see the clear prospect ahead and to proceed downwards on the other side. + +Our start at an early hour on the 20th was propitious enough. It was the +same moonlit glacier of our expedition a month before as we made good +our approach to its surface. But the conditions were altered. For the +first time since we had come to these mountains we experienced the +wonderful delight of treading snow that is both crisp and solid. We +walked briskly over it, directly towards Mount Everest, with all the +hope such a performance might inspire. The night was exceedingly cold +and there was no untoward delay. In less than an hour we were at the +foot of the icefall. We were determined on this occasion not to avoid it +by the rocks of the left bank, but to find a quicker way through the +tumbled ice. At first all went well. A smooth-floored corridor took us +helpfully upwards. And then, in the dim light, we were among the +crevasses. To be seriously held up here might well be fatal to our +object, and in the most exciting kind of mountaineering adventures we +had the stimulus of this thought. We plunged into the maze and struggled +for a little time, crossing frail bridges over fantastic depths and +making steps up steep little walls, until it seemed we were in serious +trouble. One leap proposed by the leader proved too much for some of the +laden coolies and a good deal of pushing and pulling was required to +bring them over the formidable gap. We had begun to waste time. Halted +on a sharp little crest between two monstrous chasms Morshead and I +discussed the situation, and thereafter gravely proceeded to reconnoitre +the ground to our left. In ten minutes we came to another corridor like +the first, which brought us out above the icefall. + +We were well satisfied with our progress as we halted at sunrise, and it +was a pleasant change to get our feet out of the snow and knock a little +warmth into chilled toes. But our confidence had ebbed. Even as we +entered the icefall our feet had occasionally broken the crust; as we +came out of it we were stamping a trail. + +Dorji Gompa, our unladen coolie, and perhaps the strongest man of all, +took the lead when we went on, and plugged manfully upwards. But already +the party was showing signs of fatigue. One coolie, and then two others, +fell out and could not be induced to come further. I sent Dorji Gompa +back to bring on one of their loads. Morshead, Sanglu and I took turns +ahead and soon came to the worst snow we had encountered anywhere. In it +no firm steps could be stamped by the leaders to save the coolies +behind, and each man in turn had to contend with the shifting substance +of fine powder. The party straggled badly. It was necessary for some of +us to press on and prove that the goal could be reached. Many of the men +were obliged to halt at frequent intervals. But time was on our side. +Gradually the party fought its way up the final slopes. As we approached +the pass I looked back with Morshead over the little groups along our +track and saw some distance below the last moving figure another lying +huddled up on the snow. I soon learnt the meaning of this: it was Dorji +Gompa who lay there. He had carried on not one load as I had asked him, +but two, until he had fallen there dazed and exhausted. + +At length eleven loads reached the pass and two more were only 800 feet +lower. If we had not done all we set out to do I was satisfied we had +done enough. We had established tracks to Lhakpa La which should serve +us well when they had frozen hard, and not too many loads remained below +to be brought up two days later. + +We now obtained a clear view of Chang La; it was possible to make more +exact calculations, and it was evident we must modify our plans. We saw +a wall of formidable dimensions, perhaps 1,000 feet high; the surface +was unpleasantly broken by insuperable bergschrunds and the general +angle was undoubtedly steep. The slopes of Everest to the South were out +of the question, and if it were possible to avoid a direct assault by +the North side the way here would be long, difficult and exceedingly +laborious. The wall itself offered the best chance, and I was in good +hopes we could get up. But it would not be work for untrained men, and +to have on the rope a number of laden coolies, more or less mountain +sick, conducted by so small a nucleus as three Sahibs, who would also +presumably be feeling the effects of altitude, was a proposition not to +be contemplated for a moment. We must have as strong a party as possible +in the first place, simply to reach the col, and afterwards to bring up +a camp, if we were able, as a separate operation. With this idea I +selected the party. Wollaston felt that his place of duty was not with +the van; only Wheeler besides had sufficient mountaineering experience, +and it was decided that he alone should accompany Bullock and myself on +our first attempt to reach the col. Nevertheless, it seemed undesirable +to abandon so early the hope that Bury and Morshead would be of use to +us later on; and Wollaston clearly must start with us from the +20,000-foot camp where all had gathered on the 20th. + +I had hoped we should have a full complement of coolies on the 22nd, but +when morning came it was found that three, including two of the best +men, were too ill to start. Consequently some of the loads were rather +heavier than I intended. But all arrived safely at Lhakpa La before +midday. Visited by malicious gusts from the North-west, the pass was +cheerless and chilly; however, the rim afforded us some protection, and +we decided to pitch our tents there rather than descend on the other +side with the whole party, a move which I felt might complicate the +return. I was not very happy about the prospects for the morrow. For my +own part I had been excessively and unaccountably tired in coming up to +the col; I observed no great sparkle of energy or enthusiasm among my +companions; Sanglu was practically _hors de combat_; some of the coolies +had with difficulty been brought to the col and were more or less +exhausted; and many complaints of headache, even from the best of them, +were a bad sign. + +There was no question of bustling off before dawn on the 23rd, but we +rose early enough, as I supposed, to push on to Chang La if we were +sufficiently strong. Morshead and I in a Mummery tent had slept well and +I congratulated myself on an act of mutilation in cutting two large +slits in its roof. The rest had not fared so well, but seemed fit +enough, and the wonderful prospect from our camp at sunrise was a +cheering sight. With the coolies, however, the case was different. Those +who had been unwell overnight had not recovered, and it was evident that +only a comparatively small number would be able to come on; eventually I +gathered ten, two men who both protested they were ill casting lots for +the last place; and of these ten it was evident that none were +unaffected by the height and several were more seriously +mountain-sick.[13] Under these circumstances it was necessary to +consider which loads should be carried on. Bury, Wollaston and Morshead +suggested that they should go back at once so as not to burden the party +with the extra weight of their belongings, and it seemed the wisest plan +that they should return. Certain stores were left behind at Lhakpa La as +reserve supplies for the climbing party. I decided at an early hour that +our best chance was to take an easy day; after a late start and a very +slow march we pitched our tents on the open snow up towards the col. + + [13] I use this expression to denote not a state of intermittent + vomiting, but simply one in which physical exertion exhausts the + body abnormally and causes a remarkable disinclination to further + exertion. + +It might have been supposed that in so deep a cwm and sheltered on three +sides by steep mountain slopes, we should find a tranquil air and the +soothing, though chilly calm of undisturbed frost. Night came clearly +indeed, but with no gentle intentions. Fierce squalls of wind visited +our tents and shook and worried them with the disagreeable threat of +tearing them away from their moorings, and then scurried off, leaving us +in wonder at the change and asking what next to expect. It was a cold +wind at an altitude of 22,000 feet, and however little one may have +suffered, the atmosphere discouraged sleep. Again I believe I was more +fortunate than my companions, but Bullock and Wheeler fared badly. Lack +of sleep, since it makes one sleepy, always discourages an early start, +and hot drinks take time to brew; in any case, it was wise to start +rather late so as to have the benefit of warm sun whenever our feet +should be obliged to linger in cold snow or ice steps. It was an hour or +so after sunrise when we left the camp and half an hour later we were +breaking the crust on the first slopes under the wall. We had taken +three coolies who were sufficiently fit and competent, and now proceeded +to use them for the hardest work. Apart from one brief spell of cutting +when we passed the corner of a bergschrund it was a matter of +straightforward plugging, firstly slanting up to the right on partially +frozen avalanche snow and then left in one long upward traverse to the +summit. Only one passage shortly below the col caused either anxiety or +trouble; here the snow was lying at a very steep angle and was deep +enough to be disagreeable. About 500 steps of very hard work covered +all the worst of the traverse and we were on the col shortly before +11.30 a.m. By this time two coolies were distinctly tired, though by no +means incapable of coming on; the third, who had been in front, was +comparatively fresh. Wheeler thought he might be good for some further +effort, but had lost all feeling in his feet. Bullock was tired, but by +sheer will power would evidently come on--how far, one couldn't say. For +my part I had had the wonderful good fortune of sleeping tolerably well +at both high camps and now finding my best form; I supposed I might be +capable of another 2,000 feet, and there would be no time for more. But +what lay ahead of us? My eyes had often strayed, as we came up, to the +rounded edge above the col and the final rocks below the North-east +arete. If ever we had doubted whether the arete were accessible, it was +impossible to doubt any longer. For a long way up those easy rock and +snow slopes was neither danger nor difficulty. But at present there was +wind. Even where we stood under the lee of a little ice cliff it came in +fierce gusts at frequent intervals, blowing up the powdery snow in a +suffocating tourbillon. On the col beyond it was blowing a gale. And +higher was a more fearful sight. The powdery fresh snow on the great +face of Everest was being swept along in unbroken spindrift and the very +ridge where our route lay was marked out to receive its unmitigated +fury. We could see the blown snow deflected upwards for a moment where +the wind met the ridge, only to rush violently down in a frightful +blizzard on the leeward side. To see, in fact, was enough; the wind had +settled the question; it would have been folly to go on. Nevertheless, +some little discussion took place as to what might be possible, and we +struggled a few steps further to put the matter to the test. For a few +moments we exposed ourselves on the col to feel the full strength of the +blast, then struggled back to shelter. Nothing more was said about +pushing our assault any further. + +It remained to take a final decision on the morning of the 25th. We were +evidently too weak a party to play a waiting game at this altitude. We +must either take our camp to the col or go back. A serious objection to +going forward lay in the shortage of coolies' rations. Had the men been +fit it would not have been too much for them to return, as I had +planned, unladen to Lhakpa La and reach Chang La again the same day. I +doubted whether any two could be found to do that now; and to subtract +two was to leave only eight, of whom two were unfit to go on, so that +six would remain to carry seven loads. However, the distance to the col +was so short that I was confident such difficulties could be overcome +one way or another. + +A more unpleasant consideration was the thought of requiring a party +which already felt the height too much to sleep at least a 1,000 feet +higher. We might well find it more than we could do to get back over +Lhakpa La, and be forced to make a hungry descent down the Rongbuk +Valley. There would be no disaster in that event. The crucial matter was +the condition of the climbers. Were we fit to push the adventure +further? The situation, if any one of the whole party collapsed, would +be extremely disagreeable, and all the worse if he should be one of the +Sahibs, who were none too many to look after the coolies in case of +mountaineering difficulties. Such a collapse I judged might well be the +fate of one or other of us if we were to push our assault above Chang La +to the limit of our strength. And what more were we likely to accomplish +from a camp on Chang La? The second night had been no less windy than +the first. Soon after the weather cleared the wind had been strong from +North-west, and seemed each day to become more violent. The only signs +of a change now pointed to no improvement, but rather to a heavy fall of +snow--by no means an improbable event according to local lore. The +arguments, in fact, were all on one side; it would be bad heroics to +take wrong risks; and fairly facing the situation one could only admit +the necessity of retreat. + +It may be added that the real weakness of the party became only too +apparent in the course of our return journey over Lhakpa La on this +final day; and it must be safe to say that none of the three climbers +has ever felt a spasm of regret about the decision to go back or a +moment's doubt as to its rightness. It was imposed upon us by +circumstances without a reasonable alternative. + + + + + CHAPTER XVI + + WEATHER AND CONDITION OF SNOW + + +Without consulting the meteorologist at Simla it is difficult to accept +assertions about the monsoon as ultimate truth. Beyond a general, rather +vague, agreement as to what should normally be expected, opinions differ +not a little as to the measure and frequency of divergences from the +norm. And individuals who observe in one locality more or less than they +hope or expect are apt to forget that their dearth or plenty may be +elsewhere compensated by capricious incidence. Nevertheless it seems +certain that this year's rainfall in North-east India was above the +normal both in amount and duration. "We had good rain," people said, and +I was tempted to reply, "We had bad snow." Travelling through India I +frequently asked questions on this point, and almost invariably heard of +an unusually bountiful rainfall, seldom of one which was merely +sufficient. Inhabitants of Darjeeling, who have observed the hills in +the changing seasons for many years, told me that it was almost unheard +of that so much snow should fall in September and lie so low. The +general tenor of such remarks may probably be applied to an area +including not only Mount Everest itself and the great peaks in its +neighbourhood, but also a considerable tract of country to the North. +The monsoon, according to Tibetan information, started perhaps a little +later than usual, but was still more late in coming to an end; the +Tibetans ordinarily lie with an object, and there could be no object in +deceiving us about the weather. It may be concluded the year was +abnormally wet, though to what extent on Everest itself can hardly be +divined. + +During our outward journey through Sikkim we saw nothing of the high +peaks. It was not until the day of our march to Phari Dzong (May 28) +that we had a clear view of the snows, and we had then the good fortune +to see Chomolhari late in the morning. But Chomolhari and the range to +the North of it were less visited by clouds than the peaks further +South. Pawhunri, Kanchenjunga, Chomiomo were less often visible, and +even at this early season we began to observe the usual habit of clouds +to rise from the valleys or to form about the summits at an early hour, +to be dissipated not before evening. The weather was not necessarily bad +because the peaks were veiled. When we first saw Everest from Kampa +Dzong on June 6, it was obscured some three hours after sunrise, but the +weather seemed fine: and on two subsequent days we made the same +observation. On June 13, from the hills above Shiling, Bullock and I +were trying to make out the Everest group through glasses for about +three hours. When first we looked in that direction, it appeared that a +storm was in progress, with dark clouds drifting up from the West; but +Kanchenjunga at the same time was a glorious sight, and all the +mountains were clear before sunset. The most splendid of the distant +views was from Ponglet on June 19: we were up our hill half an hour +after sunrise and half an hour later there was nothing to be seen. There +may have been malice in the clouds that day. It was radiantly fine where +we were; but in the afternoon we came under the edge of a thunderstorm +which drenched the main body of the Expedition as they were approaching +Tingri; and there was a definite break in the weather at this time. + +I suppose this break may be taken as the forerunner of the monsoon on +Mount Everest. Storms there may have been before; but, generally +speaking, it had been fine over the mountains since the beginning of +June, and though the evidence is slight enough it seems probable that +Everest received little or no snow before June 20. When first we saw it, +a few days later, from the Rongbuk Glacier, it was still comparatively +black. It appeared a rocky mass with a white arm to the right, some +permanent snow on the ledges and in the gullies of the face turned +Northwards in our direction and some snow again on the high North-east +arete; but with no pretensions to be a snow-mountain, a real sugar-cake +as it seemed afterwards to become. We were lucky in having a few fine +days at the outset of our reconnaissance. The conditions then were very +different from those which obtained later. The recent snow must have +melted quickly; we found clean ice on an East-facing slope at 21,000 +feet and also at a gentler angle on one facing West. On Ri-ring the +slopes were generally covered with snow near the crest, thinly but +sufficiently, or we should never have got up; near the summit we found +ice on both sides, North and South. It is impossible to say up to what +height one might have found ice in June. Appearances suggested that on +all but the steepest slopes above 23,000 feet the surface was hard snow +rather than ice. + +It was on the day following our ascent of Ri-ring, July 6, that we first +experienced a real snowfall; and we woke next morning to find 3 or 4 +inches covering the ground. In so far as an exact date can be ascribed +to what is hardly a single event, July 6-7 may be taken as the beginning +of the monsoon. We imagined at first that this snowfall was an important +matter, sufficient to prevent climbing at any considerable height for +several days. But from subsequent observations we came to treat such +snowfalls with a certain degree of contempt. It was more often than not +the case during the whole of July until the date of our departure that +snow fell during the day--sometimes perhaps for a comparatively short +period between noon and sunset, not seldom for many hours, +intermittently during the day from the middle of the morning, and +continuing into the night. But it was often so far as we were concerned +a harmless phenomenon. Snow was precipitated from clouds so thin that +they were easily penetrated by the sun's heat; it melted where it lay, +and the moisture so readily evaporated that the snow had hardly stopped +falling before the ground was dry. One might suppose that a few hundred +feet higher, where the snow could be seen to lie where it fell, the +effects would be more severe; but it was remarkable after half a day's +unceasing precipitation of this fine granular snow that one might go up +early next morning, perhaps to 20,000 feet, and find no more than a thin +covering of 2 or 3 inches on the stones. + +In saying that this sort of weather was harmless, I am not denying that +it hindered our operations; but from the point of view merely of the +climber it was remarkably innocuous. A case in point is our ascent of +Ri-ring. As we were nearing the summit a thunderstorm gathered to the +North and dark clouds came up on every hand, threatening a violent +disturbance. I have related in an earlier chapter how we hurried down, +expecting at the least a cold unpleasant wind and some nasty snow +showers; but the air remained calm and the temperature warm and such +grains of snow as fell were hardly remarked in our flight. A more +disagreeable experience was our first journey to the col from which we +afterwards looked into the West Cwm of Everest; we reached the pass in +the teeth of a wind which drove the snow into our faces; but the weather +had no real sting, and the wind, though cold, seemed to touch us +lightly. Wind, in fact, was never an enemy to be feared during the whole +period of the monsoon, and snowstorms, though they prevented more than +one expedition, never turned us back. The delays in our reconnaissance +caused by bad weather were of course considerable; we were forced to +push our camps higher than would have otherwise been necessary, and +often found ourselves hurrying after a start before dawn in a desperate +race with the clouds to reach a view-point before the view had +disappeared. And the precipitation of snow on the glaciers forced us +invariably to wear snow-shoes on neve, and consequently limited the +numbers in our parties. + +I have already alluded to a more serious snowfall which took place from +July 20 to 25. Another occurred during the first days of August and +another again on August 20 and 21, when snow came down below 16,000 +feet. In September, towards the end of the monsoon, the weather was more +monotonously malicious and the snowfall tended to be heavier; I find two +heavy falls noted particularly in my diary. But on the whole it was the +habit of snow to fall lightly. It is remarkable, when one calls to mind +such a big snowfall as may occur during the climbing season in the Alps +before the weather is resolved to be fine, how little snow by comparison +fell on any one day in the region of Mount Everest. And perhaps in the +end the slopes were more laden by the smaller precipitations which +deposited a daily accretion. + +We naturally sought an answer to the interminable query as to how much +melting took place at the highest altitudes. Melting of course was +always quicker on rocks. But even on the glaciers it was remarkably +rapid whenever the sun shone brightly, and we were more than once +surprised after a period of cloudy weather with constant snow showers to +find how much the snow had consolidated. It seemed to us on more than +one occasion that while snow had been falling at our camps and on the +lower peaks, Everest itself must have escaped. But, generally speaking, +after July 6 the mountain was remarkably white and became increasingly +whiter, and only at the least two perfectly fine days, which rarely came +together, made any perceptible difference. It was remarkable how little +ice was ever observable on the steep Eastern face, where one would +expect to see icicles hanging about the rocks. It is my own impression +for what it is worth, and its value I fear is small, that though snow +will melt readily enough low down, at least up to 23,000 feet during the +warmer weather even on cloudy days, at greater altitudes, perhaps above +25,000 feet, it rarely melts even in bright sunshine. In September this +year I doubt if it melted at all above 23,000 feet after the weather +cleared. At lower elevations the direction and angle of the slope made +all the difference. After one fine day the snow on a steep East slope +had solidified to a remarkable degree at about 20,000 feet; on a +North-facing slope at a similar elevation it had been quite unaffected; +on flat surfaces 1,000 feet higher a perceptible crust had formed, but +the snow remained powdery below it as on the day when it fell. After +three and four fine days the snowy surface of a glacier was absolutely +hard at about 20,000 feet and remained solid in the afternoon. Fifteen +hundred feet higher we were breaking a hard crust and sinking in a foot +or more. This condition may have been partly due to the local behaviour +of clouds, which were apt to cling about a ridge overlooking the glacier +and cast a shadow on this part of it. But higher, on more open ground, +we met the same condition; and again the slopes facing North preserved a +powdery snow which never changed before it was blown down in avalanches. +Perhaps the most convincing phenomena were the powdery snow high up on +the Eastern slopes under the North col and the snow on the Western +slopes at a similar elevation under Lhakpa La, which was hardly more +solid, while 1,000 feet lower we found excellent snow. It is difficult +to resist the conclusion that altitude is a determining factor in the +sun's power of melting. It is possible that a line might always be drawn +on any given day above which the temperature of the air is too cold for +snow to melt where it has fallen on snow, and another to meet the case +where it covers rocks. From our all too limited observations in June I +should judge that in the middle of summer such imaginary lines would be +above the height of Everest, but in other and cooler seasons we should +quickly find them lower and a long way below the summit. + +In close connection with the snow's melting we had to consider the +possibility of avalanches. Our observations on this head were so meagre +that I can only make with the greatest diffidence a few statements about +them. It is astonishing to reflect how seldom we either saw or heard an +avalanche, or even noticed the debris of one under steep slopes which +had been laden with snow. Only on two occasions, I believe, were we +confronted in practice with the question as to whether a slope could +safely be crossed. The first was on August 7 in ascending the peak +Carpo-ri, of which I have previously made mention. The heavy snowfall at +the beginning of the month had ceased during the night August 4-5; the +following days had been warm but cloudy, and on both there had been +prolonged snow showers of the lighter sort in the afternoon and evening. +On the night of August 6 we had hard frost at 17,500 feet, and there was +a considerable sprinkling of fresh snow on the stones of the moraine. +Between the col and the summit we met some very steep snow slopes on the +South side: we carried no clinometer and I shall not venture to estimate +their angles of inclination. It was on this occasion, as I have +narrated, that in crossing a shallow scoop I was very much afraid of an +avalanche, but was able to choose a safe line where we were protected +and helped by an island of rocks. The snow here was inclined to be +powdery; but it had solidified in some degree and, where we had to tread +it, adhered sufficiently to the slope so as to give one a distinct +confidence that it would not slide off wherever it might be crossed. +Above this place we were able to avoid danger by following an edge where +the snow was not so deep; but here again I noticed with surprise the +adhesion between new snow and old. The ice below was not solid and +smooth, but frothy and rough, and easily penetrated by a strong blow of +the axe; it seemed to have been formed very quickly. The snow showed no +inclination to slide off, though it was not of the substance in which a +secure step could be made: and I concluded that the process of +assimilation between the old surface and the new snow must proceed very +rapidly whenever the temperature was warm enough. On the final slope, +which was even steeper, more snow was lying--it was a more powdery +substance: I was able again to escape danger on an edge dividing two +faces; but it was surprising that no avalanche had already taken place +and that the snow contrived to stay where it was. + +The other occasion when we had to face and determine the possibility of +an avalanche was in traversing the slopes to the North Col. Here our +feet undoubtedly found a solid bed to tread upon, but the substance +above it was dubiously loose. It was my conviction at the time that with +axes well driven in above us we were perfectly safe here. But on the way +down we observed a space of 5 yards or so where the surface snow had +slid away below our tracks. The disquieting thoughts that necessarily +followed this discovery left and still leave me in some doubt as to how +great a risk, if any, we were actually taking. But it is natural to +suppose that at a higher elevation or in a cooler season, because the +snow adheres less rapidly to the slopes on which it lies, an avalanche +of new snow is more likely to occur. + + + TEMPERATURE + +Before attempting to draw conclusions as to the relative chances of +finding favourable conditions between one month and another, a few words +must be said about temperature. + +So far as the temperature of the air was concerned, we experienced no +severe cold and suffered no hardships from first to last. I do not mean +to affirm that it was always warm. We welcomed frost at nights as one +does in the Alps. One night so early as July 18, in a camp above 19,000 +feet, was exceptionally cold. At our two last camps in September the +thermometer went down to two or three degrees below zero (Fahr.) and the +wind at the final camp made it more difficult to keep warm; with as +little protection as the coolies had, I should no doubt have shivered in +my tent. The air also seemed very cold before sunrise on September 20, +though we were walking fast; but it did not bite the tip of my nose or +ears or cause any disagreeable result. In general it may be said that +there could be no difficulty in providing equipment against any cold we +encountered. Heat was a much more dangerous enemy, as I indicated in +describing our first ascent to Lhakpa La. Personally I never felt the +sun's power on my head, but I felt it on my back so early as 8 a.m. as a +definite attack on my energy and vital power, and more than once, though +the sun was not shining, in crossing a glacier late in the day I was +reduced from a state of alert activity to one of heavy lassitude. + +The temperature of the snow is another consideration of very great +importance. Even in July I felt the snow to be cold in the middle of the +day towards the summit of Ri-ring, and when wearing snow-shoes in fresh +snow under 20,000 feet coolies and all felt the cold in their feet. +Later I apprehended a real danger from this source. The coolies were +encouraged to anoint their feet with whale oil, and we avoided accident +and even complaint: but I always admired their resistance to cold. +Personally, though I am not particularly a cold-footed person, I took +the precaution of wearing two pairs of long socks which were both new +and thick, and a third from which, unfortunately, the toes had to be +amputated owing to the timid miscalculation of my bootmaker: this +equipment sufficed and I found my feet perfectly warm, while one of my +companions was obliged to pull off a boot in order to restore +circulation, and the other went on with numb feet and barely escaped +frost-bite. And I must again emphasise the fact that this was on an +Eastern slope well warmed by the sun in the middle of the morning and at +an altitude no higher than about 22,500 feet. It may readily be +concluded that forethought and care are in no respect more necessary +than in guarding against frozen feet among a large party at the highest +altitudes. And the difficulty of guarding against this danger might well +determine the limits at either end of the warmest weather within which +an assault should be launched on Everest itself or any one of the +half-dozen or so highest peaks. + + + THE BEST SEASON FOR CLIMBING + +It will hardly be doubtful from the whole tendency of my preceding +remarks about weather and conditions that my opinion inclines +decisively to the earlier rather than the later season as offering the +best chances of climbing Mount Everest. We cannot of course assume that +because September was a bad month this year it will always be a bad +month. But supposing the monsoon were to end punctually and a fair spell +to have set in by the first day of September--even then it appears to me +improbable that the fresh snow fallen during the monsoon would +sufficiently melt near the top of the mountain two and a half months +after midsummer. As to the prospects of wind, we can only be content +with the statement that in this particular year the wind after the end +of the monsoon would alone have defeated even the most determined +attempt to reach the summit. A wind strong enough to blow up the snow +must always, I believe, prevent an ascent. A superman might perhaps be +found, but never a party of men whose endurance at high altitudes would +warrant the risk of exhaustion in struggling for long hours against such +adverse circumstances. For the earlier season it may be said again, as a +simple observation upon which little enough can be built, that the +appearance of the clouds before the monsoon did not suggest wind, but +rather a calm air on the summit. What precisely the conditions may be, +for instance, in May and June, 1922, or what we ought normally to +expect, cannot be determined with certainty. Will the whole of the snow +fallen during the monsoon of 1921 have melted before the next monsoon, +and if so by what date? Will the amount of snow on the mountain be the +same in June, 1922, as twelve months before? Or will black and white +appear in altered proportions? And if the snow has melted, where will +ice be found? It might well be that under the North Col all the steeper +slopes will have lost their snow. And what of the final arete? One +conjecture seems as good as another, and the experience of more +travelled mountaineers will suggest the most probable answer to these +questions with an instinct less fallible than mine. Nevertheless, I +think it may be said that the chances are all in favour of the earlier +season. We know, for instance, about this year that snow must have +melted since the last monsoon and actually was melting fast in June, but +the summer's snow does not always melt before the winter--not this year, +for instance: the chances, therefore, of finding it melted in June are +better than those of finding it melted in September. It may be contended +that it might then have melted too much so that a party would find ice +where they would wish to find snow. But one must prefer the lesser of +two evils. Ice is far from an insuperable obstacle on Mount Everest; +almost anywhere above Chang La crampons would overcome it: but powdery +snow, in case the snow has melted too little, is a deadly handicap. +Finally, the earlier is the warmer season with less danger to vulnerable +feet and requiring a lighter equipment. + + + + + CHAPTER XVII + + THE ROUTE TO THE SUMMIT + + +The reader who has carefully followed the preceding story will hardly +have failed to notice that the route which has been chosen as the only +one offering reasonable chances of success remains still very largely a +matter of speculation. But the reconnaissance, unless it were actually +to reach the summit, was obliged to leave much unproved, and its value +must depend upon observations in various sorts and not merely upon the +practice of treading the snow and rocks. Speculation in this case is +founded upon experience of certain phenomena and a study of the +mountain's features; and it is by relating what has been only seen with +known facts that inferences have been drawn. + +It may perhaps be accounted a misfortune that the party of 1921 did not +approach Chang La by the East Rongbuk Glacier. The Lhakpa La proved a +bigger obstacle than was expected. But in conditions such as we hope to +find before the monsoon, this way would have much to recommend it. It +avoids all laborious walking on a dry glacier, and with hard snow the +walk up to the pass from the camp on stones at 20,000 feet should not be +unduly fatiguing. Still the fact remains that the descent from the +Lhakpa La on to the East Rongbuk Glacier is not less than 1,200 feet. +Would it not be better to follow up this glacier from the Rongbuk +Valley? The absence of wood on this side need not deter the party of +1922. For them plenty of time will be available sufficiently to provide +their base with fuel, and the sole consideration should be the easiest +line of approach; and though no one has traversed the whole length of +the East Rongbuk Glacier, enough is known to choose this way with +confidence. Here, as on other glaciers which we saw, the difficulties +clearly lie below the limit of perpetual snow, and the greater part of +them were avoided or solved by Major Wheeler, who found a practicable +way on to the middle of the glacier at about 19,000 feet, and felt +certain that the medial moraine ahead of him would serve for an ascent +and be no more arduous than the moraines of the West Rongbuk Glacier had +proved to be. The view of this way from the Lhakpa La confirmed his +opinion, and though it may be called a speculation to choose it, whereas +the way from the East has been established by experiment, it is a fair +inference from experience to conclude that the untraversed section of +the East Rongbuk Glacier, a distance which could be accomplished very +easily in one march if all went well, will afford a simple approach to +Chang La. + +The Eastern wall, about 1,000 feet high, by which the gap itself must be +reached, can never be lightly esteemed. Here reconnaissance has forged a +link. But those who reached the col were not laden with tents and +stores; and on another occasion the conditions may be different. There +may be the danger of an avalanche or the difficulty of ice. From what we +saw this year before the monsoon had brought a heavy snowfall it is by +no means improbable that ice will be found at the end of May on the +steepest slope below Chang La. In that case much labour will be required +to hew and keep in repair a staircase, and perhaps fix a banister, so +that the laden coolies, not all of whom will be competent ice-men, may +be brought up in safety. + +The summit of Mount Everest is about 6,000 feet above Chang La; the +distance is something like 21/2 miles and the whole of it is unexplored. +What grounds have we for thinking that the mountaineering difficulties +will not prove insuperable, that in so far as mere climbing is concerned +the route is practicable? Two factors, generally speaking, have to be +considered: the nature of the ground and the general angle of +inclination. Where the climber is confined to a narrow crest and can +find no way to circumvent an obstacle, a very small tower or wall, a +matter of 20 feet, may bar his progress. There the general angle may be +what it likes: the important matter for him is that the angle is too +steep in a particular place. But on a mountain's face where his choice +is not limited to a strict and narrow way, the general angle is of +primary importance: if it is sufficiently gentle, the climber will find +that he may wander almost where he will to avoid the steeper places. +Long before we reached Chang La Mr. Bullock and I were fairly well +convinced that the slope from here to the North-east Shoulder was +sufficiently gentle and that the nature of the ill-defined ridge +connecting these two points was not such as to limit the choice of route +to a narrow line. Looking up from the North Col, we learnt nothing more +about the angles. The view, however, was not without value; it amply +confirmed our opinion as to the character of what lay ahead of us. The +ridge is not a crest; its section is a wide and rounded angle. It is not +decorated by pinnacles, it does not rise in steps. It presents a smooth +continuous way, and whether the rocks are still covered with powdery +snow, or only slightly sprinkled and for the most part bare, the party +of 1922 should be able to go up a long way at all events without meeting +any serious obstacle. It may not prove a perfectly simple matter +actually to reach the North-east arete above the shoulder at about +28,000 feet. The angle becomes steeper towards this arete. But even in +the last section below it, the choice of a way should not be +inconveniently restricted. On the right of the ascending party will be +permanent snow on various sloping ledges, an easy alternative to rocks +if the snow is found in good condition, and always offering a detour by +which to avoid an obstacle. + +From the North-east Shoulder to the summit of the mountain the way is +not so smooth. The rise is only 1,000 feet in a distance of half a mile, +but the first part of the crest is distinctly jagged by several towers +and the last part is steep. Much will depend upon the possibility of +escaping from the crest to avoid the obstacles and of regaining it +easily. The South-east side (left going up) is terribly steep, and it +will almost certainly be out of the question to traverse there. But the +sloping snow-covered ledges on the North-west may serve very well; the +difficulty about them is their tendency to be horizontal in direction +and to diverge from the arete where it slopes upwards, so that a party +which had followed one in preference to the crest might find themselves +cut off by a cliff running across the face above them. But one way or +another I think it should be possible with the help of such ledges to +reach the final obstacle. The summit itself is like the thin end of a +wedge thrust up from the mass in which it is embedded. The edge of it, +with the highest point at the far end, can only be reached from the +North-east by climbing a steep blunt edge of snow. The height of this +final obstacle must be fully 200 feet. Mr. Bullock and I examined it +often through our field-glasses, and though it did not appear +insuperable, whatever our point of view, it never looked anything but +steep. + + * * * * * + +To determine whether it is humanly possible to climb to the summit of +Mount Everest or what may be the chances of success in such an +undertaking, other factors besides the mere mountaineering difficulties +have to be considered. It is at least probable that the obstacles +presented by this mountain could be overcome by any competent party if +they met them in the Alps. But it is a very different matter to be +confronted with such obstacles at elevations between 23,000 and 29,000 +feet. We do not know that it is physiologically possible at such high +altitudes for the human body to make the efforts required to lift itself +up even on the simplest ground. The condition of the party of 1921 in +September during the days of the Assault cannot be taken as evidence +that the feat is impossible. The long periods spent in high camps and +the tax of many exhausting expeditions had undoubtedly reduced the +physical efficiency of Sahibs and coolies alike. The party of 1922, on +the other hand, will presumably choose for their attempt a time when the +climbers are at the top of their form and their powers will depend on +the extent of their adaptability to the condition of high altitude. +Nothing perhaps was so astonishing in the party of reconnaissance as the +rapidity with which they became acclimatised and capable of great +exertions between 18,000 and 21,000 feet. Where is the limit of this +process? Will the multiplication of red corpuscles continue so that men +may become acclimatised much higher? There is evidence enough to show +that they may exist comfortably enough, eating and digesting hearty +meals and retaining a feeling of vitality and energy up to 23,000 feet. +It may be that, after two or three days quietly spent at this height, +the body would sufficiently adjust itself to endure the still greater +difference from normal atmospheric pressure 6,000 feet higher. At all +events, a practical test can alone provide the proof in such a case. +Experiments carried out in a laboratory by putting a man into a sealed +chamber and reducing the pressure say to half an atmosphere, valuable as +they may be when related to the experiences of airmen, can establish +nothing for mountaineers; for they leave out of account the +all-important physiological factor of acclimatisation. But in any case +it is to be expected that efforts above 23,000 feet will be more +exhausting than those at lower elevations; and it may well be that the +nature of the ground will turn the scale against the climber. For him it +is all important that he should be able to breathe regularly, the demand +upon his lungs along the final arete cannot fail to be a terrible +strain, and anything like a tussle up some steep obstacle which would +interfere with the regularity of his breathing might prove to be an +ordeal beyond his strength. + +As a way out of these difficulties of breathing, the use of oxygen has +often been recommended and experiments were made by Dr. Kellas,[14] +which will be continued in 1922. + + [14] See _Geographical Journal._ + +Even so there will remain the difficulty of establishing one or perhaps +two camps above Chang La (23,000 feet). It is by no means certain that +any place exists above this point on which tents could be pitched. +Perhaps the party will manage without tents, but no great economy of +weight will be effected that way; those who sleep out at an elevation of +25,000 or 26,000 feet will have to be bountifully provided with warm +things. Probably about fifteen, or at least twelve loads will have to be +carried up from Chang La. It is not expected that oxygen will be +available for this purpose, and the task, whatever organisation is +provided, will be severe, possibly beyond the limits of human strength. + +Further, another sort of difficulty will jeopardise the chances of +success. It might be possible for two men to struggle somehow to the +summit, disregarding every other consideration. It is a different matter +to climb the mountain as mountaineers would have it climbed. Principles, +time-honoured in the Alpine Club, must of course be respected in the +ascent of Mount Everest. The party must keep a margin of safety. It is +not to be a mad enterprise rashly pushed on regardless of danger. The +ill-considered acceptance of any and every risk has no part in the +essence of persevering courage. A mountaineering enterprise may keep +sanity and sound judgment and remain an adventure. And of all principles +by which we hold the first is that of mutual help. What is to be done +for a man who is sick or abnormally exhausted at these high altitudes? +His companions must see to it that he is taken down at the first +opportunity and with an adequate escort; and the obligation is the same +whether he be Sahib or coolie; if we ask a man to carry our loads up the +mountain we must care for his welfare at need. It may be taken for +granted that such need will arise and will interfere very seriously with +any organisation however ingeniously and carefully it may be arranged. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: MOUNT EVEREST +from the 20,000 foot camp--wind blowing snow off the mountain.] + +In all it may be said that one factor beyond all others is required for +success. Too many chances are against the climbers; too many +contingencies may turn against them. Anything like a breakdown of the +transport will be fatal; soft snow on the mountain will be an +impregnable defence; a big wind will send back the strongest; even so +small a matter as a boot fitting a shade too tight may endanger one +man's foot and involve the whole party in retreat. The climbers must +have above all things, if they are to win through, good fortune, and the +greatest good fortune of all for mountaineers, some constant spirit of +kindness in Mount Everest itself, the forgetfulness for long enough of +its more cruel moods; for we must remember that the highest of mountains +is capable of severity, a severity so awful and so fatal that the wiser +sort of men do well to think and tremble even on the threshold of their +high endeavour. + + + + + NATURAL HISTORY + + BY A. F. R. WOLLASTON + + + CHAPTER XVIII + + AN EXCURSION TO NYENYAM AND LAPCHE KANG + + +By a liberal interpretation of the expression "Mount Everest" we +considered it necessary to explore the surrounding country as far as a +hundred miles or more from the mountain, East, North and South; in all +directions, that is, excepting toward the forbidden territory of Nepal. +So it happened one day in July that Major Morshead and I, already nearly +fifty miles from Everest, set out in a South-westerly direction, he +anxious to add a few hundred square miles of new country to his map, and +I intent on animals and plants. Our way lay across the Tingri Plain to +Langkor, both names famous in the annals of Tibetan Buddhism. The +following story was told us by an old monk in the monastery at +Langkor:-- + +Many generations ago there was born in the Indian village of Pulahari a +child named Tamba Sangay. When he grew into a youth he became restless +and dissatisfied with his native place, so he went to visit the Lord +Buddha and asked him what he should do. The Lord Buddha told him that he +must take a stone and throw it far, and where the stone fell there he +should spend his life. So Tamba Sangay took a rounded stone and threw it +far, so that no one saw where it fell. Many months he sought in vain +until he passed over the Hills into Tibet, and there he came to a place +where, although it was winter, was a large black space bare of snow. +The people told him that the cattle walked round and round in that space +to keep it clear from snow, and in the middle of it was a rounded stone. +So Tamba Sangay knew that the stone was his, and there he made a cell +and dwelt until he was taken on wings to Heaven. And the place is called +Langkor, which means "the cattle go round," to this day. The people for +many miles about had heard the stone as it came flying over the Hills +from India; it made a whistling sound like _Ting_, so the country came +to be called Tingri, the Hill of the Ting. + +We visited the Langkor monastery and saw the casket in which the stone +of Tamba Sangay is kept, only to be opened once a year by a high +dignitary from Lhasa. Close by was a fair-sized river, the bridge over +which had been carried away by a recent flood. The greater part of the +population was busily engaged in repairing the bridge, to the +accompaniment at frequent intervals of hideous blasts on a large +conch-shell: this, we were told, was to keep the rain away and stop the +floods. Rain fell heavily in spite of the noise, but the bridge was +finished before nightfall. + +On the following day we had a long pull of many miles up to the Thung +La, a pass of 18,000 feet, from which we had hoped for fine views over +the surrounding country. A driving storm of snow blotted out the views +and covered the ground, so that nothing was to be seen but little +clumps, a few inches high, of poppies of the most heavenly blue. Going +down the steep track beyond the pass I was stopped by hearing the +unfamiliar note of a bird, so it seemed: the cry was almost exactly that +of a female peregrine when its eyrie has been disturbed, but coming from +a labyrinth of fallen rocks it could not be. Tracking the note from one +rock to another, I came suddenly within a few yards of a large marmot, +which sat up and waved her tail at me; she called again and two +half-grown young ones appeared close by; then all dived into a burrow. +These marmots are larger and far less timid of mankind than the marmots +of the Alps. + +A few miles below the pass the valley widened into an almost level +bottom of half a mile or more, with steep bare limestone hills on either +side. Here and there were small hamlets, where the inhabitants used the +water of the river to irrigate their fields of barley and of blazing +golden mustard, whose sweetness scented the valley in the sunshine. Like +most of the butter, which is made in vast quantities in Southern Tibet, +the mustard seed produces oil for monastery lamps. At one place we came +across a spring, almost a fountain, bubbling out of the foothill, of +clearest sparkling mineral water that would be the envy of Bath or of +Marienbad; in a few yards it had become a racing stream a dozen feet in +width. + +Four days of leisurely walking down the valley brought us to the village +of Nyenyam, where the whole population, a most unpleasant-looking crowd +of four or five hundred people, came out to stare at us. A few only were +Tibetans; the majority were obviously of Indian origin, calling +themselves Nepalese, but without any of the distinctive features of that +race. We had received some weeks earlier a cordial invitation from the +Jongpens of Nyenyam to visit the place, and we were accordingly much +disappointed to find that no person of authority came out to welcome us. +A Jongpen, it should be said, is an official appointed by the Lhasa +authorities to administer a district and collect revenues: in a place of +any importance, as at Nyenyam, there are often two, the idea being that +one will keep an eye on the other and prevent him from over-enriching +himself. We visited these worthies, whom we found dressed in priceless +Chinese silk gowns and cultivating the extreme fashion of long nails on +all their fingers, in strange contrast to the squalor and dilapidation +of their dwelling, and were annoyed to find that they denied all +knowledge of the invitation. The bearer of the message was produced and +lied manfully in their cause; the name of Nyenyam was not, as it +happened, mentioned in our passport, and we were made to look somewhat +foolish. Finally the Jongpens said (with their tongues in their cheeks +and reminding us of a vulgar song) that they were very glad to see us, +but they hoped that we would go. They then went out of their way to give +us false information about the local passes and made our prolonged stay +in the place impossible by discouraging the traders from dealing with +us.[15] + + [15] In fairness it must be said that this was the only occasion on + which we met with anything but help and civility from Tibetan + officials. + +Nyenyam, though more squalid and evil-smelling than any place in my +experience, is of some importance as being the last Tibetan town before +the frontier of Nepal is reached. It is well placed on a level terrace +above the junction of the Poe Chu with an almost equally big river +flowing from the glaciers of the great mountain mass of Gosainthan. +Immediately below the town the river enters the stupendous gorge that +cuts through the heart of the Himalaya to the more open country of +Nepal, 8,000 feet below. To the West of Nyenyam rises a great range of +mountains culminating in the beautiful peaks of Gosainthan, which we had +hoped to visit, and somewhere to the East lay the mysterious sacred +mountain of Lapche Kang. Our friends the Jongpens assured us that there +was no direct route to Lapche, that we must go back the way by which we +had come, and so on; but we were weary of their obstructions and made up +our minds to find a way to the holy places. + +So far our transport animals had been the yak, or the cross-bred ox-yak, +a stronger beast; we were now going through country where only coolies +could carry loads. We retraced our steps a few miles up the valley to a +village ruled over by a friendly woman, the widow of the late headman. +True, she demanded for the coolies an exorbitant wage, which we cut down +by about a half, but she pressed into our service every able-bodied +person in the neighbourhood, young and old, men and women. They have a +fair and simple way of apportioning the loads. All Tibetans, men and +women alike, wear long rope-soled boots with woollen cloth tops +extending toward the knee, where they are secured by garters, long +strips of narrow woven cloth. When all the loads are ready, each person +takes off one garter and gives it to the headman, who shuffles them well +and in his turn hands them over to some neutral person who knows not the +ownership of the garters. He lays one on the top of each load, and whose +garter it is must carry the load without any further talk. It is amusing +to watch the excitement in their faces as the garters are dealt out, and +to hear the shrieks of delight of the lucky ones and the groans of the +less fortunate. It makes one feel weak and ashamed to see a small girl +of apparently no more than fourteen years shouldering a huge tent or an +unwieldy box, until one remembers that they begin to carry almost as +soon as they can walk and are accustomed to far heavier loads than ever +they carry for us. + +Our path led us up a steep side-valley from the Poe Chu, ascending over a +vast moraine to the foot of a small glacier about two miles in length. +Here I saw a rare sight: a Laemmergeier (bearded vulture) came sailing +down in wide circles and settled on the ice barely a hundred paces from +us, where he began to peck at something--a dead hare perhaps, but it was +impossible to see or to approach nearer over the crevasses. The +Laemmergeier, vulture though it is, is one of the noblest birds in flight +that may be seen: hardly a day passes in the high mountains without one +or more swooping down to look at you, sometimes so near that you can see +his beard and gleaming eye; but to see one on the ground is rare indeed. +The long-tailed aeroplane at a very great height resembles the +Laemmergeier more than any other bird. + +We struggled up the glacier, inches deep in soft new snow, crossed +crevasses by means of rotten planks which gravely offended our +mountaineering sense, and came through dense fog to our pass at its +head. Here began the sacred mountain of Lapche Kang, and on the rocks +beside the pass, and on many of the pinnacles high up above the pass as +well, were cairns of stones supporting little reed-stemmed flags of +prayers. Some of our party had brought up from below such little flags, +which they planted where their fancy prompted. As we went down on the +other side we came to countless little "chortens," miniature temples, +and, where the ground was level for a space, to long walls of stones, +each one inscribed with the universal Buddhist prayer OM MANI PADME HUM. + +Yaks are most satisfactory beasts of burden; if their pace is slow--it +is seldom more than two miles an hour--they go with hardly a halt, +cropping a tuft of grass here and there, until daylight fails. But the +Tibetan coolie is of quite another nature; he (or she) starts off gaily +enough in the morning, but very soon he is glad to stop for a gossip or +to alter the trim of his load, and then it is time to drink tea, and +again at every convenient halting-place more tea, not the liquid that we +are accustomed to drink, but a curious mixture of powdered brick-tea, +salt, soda and butter, of a better taste than one would suppose. So on +this occasion it was long after noon when we had crossed the pass, and +when the day began to fade in a drenching cloud of rain, the Tibetans +found shelter in some caves, and persuaded us to camp. An uneven space +among rocks just held our tents; we dined off the fragrant smoke of +green rhododendron and soaking juniper, and we slept (if at all) to the +roar of boulders rolling in the torrent-bed a few feet from where we +lay. + +But it was well that we had not stumbled on in the dark. In the morning +light we walked over grassy "alps" still yellow with sweet-scented +primulas, and the steep sides of the narrowing valley below were bright +with roses, pink and white spiraeas, yellow berberis and many other +flowers. Soon it became evident that we were approaching a place of more +than ordinary holiness; every stone had its prayer-flag, and the tops of +trees, which began to appear here, were also decorated. Great boulders +were defaced with the familiar words engraven on them in letters many +feet in height. In a little while we came to a small wooden hut filled +from floor to roof with thousands of little flags brought there by +pilgrims; the posts and lintel of the door were smeared with dabs of +butter, and the crevices of the walls were filled with little bunches of +fresh-cut flowers. Outside was a rude altar made of stones from the +river-bed, where a Lama was burning incense and chanting prayers. + +[Illustration: TEMPLE AT LAPCHE KANG.] + +We passed through the village, a tiny hamlet of a dozen houses, and came +to the celebrated temple of Lapche. A square stone wall, about 60 yards +each way, on the inner side of which are sheds to shelter pilgrims, +encloses a roughly paved courtyard where stands the temple, a plain +square building of stone with a pagoda-like roof surmounted by a +burnished copper ornament. There is nothing remarkable about the temple +excepting the hundred and more prayer wheels set in the wall at a +convenient height for the pilgrims to turn as they walk round the +building. Inside are countless Buddhas, the usual smell of smoky +butter-lamps, and an effigy of the saint. The whole place is dirty and +dishevelled, in the supposed care of one old woman and a monk, and +nobody would believe that this is one of the most famous places in the +country and that every year hundreds of Buddhists from India and from +all parts of Tibet make pilgrimage to it. + +Mila Respa, poet and saint and (it is said) a Tibetan incarnation of +Buddha, spent his earthly life in this mountain valley, living under +rocks and in caves, where the faithful may see his footprints even now. +He seems to have been not lacking in a sense of humour. He was walking +with a disciple on the mountain one day, when they found an old yak's +horn lying in the path. Mila Respa told the disciple to pick it up and +take it with him. The disciple refused, saying that it was useless, and +passed on without noticing that the saint himself had picked up the horn +and put it under his cloak. Soon afterwards a mighty storm descended on +them--whether or not it was caused by the saint is not known. He took +the horn from under his cloak and crept inside it. "Now," said he, when +he was safely sheltered from the rain, "you see that nothing in the +world is useless." + +We stayed for two days at Lapche Kang, picking flowers and enjoying the +beauty of the place, in spite of the clouds which swept up from the +South and filled the valley from early morning onwards. To a naturalist +it was a tantalizing place; there were many unfamiliar birds that we had +not seen in Tibet, but in such a sacred place I dared not offend the +people by taking life, and I even had some qualms in catching +butterflies. One of the prettiest sights I saw was a wall-creeper, like +a big crimson-winged moth, fluttering over the temple buildings in +search for insects. + +Having found Lapche Kang, where no European had before penetrated, and +having placed it on the map, our next object was to go over the ranges +Eastward to the Rongshar Valley, the head of which had been visited by +members of the Expedition a few weeks earlier. This was accomplished in +two long days of rather confused climbing over two passes of about +17,000 feet, crossing sundry glaciers and stumbling over moraines, and +nearly always in an impenetrable fog. Our views of mountains were none +at all, but the beauty of the flowers at our feet was almost +compensation for that. Among many stand out two in particular, both of +them primulas. One was ivory-white, about the bigness of a cowslip, with +wide open bells and the most delicate primrose scent: the other carried +from four to six bells, each as big as a lady's thimble, of deep azure +blue and lined inside with frosted silver.[16] + + [16] Both of these are new species; the former has been described as + _Primula Buryana_, the latter as _P. Wollastonii_. + +As we went down the last steep slope into the Rongshar Valley, the +clouds parted for a few moments, and across the valley and incredibly +high above our heads appeared the summit of Gauri-Sankar,[17] one of the +most beautiful of Himalayan peaks, blazing in the afternoon sun. It was +a glorious vision, but it rather added to our regret for the views of +peaks that we might have seen. The next morning at daybreak the whole +mountain was clear from its foot in the Rongshar River (10,000 feet) up +through woods of pine and birch, to rhododendrons and rocks, and so by a +knife-edged ridge of ice to its glistening summit. It recalled to me the +Bietsch-horn more than any other Alpine peak, a Bietsch-horn on the +giant scale and seemingly impassable to man. + + [17] Gauri-Sankar (23,440 ft.) was for many years confused with Mount + Everest, which is still misnamed Gauri-Sankar in German maps. + +[Illustration: GAURI-SANKAR.] + +The valley of the Rongshar, like the Nyenyam and other valleys we had +visited, though within the Tibetan border, is really more Nepalese in +character. The climate is much damper than in Tibet, as one can see by +the wisps of lichen on the trees and the greenness of the vegetation far +up the mountain sides, especially at this season of monsoon, when the +South wind blows dense clouds of drenching moisture through the gorges. +Like those valleys the Rongshar is sacred, which is inconvenient when +the question of food supply is pressing. The people had cattle and +flocks of goats; they would sell us an ox or a goat, but we must not +kill it within the valley, or ill-luck would come to them. They were a +friendly and good-tempered people, much given to religion. In many +places we had seen prayer wheels worked by water, but here for the first +time we saw one driven by the wind. Though it does not do much work at +night, it probably steals a march on the water wheels in winter, when +the streams are frozen. + +We walked up the valley of Rongshar, which in July should be called the +Valley of Roses; on all sides were bushes, trees almost, of the deep red +single rose in bloom, and the air was filled with the scent of them. +After a journey of about 150 miles through unknown country we came to +the village of Tazang, which had been visited by some of us before. +Thence over the Phuese La (the Pass of Small Rats) we came into real +Tibet again, and so in a few days to the Eastern side of Mount Everest. + + + + + CHAPTER XIX + + NATURAL HISTORY NOTES + + +To a naturalist Tibet offers considerable difficulties: it is true that +in some places animals are so tame that they will almost eat out of your +hand; for instance, in the Rongbuk Valley the burhel (wild sheep) come +to the cells of the hermits for food, and in every village the ravens +and rock-doves are as fearless as the sparrows in London. But against +this tameness must be set the Buddhist religion, which forbids the +people from taking life, so that, whereas in most countries the native +children are the best friends of the naturalist, in Tibet we got no help +from them whatever. Also, in order to avoid giving possible offence, we +were careful to refrain from shooting in the neighbourhood of +monasteries and villages, and that was a very severe drawback, as birds +congregated principally about the cultivated lands near villages. +Another difficulty we found was in catching small mammals, which showed +the greatest reluctance to enter our traps, whatever the bait might be. +One species only, a vole (_Phaiomys leucurus_), was trapped; all the +others were shot, and that involved a considerable expenditure of time +in waiting motionless beside burrows. In spite of these disadvantages we +made considerable collections of mammals and birds, and we brought back +a large number of dried plants and seeds, many of which it is hoped will +live in the gardens of this country. + +[Illustration: LOWER KAMA-CHU.] + +Crossing over the Jelep La from Sikkim into Tibet in the latter part of +May we found the country at 12,000 feet and upwards at the height of +spring. The open level spaces were carpeted with a dark purple and +yellow primula (_P. gammieana_), a delicate little yellow flower +(_Lloydia tibetica_) and many saxifrages. The steep hillsides were +ablaze with the flowers of the large rhododendrons (_R. thomsoni_, _R. +falconeri_, _R. aucklandi_) and the smaller _Rhododendron +campylocarpum_, an almost infinite variety of colours.[18] A descent +through woods of pines, oaks and walnuts brought us to the picturesque +village of Richengong, in the Chumbi Valley, where we found +house-martins nesting under the eaves of the houses. Following up the +Ammo Chu, in its lower course between 9,000 and 12,000 feet, we found +the valley gay with pink and white spiraeas and cotoneasters, red and +white roses, yellow berberis, a fragrant white-flowered bog-myrtle, +anemones and white clematis. Dippers, wagtails and the white-capped +redstart were the commonest birds along the river-banks. From Yatung we +made an excursion of a few miles up the Kambu Valley, and there found a +very beautiful Enkianthus (_Enkianthus himalaicus_), a small tree about +15 feet high, with clusters of pink and white flowers; in the autumn the +leaves turn to a deep copper red. + + [18] We marked many of the best-flowering specimens with the + intention of collecting their seeds on our return in the autumn. + Unfortunately when we came over the Jelep La in October it was + in a heavy snowstorm which made collecting impossible. + +At about 11,000 feet is a level terrace, the plain of Lingmatang, where +the stream meanders for two or three miles through a lovely meadow +covered in the spring with a tiny pink primula (_P. minutissima_): it +looks a perfect trout stream, but what fish there are (_Schizopygopsis +stoliczae_) are small and few in number. + +Between 11,000 and 13,000 feet you ascend through mixed woods of pine, +larch, birch and juniper with an undergrowth of rhododendrons and +mountain ash. The larches here have a much less formal habit of growth +than those of this country, and in the autumn they turn to a brilliant +golden colour. The berries of the mountain ash, when ripe, are white and +very conspicuous. At this altitude _Rhododendron cinnabarinum_ reaches +its best growth, in bushes of from 8 to 10 feet in height, and the +flowers have a very wide range of colour. In the woods hereabouts may +often be heard and sometimes seen the blood pheasant, and here lives +also--but we did not see it--the Tibetan stag. + +At about 13,000 feet at the end of May you find a yellow primula +covering the ground more thickly than cowslips in this country; the air +is laden with the scent of it, and growing with it is a pretty little +heath-like flower (_Cassiope fastigiata_) with snow-white bells. Here +and there is seen the large blue poppy (_Meconopsis_ sp.) and a white +anemone with five or six flowers on one stem. Soon the trees get +scantier and scantier, pines disappear altogether and then birches and +willows and junipers, until only dwarf rhododendrons (_R. setosum_) are +left, covering the hillsides like purple heather. + +In a few miles the country changes in character completely, and you come +out on to the open plain of Phari. Here at 14,000 feet we saw the common +cuckoo sitting on a telegraph wire and calling vigorously. This is Tibet +proper, and henceforward you may travel for scores of miles and hardly +see any plant more than a few inches high. In some places a little +trumpet-shaped purple flower (_Incarvillea younghusbandii_) is fairly +common, it lies prone on the sand with its leaves usually buried out of +sight; and as we went Westward we found a dwarf blue iris (_I. +tenuifolia_). Animals are few and far between: the Kiang, the wild ass +of Tibet, is occasionally seen in small parties; they are very +conspicuous on the open plains in full daylight, but almost invisible at +dusk. The Tibetan gazelle is fairly numerous, and it is not uncommon to +see one or two in company with a flock of native sheep and taking no +notice of the shepherd, but when a stranger tries to approach they are +off like a flash. Another animal of the plains is the Tibetan antelope +(_Pantholops_), which is found in large numbers a little to the North of +the region we visited, but the only signs of it we saw were the horns +used as supporting prongs for the long muzzle-loading guns of the +Tibetans. The Tibetan antelope was probably the Unicorn described by the +French priest Huc in 1845. + +The only mammals that are commonly seen on the plains are the small +mouse-hares or pikas (_Ochotona_), which live in colonies on the less +stony parts of the plain, where their burrows often caused our ponies to +stumble; they scurry off to their holes at your approach, but if you +wait a few moments you will see heads peeping out at you from all sides. +These engaging little creatures have been called "Whistling Hares," but +of the three species which we found none was ever heard to utter a sound +of any kind. The Tibetan name for them is Phuese. It is interesting to +record that from one specimen I took three fleas of two species, both of +them new to science. + +Birds are few on these stony wastes, larks, wheatears and snow-finches +being the commonest. Elwes' shore-lark was found feeding young birds at +the beginning of June, when the ground was not yet free from snow, and +the song of the Tibetan skylark, remarkably like that of our own +skylark, was heard over every patch of native cultivation. + +A small spiny lizard (_Phrynocephalus theobaldi_) is common on the +plains and on the lower hills up to 17,000 feet; it lives in shallow +burrows on the sand and under stones. + +Rising out of the plain North of the Himalayas are ranges of rounded +limestone hills, 18,000 to 19,000 feet high, running roughly East and +West. The hills between Phari and Khamba Dzong are the home of the big +sheep (_Ovis hodgsoni_), which are occasionally seen in small companies. +There are many ranges to the West of Khamba Dzong, apparently well +suited to this animal, but it was never seen. On the slopes of these +hills are found partridges (_Perdix hodgsoniae_), and in the ravines are +seen Alpine choughs, rock-doves (_Columba rupestris_) and crag-martins. +Once or twice at night we heard the shriek of the great eagle-owl, but +the bird was not seen. + +At rare intervals on these plains one meets with small rivers, +tributaries of the Arun River; along their banks is usually more grass +than elsewhere, and here the wandering Tibetan herdsmen bring their yaks +to graze. The wild yak is not found anywhere in this region. It might be +supposed that so hairy an animal as the yak would become dirty and +unkempt. Actually they are among the cleanest of creatures, and they may +often be seen scraping holes in soft banks where they roll and kick and +comb themselves into silky condition. The usual colour of the +domesticated yak is black, more rarely a yellowish brown. A common +variety has a white face and white tail. The calves are born in the +spring, late April or early May. + +Here and there the rivers overflow their banks and form lakes or meres, +which in the summer are the haunt of innumerable wild-fowl: bar-headed +geese and redshanks nest here, families of ruddy shelducks (the Brahminy +duck of India) and garganey teal are seen swimming on the pools. +Overhead fly sand-martins, brown-headed gulls, common terns and +white-tailed eagles. Near one of these lakes one day I watched at close +distance a red fox stalking a pair of bar-headed geese, a most +interesting sight, and had the satisfaction of saving the birds by +firing a shot in the air with my small collecting gun just as the fox +was about to pounce on his intended victim. + +Tinki Dzong is a veritable bird sanctuary. The Dzong itself is a +rambling fort covering a dozen or so of acres, and about its walls nest +hundreds of birds--ravens, magpies, red-billed choughs, tree-sparrows, +hoopoes, Indian redstarts, Hodgson's pied wagtails and rock-doves. In +the shallow pool outside the Dzong were swimming bar-headed geese and +ruddy shelducks, with families of young birds, all as tame as domestic +poultry. A pair of white storks was seen here in June, but they did not +appear to be breeding. In the autumn the lakes in this neighbourhood are +the resort of large packs of wigeon, gadwall and pochard. The Jongpen +explained to us that it was the particular wish of the Dalai Lama that +no birds should be molested here, and for several years two lamas lived +at Tinki, whose special business it was to protect the birds. + +[Illustration: JUNIPERS IN THE KAMA VALLEY.] + +Crossing over a pass of about 17,000 feet (Tinki La), the slopes gay +with a little purple and white daphne (_Stellera_), said by the natives +to be poisonous to animals, we came to a plain of a different character, +miles of blown sand heaped here and there into enormous dunes, on which +grows a yellow-flowering gorse. Here, near Chushar, we first met with +rose-finches (Severtzoff's and Przjewalsk's) and the brown ground-chough +(_Podoces humilis_): the last-named is a remarkable-looking bird, which +progresses by a series of apparently top-heavy bounds, at the end of +which it turns round to steady itself; in the middle of June it was +feeding its young in nests at the bottom of deep holes in sand or old +mud walls. + +Following up the valley of the Bhong-chu we crossed the river by a stone +bridge near Shekar Dzong. Here we found a colony of white-rumped swifts +nesting high up in cliffs and ruddy shelducks nesting in holes among the +loose boulders below. Occasionally we saw a pair of black-necked cranes, +which are said by the natives to breed near lakes a little to the North, +but we had no opportunity of visiting them. The slopes of the hills +facing South were covered with a very pretty shrub (_Sophora_) with blue +and white flowers and delicate silvery grey leaves, and among the loose +stones a small clematis (_C. orientalis_) was just beginning to appear. +Groups of small trees, like a sea buckthorn, growing 15 to 20 feet high, +indicate a gradual change in the climate as you go Westwards. Here also +for the first time we began to find a few butterflies, of the genera +_Lycaena_ and _Colias_. + +At Tingri we found ourselves in a large plain about 20 miles long by 12 +wide; a large part of the plain is saturated with soda and is almost +uninhabited by bird or beast. In our three weeks' stay at Tingri we +collected several mammals, including a new subspecies of hamster +(_Cricetulus alticola tibetanus_) and a number of birds. This was the +only place where we ever received any natural history specimen from a +Tibetan. A woman came into our camp one day and, after making certain +that she was not observed by any of the villagers, produced from a sack +a well-worn domestic cat's skin stuffed with grass and a freshly killed +stoat (_Mustela longstaffi_). The skin of the stoat is highly prized by +the Tibetans, who say that it has the property of restoring faded +turquoises to their former beauty. About the houses of the village were +nesting tree-sparrows, hoopoes, rock-doves and ravens, the latter so +tame that they hardly troubled to get out of the way of passers-by. In a +tower of the old fort lived a pair of the Eastern little owl (_Athene +bactriana_), which appeared to live principally on voles. On the plain +the commonest birds were the long-billed calandra lark, Brook's +short-toed lark, the Tibetan skylark, and Elwes' shore-lark, all of +which were found with eggs, probably the second brood of the season, at +the beginning of July. The nest of the yellow-headed wagtail, rare at +Tingri, was found with eggs, and Blanford's snow-finch was found feeding +its young more than 2 feet down the burrow of a pika (_Ochotona +curzoniae_). The common tern and the greater sand-plover nested on the +shingly islands in the river. + +Plants at Tingri were few and inconspicuous: a small yellow cistus, the +dwarf blue iris, a small aster and a curious hairy, claret-coloured +flower (_Thermopsis_) were the most noticeable. Along the rivers which +traverse the plain is very good grazing for the large flocks of sheep +and goats of the Tibetans; the sheep are small and are grown entirely +for wool. By a simple system of irrigation a large area of land near +Tingri has been brought into cultivation. The principal crop here is +barley, which constitutes the chief food of the people; they also grow a +large radish or small turnip, the young leaves of which are excellent +food. The animals usually used for ploughing are a cross between the yak +and ordinary domestic cattle, called by the Tibetans "zoh"; they are +more powerful than the yak and are excellent transport animals. We found +barley grown in many districts up to 15,000 feet--it does not always +ripen--and in the valley of the Dzakar Chu near its junction with the +Arun River is a small area where wheat is grown at an altitude of about +12,800 feet. Peas are grown in the Arun Valley near Kharta, where they +ripen in September and are pounded into meal for winter food of cattle +as well as of the Tibetans themselves. Mustard is grown in the lower +valleys below 14,000 feet. It is to be regretted that we did not bring +back specimens of these hardy cereals. + +During the course of an excursion of about three weeks in July to the +West and South of Tingri we covered a large tract of unexplored country, +much of which is more Nepalese than Tibetan in character. Going over the +Thung La we found numerous butterflies of the genus _Parnassus_, and +near the top of the pass (18,000 feet) we found for the first time the +beautiful little blue _Gentiana am[oe]na_; it is not easy to see until +you are right over it, when it looks like a little square blue china +cup; some of the flowers are as much as an inch in diameter. Here also +was just beginning to flower the dwarf blue poppy (_Meconopsis +horridula_), which grows in a small compact clump, 6 to 8 inches high, +with as many as sixteen flowers and buds on one plant; the flowers are +nearly 2 inches across and of a heavenly blue. In this region, too, we +met for the first time marmots, which live in large colonies at about +16,000 feet; the Himalayan is larger than the Alpine marmot, and it has +a longish tail which it whisks sharply from side to side when it is +alarmed; it has a twittering cry, curiously like that of a bird of prey. + +Continuing down the valley of the Poe Chu to Nyenyam, we found several +birds that we had not met hitherto, notably the brown accentor, +Himalayan tree-pipit, Adams's snowfinch, the Himalayan greenfinch and +Tickell's willow-warbler. At about 12,500 feet we first found the +white-backed dove (_Columba leuconota_), which inhabits the deep gorges +of the Himalayas but does not extend out on to the Tibetan plain. Beside +the big torrent that flows South from Gosainthan we saw a pair of that +curious curlew-like bird, the ibis-bill (_Ibidorhynchus struthersi_); it +was evident that they had eggs or young on an island in the torrent, at +about 13,800 feet, but unfortunately it was impossible to reach it. + +The most conspicuous flowers in this region were a little bushy cistus +with golden flowers the size of a half-crown, a dwarf rhododendron (_R. +lanatum_) with hairy leaves, a white potentilla with red centre, which +carpeted the drier hillsides, a white gentian (_G. robusta_), and a very +remarkable louse-wort (_Pedicularis megalantha_) with two quite distinct +forms--one purple, the other yellow. + +Crossing a pass to the East of Nyenyam, we camped on a level spot +covered densely with white primulas (_P. Buryana_) six to eight inches +high; an inch or two of snow fell during the night, and so white are +these flowers that it was difficult to see them against the snow. Near +the top of another pass we found at about the same altitude, 15,000 +feet, another primula (_P. Wollastonii_) with three to six bells on each +stem, the size of a small thimble, of a deep blue colour, and lined +inside with frosted silver. In the moister valleys hereabouts a pretty +pink-flowered polygonum (_P. vacciniifolium_) rambled everywhere over +the rocks and boulders. The Rongshar Valley in July was chiefly notable +for the large gooseberry bushes, 10 to 12 feet high, and for the +profusion of red and white roses. A wall-creeper, the only one we saw in +Tibet, was seen creeping about the temple at Lapche, a few miles to the +West of Rongshar. + +From the beginning of August our headquarters were at Kharta in the Arun +Valley, about 20 miles East of Mount Everest, and from there we made +excursions South to the Kama Valley, and West up the Kharta Valley in +the direction of Everest. Kharta itself is curiously situated as regards +climate: the wide dry valley of the Arun narrows abruptly and the river +passes into a deep gorge, where it falls rapidly at a rate of about 200 +feet to the mile on its way to Nepal. The heavy monsoon clouds roll up +the gorge to its mouth, where they are cut off sharply, so that within a +mile you may pass from the dry climate of Tibet to the moist, steamy air +of a Nepalese character, with its luxuriant vegetation. + +In the immediate neighbourhood of Kharta were several birds we had not +met elsewhere, notably Prince Henry's laughing thrush (_Trochalopterum +henrici_), which is very much venerated as a sacred bird by the +Tibetans, the Central Asian blackbird, almost indistinguishable from our +blackbird except by its voice, the solitary thrush, Indian brown +turtledove, and a meadow-bunting (_Emberiza godlewskii_), probably a +migrant from the North. + +Several species of small gentians and two very fragrant onosmas were +flowering in August, and in this place _Clematis orientalis_ attains its +best growth, clambering over the trees and the houses of the natives; +the flower of this clematis has a very wide range of colour from an +apricot yellow to almost black. About the houses are often planted +junipers and poplars, and it was about 10 miles from Kharta that we saw +a poplar nearly 40 feet in girth, which we were informed was five +hundred years old. + +A few miles to the south of Kharta is a valley filled with a dozen or so +of small lakes or tarns, inhabited apparently only by tadpoles (_Rana +pleskei_); no fish could be seen. Not far from here was discovered +an interesting toad of a new species (_Cophophryne alticola_). +Growing about the lakes were large beds of purple and yellow iris +(_I. sibirica_, near); the steeper banks were blue with a very striking +campanula (_Cyananthus pedunculatus_); growing out from among the dwarf +rhododendrons in dry places were tall spikes of a claret-coloured +meconopsis, now going to seed--some spikes had as many as twenty +seed-pods; and in the moist places beside the lakes and streams was the +tall yellow primula (_P. elongata_), growing to a height of over 30 +inches. + +Ascending from the lakes to the Chog La we saw a small black rat amongst +the huge boulders of a moraine; it appeared to be a very active little +animal, and though four or five were seen at different times in similar +situations we failed to secure a specimen. Near the Chog La we found the +snow-partridge (_Lerwa lerwa_), and one was shot out of a flock of very +beautiful blue birds--Hodgson's grandala. Another very handsome bird in +this region is the red-breasted rose-finch, which is found up to 18,000 +feet. Descending from the Chog La towards the Kama Valley we found at +16,000 feet the giant rhubarb (_Rheum nobile_), and at 14,000 feet we +picked quantities of the wild edible rhubarb. A little lower down we +came to large blue scabius, 3 to 4 feet high, a dark blue monkshood and +quantities of the tall yellow poppy. Rhododendrons, birches and junipers +begin at about 13,500 feet, and at 12,000 feet the junipers are the +predominating tree; they are of immense size, upwards of 20 feet in +girth and from 120 to 150 feet in height and of a very even and perfect +growth. Here we met with the Sikkim black tit (_Parus beavani_), and a +little lower down among the firs (_Abies webbiana_) we came upon +bullfinches (_Pyrrhula erythrocephala_). At 11,000 feet I saw a langur +monkey (_Semnopithecus entellus_), the only monkey I saw in Tibet. +Excepting one solitary bat, the only other mammal we saw in this valley +was another species of pika (_Ochotona roylei nepalensis_), which +appears here to be confined to a zone between the altitudes of 12,000 +and 14,000 feet; it is not found in dry valleys. + +Among the trees in the lower Kama Valley grow many parnassias, a tall +green fritillaria, a handsome red swertia and a very sweet-scented pink +orchis. We found the tubers (but not the flowers) of an arum, which the +Tibetans collect and make of it a very unpalatable bread. We went down +through large rhododendrons, magnolias, bamboos, alders, sycamores, all +draped in long wisps of lichen (_Usnea_), to the junction of the Kama +with the Arun River, where we found ourselves in the region of the blue +pine. The lower part of the Kama Valley is unpleasantly full of leeches, +and in the course of an excursion to the Popti La (14,000 feet), one of +the principal passes from Tibet to Sikkim, we were astonished to find +them very numerous and active at an altitude of 12,000 feet. At our +low-altitude camps in this valley hundreds of moths were attracted by +the light of our camp fire, and a few came to the dim candle lamps in +our tents. A collector who came here with a proper equipment could not +fail to make a large collection of moths. + +[Illustration: FOREST IN THE KAMA VALLEY.] + +Proceeding up the Kharta Valley in the beginning of September we found +that most of the roses and rhododendrons had gone to seed, but some of +the gentians, particularly _Gentiana ornata_, were at their best. Near +our camp at 17,000 feet, along the edges of streams, a very handsome +gentian (_G. nubigena_) with half a dozen flowers growing on a single +stem was very conspicuous, and growing with it was an aromatic little +purple and yellow aster (_A. heterochaeta_); in the same place was a +bright yellow senecio (_S. arnicoides_) with shining, glossy leaves. A +curious dark blue dead-nettle (_Dracocephalum speciosum_) was found on +dry ground at the same altitude. In the stony places grew up to 19,000 +feet the dwarf blue meconopsis mentioned above, and many saxifrages, +notably a very small white one (_S. umbellulata_). On the steeper rocks +from 16,000 feet to the snow-line (roughly 20,000 feet) were found +edelweiss (_Leontopodium_) of three species. Very noticeable at these +altitudes are the curious saussureas, large composites packed with +cotton wool; if you open one of them on the coldest day, even when it is +covered with snow, you find it quite warm inside, and often a bumble bee +will come buzzing out. + +Another very interesting plant at 17,000 to 18,000 feet is a dwarf blue +hairy delphinium (_D. brunnoneanum_) with a strong smell. The Tibetans +dry the flowers of this plant and use them as a preventive against lice. +This has its disadvantages, for when a Tibetan dies his body is +undertaken by the professional butcher, who cuts it up and exposes it on +the hills to be disposed of by the vultures and wolves. A body tainted +with the delphinium flowers is unpalatable to the scavengers, and it is +known that a man must have been wicked in life whose body is rejected by +the vultures and wolves. + +The smallest rhododendrons (_R. setosum_ and _R. lepidotum_) disappear +before 19,000 feet, after which vegetation is almost non-existent. A +few grasses and mosses are still found to 20,000 feet, and the highest +plant we found was a small arenaria (_A. musciformis_), which grows in +flat cushions a few inches wide up to 20,100 feet. + +Mammals in the upper Kharta Valley are not numerous. A pika of a new +species (_Ochotona wollastoni_) is found from 15,000 to 20,000 feet, and +a new vole (_Phaiomys everesti_) was found at 17,000 feet. The small +black rat previously seen was here too, and an unseen mouse entered our +tents and ate our food at 20,000 feet. Fox and hare were both seen above +18,000 feet, and undoubted tracks of them on the Kharta Glacier at +21,000 feet. Wolves were seen about 19,000 feet, and those tracks seen +in snow at 21,500 feet, which gave rise to so much discussion, were +almost certainly those of a wolf. Burhel were fairly common between +17,000 and 19,000 feet, and we found their droppings on stones at 20,000 +feet. + +Birds of several species were found from 17,000 feet upwards. The +Tibetan snow-partridge (_Tetraogallus tibetanus_) is common in large +parties up to the snow-line. Dippers (_Cinclus cashmirensis_) are found +in the streams up to 17,000 feet, and at about the same altitude lives +in the big boulders of moraines a small and very dark wren, which is +almost certainly new, but only one immature bird was brought home. +Snow-finches and the Eastern alpine accentor appeared to be resident up +to the snow-line. Several migrating birds were seen in September at +17,000 feet and above, among them Temminck's stint, painted snipe, +pin-tailed snipe, house-martin and several pipits. More than once at +night the cry of migrating waders was heard, curlew being unmistakable, +and (I think) bar-tailed godwit. + +Our camps at 17,000 feet and at 20,000 feet were visited daily by +Laemmergeier, raven, red-billed chough, alpine chough and black-eared +kite, and I saw twice a hoopoe fly over the Kharta Glacier at about +21,000 feet; a small pale hawk flew overhead at the same time. The +highest bird seen was a Laemmergeier (bearded vulture); when I was +taking photographs from our camp on the Lhakpa La (22,350 feet) I saw +one of these birds come sailing over the top of the North peak of +Everest and apparently high above the peak, probably at an altitude of +not less than 25,000 feet.[19] + + [19] Detailed accounts of the collections made will be found: Mammals, + _Annals and Magazine of Nat. Hist._, Feb. 1922. Birds, _Ibid._, + July, 1922. Insects, _Annals and Magazine of Nat. Hist._, May and + June, 1922. + + + + + CHAPTER XX + + AN APPRECIATION OF THE RECONNAISSANCE + + BY PROFESSOR NORMAN COLLIE, F.R.S. + + President of the Alpine Club + + +The chance of wandering into the wild places of the earth is given to +few. But those who have once visited the Himalaya will never forget +either the magnificence or the beauty of that immense mountain land, +whether it be the valley country that lies between the great +snow-covered ranges and the plains, where wonderful forests, flowers, +clear streams and lesser peaks form a fitting guard to the mighty +snow-peaks that lie beyond, or the great peaks themselves, that can be +seen far away to the North, as one approaches through the foot-hills +that lead up to them. The huge snow-covered giants may be a week's +journey away, they may be far more, yet when seen through the clear air +of the hills, perhaps 100 miles distant, they look immense, +inaccessible, remote and lonely. But as one approaches nearer and nearer +to them, they ever grow more splendid, glistening white in the mid-day +sun, rose-red at dawn, or a golden orange at sunset, with faint +opalescent green shadows that deepen as the daylight fails, till when +night comes they stand far up in the sky, pale and ghostly against the +glittering stars. Those who have been fortunate enough to see these +things, know the fascination they exert. It is the call of the great +spaces and of the great mountains. It is a call that mocks at the song +of the Lotus-eaters of old, it is more insidious than the Siren's call, +and it is a call that, once heard, is never forgotten. + +One may be contented and busy with the multitudinous little events of +ordinary civilised life, but a chance phrase or some allusion wakes the +memory of the wild mountain lands, and one feels sick with desire for +the open spaces and the old trails. The dreams of the wanderer are far +more real than most of the happenings that make up the average man's +life. It may be the memory of some desolate peaks set against an angry +sky, or of islands set in summer seas, or some grim fight with deserts +of endless sands, or with tropical forests that have held their growth +for a thousand years; it may be the memory of rushing rivers, or lakes +set in wild woods where the beavers build their houses, or sunsets over +great oceans--the spell binds one, the present does not exist, one is +back again on the old trail--"The Red Gods have called us out, and we +must go." + +There is no part of the world where lofty mountains exist at all +comparable with the Himalaya. Elsewhere the highest is Aconcagua, 23,060 +feet. But in the Himalaya there are over eighty peaks that tower above +24,000 feet, probably twenty above 26,000 feet, six above 27,000 feet, +and the highest of all, Mount Everest, is 29,141 feet. + +The huge range of mountains, of which the Himalaya forms the chief part, +is by far the greatest mountain range in the world. Starting to the +North of Afghanistan, it sweeps Eastwards, without a break, to the +confines of China, over 2,000 miles away. Yet in this vast world of +mountains, very few have been climbed. For many years to come the +Himalaya will provide sport for the mountaineer when most of the other +mountain ranges of the world will have been exhausted, as far as +exploration and new ascents are concerned. + +Mountaineering is a sport of which Englishmen should be proud; for they +were the first really to pursue it as a pastime. The Alpine Club was the +first mountaineering club, and if one inquires into the records of +climbing and discovery amongst the mountains of the world, one usually +finds that it was an Englishman who led the way. It is the Englishman's +love of sport for its own sake that has enticed him on to battle with +the dangers and difficulties that are offered with such a lavish hand by +the great mountains. + +As a sport, mountaineering is second to none. It is the finest mental +and physical tonic that a man can take. Whether it be the grim +determination of desperate struggles with difficult rocks, or with ice, +or whether it be the sight of range after range of splendid peaks +basking in the sunshine, or of mists half hiding the black precipices, +or the changing fairy colours of a sunrise, or the subtle curves of the +wind-blown snow, all these are good for one. They produce a sane mind in +a sane body. The joy of living becomes a real and a great joy, all is +right with the world, and life flies on golden wings. It is, of course, +true that there are many other beautiful and health-giving places +besides the mountains. The great expanses of the prairie lands, the +forests, the seas set with lonely islands, and in England the downs and +the homely lanes and villages nestling amongst woods, with clear streams +wandering through the pastures where the cattle feed--all these are +good; but the mountains give something more. There things are larger, +man is more alone, one feels that one is much nearer to Nature, one is +not held down by an artificial civilisation. And although the life may +be more strenuous (for Nature can be savage at times, as well as +beautiful), and the struggle may be hard, yet the battle is the more +worth winning. + +Nowhere in any mountain land does Nature offer the good things of the +wilds with more prodigal hand than in the Himalaya. On the Southern +slopes, coming down from the great snow-peaks, are the finest river +gorges in the world, wonderful forests of mighty trees, open alps +nestling high up at the head of the valleys, that look out over great +expanses of the lesser ranges; and as one ascends higher and higher, the +views of the great peaks draped in everlasting snow, changing +perpetually as the clouds and mists form and re-form over them, astonish +one by their magnificence. + +All things that the Himalaya gives are big things, and now that the +mountaineer has conquered the lesser ranges, he turns to the Himalaya, +where the peaks stand head and shoulders above all others. Up to the +present, however, owing to the difficulties of distance and size, none +of the greater peaks have been climbed. + +In climbing the great peaks of the Himalaya, the difficulties are far +greater than those of less lofty ranges. On most of the highest the mere +climbing presents such difficulties that it would be foolish to attempt +their ascent. Thousands of feet of steep rock or ice guard their +summits. Unless climbing above 24,000 feet is moderately easy, and no +strenuous work is required, it could not be accomplished. For in the +rarefied air at high altitudes there is insufficient oxygen to promote +the normal oxidation of bodily tissue. Above 20,000 feet a cubic foot of +air contains less than half the amount of oxygen that it does at +sea-level. As the whole metabolism of the body is kept in working order +by the oxygen supplied through the lungs, the obvious result of high +altitudes is to interfere with the various processes occurring in the +system. The combustion of bodily material is less, the amount of energy +produced is therefore less also, and so capacity for work is diminished +progressively as one ascends. + +But that one is able still to work, and work hard, at these altitudes is +evident by the experiences of Dr. Longstaff and Mr. Meade. On Trisul, +23,360 feet, Dr. Longstaff in ten and a half hours ascended from 17,450 +feet to the summit. Whilst on Kamet, Mr. Meade's coolies carried a camp +up to 23,600 feet. Dr. Kellas also in 1920 found his ascent on +moderately easy snow above 21,000 feet approximated to 600 feet per +hour. All these climbers were, however, acclimatised to high altitudes. +The effect on anyone making a balloon or aeroplane ascent from sea-level +would be different. Tissaudier in a balloon ascent fainted at 26,500 +feet and on regaining consciousness found both his companions dead. Even +on Pike's Peak, 14,109 feet, in the United States, many of those who go +up in the railway suffer from faintness, sickness, breathlessness and +general lassitude. Yet there are places on the earth,--the +Pamirs,--where people live their lives at higher altitudes than Pike's +Peak, without any effects of the diminished pressure being felt. They +are acclimatised; their bodies, being accustomed to their surroundings, +are good working machines. + +Although it is true that at high altitudes there is less oxygen to +breathe, the body rapidly protects itself by increasing the number of +red blood corpuscles. These red corpuscles are the carriers of oxygen +from the air to the various parts of the body. An increased number of +carriers means an increase of oxygen to the body. It is just possible, +therefore, that anyone properly acclimatised to, say, 23,000 feet would +be able to ascend the remaining 6,000 feet, to the summit of Mount +Everest. Moreover, if oxygen could be continuously supplied to the +climbers by adventitious aid there is little doubt that 29,000 feet +could be reached. + +The physiological difficulties met with in ascending to high altitudes +are doubtless of a very high order, but can to a certain extent be +eliminated by ascending gradually, day after day, so as to allow the +body to accommodate itself by degrees to the new surroundings. + +There are, however, other difficulties that must be reckoned with, such +as intense cold and frequent high winds. In any engine where loss of +heat occurs, there is a corresponding loss of available energy. A +bitterly cold wind not only robs one of much heat, but lowers the +vitality as well. At altitudes above 24,000 feet, the temperature is +often arctic, and the thermometer may fall far below zero. On the other +hand, the rays of the sun are intense. The ultra-violet rays, that are +mostly cut off by the air at sea-level, are a real source of danger +where there is only one-third of an atmosphere pressure, as in the case +at the summit of Mount Everest. + +The mountaineer also encounters dangers in the Himalaya, on the same +scale as the difficulties. A snow-slide on a British mountain or in the +Alps is an avalanche; often in the Himalaya it becomes almost a +convulsion of nature. The huge ice-fields and glaciers that hang on the +upper slopes of the mountains, when let loose, have not hundreds of feet +to fall, but thousands, and the wind that is thereby produced spreads +with hurricane force over the glaciers below, on to which the main body +of the avalanche has fallen. Sometimes even the broken debris will rush +across a wide glacier. + +Rock falls also assume gigantic proportions in the Himalaya. But all +these dangers can be largely avoided by the skilled mountaineer, and he +can choose routes up a mountain where they are not likely to occur. Some +risks, however, must be always run, but they can be reduced to a +minimum. + +On Mount Everest, as we now know, most of these dangers will be less +than on any of the other very high mountains in the Himalaya. Also there +are no difficulties in the approach to Mount Everest from India. In this +respect it differs from such peaks as K^2 and others. As a rule the +highest mountains in the Himalaya always lie far back from the plains in +the main chain, beyond the foot-hills and the intervening ranges. To +approach them from the South in India, weeks of travel are often +necessary, up deep gorges, and over rivers, where it is next to +impossible to take baggage animals. Fortunately the approach to Mount +Everest by the route from Darjeeling to Phari Dzong and thence over an +easy pass into Tibet avoids all these difficulties. In Tibet a high +tableland, averaging 13,000 feet, is reached. + +Travelling in Tibet, North of the main range of the Himalaya, is +entirely different from that on the South of the range. Instead of +deep-cut gorges, a rolling, bare, stone-covered country exists, over +which it is easy to take baggage animals, the only obstacle being the +rivers that sometimes are not bridged, and are often swollen by the +melting snow. From Kampa Dzong to Tingri Dzong, the base of operations +for the Expedition, is an open country. Mount Everest lies 40 to 50 +miles South of Tingri Dzong; the approach also is without difficulty. + +The ascent of Mount Everest was not the primary object of the Expedition +of 1921. A mountain the size of Mount Everest cannot be climbed by +simply getting to it and starting the ascent immediately. + +A reasonable route has to be discovered to the summit; which usually can +only be done by a complete reconnaissance of the mountain. This has been +admirably done, and a most magnificent series of photographs has been +brought back by the members of the Expedition. + +Mount Everest consists of a huge pyramid, having three main aretes, the +West, the South-east, and the North-east. It is the last, the North-east +arete, that is obviously the easiest, being snow-covered along most of +its length. Nowhere is it excessively steep, and nowhere are there +precipices of rock to stop the climber. We now know that it can be +reached, by means of a subsidiary ridge, from a col 23,000 feet, the +Chang La, that lies to the north of the North-east arete. This col was +the highest point on Mount Everest reached by the Expedition, and had it +not been for savage weather a considerably higher altitude would have +been attained; for above the col for several thousand feet lay an +unbroken snow-slope. + +It was only after much hard work, and over two months' exploration, that +a route to this col was discovered. As is usually the case even with +mountains far smaller than Mount Everest, it can be seen that if a +point, often a long way below the summit, can be reached, not much +farther difficulty will be encountered. But the puzzle is, how can that +point be arrived at from below? + +Quite early in the exploration of Mount Everest it was obvious that if +the 23,000-foot col could be reached, most of the physical difficulties +of the approach to the mountain would have been surmounted. But it was +not so obvious how to win to the col. It lies on the South-east at the +head of the main Rongbuk Glacier; it was therefore to this glacier that +the mountaineers, Messrs. Mallory and Bullock, went from Tingri Dzong on +June 23. They spent a month exploring the country to the North and the +West of Mount Everest from the Rongbuk Glacier. Much valuable +information was accumulated. A peak, Ri-Ring, 22,520 feet, was climbed +and a pass on the West ridge of Mount Everest was visited, from which +were seen views of the South-west face of the great mountain and also +many high peaks in Nepal. Unfortunately, however, no feasible route from +the main Rongbuk Glacier to the 23,000-foot col could be found. The next +attempt was made by leaving the Rongbuk Glacier and exploring the Kama +Valley that flows South-east from Mount Everest. Here a most magnificent +ice-world was discovered. For a chain of giant peaks running South-east +from Mount Everest to Makalu, 27,790 feet, guards the whole of the +South-west side of the valley. But as an approach to the North-east +arete of Mount Everest this valley was found to be useless. From the +point of view, however, of exploration it was most fortunate that this +valley was visited. The photographs of Makalu and its satellite +Chomoloenzo, N.^{53}, 25,413 feet, are superb; moreover the lower reaches +of the Kama Valley, as it dips down to the deep Arun Valley, was full of +luxuriant vegetation, totally different from the wind-swept wilderness +of Tibet. + +The Kharta Valley, that runs North-east from Mount Everest, was the next +exploited, to see whether from it an easy approach to the North-east +arete existed. But by this time the monsoon weather was at its worst. +Days of rain and mist, with snow higher up, succeeded one another, +making climbing impossible. However, towards the end of September a high +camp at 22,500 feet was made at the head of the Kharta Valley. From this +camp the 23,000-foot col, Chang La, was finally reached, by crossing the +head of a glacier that ran to the North. Higher climbing was out of the +question; a furious North-west gale lasting for four days drove the +party off the mountain. + +The glacier mentioned above, running to the North, was found to be a +tributary of the main Rongbuk Glacier, and has been named the East +Rongbuk Glacier. There is no doubt that the easiest route to Chang La, +the North Col, will not be all the way round by the Kharta Valley, but +up this East Rongbuk Glacier. + +Several other interesting expeditions were carried out by other members +of the party. Colonel Howard Bury visited the group of five great peaks +(25,202 to 26,867 feet), that lie about 15 miles North-west of Mount +Everest. He explored the Kyetrak Glacier to its summit the Khombu La, +also crossed the Phuese La with the Rongshar Valley that drains down into +Nepal. Later he visited another pass on the ridge that connects Mount +Everest with Makalu. From this pass most interesting views of the +country South of Mount Everest were obtained. + +Major Wheeler's and Major Morshead's map of the country that lies +between the Himalaya and the Bramapootra River will be of the highest +value, and the results of Dr. Heron's geological survey and +Mr. Wollaston's collections of birds, beasts, insects and flowers, when +they have been thoroughly examined, will certainly yield much new +scientific information. The Expedition therefore has accomplished all +that was expected of it, and has brought back material of the greatest +interest, from a part of the world about which almost nothing was known, +and into which Europeans had never been. + +The attempt to ascend Mount Everest itself necessarily had to be +postponed, but this year the Expedition that is being sent out will have +for its primary object the ascent of the mountain. There will be easy +access to the base of the peak from Choebuk, where a base camp will be +established, and from thence a feasible route on to the summit of the +great North-east arete has been discovered. + +Most fortunately this year General Bruce was able to undertake the +leadership of the Expedition. His unrivalled experience of climbing in +the Himalaya and particularly his special capacity for handling +Himalayan people will be invaluable to the Expedition. Not only will he +be able to organise and instil the right spirit into the coolie corps +upon whom so much will depend for ultimate success, but he will also be +able to give much wise advice to the actual climbers who are to take +part in the ascent of the mountain. + +Moreover, with his long experience of dealing with Asiatics he can be +trusted to deal with the Tibetan people and officials in such a way as +to retain their present good-will. + +As the main object of the Expedition this year is to make a definite +attempt to reach the summit of Mount Everest, it has been decided that +the actual climbing party should be as strong as possible. But a limit +to the size of the Expedition was imposed by the necessity of respect +for the feelings of the Tibetans, and a warning had been received from +Lhasa to keep the numbers as small as possible. For, although the +authorities at Lhasa might be friendly enough, and although there might +be no difficulty in obtaining transport from the district round Tingri +Dzong, where animals were plentiful, yet a large party might press +hardly on the inhabitants in the matter of food, such as wheat and +barley. This consideration had therefore to be regarded. Still it was +thought that the district would not be unduly pressed by a party of +twelve Europeans. This number will include a climbing party of six +chosen mountaineers, with two in reserve, making eight in all. With +General Bruce, a doctor (who would also be a naturalist), a photographer +and a painter, the expeditionary force of Europeans will be complete. + +Colonel E. L. Strutt, C.M.G., has been chosen as second in command. He +possesses first-rate mountaineering experience, and has been +Vice-President of the Alpine Club. + +Mr. Mallory fortunately has been able to accept the invitation of the +Committee to return to Mount Everest again this year. The remainder of +the climbing party are: Captain George Finch, who was unable to join the +Expedition last year on account of his health; Mr. T. H. Somervell, a +surgeon, a member of the Alpine Club and an extremely energetic climber; +Major E. F. Norton (Royal Artillery); and Dr. A. W. Wakefield, renowned +for his strenuous climbing in the Lake District and work in Labrador. +Besides these six mountaineers, Captain Geoffrey Bruce and Captain C. +J. Morris, both of Gurkha Regiments, and able to speak the language of +the Himalayan coolies, will assist General Bruce both in looking after +and encouraging the coolies, and also help in the general arrangement +and organisation of the Expedition as a whole. They also are accustomed +to mountaineering and will act as a reserve to the six climbers. + +As doctor and naturalist Dr. T. G. Longstaff has been invited to join +the Expedition. He has made many climbs in the Himalaya and other +mountain regions, including the ascent of Trisul, 23,360 feet. He is not +expected to join the climbing party, but his experience will be of great +benefit to the Expedition generally. + +As photographer, Captain J. B. L. Noel has been selected. He had +reconnoitred in the direction of Mount Everest in 1913. For several +years he has made a special study of photography in all its various +branches. + +But besides photographs of the mountains, the Expedition is anxious to +bring back pictures which would alone be able not only to serve as a +record of the infinitely delicate colouring of that lofty region, but at +the same time would show how probably some of the grandest scenery of +mighty mountains should be represented from the point of view of an +artist. + +Difficulty was experienced in finding a suitable painter, for painters +capable of doing justice to mountain scenery, and who are also +physically fit to travel amongst them at such altitudes as those round +Mount Everest, are few. We have, therefore, to depend on Mr. Somervell +to paint us pictures. + +In the meantime communications were also passing between Colonel Bailey, +the Political Agent in Sikkim, and the Mount Everest Committee regarding +the enlistment of coolies for the special corps, and the engagement of +the very best headman obtainable to look after them. Many of the coolies +who were with the Expedition in 1921 had volunteered to rejoin this +year. But a stronger corps and more carefully selected men were needed. +The Maharaja of Nepal has been asked to allow some of the most famous +Gurkha mountain climbers to join the Expedition, and the Government of +India has been asked to put two or three non-commissioned Gurkha +officers at the service of General Bruce, to assist him generally in +looking after the coolies, and seeing that they were properly fed and +paid, and that they behaved themselves properly. + +The members of last year's Expedition on their return were freely and +fully consulted as to equipment and provisioning of this year's party; +the experience gained last year has been therefore made use of in every +way possible. Suggestions for the improvement of the Mummery-Meade tents +have been adopted. Better clothing has been provided for the coolies. +General Bruce has purchased leather coats, waistcoats, socks, jerseys +and boots from the equipment provided for our troops in North Russia +during the war, which will be admirably suited for the majority of the +coolies, whilst for the few chosen for high climbing on Mount Everest +itself, clothing precisely similar to that worn by the British climbers +has been provided. + +Captain Farrar and the equipment committee have provided a most varied +and ample supply of provisions which was despatched to India in January. +The Primus-stoves have been overhauled and retested by Captain Finch. + +Colonel Jack and Mr. Hinks have carefully examined all the instruments +brought back. The aneroids have been retested, and all broken +instruments replaced. + +The photographic outfit has been considerably enlarged, including a +cinematograph instrument. The question of supplying oxygen has been most +thoroughly gone into. All flyers in aeroplanes at high altitudes find +oxygen absolutely necessary. In mountain climbing, however, the almost +insuperable difficulty is the weight of the apparatus supplying the +oxygen. As far as possible, this weight has been reduced to a minimum. A +large number of cylinders, the lightest and smallest obtainable, have +been sent out full of compressed oxygen, and it is hoped that they will +be capable of being used by the party that will attempt to climb to the +summit of Mount Everest. If the climbers are capable of carrying them, +and so getting a continuous supply of oxygen during the whole of the +climb, there is little doubt that climbing up to 29,000 feet is +possible. In aeroplanes considerably higher altitudes have been reached +with the help of oxygen. Moreover, there is this fact in favour of the +climbers on Mount Everest, they will be acclimatised to altitudes of +20,000 feet, whilst anyone in an aeroplane is not so acclimatised, +having risen from sea-level. The climbers will have to accommodate +themselves only to an increased height of 9,000 feet, whilst those in an +aeroplane have to suffer a diminution in pressure equivalent to 29,000 +feet. + +Finally, arrangements have been made with the Press for the publication +of telegrams and photographs from the Expedition. Full information of +the progress of the Expedition will therefore be available for the +public, and it will be possible to follow the climbing party, after they +leave the base camp, which will be somewhere near Choebuk, as they ascend +the East Rongbuk Glacier to the advanced base under the North col. +Afterwards all the preliminary arrangements will be reported, and +finally there will be an account of the great attempt to reach the +summit. + +The Expedition will be starting nearly two months earlier than in 1921. +The weather in May and June, before the monsoon breaks in July, +apparently is more or less settled, and so the most must be made of it. +In 1921 from the end of July till September high climbing was +impossible. It is therefore obvious that a determined attempt to climb +Mount Everest should be made before the monsoon sets in. + +The ascent from the North col, Changa La, 23,000 feet, to the summit of +Mount Everest, 29,000 feet, is only 6,000 feet, and the distance to +traverse is about 2 miles. As far as can be judged from the numerous +photographs of Mount Everest, the climbing is straightforward with no +insurmountable difficulties in the form of steep rock precipices. There +will be no glaciers overhanging the route which might send down +avalanches, and no excessively steep ice-slopes. + +[Illustration: MOUNT EVEREST AT SUNSET from the 20,000 foot camp, Kharta +Valley.] + +But the final ascent will test the endurance of the climbers to the +utmost. Many people have found the last 1,000 feet of Mont Blanc more +than they could accomplish. The last 1,000 feet of Mount Everest will +only be conquered by men whose physique is perfect, and who are trained +and acclimatised to the last possible limit, and who have the +determination to struggle on when every fibre of their body is calling +out--Hold! enough! + +The struggle will be a great one, but it will be worth the while. To do +some new thing beyond anything that has been previously accomplished, +and not to be dominated by his environment, has made man what he is, and +has raised him above the beasts. He always has been seeking new worlds +to conquer. He has penetrated into the forbidding ice-worlds at the two +poles, and many are the secrets he has wrested from Nature. There +remains yet the highest spot on the world's surface. No doubt he will +win there also, and in the winning will add one more victory over the +guarded secrets of things as they are. + + + + + APPENDIX I + + THE SURVEY + + BY MAJOR H. T. MORSHEAD, D.S.O. + + +The personnel selected to form the Survey Detachment under my charge +were as follows: Brevet-Major E. O. Wheeler, M.C., R.E., Mr. Lalbir +Singh Thapa, Surveyors Gujjar Singh and Turubaz Khan, Photographer Abdul +Jalil Khan, sixteen khalasis, etc. + +The tasks allotted to the detachment were:-- + +(1) A general survey of the whole unmapped area covered by the +Expedition, on a scale of 1 inch to 4 miles. + +(2) A detailed survey of the immediate environs of Mount Everest on the +scale of 1 inch to 1 mile. + +(3) A complete revision of the existing 1/4-inch map of Sikkim. + +With the exception of a few rough notes and sketches by early travellers +and missionaries in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, our first +knowledge of the Southern portion of the Tibetan province of Tsang dated +from the epoch of the Survey of India by trained native explorers in the +middle of the nineteenth century. Thus, much of the area visited by the +Expedition in 1921 was traversed by the explorer Hari Ram during the +course of his two journeys in 1871-2 and 1885 respectively. At that +time, however, foreign surveyors were not regarded with favour in Tibet; +work could only be carried on surreptitiously, and the resulting map +merely consisted of a small-scale route traverse which gave no +indication of the surface features beyond the explorer's actual route. + +The first rigorous survey undertaken in the neighbourhood was that +carried out by Captain C. H. D. Ryder, R.E. (now Colonel Ryder, C.I.E., +D.S.O., Surveyor-General of India), during the Tibet Mission of +1903-1904. During the stay of the Mission at Kampa, the 1/4-inch survey +was carried as far West as longitude 88 deg.; while, on the subsequent +return march up the Tsangpo Valley, surveys were extended as far as the +Southern watershed of the great river--the so-called Ladak Range--in +latitude 29 deg. approximately. + +West of longitude 88 deg. there thus remained a stretch of unsurveyed +country some 14,000 square miles in area, between the Ladak Range on the +North and the Great Himalaya Range on the South--the latter forming the +Northern frontier of Nepal. The Mount Everest Expedition provided an +opportunity of making good the whole of this area, with the exception of +some 2,000 square miles at the extreme Western end, into which, in view +of the restrictions of the Indian Foreign Department, I did not feel +justified in penetrating. + +Fortunately, Colonel Bury's plans contemplated an outward Northerly +journey via Shekar and Tingri to the Western flanks of Mount Everest, +whence the reconnaissance of the mountain was to be carried out from +West to East, parallel to the Northern frontier of Nepal. This rendered +feasible the mapping of the whole unsurveyed area between the Southern +watershed of the Tsangpo and the Great Himalaya Range, as far West as +longitude 85 deg. 30', without in any way infringing the Foreign +Department's orders and restrictions. + +For the purpose of the detailed survey of the Mount Everest regions, it +was arranged for my Assistant, Major Wheeler, to make a thorough test of +the Canadian pattern of photo-survey apparatus, of which he had had +previous experience in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. This method of +survey, which had not hitherto been employed in India, is particularly +adapted for use in high mountain regions. Fortunately, the experimental +outfit, which had recently been ordered from England, was delivered just +in time to accompany the Expedition. Wheeler's account of his season's +work will be found in Appendix II. + +With a view to carrying out the revision survey of Sikkim while awaiting +the arrival of the members of the Expedition from England, the Survey +Detachment was authorised to assemble at Darjeeling early in April, six +weeks before the date fixed for the start of the Expedition. In spite of +an unusually wet and cloudy spring, the three surveyors made such good +use of their time that 2,500 square miles of country were completed +before the advance of the Expedition necessitated the temporary +abandonment of this work. + +After completing the necessary preliminaries with Colonel Bury, I myself +left Darjeeling on May 13, intending to rejoin the remainder of the +Expedition in Sikkim. Continuous rain, however, rendered the latter task +impossible; the Sikkim roads were, moreover, blocked in several places +by severe landslips, so that I was only with difficulty able to reach +Kampa by the 28th. It transpired, however, that there was no cause for +hurry, since the main body of the Expedition, travelling via the Chumbi +Valley, had encountered greater difficulties than mine, and did not +arrive at Kampa until June 5. While awaiting their arrival, I filled in +the time by occupying and re-observing from Colonel Ryder's old +triangulation stations of 1903, overlooking the Kampa Plain. + +I had received no news whatever of the Expedition or of the outside +world since leaving Darjeeling three-and-a-half weeks previously. +Consequently the death of my old friend Dr. Kellas on the very day of +their arrival at Kampa came to me as a very severe shock. + +The Sikkim revision-survey having been so much hampered by bad weather, +I decided to take only two of the three surveyors with the Expedition +into Tibet, leaving Surveyor Turabaz Khan to complete the comparatively +dry areas of Northern Sikkim before the arrival of the monsoon. This he +succeeded in doing at the cost of considerable personal discomfort, +returning to Darjeeling in July. + +It was not until we reached the summit of the Tinki Pass on June 11 that +we found ourselves for the first time looking into unsurveyed country. +From here onwards as far as Tingri the survey was kept up by Lalbir +Singh, whose unflagging energy alone enabled him to keep pace with the +long marches of the Expedition. Each morning he was away with his +plane-table and squad of coolies long before our breakfast was served, +seldom reaching camp before nightfall. The gathering clouds and other +ominous signs of a rapidly approaching monsoon, however, forbade any +respite. + +On arrival at Tingri, after spending a week in fruitless efforts to +observe the triangulated peaks of the main Himalayan Range through the +dense monsoon clouds which were daily piling up more and more thickly +from the South, I departed on June 26 with Surveyor Gujjar Singh on a +short trip to explore and map the upper valley of the Bhong Chu. + +Our first march led across the wide Tingri Plain, past the hot spring +village of Tsamda, to the hamlet of Dokcho, at the Southern extremity of +the Sutso Plain. This plain is covered with the ruins of numerous +villages and watch-towers, the haunt of countless rock-pigeons. They are +all of loftier and more substantial construction than the miserable +hovels which form the scattered hamlets of to-day--indicating, +apparently, the former presence of a large and warlike population. It is +impossible even to hazard a guess at the age of these ruins, which may +have preserved their present state for generations in the comparatively +arid climate of Tibet. Many of the towers are 60 feet or more in height; +roofs and floors have all disappeared, but the massive mud walls in +many instances still bear the marks of the wooden shuttering used in +their erection. This method of construction is unknown, I believe, in +Tibet at the present day. + +The next day's march, skirting the Western edge of the plain, brought us +to the village of Phuri, where the river flows in a flat-bottomed, +cultivated valley, between bare brown hills. On the 28th we camped at +Menkhap-to, the highest village in the valley. The headman, a sort of +local "warden of the marches," refused to see me and shut himself up in +his house, guarding his door with three huge mastiffs who effectively +frustrated the efforts of my messengers to establish communications. +Evidently he feared the subsequent results to himself of harbouring +strangers. The remaining villagers were quite friendly, however, and +supplied all my requirements. One man, the owner of a gun, surprised me +by a request for 12-bore cartridges just after I had greatly shocked his +neighbour's Buddhist susceptibilities by killing a butterfly for my +collection! Much snow is reported to fall at Menkhap-to, which is +deserted during the winter months, when the inhabitants descend to +Menkhap-me ("lower Menkhap") and the Sutso Plain. + +Above Menkhap-to the road leaves the main valley and proceeds Westwards +over a spur known as the Lungchen La (17,700 feet). This spur commands +an extensive view across the wide, uninhabited Pekhu Plain, with its +three lakes, as far as the snowy range running North-west from the +summit of Gosainthan. On a fine day, the whole panorama can be sketched +in from a couple of fixings on either side of the pass; unfortunately, +at the time of our arrival bad weather had set in, and the whole +snow-range was hidden in cloud. I had therefore to leave Gujjar Singh +camped near the summit of the pass to await a fine day for the +completion of his surveys, and myself returned at the end of the month +to Tingri, where I rejoined Mr. Wollaston, who had been detained at +headquarters by an outbreak of enteric fever amongst the Expedition +servants. + +Wild game is plentiful in the Upper Bhong Valley. I shot numerous hares, +some ramchakor and a bar-headed goose during the trip; while Gujjar +Singh caught a young, week-old burhel lamb on the summit of the Lungchen +Pass, which, however, died after three weeks in captivity. Gazelle are +common on the Sutso Plain. + +By the end of June, Lalbir Singh had finished the inking of his previous +surveys, and was ready for fresh work. Accordingly, after spending a +couple of days in examining his board, and checking the spelling of his +village names with the aid of the local Tibetan officials, I despatched +him on a lengthy programme of work in Pharuk and Kharta. It was three +months before I saw him again. + +About this time a messenger arrived from the Dzongpen of Nyenyam, +inviting us to visit his district, which lay four marches to the +Southwest, in the valley of the Po Chu or Bhotia Kosi R. Although +Nyenyam was not one of the districts specifically mentioned in our +passport, Wollaston and I decided, with the concurrence of Colonel Bury, +to avail ourselves of the opportunity of visiting this little-known +area. + +Leaving Tingri on July 13, with the interpreter Gyalzen Kazi and +Surveyor Gujjar Singh, who had now returned after completing his work on +the Lungchen Pass, we camped that evening at Langkor, a small village at +the Western edge of the Tingri Plain. A cantilever bridge which spans +the Gya Chu opposite the village had been carried away by floods shortly +before our arrival, and the whole population of the hamlet, male and +female, were busily engaged in its reconstruction, working in relays to +the accompaniment of prolonged and vigorous blasts on a "conch" which a +monk was diligently blowing in order--as it was explained to us--to +avert further rainfall until the bridge should be completed. His efforts +were rewarded with tolerable success, as the rain held off all day in +spite of the threatening storm-clouds which loomed up from the +South-west. + +The most interesting feature of Langkor is an ancient temple, an +appanage of the great Drophung monastery of Lhasa. This building, which +is said to be over 1,000 years old, contains a sacred stone alleged to +have been hurled across the Himalayan Range from India, and to have +pitched in the Tingri Plains. The name Tingri is said to be derived from +the noise ("ting") made by the falling stone. The stone is carefully +preserved inside a wooden box, which is opened with much ceremony on the +first day of the Tibetan new year. The temple, which is managed by a +committee of fifteen civilian monks (nyakchang), also contains a library +of 4,400 books, and an image of the Indian saint Tamba Sanye which is +popularly believed to have grown by itself from the ground _in situ_. + +Crossing the Tang La (17,980 feet) in a driving snowstorm, a long march +of 22 miles brought us next day to the bleak village of Tulung, in the +upper valley of the Po Chu. As we descended the Western side of the pass +the snow-clouds gradually dispersed, disclosing glimpses of the +magnificent twin summits of Gosainthan (26,290 feet), 30 miles to the +West. Several of our coolies succumbed to mountain sickness on the pass, +with the result that my bedding and the kitchen box only reached camp at +9 p.m. + +On July 15 our road lay for 8 miles along the flat valley of the Po Chu; +the river then turns sharply Southwards, passing for 3 miles through a +gorge of granite and schist. Bushes of wild currant, gooseberry, +berberis and dog-rose here begin to appear, and around the village of +Targyeling, where we camped, were smiling fields of mustard and +buckwheat, in addition to the usual Tibetan crops of barley and dwarf +pea. After a month spent in the bleak Tibetan uplands, it was a relief +to pitch our tents in a homely green field, alongside a rippling brook +lined with familiar ranunculus, cow parsley, forget-me-not, and a +singularly beautiful pale mauve cranesbill, and to feast our eyes on the +glorious purple of the wild thyme which clothed the hillsides in great +patches of colour. + +The next day, still following the course of the Po Chu, we reached +Nyenyam, a large and very insanitary village which is known under the +name of Kuti by the Nepalis who constitute the majority of its +inhabitants. These Nepali traders (Newars) have their own Hindu temple +in the village. There is also a Nepalese chauki (court-house) with a +haqim (magistrate) invested with summary powers of jurisdiction over +Nepali subjects; he is specially charged with the settlement of trade +disputes, and with the encouragement of Tibeto-Nepalese trade and +commerce. + +As is customary in all important districts of Tibet, there are here two +Dzongpens, who by a polite fiction are known as "Eastern" and "Western" +(Dzongshar and Dzongnup) respectively. Actually, the functions of the +two Dzongpens are identical; the _raison d'etre_ of the double regime +being an attempt to protect the peasants from extortion by the device of +providing two administrators, who, in theory at least, act as a check +upon each other's peculations. At the time of our arrival, those two +worthies were so busy preparing a joint picnic that we had considerable +difficulty in getting their attention. + +I spent three days in exploring the neighbourhood of Nyenyam, while +Wollaston was engaged in his botanical and zoological pursuits. Gujjar +Singh, with the plane-table, was detained by bad weather higher up the +valley. Below Nyenyam the river enters a very deep, narrow gorge; pines +and other forest trees begin to appear. The road, which here becomes +impassable for animals, crosses the river four times in 6 miles by +cantilever bridges before reaching the village of Choksum, but I could +find no trace of the portion described by explorer Hari Ram in 1871 as +consisting of slabs of stone 9 to 18 inches wide supported on iron pegs +let into the vertical face of the rock at a height of 1,500 feet above +the river. At Choksum (10,500 feet) the river falls at an average rate +of 500 feet per mile. The Nepal frontier is crossed near Dram village, +some 10 miles further down stream, but owing to the vile state of the +weather, which rendered even the roughest attempts at surveying +impossible, I abandoned all idea of reaching the spot. + +On July 20 we retraced our steps 9 miles up the valley to Tashishong, +where we found Dr. Heron encamped, together with Gujjar Singh, whose +work had been hung up for a week by continued cloud and rainfall. Heron +returned Northwards next day, while we followed a rough easterly track +leading over the Lapche Range to the village of the same name in the +valley of the Kang Chu. The weather on this day was atrocious, and our +last pretence of accurate surveying broke down. We were unable to reach +Lapche village by dusk, and spent a somewhat cheerless night on boulders +in drenching rain at 14,600 feet, with no fuel except a few green twigs +of dwarf rhododendron. + +Lapche (La-Rimpoche, "precious hill") is sacred as the home and +birthplace of Jetsun Mila Repa, a wandering lama and saint who lived in +Southern Tibet in the eleventh century, and who taught by parables and +songs, some of which have considerable literary merit. The two principal +works ascribed to him are an autobiography, or namtar, and a collection +of tracts called Labum, or the "myriad songs." They are still among the +most popular books in Tibet.[20] His hermit-cell still remains under a +rock on the hillside, and his memory is preserved by an ancient temple +and monastery, the resort of numerous pilgrims, alongside which we +pitched our tents. + + [20] _Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet_, by S. C. Dass, C.I.E., page + 205, footnote by Hon. W. W. Rockhill. + +Lapche village is situated on a spur overlooking the junction of two +branches of the Kang stream--the latter being a tributary of the +Rongshar River, which, in turn, joins the Bhotia Kosi River in Nepal. +The extreme dampness of the local climate is indicated by the trailing +streamers of lichen which festoon the trees, and by the pent roofs of +the buildings. The village contains some ten or twelve houses, of which +half are occupied by Tibetans and half by Nepalese subjects +(Sherpas)--each community having its own headman. The inhabitants were +very friendly and pleasant, and gave us a good deal of information. The +village is deserted during the winter months, when the whole population +migrates across the border into Nepal. The Tibetans pay no taxes to +Nepal during their half-yearly sojourn in the lower valley; conversely, +the Nepalis during their summer residence in Lapche are not subject to +Tibetan taxation or to the imposition of ulag (forced labour). The +Tibetans of Lapche pay their taxes in the form of butter direct to the +Lapche monastery, the head lama, or abbot, of which resides at Phuto +Gompa near Nyenyam. The Nepal frontier is some 10 miles below Lapche, +opposite the snow-peak of Karro Pumri. Katmandu can be reached in eight +days, but the track is bad and very little trade passes this way. + +Transport arrangements necessitated a day's halt at Lapche, which was +fortunately enlivened by the timely arrival of a large parcel of letters +and newspapers, which Colonel Bury had thoughtfully sent after us from +Tingri--almost the last news of the outside world which we were to +receive for over two months. + +From Lapche we proceeded to the Rongshar Valley, crossing the Kangchen +and Kangchung ("big snow" and "little snow") passes. Descending the hill +to Trintang village, where we camped on July 25, the clouds lifted +momentarily, disclosing an amazing view of the superb snow summit of +Gauri-Sankar towering magnificently above us just across the valley. +This mountain, which is called by the Tibetans Chomo Tsering, or Trashi +Tsering, is the westernmost of a group of five very sacred peaks known +collectively as Tsering Tse-nga ("Tsering five peaks"). Unfortunately, +owing to constant clouds, I was unable to identify with certainty the +remaining four peaks of Tingki Shalzang, Miyo Lobzang, Chopen Drinzang +and Tekar Drozang. Owing to the sacred nature of the Rongshar Valley, +the slaughtering of animals is strictly forbidden; the large flocks and +herds of the villagers are only sold for slaughter in the adjoining +districts of Tingri and Nepal, and we were only able to buy a sheep on +promising not to kill it until after quitting the valley. + +Trintang village occupies a plateau 1,750 feet above the level of the +river; 1,400 feet below is the village of Tropde, to which the Trintang +residents all descend in winter. Rongshar Dzong, which is situated in +the lower village, has no importance; at the time of our visit the +Dzongpen had gone to his home on leave of absence, leaving his affairs +in the hands of a steward. + +A day's halt being necessary in order to collect transport, I took the +opportunity of descending the Rongshar Valley as far as the Nepal +frontier, while Gujjar Singh endeavoured, without much success, to pick +up the threads of his survey by identifying the snowy peaks which +occasionally afforded brief glimpses through rifts in the clouds. The +Rongshar River drops 1,400 feet in 7 miles between Tropde and the Nepal +frontier, which is crossed at an altitude of roughly 9,000 feet. + +On July 27 we marched 20 miles up the Rongshar Valley to the village of +Tazang (Takpa-Santsam, "limit of birch trees"), which, as its name +implies, is situated at the extreme upper limit of the forest zone. On +the way we passed the village and monastery of Chuphar, whence a track +leads South-east over the difficult snow-pass of Menlung ("vale of +medicinal herbs") to the villages of Rowaling and Tangpa in the Kangphu +Valley of Nepal. + +Tazang had already been visited by Colonel Bury, a month previously. The +local headman was too drunk, on the evening of our arrival, to send out +the necessary messages summoning the village transport-yaks from their +grazing grounds. In consequence, our baggage was only got under weigh at +11 a.m. next morning, and we were compelled to pitch our tents at a +grazing camp (16,500 feet) after only covering 9 miles. The weather +showed signs of improvement in proportion as we receded from the +Himalayan gorges, but dense banks of cloud still obscured all the +hill-tops. An easy march over the Phuse La (17,850 feet) brought us on +the 29th to the bleak village of Kyetrak, situated at the foot of the +great Kyetrak Glacier, on the extreme Southern edge of the Tingri +plain--an area which we had already surveyed six weeks previously. + +From Kyetrak we proceeded via the Lamna La to Choebuk, thence following +the tracks of the Expedition headquarters which Colonel Bury had just +transferred from Tingri to Kharta in the lower Bhong Chu Valley. On +reaching headquarters on August 2, we found Colonel Bury in sole +occupation--Mallory and Bullock having left that very morning on a +reconnaissance of the Eastern approaches to Mount Everest. + +The weather during the whole of August was such as to render out-of-door +survey operations impossible. Gujjar Singh was occupied during the month +in adjusting and inking his surveys, while I filled in several days in +making tracings of all work so far completed, after which, for the +remainder of the season, I joined the mountaineers, whose doings are +recorded elsewhere in this book. + +On the return journey in October I despatched Gujjar Singh from Gyangkar +Nangpa to complete the remaining portions of the Sikkim revision-survey; +at the same spot I picked up Lalbir Singh, who, after completing his +survey of the Pharuk and Kharta areas, had crossed the Bhong Chu below +Lungdoe and worked his way back via Tashirakar and Sar. Travelling via +Kampa and Lachen Valley, we reached Darjeeling on October 16. Tracings +of the new survey were hastily finished and sent to press, with the +result that a complete preliminary 1/4-inch map in six colours was +published before the last members of the Expedition had sailed for +England. A 1/2-inch preliminary sketch-map of the environs of Mount +Everest was also prepared by Major Wheeler at the same time for the use +of the mountaineers in discussing the details of their next year's +climb. + +The out-turn of work during the Expedition was as follows:-- + + 1/4-inch revision survey 4,000 square miles + 1/4-inch original survey 12,000 square miles + Detail photo-survey (environs of Mount Everest) 600 square miles + +The surveyors all worked splendidly under difficult and trying +conditions. Major Wheeler had probably the hardest time of any member of +the Expedition, and his success in achieving single-handed the mapping +of 600 square miles of some of the most mountainous country in the world +is sufficient proof of his determination and grit. It is difficult for +those who have not actually had the experience to conceive the degree of +mental and physical discomfort which results to the surveyor from +prolonged camping at high altitudes during the monsoon, waiting for the +fine day which never comes. Such was our fate for four months during the +Expedition of 1921, yet on looking back one feels that the results were +well worth while. The discomforts soon fade from recollection; the +pleasures alone remain in one's memory, and there is not one of us but +would gladly repeat our season's experiences, if so required. + + + + + APPENDIX II + + THE PHOTOGRAPHIC SURVEY + + BY MAJOR E. O. WHEELER, M.C. + + +I had purchased a set of photo-topographical surveying instruments of +the Canadian pattern, on behalf of the Survey of India, while on leave +in 1920. A trial of this method of surveying mountainous country was to +be carried out in Garhwal in 1921; but when Survey of India officers +were asked for to accompany the Mount Everest Expedition, I was detailed +to carry out the trial there. Possibly a word of explanation of the +method used may not be amiss. + +The "Canadian" method--if I may call it so; for although it was invented +and has been used elsewhere, it has been far more extensively applied in +Canada than in any other part of the world--may be briefly described as +"plane-tabling by photography." It requires, equally with the +plane-table, an accurate framework, on which to base the detailed +survey; and simply substitutes a small (3-inch vernier) theodolite and +camera for the sight-rule and plane-table. Stations are fixed and +photographs oriented by means of the theodolite; the photographs, which +are taken so as to be as nearly as possible true perspectives, represent +the country as it would be seen by the plane-tabler, and detail on them +may be fixed by intersections or sketched in by eye in exactly the same +way as on the plane-table. + +Angles are read and photographs taken in the field; and, if considered +necessary to test exposures or protect photographic plates from +deterioration due to climatic conditions, development of plates is also +carried out there. Otherwise, the map is made wholly in the office, +using either contact prints or enlargements, from the negatives taken in +the field. The latter are usually preferable. The main advantages at +high altitudes over the plane-table are, that a much larger area can be +covered in a given time in the field, that the instruments are more +portable for difficult climbing, that there is no necessity to do +accurate drawing with numbed fingers, and that the draughtsman may see +the country from several points of view at one time. On the other hand, +more equipment is necessary, and--a great disadvantage sometimes, as in +this case--the map does not come into being as one goes along. + +After carrying out various preliminary adjustments and tests at the +office of the Trigonometrical Survey at Dehra Dun, I reached Darjeeling +on April 30, and Tingri on June 19, travelling with Expedition +Headquarters via Ph[=a]ri Dzong. + +_En route_ Tingri, we had caught glimpses of Everest and the +neighbouring peaks; so that by the time we arrived there, I was able, +with the help of the existing maps and what local information we had +obtained, to decide on the area I would attempt to survey. I say +"attempt," for little was really known then about the geography, and +still less about the weather conditions throughout the summer. As it +turned out in the end, the area had to be much curtailed, and certain +parts surveyed in considerably less detail than I should have liked: +almost wholly on account of the weather. Although it was often fairly +clear at 6 a.m. or so, photographs taken before 8, particularly at the +latter end of the season, were of little use for surveying purposes. + +However, at the outset, I had hoped to map, on the scale of 1 inch = 1 +mile, the whole area between the Arun Gorge on the East and the R[=a] +Chu on the West: and from the Nep[=a]l-Tibet boundary Northwards for +some 20 miles; i.e. to the point where the various streams, flowing in a +Northerly direction from the high boundary ridge, issue from the +mountains proper into the more rolling foot-hills on the Southern +outskirts of the Tibetan Plateau. This area includes Mount Everest +itself near the centre of its Southern side, Mak[=a]lu and Pk. 25,413 to +the South-east, Pks. 23,800 (Kh[=a]rtaphu), 23,420, and 23,080 to the +North-east and North, and Pks. 25,990 (Gy[=a]chung Kang), 25,202, 25,909 +and 26,867 (Cho Oyu) to the North-west; and comprises some 1,000 square +miles of country: a suitable season's work, given reasonably fine +weather. This unfortunately we did not get. + +On June 24, the day after Messrs. Mallory and Bullock had started for +the Rongbuk Valley, Dr. Heron and I marched South across the plain to +the village of Sharto, _en route_ Kyetr[=a]k, in the R[=a] Chu Valley, +where I intended to establish my base camp while surveying the +Kyetr[=a]k Glacier and West face of the Cho Oyu--Gyachung K[=a]ng group. +The next day we moved on to Kyetr[=a]k, 1 mile below the snout of the +glacier, and made camp there. This bleak village and the route to it and +over the Phuese La have already been described. + +June 26 was fine, so after crossing the R[=a] Chu on local ponies, +ourselves and our ice-axes and rucksacks perched on Tibetan saddles--a +cold and uncomfortable proceeding in the early morning--we ascended the +18,000-foot hill immediately West of the village. Up to 1 p.m. we had +excellent views across and up the Kyetr[=a]k Valley; but only a glimpse +of Gauri Sankar (Chomo Tsering) to the South-west, where heavy clouds +soon began to roll up. Cho Oyu and Pk. 25,909 and their spurs +unfortunately cut out all distant views to the South-east, as they did +everywhere in the upper part of this valley; so that my first view of +Everest was from Tingri a month later. Next day, we started shortly +after daylight for a spur on the East side of the valley; +unfortunately--and this happened in the case of almost every peak I +started for until mid-September--clouds began to roll up, and we were +forced to stop to take the photographs before we had reached a really +good view-point. + +Colonel Bury arrived at Kyetr[=a]k shortly after we got back to camp. On +the 28th he and Heron started off early for a flying visit to the +Kyetr[=a]k Glacier and Nangba La; I started later, after getting kit +together, for a camp half-way up the glacier, and about 6 miles from +Kyetr[=a]k. About 2 p.m. I found a comparatively dry spot on shale at +18,000 feet, and pitched my tents there, the last of the coolies +arriving only at 6 p.m. The place was bleak enough, but was as far as I +could get that day, and seemed suitable for two climbs--one on either +side of the glacier. + +My equipment consisted of the camera, theodolite, and a small +plane-table--to help in identifying triangulated points--by way of +instruments, which were carried by three coolies who remained with me. +Ten other coolies slept at the base camp at Kyetr[=a]k, and carried +stores up to me or moved the camp, as required; the camp consisted of a +Whymper tent for the three coolies and a Meade for myself; bedding, +food, a Primus stove and tin of kerosene for my own cooking, and yak +dung fuel for the coolies. My servant remained at the base camp and sent +up cooked meat and vegetables; otherwise I cooked for myself. + +June 29 and 30 were useless days; but on July 1 the weather cleared a +bit, and after crossing the glacier, I went up a sharp rock shoulder of +Cho Rapzang. The peak was mainly loose granite blocks at a steep angle, +so that progress was slow: it was noon when I reached the top (about +19,500 feet), and as I did so the clouds settled down, and it began to +snow. However, at 4 p.m. it cleared sufficiently for some work to be +done; after that we came down as quickly as possible in another +blinding snowstorm, and reached camp just after dark; I for one very +tired. I found the coolies exceedingly slow in coming down the loose +blocks, I think because their balance was bad--they had to use their +hands far more than I did. + +I had a good view of the glacier from here: the East side is very steep +and broken, with several tributary glaciers flowing down from Cho Oyu +and Pk. 25,909, and from a 23,000-foot Peak (not triangulated) to the +North of the latter. The West side, except for Cho Rapzang, round which +the glacier flows, is a snowfield falling more or less gently from a low +ridge running from the pass to the West of Cho Rapzang. The glacier +itself is like many others in this region, moraine covered for 3 or 4 +miles above its snout, "pinnacled" for another mile, and finally +practically flat. But this flat portion gives by no means good going; +when frozen it is very irregular and trying to walk over; and when +thawed, is slushy and water soaked. There are two large water channels +in the ice which are unpleasant to cross; these are from 10 to 15 feet +wide and 20 feet deep, and carry a large volume of water in the +afternoon. Crossing without a rope is distinctly dangerous, for although +one can find places easy enough to jump, a slip would be certain death, +for once in the channel it would be quite impossible to get out, or even +to stop oneself on its smooth ice floor and sides. + +Cloudy weather then set in; but on the 3rd I got a few photographs from +a shoulder near by, and moved camp 2 or 3 miles farther up the glacier +(at about 18,500 feet). I was in this camp for nine days and only +succeeded in taking two low stations, one on either side of the glacier +and each about 11/2 miles from the pass (Nangba La) to Nep[=a]l; but the +valley on the South side, leading down to Khungphu, turns sharply to the +East just below the pass, and little could be seen of the Nepalese side. +Each of these stations I went up twice--to wait all day long the first +time, in each case, for weather which never came. To reach the station +on the East side of the glacier I had the only comparatively difficult +rock climbing which I met with during the course of the Expedition; and +on the way down watched my theodolite coolie, whom I had left behind +exhausted in the morning, tumble off a steep rock arete, theodolite and +all; fortunately he jammed in a crack a few feet below, and was unhurt. +During the day he had started up after us on his own, and had lost his +way in the clouds. + +On July 12--another wet day--I moved camp some distance down the main +glacier and up a tributary flowing from Pk. 25,909 and Cho Oyu, and next +day ascended a shoulder whence a good view into the cirque below these +two peaks was obtained--or should have been obtained! But again I sat +till dusk and saw little or nothing. Early the following day, however, +it was fairly clear, so I got my photographs and then moved camp back to +the base at Kyetr[=a]k. + +The next three days were spent in moving my base camp to the bridge +across the R[=a] Chu, 6 miles below Kyetr[=a]k; taking a light camp up +to about 18,000 feet on the prominent hill immediately East of the +bridge, climbing the latter, sitting through the usual storms without +doing any work, and returning to the bridge. Time was getting on, and +the weather was still bad, so I then decided to leave my camp at the +bridge and move into Headquarters myself to get developing, etc., up to +date, and have a short rest. I walked into Tingri, with two coolies, on +July 18, and found Colonel Bury there alone: and the Headquarters house +felt very comfortable indeed after a Meade tent, in spite of nightly +pilgrimages from one dry spot to another, as the roof leaked! + +Five busy days were spent at Tingri developing and printing; and as the +weather showed little sign of improvement, I decided to go on with +Headquarters to Choebuk, in the Rongbuk Valley and work on that side, so +as to make sure of completing the most important part, in the vicinity +of Everest, and return to the Kyetr[=a]k Valley if there should be time. +So on the 24th Colonel Bury and I left Tingri and reached Choebuk on the +25th, where we met Mallory and Bullock, just in from their +reconnaissance of the North and North-west sides of Everest. A talk with +them gave me some idea of the country, and the view from an 18,000-foot +hill above Choebuk enabled me to make a plan of campaign: far more +extensive, as always, than the weather eventually allowed. + +Colonel Bury, Mallory and Bullock had gone on to Kh[=a]rta on July 26; +on the 27th I moved up the right bank of the Rongbuk Valley some 10 +miles, to the monastery, above which I took a 20,000-foot station the +next day. The weather was dreadful, but at 6 p.m. I got a round of +photographs, which really turned out very well considering the time of +day at which they were taken: it took me four and a half hours to get up +this peak--fresh snow and scree--and although I had no glissades, only +half an hour to come down. + +On the 27th I moved camp to a grassy hollow near the snout of the +glacier--Mallory and Bullock's base--and next day occupied another hill +overlooking the main glacier and valley, and looking up the side valley +on the East, which joins the Dz[=a]kar Chu just below the glacier snout. +The next three days were spent in establishing a light camp on the left +bank of the East branch of the Rongbuk Glacier, about 3 miles from its +snout, and taking a station on its left bank to overlook both the East +and main glaciers. + +The Rongbuk Glacier is made up of two large branches, one flowing from +the snow basin immediately below the great North wall of Everest, and +the other, the "West Rongbuk" which joins the main stream about 4 miles +above the snout of the glacier, flowing East in the basin between the +high North-west ridge of Everest and the South-east slopes of Pk. 25,990 +(Gy[=a]chung Kang). At one time there was a third branch, the "East +Rongbuk," which must have also joined the main stream, but this has +receded until its snout is now a mile or more East of the main glacier, +and only its torrent pours into a large cave in the latter. The East +Rongbuk itself consists of two branches: one, the more southerly, flows +from the great snow basin (which we eventually crossed to reach the +North Col) between Everest, its North Peak and Col, and Pk. 23,800 +(Kh[=a]rtaphu); and the other, which joins the South branch about 2 +miles from its snout, from between Pks. 23,800 and 23,420. The former +gives a 20,000-foot pass, very steep on the South side, to the K[=a]ma +Valley; and the latter, an easy pass of about the same height to the +head of one branch of the Kh[=a]rta Valley. + +I camped, at about 19,500 feet, on the moraine-covered glacier opposite +the junction of the northerly branch from Pks. 23,800 and 23,420. On the +way up I followed the watercourse between the ice of the Main Rongbuk +Glacier and the scree and conglomerate slopes to the East of it, as far +as the mouth of the East Rongbuk stream (3 miles), which gave good +though boulder-strewn going. Thence a short scramble up "cut-bank" on +the right bank of the East Rongbuk stream to the shelf of an old lateral +moraine of that glacier, and along the latter--excellent going--to near +its snout. The stream is pretty big in the evening; but quite easy to +cross--except for iced rocks--in the early morning: and from there I +followed up a series of lateral moraines on the left bank, to my camp. +It was not till I was coming down that I discovered that the +moraine-covered glacier itself--here covered with shale instead of +boulders and scree as in the case of the main glacier--gave comfortable +walking. + +A little distance below my camp site, the moraine-covered snout gives +place to pinnacled ice, divided into three sections by two broad, shaly +medial moraines. Either of the latter would be very suitable for a camp, +and would give an excellent route to our 21,500-foot camp below the +Chang La. The latter might, I think, be reached by this route in three +days from the base camp at the snout of the main glacier, camping the +first night at 19,000 feet at the start of the medial moraine, the +second at 20,000 feet on the medial moraine some 2 miles above the +junction of the Northern and Southern branches of the East Rongbuk, and +the third night on snow at 21,500 feet below the North Col. The better +moraine to ascend would require reconnaissance; for the pinnacles +between them are difficult and slow to cross. The valley sides are steep +in the lower reaches of the glacier, but more shaly and gentle on both +branches, above their junction. + +August 3 broke clear; and I started up a likely looking peak behind +(South of) camp, which appeared to be on the ridge between the East and +main glaciers. I afterwards found that this was not the case; at the +time I had to stop on a lower point as the clouds settled down. From +here I had a glimpse of a big peak--Mak[=a]lu, I thought--over the pass +at the head of the southerly branch of the glacier: and this gave me the +idea that there must be a comparatively low pass from here to the +K[=a]ma Valley. But clouds prevented me seeing more and studying the +topography more carefully. There were heavy snowstorms on August 4 and +5, but the 6th looked better, and after four hours' most strenuous +step-cutting up and slithering down pinnacles, I crossed the glacier and +ascended a 21,000-foot station on the other side, from which I obtained +good, if cloudy, views of the East Rongbuk Glacier. Snow in the night +and a dull morning made me decide to abandon this area--I could get my +camp no farther up owing to having insufficient warm clothes to camp all +my coolies at this height--and I returned to the base camp, preparatory +to tackling the West side of the Rongbuk Valley. Six hours' easy going +took me to my base camp. + +After two days' rest and office work, I crossed the glacier and put a +light camp at about 19,000 feet in a small hanging valley below the +"Finger," a black rock gendarme which is a very prominent landmark on +the left bank of the Rongbuk Valley. On August 11 it snowed heavily, and +I found my bed, in which I spent the day, very hard indeed--the camp +being pitched on large boulders on top of the moraine. On the 12th, +13th, and 14th, I started for the "Finger," the first time by the ridge +immediately above camp, which gave some nice climbing with the rocks +partly snow covered as they were, and the other two days, by a much +quicker but less interesting route up soft snow and scree. Each day the +clouds came down, and although I waited till nearly dark at about 20,500 +feet on the ridge, it was not till the third day that I got a round of +indifferent photographs. + +Time was getting on, so on the 15th I called my "Finger" station "good +enough" and moved camp up the left bank of the main glacier to a point +on the old lateral moraine, opposite the entrance of the stream from the +East Rongbuk; and the next day round the corner to the West, some +distance up the West Rongbuk Glacier, and about 1,000 feet above it. _En +route_, I tried to get some photographs from the high moraine at the +junction of the West with the main glacier; but again the weather +defeated me, and I got into camp--another uncomfortable one--soaked to +the skin. + +I was in this camp for five days; most of them spent huddled under rocks +waiting for the clouds to lift. I had one beautiful day, my only one in +six weeks, and got some very nice photographs of Mount Everest and its +West ridge. It is surprising how a little good weather and the feeling +of having really done some work affects one's spirits! + +On August 21 I moved back to my base camp at the glacier snout, again +trying for a station at the corner--and failing. I had not done nearly +as much as I wanted to do; but there seemed to be no end to the bad +weather, and only a month or a bit more remained in which to map the +whole of the East side of the mountain: and I had heard from Colonel +Bury that there would be a considerable amount of work on that side. +Originally, I had hoped not only to return to the bridge over the R[=a] +Chu to complete the work in the Kyetr[=a]k Valley, but also to take +several stations in the valleys running North from the 23,000-foot group +North of Everest. But again apart from shortage of time, the weather +made it out of the question, and I went through to Kh[=a]rta, via the +Doya La, arriving there on August 27. + +The change in scenery immediately one crosses the Doya La is most +marked, both as regards rock and vegetation. The former--mostly +gneiss--is far more rugged and interesting, and there is infinitely more +of the latter. The Headquarters camp at Kh[=a]rta, in a little poplar +grove, was pleasant indeed after the bleak, uninteresting Rongbuk +Valley; and I thoroughly enjoyed my five days there, developing and +printing; busy days, but very different from lying on one's back on the +sharp boulders of the Rongbuk moraines. Mallory, Bullock and Morshead +were in Kh[=a]rta when I arrived; Colonel Bury and Wollaston returned +from their excursion to the Popti La soon after, and Raeburn arrived on +September 1. It was a great treat to me to be able to "swap lies" with +so many people, after two months almost wholly alone! + +On September 3 Morshead and I started up the Kh[=a]rta Chu in the wake +of Mallory and Bullock, who had gone up to get the "bundobust" for the +final fling going. As usual, bad weather dogged my footsteps, and +although the weather while I was in Kh[=a]rta had been glorious, +Morshead and I spent seven days in taking two very indifferent stations +in the lower part of the Kh[=a]rta Valley, before joining the remainder +of the expedition at the "Advanced Base" on September 11. A further +eight days were spent there, waiting for the weather; but in that time I +was able to get two very useful stations, one on either side of the +valley. + +On September 19 I moved up to "No. 1 Camp" with Mallory, Bullock and +Morshead; and shared the fortunes of the rest of the Expedition as far +as Kampa Dzong on the way back to Darjeeling, where Raeburn, Heron and I +left Headquarters to return to Darjeeling via L[=a]chen and the Teesta +Valley. I was delighted to get into the "final push," and enjoyed the +few days' change from surveying to climbing, enormously; except that I +felt the cold very much in my feet, and had it not been for Mallory's +good offices--he rubbed my feet for a solid hour after we came down from +Chang La--I feel sure that the result might have been much more serious +than the slight discomfort I afterwards experienced. + +I took three stations in the neighbourhood of No. 1 Camp--one on either +side of the Kh[=a]rta Glacier, and one at 22,300 feet on the "Lhakpa +La." This was on snow, with my instrument resting on, and steadied by, +bags of "tsampa"; which proved to be a most excellent substitute for +rock! + +On September 26 I crossed with Colonel Bury and Wollaston to the K[=a]ma +Valley; unfortunately, we only had two clear days there, and I had to +leave it without covering as much ground as I should have liked, +though--as usual--I spent my days in snowstorms, hoping for breaks in +the clouds. + +The return to Darjeeling via the Serpo La, L[=a]chen, and the Teesta +Valley, made a pleasant change from the Ph[=a]ri route; but again bad +weather spoiled our views, and we saw nothing at all of Kanchenjunga +and its neighbours. Raeburn went in by the usual road via Gangtok; Heron +and I followed the river--an excellent route in spite of the prevalence +of leeches--and reached Pashok on October 19. Heron went on to +Darjeeling, a further 18 miles, the same day. I followed on the 20th. + +I enjoyed the Expedition and my work with it, thoroughly; but in my +opinion, Tibet, at any rate that portion of it in which we were, is a +place to have _been_, rather than one to go to! + + + + + APPENDIX III + + A NOTE ON THE GEOLOGICAL RESULTS OF THE EXPEDITION + + BY A. M. HERON, D.Sc., F.G.S., Geological Survey of India. + + +The area geologically examined is somewhat over 8,000 square miles, +comprising the Tibetan portion of the Arun drainage area, with, in the +West, the headwaters of the Bhotia Kosi and its tributaries. + +The circumstances of the Expedition were not favourable for work in any +detail, but an endeavour was made to traverse and map as large an area +as possible on a scale of 1/4-inch to the mile, on skeleton maps very +kindly furnished by Major Morshead and his surveyors as their +plane-tabling proceeded; my work must therefore be considered as a +geological reconnaissance pure and simple. + +If I am accorded the privilege of accompanying the second Expedition, by +which time Major Wheeler's map on a scale of 1-inch to the mile will be +available, I hope to be able to make a detailed survey of the vicinity +of Mount Everest and investigate the complicated inter-relationships of +the metamorphosed sedimentaries and the associated gneisses and +granites. + +My survey continues to the Westward Sir Henry Hayden's work during the +Tibet Expedition in 1903-4. + +Geologically this area is divided into two broad divisions: (_a_) +Tibetan and sedimentary, (_b_) Himalayan and crystalline, a distinction +which is clearly displayed in the topography resulting from the +underlying geological structure, for to the North we have the somewhat +tame and lumpy mountains of Tibet contrasting with the higher, steeper +and more rugged Himalayas on the South. + +The Tibetan zone consists of an intensely folded succession of shales +and limestones, with subordinate sandstone quartzites, the folds +striking East-West and mainly lying over towards the South, showing that +the movements which produced them came from the North. + +The uppermost rocks consist of the Kampa system of Hayden, a great +thickness of limestones, which, where the rocks have escaped +alteration, yield an assemblage of fossils which determine their age as +Cretaceous and Eocene. + +Below these is a monotonous succession of shales, practically +unfossiliferous, with occasional quartzites and limestones representing +the Upper and Middle Jurassic with at the base beds probably belonging +to the Lias. + +These Jurassic shales are by far the most conspicuous formation in this +part of Tibet, being repeated many times in complicated folds. + +The Cretaceous-Eocene limestones form comparatively narrow bands, +occurring as compressed synclines caught up in the folded complex of +Jurassic shales. + +Along the Southern border of the Tibetan zone, below the base of the +Jurassic shales, is a great thickness (2,000 feet-3,000 feet) of thinly +bedded limestones in which the fossils have been destroyed and the rocks +themselves converted over considerable areas into crystalline limestones +and calc-gneisses containing tremolite, epidote, tourmaline, etc., but +still retaining their original bedded structure in the banding of the +altered rock. + +The absence of determinable fossils makes it impossible to determine the +age of these with certainty, but from their lithological character and +position in the sequence, it is possible that they correspond with the +Tso Lhamo limestone in Sikkim (Lias) and the Kioto limestone of the +Zangskar range (Lower Jurassic and Upper Trias). + +The Himalayan and crystalline zone is essentially composed of foliated +and banded biotite-gneiss, usually garnetiferous, on which lie, at +comparatively low angles and with a general Northerly dip, the +above-mentioned calc-gneisses. + +These occur most abundantly to the North and West of Everest, in the +Keprak, Rongbu, Hlalung and Rebu Valleys. The group of high peaks to the +North-west of Everest (overlooking the Khombu Pass) is made up of these +and intrusive schorl granite, and it would seem that the precipitous +North-western face and spurs of Everest are the same. + +The Eastern and North-eastern valleys, Chongphu, Kharta and Kama, which +are in general at a lower level than the North-western valleys, are +excavated in the biotite-gneiss. On the North-eastern face of Everest +fresh snow was too abundant at the time of my visit to make out what the +rocks were. + +Associated with the limestones and calc-gneisses are quartzites and +tourmaline-biotite schists which probably represent the lowest portions +of the shales immediately overlying the limestones. + +It is probable that the biotite-gneiss is an igneous rock intrusive in +the calc-gneisses and schists, but this and many other puzzling features +of the crystallines require more detailed study than I was able to give +this year. + +Both biotite-gneiss and metamorphosed sedimentaries are crowded with +dykes and sills, of all dimensions, of schorl granite or pegmatite to +such an extent that this granite is frequently the predominant rock. It +is highly resistant to weathering and it is doubtless due to its +presence in large amount that such comparatively soft rocks as the +calc-gneisses take part in forming some of the highest summits. + +In the same way the scattered peaks of over 20,000 feet on the watershed +between the Arun and the Tsangpo owe their prominence to their being +groups of veins of a very similar granite, differing in that it contains +biotite in place of schorl. Around these separate centres of intrusion +are areoles of metamorphism in which the Jurassic shales have been +converted into slates and phyllites. + +Economically the area traversed by the Expedition is devoid of interest. +Barring a little copper staining on a few boulders on moraines no traces +of ore were seen. + + + + + APPENDIX IV + + THE SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT + + BY A. R. HINKS, F.R.S., Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society. + + +The most important scientific work of the first year's expedition should +have been the study of the physiological effects of high altitude that +Dr. Kellas had undertaken, with the support of Professor Haldane, +F.R.S., and of the Oxygen Research Committee of the Department of +Scientific and Industrial Research. In his work on Kamet in 1920, +Dr. Kellas had tried, and provisionally decided against, the use of +oxygen compressed in cylinders: but he laboured under the grave +disadvantage that the light cylinders he hoped to obtain had been, after +his departure for India, pronounced unsafe; and the cylinders sent out +were clearly too heavy for effective use in climbing. Dr. Kellas had +therefore fallen back on the use of oxygen prepared from the reaction +between water and oxylith in an apparatus which included a kind of gas +mask. He was prepared also to make several difficult researches into the +physiological processes of adaptation to low oxygen pressure; and some +delicate apparatus was prepared and sent out to him by the Oxygen +Research Committee. Unhappily these interesting and important enquiries +came to nought, for there was no one competent to carry them on after +his lamented death at Kampa Dzong; and the Expedition of 1922 was +thereby deprived of much information that should have been at its +disposal in studying the use of oxygen for the grand assault. + +The scientific equipment for which the Mount Everest Committee were +directly responsible was not ambitious: the Survey of India were +responsible for the whole of the survey and brought their own equipment, +which is described elsewhere in this book. It was necessary to provide +the climbing party only with aneroids, compasses, reserve field-glasses, +thermometers and cameras, with subsidiary apparatus for checking the +aneroids at the base camps, and heavier cameras for work at lower +levels. + +The aneroids by Cary, Porter & Co. and by Short & Mason were +constructed in pairs, to operate from 15,000 to 23,000, and 22,000 to +30,000 feet respectively. They seem to have performed well on the whole, +and tests made at the National Physical Laboratory since their return +show that they have changed very little; but it cannot be said that +their performances were very effectively controlled in the field, for +until late in the season there were no trigonometrical heights +available, and the climbers had little opportunity in their rather +isolated circumstances of employing their aneroids to the best +advantage, for purely differential work. Nor is there much to be said as +yet on the value of the shortened form of George mercurial barometer, to +come into action only at 15,000 feet (Cary, Porter & Co.). These +instruments will find effective use only in the second season, when the +reference points of the trigonometrical survey will be available as +fundamental data. + +The climbers carried "Magnapole" compasses with luminous points, and +sometimes a Mark VIII prismatic; these all worked well. The simpler +compass is the more convenient for use on snow when goggles must be +worn. A luminous liquid compass (Short & Mason) was found very useful on +long reconnaissance rides. + +For the record of temperatures in camps Messrs. Negretti & Zambra had +made three small pairs of maximum and minimum thermometers in leather +travelling cases. These suffered some casualties, by theft, or being +accidentally left out in the sun; and the pattern has been repeated for +the second year's work. + +The heavier photographic equipment included an old and well-seasoned +71/2 x 5 Hare Camera, lent to the Expedition, but newly fitted by Messrs. +Dallmeyer with a Stigmatic lens of 9 inches focal length, a negative +telephoto lens of 4 inches focal length giving enlargement up to 6 +times, and a set of Wratten filters. With this camera Mr. Wollaston +secured some of the finest pictures taken on the Expedition. + +There were also two quarter-plate cameras for glass plates: a Sinclair +Una camera fitted by Messrs. Dallmeyer with a Stigmatic lens of 5.3 +inches focal length, and Adon telephoto lens; and a second Sinclair +camera lent by Captain Noel. + +One or the other of these two was used by Mr. Mallory at many of the +high camps, and both the Hare 71/2 x 5 and the Sinclair quarter-plate went +to the 22,500-foot camp at the Lhakpa La: doubtless the greatest height +yet attained by so large a camera as the former. The principal +difficulty with these cameras was unsteadiness in a heavy wind when the +telephoto lens was in use: and the tripods have been strengthened and +the lens supports stiffened before they go out again. + +The plates were of two kinds: Imperial Special Rapid and Fine Grain +slow. The latter were generally preferred, and could hardly have been +better. The Imperial Dry Plate Company, who generously made and +presented these plates to the Expedition, deserve special thanks for +their skill and for their generosity. + +The cameras which used films were a Panoram Kodak of 5 inches focal +length, with films 12 x 4 inches; a No. 1 Autograph Kodak, and two Vest +Pocket Kodaks, all three fitted with Cooke lenses by Messrs. Taylor, +Taylor & Hobson. The Panoram Kodak was used very successfully by Colonel +Howard-Bury, and the splendid series of panoramas is the most useful, if +not quite the most beautiful, set of photographs brought home. The +smaller cameras were used by the climbing party with many good results. + +Finally it must be said that a large part of the best photographs were +taken by Colonel Howard-Bury with his own 7 x 5 Kodak, and the results +very generously placed at the disposal of the Committee. + +All the instruments were examined and tested at the National Physical +Laboratory, and the thanks of the Committee are due to the Director and +his staff, who gave most valuable advice and assistance. + + + + + APPENDIX V + + MAMMALS, BIRDS AND PLANTS COLLECTED BY THE EXPEDITION + + BY A. F. R. WOLLASTON + + + A.--LIST OF MAMMALS COLLECTED + + Stoat. _Mustela temon_ + Stoat. _Mustela longstaffi_ + Marmot. _Marmota himalayana_ + Hamster. _Cricetulus alticola tibetanus_, subsp. n. + Vole. _Phaiomys leucurus_ + Vole. _Phaiomys everesti_ + Vole. _Microtus_ (_Alticola_), sp. + Pika. _Ochotona roylei nepalensis_ + Pika. _Ochotona wollastoni_, sp. n. + Pika. _Ochotona curzoniae_ + + + B.--LIST OF BIRDS COLLECTED + + Central Asian blackbird. _Turdus maxima_ + Solitary thrush. _Monticola solitarius_ + White-breasted Asiatic dipper. _Cinclus cashmirensis_ + Indian stone-chat. _Saxicola torquata indica_ + Gould's desert chat. _Saxicola montana_ + Bush chat. _Pratincola prjevalskii_ + Indian redstart. _Ruticilla rufiventris_ + Guldenstadt's Afghan redstart. _Ruticilla grandis_ + White-capped redstart. _Chimarrhornis leucocephalus_ + Hodgson's grandala. _Grandala c[oe]licolor_ + Tickell's willow-warbler. _Phylloscopus affinis_ + Mandelli's willow-warbler. _Phylloscopus mandellii_ + Smoky willow-warbler. _Phylloscopus fulviventris_ + Spotted bush-warbler. _Lusciniola thoracica_ + Prince Henry's laughing thrush. _Trochalopterum henrici_ + Eastern alpine accentor. _Accentor rufiliatus_ + Red-breasted accentor. _Accentor rubeculoides_ + Rufous-breasted accentor. _Accentor strophiatus_ + Brown accentor. _Accentor fulvescens_ + Sikkim black tit. _Parus beavani_ + Wren. _Troglodytes_, sp. + Hodgson's pied wagtail. _Motacilla hodgsoni_ + White-faced wagtail. _Motacilla leucopsis_ + Yellow-headed wagtail. _Motacilla citreola._ + Blyth's pipit. _Anthus citreola_ + Indian tree-pipit. _Anthus maculatus_ + Hodgson's pipit. _Anthus rosaceus_ + Grey-backed shrike. _Lanius tephronotus_ + Slaty-blue flycatcher. _Cyornis leucomelanurus_ + Himalayan greenfinch. _Hypacanthis spinoides_ + Tree-sparrow. _Passer montanus_ + Cinnamon tree-sparrow. _Passer cinnamomeus_ + Blanford's snow-finch. _Montifringilla blanfordi_ + Adams' snow-finch. _Montifringilla adamsi._ + Hodgson's ground-finch. _Fringilauda nemoricola_ + Brandt's ground-linnet. _Leucosticte brandti._ + Walton's twite. _Linota rufostrigata_ + Red-breasted rose-finch. _Pyrrhospiza punicea_ + Scarlet rose-finch. _Carpodacus erythrinus_ + Hodgson's rose-finch. _Carpodacus pulcherrimus_ + Severtzoff's rose-finch. _Carpodacus severtzoi_ + Prejewalk's rose-finch. _Carpodacus rubicilloides_ + Red-headed bullfinch. _Pyrrhula erythrocephala_ + Godlevski's meadow bunting. _Emberiza godlevskii_ + Elwes' shore-lark. _Otocorys elwesi_ + Long-billed calandra lark. _Melanocorpha maxima_ + Tibetan skylark. _Alauda inopinata_ + Short-toed lark. _Calandrella brachydactyla_ + Brook's short-toed lark. _Calandrella acutirostris tibetana_ + Chough. _Pyrrhocorax graculus_ + Brown ground-chough. _Podoces humilis_ + Common hoopoe. _Upupa epops_ + Pied crested cuckoo. _Coccystes jacobinus_ + Eastern little owl. _Athene bactriana_ + White-backed dove. _Columba leuconota_ + Snow partridge. _Lerwa lerwa_ + Temminck's stint. _Tringa temmincki_ + Redshank. _Totanus calidris_ + Dusky redshank. _Totanus fuscus_ + Greater sand plover. _Aegialitis mongola_ + Common tern. _Sterna fluviatilis_ + +In addition to the above the following birds were identified, but +specimens of them were not obtained:-- + + Wall-creeper + House martin + Sand martin + Rock martin + Alpine chough + Magpie + Black crow + Raven + Swift + Siberian swift + Cuckoo + Himalayan vulture + Laemmergeier + Sea eagle + Pallas' sea eagle + Black-eared kite + Barheaded goose + Ruddy sheldrake + Garganey + Wigeon + Pochard + Gadwall + Hill rock-dove + Chinese turtle dove + Tibetan partridge + Tibetan snow partridge + Blood pheasant + Black-necked crane + White stork + Ibis-bill + Painted snipe + Pin-tailed snipe + Brown-headed gull + + +C.--LIST OF PLANTS COLLECTED BETWEEN JUNE AND SEPTEMBER, 1921, +12,000-20,400 FT. + + Clematis orientalis, L. + Ranunculus pulchellus, C. A. Mey., var. sericeus, Hk. f. & T. + Ranunculus pulchellus, C. A. Mey. + Anemone obtusiloba, Don + Anemone polyanthes, Don + Anemone rivularis, Ham. + Geranium Grevilleanum, Wall. + Caltha scaposa, Hk. f. & T. + Delphinium Brunonianum, Royle + Aconitum gymnandrum, Max. + Aconitum orochryseum, Stapf, sp. nov. + Delphinium Pylzowii, Maxim. + Halenia elliptica, Don + Delphinium grandiflorum, L. + Hypecoum leptocarpum, Hk. f. & T. + Meconopsis horridula, Hk. f. & T. + Meconopsis grandis, Prain? + Meconopsis, sp. + Corydalis, sp. + Corydalis juncea, Wall. + Corydalis Moorcroftiana, Wall. + Arabis tibetica, Hk. f. & T. + Lepidium ruderale, L. + Arenaria ciliolata, Edgew. + Dilophia salsa, Hk. f. & T. + Cardamine macrophylla, Willd. + Arenaria Stracheyi, Edgew. + Silene Waltoni, F. N. Williams + Silene Moorcroftiana, Wall. + Arenaria musciformis, Wall. + Arenaria melandrioides, Edgew. + Polygonum islandicum, Hk. f. + Geranium collinum, A. DC. + Impatiens sulcatus, Wall. + Thermopsis barbata, Royle + Thermopsis lanceolata, R. Br. + Sophora Moorcroftiana, Benth. + Stracheya tibetica, Benth. + Astragalus strictus, Grah. + Oxytropis microphylla, DC + Gueldenstaedtia uniflora, Benth. + Desmodium nutans, Wall. + Potentilla coriandrifolia, Hk. f. + Potentilla multifida, L. + Potentilla sericea, L. + Potentilla microphylla, Don + Potentilla peduncularis, Don + Potentilla Griffithii, Hk. f. + Spiraea arcuata, Hk. f. + Saxifraga Lychnitis, Hk. f. & T. + Saxifraga nutans, Hk. f. & T. + Saxifraga aristulata, Hk. f. + Saxifraga near S. saginoides, Hk. f. & T. + Saxifraga flagellaris, Willd. + Saxifraga Hirculus, L. + Saxifraga Lychnitis, Hk. f. & T. + Saxifraga fimbriata, Wall. + Saxifraga pilifera, Hk. f. & T. + Saxifraga Caveana, W. W. Sm. + Saxifraga microphylla, Royle + Saxifraga pallida, Wall. + Saxifraga umbellulata, Hk. f. & T. + Parnassia ovata, Ledeb. + Parnassia pusilla, Wall. + Eutrema Prewalskii, Hk. f. & T. + Sedum fastigiatum, Hk. f. & T. + Sedum trifidum, Wall. + Sedum crenulatum, Hk. f. & T. + Sedum himalense, Don + Epilobium palustre, L. + Epilobium reticulatum, C. B. Cl. + Pleurospermum Hookeri, C. B. Cl. + Scabiosa Hookeri, C. B. Cl. + Valeriana Hardwickii, Wall. + Aster, sp. + Aster heterochaetus, C. B. Cl. + Allardia glabra, Dene. + Aster tibeticus, Hk. f. + Cremanthodium Decaisnei, C. B. Cl. + Aster diplostephioides, C. B. Cl. + Erigeron, sp. + Leontopodium fimbrilligerum, J. R. Drum.? + Leontopodium monocephalum, Edgew. + Leontopodium Stracheyi, C. B. Cl. + Anaphalis xylorhiza, Sch. Bip. + Anaphalis cuneifolia, Hook. f. + Tanacetum tibeticum, Hk. f. & T. + Senecio arnicoides, Wall. var. frigida, Hk. f. + Cremanthodium pinnatifidum, Benth. + Chrysanthemum Atkinsoni, C. B. Cl.? + Artemisia Moorcroftiana, Wall. + Sonchus sp. + Senecio glomerata, Decne. + Senecio (Sec. Ligularia) sp. + Senecio chrysanthemoides, DC. + Tanacetum khartense, Dunn, sp. nov. + Aster sp. + Lactuca macrantha, C. B. Cl. + Senecio sorocephala, Hemsl. + Saussurea gossypina, Wall. + Saussurea tridactyla, Sch. Bip. + Tanacetum gossypinum, Hk. f. & T. + Saussurea wernerioides, Sch. Bip. + Crepis glomerata, Hk. f.? + Saussurea graminifolia, Wall. + Senecio arnicoides, Wall. + Saussurea uniflora, Wall. + Morina polyphylla, Wall. + Saussurea glandulifera, Sch. Bip. + Lactuca Dubyaea, C. B. Cl. + Lactuca Lessertiana, C. B. Cl. + Cassiope fastigiata, D. Don + Daphne retusa, Hemsl. + Rhododendron lepidotum, Wall. + Rhododendron setosum, Don + Rhododendron near R. lepidotum, Wall. + Rhododendron campylocarpum, Hk. f. + Rhododendron cinnabarinum, Hk. f. + Rhododendron lanatum, Hk. f. + Rhododendron arboreum, Sm. + Rhododendron Thomsoni, Hk. f. + Cyananthus incanus, Hk. f. & T. + Glossocomia tenera, DC. + Cyananthus pedunculatus, C. B. Cl. + Campanula modesta, Hk. f. & T. + Campanula colorata, Wall. + Campanula aristata, Wall. + Androsace chamaejasme, Hort., var. coronata, Wall. + Androsace villosa, L. var.? + Androsace strigillosa, Franch. + Primula minutissima, Jacq. + Primula Buryana, Balf. f. sp. nov. + Primula Wollastonii, Balf. f. sp. nov. + Primula pusilla, Wall. + Primula sikkimensis, Hook, microform + Primula capitata, Hook. + Primula capitata, microform. + Primula uniflora, Klatt + Primula Dickieana, Watt. + Primula obliqua, W. W. Sm. + Primula indobella. Balf. f. + Primula minutissima, Jacq. + Primula glabra, Klatt + Primula Younghusbandii, sp. nov. + Primula tibetica, Watt. + Primula denticulata, Sm. + Primula sikkimensis, Hook. + Primula nivalis, Pallas, var. macrocarpa, Pax. + Gentiana am[oe]na, C. B. Cl. + Gentiana ornata, Wall. + Gentiana sp. Probably new but the material is too imperfect to decide + this. + Gentiana Elwesii, C. B. Cl. + Gentiana robusta, King + Gentiana micantiformis, Burkill + Gentiana nubigena, Edgew. + Gentiana tubiflora, Wall., var. longiflora, Turrill, var. nov. + Gentiana stellata, Turrill, sp. nov. + Gentiana tenella, Fries + Swertia cuneata, Wall. + Arenaria Stracheyi, Edgew. + Swertia Kingii, Hk. f. + Swertia Younghusbandii, Burkill + Swertia multicaulis, D. Don + Nardostachys grandiflora, DC. + Trigonotis rotundifolia, Benth. + Eritrichium densiflorum, Duthie + Microula sikkimensis, Hemsl. + Onosma Waddellii, Duthie + Onosma Hookeri, C. B. Cl. + Verbascum Thapsus, L. + Lancea tibetica, Hk. f. & T. + Lagotis crassifolia, Prain + Pedicularis trichoglossa, Hk. f. + Pedicularis Elwesii, Hk. f. + Pedicularis megalantha, Don, forma + Pedicularis megalantha, Don, var. pauciflora, Prain + Pedicularis Roylei, Maxim. + Pedicularis siphonantha, Don + Pedicularis cheilanthifolia, Schrank + Pedicularis tubiflora, Fischer + Pedicularis integrifolia, Hk. f. + Pedicularis globifera, Hk. f. + Incarvillea Younghusbandii, Sprague + Escholtzia eriostachya, Benth. + Nardostachys Iatamansi, DC. + Dracocephalum breviflorum, Turrill, sp. nov. + Dracocephalum tanguticum, Maxim. + Dracocephalum heterophyllum, Benth. + Dracocephalum speciosum, Benth. + Veronica lanuginosa, Benth. + Nepeta discolor, Benth. + Nepeta Thomsoni, Benth. + Atriplex rosea, L. + Polygonum vaccinifolium, Wall. + Polygonum viviparum, L. + Polygonum tortuosum, Don + Polygonum affine, Don + Polygonum amphibium, L. + Stellera chamaejasme, L. + Euphorbia Stracheyi, Boiss. + Orchis cylindrostachys, Kraenzl. + Liparis sp. + Goodyera fusca, Lindl. + Dendrobium alpestre, Royle + Pleione Hookeriana, S. Moore + Orchis Chusna, Don + Roscoea purpurea, Sm. + Iris nepalensis, Don + Iris goniocarpa, Baker + Iris tenuifolia, Pallas + Lloydia tibetica, Baker + Lloydia sp. + Fritillaria Hookeri, Baker + Fritillaria near F. Stracheyi, Hk. f. + Fritillaria cirrhosa, Don + Allium, sp. + Allium Wallichii, Kunth + Allium Govenianum, Wall.? + Allium cyaneum, Regel + Larix Griffithii, Hk. f. + Dryopteris Linneana, C. Chr. + Dryopteris Filix-mas, var. serrato-dentata, C. Chr. + Cryptogramma Brunoniana, Wall. + Calophaca crassicaulis, Benth. + Glaux maritima, L. + Androsace sessiliflora, Turrill, sp. nov. + Astragalus oreotrophes, W. W. Sm. + Thamnolia vermicularis, Schaer. + Stereocaulon alpinus, Laur. + Thelochistes flavicans, Norm. + +NOTE.--The material of some of the numbers was insufficient for accurate +determination; in a few cases the material necessary for comparison was +on loan, and in the case of one or two genera, such as _Aster_, revision +of the North Asian and Indian species will have to be undertaken before +certain plants can be definitely named. The numbers in the list coming +under these categories are named "---- sp." + + ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS, KEW. + + _March 7, 1922._ + + + + + INDEX + + Abdul Jalil, photographic assistant, 59, 319 + Abruzzi, Duke of the, 2, 3, 5, 155 + Acchu, cook, 103, 133, 178 + Acclimatisation to high altitudes, 277, 308, 341 + Alpine Club, 1, 7, 14-19, 305 + Altitude, effects on human frame, 5, 102, 104-5, 137-8, 154-5, 199, 204, + 206-7, 253-4, 276, 307-8, 315, 341; on breathing, 200, 243-4, 277; on + tinned fish, 50 + Ammo-chu, river, 39, 44, 291 + Aneroids, 341 + Ang Tenze, coolie, 113, 149-51, 166 + Ari, bungalow, 33 + Arun, river, 89, 104-5; gorges, 110, 125, 221, 297, 298; _see_ Bhong-chu + Avalanches, 231, 267-9, 308-9 + + Bailey, Major, 31, 314 + Bamtso, lake, 49 + Bell, Sir Charles, 16, 24, 166 + Bhompo's, Buddhist sect, 39 + Bhong-chu, river, 64-5, 69-71, 89-90, 93, 99, 100, 110, 159, 161, 295; + upper valley, 320, 322; _see_ Arun + Bhotias, 24 + Bhotia ponies, 27 + Bhotia Kosi, river, 338 + Birds, 290-303, 312, 344-6 + Brahma Putra, river, 61; _see_ Tsangpo + Bridges, 69, 93-4, 103, 115, 123, 159-60, 191 + Bruce, General, 1, 3, 13, 17, 154, 312 + Buchan, J., 19 + Buddhism and Buddhists, 25, 67-8, 173; books, 41; red cap sect, 173; + yellow cap sect, 58, 173; regard for animal life, 59, 80, 166, 290; + _see_ Monasteries, prayer-wheels + Bullock, G. H., 19, 26, 52; _see_ Mallory + Bullocks, 48, etc.; _see_ Transport + Burrard, Sir S., 10-12 + Carpo-ri, mountain, 227; ascended, 117, 229-35, 268 + Chamlang, mountain, 140 + Chandra Nursery, 32 + Chang La (North Col), 142; first view of, 204, 207, 212, 220; way to, + 233-40, 246-8, 256; camp on, 259-60; best route to, 273-4, 311-12, + 334-5 + Changtse, North peak of Everest, 142, 213, 215, 233-4 + Chelmsford, Lord, 16 + Chheten Wangdi, interpreter, 25, 39, 69, 91, 95, 112, 162, 179 + Chinese in Tibet, 38-9, 71-2, 173; in Nepal, 71 + Chitayn, coolie, 212 + Choebuk, monastery and bridge, 82, 95, 190, 191, 312, 327 + Choedzong, village, 86 + Chog La, 106, 121, 129, 299-300 + Choksum, village, 324 + Chomiomo, mountain, 52, 54, 140, 166 + Chomolhari, mountain, 45, 48, 60, 64, 167, 263 + Chomoloenzo, mountain, 114, 116, 149-51 + Chomolungma (Mount Everest or Makalu), 13, 24, 107, 224 + Chomo-Uri (Mount Everest), 64 + Chorabsang, mountain, 77-8; (= Cho Rapsang, 331) + Chortens, 40, 66, 174, 286, etc. + Cho Uyo, mountain, 73, 76, 78, 101, 207, 219, 330 + Choeyling monastery, 194 + Chulungphu, village, 89, 104 + Chumbi valley, 25, 37-44, 170, 177-8; village, 38; fauna and flora, 291 + Chushar Nango, village, 60-61, 131, 134, 295 + Chuphar, village and monastery, 327 + Chu-tronu, 123 + Collie, J. N., 17-18 + Compasses, 342 + Conway, Sir M., 4, 5 + Coolies, 23-5; behaviour, 47, 146, 156, 213, 216, 222-3, etc.; as + carriers, 92-4, 113, 122, 158, 284-6; _see_ Transport; in + mountaineering, 84, 188, 195, 203-6, 212, 230, 251 ff., 332 + Crampons, 207-8, 272 Cups of tea, as measures of distance, 108 + Curios, 67, 157 + Curzon, Lord, 1, 19 + + Dak, village, 93 + Dalai Lama, the, 16, 173 + Darjeeling, 23-28, 179 + Dasno, coolie, 234 + Desiccation, 51 + Dochen, bungalow, 49, 168 + Dokcho, village, 321 + Donka monastery, 40-42 + Donkeys, 48, 64, 65, etc.; _See_ Transport + Dorje, cook, 50 + Dorji Gompa, coolie, 202, 256 + Doto nunnery, 51 + Doya La, 88, 104, 336 + Dram, village, 325 + Drophung monastery, 323 + Dug pass, 50 + Dukpa, cook, 134, 188 + Dunge pokri, island, 127 + Dzakar (or Zakar) Chu, river, 93-5, 159, 297, 333 + + Eaton, J. E. C., 17 + Equipment, 20, 315, 341 + Everest, Mount, 1-2, 183; position, 9, 13; height, 10-12; names, 13, 64, + 225; seen from Khamba Dzong, 54, 56, 183-4; from Shiling, 64, 186-88, + 217, 230, 263; from Rongbuk Valley, 192, 263-4; from Kama Valley, 116, + 226; local ignorance of, 107, 112, 116; structure, 192-4, 203, 215, + 310; best season for ascent, 153, 248, 270; difficulties of, 154, 276, + 308; plans for, in 1921, 250-52 + -- -- Committee, 16 ff. + -- -- Expedition, origin of, 14-16; value of, 5; objects, 17-18; cost, + 19; equipment, 20, 315, 341; results, 179-80, 310-12, 338, 341. _See_ + Survey + Everest, Sir G., 13 + + Farrar, Captain J. P., 14, 17, 19, 315 + Finch, Captain G., 19, 313, 315 + "Finger," the, station, 335-6 + Fourteen lakes, valley of the, 106, 121; fauna and flora, 299 + Fowkes, Sergeant, 28 + Freshfield, D. W., 1, 14-16, 18 + Fuel, 80, 105, 171, 211, 237, 247, 273, 331 + + Gadompa, village and bridge, 160-61 + Galinka, village and monastery, 40 + Gandenchoefel monastery, 108, 131 + Gauri Sankar, mountain, 288, 326, 331 + Gautsa, bungalow, 44 + Gelupka (= Yellow Cap) sect, 173 + Geshe Rimpoche, Lama, 40 + Ghoom, 29 + Glaciers, ancient extent of, 128; characteristics, 194, 197, 218; + atmosphere, 200, 243, 270 + Gnatong, village, 35-6, 178 + Gosainthan, mountain, 64, 101, 284, 322-3 + Graham, Dr., 30-31 + _Graphic_, the, 19 + Gujjar Singh, surveyor, 319, 323-7 + Gurkhas in Tibet, 71, 95, 106 + Guru Rimpoche, saint, 173 + Gyachung Kang, mountain, 207, 219, 330 + Gyalzen Kazi, interpreter, 25, 56, 133, 137, 163, 177-8, 188, 190, 202, + 323 + Gyangka-nangpa, house, 62, 184 + Gyanka range of mountains, 184 + + Haldane, J. S., 341 + Halung, village, 86-7, 103, 240; valley, 339 + Hari Ram, explorer, 319, 324 + Harvest rents, 161, 174 + _Hatarana_, steamer, 24 + Hayden, Sir H., 338 + Hermits, 80, 83-4, 99 + Heron, Dr. A. M., 20, 26; expeditions from Tingri, 74, 77-85, 98, 120, + 325; first expedition to Kharta, 86-95, 162, 164, 179-80; in Upper + Kharta Valley, 253; returns by Kama Valley, 146-153, 337, and Teesta + Valley, 164, 337; note on geological results, 338-340 + Himalaya, 7-8, 11, 304 ff.; H. and the Alps, 194 + Hinks, A. R., 17, 20, 315; notes on scientific equipment, 341-2 + Holdich, Sir T., 15 + Hopaphema, landowner, 91-3, 104, 108, 111-12, 157-8 + Hot springs. _See_ Kambu, Tsamda + Howard-Bury, Colonel C. K., 13, 15, 17, 20, 343; author of the general + narrative of the expedition, 23-180; expeditions from Tingri, 75-85; + first expedition to Kharta, 86-95; expeditions from Kharta, 106-111; + visits Kama Valley, 112 ff.; ascent of 19,500 ft. ridge, 116; of Kama + Changri, 136-7; of Lhakpa La, 140-145, 257 ff. + Huc, abbe, 293 + + India Office, 16 + India, Government of, 16, 23 + -- Survey of, 20, 26-7, 341 + Interpreters, 25, 47; discretion of, 108 + Isaacs, Mr., 39 + "Island," the, 209, 213, 219 + + Jack, Colonel E. M., 17, 20, 315 + Jannu, mountain, 117, 135, 140 + Jelep La, 36, 37, 178, 290, 291 note + Jetsun-Nga-Wang-Choefel, saint, 109, 325 + Jongpens, 174-5, 283, 324 + Jonsong, mountain, 47, 140 + + Kabru, mountain, 26, 47, 168 + Kala-tso, lake, 51 + Kalimpong, village, 29-30 + Kama Valley, 112-119, 146-52, 225-7, 311, 339; fauna and flora, 300-01 + Kama Changri, mountain, 114, 136-7 + Kama-chu, river, 122-4 + Kambu hot springs, 40-43; valley, 291 + Kanchenjunga, mountain, 9, 46, 117, 135, 140, 185 + Kanchenjhow, mountain, 52, 54, 104, 166 + Kang-chu, river, 325 + Kangchen and -chung passes, 326 + Kangdoshung glacier, 115-16 + Kangshung glacier, 149-51 + Karpo La, 147 + Karro Pumri, mountain, 326 + Kartse, mountain, 141 + Kellas, A. M., 14, 18, 26, 341; illness and death, 46-49, 52-54, 164, + 321 + Khamba Dzong, fort and village, 13, 24, 53-57, 96, 164 + Kharkung, village, 161 + Kharta, 24, 90; first visit to, 88-93; headquarters of the expedition, + 104-5, 110; survey of, 323, 327; valley formation, 339; fauna and + flora, 299, 301-03 + Khartaphu, mountain, 330 + Khe or Khetam, village, 50-51 + Kheru, 51 + Khombu pass, 76, 78-9, 312, 339 + -- valley, 150-51 + Kimonanga, village, 124 + Korabak, rock, 124 + Kuti (= Nyenyam), village, 324 + Kyetrak, village and valley, 74-77, 327, 331 + -- glacier, 70, 77-79, 312; + river, 79 + Kyishong, village, 65, 102 + + Lachen, 56, 337 + Lalbir Singh Thapa, surveyor, 319, 322, 327 + Lamna La, 81, 327 + Langkor, village and temple, 281, 323 + Langma La, 112-13, 130, 224 + Langra, rest-house, 37, 178 + Lapche, village and monastery, 287, 325-6 + Lapche Kang, mountain, 115, 284-5, 325 + Lashar, village, 161 + Lebong, races at, 27 + Leeches, 34-5, 123-4, 126, 300, 337 + Lhakpa La (Windy Gap), 138, 161, 273-4; first visits to, 240-249, 255-6; + camp on, 140-44, 257-8, 261 + Lhasa, 16, 24, 173, 174; road to, 48-49 + Lhonak peaks, 52 + Lhotse, mountain (S. peak of Everest), 116, 213 + Lingga, village, 57, 163-4 + Lingmatang, plain, 40, 44, 291 + Longstaff, Dr. T. G., 1, 5, 314 + Lumeh, village, 93-4, 159 + Lungchen La, 322 + Lungdoe, village, 110, 125 + Lunghi, 167 + + Macdonald, David and family, 31, 38, 177 + Makalu, mountain, 104, 116, 118-19, 137, 186, 225-6, etc.; glacier, 151 + Mallory, G. H. L., 19, 26, 313; reconnoitres N. approach to Everest, 74, + 181-220; ascends Ri-Ring (23,050 ft.), 205-7, 264; moves to Kharta, + 102-106; reconnoitres E. approach to Everest, 117, 221-249; back to + Kharta, 130; ascends Kama Changri, 136-7; final assault and ascent of + North Col, 131-145, 250-261; leaves Kharta, 153; views on weather + conditions, 262-72; on the route up Everest, 273-79 + Mammals, 290-303, 312, 344, etc. + Mani Walls, 40, 174, etc. + Maps of Tibet, 62 + "Marigolds, Field of," 119, 152 + Matsang, village, 125 + Meade, C. F., 5, 17, 19 + Mendalongkyo, 129 + Mende, village, 57 + Menkhap-to and -me, villages, 322 + Menlung pass, 327 + "Metohkangmi," 141 + Mila Respa, saint, 287 + Monasteries, 99, 113, 173. _See_ Donka, Galinka, Ganden Choefel, Rongbuk, + Shekar Choete, etc. + Monsoon, 31, 48, 88, 91, 139, 216, 248, 262 ff. _See_ Rainfall + Morshead, Major H. T., 20, 25-27, 54, 65, 75, 96; trip to Nyenyam, 97, + 108, 281-9, 323-5; at Kharta, 112; survey of Kharta Valley, 131-2, + 135; first ascent of Lhakpa La, 130, 230-49; ascends Kama Changri, + 136-7; second ascent of Lhakpa La, 140-144, 253-8; map by, 312, 338; + account of survey by, 319-28 + Mountain sickness, 207, 258, 323. _See_ Altitude + Mountaineering, 2-4, 6-8, 305-6 + Mules, lent by Government, 27-8; breakdown of, 33-4; Tibetan, 32-33, 48, + etc. _See_ Transport + + Nangba (= Khombu), pass, 77, 331 + Narsing, mountain, 26 + Nathu La, 37 + Nawang Lobsang, first Dalai Lama, 173 + Nepal, 13 + Nepalese coolies, 25, 122; invasion of Tibet, 71, 73; traders, 122, 127, + 324; herdsmen, 126 + Nezogu bridge, 100, 102 + Ngawangyonten, official, 94 + Nieves penitentes, 78 + Nila pass, 61, 184 + Noel, Major J. B. L., 14, 314 + Nomads, 51, 171 + North Col of Everest, 212, 215. _See_ Chang La + North cwm of Everest, 200, 203-4 + North peak. _See_ Chang-tse + North-East Arete, 215, 227, 235, 250-51, 259, 274-6, 310 + Norton, Major E. F., 313 + Nuns and nunneries, 51, 80, 83, 166 + Nyenyam, 73, 97, 108, 283-4, 297, 324 + Nyima Tendu, coolie, 113, 149-51, 234 + + Oxygen for climbers, 154, 277, 307-8, 315-16, 341 + + Padamchen (= Sedongchen), 33 + Padma Sambhava, saint, 173 + Pashok, 337 + Pawhunri mountains, 46, 52, 54, 166 + Pedong, 31-2 + Pekhu plain, 322 + Peshoke, bungalow, 29 + Pethang Ringmo, 116, 138 + Pethangtse, mountain, 117, 147 + Phari, fort and village, 24, 35, 45-8, 168; plain, 46, 292 + Pharuk, district, 323, 327 + Phema, village, 38 + _Philadelphia Ledger_, the, 19 + Photography, 68, 72-3, 91, 156, 216-17, 314, 315, 342-3, etc.; perils + of, 74-5; surveying by, 320, 329-30 + Phuri, village, 322 + Phuse La. _See_ Pusi pass + Pilgrims, 70, 99, 121 + Plants, 290-302, 312, 346-50, etc. + Poe-chu, river, 284-5, 297-8, 323-4 + Ponglet, view from, 188, 218, 263 + Ponies, 27, 34, 48, 87, 101, etc. _See_ Transport + Poo, coolie, 75, 113, 156, 178 + Popti La, 106, 126-7, 300 + Postal arrangements, 96-7, 131, 135 + Prayer wheels, 39-40, 53, 91, 98, 110, 174, 289 + Primus stoves, 142-3, 154, 208, 315, 331 + Pulahari, village, 281 + Pulme, 94 + Pumori, mountain, 209 + Punagang monastery, 39 + Pusi pass, 77, 79, 289 (= Phuse La, 327, 330) + + Quiok, pass, 159 + + Rabkar-chu, river and glacier, 115 + Ra-chu, river, 70, 330 + Rainfall, 29, 37, 56, 99, 105, 262 ff. + Rawling, Major, 13-14 + Reading, Lord, 23 + Rebu, village, 87, 103; valley, 339 + Rhenock, 32 + Ri-Ring, mountain, ascended, 205-6, 270, 311 + Richengong, village, 38, 291 + Ronaldshay, Lord, 23, 179 + Rongbuk, glacier, 84; central and W. branches explored, 194-220; + E. branch, 142, 216-18, 238-40, 247-9, 273-4, 334-6; stream from, + 199, 218 + -- monastery, 83 + -- valley, 82, 191, 339 + Rongkong, village, 63 + Rongli, bungalow, 32, 178 + Rongme, village, 63 + Rongshar, valley, 77, 288-9, 298, 325-6 + Ruddamlamtso, lake, 121, 128 + Rugby, Tibetan boys at, 172 + Ryder, Colonel C. H. D., 13, 319 + + Sakeding, village, 121-22, 127-8 + Samchung, pass, 106, 121, 129 + Sand dunes, 58, 63-4, 295 + Sandakphu, 12, 13 + Sanglu, coolie, 254, 256-7 + Sedongchen, village, 33-4 + Senchal, 29 + Serpo-La, 164, 337 + Shao La, 112, 118, 153 + Sharto, village, 75, 330 + Shassi (= New Yatung), 38 + Shatog, village, 162 + Shekar-Choete, monastery, 67-8, 94 + Shekar Dzong, fort and village, 45, 66-7, 96, 295 + Sherpa Bhotias, coolies, 24, 188, 224, 252 + Shidag, nunnery, 51 + Shigatse, 51, 55, 174 + Shiling, 161, 188. _See_ Everest, Mount + Shung-chu, river, 79 + Shurim Tso, lake, 114 + Sikkim, survey of, 27, 320-21, 327; journey through, 29-36; flora of, + _ibid._ + Siniolchum, mountain, 46 + Sipri mountains, 99 + Skis, 158 + Snow, 248, 254, 264-8; temperature of, 270; powdery, 171, 231, 243, + 256; powdery snow and wind, 139, 142, 144, 159, 167-8, 259-60, 271, + etc. + Snow-blindness, 103, 167, 171 + Snowfall, 37, 171 + Snow line, 56 + Snow men, the abominable, 141 + Snow shoes, 137, 211-14, 232, 243, 254, 265, 270 + Somers Cocks, E. L., 16 + Somervell, H. T., 312, 313 + Strutt, Colonel E. L., 313 + Sun's rays, 270, 308 + Survey work of expedition, 179, 312. _See_ Heron, Morshead, Wheeler + Sutso plain, 99, 321-22 + + Takda, cantonment, 29 + Tamba Sanye, saint, 281, 323 + Tameness of animals, 59-60, 76-77, 80, 83, 88, 94, 131 + Tang La, 48, 167, 323 + Tang-puen-sum, plain, 48 + Tangsham, 114, 117, 152 + Targyeling, village, 324 + Tasang, village, 79, 289, 327 + Tashi Dzom, 95 + Tashilumpo monastery, 51, 173 + Tashishong, 325 + Tatsang, nunnery, 52, 165-6 + Teesta Valley, 27, 29-30, 164, 337 + Temperature, 269-70, 308, 342 + Tents, airlessness of, 143, 154, 258 + Thermometers, 342 + Thrashing, 164 + Thung-La, 282; fauna and flora, 297 + Tibet, 13, 36, 170 ff.; geology of, 338; Government, 173-4; helps the + expedition, 16, 24, 45, etc. + Tibetans, 170 ff. + Tibetan beer, 57, 125, 156; bread, 125; burial, 74, 133; climate, 49, + 176; coinage and currency, 47, 59, 123; coolies, 223-4; houses, 38, + 89, 321; marriage, 74; meals, 48, 59, 62, 67, 101, 108, etc.; mules, + 177-9; ornaments, 73, 101, 107; ponies, 27, 55, 101, 176; + superstitions, 66, 72, 109, 122, 141, 174, 282; tea, 41, etc. + _Times_, newspaper, 19, 156 + Tingri, 70-75, 95-101; plain of, 70; its fauna and flora, 96, 295-7; + origin of name, 282, 323 + Tinki, fort and village, 58, 162; birds of, 294; pass, 60, 162, 321; + flowers of, 295 + Trangso Chumbab, rest-house, 65 + Transport, 27-8, 34-5, 45, 48, 60, 65, 69, 86, 92, 158-9, 165, 173, 284. + _See_ Coolies, Mules, Yaks + Trintang, village, 326 + Tropde, village, 326 + Tsakor, village, 70 + Tsamda, hot springs, 99, 321 + Tsampa, 172-3, 222, 337 + Tsang, province, 319 + Tsangpo, river, 319-20 + Tsering, five peaks, 326 + Tsogo, 65, 159 + Tsomotretung, lake, 61 + Tsong Kapa, monk, 173 + Tulsi Dass, gardener, 32 + Tulung, village, 323 + Tuna, rest-house, 48 + Turubaz Khan, surveyor, 319, 321 + + Wakefield, Dr. A. W., 313 + Waugh, Sir A., 10, 12, 13 + Weather. _See_ Monsoon, Rainfall, Wind + West cwm of Everest, 208-9, 212, 214 + Wheeler, Major, E. O., 20, 26, 52, 164, 252, 320; expedition to Kyetrak, + 74, 77-81, 98, 330-33; to Rongbuk Valley, 102, 333-36; discovers + E. Rongbuk glacier, 217, 240, 247-8, 334; arrives at Kharta, 249; to + Lhakpa La, 140-44, 257; to Chang La, 144-5, 258-61; returns by Kama + Valley, 146-153, 337, and Teesta Valley, 164, 337; map by, 312, 328, + 338; account of photographic survey by, 329-337 + Wind, 50, 72, 75, 147-8, 171, 178, 265, 308, 342. _See_ Snow + Wollaston, A. F. R., 20, 26; returns with Raeburn to Sikkim, 56; rejoins + at Tingri, 74, 75, 96; trip to Nyenyam, 97, 108, 323-25; described by + him, 281-89; at Kharta, 249; to Lhakpa La, 140 ff., 257-8; returns by + Kama Valley, 146-153, 165, 342; natural history notes by, 290-303, + 344-350; collections, 312 + + Yaks, 61, 81, 161, 171, 286, 294, etc. + Yaru, river, 56-7, 61-3, 101-2 + Yatung, 38-9, 177 + Younghusband, Sir F., 1, 15-17, 19, 20 + Zachar-chu. _See_ Dzakar-chu + + Zambu, village, 81 + + * * * * * + +_Printed in Great Britain by_ Butler & Tanner, _Frome and London_ + + * * * * * + + + + +[Illustration: MAP I. + +PRELIMINARY MAP to illustrate the route of the MOUNT EVEREST EXPEDITION +1921. + +Reduced from the map on the scale 1/253440 + +by Major Morshead and assistants of the Survey of India, accompanying the +expedition: the neighbourhood of the Mountain from Map II. + +Scale 1/750,000 or 1 Inch = 11.84 Stat. Miles.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: MAP II + +Preliminary Map of MOUNT EVEREST + +constructed at the R. G. S. from photographs and sketches made by the +EXPEDITION of 1921] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: MAP III + +THE GEOLOGY of the MOUNT EVEREST REGION from the surveys of +Dr. A. M. HERON + +Geological Survey of India 1921. + +The topography from Map I. + +Scale 1/750,000 or 1 Inch = 11.84 Stat. Miles. + + * * * * * + + + + +The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text. + + p ix: Kama Valley. Kangchenjunga -> Kanchenjunga + p 12: Ladnia | 1849 | 108 | 29,998 -> 28,998 + p 13: call it Chomo-lungmo -> Chomolungma + p 24: Despatched -> Dispatched + p 26: two, Gujar -> Gujjar + p 44: of the Ammochu -> Ammo-chu + P 54: KAMPA -> KHAMBA + p 64: known as Chomo-lungma-> Chomolungma + p 101: and raisins as a -> an + p 107: right up to Chomo-lungma -> Chomolungma + p 109: saint called Jetsun-Nga-Wang-Chhoefel -> Choefel + p 133: the great lammergeier -> Laemmergeier + p 138: VALLEY. Kangchenjunga -> Kanchenjunga + p 146: to Kharta via-> via + p 149: cliffs of Chomolonzo -> Chomoloenzo + p 149: formed by Chomolonzo -> Chomoloenzo + p 163: a couple of Gargany -> Garganey + p 188: might be required we -> required. We + p 236: toiled over the neve -> neve + p 265: snow-shoes on neve -> neve + p 271: before the next moonsoon -> monsoon + p 275: offering a detour -> detour + p 290: Rongbuk Valley the burrhel -> burhel + p 291: Dippers, wag-tails -> wagtails + p 294: packs of widgeon -> wigeon + p 302: of a wolf. Burrhel -> Burhel + p 302: Dippers (_Cinclus cashmiriensis_) -> cashmirensis_) + p 302: daily by lammergeier -> Laemmergeier + p 302: seen was a lammergeier -> Laemmergeier + p 303: Birds, _Ibis._ -> _Ibid._ + p 309: the broken debris -> debris + p 311: its satellite Chomo-Loenzo -> Chomoloenzo + p 322: hares, some ram-chakor -> ramchakor + p 322: a young, week-old barhal -> burhel + p 323: with the interpreter Gyaldzan -> Gyalzen + p 325: by Nepalese subjects (Sharpas) -> (Sherpas) + p 326: summit of Gaurisankar -> Gauri-Sankar + p 327: Bhong Chu below Lungdo -> Lungdoe + p 330: plain to the village of Shaerto -> Sharto + p 333: I took a 20,000-foot tation -> station + p 337: Darjeeling via Lachen -> L[=a]chen + p 337: on either side of the Kharta -> Kh[=a]rta + p 337: at all of Kangchenjunga -> Kanchenjunga + p 339: Lhamo limestone in Sikhim -> Sikkim + p 339: overlooking the Khumbu -> Khombu + p 345: Calandrella acutirostris tibitana -> tibetana + p 346: Greater sand plover. _Aaegialitis -> _Aegialitis + p 346: Lammergeier -> Laemmergeier + p 351: Bhompos -> Bhompo's + p 351: _see_ Tsan-po -> Tsangpo + p 351: Carpo-Ri -> Carpo-ri + p 351: Chang La (North Col) -> (North Col), + p 351: first view of, 204; -> 204, + p 351: Chodzong -> Choedzong + p 351: Choyling -> Choeyling + p 352: 65, etc. -> etc.; + p 352: results -> results, + p 353: to Kharta, 86-95; -> 86-95, + p 353: Jetsun-Nga-Wang-Chhoefel -> Choefel + p 354: Lungdo -> Lungdoe + p 354: Monasteries, 99, 113, 173 -> 173. + p 354: Ganden Chhofel -> Choefel + p 354: _See_ rainfall -> Rainfall + p 354: _See_ altitude -> Altitude + p 355: Samchang -> Samchung + p 355: flora of, _ibid_ -> _ibid._ + p 356: Tsang-po -> Tsangpo + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Mount Everest the Reconnaissance, 1921, by +Charles Kenneth Howard-Bury and George H. 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