diff options
Diffstat (limited to '39435-h/39435-h.htm')
| -rw-r--r-- | 39435-h/39435-h.htm | 20900 |
1 files changed, 20900 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/39435-h/39435-h.htm b/39435-h/39435-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d72838f --- /dev/null +++ b/39435-h/39435-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,20900 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= + "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume XIII Slice III - Helmont, Jean to Hernösand. + </title> + + <style type="text/css"> + + body { margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%; text-align: justify; } + p { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;} + p.c { margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;} + p.noind { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 0; } + + h2,h3 { text-align: center; } + hr { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center; width: 70%; height: 5px; background-color: #dcdcdc; border:none; } + hr.art { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 40%; height: 5px; background-color: #778899; + margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 6em } + hr.foot {margin-left: 2em; width: 16%; background-color: black; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 0; height: 1px; } + hr.full {width: 100%} + + table.ws {white-space: nowrap; border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; + margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} + table.reg { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} + table.reg td { white-space: normal;} + table.nobctr { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse; } + table.flt { border-collapse: collapse; } + table.pic { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; } + table.math0 { vertical-align: middle; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse;} + table.math0 td {text-align: center;} + table.math0 td.np {text-align: center; padding-left: 0; padding-right: 0;} + + table.reg p {text-indent: 1em; margin-left: 1.5em; text-align: justify;} + table.reg td.tc5p { padding-left: 2em; text-indent: 0em; white-space: normal;} + table.nobctr td, table.flt td { white-space: normal; } + table.pic td { white-space: normal; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-right: 1em;} + table.nobctr p, table.flt p {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;} + table.pic td p {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;} + + td { white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;} + td.norm { white-space: normal; } + td.denom { border-top: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;} + + td.tcc { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: top;} + td.tccm { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;} + td.tccb { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;} + td.tcr { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: top;} + td.tcrb { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} + td.tcrm { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;} + td.tcl { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;} + td.tclb { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: bottom;} + td.tclm { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: middle;} + td.vb { vertical-align: bottom; } + + .caption { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: center; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;} + .caption8 { font-size: 0.8em; text-align: center; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;} + .caption1 { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 2em;} + .caption80 { font-size: 0.8em; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 2em;} + + td.lb {border-left: black 1px solid;} + td.ltb {border-left: black 1px solid; border-top: black 1px solid;} + td.rb {border-right: black 1px solid;} + td.rb2 {border-right: black 2px solid;} + td.tb, span.tb {border-top: black 1px solid;} + td.bb {border-bottom: black 1px solid;} + td.bb1 {border-bottom: #808080 3px solid; padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;} + td.rlb {border-right: black 1px solid; border-left : black 1px solid;} + td.allb {border: black 1px solid;} + td.cl {background-color: #e8e8e8} + + table p { margin: 0;} + + a:link, a:visited, link {text-decoration:none} + + .author {text-align: right; margin-top: -1em; margin-right: 1em; font-variant: small-caps;} + .center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0;} + .center1 {text-align: center; text-indent: 0; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;} + .grk {font-style: normal; font-family:"Palatino Linotype","New Athena Unicode",Gentium,"Lucida Grande", Galilee, "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif;} + + .f80 {font-size: 80%} + .f90 {font-size: 90%} + .f150 {font-size: 150%} + .f200 {font-size: 200%} + + .sp {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em;} + .sp1 {position: relative; bottom: 0.6em; font-size: 0.75em;} + .su {position: relative; top: 0.3em; font-size: 0.75em;} + .su1 {position: relative; top: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em; margin-left: -1.2ex;} + .spp {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.6em;} + .suu {position: relative; top: 0.2em; font-size: 0.6em;} + .sc {font-variant: small-caps;} + .scs {text-transform: lowercase; font-variant: small-caps;} + .ov {text-decoration: overline} + .cl {background-color: #f5f5f5;} + .bk {padding-left: 0; font-size: 80%;} + .bk1 {margin-left: -1em;} + + .pagenum {position: absolute; right: 5%; text-align: right; font-size: 10pt; + background-color: #f5f5f5; color: #778899; text-indent: 0; + padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; font-style: normal; } + span.sidenote {width: 8em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1.7em; margin-right: 2em; + font-size: 85%; float: left; clear: left; font-weight: bold; + font-style: italic; text-align: left; text-indent: 0; + background-color: #f5f5f5; color: black; } + .note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 0.9em; } + .fn { position: absolute; left: 12%; text-align: left; background-color: #f5f5f5; + text-indent: 0; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; } + span.correction {border-bottom: 1px dashed red;} + + div.poemr { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em;} + div.poemr p { margin-left: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; } + div.poemr p.s { margin-top: 1.5em; } + div.poemr p.i05 { margin-left: 0.4em; } + div.poemr p.i1 { margin-left: 1em; } + div.poemr p.i2 { margin-left: 2em; } + + .figright1 { padding-right: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; } + .figleft1 { padding-right: 2em; padding-left: 1em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; } + .figcenter {text-align: center; margin: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 1.5em;} + .figcenter1 {text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 2em;} + .figure {text-align: center; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 1.5em; padding-bottom: 0;} + .bold {font-weight: bold; } + + div.minind {text-align: justify;} + div.condensed, div.condensed1 { line-height: 1.3em; margin-left: 3%; margin-right: 3%; font-size: 95%; } + div.condensed1 p {margin-left: 0; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + div.condensed span.sidenote {font-size: 90%} + + div.list {margin-left: 0;} + div.list p {padding-left: 4em; text-indent: -2em;} + div.list1 {margin-left: 0;} + div.list1 p {padding-left: 5em; text-indent: -3em;} + + .pt05 {padding-top: 0.5em;} + .pt1 {padding-top: 1em;} + .pt2 {padding-top: 2em;} + .ptb1 {padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;} + td.prl {padding-left: 10%; padding-right: 7em; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 13, Slice 3, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 3 + "Helmont, Jean" to "Hernosand" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 12, 2012 [EBook #39435] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13, SLICE 3 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME XII SLICE III<br /><br /> +Helmont, Jean to Hernösand</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">HELMONT, JEAN BAPTISTE VAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">HENRY, ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">HELMSTEDT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99a">HENRY, VICTOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">HELMUND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">HENRY, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">HELM WIND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">HENRYSON, ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">HELOTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">HENSCHEL, GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">HELPS, SIR ARTHUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">HENSELT, ADOLF VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">HELSINGBORG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">HENSLOW, JOHN STEVENS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">HELSINGFORS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">HENSLOWE, PHILIP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">HELST, BARTHOLOMAEUS VAN DER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">HENTY, GEORGE ALFRED</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">HELSTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">HENWOOD, WILLIAM JORY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">HELVETIC CONFESSIONS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">HENZADA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">HELVETII</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">HEPBURN, SIR JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">HELVÉTIUS, CLAUDE ADRIEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">HEPHAESTION</a> (Macedonian general)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">HELVIDIUS PRISCUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">HEPHAESTION</a> (grammarian of Alexandria)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">HELY-HUTCHINSON, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">HEPHAESTUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">HELYOT, PIERRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">HEPPENHEIM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">HEMANS, FELICIA DOROTHEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">HEPPLEWHITE, GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">HEMEL HEMPSTEAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">HEPTARCHY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">HEMEROBAPTISTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">HERA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">HEMICHORDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">HERACLEA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">HEMICYCLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">HERACLEON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">HEMIMERUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">HERACLEONAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">HEMIMORPHITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">HERACLIDAE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">HEMINGBURGH, WALTER OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">HERACLIDES PONTICUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">HEMIPTERA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">HERACLITUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">HEMLOCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">HERACLIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">HEMP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">HERALD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27a">HEMSTERHUIS, FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">HERALDRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">HEMSTERHUIS, TIBERIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">HERAT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">HEMY, CHARLES NAPIER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">HÉRAULT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">HEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">HÉRAULT DE SÉCHELLES, MARIE JEAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">HÉNAULT, CHARLES JEAN FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">HERB</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">HENBANE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">HERBARIUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">HENCHMAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">HERBART, JOHANN FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">HENDERSON, ALEXANDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">HERBELOT DE MOLAINVILLE, BARTHÉLEMY D‘</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">HENDERSON, EBENEZER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">HERBERAY DES ESSARTS, NICOLAS DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">HENDERSON, GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">HERBERT</a> (Family)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">HENDERSON, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">HERBERT, GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">HENDERSON</a> (Kentucky, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">HENDIADYS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">HERBERT, SIR THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">HENDON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">HERBERT OF CHERBURY, EDWARD HERBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">HENDRICKS, THOMAS ANDREWS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">HERBERT OF LEA, SIDNEY HERBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">HENGELO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">HERBERTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">HENGEST and HORSA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">HERCULANEUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">HENGSTENBERG, ERNST WILHELM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">HERCULANO DE CARVALHO E ARAUJO, ALEXANDRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">HENKE, HEINRICH PHILIPP KONRAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">HERCULES</a> (hero of Hellas)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">HENLE, FRIEDRICH GUSTAV JAKOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">HERCULES</a> (constellation)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">HENLEY, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">HERD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">HENLEY, WILLIAM ERNEST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">HERDER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">HENLEY-ON-THAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">HEREDIA, JOSÉ MARIA DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">HENNA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">HEREDIA Y CAMPUZANO, JOSÉ MARIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">HENNEBONT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">HEREDITAMENT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">HENNEQUIN, PHILIPPE AUGUSTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">HEREDITY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">HENNER, JEAN JACQUES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">HEREFORD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">HENRIETTA MARIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">HEREFORDSHIRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">HENRY</a> (name origin)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">HERERO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">HENRY I.</a> (German king)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">HERESY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">HENRY II.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">HEREWARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">HENRY III.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">HERFORD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">HENRY IV.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">HERGENRÖTHER, JOSEPH VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">HENRY V.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">HERINGSDORF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">HENRY VI.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">HERIOT, GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">HENRY VII.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">HERIOT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">HENRY VII.</a> (German king)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">HERISAU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">HENRY RASPE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">HENRY</a> (emperor of Romania)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">HERKIMER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">HENRY I.</a> (king of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">HERKOMER, SIR HUBERT VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">HENRY II.</a> (king of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">HERLEN, FRITZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">HENRY III.</a> (king of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">HERMAE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">HENRY IV.</a> (king of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">HERMAGORAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">HENRY V.</a> (king of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">HERMANDAD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">HENRY VI.</a> (king of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">HERMAN DE VALENCIENNES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">HENRY VII.</a> (king of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">HERMANN I.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">HENRY VIII.</a> (king of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">HERMANN OF REICHENAU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">HENRY I.</a> (king of Castile)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">HERMANN OF WIED</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">HENRY I.</a> (king of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">HERMANN, FRIEDRICH BENEDICT WILHELM VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">HENRY II.</a> (king of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">HENRY III.</a> (king of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">HENRY IV.</a> (king of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">HERMAPHRODITUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">HENRY I.</a> (king of Navarre)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">HENRY II.</a> (king of Navarre)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">HERMENEUTICS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">HENRY I.</a> (king of Portugal)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">HERMES</a> (Greek god)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">HENRY II.</a> (duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">HERMES, GEORG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">HENRY</a> (the Proud, duke of Saxony)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">HERMES TRISMEGISTUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">HENRY</a> (the Lion, duke of Saxony)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">HERMESIANAX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">HENRY</a> (Prince of Battenberg)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">HERMIAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">HENRY FITZ HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">HERMIPPUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">HENRY</a> (Cardinal York)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">HERMIT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">HENRY OF PORTUGAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">HERMOGENES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">HENRY OF ALMAIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">HERMON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">HENRY OF BLOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">HERMSDORF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">HENRY OF GHENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">HERNE, JAMES A.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">HENRY OF HUNTINGDON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">HERNE</a> (town of Germany)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">HENRY OF LAUSANNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">HERNE BAY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">HERNE THE HUNTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">HENRY, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">HERNIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">HENRY, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">HERNICI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">HENRY, MATTHEW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">HERNÖSAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">HENRY, PATRICK</a></td> <td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>249</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">HELMONT, JEAN BAPTISTE VAN<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1577-1644), Belgian +chemist, physiologist and physician, a member of a noble +family, was born at Brussels in 1577.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> He was educated at +Louvain, and after ranging restlessly from one science to another +and finding satisfaction in none, turned to medicine, in which +he took his doctor’s degree in 1599. The next few years he spent +in travelling through Switzerland, Italy, France and England. +Returning to his own country he was at Antwerp at the time of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>250</span> +the great plague in 1605, and having contracted a rich marriage +settled in 1609 at Vilvorde, near Brussels, where he occupied +himself with chemical experiments and medical practice until +his death on the 30th of December 1644. Van Helmont presents +curious contradictions. On the one hand he was a disciple of +Paracelsus (though he scornfully repudiates his errors was well as +those of most other contemporary authorities), a mystic with +strong leanings to the supernatural, an alchemist who believed +that with a small piece of the philosopher’s stone he had transmuted +2000 times as much mercury into gold; on the other +hand he was touched with the new learning that was producing +men like Harvey, Galileo and Bacon, a careful observer of nature, +and an exact experimenter who in some cases realized that +matter can neither be created nor destroyed. As a chemist +he deserves to be regarded as the founder of pneumatic chemistry, +even though it made no substantial progress for a century after +his time, and he was the first to understand that there are gases +distinct in kind from atmospheric air. The very word “gas” +he claims as his own invention, and he perceived that his “gas +sylvestre” (our carbon dioxide) given off by burning charcoal +is the same as that produced by fermenting must and that +which sometimes renders the air of caves irrespirable. For +him air and water are the two primitive elements of things. +Fire he explicitly denies to be an element, and earth is not one +because it can be reduced to water. That plants, for instance, +are composed of water he sought to show by the ingenious +quantitative experiment of planting a willow weighing 5 ℔ in +200 ℔ of dry soil and allowing it to grow for five years; at the +end of that time it had become a tree weighing 169 ℔, and since +it had received nothing but water and the soil weighed practically +the same as at the beginning, he argued that the increased weight +of wood, bark and roots had been formed from water alone. +It was an old idea that the processes of the living body are +fermentative in character, but he applied it more elaborately +than any of his predecessors. For him digestion, nutrition and +even movement are due to ferments, which convert dead food +into living flesh in six stages. But having got so far with the +application of chemical principles to physiological problems, +he introduces a complicated system of supernatural agencies +like the <i>archei</i> of Paracelsus, which preside over and direct the +affairs of the body. A central <i>archeus</i> controls a number of +subsidiary <i>archei</i> which move through the ferments, and just +as diseases are primarily caused by some affection (<i>exorbitatio</i>) +of the <i>archeus</i>, so remedies act by bringing it back to the normal. +At the same time chemical principles guided him in the choice +of medicines—undue acidity of the digestive juices, for example, +was to be corrected by alkalies and <i>vice versa</i>; he was thus a +forerunner of the iatrochemical school, and did good service to +the art of medicine by applying chemical methods to the preparation +of drugs. Over and above the <i>archeus</i> he taught that there +is the sensitive soul which is the husk or shell of the immortal +mind. Before the Fall the <i>archeus</i> obeyed the immortal mind +and was directly controlled by it, but at the Fall men received +also the sensitive soul and with it lost immortality, for when it +perishes the immortal mind can no longer remain in the body. +In addition to the <i>archeus</i>, which he described as “aura vitalis +seminum, vitae directrix,” Van Helmont had other governing +agencies resembling the <i>archeus</i> and not always clearly distinguished +from it. From these he invented the term <i>blas</i>, defined +as the “vis motus tam alterivi quam localis.” Of <i>blas</i> there +were several kinds, <i>e.g.</i> <i>blas humanum</i> and <i>blas meteoron</i>; the +heavens he said “constare gas materiâ et blas efficiente.” He +was a faithful Catholic, but incurred the suspicion of the Church +by his tract <i>De magnetica vulnerum curatione</i> (1621), which was +thought to derogate from some of the miracles. His works were +collected and published at Amsterdam as <i>Ortus medicinae, vel +opera et opuscula omnia</i> in 1668 by his son Franz Mercurius +(b. 1618 at Vilvorde, d. 1699 at Berlin), in whose own writings, +<i>e.g.</i> <i>Cabbalah Denudata</i> (1677) and <i>Opuscula philosophica</i> (1690), +mystical theosophy and alchemy appear in still wilder confusion.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M. Foster, <i>Lectures on the History of Physiology</i> (1901); also +Chevreul in <i>Journ. des savants</i> (Feb. and March 1850), and Cap +in <i>Journ. pharm. chim.</i> (1852). Other authorities are Poultier +d’Elmoth, <i>Mémoire sur J. B. van Helmont</i> (1817); Rixner and Sieber, +<i>Beiträge zur Geschichte der Physiologie</i> (1819-1826), vol. ii.; Spiers, +<i>Helmont’s System der Medicin</i> (1840); Melsens, <i>Leçons sur van +Helmont</i> (1848); Rommelaere, <i>Études sur J. B. van Helmont</i> (1860).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> An alternative date for his birth is 1579 and for his death 1635 +(see <i>Bull. Roy. Acad. Belg.</i>, 1907, 7, p. 732).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELMSTEDT,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> or more rarely Helmstädt, a town of Germany, +in the duchy of Brunswick, 30 m. N.W. of Magdeburg on the +main line of railway to Brunswick. Pop. (1905) 15,415. The +principal buildings are the Juleum, the former university, built +in the Renaissance style towards the close of the 16th century, +and containing a library of 40,000 volumes; the fine Stephanskirche +dating from the 12th century; the Walpurgiskirche +restored in 1893-1894; the Marienberger Kirche, a beautiful +church in the Roman style, and the Roman Catholic church. +The Augustinian nunnery of Marienberg founded in 1176 is +now a Lutheran school. The town contains the ruins of the +Benedictine abbey of St Ludger, which was secularized in 1803. +The educational institutions include several schools. The +principal manufactures are furniture, yarn, soap, tobacco, +sugar, vitriol and earthenware. Near the town is Bad Helmstedt, +which has an iron mineral spring, and the Lübbensteine, two +blocks of granite on which sacrifices to Woden are said to have +been offered. Near Bad Helmstedt a monument has been erected +to those who fell in the Franco-German War; in the town there +is one to those killed at Waterloo. Helmstedt originated, +according to legend, in connexion with the monastery founded +by Ludger or Liudger (d. 809), the first bishop of Münster. There +appears, however, little doubt that this tradition is mythical +and that Helmstedt was not founded until about 900. It obtained +civic rights in 1099 and, although destroyed by the archbishop +of Magdeburg in 1199, it was soon rebuilt. In 1457 it joined the +Hanseatic League, and in 1490 it came into the possession of +Brunswick. In 1576 Julius, duke of Brunswick, founded a +university here, and throughout the 17th century this was one +of the chief seats of Protestant learning. It was closed by +Jerome, king of Westphalia, in 1809.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Ludewig, <i>Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Helmstedt</i> +(Helmstedt, 1821).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELMUND,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> a river of Afghanistan, in length about 600 m. +The Helmund, which is identical with the ancient Etymander, +is the most important river in Afghanistan, next to the Kabul +river, which it exceeds both in volume and length. It rises +in the recesses of the Koh-i-Baba to the west of Kabul, its +infant stream parting the Unai pass from the Irak, the two +chief passes on the well-known road from Kabul to Bamian. +For 50 m. from its source its course is ascertained, but beyond +that point for the next 50 no European has followed it. About +the parallel of 33° N. it enters the Zamindawar province which +lies to the N.W. of Kandahar, and thenceforward it is a well-mapped +river to its termination in the lake of Seistan. Till +about 40 m. above Girishk the character of the Helmund is that +of a mountain river, flowing through valleys which in summer are +the resort of pastoral tribes. On leaving the hills it enters on a +flat country, and extends over a gravelly bed. Here also it begins +to be used in irrigation. At Girishk it is crossed by the principal +route from Herat to Kandahar. Forty-five miles below Girishk +the Helmund receives its greatest tributary, the Arghandab, +from the high Ghilzai country beyond Kandahar, and becomes +a very considerable river, with a width of 300 or 400 yds. and +an occasional depth of 9 to 12 ft. Even in the dry season it is +never without a plentiful supply of water. The course of the +river is more or less south-west from its source till in Seistan +it crosses meridian 62°, when it turns nearly north, and so flows +for 70 or 80 m. till it falls into the Seistan hamuns, or swamps, +by various mouths. In this latter part of its course it forms +the boundary between Afghan and Persian Seistan, and owing +to constant changes in its bed and the swampy nature of its +borders it has been a fertile source of frontier squabbles. Persian +Seistan was once highly cultivated by means of a great system +of canal irrigation; but for centuries, since the country was +devastated by Timur, it has been a barren, treeless waste of +flat alluvial plain. In years of exceptional flood the Seistan +lakes spread southwards into an overflow channel called the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id="page251"></a>251</span> +Shelag which, running parallel to the northern course of the +Helmund in the opposite direction, finally loses its waters in +the Gaod-i-Zirreh swamp, which thus becomes the final bourne +of the river. Throughout its course from its confluence with the +Arghandab to the ford of Chahar Burjak, where it bends northward, +the Helmund valley is a narrow green belt of fertility +sunk in the midst of a wide alluvial desert, with many thriving +villages interspersed amongst the remains of ancient cities, +relics of Kaiani rule. The recent political mission to Seistan +under Sir Henry McMahon (1904-1905) added much information +respecting the ancient and modern channels of the lower Helmund, +proving that river to have been constantly shifting its bed over +a vast area, changing the level of the country by silt deposits, +and in conjunction with the terrific action of Seistan winds +actually altering its configuration.</p> +<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELM WIND,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> a wind that under certain conditions blows +over the escarpment of the Pennines, near Cross Fell from the +eastward, when a helm (helmet) cloud covers the summit. The +helm bar is a roll of cloud that forms in front of it, to leeward.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See “Report on the Helm Wind Inquiry,” by W. Marriott, +<i>Quart. Journ. Roy. Met. Soc.</i> xv. 103.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELOTS<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="heilôtes">εἴλωτες</span> or <span class="grk" title="heilôtai">εἱλῶται</span>), the serfs of the ancient +Spartans. The word was derived in antiquity from the town +of Helos in Laconia, but is more probably connected with <span class="grk" title="helos">ἕλος</span>, +a fen, or with the root of <span class="grk" title="helein">ἑλεῖν</span>, to capture. Some scholars +suppose them to have been of Achaean race, but they were +more probably the aborigines of Laconia who had been enslaved +by the Achaeans before the Dorian conquest. After the second +Messenian war (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sparta</a></span>) the conquered Messenians were +reduced to the status of helots, from which Epaminondas +liberated them three centuries later after the battle of Leuctra +(371 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The helots were state slaves bound to the soil—<i>adscripti +glebae</i>—and assigned to individual Spartiates to till +their holdings (<span class="grk" title="klêroi">κλῆροι</span>); their masters could neither emancipate +them nor sell them off the land, and they were under an oath +not to raise the rent payable yearly in kind by the helots. In +time of war they served as light-armed troops or as rowers in +the fleet; from the Peloponnesian War onwards they were +occasionally employed as heavy infantry (<span class="grk" title="hoplitai">ὁπλῖται</span>), distinguished +bravery being rewarded by emancipation. That the general +attitude of the Spartans towards them was one of distrust and +cruelty cannot be doubted. Aristotle says that the ephors of +each year on entering office declared war on the helots so that +they might be put to death at any time without violating religious +scruple (Plutarch, <i>Lycurgus</i> 28), and we have a well-attested +record of 2000 helots being freed for service in war and then +secretly assassinated (Thuc. iv. 80). But when we remember +the value of the helots from a military and agricultural point +of view we shall not readily believe that the <i>crypteia</i> was really, +as some authors represent it, an organized system of massacre; +we shall see in it “a good police training, inculcating hardihood +and vigour in the young,” while at the same time getting rid +of any helots who were found to be plotting against the state +(see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crypteia</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Intermediate between Helots and Spartiates were the two +classes of <i>Neodamodes</i> and <i>Mothones</i>. The former were emancipated +helots, or possibly their descendants, and were much +used in war from the end of the 5th century; they served especially +on foreign campaigns, as those of Thibron (400-399 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +and Agesilaus (396-394 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) in Asia Minor. The <i>mothones</i> or +<i>mothakes</i> were usually the sons of Spartiates and helot mothers; +they were free men sharing the Spartan training, but were not +full citizens, though they might become such in recognition of +special merit.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. O. Müller, <i>History and Antiquities of the Doric Race</i> (Eng. +trans.), bk. iii. ch. 3.; G. Gilbert, <i>Greek Constitutional Antiquities</i> +(Eng. trans.), pp. 30-35; A. H. J. Greenidge, <i>Handbook of Greek +Constitutional History</i>, pp. 83-85; G. Busolt, <i>Die griech. Staats- u. +Rechtsaltertümer</i>, § 84; <i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, i.[2] 525-528; G. F. +Schömann, <i>Antiquities of Greece: The State</i> (Eng. trans.) pp. 194 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. N. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELPS, SIR ARTHUR<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (1813-1875), English writer and clerk +of the Privy Council, youngest son of Thomas Helps, a London +merchant, was born near London on the 10th of July 1813. He +was educated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge, +coming out 31st wrangler in the mathematical tripos in 1835. He +was recognized by the ablest of his contemporaries there as a +man of superior gifts, and likely to make his mark in after life. +As a member of the Conversazione Society, better known as the +“Apostles,” a society established in 1820 for the purposes of +discussion on social and literary questions by a few young men +attracted to each other by a common taste for literature and +speculation, he was associated with Charles Buller, Frederick +Maurice, Richard Chenevix Trench, Monckton Milnes, Arthur +Hallam and Alfred Tennyson. His first literary effort, <i>Thoughts +in the Cloister and the Crowd</i> (1835), was a series of aphorisms +upon life, character, politics and manners. Soon after leaving +the university Arthur Helps became private secretary to Spring +Rice (afterwards Lord Monteagle), then chancellor of the exchequer. +This appointment he filled till 1839, when he went +to Ireland as private secretary to Lord Morpeth (afterwards +earl of Carlisle), chief secretary for Ireland. In the meanwhile +(28th October 1836) Helps had married Bessy, daughter of +Captain Edward Fuller. He was one of the commissioners +for the settlement of certain Danish claims which dated so far +back as the siege of Copenhagen; but with the fall of the +Melbourne administration (1841) his official experience closed +for a period of nearly twenty years. He was not, however, +forgotten by his political friends. He possessed admirable +tact and sagacity; his fitness for official life was unmistakable, +and in 1860 he was appointed clerk of the Privy Council, on the +recommendation of Lord Granville.</p> + +<p>His <i>Essays written in the Intervals of Business</i> had appeared +in 1841, and his <i>Claims of Labour, an Essay on the Duties of the +Employers to the Employed</i>, in 1844. Two plays, <i>King Henry +the Second, an Historical Drama</i>, and <i>Catherine Douglas, a Tragedy</i>, +published in 1843, have no particular merit. Neither in these, +nor in his only other dramatic effort, <i>Oulita the Serf</i> (1858) did +he show any real qualifications as a playwright.</p> + +<p>Helps possessed, however, enough dramatic power to give +life and individuality to the dialogues with which he enlivened +many of his other books. In his <i>Friends in Council, a Series +of Readings and Discourse thereon</i> (1847-1859), Helps varied +his presentment of social and moral problems by dialogues +between imaginary personages, who, under the names of Milverton, +Ellesmere and Dunsford, grew to be almost as real to +Helps’s readers as they certainly became to himself. The book +was very popular, and the same expedient was resorted to in +<i>Conversations on War and General Culture</i>, published in 1871. +The familiar speakers, with others added, also appeared in his +<i>Realmah</i> (1868) and in the best of its author’s later works, <i>Talk +about Animals and their Masters</i> (1873).</p> + +<p>A long essay on slavery in the first series of <i>Friends in Council</i> +was subsequently elaborated into a work in two volumes published +in 1848 and 1852, called <i>The Conquerors of the New World +and their Bondsmen</i>. Helps went to Spain in 1847 to examine +the numerous MSS. bearing upon his subject at Madrid. The +fruits of these researches were embodied in an historical work +based upon his <i>Conquerors of the New World</i>, and called <i>The +Spanish Conquest in America, and its Relation to the History of +Slavery and the Government of Colonies</i> (4 vols., 1855-1857-1861). +But in spite of his scrupulous efforts after accuracy, the success +of the book was marred by its obtrusively moral purpose and +its discursive character.</p> + +<p><i>The Life of Las Casas, the Apostle of the Indians</i> (1868), <i>The +Life of Columbus</i> (1869), <i>The Life of Pizarro</i> (1869), and <i>The +Life of Hernando Cortes</i> (1871), when extracted from the work +and published separately, proved successful. Besides the books +which have been already mentioned he wrote: <i>Organization +in Daily Life, an Essay</i> (1862), <i>Casimir Maremma</i> (1870), <i>Brevia</i>, +<i>Short Essays and Aphorisms</i> (1871), <i>Thoughts upon Government</i> +(1872), <i>Life and Labours of Mr Thomas Brassey</i> (1872), <i>Ivan +de Biron</i> (1874), <i>Social Pressure</i> (1875).</p> + +<p>His appointment as clerk of the Council brought him into +personal communication with Queen Victoria and the Prince +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page252" id="page252"></a>252</span> +Consort, both of whom came to regard him with confidence +and respect. After the Prince’s death, the Queen early turned +to Helps to prepare an appreciation of her husband’s life and +character. In his introduction to the collection (1862) of the +Prince Consort’s speeches and addresses Helps adequately +fulfilled his task. Some years afterwards he edited and wrote +a preface to the Queen’s <i>Leaves from a Journal of our Life in +the Highlands</i> (1868). In 1864 he received the honorary degree +of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford. He was made a C.B. +in 1871 and K.C.B. in the following year. His later years +were troubled by financial embarrassments, and he died on the +7th of March 1875.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELSINGBORG,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a seaport of Sweden in the district (<i>län</i>) +of Malmöhus, 35 m. N. by E. of Copenhagen by rail and water. +Pop. (1900), 24,670. It is beautifully situated at the narrowest +part of Öresund, or the Sound, here only 3 m. wide, opposite +Helsingör (Elsinore) in Denmark. Above the town the brick +tower of a former castle crowns a hill, commanding a fine view +over the Sound. On the outskirts are the Öresund Park, gardens +containing iodide and bromide springs, and frequented sea-baths. +On the coast to the north is the royal <i>château</i> of Sofiero; to the +south, the small spa of Ramlösa. A system of electric trams is +maintained. North and east of Helsingborg lies the only coalfield +in Sweden, extending into the lofty Kullen peninsula, +which forms the northern part of the east shore of the Sound. +Potter’s clay is also found. Helsingborg ranks among the first +manufacturing towns of Sweden, having copper works, using +ore from Sulitelma in Norway, india-rubber works and breweries. +The artificial harbour has a depth of 24 ft., and there are +extensive docks. The chief exports are timber, butter and iron. +The town is the headquarters of the first army division.</p> + +<p>The original site of the town is marked by the tower of the +old fortress, which is first mentioned in 1135. In the 14th century +it was several times besieged. From 1370 along with other +towns in the province of Skåne, it was united for fifteen years +with the Hanseatic League. The fortress was destroyed by fire +in 1418, and about 1425 Eric XIII. built another near the sea, +and caused the town to be transported thither, bestowing upon +it important privileges. Until 1658 it belonged to Denmark, +and it was again occupied by the Danes in 1676 and 1677. In +1684 its fortifications were dismantled. It was taken by Frederick +IV. of Denmark in November 1709, but on the 28th of February +1710 the Danes were defeated in the neighbourhood, and the +town came finally into the possession of Sweden, though in 1711 +it was again bombarded by the Danes. A tablet on the quay +commemorates the landing of Bernadotte after his election +as successor to the throne in 1810.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELSINGFORS<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (Finnish <i>Helsinki</i>), a seaport and the capital +of Finland and of the province of Nyland, centre of the administrative, +scientific, educational and industrial life of Finland. +The fine harbour is divided into two parts by a promontory, +and is protected at its entrance by a group of small islands, on +one of which stands the fortress of Sveaborg. A third harbour +is situated on the west side of the promontory, and all three +have granite quays. The city, which in 1810 had only 4065 +inhabitants, Åbo the then capital having 10,224, has increased +with great rapidity, having 22,228 inhabitants in 1860, 61,530 +in 1890 and 111,654 in 1904. It is the centre of an active shipping +trade with the Baltic ports and with England, and of a railway +system connecting it with all parts of the grand duchy and with +St Petersburg. Helsingfors is handsome and well laid out with +wide streets, parks, gardens and monuments. The principal +square contains the cathedral of St Nicholas, the Senate House +and the university, all striking buildings of considerable architectural +distinction. In the centre is the statue of the Tsar +Alexander II., who is looked upon as the protector of the liberties +of Finland, the monument being annually decorated with wreaths +and garlands. The university has a teaching staff of 141 with +(1906) 1921 students, of whom 328 were women. The university +is well provided with museums and laboratories and has a +library of over 250,000 volumes. Other public institutions +are the Athenaeum, with picture gallery, a Swedish theatre +and opera house, a Finnish theatre, the Archives, the Senate +House, the Nobles’ House (<i>Riddarhuset</i>) and the House of the +Estates, the German (Lutheran) church and the Russian church. +Some of the scientific societies of Helsingfors have a wide +repute, such as the academy of sciences, the geographical, +historical, Finno-Ugrian, biblical, medical, law, arts and forestry +societies, as also societies for the spread of popular education +and of arts and crafts. There are a polytechnic, ten high schools, +navigation and trade schools, institutes for the blind and the +mentally deficient, and numerous elementary schools. The +general standard of education is high, the publication of books, +reviews and newspapers being very active. The language of +culture is Swedish, but owing to recent manufacturing developments +the majority of the population is Finnish-speaking. +Helsingfors displays great manufacturing and commercial +activity, the imports being coal, machinery, sugar, grain and +clothing. The manufactures of the city consist largely of +tobacco, beer and spirits, carpets, machinery and sugar.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELST, BARTHOLOMAEUS VAN DER,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> Dutch painter, was +born in Holland at the opening of the 17th century, and died +at Amsterdam in 1670. The date and place of his birth are +uncertain; and it is equally difficult to confirm or to deny the +time-honoured statement that he was born in 1613 at Amsterdam. +It has been urged indeed by competent authority that Van der +Helst was not a native of Amsterdam, because a family of that +name lived as early as 1607 at Haarlem, and pictures are shown +as works of Van der Helst in the Haarlem Museum which might +tend to prove that he was in practice there before he acquired +repute at Amsterdam. Unhappily Bartholomew has not been +traced amongst the children of Severijn van der Helst, who +married at Haarlem in 1607, and there is no proof that the +pictures at Haarlem are really his; though if they were so they +would show that he learnt his art from Frans Hals and became +a skilled master as early as 1631. Scheltema, a very competent +judge in matters of Dutch art chronology, supposes that Van +der Heist was a resident at Amsterdam in 1636. His first great +picture, representing a gathering of civic guards at a brewery, +is variously assigned to 1639 and 1643, and still adorns the +town-hall of Amsterdam. His noble portraits of the burgomaster +Bicker and Andreas Bicker the younger, in the gallery of +Amsterdam, of the same date no doubt as Bicker’s wife lately +in the Ruhl collection at Cologne, were completed in 1642. +From that time till his death there is no difficulty in tracing Van +der Helst’s career at Amsterdam. He acquired and kept the +position of a distinguished portrait-painter, producing indeed +little or nothing besides portraits at any time, but founding, +in conjunction with Nicolaes de Helt Stokade, the painters’ +guild at Amsterdam in 1654. At some unknown date he married +Constance Reynst, of a good patrician family in the Netherlands, +bought himself a house in the Doelenstrasse and ended by +earning a competence. His likeness of Paul Potter at the Hague, +executed in 1654, and his partnership with Backhuysen, who laid +in the backgrounds of some of his pictures in 1668, indicate +a constant companionship with the best artists of the time. +Wagen has said that his portrait of Admiral Kortenaar, in +the gallery of Amsterdam, betrays the teaching of Frans Hals, +and the statement need not be gainsaid; yet on the whole +Van der Helst’s career as a painter was mainly a protest against +the systems of Hals and Rembrandt. It is needless to dwell +on the pictures which preceded that of 1648, called the Peace +of Münster, in the gallery of Amsterdam. The Peace challenges +comparison at once with the so-called Night Watch by Rembrandt +and the less important but not less characteristic portraits of +Hals and his wife in a neighbouring room. Sir Joshua Reynolds +was disappointed by Rembrandt, whilst Van der Helst surpassed +his expectation. But Bürger asked whether Reynolds had not +already been struck with blindness when he ventured on this +criticism. The question is still an open one. But certainly +Van der Helst attracts by qualities entirely differing from those +of Rembrandt and Frans Hals. Nothing can be more striking +than the contrast between the strong concentrated light and the +deep gloom of Rembrandt and the contempt of chiaroscuro +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" id="page253"></a>253</span> +peculiar to his rival, except the contrast between the rapid +sketchy touch of Hals and the careful finish and rounding of +van der Helst. “The Peace” is a meeting of guards to celebrate +the signature of the treaty of Münster. The members of the +Doele of St George meet to feast and congratulate each other not +at a formal banquet but in a spot laid out for good cheer, where +de Wit, the captain of his company, can shake hands with his +lieutenant Waveren, yet hold in solemn state the great drinking-horn +of St George. The rest of the company sit, stand or busy +themselves around—some eating, others drinking, others +carving or serving—an animated scene on a long canvas, with +figures large as life. Well has Bürger said, the heads are full +of life and the hands admirable. The dresses and subordinate +parts are finished to a nicety without sacrifice of detail or loss +of breadth in touch or impast. But the eye glides from shape to +shape, arrested here by expressive features, there by a bright +stretch of colours, nowhere at perfect rest because of the lack +of a central thought in light and shade, harmonies or composition. +Great as the qualities of van der Helst undoubtedly are, he +remains below the line of demarcation which separates the +second from the first-rate masters of art.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His pictures are very numerous, and almost uniformly good; but +in his later creations he wants power, and though still amazingly +careful, he becomes grey and woolly in touch. At Amsterdam the +four regents in the Werkhuys (1650), four syndics in the gallery +(1656), and four syndics in the town-hall (1657) are masterpieces, +to which may be added a number of fine single portraits. Rotterdam, +notwithstanding the fire of 1864, still boasts of three of van der +Helst’s works. The Hague owns but one. St Petersburg, on the +other hand, possesses ten or eleven, of various shades of excellence. +The Louvre has three, Munich four. Other pieces are in the galleries +of Berlin, Brunswick, Brussels, Carlsruhe, Cassel, Darmstadt, +Dresden, Frankfort, Gotha, Stuttgart and Vienna.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELSTON,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the +Truro parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 11 m. by +road W.S.W. of Falmouth, on a branch of the Great Western +railway. Pop. (1901) 3088. It is pleasantly situated on rising +ground above the small river Cober, which, a little below the +town, expands into a picturesque estuary called Looe Pool, the +water being banked up by the formation of Looe Bar at the +mouth. Formerly, when floods resulted from this obstruction, +the townsfolk of Helston acquired the right of clearing a passage +through it by presenting leathern purses containing three +halfpence to the lord of the manor. The mining industry on +which the town formerly depended is extinct, but the district +is agricultural and dairy farming is carried on, while the town +has flour mills, tanneries and iron foundries. As Helston has +the nearest railway station to the Lizard, with its magnificent +coast-scenery, there is a considerable tourist traffic in summer. +Some trade passes through the small port of Porthleven, 3 m. +S.W., where the harbour admits vessels of 500 tons. On the +8th of May a holiday is still observed in Helston and known as +Flora or Furry day. It has been regarded as a survival of the +Roman <i>Floralia</i>, but its origin is believed by some to be Celtic. +Flowers and branches were gathered, and dancing took place in +the streets and through the houses, all being thrown open, while +a pageant was also given and a special ancient folk-song chanted. +This ceremony, after being almost forgotten, has been revived +in modern times. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen +and 12 councillors. Area, 309 acres.</p> + +<p>Helston (Henliston, Haliston, Helleston), the capital of the +Meneage district of Cornwall, was held by Earl Harold in the +time of the Confessor and by King William at the Domesday +Survey. At the latter date besides seventy-three villeins, bordars +and serfs there were forty <i>cervisarii</i>, a species of unfree tenants +who rendered their custom in the form of beer. King John +(1201) constituted Helleston a free borough, established a gild +merchant, and granted the burgesses freedom from toll and other +similar dues throughout the realm, and the cognizance of all +pleas within the borough except crown pleas. Richard, king of +the Romans (1260), extended the boundaries of the borough +and granted permission for the erection of an additional mill. +Edward I. (1304) granted the pesage of tin, and Edward III. a +Saturday market and four fairs. Of these the Saturday market +and a fair on the feast of SS. Simon and Jude are still held, also +five other fairs of uncertain origin. In 1585 Elizabeth granted +a charter of incorporation under the name of the mayor and +commonalty of Helston. This was confirmed in 1641, when it +was also provided that the mayor and recorder should be <i>ipso +facto</i> justices of the peace. From 1294 to 1832 Helston returned +two members to parliament. In 1774 the number of electors +(which by usage had been restricted to the mayor, aldermen +and freemen elected by them) had dwindled to six, and in 1790 +to one person only, whose return of two members, however, +was rejected and that of the general body of the freemen accepted. +In 1832 Helston lost one of its members, and in 1885 it lost the +other and became merged in the county.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELVETIC CONFESSIONS,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> the name of two documents +expressing the common belief of the reformed churches of +Switzerland. The first, known also as the Second Confession of +Basel, was drawn up at that city in 1536 by Bullinger and Leo +Jud of Zürich, Megander of Bern, Oswald Myconius and Grynaeus +of Basel, Bucer and Capito of Strassburg, with other representatives +from Schaffhausen, St Gall, Mühlhausen and Biel. The +first draft was in Latin and the Zürich delegates objected to its +Lutheran phraseology.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Leo Jud’s German translation was, +however, accepted by all, and after Myconius and Grynaeus +had modified the Latin form, both versions were agreed to and +adopted on the 26th of February 1536.</p> + +<p>The Second Helvetic Confession was written by Bullinger in +1562 and revised in 1564 as a private exercise. It came to the +notice of the elector palatine Friedrich III., who had it translated +into German and published. It gained a favourable hold on the +Swiss churches, who had found the First Confession too short +and too Lutheran. It was adopted by the Reformed Church not +only throughout Switzerland but in Scotland (1566), Hungary +(1567), France (1571), Poland (1578), and next to the Heidelberg +Catechism is the most generally recognized Confession of the +Reformed Church.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L. Thomas, <i>La Confession helvétique</i> (Geneva, 1853); P. +Schaff, <i>Creeds of Christendom</i>, i. 390-420, iii. 234-306; Müller, +<i>Die Bekenntnisschriften der reformierten Kirche</i> (Leipzig, 1903).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Some of the delegates, especially Bucer, were anxious to effect +a union of the Reformed and Lutheran Churches. There was also +a desire to lay the Confession before the council summoned at +Mantua by Pope Paul III.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELVETII<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Helouêtioi">Ἑλουήτιοι</span>, <span class="grk" title="Helbêttioi">Ἑλβήττιοι</span>), a Celtic people, whose +original home was the country between the Hercynian forest +(probably the Rauhe Alp), the Rhine and the Main (Tacitus, +<i>Germania</i>, 28). In Caesar’s time they appear to have been +driven farther west, since, according to him (<i>Bell. Gall.</i> i. 2. 3) +their boundaries were on the W. the Jura, on the S. the Rhone +and the Lake of Geneva, on the N. and E. the Rhine as far as +Lake Constance. They thus inhabited the western part of +modern Switzerland. They were divided into four cantons +(<i>pagi</i>), common affairs being managed by the cantonal assemblies. +They possessed the elements of a higher civilization (gold coinage, +the Greek alphabet), and, according to Caesar, were the bravest +people of Gaul. The reports of gold and plunder spread by the +Cimbri and Teutones on their way to southern Gaul induced +the Helvetii to follow their example. In 107, under Divico, two +of their tribes, the Tougeni and Tigurini, crossed the Jura and +made their way as far as Aginnum (Agen on the Garonne), +where they utterly defeated the Romans under L. Cassius +Longinus, and forced them to pass under the yoke (Livy, <i>Epit.</i> +65; according to a different reading, the battle took place near +the Lake of Geneva). In 102 the Helvetii joined the Cimbri in +the invasion of Italy, but after the defeat of the latter by Marius +they returned home. In 58, hard pressed by the Germans and +incited by one of their princes, Orgetorix, they resolved to found +a hew home west of the Jura. Orgetorix was thrown into prison, +being suspected of a design to make himself king, but the Helvetii +themselves persisted in their plan. Joined by the Rauraci, +Tulingi, Latobrigi and some of the Boii—according to their own +reckoning 368,000 in all—they agreed to meet on the 28th of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254"></a>254</span> +March at Geneva and to advance through the territory of the +Allobroges. They were overtaken, however, by Caesar at +Bibracte, defeated and forced to submit. Those who survived +were sent back home to defend the frontier of the Rhine against +German invaders. During the civil wars and for some time +after the death of Caesar little is heard of the Helvetii.</p> + +<p>Under Augustus Helvetia (not so called till later times, earlier +<i>ager Helvetiorum</i>) proper was included under Gallia Belgica. +Two Roman colonies had previously been founded at Noviodunum +(Colonia Julia Equestris, mod. <i>Nyon</i>) and at Colonia Rauracorum +(afterwards Augusta Rauracorum, <i>Augst</i> near Basel) to keep +watch over the inhabitants, who were treated with generosity by +their conquerors. Under the name of <i>foederati</i> they retained +their original constitution and division into four cantons. They +were under an obligation to furnish a contingent to the Roman +army for foreign service, but were allowed to maintain garrisons +of their own, and their magistrates had the right to call out a +militia. Their religion was not interfered with; they managed +their own local affairs and kept their own language, although +Latin was used officially. Their chief towns were Aventicum +(<i>Avenches</i>) and Vindonissa (<i>Windisch</i>). Under Tiberius the +Helvetii were separated from Gallia Belgica and made part of +Germania Superior. After the death of Galba (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 69), having +refused submission to Vitellius, their land was devastated by +Alienus Caecina, and only the eloquent appeal of one of their +leaders named Claudius Cossus saved them from annihilation. +Under Vespasian they attained the height of their prosperity. +He greatly increased the importance of Aventicum, where his +father had carried on business. Its inhabitants, with those of +other towns, probably obtained the <i>ius Latinum</i>, had a senate, +a council of <i>decuriones</i>, a prefect of public works and flamens of +Augustus. After the extension of the eastern frontier, the troops +were withdrawn from the garrisons and fortresses, and Helvetia, +free from warlike disturbances, gradually became completely +romanized. Aventicum had an amphitheatre, a public +gymnasium and an academy with Roman professors. Roads +were made wherever possible, and commerce rapidly developed. +The old Celtic religion was also supplanted by the Roman. +The west of the country, however, was more susceptible to Roman +influence, and hence preserved its independence against barbarian +invaders longer than its eastern portion. During the reign of +Gallienus (260-268) the Alamanni overran the country; and +although Probus, Constantius Chlorus, Julian, Valentinian I. +and Gratian to some extent checked the inroads of the barbarians, +it never regained its former prosperity. In the subdivision of +Gaul in the 4th century, Helvetia, with the territory of the +Sequani and Rauraci, formed the Provincia Maxima Sequanorum, +the chief town of which was Vesontio (<i>Besançon</i>). Under +Honorius (395-423) it was probably definitely occupied by the +Alamanni, except in the west, where the small portion remaining +to the Romans was ceded in 436 by Aëtius to the Burgundians.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L. von Haller, <i>Helvetien unter den Römern</i> (Bern, 1811); +T. Mommsen, <i>Die Schweiz in römischer Zeit</i> (Zürich, 1854); J. Brosi, +<i>Die Kelten und Althelvetier</i> (Solothurn, 1851); L. Hug and R. Stead, +“Switzerland” in <i>Story of the Nations</i>, xxvi.; C. Dändliker, <i>Geschichte +der Schweiz</i> (1892-1895), and English translation (of a shorter +history by the same) by E. Salisbury (1899); <i>Die Schweiz unter den +Römern</i> (anonymous) published by the Historischer Verein of St +Gall (Scheitlin and Zollikofer, St Gall, 1862); and G. Wyss, “Über +das römische Helvetien” in <i>Archiv für schweizerische Geschichte</i>, +vii. (1851). For Caesar’s campaign against the Helvetii, see T. R. +Holmes, <i>Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul</i> (1899) and Mommsen, <i>Hist. of +Rome</i> (Eng. trans.), bk. v. ch. 7; ancient authorities in A. Holder, +<i>Altkeltischer Sprachschatz</i> (1896), <i>s.v.</i> Elvetii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELVÉTIUS, CLAUDE ADRIEN<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1715-1771), French philosopher +and littérateur, was born in Paris in January 1715. He +was descended from a family of physicians, whose original name +was Schweitzer (latinized as Helvetius). His grandfather +introduced the use of ipecacuanha; his father was first physician +to Queen Marie Leczinska of France. Claude Adrien was +trained for a financial career, but he occupied his spare time with +writing verses. At the age of twenty-three, at the queen’s +request, he was appointed farmer-general, a post of great responsibility +and dignity worth a 100,000 crowns a year. Thus +provided for, he proceeded to enjoy life to the utmost, with +the help of his wealth and liberality, his literary and artistic +tastes. As he grew older, however, his social successes ceased, +and he began to dream of more lasting distinctions, stimulated +by the success of Maupertuis as a mathematician, of Voltaire +as a poet, of Montesquieu as a philosopher. The mathematical +dream seems to have produced nothing; his poetical ambitions +resulted in the poem called <i>Le Bonheur</i> (published posthumously, +with an account of Helvétius’s life and works, by C. F. de Saint-Lambert, +1773), in which he develops the idea that true happiness +is only to be found in making the interest of one that of all; +his philosophical studies ended in the production of his famous +book <i>De l’esprit</i>. It was characteristic of the man that, as soon +as he thought his fortune sufficient, he gave up his post of farmer-general, +and retired to an estate in the country, where he +employed his large means in the relief of the poor, the encouragement +of agriculture and the development of industries. <i>De +l’esprit</i> (Eng. trans. by W. Mudford, 1807), intended to be the +rival of Montesquieu’s <i>L’Esprit des lois</i>, appeared in 1758. It +attracted immediate attention and aroused the most formidable +opposition, especially from the dauphin, son of Louis XV. The +Sorbonne condemned the book, the priests persuaded the court +that if was full of the most dangerous doctrines, and the author, +terrified at the storm he had raised, wrote three separate retractations; +yet, in spite of his protestations of orthodoxy, +he had to give up his office at the court, and the book was +publicly burned by the hangman. The virulence of the attacks +upon the work, as much as its intrinsic merit, caused it to be +widely read; it was translated into almost all the languages +of Europe. Voltaire said that it was full of commonplaces, and +that what was original was false or problematical; Rousseau +declared that the very benevolence of the author gave the lie +to his principles; Grimm thought that all the ideas in the book +were borrowed from Diderot; according to Madame du Deffand, +Helvétius had raised such a storm by saying openly what every +one thought in secret; Madame de Graffigny averred that all +the good things in the book had been picked up in her own <i>salon</i>. +In 1764 Helvétius visited England, and the next year, on the +invitation of Frederick II., he went to Berlin, where the king +paid him marked attention. He then returned to his country +estate and passed the remainder of his life in perfect tranquillity. +He died on the 26th of December 1771.</p> + +<p>His philosophy belongs to the utilitarian school. The four +discussions of which his book consists have been thus summed +up: (1) All man’s faculties may be reduced to physical sensation, +even memory, comparison, judgment; our only difference +from the lower animals lies in our external organization. (2) +Self-interest, founded on the love of pleasure and the fear of pain, +is the sole spring of judgment, action, affection; self-sacrifice +is prompted by the fact that the sensation of pleasure outweighs +the accompanying pain; it is thus the result of deliberate +calculation; we have no liberty of choice between good and +evil; there is no such thing as absolute right—ideas of justice +and injustice change according to customs. (3) All intellects +are equal; their apparent inequalities do not depend on a more +or less perfect organization, but have their cause in the unequal +desire for instruction, and this desire springs from passions, of +which all men commonly well organized are susceptible to the +same degree; and we can, therefore, all love glory with the same +enthusiasm and we owe all to education. (4) In this discourse +the author treats of the ideas which are attached to such words +as <i>genius</i>, <i>imagination</i>, <i>talent</i>, <i>taste</i>, <i>good sense</i>, &c. The only +original ideas in his system are those of the natural equality of +intelligences and the omnipotence of education, neither of which, +however, is generally accepted, though both were prominent in +the system of J. S. Mill. There is no doubt that his thinking +was unsystematic; but many of his critics have entirely misrepresented +him (<i>e.g.</i> Cairns in his <i>Unbelief in the Eighteenth +Century</i>). As J. M. Robertson (<i>Short History of Free Thought</i>) +points out, he had great influence upon Bentham, and C. Beccaria +states that he himself was largely inspired by Helvétius in his +attempt to modify penal laws. The keynote of his thought was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page255" id="page255"></a>255</span> +that public ethics has a utilitarian basis, and he insisted strongly +on the importance of culture in national development.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A sort of supplement to the <i>De l’esprit</i>, called <i>De l’homme, de ses +facultés intellectuelles et de son éducation</i> (Eng. trans. by W. Hooper, +1777), found among his manuscripts, was published after his death, +but created little interest. There is a complete edition of the works of +Helvétius, published at Paris, 1818. For an estimate of his work and +his place among the philosophers of the 18th century see Victor +Cousin’s <i>Philosophie sensualiste</i> (1863); P. L. Lezaud, <i>Résumés +philosophiques</i> (1853); F. D. Maurice, in his <i>Modern Philosophy</i> +(1862), pp. 537 seq.; J. Morley, <i>Diderot and the Encyclopaedists</i> +(London, 1878); D. G. Mostratos, <i>Die Pädagogik des Helvétius</i> +(Berlin, 1891); A. Guillois, <i>Le Salon de Madame Helvétius</i> (1894); +A. Piazzi, <i>Le Idee filosofiche specialmente pedagogiche de C. A. Helvétius</i> +(Milan, 1889); G. Plekhanov, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte des Materialismus</i> +(Stuttgart, 1896); L. Limentani, <i>Le Teorie psicologiche di +C. A. Helvétius</i> (Verona, 1902); A. Keim, <i>Helvétius, sa vie et son +œuvre</i> (1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELVIDIUS PRISCUS,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> Stoic philosopher and statesman, +lived during the reigns of Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius and +Vespasian. Like his father-in-law, Thrasea Paetus, he was +distinguished for his ardent and courageous republicanism. +Although he repeatedly offended his rulers, he held several high +offices. During Nero’s reign he was quaestor of Achaea and +tribune of the plebs (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 56); he restored peace and order in +Armenia, and gained the respect and confidence of the provincials. +His declared sympathy with Brutus and Cassius +occasioned his banishment in 66. Having been recalled to Rome +by Galba in 68, he at once impeached Eprius Marcellus, the +accuser of Thrasea Paetus, but dropped the charge, as the +condemnation of Marcellus would have involved a number of +senators. As praetor elect he ventured to oppose Vitellius in the +senate (Tacitus, <i>Hist.</i> ii. 91), and as praetor (70) he maintained, +in opposition to Vespasian, that the management of the finances +ought to be left to the discretion of the senate; he proposed +that the capitol, which had been destroyed in the Neronian +conflagration, should be restored at the public expense; he +saluted Vespasian by his private name, and did not recognize +him as emperor in his praetorian edicts. At length he was +banished a second time, and shortly afterwards was executed +by Vespasian’s order. His life, in the form of a warm panegyric, +written at his widow’s request by Herennius Senecio, caused +its author’s death in the reign of Domitian.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Tacitus, <i>Hist.</i> iv. 5, <i>Dialogus</i>, 5; Dio Cassius lxvi. 12, lxvii. 13; +Suetonius, <i>Vespasian</i>, 15; Pliny, <i>Epp.</i> vii. 19.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELY-HUTCHINSON, JOHN<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1724-1794), Irish lawyer, statesman, +and provost of Trinity College, Dublin, son of Francis Hely, +a gentleman of County Cork, was educated at Trinity College, +Dublin, and was called to the Irish bar in 1748. He took the +additional name of Hutchinson on his marriage in 1751 with +Christiana Nixon, heiress of her uncle, Richard Hutchinson. He +was elected member of the Irish House of Commons for the +borough of Lanesborough in 1759, but after 1761 he represented +the city of Cork. He at first attached himself to the “patriotic” +party in opposition to the government, and although he afterwards +joined the administration he never abandoned his advocacy +of popular measures. He was a man of brilliant and versatile +ability, whom Lord Townshend, the lord lieutenant, described as +“by far the most powerful man in parliament.” William +Gerard Hamilton said of him that “Ireland never bred a more +able, nor any country a more honest man.” Hely-Hutchinson +was, however, an inveterate place-hunter, and there was point in +Lord North’s witticism that “if you were to give him the whole +of Great Britain and Ireland for an estate, he would ask the Isle +of Man for a potato garden.” After a session or two in parliament +he was made a privy councillor and prime serjeant-at-law; and +from this time he gave a general, though by no means invariable, +support to the government. In 1767 the ministry contemplated +an increase of the army establishment in Ireland from 12,000 to +15,000 men, but the Augmentation Bill met with strenuous +opposition, not only from Flood, Ponsonby and the habitual +opponents of the government, but from the Undertakers, or proprietors +of boroughs, on whom the government had hitherto +relied to secure them a majority in the House of Commons. It +therefore became necessary for Lord Townshend to turn to other +methods for procuring support. Early In 1768 an English act +was passed for the increase of the army, and a message from the +king setting forth the necessity for the measure was laid before +the House of Commons in Dublin. An address favourable to the +government policy was, however, rejected; and Hely-Hutchinson, +together with the speaker and the attorney-general, did their +utmost both in public and private to obstruct the bill. Parliament +was dissolved in May 1768, and the lord lieutenant set +about the task of purchasing or otherwise securing a majority in +the new parliament. Peerages, pensions and places were bestowed +lavishly on those whose support could be thus secured; Hely-Hutchinson +was won over by the concession that the Irish army +should be established by the authority of an Irish act of parliament +instead of an English one. The Augmentation Bill was +carried in the session of 1769 by a large majority. Hely-Hutchinson’s +support had been so valuable that he received as +reward an addition of £1000 a year to the salary of his sinecure +of Alnagar, a major’s commission in a cavalry regiment, and a +promise of the secretaryship of state. He was at this time one of +the most brilliant debaters in the Irish parliament, and he was +enjoying an exceedingly lucrative practice at the bar. This income, +however, together with his well-salaried sinecure, and his +place as prime serjeant, he surrendered in 1774, to become provost +of Trinity College, although the statute requiring the provost to +be in holy orders had to be dispensed with in his favour.</p> + +<p>For this great academic position Hely-Hutchinson was in no +way qualified, and his appointment to it for purely political +service to the government was justly criticized with much +asperity. His conduct in using his position as provost to secure +the parliamentary representation of the university for his eldest +son brought him into conflict with Duigenan, who attacked him +in <i>Lacrymae academicae</i>, and involved him in a duel with a Mr +Doyle; while a similar attempt on behalf of his second son in +1790 led to his being accused before a select committee of the +House of Commons of impropriety as returning officer. But +although without scholarship Hely-Hutchinson was an efficient +provost, during whose rule material benefits were conferred on +Trinity College. He continued to occupy a prominent place in +parliament, where he advocated free trade, the relief of the +Catholics from penal legislation, and the reform of parliament. +He was one of the very earliest politicians to recognize the +soundness of Adam Smith’s views on trade; and he quoted from +the <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, adopting some of its principles, in his +<i>Commercial Restraints of Ireland</i>, published in 1779, which Lecky +pronounces “one of the best specimens of political literature +produced in Ireland in the latter half of the 18th century.” In the +same year, the economic condition of Ireland being the cause +of great anxiety, the government solicited from several leading +politicians their opinion on the state of the country with suggestions +for a remedy. Hely-Hutchinson’s response was a remarkably +able state paper (MS. in the Record Office), which also showed +clear traces of the influence of Adam Smith. The <i>Commercial +Restraints</i>, condemned by the authorities as seditious, went far to +restore Hely-Hutchinson’s popularity which had been damaged by +his greed of office. Not less enlightened were his views on the +Catholic question. In a speech in parliament on Catholic education +in 1782 the provost declared that Catholic students were in +fact to be found at Trinity College, but that he desired their +presence there to be legalized on the largest scale. “My opinion,” +he said, “is strongly against sending Roman Catholics abroad for +education, nor would I establish Popish colleges at home. The +advantage of being admitted into the university of Dublin will be +very great to Catholics; they need not be obliged to attend the +divinity professor, they may have one of their own; and I would +have a part of the public money applied to their use, to the +support of a number of poor lads as sizars, and to provide +premiums for persons of merit, for I would have them go into +examinations and make no distinction between them and the +Protestants but such as merit might claim.” And after sketching +a scheme for increasing the number of diocesan schools where +Roman Catholics might receive free education, he went on to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page256" id="page256"></a>256</span> +urge that “it is certainly a matter of importance that the education +of their priests should be as perfect as possible, and that if they +have any prejudices they should be prejudices in favour of their +own country. The Roman Catholics should receive the best education +in the established university at the public expense; but by +no means should Popish colleges be allowed, for by them we +should again have the press groaning with themes of controversy, +and subjects of religious disputation that have long slept in +oblivion would again awake, and awaken with them all the worst +passions of the human mind.”<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>In 1777 Hely-Hutchinson became secretary of state. When +Grattan in 1782 moved an address to the king containing a +declaration of Irish legislative independence, Hely-Hutchinson +supported the attorney-general’s motion postponing the question; +but on the 16th of April, after the Easter recess, he read a +message from the lord lieutenant, the duke of Portland, giving +the king’s permission for the House to take the matter into consideration, +and he expressed his personal sympathy with the +popular cause which Grattan on the same day brought to a +triumphant issue (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grattan, Henry</a></span>). Hely-Hutchinson +supported the opposition on the regency question in 1788, and +one of his last votes in the House was in favour of parliamentary +reform. In 1790 he exchanged the constituency of Cork for that +of Taghmon in County Wexford, for which borough he remained +member till his death at Buxton on the 4th of September +1794.</p> + +<p>In 1785 his wife had been created Baroness Donoughmore +and on her death in 1788, his eldest son Richard (1756-1825) +succeeded to the title. Lord Donoughmore was an ardent +advocate of Catholic emancipation. In 1797 he was created +Viscount Donoughmore,<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and in 1800 (having voted for the +Union, hoping to secure Catholic emancipation from the united +parliament) he was further created earl of Donoughmore of +Knocklofty, being succeeded first by his brother John Hely-Hutchinson +(1757-1832) and then by his nephew John, 3rd +earl (1787-1851), from whom the title descended.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. E. H. Lecky, <i>Hist. of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century</i> +(5 vols., London, 1892); J. A. Froude, <i>The English in Ireland in the +Eighteenth Century</i> (3 vols., London, 1872-1874); H. Grattan, +<i>Memoirs of the Life and Times of Henry Grattan</i> (8 vols., London, +1839-1846); <i>Baratariana</i>, by various writers (Dublin, 1773).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Irish Parl. Debates</i>, i. 309, 310.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It is generally supposed that the title conferred by this patent +was that of Viscount Suirdale, and such is the courtesy title by which +the heir apparent of the earls of Donoughmore is usually styled. +This, however, appears to be an error. In all the three creations +(barony 1783, viscountcy 1797, earldom 1800) the title is +“Donoughmore of Knocklofty.” In 1821 the 1st earl was further +created Viscount Hutchinson of Knocklofty in the peerage of the +United Kingdom. The courtesy title of the earl’s eldest son should, +therefore, apparently be either “Viscount Hutchinson” or “Viscount +Knocklofty.” See G. E. C. <i>Complete Peerage</i> (London, 1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HELYOT, PIERRE<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1660-1716), Franciscan friar and historian, +was born at Paris in January 1660, of supposed English +ancestry. After spending his youth in study, he entered in his +twenty-fourth year the convent of the third order of St Francis, +founded at Picpus, near Paris, by his uncle Jérôme Helyot, +canon of St Sepulchre. There he took the name of Père Hippolyte. +Two journeys to Rome on monastic business afforded +him the opportunity of travelling over most of Italy; and after +his final return he saw much of France, while acting as secretary +to various provincials of his order there. Both in Italy and +France he was engaged in collecting materials for his great work, +which occupied him about twenty-five years, <i>L’Histoire des +ordres monastiques, religieux, et militaires, et des congrégations +séculières, de l’un et de l’autre sexe, qui ont été établies jusqu’à +présent</i>, published in 8 volumes in 1714-1721. Helyot died on +the 5th of January 1716, before the fifth volume appeared, but +his friend Maximilien Bullot completed the edition. Helyot’s +only other noteworthy work is <i>Le Chrétien mourant</i> (1695).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Histoire</i> is a work of first importance, being the great repertory +of information for the general history of the religious orders up to the +end of the 17th century. It is profusely illustrated by large plates +exhibiting the dress of the various orders, and in the edition of 1792 +the plates are coloured. It was translated into Italian (1737) and +into German (1753). The material has been arranged in dictionary +form in Migne’s <i>Encyclopédie théologique</i>, under the title “Dictionnaire +des orders religieux” (4 vols., 1858).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEMANS, FELICIA DOROTHEA<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1793-1835), English poet, +was born in Duke Street, Liverpool, on the 25th of September +1793. Her father, George Browne, of Irish extraction, was a +merchant in Liverpool, and her mother, whose maiden name +was Wagner, was the daughter of the Austrian and Tuscan +consul at Liverpool. Felicia, the fifth of seven children, was +scarcely seven years old when her father failed in business, and +retired with his family to Gwrych, near Abergele, Denbighshire; +and there the young poet and her brothers and sisters grew +up in a romantic old house by the sea-shore, and in the very +midst of the mountains and myths of Wales. Felicia’s education +was desultory. Books of chronicle and romance, and every +kind of poetry, she read with avidity; and she also studied +Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and German. She played both +harp and piano, and cared especially for the simple national +melodies of Wales and Spain. In 1808, when she was only +fourteen, a quarto volume of her <i>Juvenile Poems</i>, was published +by subscription, and was harshly criticized in the <i>Monthly Review</i>. +Two of her brothers were fighting in Spain under Sir John Moore; +and Felicia, fired with military enthusiasm, wrote <i>England and +Spain, or Valour and Patriotism</i>, a poem afterwards translated +into Spanish. Her second volume, <i>The Domestic Affections and +other Poems</i>, appeared in 1812, on the eve of her marriage to +Captain Alfred Hemans. She lived for some time at Daventry, +where her husband was adjutant of the Northamptonshire +militia. About this time her father went to Quebec on business +and died there; and, after the birth of her first son, she and +her husband went to live with her mother at Bronwylfa, a house +near St Asaph. Here during the next six years four more +children—all boys—were born; but in spite of domestic cares +arid failing health she still read and wrote indefatigably. Her +poem entitled <i>The Restoration of Works of Art to Italy</i> was +published in 1816, her <i>Modern Greece</i> in 1817, and in 1818 +<i>Translations from Camoens and other Poets</i>.</p> + +<p>In 1818 Captain Hemans went to Rome, leaving his wife, +shortly before the birth of their fifth child, with her mother at +Bronwylfa. There seems to have been a tacit agreement, +perhaps on account of their limited means, that they should +separate. Letters were interchanged, and Captain Hemans was +often consulted about his children; but the husband and wife +never met again. Many friends—among them the bishop of +St Asaph and Bishop Heber—gathered round Mrs Hemans and +her children. In 1819 she published <i>Tales and Historic Scenes in +Verse</i>, and gained a prize of £50 offered for the best poem on +<i>The Meeting of Wallace and Bruce on the Banks of the Carron</i>. +In 1820 appeared <i>The Sceptic and Stanzas to the Memory of the +late King</i>. In June 1821 she won the prize awarded by the Royal +Society of Literature for the best poem on the subject of <i>Dartmoor</i>, +and began her play, <i>The Vespers of Palermo</i>. She now +applied herself to a course of German reading. Körner was her +favourite German poet, and her lines on the grave of Körner +were one of the first English tributes to the genius of the young +soldier-poet. In the summer of 1823 a volume of her poems +was published by Murray, containing “The Siege of Valencia,” +“The Last Constantine” and “Belshazzar’s Feast.” <i>The +Vespers of Palermo</i> was acted at Covent Garden, December +12, 1823, and Mrs Hemans received £200 for the copyright; +but, though the leading parts were taken by Young and +Charles Kemble, the play was a failure, and was withdrawn +after the first performance. It was acted again in Edinburgh +in the following April with greater success, when an epilogue, +written for it by Sir Walter Scott at Joanna Baillie’s request, +was spoken by Harriet Siddons. This was the beginning of a +cordial friendship between Mrs Hemans and Scott. In the same +year she wrote <i>De Chatillon, or the Crusaders</i>; but the manuscript +was lost, and the poem was published after her death, +from a rough copy. In 1824 she began “The Forest Sanctuary,” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page257" id="page257"></a>257</span> +which appeared a year later with the “Lays of Many Lands” +and miscellaneous pieces collected from the <i>New Monthly +Magazine</i> and other periodicals.</p> + +<p>In the spring of 1825 Mrs Hemans removed from Bronwylfa, +which had been purchased by her brother, to Rhyllon, a house +on an opposite height across the river Clwyd. The contrast +between the two houses suggested her <i>Dramatic Scene between +Bronwylfa and Rhyllon</i>. The house itself was bare and unpicturesque, +but the beauty of its surroundings has been celebrated +in “The Hour of Romance,” “To the River Clwyd in +North Wales,” “Our Lady’s Well” and “To a Distant Scene.” +This time seems to have been the most tranquil in Mrs Hemans’s +life. But the death of her mother in January 1827 was a second +great breaking-point in her life. Her heart was affected, and +she was from this time an acknowledged invalid. In the summer +of 1828 the <i>Records of Woman</i> was published by Blackwood, +and in the same year the home in Wales was finally broken up +by the marriage of Mrs Hemans’s sister and the departure of +her two elder boys to their father in Rome. Mrs Hemans +removed to Wavertree, near Liverpool. But, although she had +a few intimate friends there—among them her two subsequent +biographers, Henry F. Chorley and Mrs Lawrence of Wavertree +Hall—she was disappointed in her new home. She thought the +people of Liverpool stupid and provincial; and they, on the +other hand, found her uncommunicative and eccentric. In the +following summer she travelled by sea to Scotland with two of +her boys, to visit the Hamiltons of Chiefswood.</p> + +<p>Here she enjoyed “constant, almost daily, intercourse” +with Sir Walter Scott, with whom she and her boys afterwards +stayed some time at Abbotsford. “There are some whom we +meet, and should like ever after to claim as kith and kin; and +you are one of those,” was Scott’s compliment to her at parting. +One of the results of her Edinburgh visit was an article, full of +praise, judiciously tempered with criticism, by Jeffrey himself +for the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>. Mrs Hemans returned to Wavertree +to write her <i>Songs of the Affections</i>, which were published early +in 1830. In the following June, however, she again left home, +this time to visit Wordsworth and the Lake country; and in +August she paid a second visit to Scotland. In 1831 she removed +to Dublin. Her poetry of this date is chiefly religious. Early +in 1834 her <i>Hymns for Childhood</i>, which had appeared some +years before in America, were published in Dublin. At the same +time appeared her collection of <i>National Lyrics</i>, and shortly +afterwards <i>Scenes and Hymns of Life</i>. She was planning also a +series of German studies, one of which, on Goethe’s <i>Tasso</i>, +was completed and published in the <i>New Monthly Magazine</i> +for January 1834. In intervals of acute suffering she wrote the +lyric <i>Despondency and Aspiration</i>, and dictated a series of sonnets +called <i>Thoughts during Sickness</i>, the last of which, “Recovery,” +was written when she fancied she was getting well. After three +months spent at Redesdale, Archbishop Whately’s country seat, +she was again brought into Dublin, where she lingered till spring. +Her last poem, the <i>Sabbath Sonnet</i>, was dedicated to her brother +on Sunday April 26th, and she died in Dublin on the 16th of +May 1835 at the age of forty-one.</p> + +<p>Mrs Hemans’s poetry is the production of a fine imaginative +and enthusiastic temperament, but not of a commanding +intellect or very complex or subtle nature. It is the outcome +of a beautiful but singularly circumscribed life, a life spent +in romantic seclusion, without much worldly experience, and +warped and saddened by domestic unhappiness and physical +suffering. An undue preponderance of the emotional is its +prevailing characteristic. Scott complained that it was “too +poetical,” that it contained “too many flowers” and “too +little fruit.” Many of her short poems, such as “The Treasures +of the Deep,” “The Better Land,” “The Homes of England,” +“Casabianca,” “The Palm Tree,” “The Graves of a Household,” +“The Wreck,” “The Dying Improvisatore,” and “The Lost +Pleiad,” have become standard English lyrics. It is on the +strength of these that her reputation must rest.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Mrs Hemans’s <i>Poetical Works</i> were collected in 1832; her <i>Memorials</i> +&c., by H. F. Chorley (1836).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEMEL HEMPSTEAD,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> a market-town and municipal borough +in the Watford parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England, +25 m. N.W. from London, with a station on a branch of the +Midland railway from Harpenden, and near Boxmoor station +on the London and North Western main line. Pop. (1891) +9678; (1901) 11,264. It is pleasantly situated in the steep-sided +valley of the river Gade, immediately above its junction +with the Bulbourne, near the Grand Junction canal. The church +of St Mary is a very fine Norman building with Decorated +additions. Industries include the manufacture of paper, iron +founding, brewing and tanning. Boxmoor, within the parish, is +a considerable township of modern growth. Hemel Hempstead +is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, +7184 acres.</p> + +<p>Settlements in the neighbourhood of Hemel Hempstead +(<i>Hamalamstede</i>, <i>Hemel Hampsted</i>) date from pre-Roman times, +and a Roman villa has been discovered at Boxmoor. The manor, +royal demesne in 1086, was granted by Edmund Plantagenet +in 1285 to the house of Ashridge, and the town developed under +monastic protection. In 1539 a charter incorporated the bailiff +and inhabitants. A mayor, aldermen and councillors received +governing power by a charter of 1898. The town has never had +parliamentary representation. A market on Thursday and a +fair on the feast of Corpus Christi were conferred in 1539. A +statute fair, for long a hiring fair, originated in 1803.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEMEROBAPTISTS,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> an ancient Jewish sect, so named from +their observing a practice of daily ablution as an essential part +of religion. Epiphanius (<i>Panarion</i>, i. 17), who mentions their +doctrine as the fourth heresy among the Jews, classes the +Hemerobaptists doctrinally with the Pharisees (<i>q.v.</i>) from whom +they differed only in, like the Sadducees, denying the resurrection +of the dead. The name has been sometimes given to the Mandaeans +on account of their frequent ablutions; and in the <i>Clementine +Homilies</i> (ii. 23) St John the Baptist is spoken of as a Hemerobaptist. +Mention of the sect is made by Hegesippus (see Euseb. +<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> iv. 22) and by Justin Martyr in the <i>Dialogue with +Trypho</i>, § 80. They were probably a division of the Essenes.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEMICHORDA,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hemichordata</span>, a zoological term introduced +by W. Bateson in 1884, without special definition, as +equivalent to Enteropneusta, which then included the single +genus <i>Balanoglossus</i>, and now generally employed to cover a +group of marine worm-like animals believed by many zoologists +to be related to the lower vertebrates and so to represent the +invertebrate stock from which Vertebrates have been derived. +Vertebrates, or as they are sometimes termed Chordates, are +distinguished from other animals by several important features. +The chief of these is the presence of an elastic rod, the notochord, +which forms the longitudinal axis of the body, and which persists +throughout life in some of the lowest forms, but which appears +only in the embryo of the higher forms, being replaced by the +jointed backbone or vertebral column. A second feature is the +development of outgrowths of the pharynx which unite with the +skin of the neck and form a series of perforations leading to the +exterior. These structures are the gill-slits, which in fishes are +lined with vascular tufts, but which in terrestrial breathing +animals appear only in the embryo. The third feature of +importance is the position of structure of the central nervous +system, which in all the Chordates lies dorsally to the alimentary +canal and is formed by the sinking in of a longitudinal media +dorsal groove. Of these structures the Vertebrata or Craniata +possess all three in a typical form; the Cephalochordata (see +Amphioxus) also possess them, but the notochord extends +throughout the whole length of the body to the extreme tip of +the snout; the Urochordata (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tunicata</a></span>) possess them in a +larval condition, but the notochord is present only in the tail, +whilst in the adult the notochord disappears and the nervous +system becomes profoundly modified; in the Hemichorda, the +respiratory organs very closely resemble gill-slits, and structures +comparable with the notochord and the tubular dorsal nervous +system are present.</p> + +<p>The Hemichorda include three orders, the Phoronidea (<i>q.v.</i>), +the Pterobranchia (<i>q.v.</i>) and the Enteropneusta (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Balanoglossus</a></span>), +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page258" id="page258"></a>258</span> +but the relationship to the Chordata expressed in the +designation Hemichordata cannot be regarded as more than an +attractive theory with certain arguments in its favour.</p> +<div class="author">(P. C. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEMICYCLE<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêmi">ἡμι</span>-, half, and <span class="grk" title="kyklos">κύκλος</span>, circle), a semicircular +recess of considerable size which formed one of the most +conspicuous features in the Roman Thermae, where it was +always covered with a hemispherical vault. A small example +exists in Pompeii, in the street of tombs, with a seat round inside, +where those who came to pay their respects to the departed +could rest. An immense hemicycle was designed by Bramante +for the Vatican, where it constitutes a fine architectural effect +at the end of the great court.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEMIMERUS,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> an Orthopterous or Dermapterous insect, the +sole representative of the family <i>Hemimeridae</i>, which has affinities +with both the <i>Forficulidae</i> (earwigs) and the <i>Blattidae</i> (cockroaches). +Only two species have been discovered, both from +West Africa. The better known of these (<i>H. hanseni</i>) lives upon +a large rat-like rodent (<i>Cricetomys gambianus</i>) feeding perhaps +upon its external parasites, perhaps upon scurf and other dermal +products. Like many epizoic or parasitic insects, <i>Hemimerus</i> +is wingless, eyeless and has relatively short and strong legs. +Correlated also with its mode of life is the curious fact that it is +viviparous, the young being born in an advanced stage of growth.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:134px; height:253px" src="images/img258a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"></td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">HEMIMORPHITE,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> a mineral consisting of hydrous zinc +silicate, H<span class="su">2</span>Zn<span class="su">2</span>SiO<span class="su">5</span>, of importance as an ore of the metal, of +which it contains 54.4%. It is interesting crystallographically +by reason of the hemimorphic development of its orthorhombic +crystals; these are prismatic in habit and are +differently terminated at the two ends. In +the figure, the faces at the upper end of the +crystal are the basal plane <i>k</i> and the domes +<i>o</i>, <i>p</i>, <i>l</i>, <i>m</i>, whilst at the lower end there are +only the four faces of the pyramid P. Connected +with this polarity of the crystals is +their pyroelectric character—when a crystal +is subjected to changes of temperature it +becomes positively electrified at one end and +negatively at the opposite end. There are perfect +cleavages parallel to the prism faces (<i>d</i> in the +figure). Crystals are usually colourless, sometimes +yellowish or greenish, and transparent; +they have vitreous lustre. The hardness is 5, and the specific +gravity 3.45. The mineral also occurs as stalactitic or botryoidal +masses with a fibrous structure, or in a massive, cellular or +granular condition intermixed with calamine and clay. It is +decomposed by hydrochloric acid with gelatinization; this +property affords a ready means of distinguishing hemimorphite +from calamine (zinc carbonate), these two minerals being, when +not crystallized, very like each other in appearance. The water +contained in hemimorphite is expelled only at a red heat, and +the mineral must therefore be considered as a basic metasilicate, +(ZnOH)<span class="su">2</span>SiO<span class="su">3</span>.</p> + +<p>The name hemimorphite was given by G. A. Kenngott in 1853 +because of the typical hemimorphic development of the crystals. +The mineral had long been confused with <i>calamine</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) and +even now this name is often applied to it. On account of its +pyroelectric properties, it was called <i>electric calamine</i> by J. +Smithson in 1803.</p> + +<p>Hemimorphite occurs with other ores of zinc (calamine and +blende), forming veins and beds in <span class="correction" title="amended from sedimentry">sedimentary</span> limestones. +British localities are Matlock, Alston, Mendip Hills and Leadhills; +at Roughten Gill, Caldbeck Fells, Cumberland, it occurs as +mammillated incrustations of a sky-blue colour. Well-crystallized +specimens have been found in the zinc mines at Altenberg near +Aachen in Rhenish Prussia, Nerchinsk mining district in Siberia, +and Elkhorn in Montana.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEMINGBURGH, WALTER OF,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> also commonly, but erroneously, +called <span class="sc">Walter Hemingford</span>, a Latin chronicler of the +14th century, was a canon regular of the Austin priory of Gisburn +in Yorkshire. Hence he is sometimes known as Walter of Gisburn +(Walterus Gisburnensis). Bale seems to have been the first to +give him the name by which he became more commonly known. +His chronicle embraces the period of English history from the +Conquest (1066) to the nineteenth year of Edward III., with +the exception of the years 1316-1326. It ends with the title of a +chapter in which it was proposed to describe the battle of Creçy +(1346); but the chronicler seems to have died before the required +information reached him. There is, however, some controversy +as to whether the later portions which are lacking in some of the +MSS. are by him. In compiling the first part, Hemingburgh +apparently used the histories of Eadmer, Hoveden, Henry of +Huntingdon, and William of Newburgh; but the reigns of the +three Edwards are original, composed from personal observation +and information. There are several manuscripts of the history +extant—the best perhaps being that presented to the College of +Arms by the earl of Arundel. The work is correct and judicious, +and written in a pleasing style. One of its special features is the +preservation in its pages of copies of the great charters, and +Hemingburgh’s versions have more than once supplied deficiencies +and cleared up obscurities in copies from other sources.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The first three books were published by Thomas Gale in 1687, in +his <i>Historiae Anglicanae scriptores quinque</i>, and the remainder by +Thomas Hearne in 1731. The first portion was again published in +1848 by the English Historical Society, under the title <i>Chronicon +Walteri de Hemingburgh, vulgo Hemingford nuncupati, de gestis +regum Angliae</i>, edited by H. C. Hamilton.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEMIPTERA<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêmi">ἡμι</span>-, half and <span class="grk" title="pteron">πτερόν</span>, a wing), the name +applied in zoological classification to that order of the class +Hexapoda (<i>q.v.</i>) which includes bugs, cicads, aphids and scale-insects. +The name was first used by Linnaeus (1735), who +derived it from the half-coriaceous and half-membranous condition +of the forewing in many members of the order. But the +wings vary considerably in different families, and the most distinctive +feature is the structure of the jaws, which form a beak-like +organ with stylets adapted for piercing and sucking. Hence +the name <i>Rhyngota</i> (or <i>Rhynchota</i>), proposed by J. C. Fabricius +(1775), is used by many writers in preference to Hemiptera.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:283px; height:311px" src="images/img258b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">After Marlatt, <i>Bull.</i> 14 (N.S.) <i>Div. Ent. U.S. +Dept. Agr.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Head and Prothorax of Cicad +from side.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p>I., Frons.</p> +<p>II., Base of mandible.</p> +<p>III., Base of first maxillae.</p> +<p>IV., Second maxillae forming rostrum.</p> +<p>V., Pronotum.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Structure.</i>—The head varies greatly in shape, and the feelers +have usually but few segments—often only four or five. The +arrangement of the jaws is remarkably constant throughout +the order, if we exclude from it the lice (<i>Anoplura</i>). Taking as +our type the head of a cicad, we find a jointed rostrum or beak +(figs. 1 and 2, IV. <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>) with a deep groove on its anterior face; +this organ is formed by +the second pair of maxillae +and corresponds therefore +to the labium or “lower +lip” of biting insects. +Within the groove of the +rostrum two pairs of +slender piercers—often +barbed at the tip—work +to and fro. One of these +pairs (fig. 2, II. <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>) +represents the mandibles, +the other (fig. 2, III. <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, +<i>c</i>) the first maxillae. The +piercing portions of the +latter—representing their +inner lobes or laciniae—lie +median to the mandibular +piercers in the +natural position of the +organs. These homologies +of the hemipterous jaws +were determined by J. C. +Savigny in 1816, and though disputed by various subsequent +writers, they have been lately confirmed by the embryological +researches of R. Heymons (1899). Vestigial palps have been +described in various species of Hemiptera, but the true nature +of these structures is doubtful. In front of the rostrum and the +piercers lies the pointed flexible labrum and within its base a +small hypopharynx (fig. 2, IV. <i>d</i>) consisting of paired conical +processes which lie dorsal to the “syringe” of the salivary +glands. This latter organ injects a secretion into the plant or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>259</span> +animal tissue from which the insect is sucking. The point of the +rostrum is pressed against the surface to be pierced; then the +stylets come into play and the fluid food is believed to pass into +the mouth by capillary attraction.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:372px; height:332px" src="images/img259a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Marlatt, <i>Bull. 14</i> (N.S.) <i>Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Head and Prothorax of Cicad, parts separated.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>I., <i>a</i>, frons; <i>b</i>, clypeus; <i>c</i>, labrum; <i>d</i>, epipharynx.</p> +<p>I’., Same from behind.</p> +<p>II., Mandible.</p> +<p>III., 1st maxillae, <i>a</i>, base; <i>b</i>, sheath; <i>c</i>, stylet; <i>c</i>′, muscle.</p> +<p>IV., 2nd maxillae, <i>a</i>, sub-mentum; <i>b</i>, mentum; <i>c</i>, ligula, forming beak; <i>d</i>, hypopharynx (shown also from front <i>d</i>′, and behind <i>d</i>″).</p> +<p>V., Prothorax, <i>b</i>, haunch; <i>a</i>, trochanter.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The prothorax (figs. 1 and 2, V.) in Hemiptera is large and +free, and the mesothoracic scutellum is usually extensive. The +number of tarsal segments is reduced; often three, two or only +one may be present instead of the typical insectan number +five. The wings will be described in connexion with the various +sub-orders, but an interesting peculiarity of the Hemiptera +is the occasional presence of winged and wingless races of the +same species. Eleven abdominal segments can be recognized, +at least in the early stages; as the adult condition is reached, +the hinder segments become reduced or modified in connexion +with the external reproductive organs, and show, in some male +Hemiptera, a marked asymmetry. The typical insectan ovipositor +with its three pairs of processes, one pair belonging to the +eighth and two pairs to the ninth abdominal segment, can be +distinguished in the female.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:469px; height:265px" src="images/img259b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Marlatt, <i>Bull. 4</i> (N.S.) <i>Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—<i>a</i>, Cast-off nymphal skin of Bed-bug (<i>Cimex lectularius</i>); +<i>b</i>, Second instar after emergence from <i>a</i>; <i>c</i>, The same after a meal.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the nervous system the concentration of the trunk ganglia +into a single nerve-centre situated in the thorax is remarkable. +The digestive system has a slender gullet, a large crop and no +gizzard; in some Hemiptera the hinder region of the mid-gut +forms a twisted loop with the gullet. Usually there are four +excretory (Malpighian) tubes; but there are only two in the +<i>Coccidae</i> and none in the <i>Aphidae</i>. “Stink glands,” which +secrete a nauseous fluid with a defensive function, are present +in many Hemiptera. In the adult there is a pair of such glands +opening ventrally on the hindmost thoracic segment, or at the +base of the abdomen; but in the young insect the glands are +situated dorsally and open to the exterior on a variable number of +the abdominal terga.</p> + +<p><i>Development.</i>—In most Hemiptera the young insect (fig. 3) +resembles its parents except for the absence of wings, and is +active through all stages of its growth. In all Hemiptera the +wing-rudiments develop externally on the nymphal cuticle, +but in some families—the cicads for example—the young insect +(fig. 10) is a larva differing markedly in form from its parent, +and adapted for a different mode of life, while the nymph before +the final moult is sluggish and inactive. In the male <i>Coccidae</i> +(Scale-insects) the nymph (fig. 4) remains passive and takes no +food. The order of the Hemiptera affords, therefore, some +interesting transition stages towards the complete metamorphosis +of the higher insects.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:136px; height:311px" src="images/img259c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">After Riley and Howard, <i>Insect Life</i>, vol. i. (U.S. Dept. Agr.).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Passive +Nymph or “Pupa” +of male scale-insect +(<i>Icerya</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Distribution and Habits.</i>—Hemiptera are widely distributed, +and are plentiful in most quarters of the globe, though they +probably have not penetrated as far into remote and inhospitable +regions as have the Coleoptera, Diptera +and Aptera. They feed entirely by +suction, and the majority of the species +pierce plant tissues and suck sap. The +leaves of plants are for the most part the +objects of attack, but many aphids and +scale-insects pierce stems, and some go +underground and feed on roots. The +enormous rate at which aphids multiply +under favourable conditions makes them +of the greatest economic importance, +since the growth of immense numbers of +the same kind of plant in close proximity—as +in ordinary farm-crops—is especially +advantageous to the insects that feed on +them. Several families of bugs are predaceous +in habit, attacking other insects—often +members of their own order—and +sucking their juices. Others are +scavengers feeding on decaying organic +matter; the pond skaters, for example, +live mostly on the juices of dead floating +insects. And some, like the bed-bugs, +are parasites of vertebrate animals, on +whose bodies they live temporarily or permanently, and whose +blood they suck.</p> + +<p>The Hemiptera are especially interesting as an order from +the variety of aquatic insects included therein. Some of these—the +<i>Hydrometridae</i> or pond-skaters, for example—move over +the surface-film, on which they are supported by their elongated, +slender legs, the body of the insect being raised clear of the water. +They are covered with short hairs which form a velvet-like pile, +so dense that water cannot penetrate. Consequently when the +insect dives, an air-bubble forms around it, a supply of oxygen is +thus secured for breathing and the water is kept away from the +spiracles. In many of these insects, while most individuals +of the species are wingless, winged specimens are now and then +met with. The occasional development of wings is probably +of service to the species in enabling the insects to reach new +fresh-water breeding-grounds. This family of Hemiptera (the +<i>Hydrometridae</i>) and the <i>Saldidae</i> contain several insects that +are marine, haunting the tidal margin. One genus of <i>Hydrometridae</i> +(<i>Halobates</i>) is even oceanic in its habit, the species being +met with skimming over the surface of the sea hundreds of miles +from land. Probably they dive when the surface becomes +ruffled. In these marine genera the abdomen often undergoes +excessive reduction (fig. 5).</p> + +<p>Other families of Hemiptera—such as the “Boatmen” +(<i>Notonectidae</i>) and the “Water-scorpions” (fig. 6) and their +allies (<i>Nepidae</i>) dive and swim through the water. They obtain +their supply of air from the surface. The <i>Nepidae</i> breathe by +means of a pair of long, grooved tail processes (really outgrowths +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260"></a>260</span> +of the abdominal pleura) which when pressed together form +a tube whose point can pierce the surface film and convey +air to the hindmost spiracles which are alone functional in the +adult. The <i>Notonectidae</i> breathe mostly through the thoracic +spiracles; the air is conveyed to these from the tail-end, which +is brought to the surface, along a kind of tunnel formed by +overlapping hairs.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:513px; height:298px" src="images/img260a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" style="width: 50%;">After Carpenter, <i>Proc. R. Dublin Soc.</i>, +vol. viii.</td> +<td class="tcl" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Water-scorpion +(<i>Nepa cinerea</i>) with raptorial +fore-legs, heteropterous wings, +and long siphon for conveying +air to spiracles. Somewhat +magnified. <i>sc</i>, scutellum; <i>co</i>, +<i>cl</i>, <i>m</i>, corium, clavus and +membrane of forewing.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—A reef-haunting +hemipteron (<i>Hermatobates +haddonii</i>) with excessively reduced +abdomen. Magnified.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:419px; height:362px" src="images/img260b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">From Marlatt, <i>Bull.</i> 14 (N.S.) <i>Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a</i>, Body of male Cicad from + below, showing cover-plates of musical organs;</p> +<p><i>b</i>, From above showing drums, natural size;</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>c</i>, Section showing muscles which vibrate drum (magnified);</p> +<p><i>d</i>, A drum at rest;</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Thrown into vibration, more highly magnified.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Sound-producing Organs.</i>—The Hemiptera are remarkable +for the variety of their stridulating organs. In many genera of +the <i>Pentatomidae</i>, bristle-bearing tubercles on the legs are +scraped across a set of fine striations on the abdominal sterna. +In <i>Halobates</i> a comb-like series of sharp spines on the fore-shin +can be drawn across a set of blunt processes on the shin of the +opposite leg. Males of the little water-bugs of the genus <i>Corixa</i> +make a shrill chirping note by drawing a row of teeth on the +flattened fore-foot across a group of spines on the haunch of +the opposite leg. But the loudest and most remarkable vocal +organs of all insects are those of the male cicads, which “sing” +by the rapid vibration of a pair of “drums” or membranes +within the metathorax. These drums are worked by special +muscles, and the cavities in which they lie are protected by +conspicuous plates visible beneath the base of the abdomen +(see fig. 7).</p> + +<p><i>Fossil History.</i>—The Heteroptera can be traced back farther +than any other winged insects if the fossil <i>Protocimex silurica</i> +Moberg, from the Ordovician slates of Sweden is rightly regarded +as the wing of a bug. But according to the recent researches +of A. Handlirsch it is not insectan at all. Both Heteropterous +and Homopterous genera have been described from the Carboniferous, +but the true nature of some of these is doubtful. <i>Eugereon</i> +is a remarkable Permian fossil, with jaws that are typically +hemipterous except that the second maxillae are not fused and +with cockroach-like wings. In the Jurassic period many of the +existing families, such as the <i>Cicadidae</i>, <i>Fulgoridae</i>, <i>Aphidae</i>, +<i>Nepidae</i>, <i>Reduviidae</i>, <i>Hydrometridae</i>, <i>Lygaeidae</i> and <i>Coreidae</i>, +had already become differentiated.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Classification.</i>—The number of described species of Hemiptera +must now be nearly 20,000. The order is divided into two sub-orders, +the Heteroptera and the Homoptera. The Anoplura or lice +should not be included among the Hemiptera, but it has been thought +convenient to refer briefly to them at the close of this article.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">Heteroptera</p> + +<p>In this sub-order are included the various families of bugs and their +aquatic relations. The front of the head is not in contact with the +haunches of the fore-legs. There is usually a marked difference between +the wings of the two pairs. The fore-wing is generally divided into a +firm coriaceous basal region, occupying most of the area, and a membranous +terminal portion, while the hind-wing is delicate and entirely +membranous (see fig. 6). In the firm portion of the fore-wing two +distinct regions can usually be distinguished; most of the area is +formed by the <i>corium</i> (fig. 6, <i>co</i>), which is separated by a longitudinal +suture from the <i>clavus</i> (fig. 6, <i>cl</i>) on its hinder edge, and in some +families there is also a <i>cuneus</i> (fig. 9 <i>cu</i>) external to and an <i>embolium</i> +in front of the <i>corium</i>.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:491px; height:340px" src="images/img260c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">After Marlatt, <i>Bull.</i> 4 (N.S.) <i>Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—Bed-bug (<i>Cimex lectularius</i>, Linn.).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Female from above;</p> +<p><i>b</i>, From beneath;</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>c</i>, Vestigial wing;</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Jaws, very highly magnified (tips of mandibles and 1st + maxillae still more highly magnified).</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Most Heteroptera are flattened in form, and the wings lie flat, or +nearly so, when closed. The young Heteropteron is hatched from +the egg in a form not markedly different from that of its parent; +it is active and takes food through all the stages of its growth. It is +usual to divide the Heteroptera into two tribes—the Gymnocerata +and the Cryptocerata.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:231px; height:322px" src="images/img261a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">After M. V. Slingerland, <i>Cornell Univ. +Ent. Bull.</i> 58.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—Capsid Leaf-bug (<i>Poecilocapsus +lineatus</i>) N. America. +Magnified—, <i>cu</i> cuneus.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Gymnocerata.</i>—This tribe includes some eighteen families of +terrestrial, arboreal and marsh-haunting bugs, as well as those +aquatic Heteroptera that live on the surface-film of water. The +feelers are elongate and conspicuous. The <i>Pentatomidae</i> (shield-bugs), +some of which are metallic or otherwise brightly coloured, +are easily recognized by the great development of the scutellum, +which reaches at least half-way back towards the tip of the abdomen, +and in some genera covers the whole of the hind body, and also the +wings when these are closed. The <i>Coreidae</i> have a smaller scutellum, +and the feelers are inserted high on the head, while in the <i>Lygaeidae</i> +they are inserted lower down. These three families have the foot with +three segments. In the curious little <i>Tingidae</i>, whose integuments +exhibit a pattern of network-like ridges, the feet are two-segmented +and the scutellum is hidden by the pronotum. The <i>Aradidae</i> have +two segmented feet, and a large visible scutellum. The <i>Hydrometridae</i> +are a large family including the pond-skaters and other +dwellers on the surface-film of fresh water, as well as the remarkable +oceanic genus <i>Halobates</i> already referred to. The <i>Reduviidae</i> are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>261</span> +a family of predaceous bugs that attack other insects and suck +their juices; the beak is short, and carried under the head in a hook-like +curve, not—as in the preceding families—lying close against the +breast. The <i>Cimicidae</i> have the feet three-segmented and the forewings +greatly reduced; most of the species are parasites on birds +and bats, but one—<i>Cimex lectidarius</i> (figs. 3, 8)—is the well-known +“bed-bug” which abounds in unclean dwellings and sucks human +blood (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bug</a></span>). The <i>Anthocoridae</i> are nearly related to the <i>Cimicidae</i>, +but the wings are usually well developed and the forewing +possesses cuneus and embolium as well as corium and clavus. The +<i>Capsidae</i> are a large family of rather soft-skinned bugs mostly +elongate in form with the two +basal segments of the feelers +stouter than the two terminal. +The forewing in this family has a +cuneus (fig. 9 <i>cu</i>), but not an +embolium. These insects are often +found in large numbers on plants +whose juices they suck.</p> + +<p><i>Cryptocerata.</i>—In this tribe are +included five or six families of +aquatic Heteroptera which spend +the greater part of their lives +submerged, diving and swimming +through the water. The feelers +are very small and are often +hidden in cavities beneath the +head. The <i>Naucoridae</i> and +<i>Belostomatidae</i> are flattened insects, +with four-segmented feelers +and fore-legs inserted at the front +of the prosternum. Two species +of the former family inhabit our +islands, but the <i>Belostomatidae</i> +are found only in the warmer +regions of the globe; some of +them, attaining a length of 4 to +5 in., are giants among insects. The +<i>Nepidae</i> (fig. 6) or water-scorpions +(<i>q.v.</i>)—two British species—are +distinguished by their three-segmented +feelers, their raptorial +fore-legs (in which the shin and foot, fused together, work like a sharp +knife-blade on the grooved thigh), and their elongate tail-processes +formed of the abdominal pleura and used for respiration. The +<i>Notonectidae</i>, or “water-boatmen” (<i>q.v.</i>) have convex ovoid bodies +admirably adapted for aquatic life. By means of the oar-like hind-legs +they swim actively through the water with the ventral surface +upwards; the fore-legs are inserted at the hinder edge of the prosternum. +The <i>Corixidae</i> are small flattened water-bugs, with very +short unjointed beak, the labrum being enclosed within the second +maxillae, and the foot in the fore and intermediate leg having but +a single segment. The hinder abdominal segments in the male show +a curious asymmetrical arrangement, the sixth segment bearing on its +upper side a small stalked plate (<i>strigil</i>) of unknown function, +furnished with rows of teeth. On account of the reduction and +modification of the jaws in the <i>Corixidae</i>, C. Börner has lately +suggested that they should form a special sub-order of Hemiptera—the +Sandaliorrhyncha.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:390px; height:392px" src="images/img261b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Mariatt, <i>Bull.</i> 14 (N. S.), <i>Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—<i>a</i>, Nymph (4th stage) of Cicad, magnified; <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, inner +and outer faces of front leg, magnified—; <i>b</i>, teeth on thigh, more +highly magnified.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">Homoptera</p> + +<p>This sub-order includes the cicads, lantern-flies, frog-hoppers, +aphids and scale-insects. The face has such a marked backward +slope (see fig. 1) as to bring the beak into close contact with the +haunches of the fore-legs. The feelers have one or more thickened +basal segments, while the remaining segments are slender and thread-like. +The fore-wings are sometimes membranous like the hind-wings, +usually they are firmer in texture, but they never show the distinct +areas that characterize the wings of Heteroptera. When at rest +the wings of Homoptera slope roofwise across the back of the insect. +In their life-history the Homoptera are more specialized than the +Heteroptera; the young insect often differs markedly from its +parent and does not live in the same situations; while in some +families there is a passive stage before the last moult.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:498px; height:225px" src="images/img261c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Weed, Riley and Howard, <i>Insect Life</i>, vol iii.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—Cabbage Aphid (<i>Aphisbrassicae</i>). <i>a</i>, Male; <i>c</i>, female +(wingless). Magnified. <i>b</i> and <i>d</i>, Head and feelers of male and +female, more highly magnified.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:477px; height:476px" src="images/img261d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Howard, <i>Year Book U.S. Dept. Agr.</i>, 1894.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>—Apple Scale Insect (<i>Mytilaspis pomorum</i>). <i>a</i>, Male; +<i>e</i>, female; <i>c</i>, larva magnified—; <i>b</i>, foot of male; <i>d</i>, feeler of larva, +more highly magnified.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>Cicadidae</i> are for the most part large insects with ample wings; +they are distinguished from other Homoptera by the front thighs +being thickened and toothed beneath. The broad head carries, in +addition to the prominent compound eyes, three simple eyes (ocelli) +on the crown, while the feeler consists of a stout basal segment, +followed by five slender segments. The female, by means of her +serrated ovipositor, lays her eggs in slits cut in the twigs of plants. +The young have simple feelers and stout fore-legs (fig. 10) adapted +for digging; they live underground and feed on the roots of plants. +In the case of a North American species it is known that this larval +life lasts for seventeen years. The “song” of the male cicads is +notorious and the structures by which it is produced have already +been described (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cicada</a></span>). There are about 900 known +species, but the family is mostly confined to warm countries; only +a single cicad is found in England, and that is restricted to the south.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:486px; height:496px" src="images/img262a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Howard, <i>Year Book U.S. Dept. Agr.</i>, 1894.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—Apple Scale Insect (<i>Mytilaspis pomorum</i>). a, Scale from +beneath showing female and eggs; <i>b</i>, from above, magnified—; +<i>c</i> and <i>e</i>, female and male scales on twigs, natural size; <i>d</i>, male +scale magnified.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:121px; height:177px" src="images/img262b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Osborn (after Denny), +<i>Bull.</i> 5 (N.S.), <i>Div. Ent. +U.S. Dept. Agr.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>—Louse +(<i>Pediculus vestimenti</i>). +Magnified.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>Fulgoridae</i> and <i>Membracidae</i> are two allied families most of +whose members are also natives of hot regions. The <i>Fulgoridae</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>262</span> +have the head with two ocelli and three-segmented feelers; frequently +as in the tropical “lantern-flies” (<i>q.v.</i>) the head is prolonged into a +conspicuous bladder, or trunk-like process. The <i>Membracidae</i> are +remarkable on account of the backward prolongation of the pronotum +into a process or hood-like structure which may extend far behind the +tail-end of the abdomen. Two other allied families, the <i>Cercopidae</i> +and <i>Jassidae</i>, are more numerously represented in our islands. +The young of many of these insects are green and soft-skinned, +protecting themselves +by the well-known +frothy secretion that is +called “cuckoo-spit.”</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:107px; height:440px" src="images/img262c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Osborn (after +Schiödte), <i>Bull.</i> 5; (N.S.), +<i>Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. +Agr.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>—Proboscis +of Pediculus. +Highly magnified.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In all the above-mentioned +families of +Homoptera there are +three segments in each +foot. The remaining +four families have feet +with only two segments. +They are of +very great zoological +interest on account of +the peculiarities of +their life-history—parthenogenesis +being of +normal occurrence +among most of them. The families <i>Psyllidae</i> +(or “jumpers”) with eight or ten segments in +the feeler and the <i>Aleyrodidae</i> (or “snowy-flies”) +distinguished by their white mealy +wings, are of comparatively slight importance. +The two families to which special attention +has been paid are the <i>Aphidae</i> or plant-lice +(“green fly”) and the <i>Coccidae</i> or scale-insects. +The aphids (fig. 11) have feelers with seven or +fewer distinct segments, and the fifth abdominal +segment usually carries a pair of tubular processes +through which a waxy secretion is discharged. +The sweet “honey-dew,” often +sought as a food by ants, is secreted from the +intestines of aphids. The peculiar life-cycle in +which successive generations are produced +through the summer months by virgin females—the +egg developing within the body of the mother—is described +at length in the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aphides</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Phylloxera</a></span>. The +<i>Coccidae</i> have only a single claw to the foot; the males (fig. 12 <i>a</i>) +have the fore-wings developed and the hind-wings greatly reduced, +while in the female wings are totally absent and the body undergoes +marked degradation (figs. 12, <i>e</i>, 13, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>). In the Coccids the formation +of a protective waxy secretion—present in many genera of +Homoptera—reaches its most extreme development. In some coccids—the +“mealy-bugs” (<i>Dactylopius</i>, &c.) for example—the secretion +forms a white thread-like or plate-like covering which the insect +carries about. But in most members of the family, the secretion, +united with cast cuticles and excrement, forms a firm “scale,” +closely attached by its edges to the surface of the plant on which +the insect lives, and serving as a shield beneath which the female +coccid, with her eggs (fig. 13 <i>a</i>) and brood, finds shelter. The male +coccid passes through a passive stage (fig. 4) before attaining the +perfect condition. Many scale-insects are among the most serious +of pests, but various species have been utilized by man for the +production of wax (lac) and red dye (cochineal). See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Economic +Entomology</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scale-Insect</a></span>.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">Anoplura</p> + +<p>The Anoplura or lice (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Louse</a></span>) are wingless parasitic insects +(fig. 14) forming an order distinct from the Hemiptera, their sucking +and piercing mouth-organs being apparently formed on quite a +different plan from those of the Heteroptera and Homoptera. In +front of the head is a short tube armed with strong recurved hooks +which can be fixed into the skin of the host, and from the tube an +elongate more slender sucking-trunk can be protruded (fig. 15). +Each foot is provided with a single strong claw which, opposed to +a process on the shin, serves to grasp a hair of the host, all the lice +being parasites on different mammals. Although G. Enderlein has +recently shown that the jaws of the Hemiptera can be recognized +in a reduced condition in connexion with the louse’s proboscis, the +modification is so excessive that the group certainly deserves ordinal +separation.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—A recent standard work on the morphology of +the Hemiptera by R. Heymons (<i>Nova Acta Acad. Leop. Carol.</i> +lxxiv. 3, 1899) contains numerous references to older literature. +An excellent survey of the order is given by D. Sharp (<i>Cambridge +Nat. Hist.</i> vol. vi., 1898). For internal structure of Heteroptera see +R. Dufour, <i>Mem. savans étrangers</i> (Paris, iv., 1833); of Homoptera, +E. Witlaczil (<i>Arb. Zool. Inst. Wien</i>, iv., 1882, <i>Zeits. f. wiss. Zool.</i> +xliii., 1885). The development of Aphids has been dealt with by +T. H. Huxley (<i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> xxii., 1858) and E. Witlaczil (<i>Zeits. +f. wiss. Zool.</i> xl., 1884). Fossil Hemiptera are described by S. H. +Scudder in K. Zittel’s <i>Paléontologie</i> (French translation, vol. ii. +Paris, 1887, and English edition, vol. i., London, 1900), and by A. +Handlirsch (<i>Verh. zool. bot. Gesell. Wien</i>, lii., 1902). Among general +systematic works on Heteroptera may be mentioned J. C. Schiödte +(<i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> (4) vi., 1870); C. Stal’s <i>Enumeratio Hemipterorum</i> +(<i>K. Svensk. Vet. Akad. Handl.</i> ix.-xiv., 1870-1876); L. +Lethierry and G. Severin’s <i>Catalogue générale des hémiptères</i> (Brussels +1893, &c.); G. C. Champion’s volumes in the <i>Biologia Centrali-Americana</i>; +W. L. Distant’s Oriental Cicadidae (London, 1889-1892), +and many other papers; M. E. Fernald’s <i>Catalogue of the Coccidae</i> +(Amherst, U.S.A., 1903). European Hemiptera have been dealt with +in numerous papers by A. Puton. For British species we have +E. Saunders’s <i>Hemiptera-Heteroptera of the British Isles</i> (London, +1892); J. Edwards’s Hemiptera-Homoptera of the British Isles +(London, 1896); J. B. Buckton’s <i>British Aphidae</i> (London, Ray +Society, 1875-1882); and R. Newstead’s <i>British Coccidae</i> (London, +Ray Society, 1901-1903). Aquatic Hemiptera are described by +L. C. Miall (<i>Nat. History Aquatic Insects</i>; London, 1895), and by +G. W. Kirkaldy in numerous recent papers (<i>Entomologist</i>, &c.). For +marine Hemiptera (<i>Halobates</i>) see F. B. White (<i>Challenger Reports</i>, +vii., 1883); J. J. Walker (<i>Ent. Mo. Mag.</i>, 1893); N. Nassonov +(Warsaw, 1893), and G. H. Carpenter (<i>Knowledge</i>, 1901, and <i>Report, +Pearl Oyster Fisheries, Royal Society</i>, 1906). Sound-producing +organs of Heteroptera are described by A. Handlirsch (<i>Ann. Hofmus. +Wien</i>, xv. 1900), and G. W. Kirkaldy (<i>Journ. Quekett Club</i> (2) viii. +1901); of Cicads by G. Carlet (<i>Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool.</i> (6) v. 1877). +For the Anoplura see E. Piaget’s <i>Pediculines</i> (Leiden, 1880-1905), +and G. Enderlein (<i>Zool. Anz.</i> xxviii., 1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. H. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEMLOCK<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (in O. Eng. <i>hemlic</i> or <i>hymlice</i>; no cognate is found +in any other language, and the origin is unknown), the <i>Conium +maculatum</i> of botanists, a biennial umbelliferous plant, found +wild in many parts of Great Britain and Ireland, where it occurs +in waste places on hedge-banks, and by the borders of fields, +and also widely spread over Europe and temperate Asia, and +naturalized in the cultivated districts of North and South +America. It is an erect branching plant, growing from 3 to 6 ft. +high, and emitting a disagreeable smell, like that of mice. The +stems are hollow, smooth, somewhat glaucous green, spotted with +dull dark purple, as alluded to in the specific name, <i>maculatum</i>. +The root-leaves have long furrowed footstalks, sheathing the +stem at the base, and are large, triangular in outline, and +repeatedly divided or compound, the ultimate and very numerous +segments being small, ovate, and deeply incised at the edge. +These leaves generally perish after the growth of the flowering +stem, which takes place in the second year, while the leaves +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>263</span> +produced on the stem became gradually smaller upwards. The +branches are all terminated by compound many-rayed umbels +of small white flowers, the general involucres consisting of several, +the partial ones of about three short lanceolate bracts, the latter +being usually turned towards the outside of the umbel. The +flowers are succeeded by broadly ovate fruits, the mericarps +(half-fruits) having five ribs which, when mature, are waved +or crenated; and when cut across the albumen is seen to be +deeply furrowed on the inner face, so as to exhibit in section a +reniform outline. The fruits when triturated with a solution +of caustic potash evolve a most unpleasant odour.</p> + +<p>Hemlock is a virulent poison, but it varies much in potency +according to the conditions under which it has grown, and the +season or stage of growth at which it is gathered. In the first +year the leaves have little power, nor in the second are their +properties developed until the flowering period, at which time, +or later on when the fruits are fully grown, the plant should be +gathered. The wild plant growing in exposed situations is to +be preferred to garden-grown samples, and is more potent in +dry warm summers than in those which are dull and moist.</p> + +<p>The poisonous property of hemlock resides chiefly in the +alkaloid <i>conine</i> or <i>conia</i> which is found in both the fruits and +the leaves, though in exceedingly small proportions in the latter. +Conine resembles nicotine in its deleterious action, but is much +less powerful. No chemical antidote for it is known. The +plant also yields a second less poisonous crystallizable base +called <i>conhydrine</i>, which may be converted into conine by the +abstraction of the elements of water. When collected for +medicinal purposes, for which both leaves and fruits are used, +the former should be gathered at the time the plant is in full +blossom, while the latter are said to possess the greatest degree +of energy just before they ripen. The fruits are the chief source +whence conine is prepared. The principal forms in which hemlock +is employed are the extract and juice of hemlock, hemlock +poultice, and the tincture of hemlock fruits. Large doses +produce vertigo, nausea and paralysis; but in smaller quantities, +administered by skilful hands, it has a sedative action on the +nerves. It has also some reputation as an alterative and resolvent, +and as an anodyne.</p> + +<p>The acrid narcotic properties of the plant render it of some +importance that one should be able to identify it, the more so +as some of the compound-leaved umbellifers, which have a +general similarity of appearance to it, form wholesome food +for man and animals. Not only is this knowledge desirable +to prevent the poisonous plant being detrimentally used in place +of the wholesome one; it is equally important in the opposite +case, namely, to prevent the inert being substituted for the +remedial agent. The plant with which hemlock is most likely +to be confounded is <i>Anthriscus sylvestris</i>, or cow-parsley, the +leaves of which are freely eaten by cattle and rabbits; this plant, +like the hemlock, has spotted stems but they are hairy, not +hairless; it has much-divided leaves of the same general form, +but they are downy and aromatic, not smooth and nauseous +when bruised; and the fruit of <i>Anthriscus</i> is linear-oblong +and not ovate.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEMP<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (in O. Eng. <i>henep</i>, cf. Dutch <i>hennep</i>, Ger. <i>Hanf</i>, cognate +with Gr. <span class="grk" title="kannabis">κάνναβις</span>, Lat. <i>cannabis</i>), an annual herb (<i>Cannabis sativa</i>) +having angular rough stems and alternate deeply lobed leaves. +The bast fibres of <i>Cannabis</i> are the hemp of commerce, but, +unfortunately, the products from many totally different plants +are often included under the general name of hemp. In some +cases the fibre is obtained from the stem, while in others it +comes from the leaf. Sunn hemp, Manila hemp, Sisal hemp, +and Phormium (New Zealand flax, which is neither flax nor +hemp) are treated separately. All these, however, are often +classed under the above general name, and so are the following:—Deccan +or Ambari hemp, <i>Hibiscus cannabinus</i>, an Indian and +East Indian malvaceous plant, the fibre from which is often +known as brown hemp or Bombay hemp; Pité hemp, which +is obtained from the American aloe, <i>Agave americana</i>; and +Moorva or bowstring-hemp, <i>Sansevieria zeylanica</i>, which is +obtained from an aloe-like plant, and is a native of India and +Ceylon. Then there are Canada hemp, <i>Apocynum cannabinum</i>, +Kentucky hemp, <i>Urtica cannabina</i>, and others.</p> + +<p>The hemp plant, like the hop, which is of the same natural +order, Cannabinaceae, is dioecious, <i>i.e.</i> the male and female +flowers are borne on separate plants. The female plant grows +to a greater height than the male, and its foliage is darker and +more luxuriant, but the plant takes from five to six weeks longer +to ripen. When the male plants are ripe they are pulled, put +up into bundles, and steeped in a similar manner to flax, but +the female plants are allowed to remain until the seed is perfectly +ripe. They are then pulled, and after the seed has been removed +are retted in the ordinary way. The seed is also a valuable +product; the finest is kept for sowing, a large quantity is sold +for the food of cage birds, while the remainder is sent to the oil +mills to be crushed. The extracted oil is used in the manufacture +of soap, while the solid remains, known as oil-cake, are valuable +as a food for cattle. The leaves of hemp have five to seven +leaflets, the form of which is lanceolate-acuminate, with a +serrate margin. The loose panicles of male flowers, and the +short spikes of female flowers, arise from the axils of the upper +leaves. The height of the plant varies greatly with season, soil +and manuring; in some districts it varies from 3 to 8 ft., +but in the Piedmont province it is not unusual to see them +from 8 to 16 ft. in height, whilst a variety (<i>Cannabis +sativa</i>, variety <i>gigantea</i>) has produced specimens over 17 ft. in +height.</p> + +<p>All cultivated hemp belongs to the same species, <i>Cannabis +sativa</i>; the special varieties such as <i>Cannabis indica</i>, <i>Cannabis +chinensis</i>, &c., owe their differences to climate and soil, and they +lose many of their peculiarities when cultivated in temperate +regions. Rumphius (in the 17th century) had noticed these +differences between Indian and European hemp.</p> + +<p>Wild hemp still grows on the banks of the lower Ural, and +the Volga, near the Caspian Sea. It extends to Persia, the +Altai range and northern and western China. The authors of +the <i>Pharmacographia</i> say:—“It is found in Kashmir and in +the Himalaya, growing 10 to 12 ft. high, and thriving vigorously +at an elevation of 6000 to 10,000 ft.” Wild hemp is, however, +of very little use as a fibre producer, although a drug is obtained +from it.</p> + +<p>It would appear that the native country of the hemp plant is +in some part of temperate Asia, probably near the Caspian Sea. +It spread westward throughout Europe, and southward through +the Indian peninsula.</p> + +<p>The names given to the plant and to its products in different +countries are of interest in connexion with the utilization of the +fibre and resin. In Sans. it is called <i>goni</i>, <i>sana</i>, <i>shanapu</i>, <i>banga</i> +and <i>ganjika</i>; in Bengali, <i>ganga</i>; Pers. <i>bang</i> and <i>canna</i>; Arab. +<i>kinnub</i> or <i>cannub</i>; Gr. <i>kannabis</i>; Lat. <i>cannabis</i>; Ital. <i>canappa</i>; +Fr. <i>chanvre</i>; Span. <i>cáñamo</i>; Portuguese, <i>cánamo</i>; Russ. +<i>konópel</i>; Lettish and Lithuanian, <i>kannapes</i>; Slav. <i>konopi</i>; +Erse, <i>canaib</i> and <i>canab</i>; A. Sax. <i>hoenep</i>; Dutch, <i>hennep</i>; +Ger. <i>Hanf</i>; Eng. <i>hemp</i>; Danish and Norwegian, <i>hamp</i>; Icelandic, +<i>hampr</i>; and in Swed. <i>hampa</i>. The English word <i>canvas</i> +sufficiently reveals its derivation from <i>cannabis</i>.</p> + +<p>Very little hemp is now grown in the British Isles, although +this variety was considered to be of very good quality, and to +possess great strength. The chief continental hemp-producing +countries are Italy, Russia and France; it is also grown in +several parts of Canada and the United States and India. The +Central Provinces, Bengal and Bombay are the chief centres +of hemp cultivation in India, where the plant is of most use for +narcotics. The satisfactory growth of hemp demands a light, +rich and fertile soil, but, unlike most substances, it may be +reared for a few years in succession. The time of sowing, the +quantity of seed per acre (about three bushels) and the method +of gathering and retting are very similar to those of flax; but, +as a rule, it is a hardier plant than flax, does not possess the same +pliability, is much coarser and more brittle, and does not require +the same amount of attention during the first few weeks of its +growth.</p> + +<p>The very finest hemp, that grown in the province of Piedmont, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a>264</span> +Italy, is, however, very similar to flax, and in many cases the two +fibres are mixed in the same material. The hemp fibre has +always been valuable for the rope industry, and it was at one +time very extensively used in the production of yarns for the +manufacture of sail cloth, sheeting, covers, bagging, sacking, &c. +Much of the finer quality is still made into cloth, but almost all +the coarser quality finds its way into ropes and similar material.</p> + +<p>A large quantity of hemp cloth is still made for the British +navy. The cloth, when finished, is cut up into lengths, made +into bags and tarred. They are then used as coal sacks. There +is also a quantity made into sacks which are intended to hold +very heavy material. Hemp yarns are also used in certain +classes of carpets, for special bags for use in cop dyeing and for +similar special purposes, but for the ordinary bagging and +sacking the employment of hemp yarns has been almost entirely +supplanted by yarns made from the jute fibre.</p> + +<p>Hemp is grown for three products—(1) the fibre of its stem; +(2) the resinous secretion which is developed in hot countries +upon its leaves and flowering heads; (3) its oily seeds.</p> + +<p>Hemp has been employed for its fibre from ancient times. +Herodotus (iv. 74) mentions the wild and cultivated hemp of +Scythia, and describes the hempen garments made by the +Thracians as equal to linen in fineness. Hesychius says the +Thracian women made sheets of hemp. Moschion (about 200 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>) records the use of hempen ropes for rigging the ship +“Syracusia” built for Hiero II. The hemp plant has been +cultivated in northern India from a considerable antiquity, +not only as a drug but for its fibre. The Anglo-Saxons were +well acquainted with the mode of preparing hemp. Hempen +cloth became common in central and southern Europe in the +13th century.</p> + +<p><i>Hemp-resin.</i>—Hemp as a drug or intoxicant for smoking +and chewing occurs in the three forms of bhang, ganja and +charas.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Bhang</i>, the Hindustani <i>siddhi</i> or <i>sabzi</i>, consists of the +dried leaves and small stalks of the hemp; a few fruits occur in +it. It is of a dark brownish-green colour, and has a faint peculiar +odour and but a slight taste. It is smoked with or without +tobacco; or it is made into a sweetmeat with honey, sugar +and aromatic spices; or it is powdered and infused in cold water, +yielding a turbid drink, <i>subdschi</i>. <i>Hashish</i> is one of the Arabic +names given to the Syrian and Turkish preparations of the +resinous hemp leaves. One of the commonest of these preparations +is made by heating the bhang with water and butter, the +butter becoming thus charged with the resinous and active +substances of the plant.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Ganja</i>, the guaza of the London brokers, consists of the +flowering and fruiting heads of the female plant. It is brownish-green, +and otherwise resembles bhang, as in odour and taste. +Some of the more esteemed kinds of hashish are prepared from +this ganja. Ganja is met with in the Indian bazaars in dense +bundles of 24 plants or heads apiece. The hashish in such +extensive use in Central Asia is often seen in the bazaars of large +cities in the form of cakes, 1 to 3 in. thick, 5 to 10 in. broad and +10 to 15 in. long.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Charas</i>, or churrus, is the resin itself collected, as it exudes +naturally from the plant, in different ways. The best sort is +gathered by the hand like opium; sometimes the resinous +exudation of the plant is made to stick first of all to cloths, or +to the leather garments of men, or even to their skin, and is then +removed by scraping, and afterwards consolidated by kneading, +pressing and rolling. It contains about one-third or one-fourth +its weight of the resin. But the churrus prepared by different +methods and in different countries differs greatly in appearance +and purity. Sometimes it takes the form of egg-like masses of +greyish-brown colour, having when of high quality a shining +resinous fracture. Often it occurs in the form of irregular +friable lumps, like pieces of impure linseed oil-cake.</p> + +<p>The medicinal and intoxicating properties of hemp have +probably been known in Oriental countries from a very early +period. An ancient Chinese herbal, part of which was written +about the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, while the remainder is of still earlier +date, notices the seed and flower-bearing kinds of hemp. Other +early writers refer to hemp as a remedy. The medicinal and +dietetic use of hemp spread through India, Persia and Arabia +in the early middle ages. The use of hemp (bhang) in India was +noticed by Garcia d’Orta in 1563. Berlu in his <i>Treasury of Drugs</i> +(1690) describes it as of “an infatuating quality and pernicious +use.” Attention was recalled to this drug, in consequence of +Napoleon’s Egyptian expedition, by de Sacy (1809) and Rouger +(1810). Its modern medicinal use is chiefly due to trials by Dr +O’Shaughnessy in Calcutta (1838-1842). The plant is grown +partly and often mainly for the sake of its resin in Persia, northern +India and Arabia, in many parts of Africa and in Brazil.</p> + +<p><i>Pharmacology and Therapeutics.</i>—The composition of this +drug is still extremely obscure; partly, perhaps, because it +varies so much in individual specimens. It appears to contain +at least two alkaloids—cannabinine and tetano-cannabine—of +which the former is volatile. The chief active principle may +possibly be neither of these, but the substance cannabinon. +There are also resins, a volatile oil and several other constituents. +Cannabis indica—as the drug is termed in the pharmacopoeias—may +be given as an extract (dose ¼-1 gr.) or tincture (dose 5-15 +minims).</p> + +<p>The drug has no external action. The effects of its absorption, +whether it be swallowed or smoked, vary within wide limits +in different individuals and races. So great is this variation as +to be inexplicable except on the view that the nature and proportions +of the active principles vary greatly in different specimens. +But typically the drug <span class="correction" title="amended from in">is</span> an intoxicant, resembling alcohol in +many features of its action, but differing in others. The early +symptoms are highly pleasurable, and it is for these, as in the case +of other stimulants, that the drug is so largely consumed in the +East. There is a subjective sensation of mental brilliance, but, +as in other cases, this is not borne out by the objective results. +It has been suggested that the incoordination of nervous action +under the influence of Indian hemp may be due to independent +and non-concerted action on the part of the two halves of the +cerebrum. Following on a decided lowering of the pain and +touch senses, which may even lead to complete loss of cutaneous +sensation, there comes a sleep which is often accompanied by +pleasant dreams. There appears to be no evidence in the case +of either the lower animals or the human subject that the drug +is an aphrodisiac. Excessive indulgence in cannabis indica is +very rare, but may lead to general ill-health and occasionally to +insanity. The apparent impossibility of obtaining pure and +trustworthy samples of the drug has led to its entire abandonment +in therapeutics. When a good sample is obtained it is a +safe and efficient hypnotic, at any rate in the case of a European. +The tincture should not be prescribed unless precautions are +taken to avoid the precipitation of the resin which follows its +dilution with water.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Watt, <i>Dictionary of the Economic Products of India</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEMSTERHUIS, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar27a" id="ar27a"></a></span> (1721-1790), Dutch writer on +aesthetics and moral philosophy, son of Tiberius Hemsterhuis, +was born at Franeker in Holland, on the 27th of December 1721. +He was educated at the university of Leiden, where he studied +Plato. Failing to obtain a professorship, he entered the service +of the state, and for many years acted as secretary to the state +council of the United Provinces. He died at the Hague on the +7th of July 1790. Through his philosophical writings he became +acquainted with many distinguished persons—Goethe, Herder, +Princess Amalia of Gallitzin, and especially Jacobi, with whom +he had much in common. Both were idealists, and their works +suffer from a similar lack of arrangement, although distinguished +by elegance of form and refined sentiment. His most valuable +contributions are in the department of aesthetics or the general +analysis of feeling. His philosophy has been characterized as +Socratic in content and Platonic in form. Its foundation was +the desire for self-knowledge and truth, untrammelled by the +rigid bonds of any particular system.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His most important works, all of which were written in French, are: +<i>Lettre sur la sculpture</i> (1769), in which occurs the well-known definition +of the Beautiful as “that which gives us the greatest number of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>265</span> +ideas in the shortest space of time”; its continuation, <i>Lettre sur +les désirs</i> (1770); <i>Lettre sur l’homme et ses rapports</i> (1772), in which +the “moral organ” and the theory of knowledge are discussed; +<i>Sopyle</i> (1778), a dialogue on the relation between the soul and the +body, and also an attack on materialism; <i>Aristée</i> (1779), the +“theodicy” of Hemsterhuis, discussing the existence of God and his +relation to man; <i>Simon</i> (1787), on the four faculties of the soul, +which are the will, the imagination, the moral principle (which is +both passive and active); <i>Alexis</i> (1787), an attempt to prove that +there are three golden ages, the last being the life beyond the grave; +<i>Lettre sur l’athéisme</i> (1787).</p> + +<p>The best collected edition of his works is by P. S. Meijboom +(1846-1850); see also S. A. Gronemann, <i>F. Hemsterhuis, de Nederlandische +Wijsgeer</i> (Utrecht, 1867); E. Grucker, <i>François Hemsterhuis, +sa vie et ses œuvres</i> (Paris, 1866); E. Meyer, <i>Der Philosoph Franz +Hemsterhuis</i> (Breslau, 1893), with bibliographical notice.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEMSTERHUIS, TIBERIUS<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1685-1766), Dutch philologist +and critic, was born on the 9th of January 1685 at Groningen +in Holland. His father, a learned physician, gave him so good +an early education that, when he entered the university of his +native town in his fifteenth year, he speedily proved himself to +be the best student of mathematics. After a year or two at +Groningen, he was attracted to the university of Leiden by the +fame of Perizonius; and while there he was entrusted with the +duty of arranging the manuscripts in the library. Though he +accepted an appointment as professor of mathematics and +philosophy at Amsterdam in his twentieth year, he had already +directed his attention to the study of the ancient languages. +In 1706 he completed the edition of Pollux’s <i>Onomasticon</i> begun +by Lederlin; but the praise he received from his countrymen +was more than counterbalanced by two letters of criticism from +Bentley, which mortified him so keenly that for two months he +refused to open a Greek book. In 1717 Hemsterhuis was +appointed professor of Greek at Franeker, but he did not enter +on his duties there till 1720. In 1738 he became professor of +national history also. Two years afterwards he was called to +teach the same subjects at Leiden, where he died on the 7th of +April 1766. Hemsterhuis was the founder of a laborious and +useful Dutch school of criticism, which had famous disciples +in Valckenaer, Lennep and Ruhnken.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His chief writings are the following: <i>Luciani colloquia et Timon</i> +(1708); <i>Aristophanis Plutus</i> (1744); <i>Notae, &c., ad Xenophontem +Ephesium in the Miscellanea critica</i> of Amsterdam, vols. iii. and +iv.; <i>Observationes ad Chrysostomi homilias; Orationes</i> (1784); +a Latin translation of the <i>Birds</i> of Aristophanes, in Küster’s edition; +notes to Bernard’s <i>Thomas Magister</i>, to Alberti’s <i>Hesychius</i>, to +Ernesti’s <i>Callimachus</i> and to Burmann’s <i>Propertius</i>. See <i>Elogium +T. Hemsterhusii</i> (with Bentley’s letters) by Ruhnken (1789), and +<i>Supplementa annotationis ad elogium T. Hemsterhusii, &c.</i> (Leiden, +1874); also J. E. Sandys’ <i>Hist. Class. Scholarship</i>, ii. (1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEMY, CHARLES NAPIER<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1841-  ), British painter, +born at Newcastle-on-Tyne, was trained in the Newcastle school +of art, in the Antwerp academy and in the studio of Baron Leys. +He has produced some figure subjects and landscapes, but is +best known by his admirable marine paintings. He was elected +an associate of the Royal Academy in 1898, associate of the Royal +Society of Painters in Water Colours in 1890 and member in +1897. Two of his paintings, “Pilchards” (1897) and “London +River” (1904), are in the National Gallery of British Art.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEN,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> a female bird, especially the female of the common fowl +(<i>q.v.</i>). The O. Eng. <i>hæn</i> is the feminine form of <i>hana</i>, the male bird, +a correlation of words which is represented in other Teutonic +languages, cf. Ger. <i>Hahn</i>, <i>Henne</i>, Dutch <i>haan</i>, <i>hen</i>, Swed. <i>hane</i>, +<i>hönne</i>, &c. The O. Eng. name for the male bird has disappeared, +its place being taken by “cock,” a word probably of onomatopoeic +origin, being from a base <i>kuk</i>- or <i>kik</i>-, seen also in “chicken.” +This word also appears in Fr. <i>coq</i>, and medieval Lat. <i>coccus</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÉNAULT, CHARLES JEAN FRANÇOIS<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1685-1770), French +historian, was born in Paris on the 8th of February 1685. His +father, a farmer-general of taxes, was a man of literary tastes, +and young Hénault obtained a good education at the Jesuit +college. Captivated by the eloquence of Massillon, in his fifteenth +year he entered the Oratory with the view of becoming a preacher, +but after two years’ residence he changed his intention, and, +inheriting a position which secured him access to the most select +society of Paris, he achieved distinction at an early period by his +gay, witty and graceful manners. His literary talent, manifested +in the composition of various light poetical pieces, an +opera, a tragedy (<i>Cornélie vestale</i>, 1710), &c., obtained his entrance +to the Academy (1723). <i>Petit-maître</i> as he was, he had also +serious capacity, for he became councillor of the <i>parlement</i> of +Paris (1705), and in 1710 he was chosen president of the court of +<i>enquêtes</i>. After the death of the count de Rieux (son of the +famous financier, Samuel Bernard) he became (1753) superintendent +of the household of Queen Marie Leszczynska, whose +intimate friendship he had previously enjoyed. On his recovery +in his eightieth year from a dangerous malady (1765) he professed +to have undergone religious conversion and retired into +private life, devoting the remainder of his days to study and +devotion. His religion was, however, according to the marquis +d’Argenson, “exempt from fanaticism, persecution, bitterness +and intrigue”; and it did not prevent him from continuing his +friendship with Voltaire, to whom it is said he had formerly +rendered the service of saving the manuscript of <i>La Henriade</i>, +when its author was about to commit it to the flames. The +literary work on which Hénault bestowed his chief attention was +the <i>Abrégé chronologique de l’histoire de France</i>, first published +in 1744 without the author’s name. In the compass of two +volumes he comprised the whole history of France from the +earliest times to the death of Louis XIV. The work has no +originality. Hénault had kept his note-books of the history +lectures at the Jesuit college, of which the substance was taken +from Mézeray and P. Daniel. He revised them first in 1723, +and later put them in the form of question and answer on the +model of P. le Ragois, and by following Dubos and Boulainvilliers +and with the aid of the abbé Boudot he compiled his <i>Abrégé</i>. +The research is all on the surface and is only borrowed. But +the work had a prodigious success, and was translated into +several languages, even into Chinese. This was due partly to +Hénault’s popularity and position, partly to the agreeable style +which made the history readable. He inserted, according to +the fashion of the period, moral and political reflections, +which are always brief and generally as fresh and pleasing as they +are just. A few masterly strokes reproduced the leading features +of each age and the characters of its illustrious men; accurate +chronological tables set forth the most interesting events in the +history of each sovereign and the names of the great men +who flourished during his reign; and interspersed throughout +the work are occasional chapters on the social and civil state of +the country at the close of each era in its history. Continuations +of the work have been made at separate periods by Fantin des +Odoards, by Anguis with notes by Walckenaer, and by Michaud. +He died at Paris on the 24th of November 1770.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Hénault’s <i>Mémoires</i> have come down to us in +two different versions, both claiming to be authentic. One was +published in 1855 by M. du Vigan; the other was owned by the +Comte de Coutades, who permitted Lucien Perey to give long extracts +in his work on President Hénault (Paris, 1893). The memoirs are +fragmentary and disconnected, but contain interesting anecdotes and +details concerning persons of note. See the <i>Correspondance</i> of Grimm, +of Madame du Deffand and of Voltaire; the notice by Walckenaer +in the edition of the <i>Abrégé</i>; Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, +vol. xi.; and the <i>Origines de l’abrégé</i> (<i>Ann. Bulletin de la Société de +l’histoire de France</i>, 1901). Also H. Lion, <i>Le Président Hénault</i> +(Paris, 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENBANE<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (Fr. <i>jusquiaume</i>, from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="hyoskuamos">ὑοσκύαμος</span>, or +hog’s-bean; Ital. <i>giusquiamo</i>; Ger. <i>Schwarzes Bilsenkraut</i>, +<i>Hühnertod</i>, <i>Saubohne</i> and <i>Zigeuner-Korn</i> or “gipsies’ corn”), +the common name of the plant <i>Hyoscyamus niger</i>, a member +of the natural order Solanaceae, indigenous to Britain, found +wild in waste places, on rubbish about villages and old castles, +and cultivated for medicinal use in various counties in the south +and east of England. It occurs also in central and southern +Europe and in western Asia extending to India and Siberia, +and has long been naturalized in the United States. There +are two forms of the plant, an annual and a biennial, which +spring indifferently from the same crop of seed—the one growing +on during summer to a height of from 1 to 2 ft., and flowering +and perfecting seed; the other producing the first season only +a tuft of radical leaves, which disappear in winter, leaving underground +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>266</span> +a thick fleshy root, from the crown of which arises in +spring a branched flowering stem, usually much taller and more +vigorous than the flowering stems of the annual plants. The +biennial form is that which is considered officinal. The radical +leaves of this biennial plant spread out flat on all sides from the +crown of the root; they are ovate-oblong, acute, stalked, and +more or less incisely-toothed, of a greyish-green colour, and +covered with viscid hairs; these leaves perish at the approach +of winter. The flowering stem pushes up from the root-crown +in spring, ultimately reaching from 3 to 4 ft. in height, and as it +grows becoming branched, and furnished with alternate sessile +leaves, which are stem-clasping, oblong, unequally-lobed, clothed +with glandular clammy hairs, and of a dull grey-green, the whole +plant having a powerful nauseous odour. The flowers are +shortly-stalked, the lower ones growing in the fork of the branches, +the upper ones sessile in one-sided leafy spikes which are rolled +back at the top before flowering, the leaves becoming smaller +upwards and taking the place of bracts. The flowers have an +urn-shaped calyx which persists around the fruit and is strongly +veined, with five stiff, broad, almost prickly lobes; these, +when the soft matter is removed by maceration, form very elegant +specimens when associated with leaves prepared in a similar +way. The corollas are obliquely funnel-shaped, of a dirty +yellow or buff, marked with a close reticulation of purple veins. +The capsule opens transversely by a convex lid and contains +numerous seeds. Both the leaves and the seeds are employed +in pharmacy. The Mahommedan doctors of India are +accustomed to prescribe the seeds. Henbane yields a poisonous +alkaloid, <i>hyoscyamine</i>, which is stated to have properties almost +identical with those of atropine, from which it differs in being +more soluble in water. It is usually obtained in an amorphous, +scarcely ever in a crystalline state. Its properties have been +investigated in Germany by T. Husemann, Schroff, Höhn, &c. +Höhn finds its chemical composition expressed by +C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">28</span>N<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>. (Compare Hellmann, <i>Beiträge zur Kenntnis der physiolog. +Wirkung des Hyoscyamins</i>, &c., Jena, 1874.) In small and +repeated doses henbane has been found to have a tranquillizing +effect upon persons affected by severe nervous irritability. +In poisonous doses it causes loss of speech, distortion and +paralysis. In the form of extract or tincture it is a valuable +remedy in the hands of a medical man, either as an anodyne, +a hypnotic or a sedative. The extract of henbane is rich in +nitrate of potassium and other inorganic salts. The smoking +of the seeds and capsules of henbane is noted in books as a +somewhat dangerous remedy adopted by country people for +toothache. Accidental poisoning from henbane occasionally +occurs, owing sometimes to the apparent edibility and wholesomeness +of the root.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Bentley and Trumen, <i>Medicinal Plants</i>, 194 (1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENCHMAN<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span>, originally, probably, one who attended on a +horse, a groom, and hence, like groom (<i>q.v.</i>), a title of a subordinate +official in royal or noble households. The first part +of the word is the O. Eng. <i>hengest</i>, a horse, a word which occurs in +many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. and Dutch <i>hengst</i>. The word +appears in the name, Hengest, of the Saxon chieftain (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hengest and Horsa</a></span>) and still survives in English in place and +other names beginning with Hingst- or Hinx-. Henchmen, +pages of honour or squires, rode or walked at the side of their +master in processions and the like, and appear in the English +royal household from the 14th century till Elizabeth abolished +the royal henchmen, known also as the “children of honour.” +The word was obsolete in English from the middle of the 17th +century, and seems to have been revived through Sir Walter +Scott, who took the word and its derivation, according to the +<i>New English Dictionary</i>, from Edward Burt’s <i>Letters from a +Gentleman in the North of Scotland</i>, together with its erroneous +derivation from “haunch.” The word is, in this sense, used as +synonymous with “gillie,” the faithful personal follower of a +Highland chieftain, the man who stands at his master’s “haunch,” +ready for any emergency. It is this sense that usually survives +in modern usage of the word, where it is often used of an out-and-out +adherent or partisan, ready to do anything.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENDERSON, ALEXANDER<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (1583-1646), Scottish ecclesiastic, +was born in 1583 at Criech, Fifeshire. He graduated at +the university of St Andrews in 1603, and in 1610 was appointed +professor of rhetoric and philosophy and questor of the faculty +of arts. Shortly after this he was presented to the living of +Leuchars. As Henderson was forced upon his parish by Archbishop +George Gladstanes, and was known to sympathize with +episcopacy, his settlement was at first extremely unpopular; +but he subsequently changed his views and became a Presbyterian +in doctrine and church government, and one of the most +esteemed ministers in Scotland. He early made his mark as a +church leader, and took an active part in petitioning against the +“five acts” and later against the introduction of a service-book +and canons drawn up on the model of the English prayer-book. +On the 1st of March 1638 the public signing of the “National +Covenant” began in Greyfriars Church, Edinburgh. Henderson +was mainly responsible for the final form of this document, +which consisted of (1) the “king’s confession” drawn up in +1581 by John Craig, (2) a recital of the acts of parliament +against “superstitious and papistical rites,” and (3) an elaborate +oath to maintain the true reformed religion. Owing to the skill +shown on this occasion he seems to have been applied to when +any manifesto of unusual ability was required. In July of the +same year he proceeded to the north to debate on the “Covenant” +with the famous Aberdeen doctors; but he was not well received +by them. “The voyd church was made fast, and the keys +keeped by the magistrate,” says Baillie. Henderson’s next +public opportunity was in the famous Assembly which met in +Glasgow on the 21st of November 1638. He was chosen moderator +by acclamation, being, as Baillie says, “incomparablie the ablest +man of us all for all things.” James Hamilton, 3rd marquess +of Hamilton, was the king’s commissioner; and when the +Assembly insisted on proceeding with the trial of the bishops, +he formally dissolved the meeting under pain of treason. Acting +on the constitutional principle that the king’s right to convene +did not interfere with the church’s independent right to hold +assemblies, they sat till the 20th of December, deposed all the +Scottish bishops, excommunicated a number of them, repealed +all acts favouring episcopacy, and reconstituted the Scottish +Kirk on thorough Presbyterian principles. During the sitting of +this Assembly it was carried by a majority of seventy-five votes +that Henderson should be transferred to Edinburgh. He had +been at Leuchars for about twenty-three years, and was extremely +reluctant to leave it.</p> + +<p>While Scotland and England were preparing for the “First +Bishops’ War,” Henderson drew up two papers, entitled respectively +<i>The Remonstrance of the Nobility</i> and <i>Instructions for +Defensive Arms</i>. The first of these documents he published +himself; the second was published against his wish by John +Corbet (1603-1641), a deposed minister. The “First Bishops’ +War” did not last long. At the Pacification of Birks the king +virtually granted all the demands of the Scots. In the negotiations +for peace Henderson was one of the Scottish commissioners, +and made a very favourable impression on the king. In 1640 +Henderson was elected by the town council rector of Edinburgh +University—an office to which he was annually re-elected till +his death. The Pacification of Birks had been wrung from the +king; and the Scots, seeing that he was preparing for the +“Second Bishops’ War,” took the initiative, and pressed into +England so vigorously that Charles had again to yield everything. +The maturing of the treaty of peace took a considerable time, +and Henderson was again active in the negotiations, first at +Ripon (October 1st) and afterwards in London. While he was +in London he had a personal interview with the king, with the +view of obtaining assistance for the Scottish universities from +the money formerly applied to the support of the bishops. +On Henderson’s return to Edinburgh in July 1641 the Assembly +was sitting at St Andrews. To suit the convenience of the +parliament, however, it removed to Edinburgh; Henderson +was elected moderator of the Edinburgh meeting. In this +Assembly he proposed that “a confession of faith, a catechism, +a directory for all the parts of the public worship, and a platform +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>267</span> +of government, wherein possibly England and we might agree,” +should be drawn up. This was unanimously approved of, and +the laborious undertaking was left in Henderson’s hands; but +the “notable motion” did not lead to any immediate results. +During Charles’s second state-visit to Scotland, in the autumn +of 1641, Henderson acted as his chaplain, and managed to get +the funds, formerly belonging to the bishopric of Edinburgh, +applied to the metropolitan university. In 1642 Henderson, +whose policy was to keep Scotland neutral in the war which had +now broken out between the king and the parliament, was +engaged in corresponding with England on ecclesiastical topics; +and, shortly afterwards, he was sent to Oxford to mediate +between the king and his parliament; but his mission proved +a failure.</p> + +<p>A memorable meeting of the General Assembly was held in +August 1643. Henderson was elected moderator for the third +time. He presented a draft of the famous “Solemn League and +Covenant,” which was received with great enthusiasm. Unlike +the “National Covenant” of 1638, which applied to Scotland +only, this document was common to the two kingdoms. +Henderson, Baillie, Rutherford and others were sent up to +London to represent Scotland in the Assembly at Westminster. +The “Solemn League and Covenant,” which pledged both +countries to the extirpation of prelacy, leaving further decision +as to church government to be decided by the “example of the +best reformed churches,” after undergoing some slight alterations, +passed the two Houses of Parliament and the Westminster +Assembly, and thus became law for the two kingdoms. By +means of it Henderson has had considerable influence on the +history of Great Britain. As Scottish commissioner to the +Westminster Assembly, he was in England from August 1643 till +August 1646; his principal work was the drafting of the directory +for public worship. Early in 1645 Henderson was sent to +Uxbridge to aid the commissioners of the two parliaments in +negotiating with the king; but nothing came of the conference. +In 1646 the king joined the Scottish army; and, after retiring +with them to Newcastle, he sent for Henderson, and discussed +with him the two systems of church government in a number of +papers. Meanwhile Henderson was failing in health. He sailed +to Scotland, and eight days after his arrival died, on the 19th +of August 1646. He was buried in Greyfriars churchyard, +Edinburgh; and his death was the occasion of national mourning +in Scotland. On the 7th of August Baillie had written that he +had heard that Henderson was dying “most of heartbreak.” A +document was published in London purporting to be a “Declaration +of Mr Alexander Henderson made upon his Death-bed”; +and, although this paper was disowned, denounced and shown to +be false in the General Assembly of August 1648, the document +was used by Clarendon as giving the impression that Henderson +had recanted. Its foundation was probably certain expressions +lamenting Scottish interference in English affairs.</p> + +<p>Henderson is one of the greatest men in the history of Scotland +and, next to Knox, is certainly the most famous of Scottish +ecclesiastics. He had great political genius; and his statesmanship +was so influential that “he was,” as Masson well observes, +“a cabinet minister without office.” He has made a deep mark +on the history, not only of Scotland, but of England; and the +existing Presbyterian churches in Scotland are largely indebted +to him for the forms of their dogmas and their ecclesiastical +organization. He is thus justly considered the second founder of +the Reformed Church in Scotland.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M‘Crie’s <i>Life of Alexander Henderson</i> (1846); Aiton’s <i>Life and +Times of Alexander Henderson</i> (1836); <i>The Letters and Journals of +Robert Baillie</i> (1841-1842) (an exceedingly valuable work, from an +historical point of view); J. H. Burton’s <i>History of Scotland</i>; D. +Masson’s <i>Life of Drummond of Hawthornden</i>; and, above all, +Masson’s <i>Life of Milton</i>; Andrew Lang, <i>Hist. of Scotland</i> (1907), +vol. iii. Henderson’s own works are chiefly contributions to current +controversies, speeches and sermons.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. Gi.; D. Mn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENDERSON, EBENEZER<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1784-1858), a Scottish divine, was +born at the Linn near Dunfermline on the 17th of November +1784, and died at Mortlake on the 17th of May 1858. He was the +youngest son of an agricultural labourer, and after three years’ +schooling spent some time at watchmaking and as a shoemaker’s +apprentice. In 1803 he joined Robert Haldane’s theological +seminary, and in 1805 was selected to accompany the Rev. John +Paterson to India; but as the East India Company would not +allow British vessels to convey missionaries to India, Henderson +and his colleague went to Denmark to await the chance of a +passage to Serampur, then a Danish port. Being unexpectedly +delayed, and having begun to preach in Copenhagen, they +ultimately decided to settle in Denmark, and in 1806 Henderson +became pastor at Elsinore. From this time till about 1817 he +was engaged in encouraging the distribution of Bibles in the +Scandinavian countries, and in the course of his labours he +visited Sweden and Lapland (1807-1808), Iceland (1814-1815) +and the mainland of Denmark and part of Germany (1816). +During most of this time he was an agent of the British and +Foreign Bible Society. On the 6th of October 1811 he formed the +first Congregational church in Sweden. In 1818, after a visit to +England, he travelled in company with Paterson through Russia +as far south as Tiflis, but, instead of settling as was proposed at +Astrakhan, he retraced his steps, having resigned his connexion +with the Bible Society owing to his disapproval of a translation +of the Scriptures which had been made in Turkish. In 1822 he +was invited by Prince Alexander (Galitzin) to assist the Russian +Bible Society in translating the Scriptures into various languages +spoken in the Russian empire. After twenty years of foreign +labour Henderson returned to England, and in 1825 was appointed +tutor of the Mission College, Gosport. In 1830 he succeeded Dr +William Harrison as theological lecturer and professor of Oriental +languages in Highbury Congregational College. In 1850, on the +amalgamation of the colleges of Homerton, Coward and Highbury, +he retired on a pension. In 1852-1853 he was pastor of Sheen +Vale chapel at Mortlake. His last work was a translation of the +book of Ezekiel. Henderson was a man of great linguistic attainment. +He made himself more or less acquainted, not only with the +ordinary languages of scholarly accomplishment and the various +members of the Scandinavian group, but also with Hebrew, +Syriac, Ethiopic, Russian, Arabic, Tatar, Persian, Turkish, +Armenian, Manchu, Mongolian and Coptic. He organized the +first Bible Society in Denmark (1814), and paved the way for +several others. In 1817 he was nominated by the Scandinavian +Literary Society a corresponding member; and in 1840 he was +made D.D. by the university of Copenhagen. He was honorary +secretary for life of the Religious Tract Society, and one of the +first promoters of the British Society for the Propagation of the +Gospel among the Jews. The records of his travels in Iceland +(1818) were valuable contributions to our knowledge of that +island. His other principal works are: <i>Iceland, or the Journal +of a Residence in that Island</i> (2 vols., 1818); <i>Biblical Researches +and Travels in Russia</i> (1826); <i>Elements of Biblical Criticism and +Interpretation</i> (1830); <i>The Vaudois, a Tour of the Valleys of +Piedmont</i> (1845).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Memoirs of Ebenezer Henderson</i>, by Thulia S. Henderson (his +daughter) (London, 1859); <i>Congregational Year Book</i> (1859).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENDERSON, GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1854-1903), +British soldier and military writer, was born in Jersey in 1854. +Educated at Leeds Grammar School, of which his father, afterwards +Dean of Carlisle, was headmaster, he was early attracted +to the study of history, and obtained a scholarship at St John’s +College, Oxford. But he soon left the University for Sandhurst, +whence he obtained his first commission in 1878. One year +later, after a few months’ service in India, he was promoted +lieutenant and returned to England, and in 1882 he went on +active service with his regiment, the York and Lancaster (65th/84th) +to Egypt. He was present at Tell-el-Mahuta and Kassassin, +and at Tell-el-Kebir was the first man of his regiment to enter the +enemy’s works. His conduct attracted the notice of Sir Garnet +(afterwards Lord) Wolseley, and he received the 5th class of the +Medjidieh order. His name was, further, noted for a brevet-majority, +which he did not receive till he became captain in +1886. During these years he had been quietly studying military +art and history at Gibraltar, in Bermuda and in Nova Scotia, +in spite of the difficulties of research, and in 1889 appeared +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page268" id="page268"></a>268</span> +(anonymously) his first work, <i>The Campaign of Fredericksburg</i>. +In the same year he became Instructor in Tactics, Military Law +and Administration at Sandhurst. From this post he proceeded +as Professor of Military Art and History to the Staff College +(1892-1899), and there exercised a profound influence on the +younger generation of officers. His study on <i>Spicheren</i> had been +begun some years before, and in 1898 appeared, as the result of +eight years’ work, his masterpiece, <i>Stonewall Jackson and the +American Civil War</i>. In the South African War Lieutenant-Colonel +Henderson served with distinction on the staff of Lord +Roberts as Director of Intelligence. But overwork and malaria +broke his health, and he had to return home, being eventually +selected to write the official history of the war. But failing +health obliged him to go to Egypt, where he died at Assuan on +the 5th of March 1903. He had completed the portion of the +history of the South African War dealing with the events up to the +commencement of hostilities, amounting to about a volume, but +the War Office decided to suppress this, and the work was begun +<i>de novo</i> and carried out by Sir F. Maurice.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Various lectures and papers by Henderson were collected and +published in 1905 by Captain Malcolm, D.S.O., under the title +<i>The Science of War</i>; to this collection a memoir was contributed by +Lord Roberts. See also Journal of the Royal United Service +Institution, vol. xlvii. No. 302.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENDERSON, JOHN<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1747-1785), English actor, of Scottish +descent, was born in London. He made his first appearance +on the stage at Bath on the 6th of October 1772 as Hamlet. +His success in this and other Shakespearian parts led to his +being called the “Bath Roscius.” He had great difficulty in +getting a London engagement, but finally appeared at the +Haymarket in 1777 as Shylock, and his success was a source of +considerable profit to Colman, the manager. Sheridan then +engaged him to play at Drury Lane, where he remained for two +years. When the companies joined forces he went to Covent +Garden, appearing as Richard III. in 1778, and creating original +parts in many of the plays of Cumberland, Shirley, Jephson +and others. His last appearance was in 1785 as Horatius in +<i>The Roman Father</i>, and he died on the 25th of November of +that year and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Garrick was +very jealous of Henderson, and the latter’s power of mimicry +separated him also from Colman, but he was always gratefully +remembered by Mrs. Siddons and others of his profession whom +he had encouraged. He was a close friend of Gainsborough, +who painted his portrait, as did also Stewart and Romney. +He was co-author of Sheridan and Henderson’s <i>Practical Method +of Reading and Writing English Poetry</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENDERSON,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Henderson county, +Kentucky, U.S.A., on the S. bank of the Ohio river, about +142 m. W.S.W. of Louisville. Pop. (1890), 8835; (1900), 10,272, +of whom 4029 were negroes; (1910 census) 11,452. It is +served by the Illinois Central, the Louisville & Nashville, and +the Louisville, Henderson & St. Louis railways, and has direct +communication by steamboat with Louisville, Evansville, Cairo, +Memphis and New Orleans. Henderson is built on the high +bank of the river, above the flood level; the river is spanned +here by a fine steel bridge, designed by George W. G. Ferris +(1859-1896), the designer of the Ferris Wheel. The city has a +public park of 80 acres and a Carnegie library. It is situated +in the midst of a region whose soil is said to be the best in the +world for the raising of dark, heavy-fibred tobacco, and is well +adapted also for the growing of fruit, wheat and Indian corn. +Bituminous coal is obtained from the surrounding country. +Immense quantities of stemmed tobacco are shipped from here, +and the city is an important market for Indian corn. The +manufactures of the city include cotton and woollen goods, +hominy, meal, flour, tobacco and cigars, carriages, baskets, +chairs and other furniture, bricks, ice, whisky and beer; the +value of the city’s factory products in 1905 was $1,365,120. +The municipality owns and operates its water works, gas plant +and electric-lighting plant. Henderson, named in honour of +Richard Henderson (1734-1785), was settled as early as 1784, +was first known as Red Banks, was laid out as a town by Henderson’s +company in 1797, was incorporated as a town in 1810, and +was first chartered as a city in 1854. The city boundary lines +were extended in 1905 by the annexation of Audubon and +Edgewood. Henderson was for some time the home of John +James Audubon, the ornithologist.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENDIADYS,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> the name adopted from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="hen dia duoin">ἓν διὰ δυοῖν</span> +(“one by means of two”) for a rhetorical figure, in which two +words connected by a copulative conjunction are used of a single +idea; usually the figure takes the form of two substantives +instead of a substantive and adjective, as in the classical example +<i>pateris libamus et auro</i> (Virgil, <i>Georgics</i>, ii. 192), “we pour +libations in cups and gold” for “cups of gold.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENDON,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> an urban district in the Harrow parliamentary +division of Middlesex, England, on the river Brent, 8 m. N.W. +of St Paul’s Cathedral, London, served by the Midland railway. +Pop. (1891), 15,843; (1901), 22,450. The nucleus of the township +lies on high ground to the east of the Edgware road, which crosses +the Welsh Harp reservoir of Regent’s Canal, a favourite fishing +and skating resort. The church of St Mary is mainly Perpendicular, +and contains a Norman font and monuments of the +18th century. To the north of the village, which has extended +greatly as a residential suburb of the metropolis, is Mill Hill, +with a Roman Catholic Missionary College, opened in 1871, +with branches at Rosendaal, Holland and Brixen, Austria, and +a preparatory school at Freshfield near Liverpool; and a large +grammar school founded by Nonconformists in 1807. The +manor belonged at an early date to the abbot of Westminster.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENDRICKS, THOMAS ANDREWS<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1819-1885), American +political leader, vice-president of the United States in 1885, +was born near Zanesville, Ohio, on the 7th of September 1819. +He graduated at Hanover College, Hanover, Indiana, in 1841, +and began in 1843 a successful career at the bar. Identifying +himself with the Democratic party, he served in the state House +of Representatives in 1848, and was a prominent member of the +convention for the revision of the state constitution in 1850-1851, +a representative in Congress (1851-1855), commissioner of the +United States General Land Office (1855-1859), a United States +senator (1863-1869), and governor of Indiana (1873-1877). +From 1868 until his death he was put forward for nomination +for the presidency at every national Democratic Convention save +in 1872. Both in 1876 and 1884, after his failure to receive the +nomination for the presidency, he was nominated by the Democratic +National Convention for vice-president, his nomination +in each of these conventions being made partly, it seems, with +the hope of gaining “greenback” votes—Hendricks had opposed +the immediate resumption of specie payments. In 1876, with +S. J. Tilden, he lost the disputed election by the decision +of the electoral commission, but he was elected with Grover +Cleveland in 1884. He died at Indianapolis on the 25th of +November 1885.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENGELO,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hengeloo</span>, a town in the province of Overyssel, +Holland, and a junction station 5 m. by rail N.W. of Enschede. +Pop. (1900), 14,968. The castle belonging to the ancient territorial +lords of Hengelo has long since disappeared, and the only +interest the town now possesses is as the centre of the flourishing +industries of the Twente district. The manufacture of cotton +in all its branches is very actively carried on, and there are +dye-works and breweries, besides the engineering works of the +state railway company.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENGEST<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> and <b>HORSA</b>, the brother chieftains who led the first +Saxon bands which settled in England. They were apparently +called in by the British king Vortigern (<i>q.v.</i>) to defend him against +the Picts. The place of their landing is said to have been +Ebbsfleet in Kent. Its date is not certainly known, 450-455 +being given by the English authorities, 428 by the Welsh (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kent</a></span>). The settlers of Kent are described by Bede as Jutes +(<i>q.v.</i>), and there are traces in Kentish custom of differences +from the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Hengest and Horsa +were at first given the island of Thanet as a home, but soon +quarrelled with their British allies, and gradually possessed +themselves of what became the kingdom of Kent. In 455 the +Saxon Chronicle records a battle between Hengest and Horsa +and Vortigern at a place called Aegaels threp, in which Horsa +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269"></a>269</span> +was slain. Thenceforward Hengest reigned in Kent, together +with his son Aesc (Oisc). Both the <i>Saxon Chronicle</i> and the +<i>Historia Brittonum</i> record three subsequent battles, though +the two authorities disagree as to their issue. There is no doubt, +however, that the net result was the expulsion of the Britons +from Kent. According to the <i>Chronicle</i>, which probably +derived its information from a lost list of Kentish kings, Hengest +died in 488, while his son Aesc continued to reign until 512.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Bede, <i>Hist. Eccl.</i> (Plummer, 1896), i. 15, ii. 5; <i>Saxon Chronicle</i> +(Earle and Plummer, 1899), s.a. 449, 455, 457, 465, 473; Nennius, +<i>Historia Brittonum</i> (San Marte, 1844), §§ 31, 37, 38, 43-46, 58.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENGSTENBERG, ERNST WILHELM<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1802-1869), German +Lutheran divine and theologian, was born at Fröndenberg, a +Westphalian village, on the 20th of October 1802. He was +educated by his father, who was a minister of the Reformed +Church, and head of the Fröndenberg convent of canonesses +(Fräuleinstift). Entering the university of Bonn in 1819, he +attended the lectures of G. G. Freytag for Oriental languages +and of F. K. L. Gieseler for church history, but his energies were +principally devoted to philosophy and philology, and his earliest +publication was an edition of the Arabic <i>Moallakat</i> of Amru’l-Qais, +which gained for him the prize at his graduation in the +philosophical faculty. This was followed in 1824 by a German +translation of Aristotle’s <i>Metaphysics</i>. Finding himself without +the means to complete his theological studies under Neander +and Tholuck in Berlin, he accepted a post at Basel as tutor in +Oriental languages to J. J. Stähelin, who afterwards became +professor at the university. Then it was that he began to direct +his attention to a study of the Bible, which led him to a conviction, +never afterwards shaken, not only of the divine character of +evangelical religion, but also of the unapproachable adequacy +of its expression in the Augsburg Confession. In 1824 he joined +the philosophical faculty of Berlin as a <i>Privatdozent</i>, and in +1825 he became a licentiate in theology, his theses being remarkable +for their evangelical fervour and for their emphatic protest +against every form of “rationalism,” especially in questions of +Old Testament criticism. In 1826 he became professor extraordinarius +in theology; and in July 1827 appeared, under his +editorship, the <i>Evangelische Kirchenzeitung</i>, a strictly orthodox +journal, which in his hands acquired an almost unique reputation +as a controversial organ. It did not, however, attain to great +notoriety until in 1830 an anonymous article (by E. L. von +Gerlach) appeared, which openly charged Wilhelm Gesenius +and J. A. L. Wegscheider with infidelity and profanity, and on +the ground of these accusations advocated the interposition of +the civil power, thus giving rise to the prolonged <i>Hallische +Streit</i>. In 1828 the first volume of Hengstenberg’s <i>Christologie +des Alten Testaments</i> passed through the press; in the autumn +of that year he became professor ordinarius in theology, and +in 1829 doctor of theology. He died on the 28th of May 1869.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following is a list of his principal works: <i>Christologie des +Alten Testaments</i> (1829-1835; 2nd ed., 1854-1857; Eng. trans. by +R. Keith, 1835-1839, also in Clark’s “Foreign Theological Library,” +by T. Meyer and J. Martin, 1854-1858), a work of much learning, +the estimate of which varies according to the hermeneutical principles +of the individual critic; <i>Beiträge zur Einleitung in das Alte Testament</i> +(1831-1839); Eng. trans., <i>Dissertations on the Genuineness of Daniel +and the Integrity of Zechariah</i> (Edin., 1848), and <i>Dissertations +on the Genuineness of the Pentateuch</i> (Edin., 1847), in which the +traditional view on each question is strongly upheld, and much +capital is made of the absence of harmony among the negative +critics; <i>Die Bücher Moses und Ägypten</i> (1841); <i>Die Geschichte +Bileams u. seiner Weissagungen</i> (1842; translated along with the +Dissertations on Daniel and Zechariah); <i>Commentar über die Psalmen</i> +(1842-1847; 2nd ed., 1849-1852; Eng. trans. by P. Fairbairn +and J. Thomson, Edin., 1844-1848), which shares the merits +and defects of the <i>Christologie; Die Offenbarung Johannis erläutert</i> +(1849-1851; 2nd ed., 1861-1862; Eng. trans. by P. Fairbairn, +also in Clark’s “Foreign Theological Library,” 1851-1852); <i>Das +Hohe Lied ausgelegt</i> (1853); <i>Der Prediger Salomo ausgelegt</i> (1859); +<i>Das Evangelium Johannis erläutert</i> (1861-1863; 2nd ed., 1867-1871; +Eng. trans., 1865) and <i>Die Weissagungen des Propheten Ezechiel +erläutert</i> (1867-1868). Of minor importance are <i>De rebus Tyriorum +commentatio academica</i> (1832); <i>Über den Tag des Herrn</i> (1852); <i>Das +Passa, ein Vortrag</i> (1853); and <i>Die Opfer der heiligen Schrift</i> (1859). +Several series of papers also, as, for example, on “The Retention +of the Apocrypha,” “Freemasonry” (1854), “Duelling” (1856) and +“The Relation between the Jews and the Christian Church” (1857; +2nd ed., 1859), which originally appeared in the <i>Kirchenzeitung</i>, were +afterwards printed in a separate form. <i>Geschichte des Reiches Gottes +unter dem Alten Bunde</i> (1869-1871), <i>Das Buch Hiob erläutert</i> (1870-1875) +and <i>Vorlesungen über die Leidensgeschichte</i> (1875) were published +posthumously.</p> + +<p>See J. Bachmann’s <i>Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg</i> (1876-1879); +also his article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1899), and the +article in the <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>. Also F. Lichtenberger, +<i>History of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century</i> (1889), pp. +212-217; Philip Schaff, <i>Germany; its Universities, Theology and +Religion</i> (1857), pp. 300-319.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENKE, HEINRICH PHILIPP KONRAD<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1752-1809), +German theologian, best known as a writer on church history, +was born at Hehlen, Brunswick, on the 3rd of July 1752. He +was educated at the gymnasium of Brunswick and the university +of Helmstädt, and from 1778 to 1809 he was professor, first of +philosophy, then of theology, in that university. In 1803 he +was appointed principal of the Carolinum in Brunswick as well. +He died on the 2nd of May 1809. Henke belonged to the +rationalistic school. His principal work (<i>Allgemeine Geschichte +der christl. Kirche</i>, 6 vols., 1788-1804; 2nd ed., 1795-1806) is +commended by F. C. Baur for fullness, accuracy and artistic +composition. His other works are <i>Lineamenta institutionum +fidei Christianae historico-criticarum</i> (1783), <i>Opuscula academica</i> +(1802) and two volumes of <i>Predigten</i>. He was also editor of +the <i>Magazin für die Religionsphilosophie, Exegese und Kirchengeschichte</i> +(1793-1802) and the <i>Archiv für die neueste Kirchengeschichte</i> +(1794-1799).</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Ernst Ludwig Theodor Henke</span> (1804-1872), after +studying at the university of Jena, became <i>professor extraordinarius</i> +there in 1833, and professor ordinarius of Marburg +in 1839. He is known as the author of monographs upon +<i>Georg Calixt u. seine Zeit</i> (1853-1860), <i>Papst Pius VII.</i> (1860), +<i>Konrad von Marburg</i> (1861), <i>Kaspar Peucer u. Nik. Krell</i> +(1865), <i>Jak. Friedr. Fries</i> (1867), <i>Zur neuern Kirchengeschichte</i> +(1867).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENLE, FRIEDRICH GUSTAV JAKOB<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1809-1885), +German pathologist and anatomist, was born on the 9th of +July 1809 at Fürth, in Franconia. After studying medicine +at Heidelberg and at Bonn, where he took his doctor’s degree +in 1832, he became prosector in anatomy to Johannes Müller at +Berlin. During the six years he spent in that position he published +a large amount of work, including three anatomical +monographs on new species of animals, and papers on the +structure of the lacteal system, the distribution of epithelium +in the human body, the structure and development of the hair, +the formation of mucus and pus, &c. In 1840 he accepted the +chair of anatomy at Zürich, and in 1844 he was called to Heidelberg, +where he taught not only anatomy, but physiology and +pathology. About this period he was engaged on his complete +system of general anatomy, which formed the sixth volume of +the new edition of S. T. von Sömmerring’s treatise, published +at Leipzig between 1841 and 1844. While at Heidelberg he +published a zoological monograph on the sharks and rays, in +conjunction with his master Müller, and in 1846 his famous +<i>Manual of Rational Pathology</i> began to appear; this marked +the beginning of a new era in pathological study, since in it +physiology and pathology were treated, in Henle’s own words, +as “branches of one science,” and the facts of disease were +systematically considered with reference to their physiological +relations. In 1852 he moved to Göttingen, whence he issued +three years later the first instalment of his great <i>Handbook +of Systematic Human Anatomy</i>, the last volume of which was not +published till 1873. This work was perhaps the most complete +and comprehensive of its kind that had so far appeared, and +it was remarkable not only for the fullness and minuteness of +the anatomical descriptions, but also for the number and excellence +of the illustrations with which they were elucidated. +During the latter half of his life Henle’s researches were mainly +histological in character, his investigations embracing the +minute anatomy of the blood vessels, serous membranes, kidney, +eye, nails, central nervous system, &c. He died at Göttingen +on the 13th of May 1885.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id="page270"></a>270</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">HENLEY, JOHN<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1692-1759), English clergyman, commonly +known as “Orator Henley,” was born on the 3rd of August +1692 at Melton-Mowbray, where his father was vicar. After +attending the grammar schools of Melton and Oakham, he +entered St John’s College, Cambridge, and while still an undergraduate +he addressed in February 1712, under the pseudonym +of Peter de Quir, a letter to the <i>Spectator</i> displaying no small wit +and humour. After graduating B.A., he became assistant and +then headmaster of the grammar school of his native town, +uniting to these duties those of assistant curate. His abundant +energy found still further expression in a poem entitled <i>Esther, +Queen of Persia</i> (1714), and in the compilation of a grammar +of ten languages entitled <i>The Complete Linguist</i> (2 vols., London, +1719-1721). He then decided to go to London, where he obtained +the appointment of assistant preacher in the chapels of Ormond +Street and Bloomsbury. In 1723 he was presented to the rectory +of Chelmondiston in Suffolk; but residence being insisted on, +he resigned both his appointments, and on the 3rd of July 1726 +opened what he called an “oratory” in Newport Market, which +he licensed under the Toleration Act. In 1729 he transferred +the scene of his operations to Lincoln’s Inn Fields. Into his +services he introduced many peculiar alterations: he drew up +a “Primitive Liturgy,” in which he substituted for the Nicene +and Athanasian creeds two creeds taken from the Apostolical +Constitutions; for his “Primitive Eucharist” he made use of +unleavened bread and mixed wine; he distributed at the price of +one shilling medals of admission to his oratory, with the device +of a sun rising to the meridian, with the motto <i>Ad summa</i>, and +the words <i>Inveniam viam aut faciam</i> below. But the most original +element in the services was Henley himself, who is described by +Pope in the <i>Dunciad</i> as</p> + +<p class="center f90">“Preacher at once and zany of his age.”</p> + +<p class="noind">He possessed some oratorical ability and adopted a very theatrical +style of elocution, “tuning his voice and balancing his hands”; +and his addresses were a strange medley of solemnity and +buffoonery, of clever wit and the wildest absurdity, of able and +original disquisition and the worst artifices of the oratorical +charlatan. His services were much frequented by the “free-thinkers,” +and he himself expressed his determination “to die +a rational.” Besides his Sunday sermons, he delivered Wednesday +lectures on social and political subjects; and he also projected +a scheme for connecting with the “oratory” a university +on quite a utopian plan. For some time he edited the <i>Hyp +Doctor</i>, a weekly paper established in opposition to the <i>Craftsman</i>, +and for this service he enjoyed a pension of £100 a year +from Sir Robert Walpole. At first the orations of Henley drew +great crowds, but, although he never discontinued his services, +his audience latterly dwindled almost entirely away. He died +on the 13th of October 1759.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Henley is the subject of several of Hogarth’s prints. His life, +professedly written by A. Welstede, but in all probability by himself, +was inserted by him in his <i>Oratory Transactions</i>. See J. B. Nichols, +<i>History of Leicestershire</i>; I. Disraeli, <i>Calamities of Authors</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENLEY, WILLIAM ERNEST<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1849-1903), British poet, +critic and editor, was born on the 23rd of August 1849 at Gloucester, +and was educated at the Crypt Grammar School in that +city. The school was a sort of Cinderella sister to the Cathedral +School, and Henley indicated its shortcomings in his article +(<i>Pall Mall Magazine</i>, Nov. 1900) on T. E. Brown the poet, who +was headmaster there for a brief period. Brown’s appointment, +uncongenial to himself, was a stroke of luck for Henley, for whom, +as he said, it represented a first acquaintance with a man of +genius. “He was singularly kind to me at a moment when I +needed kindness even more than I needed encouragement.” +Among other kindnesses Brown did him the essential service +of lending him books. To the end Henley was no classical +scholar, but his knowledge and love of literature were vital. +Afflicted with a physical infirmity, he found himself in 1874, at +the age of twenty-five, an inmate of the hospital at Edinburgh. +From there he sent to the <i>Cornhill Magazine</i> poems in irregular +rhythms, describing with poignant force his experiences in +hospital. Leslie Stephen, then editor, being in Edinburgh, +visited his contributor in hospital and took Robert Louis Stevenson, +another recruit of the <i>Cornhill</i>, with him. The meeting +between Stevenson and Henley, and the friendship of which it +was the beginning, form one of the best-known episodes in recent +literature (see especially Stevenson’s letter to Mrs Sitwell, +Jan. 1875, and Henley’s poems “An Apparition” and “Envoy +to Charles Baxter”). In 1877 Henley went to London and +began his editorial career by editing <i>London</i>, a journal of a +type more usual in Paris than London, written for the sake of +its contributors rather than of the public. Among other distinctions +it first gave to the world <i>The New Arabian Nights</i> of +Stevenson. Henley himself contributed to his journal a series +of verses chiefly in old French forms. He had been writing +poetry since 1872, but (so he told the world in his “advertisement” +to his collected <i>Poems</i>, 1898) he “found himself about +1877 so utterly unmarketable that he had to own himself beaten +in art and to addict himself to journalism for the next ten years.” +After the decease of <i>London</i>, he edited the <i>Magazine of Art</i> from +1882 to 1886. At the end of that period he came before the public +as a poet. In 1887 Mr Gleeson White made for the popular series +of <i>Canterbury Poets</i> (edited by Mr William Sharp) a selection +of poems in old French forms. In his selection Mr Gleeson White +included a considerable number of pieces from <i>London</i>, and only +after he had completed the selection did he discover that the +verses were all by one hand, that of Henley. In the following +year, Mr H. B. Donkin in his volume <i>Voluntaries</i>, done for an +East End hospital, included Henley’s unrhymed rhythms +quintessentializing the poet’s memories of the old Edinburgh +Infirmary. Mr Alfred Nutt read these, and asked for more; +and in 1888 his firm published <i>A Book of Verse</i>. Henley was +by this time well known in a restricted literary circle, and the +publication of this volume determined for them his fame as a +poet, which rapidly outgrew these limits, two new editions of +this volume being called for within three years. In this same +year (1888) Mr Fitzroy Bell started the <i>Scots Observer</i> in Edinburgh, +with Henley as literary editor, and early in 1889 Mr Bell +left the conduct of the paper to him. It was a weekly review +somewhat on the lines of the old <i>Saturday Review</i>, but inspired +in every paragraph by the vigorous and combative personality +of the editor. It was transferred soon after to London as the +<i>National Observer</i>, and remained under Henley’s editorship until +1893. Though, as Henley confessed, the paper had almost as +many writers as readers, and its fame was mainly confined to +the literary class, it was a lively and not uninfluential feature +of the literary life of its time. Henley had the editor’s great gift +of discerning promise, and the “Men of the <i>Scots Observer</i>,” as +Henley affectionately and characteristically called his band of +contributors, in most instances justified his insight. The paper +found utterance for the growing imperialism of its day, and +among other services to literature gave to the world Mr Kipling’s +<i>Barrack-Room Ballads</i>. In 1890 Henley published <i>Views and +Reviews</i>, a volume of notable criticisms, described by himself +as “less a book than a <span class="correction" title="amended from mosiac">mosaic</span> of scraps and shreds recovered +from the shot rubbish of some fourteen years of journalism.” +The criticisms, covering a wide range of authors (except Heine +and Tolstoy, all English and French), though wilful and often +one-sided were terse, trenchant and picturesque, and remarkable +for insight and gusto. In 1892 he published a second volume of +poetry, named after the first poem, <i>The Song of the Sword</i>, but +on the issue of the second edition (1893) re-christened <i>London +Voluntaries</i> after another section. Stevenson wrote that he +had not received the same thrill of poetry since Mr Meredith’s +“Joy of Earth” and “Love in the Valley,” and he did not know +that that was so intimate and so deep. “I did not guess you +were so great a magician. These are new tunes; this is an +undertone of the true Apollo. These are not verse; they are +poetry.” In 1892 Henley published also three plays written +with Stevenson—<i>Beau Austin</i>, <i>Deacon Brodie</i> and <i>Admiral +Guinea</i>. In 1895 followed <i>Macaire</i>, afterwards published in +a volume with the other plays. <i>Deacon Brodie</i> was produced in +Edinburgh in 1884 and later in London. Beerbohm Tree produced +<i>Beau Austin</i> at the Haymarket on the 3rd of November 1890 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page271" id="page271"></a>271</span> +and <i>Macaire</i> at His Majesty’s on the 2nd of May 1901. <i>Admiral +Guinea</i> also achieved stage performance. In the meantime +Henley was active in the magazines and did notable editorial +work for the publishers: the <i>Lyra Heroica</i>, 1891; <i>A Book of +English Prose</i> (with Mr Charles Whibley), 1894; the centenary +Burns (with Mr T. F. Henderson) in 1896-1897, in which Henley’s +Essay (published separately 1898) roused considerable controversy. +In 1892 he undertook for Mr Nutt the general editorship +of the <i>Tudor Translations</i>; and in 1897 began for Mr +Heinemann an edition of Byron, which did not proceed beyond +one volume of letters. In 1898 he published a collection of his +<i>Poems</i> in one volume, with the autobiographical “advertisement” +above quoted; in 1899 <i>London Types</i>, Quatorzains to +accompany Mr William Nicolson’s designs; and in 1900 during +the Boer War, a patriotic poetical brochure, <i>For England’s +Sake</i>. In 1901 he published a second volume of collected poetry +with the title <i>Hawthorn and Lavender</i>, uniform with the volume +of 1898. In 1902 he collected his various articles on painters and +artists and published them as a companion volume of <i>Views +and Reviews: Art</i>. These with “A Song of Speed” printed +in May 1903 within two months of his death make up his tale +of work. At the close of his life he was engaged upon his edition +of the Authorized Version of the Bible for his series of <i>Tudor +Translations</i>. There remained uncollected some of his scattered +articles in periodicals and reviews, especially the series of literary +articles contributed to the <i>Pall Mall Magazine</i> from 1899 until +his death. These contain the most outspoken utterances of a +critic never mealy-mouthed, and include the splenetic attack on +the memory of his dead friend R. L. Stevenson, which aroused +deep regret and resentment. In 1894 Henley lost his little six-year-old +daughter Margaret; he had borne the “bludgeonings +of chance” with “the unconquerable soul” of which he boasted, +not unjustifiably, in a well-known poem; but this blow broke +his heart. With the knowledge of this fact, some of these outbursts +may be better understood; yet we have the evidence of +a clear-eyed critic who knew Henley well, that he found him +more generous, more sympathetic at the close of his life than he +had been before. He died on the 11th of July 1903. In spite +of his too boisterous mannerism and prejudices, he exercised +by his originality, independence and fearlessness an inspiring +and inspiriting influence on the higher class of journalism. This +influence he exercised by word of mouth as well as by his pen, +for he was a famous talker, and figures as “Burly” in Stevenson’s +essay on <i>Talk and Talkers</i>. As critic he was a good hater and a +good fighter. His virtue lay in his vital and vitalizing love of good +literature, and the vivid and pictorial phrases he found to give +it expression. But his fame must rest on his poetry. He excelled +alike in his delicate experiments in complicated metres, and the +strong impressionism of <i>Hospital Sketches</i> and <i>London Voluntaries</i>. +The influence of Heine may be discerned in these “unrhymed +rhythms”; but he was perhaps a truer and more +successful disciple of Heine in his snatches of passionate song, +the best of which should retain their place in English literature.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also references in <i>Stevenson’s Letters</i>; <i>Cornhill Magazine</i> (1903) +(Sidney Low); <i>Fortnightly Review</i> (August 1892) (Arthur Symons); +and for bibliography, <i>English Illustrated Magazine</i>, vol. xxix. p. 548.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. P. J.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENLEY-ON-THAMES,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a market town and municipal +borough in the Henley parliamentary division of Oxfordshire, +England, on the left bank of the Thames, the terminus of a +branch of the Great Western railway, by which it is 35¾ m. W. +of London, while it is 57½ m. by river. Pop. (1901) 5984. It +occupies one of the most beautiful situations on the Thames, +at the foot of the finely wooded Chiltern Hills. The river is +crossed by an elegant stone bridge of five arches, constructed +in 1786. The parish church (Decorated and Perpendicular) +possesses a lofty tower of intermingled flint and stone, attributed +to Cardinal Wolsey, but more probably erected by Bishop +Longland. The grammar school, founded in 1605, is incorporated +with a Blue Coat school. Henley is a favourite summer resort, +and is celebrated for the annual Henley Royal Regatta, the +principal gathering of amateur oarsmen in England, first held +in 1839 and usually taking place in July. Henley is governed +by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 549 acres.</p> + +<p>Henley-on-Thames (Hanlegang, Henle, Handley), not +mentioned in Domesday, was a manor or ancient demesne of the +crown and was granted (1337) to John de Molyns, whose family +held it for about 250 years. It is said that members for Henley +sat in parliaments of Edward I. and Edward III., but no writs +have been found. Henry VIII. having granted the use of the +titles “mayor” and “burgess,” the town was incorporated +in 1570-1571 by the name of the warden, portreeves, burgesses +and commonalty. Henley suffered from both parties in the Civil +War. William III. on his march to London (1688) rested here +and received a deputation from the Lords. The period of +prosperity in the 17th and 18th centuries was due to manufactures +of glass and malt, and to trade in corn and wool. The +existing Thursday market was granted by a charter of John +and the existing Corpus Christi fair by a charter of Henry VI.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. S. Burn, <i>History of Henley-on-Thames</i> (London, 1861).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENNA,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> the Persian name for a small shrub found in India, +Persia, the Levant and along the African coasts of the Mediterranean, +where it is frequently cultivated. It is the <i>Lawsonia +alba</i> of botanists, and from the fact that young trees are spineless, +while older ones have the branchlets hardened into spines, it +has also received the names of <i>Lawsonia inermis</i> and <i>L. spinosa</i>. +It forms a slender shrubby plant of from 8 to 10 ft. high, with +opposite lance-shaped smooth leaves, which are entire at the +margins, and bears small white four-petalled sweet-scented +flowers disposed in panicles. Its Egyptian name is <i>Khenna</i>, +its Arabic name <i>Al Khanna</i>, its Indian name <i>Mendee</i>, while in +England it is called <i>Egyptian privet</i>, and in the West Indies, +where it is naturalized, <i>Jamaica mignonette</i>.</p> + +<p>Henna or Henné is of ancient repute as a cosmetic. This +consists of the leaves of the <i>Lawsonia</i> powdered and made up +into a paste; this is employed by the Egyptian women, and +also by the Mahommedan women in India, to dye their fingernails +and other parts of their hands and feet of an orange-red +colour, which is considered to add to their beauty. The colour +lasts for three or four weeks, when it requires to be renewed. +It is moreover used for dyeing the hair and beard, and even the +manes of horses; and the same material is employed for dyeing +skins and morocco-leather a reddish-yellow, but it contains no +tannin. The practice of dyeing the nails was common amongst +the Egyptians, and not to conform to it would have been considered +indecent. It has descended from very remote ages, +as is proved by the evidence afforded by Egyptian mummies, +the nails of which are most commonly stained of a reddish hue. +Henna is also said to have been held in repute amongst the +Hebrews, being considered to be the plant referred to as camphire +in the Bible (Song of Solomon i. 14, iv. 13). “The custom of +dyeing the nails and palms of the hands and soles of the feet of +an iron-rust colour with henna,” observes Dr J. Forbes Royle, +“exists throughout the East from the Mediterranean to the +Ganges, as well as in northern Africa. In some parts the practice +is not confined to women and children, but is also followed by +men, especially in Persia. In dyeing the beard the hair is turned +to red by this application, which is then changed to black by +a preparation of indigo. In dyeing the hair of children, and the +tails and manes of horses and asses, the process is allowed to +stop at the red colour which the henna produces.” Mahomet, +it is said, used henna as a dye for his beard, and the fashion was +adopted by the caliphs. “The use of henna,” remarks Lady +Callcott in her <i>Scripture Herbal</i>, “is scarcely to be called a +caprice in the East. There is a quality in the drug which gently +restrains perspiration in the hands and feet, and produces an +agreeable coolness equally conducive to health and comfort.” +She further suggests that if the Jewish women were not in the +habit of using this dye before the time of Solomon, it might +probably have been introduced amongst them by his wife, the +daughter of Pharaoh, and traces to this probability the allusion +to “camphire” in the passages in Canticles above referred to.</p> + +<p>The preparation of henna consists in reducing the leaves +and young twigs to a fine powder, catechu or lucerne leaves +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272"></a>272</span> +in a pulverized state being sometimes mixed with them. When +required for use, the powder is made into a pasty mass with hot +water, and is then spread upon the part to be dyed, where it +is generally allowed to remain for one night. According to Lady +Callcott, the flowers are often used by the Eastern women to adorn +their hair. The distilled water from the flowers is used as a +perfume.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENNEBONT,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> a town of western France, in the department +of Morbihan, 6 m. N.E. of Lorient by road. Pop. (1906) 7250. +It is situated about 10 m. from the mouth of the Blavet, which +divides it into two parts—the <i>Ville Close</i>, the medieval military +town, and the <i>Ville Neuve</i> on the left bank and the <i>Vieille Ville</i> +on the right bank. The Ville Close, surrounded by ramparts +and entered by a massive gateway flanked by machicolated +towers, consists of narrow quiet streets bordered by houses of the +16th and 17th centuries. The Ville Neuve, which lies nearer the +river, developed during the 17th century and later than the +Ville Close, while the Vieille Ville is older than either. The only +building of architectural importance is the church of Notre-Dame +de Paradis (16th century) preceded by a tower with an ornamented +stone spire. There are scanty remains of the old fortress. +Hennebont has a small but busy river-port accessible to vessels +of 200 to 300 tons. An important foundry in the environs of +the town employs 1400 work-people in the manufacture of tin-plate +for sardine boxes and other purposes. Boat-building, +tanning, distilling and the manufacture of earthenware, white +lead and chemical manures are also carried on. Granite is worked +in the neighbourhood. Hennebont is famed for the resistance +which it made, under the widow of Jean de Montfort, when +besieged in 1342 by the armies of Philip of Valois and Charles of +Blois during the War of the Succession in Brittany (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brittany</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENNEQUIN, PHILIPPE AUGUSTE<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1763-1833), French +painter, was a pupil of David. He was born at Lyons in 1763, +distinguished himself early by winning the “Grand Prix,” and +left France for Italy. The disturbances at Rome, during the +course of the Revolution, obliged him to return to Paris, where +he executed the Federation of the 14th of July, and he was +at work on a large design commissioned for the town-hall of +Lyons, when in July 1794 he was accused before the revolutionary +tribunal and thrown into prison. Hennequin escaped, only to be +anew accused and imprisoned in Paris, and after running great +danger of death, seems to have devoted himself thenceforth +wholly to his profession. At Paris he finished the picture ordered +for the municipality of Lyons, and in 1801 produced his chief +work, “Orestes pursued by the Furies” (Louvre, engraved by +Landon, <i>Annales du Musée</i>, vol. i. p. 105). He was one of the +four painters who competed when in 1802 Gros carried off the +official prize for a picture of the Battle of Nazareth, and in 1808 +Napoleon himself ordered Hennequin to illustrate a series of +scenes from his German campaigns, and commanded that his +picture of the “Death of General Salomon” should be engraved. +After 1815 Hennequin retired to Liége, and there, aided by +subventions from the Government, carried out a large historical +picture of the “Death of the Three Hundred in defence of Liége”—a +sketch of which he himself engraved. In 1824 Hennequin +settled at Tournay, and became director of the academy; he +exhibited various works at Lille in the following year, and +continued to produce actively up to the day of his death in +May 1833.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENNER, JEAN JACQUES<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1829-1905), French painter, was +born on the 5th of March 1829 at Dornach (Alsace). At first +a pupil of Drolling and of Picot, he entered the École des Beaux-Arts +in 1848, and took the Prix de Rome with a painting of +“Adam and Eve finding the Body of Abel” (1858). At Rome +he was guided by Flandrin, and, among other works, painted +four pictures for the gallery at Colmar. He first exhibited at +the Salon in 1863 a “Bather Asleep,” and subsequently contributed +“Chaste Susanna” (1865); “Byblis turned into a Spring” +(1867); “The Magdalene” (1878); “Portrait of M. Hayem” +(1878); “Christ Entombed” (1879); “Saint Jerome” (1881); +“Herodias” (1887); “A Study” (1891); “Christ in His +Shroud,” and a “Portrait of Carolus-Duran” (1896); a “Portrait +of Mlle Fouquier” (1897); “The Levite of the Tribe of Ephraim” +(1898), for which a first-class medal was awarded to him; and +“The Dream” (1900). Among other professional distinctions +Henner also took a Grand Prix for painting at the Paris International +Exhibition of 1900. He was made Knight of the Legion +of Honour in 1873, Officer in 1878 and Commander in 1889. +In 1889 he succeeded Cabanel in the Institut de France.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Bricon, <i>Psychologie d’art</i> (Paris, 1900); C. Phillips, <i>Art +Journal</i> (1888); F. Wedmore, <i>Magazine of Art</i> (1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRIETTA MARIA<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (1609-1666), queen of Charles I. of +England, born on the 25th of November 1609, was the daughter +of Henry IV. of France. When the first serious overtures for +her hand were made on behalf of Charles, prince of Wales, +in the spring of 1624, she was little more than fourteen years of +age. Her brother, Louis XIII., only consented to the marriage +on the condition that the English Roman Catholics were relieved +from the operation of the penal laws. When therefore she set +out for her new home in June 1625, she had already pledged +the husband to whom she had been married by proxy on the +1st of May to a course of action which was certain to bring +unpopularity on him as well as upon herself.</p> + +<p>That husband was now king of England. The early years of +the married life of Charles I. were most unhappy. He soon +found an excuse for breaking his promise to relieve the English +Catholics. His young wife was deeply offended by treatment +which she naturally regarded as unhandsome. The favourite +Buckingham stirred the flames of his master’s discontent. +Charles in vain strove to reduce her to tame submission. After +the assassination of Buckingham in 1628 the barrier between the +married pair was broken down, and the bond of affection which +from that moment united them was never loosened. The children +of the marriage were Charles II. (b. 1630), Mary, princess of +Orange (b. 1631), James II (b. 1633), Elizabeth (b. 1636) +Henry, duke of Gloucester (b. 1640), and Henrietta, duchess at +Orleans (b. 1644).</p> + +<p>For some years Henrietta Maria’s chief interests lay in her +young family, and in the amusements of a gay and brilliant +court. She loved to be present at dramatic entertainments, and +her participation in the private rehearsals of the <i>Shepherd’s +Pastoral</i>, written by her favourite Walter Montague, probably +drew down upon her the savage attack of Prynne. With political +matters she hardly meddled as yet. Even her co-religionists +found little aid from her till the summer of 1637. She had then +recently opened a diplomatic communication with the see of +Rome. She appointed an agent to reside at Rome, and a papal +agent, a Scotsman named George Conn, accredited to her, +was soon engaged in effecting conversions amongst the English +gentry and nobility. Henrietta Maria was well pleased to become +a patroness of so holy a work, especially as she was not asked +to take any personal trouble in the matter. Protestant England +took alarm at the proceedings of a queen who associated herself +so closely with the doings of “the grim wolf with privy paw.”</p> + +<p>When the Scottish troubles broke out, she raised money from +her fellow-Catholics to support the king’s army on the borders in +1639. During the session of the Short Parliament in the spring +of 1640, the queen urged the king to oppose himself to the House +of Commons in defence of the Catholics. When the Long Parliament +met, the Catholics were believed to be the authors and +agents of every arbitrary scheme which was supposed to have +entered into the plans of Strafford or Laud. Before the Long +Parliament had sat for two months, the queen was urging upon +the pope the duty of lending money to enable her to restore her +husband’s authority. She threw herself heart and soul into the +schemes for rescuing Strafford and coercing the parliament. +The army plot, the scheme for using Scotland against England, +and the attempt upon the five members were the fruits of her +political activity.</p> + +<p>In the next year the queen effected her passage to the Continent. +In February 1643 she landed at Burlington Quay, placed herself +at the head of a force of loyalists, and marched through England +to join the king near Oxford. After little more than a year’s +residence there, on the 3rd of April 1644, she left her husband, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page273" id="page273"></a>273</span> +to see his face no more. Henrietta Maria found a refuge in +France. Richelieu was dead, and Anne of Austria was compassionate. +As long as her husband was alive the queen never +ceased to encourage him to resistance.</p> + +<p>During her exile in France she had much to suffer. Her +husband’s execution in 1649 was a terrible blow. She brought +up her youngest child Henrietta in her own faith, but her efforts +to induce her youngest son, the duke of Gloucester, to take the +same course only produced discomfort in the exiled family. The +story of her marriage with her attached servant Lord Jermyn +needs more confirmation than it has yet received to be accepted, +but all the information which has reached us of her relations with +her children points to the estrangement which had grown up +between them. When after the Restoration she returned to +England, she found that she had no place in the new world. +She received from parliament a grant of £30,000 a year in compensation +for the loss of her dower-lands, and the king added +a similar sum as a pension from himself. In January 1661 she +returned to France to be present at the marriage of her daughter +Henrietta to the duke of Orleans. In July 1662 she set out again +for England, and took up her residence once more at Somerset +House. Her health failed her, and on the 24th of June 1665, she +departed in search of the clearer air of her native country. She +died on the 31st of August 1666, at Colombes, not far from Paris.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See I. A. Taylor, <i>The Life of Queen Henrietta Maria</i> (1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Henri</i>; Span. <i>Enrique</i>; Ger. <i>Heinrich</i>; Mid. +H. Ger. <i>Heinrîch</i> and <i>Heimrîch</i>; O.H.G. <i>Haimi-</i> or <i>Heimirîh</i>, +<i>i.e.</i> “prince, or chief of the house,” from O.H.G. <i>heim</i>, the Eng. +<i>home</i>, and <i>rîh</i>, Goth. <i>reiks</i>; compare Lat. <i>rex</i> “king”—“rich,” +therefore “mighty,” and so “a ruler.” Compare Sans. <i>rādsh</i> +“to shine forth, rule, &c.” and mod. <i>raj</i> “rule” and <i>raja</i>, +“king”), the name of many European sovereigns, the more +important of whom are noticed below in the following order: +(1) emperors and German kings; (2) kings of England; (3) +other kings in the alphabetical order of their states; (4) other +reigning princes in the same order; (5) non-reigning princes; +(6) bishops, nobles, chroniclers, &c.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY I.<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 876-936), surnamed the “Fowler,” German king, +son of Otto the Illustrious, duke of Saxony, grew to manhood +amid the disorders which witnessed to the decay of the Carolingian +empire, and in early life shared in various campaigns for the +defence of Saxony. He married Hatburg, a daughter of Irwin, +count of Merseburg, but as she had taken the veil on the death +of a former husband this union was declared illegal by the church, +and in 909 he married Matilda, daughter of a Saxon count named +Thiederich, and a reputed descendant of the hero Widukind. +On his father’s death in 912 he became duke of Saxony, which he +ruled with considerable success, defending it from the attacks +of the Slavs and resisting the claims of the German king Conrad I. +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saxony</a></span>). He afterwards won the esteem of Conrad to such +an extent that in 918 the king advised the nobles to make the +Saxon duke his successor. After Conrad’s death the Franks +and the Saxons met at Fritzlar in May 919 and chose Henry as +German king, after which the new king refused to allow his election +to be sanctioned by the church. His authority, save in Saxony, +was merely nominal; but by negotiation rather than by warfare +he secured a recognition of his sovereignty from the Bavarians +and the Swabians. A struggle soon took place between Henry +and Charles III., the Simple, king of France, for the possession +of Lorraine. In 921 Charles recognized Henry as king of the East +Franks, and when in 923 the French king was taken prisoner +by Herbert, count of Vermandois, Lorraine came under Henry’s +authority, and Giselbert, who married his daughter Gerberga, +was recognized as duke. Turning his attention to the east, Henry +reduced various Slavonic tribes to subjection, took Brennibor, +the modern Brandenburg, from the Hevelli, and secured both +banks of the Elbe for Saxony. In 923 he had bought a truce for +ten years with the Hungarians, by a promise of tribute, but on +its expiration he gained a great victory over these formidable +foes in March 933. The Danes were defeated, and territory as far +as the Eider secured for Germany; and the king sought further +to extend his influence by entering into relations with the kings +of England, France and Burgundy. He is said to have been +contemplating a journey to Rome, when he died at Memleben on +the 2nd of July 936, and was buried at Quedlinburg. By his first +wife, Hatburg, he left a son, Thankmar, who was excluded from +the succession as illegitimate; and by Matilda he left three sons, +the eldest of whom, Otto (afterwards the emperor Otto the Great), +succeeded him, and two daughters. Henry was a successful +ruler, probably because he was careful to undertake only such +enterprises as he was able to carry through. Laying more stress +on his position as duke of Saxony than king of Germany, he +conferred great benefits on his duchy. The founder of her town +life and the creator of her army, he ruled in harmony with her +nobles and secured her frontiers from attack. The story that he +received the surname of “Fowler” because the nobles, sent to +inform him of his election to the throne, found him engaged in +laying snares for the birds, appears to be mythical.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Widukind of Corvei, <i>Res gestae Saxonicae</i>, edited by G. +Waitz in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores</i>, Band +iii. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 seq.); “Die Urkunde des deutschen +Königs Heinrichs I.,” edited by T. von Sickel in the <i>Monumenta +Germaniae historica. Diplomata</i> (Hanover, 1879); W. von Giesebrecht, +<i>Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit</i>, Bände i., ii. (Leipzig, +1881); G. Waitz, <i>Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter König +Heinrich I.</i> (Leipzig, 1885); and F. Löher, <i>Die deutsche Politik +König Heinrich I.</i> (Munich, 1857).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY II.<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (973-1024), surnamed the “Saint,” Roman +emperor, son of Henry II, the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria, +and Gisela, daughter of Conrad, king of Burgundy, or Arles +(d. 993), and great-grandson of the German king Henry I., the +Fowler, was born on the 6th of May 973. When his father was +driven from his duchy in 976 it was intended that Henry should +take holy orders, and he received the earlier part of a good +education at Hildesheim. This idea, however, was abandoned +when his father was restored to Bavaria in 985; but young +Henry, whose education was completed at Regensburg, retained +a lively interest in ecclesiastical affairs. He became duke of +Bavaria on his father’s death in 995, and appears to have +governed his duchy quietly and successfully for seven years. +He showed a special regard for monastic reform and church +government, accompanied his kinsman, the emperor Otto III., +on two occasions to Italy, and about 1001 married Kunigunde +(d. 1037), daughter of Siegfried, count of Luxemburg. When +Otto III. died childless in 1002, Henry sought to secure the +German throne, and seizing the imperial insignia made an +arrangement with Otto I., duke of Carinthia. There was considerable +opposition to his claim; but one rival, Ekkard I., +margrave of Meissen, was murdered, and, hurrying to Mainz, +Henry was chosen German king by the Franks and Bavarians +on the 7th of June 1002, and subsequently crowned by Willigis, +archbishop of Mainz, who had been largely instrumental in +securing his election. Having ravaged the lands of another rival, +Hermann II., duke of Swabia, Henry purchased the allegiance +of the Thuringians and the Saxons; and when shortly afterwards +the nobles of Lorraine did homage and Hermann of Swabia +submitted, he was generally recognized as king. Danger soon +arose from Boleslaus I., the Great, king of Poland, who had +extended his authority over Meissen and Lusatia, seized Bohemia, +and allied himself with some discontented German nobles, +including the king’s brother, Bruno, bishop of Augsburg. Henry +easily crushed his domestic foes; but the incipient war with +Boleslaus was abandoned in favour of an expedition into Italy, +where Arduin, margrave of Ivrea, had been elected king. Crossing +the Alps Henry met with no resistance from Arduin, and in +May 1004 he was chosen and crowned king of the Lombards +at Pavia; but a tumult caused by the presence of the Germans +soon arose in the city, and having received the homage of several +cities of Lombardy the king returned to Germany. He then +freed Bohemia from the rule of the Poles, led an expedition into +Friesland, and was successful in compelling Boleslaus to sue +for peace in 1005. A struggle with Baldwin IV., count of +Flanders, in 1006 and 1007 was followed by trouble with the +king’s brothers-in-law, Dietrich and Adalbero of Luxemburg, +who had seized respectively the bishopric of Metz and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id="page274"></a>274</span> +archbishopric of Trier (Treves). Henry sought to dislodge them, +but aided by their elder brother Henry, who had been made +duke of Bavaria in 1004, they held their own in a desultory +warfare in Lorraine. In 1009, however, the eldest of the three +brothers was deprived of Bavaria, while Adalbero had in the +previous year given up his claim to Trier, but Dietrich retained +the bishopric of Metz. The Polish war had been renewed in +1007, but it was not until 1010 that the king was able to take +a personal part in these campaigns. Meeting with indifferent +success, he made peace with Boleslaus early in 1013, when the +duke retained Lusatia, but did homage to Henry at Merseburg.</p> + +<p>In 1013 the king made a second journey to Italy where two +popes were contending for the papal chair, and meeting with +no opposition was received with great honour at Rome. Having +recognized Benedict VIII. as the rightful pope, he was crowned +emperor on the 14th of February 1014, and soon returned to +Germany laden with treasures from Italian cities. But the +struggle with the Poles now broke out afresh, and in 1015 and +1017 the king, having obtained assistance from the heathen +Liutici, led formidable armies against Boleslaus. During the +campaign of 1017 he had as an ally the grand duke of Russia, +but his troops suffered considerable loss, and on the 30th of +January 1018 he made peace at Bautzen with Boleslaus, who +again retained Lusatia. As early as 1006 Henry had concluded +a succession treaty with his uncle Rudolph III., the childless +king of Burgundy, or Arles; but when Rudolph desired to +abdicate in 1016 Henry’s efforts to secure possession of the +territory were foiled by the resistance of the nobles. In 1020 +the emperor was visited at Bamberg by Pope Benedict, in +response to whose entreaty for assistance against the Greeks of +southern Italy he crossed the Alps in 1021 for the third and last +time. With the aid of the Normans he captured many fortresses +and seriously crippled the power of the Greeks, but was compelled +by the ravages of pestilence among his troops to return to +Germany in 1022. It was probably about this time that Henry +gave Benedict the diploma which ratified the gifts made by his +predecessors to the papacy. Spending his concluding years +in disputes over church reform he died on the 13th of July 1024 +at Grona near Göttingen, and was buried at Bamberg, where +he had founded and richly endowed a bishopric.</p> + +<p>Henry was an enthusiast for church reform, and under the +influence of his friend Odilo, abbot of Cluny, sought to further +the principles of the Cluniacs, and seconded the efforts of Benedict +VIII. to prevent the marriage of the clergy and the sale of +spiritual dignities. He was energetic and capable, but except +in his relations with the church was not a strong ruler. But +though devoted to the church and a strict observer of religious +rites, he was by no means the slave of the clergy. He appointed +bishops without the formality of an election, and attacked +clerical privileges although he made clerics the representatives +of the imperial power. He held numerous diets and issued +frequent ordinances for peace, but feuds among the nobles were +common, and the frontiers of the empire were insecure. Henry, +who was the last emperor of the Saxon house, was the first to +use the title “King of the Romans.” He died childless, and a +tradition of the 12th century says he and his wife took vows +of chastity. He was canonized in 1146 by Pope Eugenius III.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Adalbold of Utrecht, <i>Vita Heinrici II.</i>, Thietmar of Merseburg, +<i>Chronicon</i>, both in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica, +Scriptores</i>, Bände iii. and iv. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 seq.); W. von +Giesebrecht, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit</i> (Leipzig, 1881-1890); +S. Hirsch, continued by R. Usinger, H. Pabst and H. Bresslau, +<i>Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Kaiser Heinrich II</i>. (Leipzig, +1874); A. Cohn, <i>Kaiser Heinrich II</i>. (Halle, 1867); H. Zeissberg, +<i>Die Kriege Kaiser Heinrichs II. mit Boleslaw I. von Polen</i> (Vienna, +1868); and G. Matthaei, <i>Die Klosterpolitik Kaiser Heinrichs II</i>. +(Göttingen, 1877).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY III.<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1017-1056), surnamed the “Black,” Roman +emperor, only son of the emperor Conrad II., and Gisela, widow +of Ernest I., duke of Swabia, was born on the 28th of October +1017, designated as his father’s successor in 1026, and crowned +German king at Aix-la-Chapelle by Pilgrim, archbishop of +Cologne, on the 14th of April 1028. In 1027 he was appointed +duke of Bavaria, and his early years were mainly spent in this +country, where he received an excellent education under the +care of Bruno, bishop of Augsburg and, afterwards, of Egilbert, +bishop of Freising. He soon began to take part in the business +of the empire. In 1032 he took part in a campaign in Burgundy; +in 1033 led an expedition against Ulalrich, prince of the +Bohemians; and in June 1036 was married at Nijmwegen to +Gunhilda, afterwards called Kunigunde, daughter of Canute, +king of Denmark and England. In 1038 he followed his father +to Italy, and in the same year the emperor formally handed +over to him the kingdom of Burgundy, or Arles, and appointed +him duke of Swabia. In spite of the honours which Conrad +heaped upon Henry the relations between father and son were +not uniformly friendly, as Henry disapproved of the emperor’s +harsh treatment of some of his allies and adherents. When +Conrad died in June 1039, Henry became sole ruler of the +empire, and his authority was at once recognized in all parts +of his dominions. Three of the duchies were under his direct +rule, no rival appeared to contest his claim, and the outlying +parts of the empire, as well as Germany, were practically free +from disorder. This peaceful state of affairs was, however, +soon broken by the ambition of Bretislaus, prince of the +Bohemians, who revived the idea of an independent Slavonic +state, and conquered various Polish towns. Henry took up arms, +and having suffered two defeats in 1040 renewed the struggle +with a stronger force in the following year, when he compelled +Bretislaus to sue for peace and to do homage for Bohemia at +Regensburg. In 1042 he received the homage of the Burgundians +and his attention was then turned to the Hungarians, who had +driven out their king Peter, and set up in his stead one Aba +Samuel, or Ovo, who attacked the eastern border of Bavaria.</p> + +<p>In 1043 and the two following years Henry crushed the +Hungarians, restored Peter, and brought Hungary completely +under the power of the German king. In 1038 Queen Kunigunde +had died in Italy, and in 1043 the king was married at +Ingelheim to Agnes, daughter of William V., duke of Guienne, +a union which drew him much nearer to the reforming party in +the church. In 1044 Gothelon (Gozelo), duke of Lorraine, died, +and some disturbance arose over Henry’s refusal to grant the +whole of the duchy to his son Godfrey, called the Bearded. +Godfrey took up arms, but after a short imprisonment was +released and confirmed in the possession of Upper Lorraine in +1046 which, however, he failed to secure. About this time +Henry was invited to Italy where three popes were contending +for power, and crossing the Alps with a large army he marched +to Rome. Councils held at Sutri and at Rome having declared +the popes deposed, the king secured the election of Suidger, +bishop of Bamberg, who took the name of Clement II., and by +this pontiff Henry was crowned as emperor on the 25th of +December 1046. He was immediately recognized by the Romans +as <i>Patricius</i>, an office which carried with it at this time the +right to appoint the pope. Supreme in church and state alike, +ruler of Germany, Italy and Burgundy, overlord of Hungary +and Bohemia, Henry occupied a commanding position, and +this time may be regarded as marking the apogee of the power +of the Roman empire of the Germans. The emperor assisted +Pope Clement in his efforts to banish simony. He made a +victorious progress in southern Italy, where he restored Pandulph +IV. to the principality of Capua, and asserted his authority +over the Normans in Apulia and Aversa. Returning to Germany +in 1047 he appointed two popes, Damasus II. and Leo IX., +in quick succession, and turned to face a threatening combination +in the west of the empire, where Godfrey of Lorraine was again +in revolt, and with the help of Baldwin V., count of Flanders +and Dirk IV., count of Holland, who had previously caused +trouble to Henry, was ravaging the lands of the emperor’s +representatives in Lorraine. Assisted by the kings of England +and Denmark, Henry succeeded with some difficulty in bringing +the rebels to submission in 1050. Godfrey was deposed; but +Baldwin soon found an opportunity for a further revolt, which +an expedition undertaken by the emperor in 1054 was unable +to crush.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>275</span></p> + +<p>Meanwhile a reaction against German influence had taken +place in Hungary. King Peter had been driven out in 1046 +and his place taken by Andreas I. Inroads into Bavaria followed, +and in 1051 and 1052 Henry led his forces against the Hungarians, +and after the pope had vainly attempted to mediate, peace was +made in 1053. It was quickly broken, however, and the emperor, +occupied elsewhere, soon lost most of his authority in the east; +although in 1054 he made peace between Brestislav of Bohemia +and Casimir I., duke of the Poles. Henry had not lost sight of +affairs in Italy during these years, and had received several +visits from the pope, whose aim was to bring southern Italy +under his own dominion. Henry had sent military assistance +to Leo, and had handed over to him the government of the +principality of Benevento in return for the bishopric of Bamberg. +But the pope’s defeat by the Normans was followed by his death. +Henry then nominated Gebhard, bishop of Eichstädt, who took +the name of Victor II., to the vacant chair, and promised his +assistance to the reluctant candidate. In 1055 the emperor +went a second time to Italy, where his authority was threatened +by Godfrey of Lorraine, who had married Beatrice, widow of +Boniface III., margrave of Tuscany, and was ruling her vast +estates. Godfrey fled, however, on the appearance of Henry, +who only remained a short time in Italy, during which he granted +the duchy of Spoleto to Pope Victor, and negotiated for an +attack upon the Normans. Before the journey to Italy, Henry +had found it necessary to depose Conrad III., duke of Bavaria, +and to suppress a rising in southern Germany. During his +absence Conrad formed an alliance with Welf, duke of Carinthia, +and Gebhard III., bishop of Regensburg. A conspiracy to depose +the emperor, support for which was found in Lorraine, was +quickly discovered, and Henry, leaving Victor as his representative +in Italy, returned in 1055 to Germany to receive the +submission of his foes. In 1056, the emperor was visited by +the pope; and on the 5th of October in the same year he died +at Bodfeld and was buried at Spires. Henry was a pious and +peace-loving prince, who favoured church reform, sought earnestly +to suppress private warfare, and alone among the early emperors +is said to have been innocent of simony. Although under his +rule Germany enjoyed considerable tranquillity, and a period +of wealth and progress set in for the towns, yet his secular and +ecclesiastical policy showed signs of weakness. Unable, or +unwilling, seriously to curb the increasing power of the church, +he alienated the sympathies of the nobles as a class, and by +allowing the southern duchies to pass into other hands restored +a power which true to its traditions was not always friendly +to the royal house. Henry was a patron of learning, a founder +of schools, and built or completed cathedrals at Spires, Worms +and Mainz.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief original authorities for the life and reign of Henry +III. are the <i>Chronicon</i> of Herimann of Reichenau, the <i>Annales +Sangallenses majores</i>, the <i>Annales Hildesheimenses</i>, all in the +<i>Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores</i> (Hanover and Berlin, +1826 fol.). The best modern authorities are W. von Giesebrecht, +<i>Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit</i>, Band ii. (Leipzig, 1888); M. +Perlbach, “Die Kriege Heinrichs III. gegen Böhmen,” in the +<i>Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte</i>, Band x. (Göttingen, 1862-1886); +E. Steindorff, <i>Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich +III.</i> (Leipzig, 1874-1881); and F. Steinhoff, <i>Das Königthum und +Kaiserthum Heinrichs III.</i> (Göttingen, 1865).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY IV.<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1050-1106), Roman emperor, son of the emperor +Henry III. and Agnes, daughter of William V., duke of Guienne, +was born on the 11th of November 1050, chosen German king +at Tribur in 1053, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 17th +of July 1054. In 1055 he was appointed duke of Bavaria, +and on his father’s death in October 1056 inherited the kingdoms +of Germany, Italy and Burgundy. These territories were +governed in his name by his mother, who was unable to repress +the internal disorder or to take adequate measures for their +defence. Some opposition was soon aroused, and in 1062 Anno, +archbishop of Cologne, and others planned to seize the person +of the young king and to deprive Agnes of power. This plot +met with complete success. Henry, who was at Kaiserwerth, +was persuaded to board a boat lying in the Rhine; it was +immediately unmoored and the king sprang into the stream, but +was rescued by one of the conspirators and carried to Cologne. +Agnes made no serious effort to regain her control, and the +chief authority was exercised for a time by Anno; but his rule +proved unpopular, and he was soon compelled to share his power +with Adalbert, archbishop of Bremen. The education and +training of Henry were supervised by Anno, who was called his +<i>magister</i>, while Adalbert was styled <i>patronus</i>; but Anno was +disliked by Henry, and during his absence in Italy the chief +power passed into the hands of Adalbert. Henry’s education +seems to have been neglected, and his wilful and headstrong +nature was developed by the conditions under which his early +years were passed. In March 1065 he was declared of age, and +in the following year a powerful coalition of ecclesiastical and +lay nobles brought about the banishment of Adalbert from court +and the return of Anno to power. In 1066 Henry was persuaded +to marry Bertha, daughter of Otto, count of Savoy, to whom he +had been betrothed since 1055. For some time he regarded +his wife with strong dislike and sought in vain for a divorce, +but after she had borne him a son in 1071 she gained his affections, +and became his most trusted friend and companion.</p> + +<p>In 1069 the king took the reins of government into his own +hands. He recalled Adalbert to court; led expeditions against +the Liutici, and against Dedo or Dedi II., margrave of a district +east of Saxony; and soon afterwards quarrelled with Rudolph, +duke of Swabia, and Berthold, duke of Carinthia. Much more +serious was Henry’s struggle with Otto of Nordheim, duke of +Bavaria. This prince, who occupied an influential position in +Germany, was accused in 1070 by a certain Egino of being +privy to a plot to murder the king. It was decided that a trial +by battle should take place at Goslar, but when the demand +of Otto for a safe conduct for himself and his followers, to and +from the place of meeting, was refused, he declined to appear. +He was thereupon declared deposed in Bavaria, and his Saxon +estates were plundered. He obtained sufficient support, however, +to carry on a struggle with the king in Saxony and Thuringia +until 1071, when he submitted at Halberstadt. Henry aroused +the hostility of the Thuringians by supporting Siegfried, archbishop +of Mainz, in his efforts to exact tithes from them; but +still more formidable was the enmity of the Saxons, who had +several causes of complaint against the king. He was the son +of one enemy, Henry III., and the friend of another, Adalbert +of Bremen. He had ordered a restoration of all crown lands +in Saxony and had built forts among this people, while the +country was ravaged to supply the needs of his courtiers, and +its duke Magnus was a prisoner in his hands. All classes were +united against him, and when the struggle broke out in 1073 +the Thuringians joined the Saxons; and the war, which lasted +with slight intermissions until 1088, exercised a most potent +influence upon Henry’s fortunes elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saxony</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Henry soon found himself confronted by an abler and more +stubborn antagonist than either Thuringian or Saxon. In 1073 +Hildebrand became pope as Gregory VII. Two years later +this great ecclesiastic issued his memorable prohibition of lay +investiture, and the blow then struck at the secular power by +the papacy threatened seriously to undermine the imperial +authority. Spurred on by his advisers, Henry did not refuse the +challenge. Threatened with the papal ban, he summoned a +synod of German bishops which met at Worms in January 1076 +and declared Gregory deposed; and he wrote his famous letter +to the pope, in which he referred to him as “not pope, but false +monk.” The king was at once excommunicated. His adherents +gradually fell away, the Saxons were again in arms, and Otto of +Nordheim succeeded in uniting the malcontents of north and +south Germany. In October 1076 an important diet met at +Tribur, and after discussing the deposition of the king, decided +that he should be judged by an assembly to be held at Augsburg +in the following February under the presidency of the pope. This +union of the temporal and spiritual forces was too strong for the +king, and he decided to submit.</p> + +<p>Crossing the Alps, Henry appeared in January 1077 as a +penitent before the castle of Canossa, where Gregory had taken +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id="page276"></a>276</span> +refuge. The story of this famous occurrence, which represents +the king as standing in the courtyard of the castle for three days in +the snow, clad as a penitent, and entreating to be admitted to the +pope’s presence, is now regarded as mythical in its details; but +there is no doubt that the king visited the castle at intervals, and +prayed for admission for three days until the 28th of January, +when he was received by Gregory and absolved, after promising +to submit to the pope’s authority and to secure for him a safe +journey to Germany. No historical incident has more profoundly +impressed the imagination of the Western world. It marked the +highest point reached by papal authority, and presents a vivid +picture of the awe inspired during the middle ages by the supernatural +powers supposed to be wielded by the church.</p> + +<p>Scorned by his Lombard allies, Henry left Italy to find that in +his absence Rudolph, duke of Swabia, had been chosen German +king; and although Gregory had taken no part in this election, +Henry sought to prevent the pope’s journey to Germany, and +regaining courage, tried to recover his former position. Supported +by most of the German bishops and by the Lombards, now +reconciled to him, and recognized in Burgundy, Bavaria and +Franconia, Henry (who at this time is referred to by Bruno, the +author of <i>De bello Saxonico</i>, as <i>exrex</i>) appeared stronger than his +rival Rudolph; but the ensuing war was waged with varying +success. He was beaten at Mellrichstadt in 1078, and at +Flarchheim in 1080, but these defeats were due rather to the +fierce hostility of the Saxons, and the military skill of Otto of +Nordheim, than to any general sympathy with Rudolph. +Gregory’s attitude remained neutral, in spite of appeals from +both sides, until March 1080, when he again excommunicated +Henry, but without any serious effect on the fortunes of the king. +At Henry’s initiative, Gregory was declared deposed on three +occasions, and an anti-pope was elected in the person of Wibert, +archbishop of Ravenna, who took the name of Clement III.</p> + +<p>The death of Rudolph in October 1080, and a consequent lull in +the war, enabled the king to go to Italy early in 1081. He found +considerable support in Lombardy; placed Matilda, marchioness +of Tuscany, the faithful friend of Gregory, under the imperial +ban; took the Lombard crown at Pavia; and secured the +recognition of Clement by a council. Marching to Rome, he +undertook the siege of the city, but was soon compelled to retire +to Tuscany, where he granted privileges to various cities, and +obtained monetary assistance from a new ally, the eastern +emperor, Alexius I. A second and equally unsuccessful attack +on Rome was followed by a war of devastation in northern Italy +with the adherents of Matilda; and towards the end of 1082 the +king made a third attack on Rome. After a siege of seven months +the Leonine city fell into his hands. A treaty was concluded +with the Romans, who agreed that the quarrel between king and +pope should be decided by a synod, and secretly bound themselves +to induce Gregory to crown Henry as emperor, or to choose +another pope. Gregory, however, shut up in the castle of St +Angelo, would hear of no compromise; the synod was a failure, +as Henry prevented the attendance of many of the pope’s +supporters; and the king, in pursuance of his treaty with +Alexius, marched against the Normans. The Romans soon fell +away from their allegiance to the pope; and, recalled to the city, +Henry entered Rome in March 1084, after which Gregory was +declared deposed and Clement was recognized by the Romans. +On the 31st of March 1084 Henry was crowned emperor by +Clement, and received the patrician authority. His next step +was to attack the fortresses still in the hands of Gregory. The +pope was saved by the advance of Robert Guiscard, duke of +Apulia, with a large force, which compelled Henry to return +to Germany.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the German rebels had chosen a fresh anti-king, +Hermann, count of Luxemburg, whom Henry’s supporters had +already driven to his last line of defence in Saxony. During the +campaign of 1086 Henry was defeated near Würzburg, but in +1088 Hermann abandoned the struggle and the emperor was +generally recognized in Saxony, to which country he showed +considerable clemency. Although Henry’s power was in the +ascendent, a few powerful nobles adhered to the cause of Gregory’s +successor, Urban II. Among them was Welf, son of Welf I., the +deposed duke of Bavaria, whose marriage with Matilda of +Tuscany rendered him too formidable to be neglected. The +emperor accordingly returned to Italy in 1090, where Mantua +and Milan were taken, and Pope Clement was restored to Rome. +Henry’s communications with Germany were, however, threatened +by a league of the Lombard cities, and his anxieties were soon +augmented by domestic troubles.</p> + +<p>Henry’s first wife had died in 1087, and in 1089 he had married +a Russian princess, Praxedis, afterwards called Adelaide. Her +conduct soon aroused his suspicions, and his own eldest son, +Conrad, who had been crowned German king in 1087, was thought +to be a partner in her guilt. Escaping from prison, Adelaide fled +to Henry’s enemies and brought grave charges against her +husband; while the papal party induced Conrad to desert his +father and to be crowned king of Italy at Monza in 1093. +Crushed by this blow, Henry remained almost helpless and +inactive in northern Italy for five years, until 1097, when having +lost every shred of authority in that country, he returned to +Germany, where his position was stronger than ever. Welf had +submitted, had forsaken the cause of Matilda and had been restored +to Bavaria, and in 1098 the diet assembled at Mainz declared +Conrad deposed, and chose the emperor’s second son, Henry, +afterwards the emperor Henry V., as German king. The crusade +of 1096 had freed Germany from many turbulent spirits, and the +emperor, meeting with some success in his efforts to restore order, +could afford to ignore his repeated excommunication. A successful +campaign in Flanders was followed in 1103 by a diet at Mainz, +where serious efforts were made to restore peace, and Henry +himself promised to go on crusade. But this plan was shattered +by the revolt of the younger Henry in 1104, who, encouraged by +the adherents of the pope, declared he owed no allegiance to an +excommunicated father. Saxony and Thuringia were soon in +arms, the bishops held mainly to the younger Henry, while the +emperor was supported by the towns. A desultory warfare was +unfavourable, however, to the emperor, who, deceived by false +promises, became a prisoner in the hands of his son in 1105. The +diet met at Mainz in December, when he was compelled to abdicate; +but contrary to the conditions, he was detained at Ingelheim and +denied his freedom. Escaping to Cologne, he found considerable +support in the lower Rhineland; he entered into negotiations with +England, France and Denmark, and was engaged in collecting an +army when he died at Liége on the 7th of August 1106. His body +was buried by the bishop of Liége with suitable ceremony, but by +command of the papal legate it was unearthed, taken to Spires, +and placed in an unconsecrated chapel. After being released from +the sentence of excommunication the remains were buried in +the cathedral of Spires in August 1111.</p> + +<p>Henry IV. was very licentious and in his early years was +careless and self-willed, but better qualities were developed in +his later life. He displayed much diplomatic ability, and his +abasement at Canossa may fairly be regarded as a move of policy +to weaken the pope’s position at the cost of a personal humiliation +to himself. He was always regarded as a friend of the lower +orders, was capable of generosity and gratitude, and showed +considerable military skill. Unfortunate in the time in which +he lived, and in the troubles with which he had to contend, he +holds an honourable position in history as a monarch who resisted +the excessive pretensions both of the papacy and of the ambitious +feudal lords of Germany.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The authorities for the life and reign of Henry are Lambert of +Hersfeld, <i>Annales</i>; Bernold of Reichenau, Chronicon; Ekkehard of +Aura, <i>Chronicon</i>; and Bruno, <i>De bello Saxonico</i>, which gives several +of the more important letters that passed between Henry and +Gregory VII. These are all found in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae +historica. Scriptores</i>, Bände v. and vi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). +There is an anonymous <i>Vita Heinrici IV.</i>, edited by W. +Wattenbach (Hanover, 1876). The best modern authorities are: +G. Meyer von Knonau, <i>Jahrbücher des deutschen Reiches unter +Heinrich IV.</i> (Leipzig, 1890); H. Floto, <i>Kaiser Heinrich IV. und +sein Zeitalter</i> (Stuttgart, 1855); E. Kilian, <i>Itinerar Kaiser Heinrichs +IV.</i> (Karlsruhe, 1886); K. W. Nitzsch, “Das deutsche Reich und +Heinrich IV.,” in the <i>Historische Zeitschrift</i>, Band xlv. (Munich, +1859); H. Ulmann, <i>Zum Verständniss der sächsischen Erhebung +gegen Heinrich IV.</i> (Hanover, 1886), W. von Giesebrecht, <i>Geschichte</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277"></a>277</span> +<i>der deutschen Kaiserzeit</i> (Leipzig, 1881-1890); B. Gebhardt, <i>Handbuch +der deutschen Geschichte</i> (Berlin, 1901). For a list of other +works, especially those on the relations between Henry and Gregory, +see Dahlmann-Waitz, <i>Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte</i> (Göttingen, +1894).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY V.<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1081-1125), Roman emperor, son of the emperor +Henry IV., was born on the 8th of January 1081, and after +the revolt and deposition of his elder brother, the German king +Conrad (d. 1101), was chosen as his successor in 1098. He +promised to take no part in the business of the Empire during +his father’s lifetime, and was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on +the 6th of January 1099. In spite of his oath Henry was induced +by his father’s enemies to revolt in 1104, and some of the princes +did homage to him at Mainz in January 1106. In August of the +same year the elder Henry died, when his son became sole ruler +of the Empire. Order was soon restored in Germany, the citizens +of Cologne were punished by a fine, and an expedition against +Robert II., count of Flanders, brought this rebel to his knees. +In 1107 a campaign, which was only partially successful, was +undertaken to restore Bořiwoj II. to the dukedom of Bohemia, +and in the year following the king led his forces into Hungary, +where he failed to take Pressburg. In 1109 he was unable to +compel the Poles to renew their accustomed tribute, but in +1110 he succeeded in securing the dukedom of Bohemia for +Ladislaus I.</p> + +<p>The main interest of Henry’s reign centres in the controversy +over lay investiture, which had caused a serious dispute during +the previous reign. The papal party who had supported Henry +in his resistance to his father hoped he would assent to the +decrees of the pope, which had been renewed by Paschal II. at +the synod of Guastalla in 1106. The king, however, continued +to invest the bishops, but wished the pope to hold a council in +Germany to settle the question. Paschal after some hesitation +preferred France to Germany, and, after holding a council at +Troyes, renewed his prohibition of lay investiture. The matter +slumbered until 1110, when, negotiations between king and pope +having failed, Paschal renewed his decrees and Henry went to +Italy with a large army. The strength of his forces helped him to +secure general recognition in Lombardy, and at Sutri he concluded +an arrangement with Paschal by which he renounced the right +of investiture in return for a promise of coronation, and the +restoration to the Empire of all lands given by kings, or emperors, +to the German church since the time of Charlemagne. It was a +treaty impossible to execute, and Henry, whose consent to it +is said to have been conditional on its acceptance by the princes +and bishops of Germany, probably foresaw that it would occasion +a breach between the German clergy and the pope. Having +entered Rome and sworn the usual oaths, the king presented +himself at St Peter’s on the 12th of February 1111 for his +coronation and the ratification of the treaty. The words commanding +the clergy to restore the fiefs of the crown to Henry +were read amid a tumult of indignation, whereupon the pope +refused to crown the king, who in return declined to hand over +his renunciation of the right of investiture. Paschal was seized +by Henry’s soldiers and, in the general disorder into which the +city was thrown, an attempt to liberate the pontiff was thwarted +in a struggle during which the king himself was wounded. Henry +then left the city carrying the pope with him; and Paschal’s failure +to obtain assistance drew from him a confirmation of the king’s +right of investiture and a promise to crown him emperor. The +coronation ceremony accordingly took place on the 13th of +April 1111, after which the emperor returned to Germany, +where he sought to strengthen his power by granting privileges +to the inhabitants of the region of the upper Rhine.</p> + +<p>In 1112 Lothair, duke of Saxony, rose in arms against Henry, +but was easily quelled. In 1113, however, a quarrel over the +succession to the counties of Weimar and Orlamünde gave +occasion for a fresh outbreak on the part of Lothair, whose troops +were defeated at Warnstädt, after which the duke was pardoned. +Having been married at Mainz on the 7th of January 1114 to +Matilda, or Maud, daughter of Henry I., king of England, the +emperor was confronted with a further rising, initiated by the +citizens of Cologne, who were soon joined by the Saxons and +others. Henry failed to take Cologne, his forces were defeated +at Welfesholz on the 11th of February 1115, and complications +in Italy compelled him to leave Germany to the care of Frederick +II. of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, and his brother Conrad, +afterwards the German king Conrad III. After the departure +of Henry from Rome in 1111 a council had declared the privilege +of lay investiture, which had been extorted from Paschal, to +be invalid, and Guido, archbishop of Vienne, excommunicated +the emperor and called upon the pope to ratify this sentence. +Paschal, however, refused to take so extreme a step; and the +quarrel entered upon a new stage in 1115 when Matilda, daughter +and heiress of Boniface, margrave of Tuscany, died leaving her +vast estates to the papacy. Crossing the Alps in 1116 Henry +won the support of town and noble by privileges to the one and +presents to the other, took possession of Matilda’s lands, and was +gladly received in Rome. By this time Paschal had withdrawn +his consent to lay investiture and the excommunication had been +published in Rome; but the pope was compelled to fly from the +city. Some of the cardinals withstood the emperor, but by +means of bribes he broke down the opposition, and was crowned +a second time by Burdinas, archbishop of Braga. Meanwhile +the defeat at Welfesholz had given heart to Henry’s enemies; +many of his supporters, especially among the bishops, fell away; +the excommunication was published at Cologne, and the pope, +with the assistance of the Normans, began to make war. In +January 1118 Paschal died and was succeeded by Gelasius II. +The emperor immediately returned from northern Italy to Rome. +But as the new pope escaped from the city, Henry, despairing +of making a treaty, secured the election of an antipope who took +the name of Gregory VIII., and who was left in possession of +Rome when the emperor returned across the Alps in 1118. +The opposition in Germany was gradually crushed and a general +peace declared at Tribur, while the desire for a settlement of +the investiture dispute was growing. Negotiations, begun at +Würzburg, were continued at Worms, where the new pope, +Calixtus II., was represented by Cardinal Lambert, bishop of +Ostia. In the concordat of Worms, signed in September 1122, +Henry renounced the right of investiture with ring and crozier, +recognized the freedom of election of the clergy and promised +to restore all church property. The pope agreed to allow elections +to take place in presence of the imperial envoys, and the investiture +with the sceptre to be granted by the emperor as a symbol +that the estates of the church were held under the crown. Henry, +who had been solemnly excommunicated at Reims by Calixtus +in October 1119, was received again into the communion of the +church, after he had abandoned his nominee, Gregory, to defeat +and banishment. The emperor’s concluding years were occupied +with a campaign in Holland, and with a quarrel over the succession +to the margraviate of Meissen, two disputes in which his +enemies were aided by Lothair of Saxony. In 1124 he led an +expedition against King Louis VI. of France, turned his arms +against the citizens of Worms, and on the 23rd of May 1125 +died at Utrecht and was buried at Spires. Having no children, +he left his possessions to his nephew, Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen, +duke of Swabia, and on his death the line of Franconian, +or Salian, emperors became extinct.</p> + +<p>The character of Henry is unattractive. His love of power +was inordinate; he was wanting in generosity, and he did not +shrink from treachery in pursuing his ends.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief authority for the life and reign of Henry V. is Ekkehard +of Aura, <i>Chronicon</i>, edited by G. Waitz in the <i>Monumenta +Germaniae historica. Scriptores</i>, Band vi. (Hanover and Berlin, +1826-1892), See also W. von Giesebrecht, <i>Geschichte der deutschen +Kaiserzeit</i>, Band iii. (Leipzig, 1881-1890); L. von Ranke, <i>Weltgeschichte</i>, +pt. vii. (Leipzig, 1886); M. Manitius, <i>Deutsche Geschichte</i> +(Stuttgart, 1889); G. Meyer von Knonau, <i>Jahrbücher des deutschen +Reiches unter Heinrich IV. und Heinrich V.</i> (Leipzig, 1890); E. +Gervais, <i>Politische Geschichte Deutschlands unter der Regierung der +Kaiser Heinrich V. und Lothar III.</i> (Leipzig, 1841-1842); G. Peiser, +<i>Der deutsche Investiturstreit unter Kaiser Heinrich V.</i> (Berlin, 1883); +C. Stutzer, “Zur Kritik der Investiturverhandlungen im Jahre +1119,” in the <i>Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte</i>, Band xviii. +(Göttingen, 1862-1886); T. von Sickel and H. Bresslau, “Die +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>278</span> +kaiserliche Ausfertigung des Wormser Konkordats,” in the <i>Mittheilungen +des Instituts für österreichische Geschichtsforschung</i> (Innsbruck, +1880); B. Gebhardt, <i>Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte</i>, Band i. +(Berlin, 1901), and E. Bernheim, <i>Zur Geschichte des Wormser +Konkordats</i> (Göttingen, 1878).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY VI.<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1165-1197), Roman emperor, son of the emperor +Frederick I. and Beatrix, daughter of Renaud III., count of +upper Burgundy, was born at Nijmwegen, and educated under +the care of Conrad of Querfurt, afterwards bishop of Hildesheim +and Würzburg. Chosen German king, or king of the Romans, +at Bamberg in June 1169, he was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle +on the 15th of August 1169, invested with lands in Germany +in 1179, and at Whitsuntide 1184 his knighthood was celebrated +in the most magnificent manner at Mainz. Frederick was anxious +to associate his son with himself in the government of the empire, +and when he left Germany in 1184 Henry remained behind as +regent, while his father sought to procure his coronation from +Pope Lucius III. The pope was hesitating when he heard that +the emperor had arranged a marriage between Henry and +Constance, daughter of the late king of Sicily, Roger I., and aunt +and heiress of the reigning king, William II.; and this step, +which threatened to unite Sicily with Germany, decided him to +refuse the proposal. This marriage took place at Milan on the +27th of January 1186, and soon afterwards Henry was crowned +king of Italy. The claim of Henry and his wife on Sicily was +recognized by the barons of that kingdom; and having been +recognized by the pope as Roman emperor elect, Henry returned +to Germany, and was again appointed regent when Frederick +set out on crusade in May 1189. His attempts to bring peace to +Germany were interrupted by the return of Henry the Lion, +duke of Saxony, in October 1189, and a campaign against him +was followed by a peace made at Fulda in July 1190.</p> + +<p>Henry’s desire to make this peace was due to the death of +William of Sicily, which was soon followed by that of the emperor +Frederick. Germany and Italy alike seemed to need the king’s +presence, but for him, like all the Hohenstaufen, Italy had the +greater charm, and having obtained a promise of his coronation +from Pope Clement III. he crossed the Alps in the winter of +1190. He purchased the support of the cities of northern Italy, +but on reaching Rome he found Clement was dead and his +successor, Celestine III., disinclined to carry out the engagement +of his predecessor. The strength of the German army and a +treaty made between the king and the Romans induced him, +however, to crown Henry as emperor on the 14th of April 1191. +The aid of the Romans had been purchased by the king’s promise +to place in their possession the city of Tusculum, which they had +attacked in vain for three years. After the ceremony the +emperor fulfilled this contract, when the city was destroyed and +many of the inhabitants massacred. Meanwhile a party in Sicily +had chosen Tancred, an illegitimate son of Roger, son of King +Roger II., as their king, and he had already won considerable +authority and was favoured by the pope. Leaving Rome Henry +met with no resistance until he reached Naples, which he was +unable to take, as the ravages of fever and threatening news +from Germany, where his death was reported, compelled him to +raise the siege. In December 1191 he returned to Germany. +Disorder was general and a variety of reasons induced both the +Welfs and their earlier opponents to join in a general league +against the emperor. Vacancies in various bishoprics added to +the confusion, and Henry’s enemies gained in numbers and +strength when it was suspected that he was implicated in the +murder of Albert, bishop of Liége. Henry acted energetically +in fighting this formidable combination, but his salvation came +from the captivity of Richard I., king of England, and the skill +with which he used this event to make peace with his foes; and, +when Henry the Lion came to terms in March 1194, order was +restored to Germany.</p> + +<p>In the following May, Henry made his second expedition to +Italy, where Pope Celestine had definitely espoused the cause of +Tancred. The ransom received from Richard enabled him to +equip a large army, and aided by a fleet fitted out by Genoa and +Pisa he soon secured a complete mastery over the Italian mainland. +When he reached Sicily he found Tancred dead, and, +meeting with very little resistance, he entered Palermo, where +he was crowned king on Christmas day 1194. A stay of a few +months’ duration enabled Henry to settle the affairs of the +kingdom; and leaving his wife, Constance, as regent, and +appointing many Germans to positions of influence, he returned +to Germany in June 1195.</p> + +<p>Having established his position in Germany and Italy, Henry +began to cherish ideas of universal empire. Richard of England +had already owned his supremacy, and declaring he would +compel the king of France to do the same Henry sought to stir +up strife between France and England. Nor did the Spanish +kingdoms escape his notice. Tunis and Tripoli were claimed, +and when the eastern emperor, Isaac Angelus, asked his help, +he demanded in return the cession of the Balkan peninsula. +The kings of Cyprus and Armenia asked for investiture at his +hands; and in general Henry, in the words of a Byzantine +chronicler, put forward his demands as “the lord of all lords, +the king of all kings.” To complete this scheme two steps were +necessary, a reconciliation with the pope and the recognition of +his young son, Frederick, as his successor in the Empire. The +first was easily accomplished; the second was more difficult. +After attempting to suppress the renewed disorder in Germany, +Henry met the princes at Worms in December 1195 and put his +proposal before them. In spite of promises they disliked the +suggestion as tending to draw them into Sicilian troubles, and +avoided the emperor’s displeasure by postponing their answer. +By threats or negotiations, however, Henry won the consent of +about fifty princes; but though the diet which met at Würzburg +in April 1196 agreed to the scheme, the vigorous opposition of +Adolph, archbishop of Cologne, and others rendered it inoperative. +In June 1196 Henry went again to Italy, sought vainly +to restore order in the north, and tried to persuade the pope to +crown his son who had been chosen king of the Romans at +Frankfort. Celestine, who had many causes of complaint against +the emperor and his vassals, refused. The emperor then went +to the south, where the oppression of his German officials had +caused an insurrection, which was put down with terrible cruelty. +At Messina on the 28th of September 1197 Henry died from +a cold caught whilst hunting, and was buried at Palermo. +He was a man of small frame and delicate constitution, but +possessed considerable mental gifts and was skilled in knightly +exercises. His ambition was immense, and to attain his +ends he often resorted deliberately to cruelty and treachery. +His chief recreation was hunting, and he also found pleasure +in the society of the Minnesingers and in writing poems, +which appear in F. H. von der Hagen’s <i>Minnesinger</i> (Leipzig, +1838). He left an only son Frederick, afterwards the emperor +Frederick II.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief authorities for the life and reign of Henry VI. are Otto of +Freising, <i>Chronicon</i>, continued by Otto of St Blasius; Godfrey of +Viterbo, <i>Gesta Friderici I.</i> and <i>Gesta Heinrici VI.</i>; Giselbert of +Mons, <i>Chronicon Hanoniense</i>, all of which appear in the <i>Monumenta +Germaniae historica. Scriptores</i>, Bände xx., xxi., xxii. +(Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892), and the various annals of the time.</p> + +<p>The best modern authorities are: W. von Giesebrecht, <i>Geschichte +der deutschen Kaiserzeit</i>, Band iv. (Brunswick, 1877); T. Toeche, +<i>Kaiser Heinrich VI.</i> (Leipzig, 1867); H. Bloch, <i>Forschungen zur +Politik Kaiser Heinrichs VI.</i> (Berlin, 1892), and K. A. Kneller, +<i>Des Richard Löwenherz deutsche Gefangenschaft</i> (Freiburg, 1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY VII.<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1269-1313), Roman emperor, son of Henry +III., count of Luxemburg, was knighted by Philip IV., king of +France, and passed his early days under French influences, +while the French language was his mother-tongue. His father +was killed in battle in 1288, and Henry ruled his tiny inheritance +with justice and prudence, but came into collision with the +citizens of Trier over a question of tolls. In 1292 he married +Margaret (d. 1311), daughter of John I., duke of Brabant, and +after the death of the German king, Albert I., he was elected to +the vacant throne on the 27th of November 1308. Recognized +at once by the German princes and by Pope Clement V., the aspirations +of the new king turned to Italy, where he hoped by restoring +the imperial authority to prepare the way for the conquest of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>279</span> +the Holy Land. Meanwhile he strove to secure his position in +Germany. The Rhenish archbishops were pacified by the +restoration of the Rhine tolls, negotiations were begun with +Philip IV., king of France, and with Robert, king of Naples, +and the Habsburgs were confirmed in their possessions. At +this time Bohemia was ruled by Henry V., duke of Carinthia, +but the terrible disorder which prevailed induced some of the +Bohemians to offer the crown, together with the hand of Elizabeth, +daughter of the late king Wenceslas II., to John, the son of the +German king. Henry accepted the offer, and in August 1310 +John was invested with Bohemia and his marriage was celebrated. +Before John’s coronation at Prague, however, in +February 1311, Henry had crossed the Alps. His hopes of reuniting +Germany and Italy and of restoring the empire of the +Hohenstaufen were flattered by an appeal from the Ghibellines +to come to their assistance, and by the fact that many Italians, +sharing the sentiments expressed by Dante in his <i>De Monarchia</i>, +looked eagerly for a restoration of the imperial authority. In +October 1310 he reached Turin where, on receiving the homage +of the Lombard cities, he declared that he favoured neither +Guelphs nor Ghibellines, but only sought to impose peace. +Having entered Milan he placed the Lombard crown upon his +head on the 6th of January 1311. But trouble soon showed +itself. His poverty compelled him to exact money from the +citizens; the peaceful professions of the Guelphs were insincere, +and Robert, king of Naples, watched his progress with suspicion. +Florence was fortified against him, and the mutual hatred of +Guelph and Ghibelline was easily renewed. Risings took place +in various places and, after the capture of Brescia, Henry +marched to Rome only to find the city in the hands of the Guelphs +and the troops of King Robert. Some street fighting ensued, +and the king, unable to obtain possession of St Peter’s, was +crowned emperor on the 29th of June 1312 in the church of St +John Lateran by some cardinals who declared they only acted +under compulsion. Failing to subdue Florence, the emperor +from his headquarters at Pisa prepared to attack Robert of +Naples, for which purpose he had allied himself with Frederick +III., king of Sicily. But Clement, anxious to protect Robert, +threatened Henry with excommunication. Undeterred by the +threat the emperor collected fresh forces, made an alliance with +the Venetians, and set out for Naples. On the march he was, +however, taken ill, and died at Buonconvento near Siena on the +24th of August 1313, and was buried at Pisa. His death was +attributed, probably without reason, to poison given him by a +Dominican friar in the sacramental wine. Henry is described +by his contemporary Albertino Mussato, in the <i>Historia Augusta</i>, +as a handsome man, of well-proportioned figure, with reddish +hair and arched eyebrows, but disfigured by a squint. He adds, +among other details, that he was slow and laconic in his speech, +magnanimous and devout, but impatient of any compacts +with his subjects, loathing the mention of the Guelph and +Ghibelline factions, and insisting on the absolute authority +of the Empire over all (<i>cuncta absoluto complectens Imperio</i>). +He was, however, a lover of justice, and as a knight both bold +and skilful. He was hailed by Dante as the deliverer of Italy, +and in the <i>Paradiso</i> the poet reserved for him a place marked +by a crown.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The contemporary documents for the life and reign of Henry VII. +are very numerous. Many of them are found in the <i>Rerum Italicarum +scriptores</i>, edited by L. A. Muratori (Milan, 1723-1751), +others in <i>Fontes rerum Germanicarum</i>, edited by J. F. Böhmer +(Stuttgart, 1843-1868), and in <i>Die Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen +Vorzeit</i>, Bände 79 and 80 (Leipzig, 1884). The following modern +works may also be consulted: <i>Acta Henrici VII. imperatoris +Romanorum</i>, edited by G. Dönniges (Berlin, 1839); F. Bonaini, +<i>Acta Henrici VII. Romanorum imperatoris</i> (Florence, 1877); T. +Lindner, <i>Deutsche Geschichte unter den Habsburgern und Luxemburgern</i> +(Stuttgart, 1888-1893); J. Heidemann, “Die Königswahl +Heinrichs von Luxemburg,” in the <i>Forschungen zur deutschen +Geschichte</i>, Band xi. (Göttingen, 1862-1886); B. Thomas, <i>Zur +Königswahl des Grafen Heinrich von Luxemburg</i> (Strassburg, 1875); +D. König, <i>Kritische Erörterungen zu einigen italienischen Quellen +für die Geschichte des Römerzuges Königs Heinrich VII.</i> (Göttingen, +1874); K. Wenck, <i>Clemens V. und Heinrich VII.</i> (Halle, 1882); +F. W. Barthold, <i>Der Römerzug König Heinrichs von Lützelburg</i> +(Königsberg, 1830-1831); R. Pöhlmann, <i>Der Römerzug König +Heinrichs VII. und die Politik der Curie</i> (Nuremberg, 1875); W. +Dönniges, <i>Kritik der Quellen für die Geschichte Heinrichs VII. des +Luxemburgers</i> (Berlin, 1841), and G. Sommerfeldt, <i>Die Romfahrt +Kaiser Heinrichs VII.</i> (Königsberg, 1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY VII.<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1211-1242), German king, son of the emperor +Frederick II. and his first wife Constance, daughter of Alphonso +II., king of Aragon, was crowned king of Sicily in 1212 and made +duke of Swabia in 1216. Pope Innocent III. had favoured his +coronation as king of Sicily in the hope that the union of this +island with the Empire would be dissolved, and had obtained a +promise from Frederick to this effect. In spite of this, however, +Henry was chosen king of the Romans, or German king, at +Frankfort in April 1220, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the +8th of May 1222 by his guardian Engelbert, archbishop of Cologne. +He appears to have spent most of his youth in Germany, and +on the 18th of November 1225 was married at Nuremberg to +Margaret (d. 1267), daughter of Leopold VI., duke of Austria. +Henry’s marriage was the occasion of some difference of opinion, +as Engelbert wished him to marry an English princess, and the +name of a Bohemian princess was also mentioned in this connexion, +but Frederick insisted upon the union with Margaret. +The murder of Engelbert in 1225 was followed by an increase of +disorder in Germany in which Henry soon began to participate, +and in 1227 he took part in a quarrel which had arisen on the +death of Henry V., the childless count palatine of the Rhine. +About this time the relations between Frederick and his son +began to be somewhat strained. The emperor had favoured the +Austrian marriage because Margaret’s brother, Duke Frederick +II., was childless; but Henry took up a hostile attitude towards +his brother-in-law and wished to put away his wife and +marry Agnes, daughter of Wenceslaus I., king of Bohemia. +Other causes of trouble probably existed, for in 1231 Henry not +only refused to appear at the diet at Ravenna, but opposed +the privileges granted by Frederick to the princes at Worms. In +1232, however, he submitted to his father, promising to adopt +the emperor’s policy and to obey his commands. He did not +long keep his word and was soon engaged in thwarting Frederick’s +wishes in several directions, until in 1233 he took the decisive +step of issuing a manifesto to the princes, and the following year +raised the standard of revolt at Boppard. He obtained very +little support in Germany, however, while the suspicion that he +favoured heresy deprived him of encouragement from the pope. +On the other hand, he succeeded in forming an alliance with the +Lombards in December 1234, but his few supporters fell away +when the emperor reached Germany in 1235, and, after a vain +attack on Worms, Henry submitted and was kept for some time +as a prisoner in Germany, though his formal deposition as German +king was not considered necessary, as he had broken the oath +taken in 1232. He was soon removed to San Felice in Apulia, +and afterwards to Martirano in Calabria, where he died, probably +by his own hand, on the 12th of February 1242, and was +buried at Cosenza. He left two sons, Frederick and Henry, +both of whom died in Italy about 1251.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Rohden, <i>Der Sturz Heinrichs VII.</i> (Göttingen, 1883); F. W. +Schirrmacher, <i>Die letzten Hohenstaufen</i> (Göttingen, 1871), and E. +Winkelmann, <i>Kaiser Friedrich II.</i> (Leipzig, 1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY RASPE<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1202-1247), German king and landgrave +of Thuringia, was the second surviving son of Hermann I., +landgrave of Thuringia, and Sophia, daughter of Otto I., duke of +Bavaria. When his brother the landgrave Louis IV. died in +Italy in September 1227, Henry seized the government of +Thuringia and expelled his brother’s widow, St Elizabeth of +Hungary, and her son Hermann. With some trouble Henry +made good his position, although his nephew Hermann II. was +nominally the landgrave, and was declared of age in 1237. +Henry, who governed with a zealous regard for his own interests, +remained loyal to the emperor Frederick II. during his quarrel +with the Lombards and the revolt of his son Henry. In 1236 +he accompanied the emperor on a campaign against Frederick +II., duke of Austria, and took part in the election of his son +Conrad as German king at Vienna in 1237. He appears, however, +to have become somewhat estranged from Frederick after this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280"></a>280</span> +expedition, for he did not appear at the diet of Verona in 1238; +and it is not improbable that he disliked the betrothal of his +nephew Hermann to the emperor’s daughter Margaret. At +all events, when the projected marriage had been broken off +the landgrave publicly showed his loyalty to the emperor in +1239 in opposition to a plan formed by various princes to elect +an anti-king. Henry, whose attitude at this time was very +important to Frederick, was probably kept loyal by the influence +which his brother Conrad, grand-master of the Teutonic +Order, exercised over him, for after the death of this brother +in 1241 Henry’s loyalty again wavered, and he was himself +mentioned as a possible anti-king. Frederick’s visit to Germany +in 1242 was successful in preventing this step for a time, and in +May of that year the landgrave was appointed administrator of +Germany for King Conrad; and by the death of his nephew +in this year he became the nominal, as well as the actual, ruler +of Thuringia. Again he contemplated deserting the cause of +Frederick, and in April 1246 Pope Innocent IV. wrote to the +German princes advising them to choose Henry as their king +in place of Frederick who had just been declared deposed. Acting +on these instructions, Henry was elected at Veitshöchheim on +the 22nd of May 1246, and owing to the part played by the +spiritual princes in this election was called the <i>Pfaffenkönig</i>, or +parsons’ king. Collecting an army, he defeated King Conrad +near Frankfort on the 5th of August 1246, and then, after holding +a diet at Nuremberg, undertook the siege of Ulm. But he was +soon compelled to give up this enterprise, and returning to +Thuringia died at the Wartburg on the 17th of February 1247. +Henry married Gertrude, sister of Frederick II., duke of Austria, +but left no children, and on his death the male line of his family +became extinct.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Reuss, <i>Die Wahl Heinrich Raspes</i> (Lüdenscheid, 1878); +A. Rübesamen, <i>Landgraf Heinrich Raspe von Thüringen</i> (Halle, +1885); F. W. Schirrmacher, <i>Die letzten Hohenstaufen</i> (Göttingen, +1871); E. Winkelmann, <i>Kaiser Friedrich II.</i> (Leipzig, 1889), and +T. Knochenhauer, <i>Geschichte Thüringens zur Zeit des ersten Landgrafenhauses</i> +(Gotha, 1871).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1174-1216), emperor of Romania, or Constantinople, +was a younger son of Baldwin, count of Flanders and +Hainaut (d. 1195). Having joined the Fourth Crusade about 1201, +he distinguished himself at the siege of Constantinople in 1204 +and elsewhere, and soon became prominent among the princes +of the new Latin empire of Constantinople. When his brother, +the emperor Baldwin I., was captured at the battle of Adrianople +in April 1205, Henry was chosen regent of the empire, succeeding +to the throne when the news of Baldwin’s death arrived. He +was crowned on the 20th of August 1205. Henry was a wise +ruler, whose reign was largely passed in successful struggles +with the Bulgarians and with his rival, Theodore Lascaris I., +emperor of Nicaea. Henry appears to have been brave but not +cruel, and tolerant but not weak; possessing “the superior +courage to oppose, in a superstitious age, the pride and avarice +of the clergy.” The emperor died, poisoned, it is said, by his +Greek wife, on the 11th of June 1216.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Gibbon’s <i>Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, vol. vi. (ed. +J. B. Bury, 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY I.<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (1068-1135), king of England, nicknamed Beauclerk, +the fourth and youngest son of William I. by his queen +Matilda of Flanders, was born in 1068 on English soil. Of his +life before 1086, when he was solemnly knighted by his father +at Westminster, we know little. He was his mother’s favourite, +and she bequeathed to him her English estates, which, however, +he was not permitted to hold in his father’s lifetime. Henry +received a good education, of which in later life he was proud; +he is credited with the saying that an unlettered king is only a +crowned ass. His attainments included Latin, which he could +both read and write; he knew something of the English laws +and language, and it may have been from an interest in natural +history that he collected, during his reign, the Woodstock +menagerie which was the admiration of his subjects. But +from 1087 his life was one of action and vicissitudes which left +him little leisure. Receiving, under the Conqueror’s last dispositions, +a legacy of five thousand pounds of silver, but no land, +he traded upon the pecuniary needs of Duke Robert of Normandy, +from whom he purchased, for the small sum of £3000, the +district of the Cotentin. He negotiated with Rufus to obtain +the possession of their mother’s inheritance, but only incurred +thereby the suspicions of the duke, who threw him into prison. +In 1090 the prince vindicated his loyalty by suppressing, on +Robert’s behalf, a revolt of the citizens of Rouen which Rufus +had fomented. But when his elder brothers were reconciled +in the next year they combined to evict Henry from the +Cotentin. He dissembled his resentment for a time, and lived +for nearly two years in the French Vexin in great poverty. He +then accepted from the citizens of Domfront an invitation to +defend them against Robert of Bellême; and subsequently, +coming to an agreement with Rufus, assisted the king in making +war on their elder brother Robert. When Robert’s departure +for the First Crusade left Normandy in the hands of Rufus +(1096) Henry took service under the latter, and he was in +the royal hunting train on the day of Rufus’s death (August 2nd, +1100). Had Robert been in Normandy the claim of Henry to +the English crown might have been effectually opposed. But +Robert only returned to the duchy a month after Henry’s +coronation. In the meantime the new king, by issuing his +famous charter, by recalling Anselm, and by choosing the +Anglo-Scottish princess Edith-Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III., +king of the Scots, as his future queen, had cemented that alliance +with the church and with the native English which was the +foundation of his greatness. Anselm preached in his favour, +English levies marched under the royal banner both to repel +Robert’s invasion (1101) and to crush the revolt of the Montgomeries +headed by Robert of Bellême (1102). The alliance +of crown and church was subsequently imperilled by the question +of Investitures (1103-1106). Henry was sharply criticized for +his ingratitude to Anselm (<i>q.v.</i>), in spite of the marked respect +which he showed to the archbishop. At this juncture a sentence +of excommunication would have been a dangerous blow to Henry’s +power in England. But the king’s diplomatic skill enabled him +to satisfy the church without surrendering any rights of consequence +(1106); and he skilfully threw the blame of his previous +conduct upon his counsellor, Robert of Meulan. Although the +Peterborough Chronicle accuses Henry of oppression in his +early years, the nation soon learned to regard him with respect. +William of Malmesbury, about 1125, already treats Tinchebrai +(1106) as an English victory and the revenge for Hastings. +Henry was disliked but feared by the baronage, towards whom +he showed gross bad faith in his disregard of his coronation +promises. In 1110 he banished the more conspicuous malcontents, +and from that date was safe against the plots of his +English feudatories.</p> + +<p>With Normandy he had more trouble, and the military skill +which he had displayed at Tinchebrai was more than once put +to the test against Norman rebels. His Norman, like his English +administration, was popular with the non-feudal classes, but +doubtless oppressive towards the barons. The latter had +abandoned the cause of Duke Robert, who remained a prisoner +in England till his death (1134); but they embraced that of +Robert’s son William the Clito, whom Henry in a fit of generosity +had allowed to go free after Tinchebrai. The Norman conspiracies +of 1112, 1118, and 1123-24 were all formed in the +Clito’s interest. Both France and Anjou supported this pretender’s +cause from time to time; he was always a thorn in +Henry’s side till his untimely death at Alost (1128), but more +especially after the catastrophe of the White Ship (1120) deprived +the king of his only lawful son. But Henry emerged from these +complications with enhanced prestige. His campaigns had +been uneventful, his chief victory (Brémule, 1119) was little +more than a skirmish. But he had held his own as a general, +and as a diplomatist he had shown surpassing skill. The chief +triumphs of his foreign policy were the marriage of his daughter +Matilda to the emperor Henry V. (1114) which saved Normandy +in 1124; the detachment of the pope, Calixtus II., from the +side of France and the Clito (1119), and the Angevin marriages +which he arranged for his son William Aetheling (1119) and for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281"></a>281</span> +the widowed empress Matilda (1129) after her brother’s death. +This latter match, though unpopular in England and Normandy, +was a fatal blow to the designs of Louis VI., and prepared the +way for the expansion of English power beyond the Loire. +After 1124 the disaffection of Normandy was crushed. The +severity with which Henry treated the last rebels was regarded +as a blot upon his fame; but the only case of merely vindictive +punishment was that of the poet Luke de la Barre, who was +sentenced to lose his eyes for a lampoon upon the king, and only +escaped the sentence by committing suicide.</p> + +<p>Henry’s English government was severe and grasping; but +he “kept good peace” and honourably distinguished himself +among contemporary statesmen in an age when administrative +reform was in the air. He spent more time in Normandy than +in England. But he showed admirable judgment in his choice +of subordinates; Robert of Meulan, who died in 1118, and +Roger of Salisbury, who survived his master, were statesmen +of no common order; and Henry was free from the mania of +attending in person to every detail, which was the besetting +sin of medieval sovereigns. As a legislator Henry was conservative. +He issued few ordinances; the unofficial compilation +known as the <i>Leges Henrici</i> shows that, like the Conqueror, +he made it his ideal to maintain the “law of Edward.” His +itinerant justices were not altogether a novelty in England or +Normandy. It is characteristic of the man that the exchequer +should be the chief institution created in his reign. The eulogies +of the last <i>Peterborough Chronicle</i> on his government were +written after the anarchy of Stephen’s reign had invested his +predecessor’s “good peace” with the glamour of a golden age. +Henry was respected and not tyrannous. He showed a lofty +indifference to criticism such as that of Eadmer in the <i>Historia +novorum</i>, which was published early in the reign. He showed, +on some occasions, great deference to the opinions of the magnates. +But dark stories, some certainly unfounded, were told of his +prison-houses. Men thought him more cruel and more despotic +than he actually was.</p> + +<p>Henry was twice married. After the death of his first wife, +Matilda (1080-1118), he took to wife Adelaide, daughter of +Godfrey, count of Louvain (1121), in the hope of male issue. +But the marriage proved childless, and the empress Matilda +was designated as her father’s successor, the English baronage +being compelled to do her homage both in 1126, and again, +after the Angevin marriage, in 1131. He had many illegitimate +sons and daughters by various mistresses. Of these bastards the +most important is Robert, earl of Gloucester, upon whom fell the +main burden of defending Matilda’s title against Stephen.</p> + +<p>Henry died near Gisors on the 1st of December, 1135, in the +thirty-sixth year of his reign, and was buried in the abbey of +Reading which he himself had founded.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Original Authorities.</span>—<i>The Peterborough Chronicle</i> (ed. Plummer, +Oxford, 1882-1889); <i>Florence of Worcester</i> and his first continuator +(ed. B. Thorpe, 1848-1849); Eadmer, <i>Historia novorum</i> (ed. Rule, +Rolls Series, 1884); William of Malmesbury, <i>Gesta regum</i> and +<i>Historia novella</i> (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series, 1887-1889); Henry of +Huntingdon, <i>Historia Anglorum</i> (ed. Arnold, Rolls Series, 1879); +Simeon of Durham (ed. Arnold, Rolls Series, 1882-1885); Orderic +Vitalis, <i>Historia ecclesiastica</i> (ed. le Prévost, Paris, 1838-1855); +Robert of Torigni, <i>Chronica</i> (ed. Howlett, Rolls Series, 1889), and +<i>Continuatio Willelmi Gemmeticensis</i> (ed. Duchesne, <i>Hist. Normannorum +scriptores</i>, pp. 215-317, Paris, 1619). See also the Pipe Roll +of 31 H. I. (ed. Hunter, <i>Record Commission</i>, 1833); the documents in +W. Stubbs’s <i>Select Chapters</i> (Oxford, 1895); the <i>Leges Henrici</i> in +Liebermann’s <i>Gesetze der Angel-Sachsen</i> (Halle, 1898, &c.); and the +same author’s monograph, <i>Leges Henrici</i> (Halle, 1901); the treaties, +&c., in the Record Commission edition of Thomas Rymer’s <i>Foedera</i>, +vol. i. (1816).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Modern authorities.</span>—E. A. Freeman, <i>History of the Norman +Conquest</i>, vol. v.; J. M. Lappenberg, <i>History of England under the +Norman Kings</i> (tr. Thorpe, Oxford, 1857); Kate Norgate, <i>England +under the Angevin Kings</i>, vol. i. (1887); Sir James Ramsay, <i>Foundations +of England</i>, vol. ii.; W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>, vol. i.; +H. W. C. Davis, <i>England under the Normans and Angevins</i>; Hunt +and Poole, <i>Political History of England</i>, vol. ii.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY II.<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1133-1189), king of England, son of Geoffrey +Plantagenet, count of Anjou, by Matilda, daughter of Henry +I., was born at Le Mans on the 25th of March 1133. He was +brought to England during his mother’s conflict with Stephen +(1142), and was placed under the charge of a tutor at Bristol. +He returned to Normandy in 1146. He next appeared on English +soil in 1149<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> when he came to court the help of Scotland and the +English baronage against King Stephen. The second visit was of +short duration. In 1150 he was invested with Normandy by his +father, whose death in the next year made him also count of +Anjou. In 1152 by a marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine, the +divorced wife of the French king Louis VII., he acquired +Poitou, Guienne and Gascony; but in doing so incurred the +ill-will of his suzerain from which he suffered not a little in the +future. Lastly in 1153 he was able, through the aid of the +Church and his mother’s partisans, to extort from Stephen the +recognition of his claim to the English succession; and this +claim was asserted without opposition immediately after Stephen’s +death (25th of October 1154). Matilda retired into seclusion, +although she possessed, until her death (1167), great influence +with her son.</p> + +<p>The first years of the reign were largely spent in restoring the +public peace and recovering for the crown the lands and prerogatives +which Stephen had bartered away. Amongst the +older partisans of the Angevin house the most influential were +Archbishop Theobald, whose good will guaranteed to Henry +the support of the Church, and Nigel, bishop of Ely, who presided +at the exchequer. But Thomas Becket, archdeacon of Canterbury, +a younger statesman whom Theobald had discovered +and promoted, soon became all-powerful. Becket lent himself +entirely to his master’s ambitions, which at this time centred +round schemes of territorial aggrandizement. In 1155 Henry +asked and obtained from Adrian IV. a licence to invade Ireland, +which the king contemplated bestowing upon his brother, +William of Anjou. This plan was dropped; but Malcolm of +Scotland was forced to restore the northern counties which had +been ceded to David; North Wales was invaded in 1157; and +in 1159 Henry made an attempt, which was foiled by the intervention +of Louis VII., to assert his wife’s claims upon Toulouse. +After vainly invoking the aid of the emperor Frederick I., the +young king came to terms with Louis (1160), whose daughter +was betrothed to Henry’s namesake and heir. The peace proved +unstable, and there was desultory skirmishing in 1161. The +following year was chiefly spent in reforming the government of +the continental provinces. In 1163 Henry returned to England, +and almost immediately embarked on that quarrel with the +Church which is the keynote to the middle period of the reign.</p> + +<p>Henry had good cause to complain of the ecclesiastical courts, +and had only awaited a convenient season to correct abuses +which were admitted by all reasonable men. But he allowed +the question to be complicated by personal issues. He was +bitterly disappointed that Becket, on whom he bestowed the +primacy, left vacant by the death of Theobald (1162), at once +became the champion of clerical privilege; he and the archbishop +were no longer on speaking terms when the Constitutions of +Clarendon came up for debate. The king’s demands were not +intrinsically irreconcilable with the canon law, and the papacy +would probably have allowed them to take effect <i>sub silentio</i>, +if Becket (<i>q.v.</i>) had not been goaded to extremity by persecution +in the forms of law. After Becket’s flight (1164), the king put +himself still further in the wrong by impounding the revenues +of Canterbury and banishing at one stroke a number of the +archbishop’s friends and connexions. He showed, however, +considerable dexterity in playing off the emperor against +Alexander III. and Louis VII., and contrived for five years, +partly by these means, partly by insincere negotiations with +Becket, to stave off a papal interdict upon his dominions. When, +in July 1170, he was forced by Alexander’s threats to make +terms with Becket, the king contrived that not a word should +be said of the Constitutions. He undoubtedly hoped that in +this matter he would have his way when Becket should be more +in England and within his grasp. For the murder of Becket +(Dec. 29, 1170) the king cannot be held responsible, though the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id="page282"></a>282</span> +deed was suggested by his impatient words. It was a misfortune +to the royal cause; and Henry was compelled to purchase the +papal absolution by a complete surrender on the question of +criminous clerks (1172). When he heard of the murder he was +panic-stricken; and his expedition to Ireland (1171), although so +momentous for the future, was originally a mere pretext for +placing himself beyond the reach of Alexander’s censures.</p> + +<p>Becket’s fate, though it supplied an excuse, was certainly not +the real cause of the troubles with his sons which disturbed the +king’s later years (1173-1189). But Henry’s misfortunes were +largely of his own making. Queen Eleanor, whom he alienated +by his faithlessness, stirred up her sons to rebellion; and they +had grievances enough to be easily persuaded. Henry was an +affectionate but a suspicious and close-handed father. The +titles which he bestowed on them carried little power, and served +chiefly to denote the shares of the paternal inheritance which +were to be theirs after his death. The excessive favour which +he showed to John, his youngest-born, was another cause of +heart-burning; and Louis, the old enemy, did his utmost to +foment all discords. It must, however, be remembered in +Henry’s favour, that the supporters of the princes, both in +England and in the foreign provinces, were animated by resentment +against the soundest features of the king’s administration; +and that, in the rebellion of 1173, he received from the English +commons such hearty support that any further attempt to +raise a rebellion in England was considered hopeless. Henry, +like his grandfather, gained in popularity with every year of his +reign. In 1183 the death of Prince Henry, the heir-apparent, +while engaged in a war against his brother Richard and their +father, secured a short interval of peace. But in 1184 Geoffrey +of Brittany and John combined with their father’s leave to make +war upon Richard, now the heir-apparent. After Geoffrey’s +death (1186) the feud between John and Richard drove the +latter into an alliance with Philip Augustus of France. The +ill-success of the old king in this war aggravated the disease from +which he was suffering; and his heart was broken by the discovery +that John, for whose sake he had alienated Richard, was +in secret league with the victorious allies. Henry died at Chinon +on the 6th of July 1189, and was buried at Fontevraud. By +Eleanor of Aquitaine the king had five sons and three daughters. +His eldest son, William, died young; his other sons, Henry, +Richard, Geoffrey and John, are all mentioned above. His +daughters were: Matilda (1156-1189), who became the wife of +Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony; Eleanor (1162-1214), who +married Alphonso III., king of Castile; and Joanna, who, after +the death of William of Sicily in 1189, became the wife of Raymund +VI., count of Toulouse, having previously accompanied +her brother, Richard, to Palestine. He had also three illegitimate +sons: Geoffrey, archbishop of York; Morgan; and +William Longsword, earl of Salisbury.</p> + +<p>Henry’s power impressed the imagination of his contemporaries, +who credited him with aiming at the conquest of France +and the acquisition of the imperial title. But his ambitions +of conquest were comparatively moderate in his later +years. He attempted to secure Maurienne and Savoy for John +by a marriage-alliance, for which a treaty was signed in 1173. +But the project failed through the death of the intended bride; +nor did the marriage of his third daughter, the princess Joanna +(1165-1199), with William II., king of Sicily (1177) lead to English +intervention in Italian politics. Henry once declined an offer +of the Empire, made by the opponents of Frederick Barbarossa; +and he steadily supported the young Philip Augustus against +the intrigues of French feudatories. The conquest of Ireland +was carried out independently of his assistance, and perhaps +against his wishes. He asserted his suzerainty over Scotland +by the treaty of Falaise (1175), but not so stringently as to provoke +Scottish hostility. This moderation was partly due to the +embarrassments produced by the ecclesiastical question and +the rebellions of the princes. But Henry, despite a violent and +capricious temper, had a strong taste for the work of a legislator +and administrator. He devoted infinite pains and thought to +the reform of government both in England and Normandy. +The legislation of his reign was probably in great part of his own +contriving. His supervision of the law courts was close and +jealous; he transacted a great amount of judicial business in +his own person, even after he had formed a high court of justice +which might sit without his personal presence. To these +activities he devoted his scanty intervals of leisure. His government +was stern; he over-rode the privileges of the baronage +without regard to precedent; he persisted in keeping large +districts under the arbitrary and vexatious jurisdiction of the +forest-courts. But it is the general opinion of historians that +he had a high sense of his responsibilities and a strong love of +justice; despite the looseness of his personal morals, he commanded +the affection and respect of Gilbert Foliot and Hugh of +Lincoln, the most upright of the English bishops.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Original Authorities.</span>—Henry’s laws are printed in W. Stubb’s +<i>Select Charters</i> (Oxford, 1895). The chief chroniclers of his reign are +William of Newburgh, Ralph de Diceto, the so-called Benedict of +Peterborough, Roger of Hoveden, Robert de Torigni (or de Monte), +Jordan Fantosme, Giraldus Cambrensis, Gervase of Canterbury; +all printed in the Rolls Series. The biographies and letters contained +in the 7 vols. of <i>Materials for the History of Thomas Becket</i> (ed. J. C. +Robertson, Rolls Series, 1875-1885) are valuable for the early and +middle part of the reign. For Irish affairs the <i>Song of Dermot</i> (ed. +Orpen, Oxford, 1892), for the rebellions of the princes the metrical +<i>Histoire de Guillaume le Maréchal</i> (ed. Paul Meyer, 3 vols., Paris, +1891, &c.) are of importance. Henry’s legal and administrative +reforms are illustrated by the <i>Tractatus de legibus</i> attributed to +Ranulph Glanville, his chief justiciar (ed. G. Phillips, Berlin, 1828); +by the <i>Dialogus de scaccario</i> of Richard fitz Nigel (Oxford, 1902); +the <i>Pipe Rolls</i>, printed by J. Hunter for the Record Commission +(1844) and by the Pipe-Roll Society (London, 1884, &c.) supply +valuable details. The works of John of Salisbury (ed. Giles, 1848), +Peter of Blois (ed. Migne), Walter Map (Camden Society, 1841, +1850) and the letters of Gilbert Foliot (ed. J. A. Giles, Oxford, 1845) +are useful for the social and Church history of the reign.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Modern Authorities.</span>—R. W. Eyton, <i>Itinerary of Henry II.</i> +(London, 1878); W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>, vol. i. (Oxford, +1893), <i>Lectures on Medieval and Modern History</i> (Oxford, 1886) and +<i>Early Plantagenets</i> (London, 1876); the same author’s introduction +to the Rolls editions of “Benedict,” Gervase, Diceto, Hoveden; +Mrs J. R. Green, Henry II. (London, 1888); Miss K. Norgate, +<i>England under the Angevin Kings</i> (2 vols., London, 1887); Sir J. H. +Ramsay’s <i>The Angevin Empire</i> (London, 1893); H. W. C. Davis’s +<i>England under the Normans and Angevins</i> (London, 1905); Sir F. +Pollock and F. W. Maitland, <i>History of English Law</i> (2 vols., Cambridge, +1898); and F. Hardegen, <i>Imperialpolitik König Heinrichs II. +von England</i> (Heidelberg, 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For a supposed visit in 1147, see J. H. Round in <i>English Historical +Review</i>, v. 747.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY III.<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1207-1272), king of England, was the eldest son +of King John by Isabella of Angoulême. Born on the 1st of +October 1207, the prince was but nine years old at the time of +his father’s death. The greater part of eastern England being +in the hands of the French pretender, Prince Louis, afterwards +King Louis VIII., and the rebel barons, Henry was crowned by +his supporters at Gloucester, the western capital. John had +committed his son to the protection of the Holy See; and a +share in the government was accordingly allowed to the papal +legates, Gualo and Pandulf, both during the civil war and for +some time afterwards. But the title of regent was given by the +loyal barons to William Marshal, the aged earl of Pembroke; +and Peter des Roches, the Poitevin bishop of Winchester, +received the charge of the king’s person. The cause of the +young Henry was fully vindicated by the close of the year 1217. +Defeated both by land and sea, the French prince renounced his +pretensions and evacuated England, leaving the regency to deal +with the more difficult questions raised by the lawless insolence +of the royal partisans. Henry remained a passive spectator of +the measures by which William Marshal (d. 1219), and his +successor, the justiciar Hubert de Burgh, asserted the royal +prerogative against native barons and foreign mercenaries. +In 1223 Honorius III. declared the king of age, but this was a +mere formality, intended to justify the resumption of the royal +castles and demesnes which had passed into private hands during +the commotions of the civil war.</p> + +<p>The personal rule of Henry III. began in 1227, when he was +again proclaimed of age. Even then he remained for some time +under the influence of Hubert de Burgh, whose chief rival, Peter +des Roches, found it expedient to quit the kingdom for four +years. But Henry was ambitions to recover the continental +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>283</span> +possessions which his father had lost. Against the wishes of +the justiciar he planned and carried out an expedition to the +west of France (1230); when it failed he laid the blame upon +his minister. Other differences arose soon afterwards. Hubert +was accused, with some reason, of enriching himself at the expense +of the crown, and of encouraging popular riots against the +alien clerks for whom the papacy was providing at the expense +of the English Church. He was disgraced in 1232; and power +passed for a time into the hands of Peter des Roches, who filled +the administration with Poitevins. So began the period of +misrule by which Henry III. is chiefly remembered in history. +The Poitevins fell in 1234; they were removed at the demand +of the barons and the primate Edmund Rich, who held them +responsible for the tragic fate of the rebellious Richard Marshal. +But the king replaced them with a new clique of servile and +rapacious favourites. Disregarding the wishes of the Great +Council, and excluding all the more important of the barons and +bishops from office, he acted as his own chief minister and never +condescended to justify his policy except when he stood in need +of subsidies. When these were refused, he extorted aids from +the towns, the Jews or the clergy, the three most defenceless +interests in the kingdom. Always in pecuniary straits through +his extravagance, he pursued a foreign policy which would have +been expensive under the most careful management. He +hoped not only to regain the French possessions but to establish +members of his own family as sovereigns in Italy and the Empire. +These plans were artfully fostered by the Savoyard kinsmen +of Eleanor, daughter of Raymond Berenger, count of Provence, +whom he married at Canterbury in January 1236, and by his +half-brothers, the sons of Queen Isabella and Hugo, count of la +Marche. These favourites, not content with pushing their +fortunes in the English court, encouraged the king in the wildest +designs. In 1242 he led an expedition to Gascony which terminated +disastrously with the defeat of Taillebourg; and +hostilities with France were intermittently continued for seventeen +years. The Savoyards encouraged his natural tendency to +support the Papacy against the Empire; at an early date in the +period of misrule he entered into a close alliance with Rome, +which resulted in heavy taxation of the clergy and gave great +umbrage to the barons. A cardinal-legate was sent to England +at Henry’s request, and during four years (1237-1241) administered +the English Church in a manner equally profitable to the +king and to the pope. After the recall of the legate Otho the +alliance was less open and less cordial. Still the pope continued +to share the spoils of the English clergy with the king, and the +king to enforce the demands of Roman tax-collectors.</p> + +<p>Circumstances favoured Henry’s schemes. Archbishop +Edmund Rich was timid and inexperienced; his successor, +Boniface of Savoy, was a kinsman of the queen; Grosseteste, +the most eminent of the bishops, died in 1253, when he was on +the point of becoming a popular hero. Among the lay barons, +the first place naturally belonged to Richard of Cornwall who, +as the king’s brother, was unwilling to take any steps which +might impair the royal prerogative; while Simon de Montfort, +earl of Leicester, the ablest man of his order, was regarded with +suspicion as a foreigner, and linked to Henry’s cause by his +marriage with the princess Eleanor. Although the Great Council +repeatedly protested against the king’s misrule and extravagance, +their remonstrances came to nothing for want of leaders and a +clear-cut policy. But between 1248 and 1252 Henry alienated +Montfort from his cause by taking the side of the Gascons, +whom the earl had provoked to rebellion through his rigorous +administration of their duchy. A little later, when Montfort +was committed to opposition, Henry foolishly accepted from +Innocent IV. the crown of Sicily for his second son Edmund +Crouchback (1255). Sicily was to be conquered from the +Hohenstaufen at the expense of England; and Henry pledged +his credit to the papacy for enormous subsidies, although years +of comparative inactivity had already overwhelmed him with +debts. On the publication of the ill-considered bargain the +baronage at length took vigorous action. They forced upon the +king the Provisions of Oxford (1258), which placed the government +in the hands of a feudal oligarchy; they reduced expenditure, +expelled the alien favourites from the kingdom, and +insisted upon a final renunciation of the French claims. The +king submitted for the moment, but at the first opportunity +endeavoured to cancel his concessions. He obtained a papal +absolution from his promises; and he tricked the opposition +into accepting the arbitration of the French king, Louis IX., +whose verdict was a foregone conclusion. But Henry was +incapable of protecting with the strong hand the rights which +he had recovered by his double-dealing. Ignominiously defeated +by Montfort at Lewes (1264) he fell into the position of a +cipher, equally despised by his opponents and supporters. He +acquiesced in the earl’s dictatorship; left to his eldest son, +Edward, the difficult task of reorganizing the royal party; +marched with the Montfortians to Evesham; and narrowly +escaped sharing the fate of his gaoler. After Evesham he is +hardly mentioned by the chroniclers. The compromise with +the surviving rebels was arranged by his son in concert with +Richard of Cornwall and the legate Ottobuono; the statute +of Marlborough (1267), which purchased a lasting peace by +judicious concessions, was similarly arranged between Edward +and the earl of Gloucester. Edward was king in all but name +for some years before the death of his father, by whom he was +alternately suspected and adored.</p> + +<p>Henry had in him some of the elements of a fine character. +His mind was cultivated; he was a discriminating patron of +literature, and Westminster Abbey is an abiding memorial of +his artistic taste. His personal morality was irreproachable, +except that he inherited the Plantagenet taste for crooked +courses and dissimulation in political affairs; even in this +respect the king’s reputation has suffered unduly at the hands +of Matthew Paris, whose literary skill is only equalled by his +malice. The ambitions which Henry cherished, if extravagant, +were never sordid; his patriotism, though seldom attested by +practical measures, was thoroughly sincere. Some of his worst +actions as a politician were due to a sincere, though exaggerated, +gratitude for the support which the Papacy had given him during +his minority. But he had neither the training nor the temper +of a statesman. His dreams of autocracy at home and far-reaching +dominion abroad were anachronisms in a century of +constitutional ideas and national differentiation. Above all he +earned the contempt of Englishmen and foreigners alike by +the instability of his purpose. Matthew Paris said that he had +a heart of wax; Dante relegated him to the limbo of ineffectual +souls; and later generations have endorsed these scathing +judgments.</p> + +<p>Henry died at Westminster on the 16th of November 1272; +his widow, Eleanor, took the veil in 1276 and died at Amesbury +on the 25th of June 1291. Their children were: the future king +Edward I.; Edmund, earl of Lancaster; Margaret (1240-1275), +the wife of Alexander III., king of Scotland; Beatrice; and +Katherine.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Original Authorities.</span>—Roger of Wendover, <i>Flores historiarum</i> +(ed. H. O. Coxe, 4 vols., 1841-1844); and Matthew of Paris, <i>Chronica +majora</i> (ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 7 vols., 1872-1883) are the +chief narrative sources. See also the <i>Annales monastici</i> (ed. H. R. +Luard, Rolls Series, 5 vols., 1864-1869); the collection of <i>Royal and +other Historical Letters</i> edited by W. Shirley (Rolls Series, 2 vols., +1862-1866); the Close and Patent Rolls edited for the Record Commission +and the Master of the Rolls; the <i>Epistolae Roberti Grosseteste</i> +(ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 1861); the <i>Monumenta Franciscana</i>, +vol. i. (ed. J. S. Brewer, Rolls Series, 1858); the documents +in the new <i>Foedera</i>, vol. i. (Record Commission, 1816).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Modern Works.</span>—G. J. Turner’s article on the king’s minority in +<i>Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, New Series</i>, vol. xviii.; +Dom Gasquet’s <i>Henry III. and the Church</i> (1905); the lives of Simon +de Montfort by G. W. Prothero (1871), R. Pauli (Eng. ed., 1876) +and C. Bémont (Paris, 1884); W. Stubbs’s <i>Constitutional History +of England</i>, vol. ii. (1887); R. Pauli’s <i>Geschichte von England</i>, vol. iii. +(Hamburg, 1853); T. F. Tout in the <i>Political History of England</i>, +vol. iii. (1905), and H. W. C. Davis in <i>England under the Normans and +Angevins</i> (1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY IV.<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1367-1413), king of England, son of John of +Gaunt, by Blanche, daughter of Henry, duke of Lancaster, was +born on the 3rd of April 1367, at Bolingbroke in Lincolnshire. +As early as 1377 he is styled earl of Derby, and in 1380 he married +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>284</span> +Mary de Bohun (d. 1394) one of the co-heiresses of the last earl +of Hereford. In 1387 he supported his uncle Thomas, duke of +Gloucester, in his armed opposition to Richard II. and his +favourites. Afterwards, probably through his father’s influence, +he changed sides. He was already distinguished for his knightly +prowess, and for some years devoted himself to adventure. +He thought of going on the crusade to Barbary; but instead, in +July 1390, went to serve with the Teutonic knights in Lithuania. +He came home in the following spring, but next year went +again to Prussia, whence he journeyed by way of Venice to +Cyprus and Jerusalem. After his return to England he sided +with his father and the king against Gloucester, and in 1397 +was made duke of Hereford. In January 1398 he quarrelled +with the duke of Norfolk, who charged him with treason. The +dispute was to have been decided in the lists at Coventry in +September; but at the last moment Richard intervened and +banished them both.</p> + +<p>When John of Gaunt died in February 1399 Richard, contrary +to his promise, confiscated the estates of Lancaster. Henry +then felt himself free, and made friends with the exiled Arundels. +Early in July, whilst Richard was absent in Ireland, he landed +at Ravenspur in Yorkshire. He was at once joined by the +Percies; and Richard, abandoned by his friends, surrendered +at Flint on the 19th of August. In the parliament, which +assembled on the 30th of September, Richard was forced to +abdicate. Henry then made his claim as coming by right line +of blood from King Henry III., and through his right to recover +the realm which was in point to be undone for default of governance +and good law. Parliament formally accepted him, and thus +Henry became king, “not so much by title of blood as by popular +election” (Capgrave). The new dynasty had consequently a +constitutional basis. With this Henry’s own political sympathies +well accorded. But though the revolution of 1399 was popular +in form, its success was due to an oligarchical faction. From +the start Henry was embarrassed by the power and pretensions +of the Percies. Nor was his hereditary title so good as that of the +Mortimers. To domestic troubles was added the complication +of disputes with Scotland and France. The first danger came +from the friends of Richard, who plotted prematurely, and were +crushed in January 1400. During the summer of 1400 Henry +made a not over-successful expedition to Scotland. The French +court would not accept his overtures, and it was only in the +summer of 1401 that a truce was patched up by the restoration +of Richard’s child-queen, Isabella of Valois. Meantime a more +serious trouble had arisen through the outbreak of the Welsh +revolt under Owen Glendower (<i>q.v.</i>). In 1400 and again in each +of the two following autumns Henry invaded Wales in vain. +The success of the Percies over the Scots at Homildon Hill +(Sept. 1402) was no advantage. Henry Percy (Hotspur) and +his father, the earl of Northumberland, thought their services +ill-requited, and finally made common cause with the partisans +of Mortimer and the Welsh. The plot was frustrated by Hotspur’s +defeat at Shrewsbury (21st of July 1403); and Northumberland +for the time submitted. Henry had, however, no one on whom +he could rely outside his own family, except Archbishop Arundel. +The Welsh were unsubdued; the French were plundering the +southern coast; Northumberland was fomenting trouble in the +north. The crisis came in 1405. A plot to carry off the young +Mortimers was defeated; but Mowbray, the earl marshal, who +had been privy to it, raised a rebellion in the north supported +by Archbishop Scrope of York. Mowbray and Scrope were +taken and beheaded; Northumberland escaped into Scotland. +For the execution of the archbishop Henry was personally +responsible, and he could never free himself from its odium. +Popular belief regarded his subsequent illness as a judgment for +his impiety. Apart from ill-health and unpopularity Henry had +succeeded—relations with Scotland were secured by the +capture of James, the heir to the crown; Northumberland was at +last crushed at Bramham Moor (Feb. 1408); and a little later the +Welsh revolt was mastered.</p> + +<p>Henry, stricken with sore disease, was unable to reap the +advantage. His necessities had all along enabled the Commons +to extort concessions in parliament, until in 1406 he was forced +to nominate a council and govern by its advice. However, with +Archbishop Arundel as his chancellor, Henry still controlled +the government. But in January 1410 Arundel had to give way +to the king’s half-brother, Thomas Beaufort. Beaufort and his +brother Henry, bishop of Winchester, were opposed to Arundel +and supported by the prince of Wales. For two years the real +government rested with the prince and the council. Under +the prince’s influence the English intervened in France in 1411 +on the side of Burgundy. In this, and in some matters of home +politics, the king disagreed with his ministers. There is good +reason to suppose that the Beauforts had gone so far as to contemplate +a forced abdication on the score of the king’s ill-health. +However, in November 1411 Henry showed that he was still +capable of vigorous action by discharging the prince and his supporters. +Arundel again became chancellor, and the king’s +second son, Thomas, took his brother’s place. The change was +further marked by the sending of an expedition to France in +support of Orleans. But Henry’s health was failing steadily. +On the 20th of March 1413, whilst praying in Westminster +Abbey he was seized with a fainting fit, and died that same +evening in the Jerusalem Chamber. At the time he was believed +to have been a leper, but as it would appear without sufficient +reason.</p> + +<p>As a young man Henry had been chivalrous and adventurous, +and in politics anxious for good government and justice. As +king the loss and failure of friends made him cautious, suspicious +and cruel. The persecution of the Lollards, which began with +the burning statute of 1401, may be accounted for by Henry’s +own orthodoxy, or by the influence of Archbishop Arundel, his +one faithful friend. But that political Lollardry was strong is +shown by the proposal in the parliament of 1410 for a wholesale +confiscation of ecclesiastical property. Henry’s faults may be +excused by his difficulties. Throughout he was practical and +steadfast, and he deserved credit for maintaining his principles +as a constitutional ruler. So after all his troubles he founded +his dynasty firmly, and passed on the crown to his son with a +better title. He is buried under a fine tomb at Canterbury.</p> + +<p>By Mary Bohun Henry had four sons: his successor Henry V., +Thomas, duke of Clarence, John, duke of Bedford, and Humphrey, +duke of Gloucester; and two daughters, Blanche, who married +Louis III., elector palatine of the Rhine, and Philippa, who +married Eric XIII., king of Sweden. Henry’s second wife was +Joan, or Joanna, (<i>c.</i> 1370-1437), daughter of Charles the Bad, +king of Navarre, and widow of John IV. or V., duke of Brittany, +who survived until July 1437. By her he had no children.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief contemporary authorities are the <i>Annales Henrici Quarti</i> +and T. Walsingham’s <i>Historia Anglicana</i> (Rolls Series), Adam of +Usk’s <i>Chronicle</i> and the various <i>Chronicles of London</i>. The life by +John Capgrave (<i>De illustribus Henricis</i>) is of little value. Some +personal matter is contained in <i>Wardrobe Accounts of Henry, Earl of +Derby</i> (Camden Soc.). For documents consult T. Rymer’s <i>Foedera</i>; +Sir N. H. Nicolas, <i>Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council</i>; +Sir H. Ellis, <i>Original Letters illustrative of English History</i> (London, +1825-1846); <i>Rolls of Parliament</i>; <i>Royal and Historical Letters, +Henry IV.</i> (Rolls Series) and the <i>Calendars of Patent Rolls</i>. Of +modern authorities the foremost is J. H. Wylie’s minute and learned +<i>Hist. of England under Henry IV.</i> (4 vols., London, 1884-1898). +See also W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>; Sir J. Ramsay, <i>Lancaster +and York</i> (2 vols., Oxford, 1892), and C. W. C. Oman, <i>The Political +History of England</i>, vol. iv.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. L. K.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY V.<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (1387-1422), king of England, son of Henry IV. +by Mary de Bohun, was born at Monmouth, in August 1387. +On his father’s exile in 1398 Richard II. took the boy into his +own charge, and treated him kindly. Next year the Lancastrian +revolution forced Henry into precocious prominence as heir to +the throne. From October 1400 the administration of Wales +was conducted in his name; less than three years later he was +in actual command of the English forces and fought against +the Percies at Shrewsbury. The Welsh revolt absorbed his +energies till 1408. Then through the king’s ill-health he began +to take a wider share in politics. From January 1410, helped by +his uncles Henry and Thomas Beaufort, he had practical control +of the government. Both in foreign and domestic policy he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285"></a>285</span> +differed from the king, who in November 1411 discharged the +prince from the council. The quarrel of father and son was +political only, though it is probable that the Beauforts had +discussed the abdication of Henry IV., and their opponents +certainly endeavoured to defame the prince. It may be that to +political enmity the tradition of Henry’s riotous youth, immortalized +by Shakespeare, is partly due. To that tradition Henry’s +strenuous life in war and politics is a sufficient general contradiction. +The most famous incident, his quarrel with the chief-justice, +has no contemporary authority and was first related by +Sir Thomas Elyot in 1531. The story of Falstaff originated partly +in Henry’s early friendship for Oldcastle (<i>q.v.</i>). That friendship, +and the prince’s political opposition to Archbishop Arundel, +perhaps encouraged Lollard hopes. If so, their disappointment +may account for the statements of ecclesiastical writers, like +Walsingham, that Henry on becoming king was changed suddenly +into a new man.</p> + +<p>Henry succeeded his father on the 20th of March 1413. With +no past to embarrass him, and with no dangerous rivals, his +practical experience had full scope. He had to deal with three +main problems—the restoration of domestic peace, the healing +of schism in the Church and the recovery of English prestige in +Europe. Henry grasped them all together, and gradually built +upon them a yet wider policy. From the first he made it clear +that he would rule England as the head of a united nation, +and that past differences were to be forgotten. Richard II. +was honourably reinterred; the young Mortimer was taken +into favour; the heirs of those who had suffered in the last reign +were restored gradually to their titles and estates. With Oldcastle +Henry used his personal influence in vain, and the gravest +domestic danger was Lollard discontent. But the king’s firmness +nipped the movement in the bud (Jan. 1414), and made his own +position as ruler secure. Save for the abortive Scrope and +Cambridge plot in favour of Mortimer in July 1415, the rest of +his reign was free from serious trouble at home. Henry could +now turn his attention to foreign affairs. A writer of the next +generation was the first to allege that Henry was encouraged +by ecclesiastical statesmen to enter on the French war as a means +of diverting attention from home troubles. For this story there +is no foundation. The restoration of domestic peace was the +king’s first care, and until it was assured he could not embark +on any wider enterprise abroad. Nor was that enterprise one of +idle conquest. Old commercial disputes and the support which +the French had lent to Glendower gave a sufficient excuse for +war, whilst the disordered state of France afforded no security +for peace. Henry may have regarded the assertion of his own +claims as part of his kingly duty, but in any case a permanent +settlement of the national quarrel was essential to the success +of his world policy. The campaign of 1415, with its brilliant +conclusion at Agincourt (October 25), was only the first step. +Two years of patient preparation followed. The command of the +sea was secured by driving the Genoese allies of the French out +of the Channel. A successful diplomacy detached the emperor +Sigismund from France, and by the Treaty of Canterbury paved +the way to end the schism in the Church. So in 1417 the war +was renewed on a larger scale. Lower Normandy was quickly +conquered, Rouen cut off from Paris and besieged. The French +were paralysed by the disputes of Burgundians and Armagnacs. +Henry skilfully played them off one against the other, without +relaxing his warlike energy. In January 1419 Rouen fell. By +August the English were outside the walls of Paris. The intrigues +of the French parties culminated in the assassination of John +of Burgundy by the dauphin’s partisans at Montereau (September +10, 1419). Philip, the new duke, and the French court +threw themselves into Henry’s arms. After six months’ negotiation +Henry was by the Treaty of Troyes recognized as heir and +regent of France, and on the 2nd of June 1420 married Catherine, +the king’s daughter. He was now at the height of his power. +His eventual success in France seemed certain. He shared with +Sigismund the credit of having ended the Great Schism by obtaining +the election of Pope Martin V. All the states of western +Europe were being brought within the web of his diplomacy. +The headship of Christendom was in his grasp, and schemes for +a new crusade began to take shape. He actually sent an envoy +to collect information in the East; but his plans were cut short +by death. A visit to England in 1421 was interrupted by the +defeat of Clarence at Baugé. The hardships of the longer winter +siege of Meaux broke down his health, and he died at Bois de +Vincennes on the 31st of August 1422.</p> + +<p>Henry’s last words were a wish that he might live to rebuild the +walls of Jerusalem. They are significant. His ideal was founded +consciously on the models of Arthur and Godfrey as national +king and leader of Christendom. So he is the typical medieval +hero. For that very reason his schemes were doomed to end in +disaster, since the time was come for a new departure. Yet he +was not reactionary. His policy was constructive: a firm +central government supported by parliament; church reform on +conservative lines; commercial development; and the maintenance +of national prestige. His aims in some respects anticipated +those of his Tudor successors, but he would have accomplished +them on medieval lines as a constitutional ruler. His success was +due to the power of his personality. He could train able lieutenants, +but at his death there was no one who could take his +place as leader. War, diplomacy and civil administration were +all dependent on his guidance. His dazzling achievements as a +general have obscured his more sober qualities as a ruler, and +even the sound strategy, with which he aimed to be master of the +narrow seas. If he was not the founder of the English navy he was +one of the first to realize its true importance. Henry had so high +a sense of his own rights that he was merciless to disloyalty. +But he was scrupulous of the rights of others, and it was his eager +desire to further the cause of justice that impressed his French +contemporaries. He has been charged with cruelty as a religious +persecutor; but in fact he had as prince opposed the harsh +policy of Archbishop Arundel, and as king sanctioned a more +moderate course. Lollard executions during his reign had more +often a political than a religious reason. To be just with sternness +was in his eyes a duty. So in his warfare, though he kept strict +discipline and allowed no wanton violence, he treated severely all +who had in his opinion transgressed. In his personal conduct +he was chaste, temperate and sincerely pious. He delighted in +sport and all manly exercises. At the same time he was cultured, +with a taste for literature, art and music. Henry lies buried in +Westminster Abbey. His tomb was stripped of its splendid +adornment during the Reformation. The shield, helmet and +saddle, which formed part of the original funeral equipment, +still hang above it.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Of original authorities the best on the English side is the <i>Gesta +Henrici Quinti</i> (down to 1416), printed anonymously for the English +Historical Society, but probably written by Thomas Elmham, one +of Henry’s chaplains. Two lives edited by Thomas Hearne under +the names of Elmham and Titus Livius Forojuliensis come from a +common source; the longer, which Hearne ascribed incorrectly to +Elmham, is perhaps the original work of Livius, who was an Italian +in the service of Humphrey of Gloucester, and wrote about 1440. +Other authorities are the Chronicles of Walsingham and Otterbourne, +the <i>English Chronicle</i> or <i>Brut</i>, and the various <i>London Chronicles</i>. +On the French side the most valuable are Chronicles of Monstrelet +and St Rémy (both Burgundian) and the <i>Chronique du religieux de +S. Denys</i> (the official view of the French court). For documents and +modern authorities see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Henry IV.</a></span> See also Sir N. H. Nicolas, +<i>Hist. of the Battle of Agincourt and the Expedition of 1415</i> (London, +1833); C. L. Kingsford, <i>Henry V., the Typical Medieval Hero</i> (New +York, 1901), where a fuller bibliography will be found.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. L. K.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY VI.<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (1421-1471), king of England, son of Henry V. and +Catherine of Valois, was born at Windsor on the 6th of December +1421. He became king of England on the 1st of September 1422, +and a few weeks later, on the death of his grandfather Charles VI., +was proclaimed king of France also. Henry V. had directed that +Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick (<i>q.v.</i>), should be his son’s +preceptor; Warwick took up his charge in 1428; he trained his +pupil to be a good man and refined gentleman, but he could not +teach him kingship. As early as 1423 the baby king was made to +appear at public functions and take his place in parliament. +He was knighted by his uncle Bedford at Leicester in May 1426, +and on the 6th of November 1429 was crowned at Westminster. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286"></a>286</span> +Early in the next year he was taken over to France, and after +long delay crowned in Paris on the 16th of December 1431. His +return to London on the 14th of February 1432 was celebrated +with a great pageant devised by Lydgate.</p> + +<p>During these early years Bedford ruled France wisely and at +first with success, but he could not prevent the mischief which +Humphrey of Gloucester (<i>q.v.</i>) caused both at home and abroad. +Even in France the English lost ground steadily after the victory +of Joan of Arc before Orleans in 1429. The climax came with the +death of Bedford, and defection of Philip of Burgundy in 1435. +This closed the first phase of Henry’s reign. There followed +fifteen years of vain struggle in France, and growing disorder at +home. The determining factor in politics was the conduct of the +war. Cardinal Beaufort, and after him Suffolk, sought by working +for peace to secure at least Guienne and Normandy. +Gloucester courted popularity by opposing them throughout; +with him was Richard of York, who stood next in succession to +the crown. Beaufort controlled the council, and it was under his +guidance that the king began to take part in the government. +Thus it was natural that as Henry grew to manhood he seconded +heartily the peace policy. That policy was wise, but national pride +made it unpopular and difficult. Henry himself had not the +strength or knowledge to direct it, and was unfortunate in his +advisers. The cardinal was old, his nephews John and Edmund +Beaufort were incompetent, Suffolk, though a man of noble character, +was tactless. Suffolk, however, achieved a great success +by negotiating the marriage of Henry to Margaret of Anjou (<i>q.v.</i>) +in 1445. Humphrey of Gloucester and Cardinal Beaufort both +died early in 1447. Suffolk was now all-powerful in the favour of +the king and queen. But his home administration was unpopular, +whilst the incapacity of Edmund Beaufort ended in the loss of all +Normandy and Guienne. Suffolk’s fall in 1450 left Richard of +York the foremost man in England. Henry’s reign then entered +on its last phase of dynastic struggle. Cade’s rebellion suggested +first that popular discontent might result in a change of rulers. +But York, as heir to the throne, could abide his time. The situation +was altered by the mental derangement of the king, and the +birth of his son in 1453. York after a struggle secured the +protectorship, and for the next year ruled England. Then Henry +was restored to sanity, and the queen and Edmund Beaufort, +now Duke of Somerset, to power. Open war followed, with the +defeat and death of Somerset at St Albans on the 22nd of May +1455. Nevertheless a hollow peace was patched up, which continued +during four years with lack of all governance. In 1459 war +broke out again. On the 10th of July 1460 Henry was taken +prisoner at Northampton, and forced to acknowledge York as +heir, to the exclusion of his own son. Richard of York’s death at +Wakefield (Dec. 29, 1460), and the queen’s victory at St +Albans (Feb. 17, 1461), brought Henry his freedom and no +more. Edward of York had himself proclaimed king, and by his +decisive victory at Towton on the 29th of March, put an end to +Henry’s reign. For over three years Henry was a fugitive in +Scotland. He returned to take part in an abortive rising in 1464. +A year later he was captured in the north, and brought a prisoner +to the Tower. For six months in 1470-1471 he emerged to hold +a shadowy kingship as Warwick’s puppet. Edward’s final +victory at Tewkesbury was followed by Henry’s death on the 21st +of May 1471, certainly by violence, perhaps at the hands of +Richard of Gloucester.</p> + +<p>Henry was the most hapless of monarchs. He was so honest +and well-meaning that he might have made a good ruler in quiet +times. But he was crushed by the burden of his inheritance. +He had not the genius to find a way out of the French entanglement +or the skill to steer a constitutional monarchy between +rival factions. So the system and policy which were the creations +of Henry IV. and Henry V. led under Henry VI. to the ruin of +their dynasty. Henry’s very virtues added to his difficulties. +He was so trusting that any one could influence him, so faithful +that he would not give up a minister who had become impossible. +Thus even in the middle period he had no real control of the +government. In his latter years he was mentally too weak for +independent action. At his best he was a “good and gentle +creature,” but too kindly and generous to rule others. Religious +observances and study were his chief occupations. His piety +was genuine; simple and pure, he was shocked at any suggestion +of impropriety, but his rebuke was only “Fie, for shame! forsooth +ye are to blame.” For education he was really zealous. Even +as a boy he was concerned for the upbringing of his half-brothers, +his mother’s children by Owen Tudor. Later, the planning of +his great foundations at Eton and King’s College, Cambridge, +was the one thing which absorbed his interest. To both he was +more than a royal founder, and the credit of the whole scheme +belongs to him. The charter for Eton was granted on the 11th +of October 1440, and that for King’s College in the following +February. Henry himself laid the foundation-stones of both +buildings. He frequently visited Cambridge to superintend the +progress of the work. When at Windsor he loved to send for the +boys from his school and give them good advice.</p> + +<p>Henry’s only son was Edward, prince of Wales (1453-1471), +who, having shared the many journeys and varying fortunes of +his mother, Margaret, was killed after the battle of Tewkesbury +(May 4, 1471) by some noblemen in attendance on Edward IV.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There is a life of Henry by his chaplain John Blakman (printed at +the end of Hearne’s edition of Otterbourne); but it is concerned +only with his piety and patience in adversity. English chronicles +for the reign are scanty; the best are the <i>Chronicles of London</i> (ed. +C. L. Kingsford), with the analogous <i>Gregory’s Chronicle</i> (ed. J. +Gairdner for Camden Soc.) and <i>Chronicle of London</i> (ed. Sir H. N. +Nicolas). <i>The Paston Letters</i>, with James Gairdner’s valuable +Introductions, are indispensable. Other useful authorities are +Joseph Stevenson’s <i>Letters and Papers illustrative of the Wars of the +English in France during the Reign of Henry VI.</i>; and <i>Correspondence +of T. Bekynton</i> (both in “Rolls” series). For the French war the chief +sources are the <i>Chronicles</i> of Monstrelet, D’Escouchy and T. Basin. +For other documents and modern authorities see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Henry IV.</a></span> +For Henry’s foundations see Sir H. C. Maxwell-Lyte, <i>History of Eton +College</i> (London, 1899), and J. B. Mullinger, <i>History of the University +of Cambridge</i> (London, 1888).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. L. K.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY VII.<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1457-1509), king of England, was the first +of the Tudor dynasty. His claim to the throne was through +his mother from John of Gaunt and Catherine Swynford, whose +issue born before their marriage had been legitimated by +parliament. This, of course, was only a Lancastrian claim, +never valid, even as such, till the direct male line of John of +Gaunt had become extinct. By his father the genealogists +traced his pedigree to Cadwallader, but this only endeared him +to the Welsh when he had actually become king. His grandfather, +Owen Tudor, however, had married Catherine, the widow +of Henry V. and daughter to Charles VI. of France. Their +son Edmund, being half brother of Henry VI., was created by +that king earl of Richmond, and having married Margaret +Beaufort, only daughter of John, duke of Somerset, died more +than two months before their only child, Henry, was born in +Pembroke Castle in January 1457. The fatherless child had +sore trials. Edward IV. won the crown when he was four years +old, and while Wales partly held out against the conqueror, +he was carried for safety from one castle to another. Then +for a time he was made a prisoner; but ultimately he was taken +abroad by his uncle Jasper, who found refuge in Brittany. At +one time the duke of Brittany was nearly induced to surrender +him to Edward IV.; but he remained safe in the duchy till +the cruelties of Richard III. drove more and more Englishmen +abroad to join him. An invasion of England was planned in +1483 in concert with the duke of Buckingham’s rising; but +stormy weather at sea and an inundation in the Severn defeated +the two movements. A second expedition, two years later, +aided this time by France, was more successful. Henry landed +at Milford Haven among his Welsh allies and defeated Richard +at the battle of Bosworth (August 22, 1485). He was crowned +at Westminster on the 30th of October following. Then, in +fulfilment of pledges by which he had procured the adhesion +of many Yorkist supporters, he was married at Westminster to +Elizabeth (1465-1503), eldest daughter and heiress of Edward IV. +(Jan. 18, 1486), whose two brothers had both been murdered by +Richard III. Thus the Red and White Roses were united and +the pretexts for civil war done away with.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, Henry’s reign was much disturbed by a succession +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>287</span> +of Yorkist conspiracies and pretenders. Of the two most notable +impostors, the first, Lambert Simnel, personated the earl +of Warwick, son of the duke of Clarence, a youth of seventeen +whom Henry had at his accession taken care to imprison in the +Tower. Simnel, who was but a boy, was taken over to Ireland +to perform his part, and the farce was wonderfully successful. +He was crowned as Edward VI. in Christchurch Cathedral, +Dublin, and received the allegiance of every one—bishops, +nobles and judges, alike with others. From Ireland, accompanied +by some bands of German mercenaries procured for him +in the Low Countries, he invaded England; but the rising was +put down at Stoke near Newark in Nottinghamshire, and, +Simnel being captured, the king made him a menial of his +kitchen.</p> + +<p>This movement had been greatly assisted by Margaret, duchess +dowager of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV., who could not +endure to see the House of York supplanted by that of Tudor. +The second pretender, Perkin Warbeck, was also much indebted +to her support; but he seems to have entered on his career +at first without it. And his story, which was more prolonged, +had to do with the attitude of many countries towards England. +Anxious as Henry was to avoid being involved in foreign wars, +it was not many years before he was committed to a war with +France, partly by his desire of an alliance with Spain, and partly +by the indignation of his own subjects at the way in which the +French were undermining the independence of Brittany. Henry +gave Brittany defensive aid; but after the duchess Anne had +married Charles VIII. of France, he felt bound to fulfil his +obligations to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and also to the +German king Maximilian, by an invasion of France in 1492. +His allies, however, were not equally scrupulous or equally +able to fulfil their obligations to him; and after besieging +Boulogne for some little time, he received very advantageous +offers from the French king and made peace with him.</p> + +<p>Now Perkin Warbeck had first appeared in Ireland in 1491, +and had somehow been persuaded there to personate Richard, +duke of York, the younger of the two princes murdered in the +Tower, pretending that he had escaped, though his brother +had been killed. Charles VIII., then expecting war with England, +called him to France, recognized his pretensions and gave him +a retinue; but after the peace he dismissed him. Then +Margaret of Burgundy received him as her nephew, and Maximilian, +now estranged from Henry, recognized him as king of +England. With a fleet given him by Maximilian he attempted +to land at Deal, but sailed away to Ireland and, not succeeding +very well there either, sailed farther to Scotland, where James IV. +received him with open arms, married him to an earl’s daughter +and made a brief and futile invasion of England along with him. +But in 1497 he thought best to dismiss him, and Perkin, after +attempting something again in Ireland, landed in Cornwall +with a small body of men.</p> + +<p>Already Cornwall had risen in insurrection that year, not +liking the taxation imposed for the purpose of repelling the +Scotch invasion. A host of the country people, led first by a +blacksmith, but afterwards by a nobleman, marched up towards +London and were only defeated at Blackheath. But the Cornishmen +were quite ready for another revolt, and indeed had invited +Perkin to their shores. He had little fight in him, however, +and after a futile siege of Exeter and an advance to Taunton +he stole away and took sanctuary at Beaulieu in Hampshire. +But, being assured of his life, he surrendered, was brought to +London, and was only executed two years later, when, being +imprisoned near the earl of Warwick in the Tower, he inveigled +that simple-minded youth into a project of escape. For this +Warwick, too, was tried, condemned and executed—no doubt +to deliver Henry from repeated conspiracies in his favour.</p> + +<p>Henry had by this time several children, of whom the eldest, +Arthur, had been proposed in infancy for a bridegroom to +Catherine, daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon. The match had +always been kept in view, but its completion depended greatly +on the assurance Ferdinand and Isabella could feel of Henry’s +secure position upon the throne. At last Catherine was brought +to England and was married to Prince Arthur at St Paul’s on +the 14th of November 1501. The lad was just over fifteen and +the co-habitation of the couple was wisely delayed; but he +died on the 2nd of April following. Another match was presently +proposed for Catherine with the king’s second son, Henry, which +only took effect when the latter had become king himself. Meanwhile +Henry’s eldest daughter Margaret was married to James IV. +of Scotland—a match distinctly intended to promote international +peace, and make possible that ultimate union which +actually resulted from it. The espousals had taken place at +Richmond in 1502, and the marriage was celebrated in Scotland +the year after. In the interval between these two events Henry +lost his queen, who died on the 11th of February 1503, and +during the remainder of his reign he made proposals in various +quarters for a second marriage—proposals in which political +objects were always the chief consideration; but none of them +led to any result. In his latter years he became unpopular from +the extortions practised by his two instruments, Empson and +Dudley, under the authority of antiquated statutes. From +the beginning of his reign he had been accumulating money, +mainly for his own security against intrigues and conspiracies, +and avarice had grown upon him with success. He died in April +1509, undoubtedly the richest prince in Christendom. He was +not a niggard, however, in his expenditure. Before his death +he had finished the hospital of the Savoy and made provision for +the magnificent chapel at Westminster which bears his name. +His money-getting was but part of his statesmanship, and for +his statesmanship his country owes him not a little gratitude. +He not only terminated a disastrous civil war and brought +under control the spirit of ancient feudalism, but with a clear +survey of the conditions of foreign powers he secured England in +almost uninterrupted peace while he developed her commerce, +strengthened her slender navy and built, apparently for the first +time, a naval dock at Portsmouth.</p> + +<p>In addition to his sons Arthur and Henry, Henry VII. had +several daughters, one of whom, Margaret, married James IV., +king of Scotland, and another, Mary, became the wife of Louis XII. +of France, and afterwards of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The popular view of Henry VII.’s reign has always been derived +from Bacon’s <i>History</i> of that king. This has been edited by J. R. +Lumby (Cambridge, 1881). But during the last half century large +accessions to our knowledge have been made from foreign and +domestic archives, and the sources of Bacon’s work have been more +critically examined. For a complete account of those sources the +reader may be referred to W. Busch’s <i>England under the Tudors</i>, +published in German in 1892 and in an English translation in +1895. Some further information of a special kind will be found in +M. Oppenheim’s <i>Naval Accounts and Inventories</i>, published by +the Navy Records Society in 1896. See also J. Gairdner’s <i>Henry +VII.</i> (1889).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Ga.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY VIII.<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1491-1547), king of England and Ireland, the +third child and second son of Henry VII. and Elizabeth of +York, was born on the 28th of June 1491 and, like all the Tudor +sovereigns except Henry VII., at Greenwich. His two brothers, +Prince Arthur and Edmund, duke of Somerset, and two of +his sisters predeceased their father; Henry was the only son, +and Margaret, afterwards queen of Scotland, and Mary, afterwards +queen of France and duchess of Suffolk, were the only +daughters who survived. Henry is said, on authority which +has not been traced farther back than Paolo Sarpi, to have +been destined for the church; but the story is probably a mere +surmise from his theological accomplishments, and from his +earliest years high secular posts such as the viceroyalty of Ireland +were conferred upon the child. He was the first English monarch +to be educated under the influence of the Renaissance, and his +tutors included the poet Skelton; he became an accomplished +scholar, linguist, musician and athlete, and when by the death +of his brother Arthur in 1502 and of his father on the 22nd of +April 1509 Henry VIII. succeeded to the throne, his accession +was hailed with universal acclamation.</p> + +<p>He had been betrothed to his brother’s widow Catherine of +Aragon, and in spite of the protest which he had been made to +register against the marriage, and of the doubts expressed by +Julius II. and Archbishop Warham as to its validity, it was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288"></a>288</span> +completed in the first few months of his reign. This step was +largely due to the pressure brought to bear by Catherine’s father +Ferdinand upon Henry’s council; he regarded England as a +tool in his hands and Catherine as his resident ambassador. +The young king himself at first took little interest in politics, +and for two years affairs were managed by the pacific Richard +Fox (<i>q.v.</i>) and Warham. Then Wolsey became supreme, +while Henry was immersed in the pursuit of sport and other +amusements. He took, however, the keenest interest from the +first in learning and in the navy, and his inborn pride easily +led him to support Wolsey’s and Ferdinand’s warlike designs +on France. He followed an English army across the Channel +in 1513, and personally took part in the successful sieges of +Therouanne and Tournay and the battle of Guinegate which +led to the peace of 1514. Ferdinand, however, deserted the +English alliance, and amid the consequent irritation against +everything Spanish, there was talk of a divorce between Henry +and Catherine (1514), whose issue had hitherto been attended +with fatal misfortune. But the renewed antagonism between +England and France which followed the accession of Francis I. +(1515) led to a rapprochement with Ferdinand; the birth of +the lady Mary (1516) held out hopes of the male issue which +Henry so much desired; and the question of a divorce was +postponed. Ferdinand died in that year (1516) and the emperor +Maximilian in 1519. Their grandson Charles V. succeeded them +both in all their realms and dignities in spite of Henry’s hardly +serious candidature for the empire; and a lifelong rivalry broke +out between him and Francis I. Wolsey used this antagonism +to make England arbiter between them; and both monarchs +sought England’s favour in 1520, Francis at the Field of Cloth +of Gold and Charles V. more quietly in Kent. At the conference +of Calais in 1521 English influence reached its zenith; but the +alliance with Charles destroyed the balance on which that +influence depended. Francis was overweighted, and his defeat +at Pavia in 1525 made the emperor supreme. Feeble efforts +to challenge his power in Italy provoked the sack of Rome in +1527; and the peace of Cambrai in 1529 was made without +any reference to Wolsey or England’s interests.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Henry had been developing a serious interest in +politics, and he could brook no superior in whatever sphere +he wished to shine. He began to adopt a more critical attitude +towards Wolsey’s policy, foreign and domestic; and to give +ear to the murmurs against the cardinal and his ecclesiastical +rule. Parliament had been kept at arm’s length since 1515 lest +it should attack the church; but Wolsey’s expensive foreign +policy rendered recourse to parliamentary subsidies indispensable. +When it met in 1523 it refused Wolsey’s demands, and forced +loans were the result which increased the cardinal’s unpopularity. +Nor did success abroad now blunt the edge of domestic discontent. +His fate, however, was sealed by his failure to obtain a divorce +for Henry from the papal court. The king’s hopes of male +issue had been disappointed, and by 1526 it was fairly certain +that Henry could have no male heir to the throne while Catherine +remained his wife. There was Mary, but no queen regnant had +yet ruled in England; Margaret Beaufort had been passed over +in favour of her son in 1485, and there was a popular impression +that women were excluded from the throne. No candidate +living could have secured the succession without a recurrence of +civil war. Moreover the unexampled fatality which had attended +Henry’s issue revived the theological scruples which had always +existed about the marriage; and the breach with Charles V. +in 1527 provoked a renewal of the design of 1514. All these +considerations were magnified by Henry’s passion for Anne +Boleyn, though she certainly was not the sole or the main cause +of the divorce. That the succession was the main point is proved +by the fact that Henry’s efforts were all directed to securing a +wife and not a mistress. Wolsey persuaded him that the +necessary divorce could be obtained from Rome, as it had been +in the case of Louis XII. of France and Margaret of Scotland. +For a time Clement VII. was inclined to concede the demand, +and Campeggio in 1528 was given ample powers. But the +prospect of French success in Italy which had encouraged the +pope proved delusive, and in 1529 he had to submit to the yoke +of Charles V. This involved a rejection of Henry’s suit, not +because Charles cared anything for his aunt, but because a +divorce would mean disinheriting Charles’s cousin Mary, and +perhaps the eventual succession of the son of a French princess +to the English throne.</p> + +<p>Wolsey fell when Campeggio was recalled, and his fall involved +the triumph of the anti-ecclesiastical party in England. Laymen +who had resented their exclusion from power were now +promoted to offices such as those of lord chancellor and lord +privy seal which they had rarely held before; and parliament +was encouraged to propound lay grievances against the church. +On the support of the laity Henry relied to abolish papal jurisdiction +and reduce clerical privilege and property in England; +and by a close alliance with Francis I. he insured himself against +the enmity of Charles V. But it was only gradually that the +breach was completed with Rome. Henry had defended the +papacy against Luther in 1521 and had received in return the +title “defender of the faith.” He never liked Protestantism, +and he was prepared for peace with Rome on his own terms. +Those terms were impossible of acceptance by a pope in Clement +VII.’s position; but before Clement had made up his mind +to reject them, Henry had discovered that the papacy was hardly +worth conciliating. His eyes were opened to the extent of his +own power as the exponent of national antipathy to papal +jurisdiction and ecclesiastical privilege; and his appetite for +power grew. With Cromwell’s help he secured parliamentary +support, and its usefulness led him to extend parliamentary representation +to Wales and Calais, to defend the privileges +of Parliament, and to yield rather than forfeit its confidence. +He had little difficulty in securing the Acts of Annates, +Appeals and Supremacy which completed the separation from +Rome, or the dissolution of the monasteries which, by transferring +enormous wealth from the church to the crown, really, in Cecil’s +opinion, ensured the reformation.</p> + +<p>The abolition of the papal jurisdiction removed all obstacles +to the divorce from Catherine and to the legalization of Henry’s +marriage with Anne Boleyn (1533). But the recognition of the +royal supremacy could only be enforced at the cost of the heads +of Sir Thomas More, Bishop Fisher and a number of monks +and others among whom the Carthusians signalized themselves +by their devotion (1535-1536). Anne Boleyn fared no better +than the Catholic martyrs; she failed to produce a male heir +to the throne, and her conduct afforded a jury of peers, over +which her uncle, the duke of Norfolk, presided, sufficient excuse +for condemning her to death on a charge of adultery (1536). +Henry then married Jane Seymour, who was obnoxious to no +one, gave birth to Edward VI., and then died (1537). The +dissolution of the monasteries had meanwhile evoked a popular +protest in the north, and it was only by skilful and unscrupulous +diplomacy that Henry was enabled to suppress so easily the +Pilgrimage of Grace. Foreign intervention was avoided through +the renewal of war between Francis and Charles; and the +insurgents were hampered by having no rival candidate for the +throne and no means of securing the execution of their +programme.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless their rising warned Henry against further +doctrinal change. He had authorized the English Bible and +some approach towards Protestant doctrine in the Ten Articles. +He also considered the possibility of a political and theological +alliance with the Lutheran princes of Germany. But in 1538 +he definitely rejected their theological terms, while in 1539-1540 +they rejected his political proposals. By the statute of Six +Articles (1539) he took his stand on Catholic doctrine; and +when the Lutherans had rejected his alliance, and Cromwell’s +nominee, Anne of Cleves, had proved both distasteful on personal +grounds and unnecessary because Charles and Francis were not +really projecting a Catholic crusade against England, Anne was +divorced and Cromwell beheaded. The new queen Catherine +Howard represented the triumph of the reactionary party under +Gardiner and Norfolk; but there was no idea of returning to the +papal obedience, and even Catholic orthodoxy as represented +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>289</span> +by the Six Articles was only enforced by spasmodic outbursts +of persecution and vain attempts to get rid of Cranmer.</p> + +<p>The secular importance of Henry’s activity has been somewhat +obscured by his achievements in the sphere of ecclesiastical +politics; but no small part of his energies was devoted to the +task of expanding the royal authority at the expense of temporal +competitors. Feudalism was not yet dead, and in the north and +west there were medieval franchises in which the royal writ and +common law hardly ran at all. Wales and its marches were +brought into legal union with the rest of England by the statutes +of Wales (1534-1536); and after the Pilgrimage of Grace the +Council of the North was set up to bring into subjection the +extensive jurisdictions of the northern earls. Neither they nor +the lesser chiefs who flourished on the lack of common law and +order could be reduced by ordinary methods, and the Councils of +Wales and of the North were given summary powers derived +from the Roman civil law <span class="correction" title="amended from similiar">similar</span> to those exercised by the Star +Chamber at Westminster and the court of Castle Chamber at +Dublin. Ireland had been left by Wolsey to wallow in its own +disorder; but disorder was anathema to Henry’s mind, and in +1535 Sir William Skeffington was sent to apply English methods +and artillery to the government of Ireland. Sir Anthony St +Leger continued his policy from 1540; Henry, instead of being +merely lord of Ireland dependent on the pope, was made by an +Irish act of parliament king, and supreme head of the Irish +church. Conciliation was also tried with some success; plantation +schemes were rejected in favour of an attempt to Anglicize +the Irish; their chieftains were created earls and endowed with +monastic lands; and so peaceful was Ireland in 1542 that the +lord-deputy could send Irish kernes and gallowglasses to fight +against the Scots.</p> + +<p>Henry, however, seems to have believed as much in the +coercion of Scotland as in the conciliation of Ireland. Margaret +Tudor’s marriage had not reconciled the realms; and as soon +as James V. became a possible pawn in the hands of Charles V., +Henry bethought himself of his old claims to suzerainty over +Scotland. At first he was willing to subordinate them to an +attempt to win over Scotland to his anti-papal policy, and he +made various efforts to bring about an interview with his nephew. +But James V. was held aloof by Beaton and two French +marriages; and France was alarmed by Henry’s growing +friendliness with Charles V., who was mollified by his cousin +Mary’s restoration to her place in the succession to the throne. +In 1542 James madly sent a Scottish army to ruin at Solway +Moss; his death a few weeks later left the Scottish throne to +his infant daughter Mary Stuart, and Henry set to work to +secure her hand for his son Edward and the recognition of his +own suzerainty. A treaty was signed with the Scottish estates; +but it was torn up a few months later under the influence of +Beaton and the queen-dowager Mary of Guise, and Hertford was +sent in 1544 to punish this breach of promise by sacking Edinburgh.</p> + +<p>Perhaps to prevent French intervention in Scotland Henry +joined Charles V. in invading France, and captured Boulogne +(Sept. 1544). But Charles left his ally in the lurch and concluded +the peace of Crépy that same month; and in 1545 Henry had to +face alone a French invasion of the Isle of Wight. This attack +proved abortive, and peace between England and France was +made in 1546. Charles V.’s desertion inclined Henry to listen +to the proposals of the threatened Lutheran princes, and the +last two years of his reign were marked by a renewed tendency +to advance in a Protestant direction. Catherine Howard had +been brought to the block (1542) on charges in which there was +probably a good deal of truth, and her successor, Catherine Parr, +was a patroness of the new learning. An act of 1545 dissolved +chantries, colleges and other religious foundations; and in the +autumn of 1546 the Spanish ambassador was anticipating further +anti-ecclesiastical measures. Gardiner had almost been sent +to the Tower, and Norfolk and Surrey were condemned to death, +while Cranmer asserted that it was Henry’s intention to convert +the mass into a communion service. An opportunist to the last, +he would readily have sacrificed any theological convictions he +may have had in the interests of national uniformity. He died +on the 28th of January 1547, and was buried in St George’s +Chapel, Windsor.</p> + +<p>The atrocity of many of Henry’s acts, the novelty and success +of his religious policy, the apparent despotism of his methods, +or all combined, have made it difficult to estimate calmly the +importance of Henry’s work or the conditions which made it +possible. Henry’s egotism was profound, and personal motives +underlay his public action. While political and ecclesiastical +conditions made the breach with Rome possible—and in the +view of most Englishmen desirable—Henry VIII. was led to +adopt the policy by private considerations. He worked for the +good of the state because he thought his interests were bound up +with those of the nation; and it was the real coincidence of this +private and public point of view that made it possible for so +selfish a man to achieve so much for his country. The royal +supremacy over the church and the means by which it was +enforced were harsh and violent expedients; but it was of the +highest importance that England should be saved from religious +civil war, and it could only be saved by a despotic government. +It was necessary for the future development of England that its +governmental system should be centralized and unified, that the +authority of the monarchy should be more firmly extended over +Wales and the western and northern borders, and that the still +existing feudal franchises should be crushed; and these objects +were worth the price paid in the methods of the Star Chamber +and of the Councils of the North and of Wales. Henry’s work +on the navy requires no apology; without it Elizabeth’s victory +over the Spanish Armada, the liberation of the Netherlands +and the development of English colonies would have been +impossible; and “of all others the year 1545 best marks the +birth of the English naval power” (Corbett, <i>Drake</i>, i. 59). His +judgment was more at fault when he conquered Boulogne and +sought by violence to bring Scotland into union with England. +But at least Henry appreciated the necessity of union within +the British Isles; and his work in Ireland relaid the foundations +of English rule. No less important was his development of the +parliamentary system. Representation was extended to Wales, +Cheshire, Berwick and Calais; and parliamentary authority +was enhanced, largely that it might deal with the church, until +men began to complain of this new parliamentary infallibility. +The privileges of the two Houses were encouraged and expanded, +and parliament was led to exercise ever wider powers. This +policy was not due to any belief on Henry’s part in parliamentary +government, but to opportunism, to the circumstance that +parliament was willing to do most of the things which Henry +desired, while competing authorities, the church and the old +nobility, were not. Nevertheless, to the encouragement given +by Henry VIII. parliament owed not a little of its future growth, +and to the aid rendered by parliament Henry owed his success.</p> + +<p>He has been described as a “despot under the forms of law”; +and it is apparently true that he committed no illegal act. His +despotism consists not in any attempt to rule unconstitutionally, +but in the extraordinary degree to which he was able to use +constitutional means in the furtherance of his own personal +ends. His industry, his remarkable political insight, his lack of +scruple, and his combined strength of will and subtlety of intellect +enabled him to utilize all the forces which tended at that time +towards strong government throughout western Europe. In +Michelet’s words, “le nouveau Messie est le roi”; and the +monarchy alone seemed capable of guiding the state through +the social and political anarchy which threatened all nations in +their transition from medieval to modern organization. The +king was the emblem, the focus and the bond of national unity; +and to preserve it men were ready to put up with vagaries which +to other ages seem intolerable. Henry could thus behead +ministers and divorce wives with comparative impunity, because +the individual appeared to be of little importance compared +with the state. This impunity provoked a licence which is +responsible for the unlovely features of Henry’s reign and +character. The elevation and the isolation of his position +fostered a detachment from ordinary virtues and compassion, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290"></a>290</span> +and he was a remorseless incarnation of Machiavelli’s <i>Prince</i>. +He had an elastic conscience which was always at the beck and +call of his desire, and he cared little for principle. But he had a +passion for efficiency, and for the greatness of England and +himself. His mind, in spite of its clinging to the outward forms +of the old faith, was intensely secular; and he was as devoid +of a moral sense as he was of a genuine religious temperament. +His greatness consists in his practical aptitude, in his political +perception, and in the self-restraint which enabled him to +confine within limits tolerable to his people an insatiable appetite +for power.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The original materials for Henry VIII.’s biography are practically +all incorporated in the monumental <i>Letters and Papers of the Reign +of Henry VIII.</i> (21 vols.), edited by Brewer and Gairdner and completed +after fifty years’ labour in 1910. A few further details may +be gleaned from such contemporary sources as Hall’s <i>Chronicle</i>, +Cavendish’s <i>Life of Wolsey</i>, W. Thomas’s <i>The Pilgrim</i> and others; +and some additions have been made to the documentary sources +contained in the <i>Letters and Papers</i> by recent works, such as Ehses’ +<i>Römische Dokumente</i>, and Merriman’s <i>Life and Letters of Thomas +Cromwell</i>. Lord Herbert of Cherbury’s <i>Life and Reign of Henry +VIII.</i> (1649), while good for its time, is based upon a very partial +knowledge of the sources and somewhat antiquated principles of +historical scholarship. Froude’s famous portraiture of Henry is +coloured by the ideas of hero-worship and history which the author +imbibed from Carlyle, and the rival portraits in Lingard, R. W. +Dixon’s <i>Church History</i> and Gasquet’s <i>Henry VIII. and the Monasteries</i> +by strong religious feeling. A more discriminating estimate +is attempted by H. A. L. Fisher in Messrs Longmans’ <i>Political +History of England</i>, vol. v. (1906). Of the numerous paintings of +Henry none is by Holbein, who, however, executed the striking +chalk-drawing of Henry’s head, now at Munich, and the famous but +decaying cartoon at Devonshire House. The well-known three-quarter +length at Windsor, usually attributed to Holbein, is by an +inferior artist. The best collection of Henry’s portraits was exhibited +at the Burlington Fine Arts Club in 1909, and the catalogue of that +exhibition contains the best description of them; several are reproduced +in Pollard’s <i>Henry VIII.</i> (Goupil) (1902), the letterpress +of which was published by Longmans in a cheaper edition (1905). +Henry composed numerous state papers still extant; his only book +was his <i>Assertio septem sacramentorum contra M. Lutherum</i> (1521), +a copy of which, signed by Henry himself, is at Windsor. Several +anthems composed by him are extant; and one at least, <i>O Lord, +the Maker of all Things</i>, is still occasionally rendered in English +cathedrals.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY I.<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (1214-1217), king of Castile, son of Alphonso VIII. +of Castile, and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine, daughter of Henry +II. of England, after whom he was named, was born about +1207. He was killed, while still a boy, by the fall of a tile from +a roof.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Henry II.</span> of Trastamara (1369-1379), king of Castile, founder +of the dynasty known as “the new kings,” was the eldest son of +Alphonso XI. and of his mistress Leonora de Guzman. He +was born in 1333. His father endowed him with great lordships +in northern Spain, and made him count of Trastamara. After +the death of Alphonso XI. in 1350, Leonora was murdered to +satisfy the revenge of the king’s neglected wife. Several of the +numerous children she had borne to Alphonso were slain at +different times by Peter the Cruel, the king’s legitimate son and +successor. Henry preserved his life by submissions and by +keeping out of the king’s way. At last, after taking part in +several internal commotions, he fled to France in 1356. In +1366 he persuaded the mercenary soldiers paid off by the kings +of England and France to accompany him on an expedition to +upset Peter, who was driven out. The Black Prince having +intervened on behalf of Peter, Henry was defeated at Najera +(3rd of April 1367) and had again to flee to Aragon. When the +Black Prince was told that “the Bastard” had neither been +slain nor taken, he said that nothing had been done. And so it +turned out; for, when the Black Prince had left Spain, Henry +came back with a body of French soldiers of fortune under du +Guesclin, and drove his brother into the castle of Montiel in La +Mancha. Peter was tempted out by du Guesclin, and the half +brothers met in the Frenchman’s tent. They rushed at one +another, and Peter, the stronger man, threw Henry down, and fell +on him. One of Henry’s pages seized the king by the leg and +threw him on his back. Henry then pulled up Peter’s hauberk +and stabbed him mortally in the stomach, on the 23rd of March +1369. He reigned for ten years, with some success both in +pacifying the kingdom and in war with Portugal. But as his +title was disputed he was compelled to purchase support by vast +grants to the nobles and concessions to the cities, by which he +gained the title of <i>El de las Mercedes</i>—he of the largesse. Henry +was a strong ally of the French king in his wars with the English, +who supported the claims of Peter’s natural daughters. He +died on the 30th of May 1379.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">HENRY III.</span> (1390-1406) king of Castile, called <i>El Doliente</i>, +the Sufferer, was the son of John I. of Castile and Leon, and of +his wife Beatrice, daughter of Ferdinand of Portugal. He was +born in 1379. The period of minority was exceptionally anarchical, +even for Castile, but as the cities, always the best supporters +of the royal authority, were growing in strength, Henry was able +to reduce his kingdom to obedience, and, when he took the +government into his own hands after 1393, to compel his nobles +with comparative ease to surrender the crown lands they had +seized. The meeting of the Cortes summoned by him at Madrid +in 1394 marked a great epoch in the establishment of a practically +despotic royal authority, based on the consent of the commons, +who looked to the crown to protect them against the excesses +of the nobles. Henry strengthened his position still further +by his marriage with Catherine, daughter of John of Gaunt and +of Constance, elder daughter of Peter the Cruel and Maria de +Padilla. This union combined the rival claims of the descendants +of Peter and of Henry of Trastamara. The king’s bodily weakness +limited his real capacity, and his early death on the 25th +of December 1406 cut short the promise of his reign.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">HENRY IV.</span> (1453-1474), king of Castile, surnamed the Impotent, +or the Spendthrift, was the son of John II. of Castile and Leon, +and of his wife, Mary, daughter of Ferdinand I. of Aragon and +Sicily. He was born at Valladolid on the 6th of January 1425. +The surnames given to this king by his subjects are of much more +than usual accuracy. His personal character was one of mere +weakness, bodily and mental. Henry was an undutiful son, and +his reign was one long period of confusion, marked by incidents +of the most ignominious kind. He divorced his first wife Blanche +of Navarre in 1453 on the ground of “mutual impotence.” +Yet in 1468 he married Joan of Portugal, and when she bore a +daughter, first repudiated her as adulterine, and then claimed +her for his own. In 1468 he was solemnly deposed in favour +of his brother Alphonso, on whose death in the same year his +authority was again recognized. The last years of his life were +spent in vain endeavours, first to force his half-sister Isabella, +afterwards queen, to marry his favourite, the Master of Santiago, +and then to exclude her from the throne. Henry died at Madrid +on the 12th of December 1474.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY I.<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (1008-1060), king of France, son of King Robert and +his queen, Constance of Aquitaine, and grandson of Hugh Capet, +came to the throne upon the death of his father in 1031, although +in 1027 he had been anointed king at Reims and associated +in the government with his father. His mother, who favoured +her younger son Robert, and had retired from court upon +Henry’s coronation, formed a powerful league against him, and +he was forced to take refuge with Robert II., duke of Normandy. +In the civil war which resulted, Henry was able to break up the +league of his opponents in 1032. Constance died in 1034, and +the rebel brother Robert was given the duchy of Burgundy, +thus founding that great collateral line which was to rival the +kings of France for three centuries. Henry atoned for this by +a reign marked by unceasing struggle against the great barons. +From 1033 to 1043 he was involved in a life and death contest +with those nobles whose territory adjoined the royal domains, +especially with the great house of Blois, whose count, Odo II., +had been the centre of the league of Constance, and with the +counts of Champagne. Henry’s success in these wars was largely +due to the help given him by Robert of Normandy, but upon the +accession of Robert’s son William (the Conqueror), Normandy +itself became the chief danger. From 1047 to the year of his +death, Henry was almost constantly at war with William, who +held his own against the king’s formidable leagues and beat +back two royal invasions, in 1055 and 1058. Henry’s reign +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291"></a>291</span> +marks the height of feudalism. The Normans were independent +of him, with their frontier barely 25 m. west of Paris; to the +south his authority was really bounded by the Loire; in the east +the count of Champagne was little more than nominally his +subject, and the duchy of Burgundy was almost entirely cut off +from the king. Yet Henry maintained the independence of the +clergy against the pope Leo IX., and claimed Lorraine from the +emperor Henry III. In an interview at Ivois, he reproached +the emperor with the violation of promises, and Henry III. +challenged him to a single combat. According to the German +chronicle—which French historians doubt—the king of France +declined the combat and fled from Ivois during the night. In +1059 he had his eldest son Philip crowned as joint king, and died +the following year. Henry’s first wife was Maud, niece of the +emperor Henry III., whom he married in 1043. She died childless +in 1044. Historians have sometimes confused her with +Maud (or Matilda), the emperor Conrad II.’s daughter, to whom +Henry was affianced in 1033, but who died before the marriage. +In 1051 Henry married the Russian princess Anne, daughter of +Yaroslav I., grand duke of Kiev. She bore him two sons, Philip, +his successor, and Hugh the great, count of Vermandois.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Historiae</i> of Rudolph Glaber, edited by M. Prou (Paris, +1886); F. Sochnée, <i>Catalogue des actes d’Henri I<span class="sp">er</span></i> (1907); de Caiz +de Saint Aymour, <i>Anne de Russie, reine de France</i> (1896); E. Lavisse, +<i>Histoire de France</i>, tome ii. (1901), and the article on Henry I. in +<i>La Grande Encyclopédie</i> by M. Prou.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY II.<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (1519-1559), king of France, the second son of +Francis I. and Claude, succeeded to the throne in 1547. When +only seven years old he was sent by his father, with his brother +the dauphin Francis, as a hostage to Spain in 1526, whence they +returned after the conclusion of the peace of Cambrai in 1530. +Henry was too young to have carried away any abiding impressions, +yet throughout his life his character, dress and bearing +were far more Spanish than French. In 1533 his father married +him to Catherine de’ Medici, from which match, as he said, +Francis hoped to gain great advantage, even though it might +be somewhat of a misalliance. In 1536 Henry, hitherto duke of +Orleans, became dauphin by the death of his elder brother +Francis. From that time he was under the influence of two +personages, who dominated him completely for the remainder +of his life—Diane de Poitiers, his mistress, and Anne de Montmorency, +his mentor. Moreover, his younger brother, Charles +of Orleans, who was of a more sprightly temperament, was his +father’s favourite; and the rivalry of Diane and the duchesse +d’Étampes helped to make still wider the breach between the +king and the dauphin. Henry supported the constable Montmorency +when he was disgraced in 1541; protested against +the treaty of Crépy in 1544; and at the end of the reign held +himself completely aloof. His accession in 1547 gave rise to a +veritable revolution at the court. Diane, Montmorency and the +Guises were all-powerful, and dismissed Cardinal de Tournon, +de Longueval, the duchesse d’Étampes and all the late king’s +friends and officials. At that time Henry was twenty-eight years +old. He was a robust man, and inherited his father’s love of +violent exercise; but his character was weak and his intelligence +mediocre, and he had none of the superficial and brilliant gifts +of Francis I. He was cold, haughty, melancholy and dull. +He was a bigoted Catholic, and showed to the Protestants even +less mercy than his father. During his reign the royal authority +became more severe and more absolute than ever. Resistance to +the financial extortions of the government was cruelly chastised, +and the “Chambre Ardente” was instituted against the Reformers. +Abroad, the struggle was continued against Charles V. +and Philip II., which ended in the much-discussed treaty of +Cateau-Cambrésis. Some weeks afterwards high feast was held +on the occasion of the double marriage of the king’s daughter +Elizabeth with the king of Spain, and of his sister Margaret +with the duke of Savoy. On the 30th of June 1559, when +tilting with the count of Montgomery, Henry was wounded in +the temple by a lance. In spite of the attentions of Ambroise +Paré he died on the 10th of July. By his wife Catherine de’ +Medici he had seven children living: Elizabeth, queen of Spain; +Claude, duchess of Lorraine; Francis (II), Charles (IX.) and +Henry (III.), all of whom came to the throne; Marguerite, +who became queen of Navarre in 1572; and Francis, duke of +Alençon and afterwards of Anjou, who died in 1584.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The bulk of the documents for the reign of Henry II. are unpublished, +and are in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. Of the +published documents, see especially the correspondence of Catherine +de’ Medici (ed. by de la Ferrière, Paris, 1880), of Diane de Poitiers +(ed. by Guiffrey, Paris, 1866), of Antoine de Bourbon and Jeanne +d’Albret (ed. by Rochambeau, Paris, 1877), of Odet de Selve, +ambassador to England (ed. by Lefèvre-Pontalis, Paris, 1888) and +of Dominique du Gabre, ambassador to Venice (ed. by Vitalis, Paris, +1903); Ribier, <i>Lettres et mémoires d’estat</i> (Paris, 1666); <i>Relations +des ambassadeurs vénitiens</i>, &c. Of the contemporary memoirs and +histories, see Brantôme (ed. by Lalanne, Paris, 1864-1882), François +de Lorraine (ed. by Michaud and Poujoulat, Paris, 1839), Montluc +(ed. by de Ruble, Paris, 1864), F. de Boyvin du Villars (Michaud +and Poujoulat), F. de Rabutin (<i>Panthéon littéraire</i>, Paris, 1836). +See also de Thou, <i>Historia sui temporis</i> ... (London, 1733); +Decrue, <i>Anne de Montmorency</i> (Paris, 1889); H. Forneron, <i>Les +Ducs de Guise et leur époque</i>, vol. i. (Paris, 1877); and H. Lemonnier, +“La France sous Henri II” (Paris, 1904), in the <i>Histoire de France</i>, +by E. Lavisse, which contains a fuller bibliography of the subject.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY III.<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1551-1589), king of France, third son of Henry II. +and Catherine de’ Medici, was born at Fontainebleau on the +19th of September 1551, and succeeded to the throne of France +on the death of his brother Charles IX. in 1574. In his youth, +as duke of Anjou, he was warmly attached to the Huguenot +opinions, as we learn from his sister Marguerite de Valois; but +his unstable character soon gave way before his mother’s will, +and both Henry and Marguerite remained choice ornaments +of the Catholic Church. Henry won, under the direction of +Marshal de Tavannes, two brilliant victories at Jarnac and +Moncontour (1569). He was the favourite son of his mother, and +took part with her in organizing the massacre of St Bartholomew. +In 1573 Catherine procured his election to the throne of Poland. +Passionately enamoured of the princess of Condé, he set out +reluctantly to Warsaw, but, on the death of his brother Charles +IX. in 1574, he escaped from his Polish subjects, who endeavoured +to retain him by force, came back to France and assumed the +crown. He returned to a wretched kingdom, torn with civil +war. In spite of his good intentions, he was incapable of governing, +and abandoned the power to his mother and his favourites. +Yet he was no dullard. He was a man of keen intelligence and +cultivated mind, and deserves as much as Francis I. the title of +patron of letters and art. But his incurable indolence and love +of pleasure prevented him from taking any active part in affairs. +Surrounded by his <i>mignons</i>, he scandalized the people by his +effeminate manners. He dressed himself in women’s clothes, +made a collection of little dogs and hid in the cellars when it +thundered. The disgust aroused by the vices and effeminacy +of the king increased the popularity of Henry of Guise. After +the “day of the barricades” (the 12th of May 1588), the king, +perceiving that his influence was lost, resolved to rid himself +of Guise by assassination; and on the 23rd of December 1588 +his faithful bodyguard, the “forty-five,” carried out his design +at the château of Blois. But the fanatical preachers of the League +clamoured furiously for vengeance, and on the 1st of August 1589, +while Henry III. was investing Paris with Henry of Navarre, +Jacques Clement, a Dominican friar, was introduced into his +presence on false letters of recommendation, and plunged a +knife into the lower part of his body. He died a few hours +afterwards with great fortitude. By his wife Louise of Lorraine, +daughter of the count of Vaudémont, he had no children, and on +his deathbed he recognized Henry of Navarre as his successor.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the memoirs and chronicles of l’Estoile, Villeroy, Ph. Hurault +de Cheverny, Brantôme, Marguerite de Valois, la Huguerye, du +Plessis-Mornay, &c.; <i>Archives curieuses</i> of Cimber and Danjou, +vols. x. and xi.; <i>Mémoires de la Ligue</i> (new ed., Amsterdam, 1758); +the histories of T. A. d’Aubigné and J. A. de Thou; Correspondence +of Catherine de’ Medici and of Henry IV. (in the <i>Collection de documents +inédits</i>), and of the Venetian ambassadors, &c.; P. Matthieu, +<i>Histoire de France</i>, vol. i. (1631); Scipion Dupleix, <i>Histoire de Henri +III</i> (1633); Robiquet, <i>Paris et la Ligue</i> (1886); and J. H. Mariéjol, +“La Réforme et la Ligue,” in the <i>Histoire de France</i>, by E. Lavisse +(Paris, 1904), which contains a more complete bibliography.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292"></a>292</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY IV.<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1553-1610), king of France, the son of Antoine +de Bourbon, duke of Vendôme, head of the younger branch of +the Bourbons, descendant of Robert of Clermont, sixth son of +St Louis and of Jeanne d’Albret, queen of Navarre, was born +at Pau (Basses Pyrénées) on the 14th of December 1553. He +was educated as a Protestant, and in 1557 was sent to the court +at Amiens. In 1561 he entered the Collège de Navarre at Paris, +returning in 1565 to Béarn. During the third war of religion +in France (1568-1570) he was taken by his mother to Gaspard +de Coligny, leader of the Protestant forces since the death of +Louis I., prince of Condé, at Jarnac, and distinguished himself +at the battle of Arnay-le-Duc in Burgundy in 1569. On the 9th +of June 1572, Jeanne d’Albret died and Henry became king of +Navarre, marrying Margaret of Valois, sister of Charles IX. of +France, on the 18th of August of that year. He escaped the +massacre of St Bartholomew on the 24th of August by a feigned +abjuration. On the 2nd of February 1576, after several vain +attempts, he escaped from the court, joined the combined forces +of Protestants and of opponents of the king, and obtained by +the treaty of Beaulieu (1576) the government of Guienne. In +1577 he secured the treaty of Bergerac, which foreshadowed +the edict of Nantes. As a result of quarrels with his unworthy +wife, and the unwelcome intervention of Henry III., he undertook +the seventh war of religion, known as the “war of the lovers” +(<i>des amoureux</i>), seized Cahors on the 5th of May 1580, and signed +the treaty of Fleix on the 26th of November 1580. On the 10th +of June 1584 the death of Monsieur, the duke of Anjou, brother +of King Henry III., made Henry of Navarre heir presumptive +to the throne of France. Excluded from it by the treaty of +Nemours (1585) he began the “war of the three Henrys” by a +campaign in Guienne (1586) and defeated Anne, duc de Joyeuse, +at Coutras on the 20th of October 1587. Then Henry III., +driven from Paris by the League on account of his murder of the +duke of Guise at Blois (1588), sought the aid of the king of Navarre +to win back his capital, recognizing him as his heir. The assassination +of Henry III. on the 1st of August 1589 left Henry king +of France; but he had to struggle for ten more years against the +League and against Spain before he won his kingdom. The +main events in that long struggle were the victory of Arques +over Charles, duke of Mayenne, on the 28th of September 1589; +of Ivry, on the 14th of March 1590; the siege of Paris (1590); +of Rouen (1592); the meeting of the Estates of the League (1593), +which the <i>Satire Ménippée</i> turned to ridicule; and finally the +conversion of Henry IV. to Catholicism in July 1593—an act of +political wisdom, since it brought about the collapse of all +opposition. Paris gave in to him on the 22nd of March 1594 +and province by province yielded to arms or negotiations; +while the victory of Fontaine-Française (1595) and the capture +of Amiens forced Philip II. of Spain to sign the peace of Vervins +on the 2nd of May 1598. On the 13th of April of that year +Henry IV. had promulgated the Edict of Nantes.</p> + +<p>Then Henry set to work to pacify and restore prosperity +to his kingdom. Convinced by the experience of the wars that +France needed an energetic central power, he pushed at times +his royal prerogatives to excess, raising taxes in spite of the +Estates, interfering in the administration of the towns, reforming +their constitutions, and holding himself free to reject the advice +of the notables if he consulted them. Aided by his faithful +friend Maximilien de Béthune, baron de Rosny and duc de +Sully (<i>q.v.</i>), he reformed the finances, repressed abuses, suppressed +useless offices, extinguished the formidable debt and realized +a reserve of eighteen millions. To alleviate the distress of the +people, he undertook to develop both agriculture and industry: +planting colonies of Dutch and Flemish settlers to drain the +marshes of Saintonge, issuing prohibitive measures against the +importation of foreign goods (1597), introducing the silk industry, +encouraging the manufacture of cloth, of glass-ware, of tapestries +(Gobelins), and under the direction of Sully—named <i>grand-voyer +de France</i>—improving and increasing the routes for commerce. +A complete system of canals was planned, that of Briare partly +dug. New capitulations were concluded with the sultan Ahmed +I. (1604) and treaties of commerce with England (1606), with +Spain and Holland. Attempts were made in 1604 and 1608 to +colonize Canada (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Champlain, Samuel de</a></span>). The army was +reorganized, its pay raised and assured, a school of cadets formed +to supply it with officers, artillery constituted and strongholds +on the frontier fortified. While lacking the artistic tastes of the +Valois, Henry beautified Paris, building the great gallery of the +Louvre, finishing the Tuileries, building the Pont Neuf, the +Hôtel-de-Ville and the Place Royale.</p> + +<p>The foreign policy of Henry IV. was directed against the +Habsburgs. Without declaring war, he did all possible harm +to them by alliances and diplomacy. In Italy he gained the +grand duke of Tuscany—marrying his niece Marie de’ Medici +in 1600—the duke of Mantua, the republic of Venice and Pope +Paul V. The duke of Savoy, who had held back from the treaty +of Vervins in 1598, signed the treaty of Lyons in 1601; in exchange +for the marquisate of Saluzzo, France acquired Bresse, +Bugey, Valromey and the bailliage of Gex. In the Low Countries, +Henry sent subsidies to the Dutch in their struggle against +Spain. He concluded alliances with the Protestant princes in +Germany, with the duke of Lorraine, the Swiss cantons (treaty +of Soleure, 1602) and with Sweden.</p> + +<p>The opening on the 25th of March 1609 of the question of the +succession of John William the Good, duke of Cleves, of Jülich +and of Berg, led Henry, in spite of his own hesitations and those +of his German allies, to declare war on the emperor Rudolph II. +But he was assassinated by Ravaillac (<i>q.v.</i>) on the 14th of May +1610, upon the eve of his great enterprise, leaving his policy to +be followed up later by Richelieu. Sully in his <i>Économies +royales</i> attributes to his master the “great design” of constituting, +after having defeated Austria, a vast European confederation +of fifteen states—a “Christian Republic”—directed by a +general council of sixty deputies reappointed every three years. +But this “design” has been attributed rather to the imagination +of Sully himself than to the more practical policy of the king.</p> + +<p>No figure in France has been more popular than that of +“Henry the Great.” He was affable to the point of familiarity, +quick-witted like a true Gascon, good-hearted, indulgent, yet +skilled in reading the character of those around him, and he +could at times show himself severe and unyielding. His courage +amounted almost to recklessness. He was a better soldier than +strategist. Although at bottom authoritative he surrounded +himself with admirable advisers (Sully, Sillery, Villeroy, Jeannin) +and profited from their co-operation. His love affairs, undoubtedly +too numerous (notably with Gabrielle d’Estrées and +Henriette d’Entragues), if they injure his personal reputation, +had no bad effect on his policy as king, in which he was guided +only by an exalted ideal of his royal office, and by a sympathy +for the common people, his reputation for which has perhaps +been exaggerated somewhat in popular tradition by the circumstances +of his reign.</p> + +<p>Henry IV. had no children by his first wife, Margaret of +Valois. By Marie de’ Medici he had Louis, later Louis XIII.; +Gaston, duke of Orleans; Elizabeth, who married Philip IV. of +Spain; Christine, duchess of Savoy; and Henrietta, wife of +Charles I. of England. Among his bastards the most famous +were the children of Gabrielle d’Estrées—Caesar, duke of +Vendôme, Alexander of Vendôme, and Catherine Henriette, +duchess of Elbeuf.</p> + +<p>Several portraits of Henry are preserved at Paris, in the +Bibliothèque Nationale (cf. Bouchot, <i>Portraits au crayon</i>, p. 189), +at the Louvre (by Probus, bust by Barthélemy Prieur) at +Versailles, Geneva (Henry at the age of fifteen), at Hampton +Court, at Munich and at Florence.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The works dealing with Henry IV. and his reign are too numerous +to be enumerated here. For sources, see the <i>Recueil des lettres +missives de Henri IV</i>, published from 1839 to 1853 by B. de Xivrey, +in the <i>Collection de documents inédits relatifs à l’histoire de France</i>, +and the various researches of Galitzin, Bautiot, Halphen, Dussieux +and others. Besides their historic interest, the letters written +personally by Henry, whether love notes or letters of state, reveal a +charming writer. Mention should be made of Auguste Poirson’s +<i>Histoire du règne de Henri IV</i> (2nd ed., 4 vols., Paris, 1862-1867) +and of J. H. Mariéjol’s volume (vi.) in the <i>Histoire de France</i>, edited +by Ernest Lavisse (Paris, 1905), where main sources and literature +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293"></a>293</span> +are given with each chapter. A <i>Revue Henri IV</i> has been founded +at Paris (1905). Finally, a complete survey of the sources for the +period 1494-1610 is given by Henri Hauser in vol. vii. of <i>Sources de +l’histoire de France</i> (Paris, 1906) in continuation of A. Molinier’s +collection of the sources for French history during the middle +ages.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY I.<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1210-1274), surnamed <i>le Gros</i>, king of Navarre +and count of Champagne, was the youngest son of Theobald I. +king of Navarre by Margaret of Foix, and succeeded his eldest +brother Theobald III. as king of Navarre and count of Champagne +in December 1270. His proclamation at Pamplona, however, +did not take place till March of the following year, and his +coronation was delayed until May 1273. After a brief reign, +characterized, it is said, by dignity and talent, he died in July +1274, suffocated, according to the generally received accounts, by +his own fat. In him the male line of the counts of Champagne +and kings of Navarre, became extinct. He married in 1269 +Blanche, daughter of Robert, count of Artois, and niece of King +Louis IX. and was succeeded by his only legitimate child, Jeanne +or Joanna, by whose marriage to Philip IV. afterwards king of +France in 1284, the crown of Navarre became united to that of +France.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY II.<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1503-1555), titular king of Navarre, was the +eldest son of Jean d’Albret (d. 1516) by his wife Catherine de +Foix, sister and heiress of Francis Phoebus, king of Navarre, +and was born at Sanquesa in April 1503. When Catherine died +in exile in 1517 Henry succeeded her in her claim on Navarre, +which was disputed by Ferdinand I. king of Spain; and under +the protection of Francis I. of France he assumed the title of +king. After ineffectual conferences at Noyon in 1516 and at +Montpellier in 1518, an active effort was made in 1521 to establish +him in the <i>de facto</i> sovereignty; but the French troops which +had seized the country were ultimately expelled by the Spaniards. +In 1525 Henry was taken prisoner at the battle of Pavia, but +he contrived to escape, and in 1526 married Margaret, the sister +of Francis I. and widow of Charles, duke of Alençon. By her +he was the father of Jeanne d’Albret (d. 1572), and was consequently +the grandfather of Henry IV. of France. Henry, who +had some sympathy with the Huguenots, died at Pau on the +25th of May 1555.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY I.<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1512-1580), king of Portugal, third son of Emanuel +the Fortunate, was born in Lisbon, on the 31st of January 1512. +He was destined for the church, and in 1532 was raised to the +archiepiscopal see of Braga. In 1542 he received the cardinal’s +hat, and in 1578 when he was called to succeed his grandnephew +Sebastian on the throne, he held the archbishoprics of Lisbon +and Coimbra as well as that of Braga, in addition to the wealthy +abbacy of Alcobazar. As an ecclesiastic he was pious, pure, +simple in his mode of life, charitable, and a learned and liberal +patron of letters; but as a sovereign he proved weak, timid +and incapable. On his death in 1580, after a brief reign of +seventeen months, the male line of the royal family which traced +its descent from Henry, first count of Portugal (<i>c.</i> 1100), came +to an end; and all attempts to fix the succession during his +lifetime having ignominiously failed, Portugal became an easy +prey to Philip II. of Spain.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY II.<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1489-1568), duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, +was a son of Duke Henry I., and was born on the 10th of November +1489. He began to reign in 1514, but his brother William +objected to the indivisibility of the duchy which had been +decreed by the elder Henry, and it was only in 1535, after an imprisonment +of eleven years, that William recognized his brother’s +title. Sharing in an attack on John, bishop of Hildesheim, +Henry was defeated at the battle of Soltau in June 1519, but +afterwards he was more successful, and when peace was made +received some lands from the bishop. In 1525 he assisted +Philip, landgrave of Hesse, to crush the rising of the peasants +in north Germany, and in 1528 took help to Charles V. in Italy, +where he narrowly escaped capture. As a pronounced opponent +of the reformed doctrines, he joined the Catholic princes in +concerting measures for defence at Dessau and elsewhere, but +on the other hand promised Philip of Hesse to aid him in restoring +his own brother-in-law Ulrich, duke of Württemberg, to his +duchy. However he gave no assistance when this enterprise +was undertaken in 1534, and subsequently the hostility between +Philip and himself was very marked. Henry was attacked +by Luther with unmeasured violence in a writing <i>Wider Hans +Worst</i>; but more serious was his isolation in north Germany. +The duke soon came into collision with the Protestant towns of +Goslar and Brunswick, against the former of which a sentence +of restitution had been pronounced by the imperial court of +justice (<i>Reichskammergericht</i>). To conciliate the Protestants +Charles V. had suspended the execution of this sentence, a +proceeding which Henry declared was <i>ultra vires</i>. The league +of Schmalkalden, led by Philip of Hesse and John Frederick, +elector of Saxony, then took up arms to defend the towns; and +in 1542 Brunswick was overrun and the duke forced to flee. In +September 1545 he made an attempt to regain his duchy, but +was taken prisoner by Philip, and only released after the victory +of Charles V. at Mühlberg in April 1547. Returning to Brunswick, +where he was very unpopular, he soon quarrelled with his subjects +both on political and religious questions, while his duchy was +ravaged by Albert Alcibiades, prince of Bayreuth. Henry was +among the princes who banded themselves together to crush +Albert, and after the death of Maurice, elector of Saxony, at +Sievershausen in July 1553, he took command of the allied troops +and defeated Albert in two engagements. In his later years +he became more tolerant, and was reconciled with his Protestant +subjects. He died at Wolfenbüttel on the 11th of June 1568. +The duke was twice married, firstly in 1515 to Maria (d. 1541), +sister of Ulrich of Württemberg, and secondly in 1556 to Sophia +(d. 1575) daughter of Sigismund I., king of Poland. He attained +some notoriety through his romantic attachment to Eva von +Trott, whom he represented as dead and afterwards kept concealed +at Staufenburg. Henry was succeeded by his only +surviving son, Julius (1528-1589).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Koldewey, <i>Heinz von Wolfenbüttel</i> (Halle, 1883); and +F. Bruns, <i>Die Vertreibung Herzog Heinrichs von Braunschweig durch +den Schmalkaldischen Bund</i> (Marburg, 1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1108-1139), surnamed the “Proud,” duke of +Saxony and Bavaria, second son of Henry the Black, duke +of Bavaria, and Wulfhild, daughter of Magnus Billung, duke of +Saxony, was a member of the Welf family. His father and +mother both died in 1126, and as his elder brother Conrad had +entered the church, Henry became duke of Bavaria and shared +the family possessions in Saxony, Bavaria and Swabia with his +younger brother, Welf. At Whitsuntide 1127 he was married +to Gertrude, the only child of the German king, Lothair the +Saxon, and at once took part in the warfare between the king +and the Hohenstaufen brothers, Frederick II., duke of Swabia, +and Conrad, afterwards the German king Conrad III. While +engaged in this struggle Henry was also occupied in suppressing +a rising in Bavaria, led by Frederick, count of Bogen, during +which both duke and count sought to establish their own candidates +in the bishopric of Regensburg. After a war of devastation, +Frederick submitted in 1133, and two years later the Hohenstaufen +brothers made their peace with Lothair. In 1136 +Henry accompanied his father-in-law to Italy, and taking +command of one division of the German army marched into +southern Italy, devastating the land as he went. It was probably +about this time that he was invested with the margraviate of +Tuscany and the lands of Matilda, the late margravine. Having +distinguished himself by his military genius during this campaign +Henry left Italy with the German troops, and was appointed +by the emperor as his successor in the dukedom of Saxony. +When Lothair died in December 1137 Henry’s wealth and position +made him a formidable candidate for the German throne; but +the same qualities which earned for him the surname of “Proud,” +aroused the jealousy of the princes, and so prevented his election. +The new king, Conrad III., demanded the imperial <i>insignia</i> +which were in Henry’s possession, and the duke in return asked +for his investiture with the Saxon duchy. But Conrad, who +feared his power, refused to assent to this on the pretext that +it was unlawful for two duchies to be in one hand. Attempts +at a settlement failed, and in July 1138 the duke was placed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>294</span> +under the ban, and Saxony was given to Albert the Bear, afterwards +margrave of Brandenburg. War broke out in Saxony +and Bavaria, but was cut short by Henry’s sudden death at +Quedlinburg on the 20th of October 1139. He was buried at +Königslutter. Henry was a man of great ability, and his early +death alone prevented him from playing an important part in +German history. Conrad the Priest, the author of the <i>Rolandslied</i>, +was in Henry’s service, and probably wrote this poem +at the request of the duchess, Gertrude.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See S. Riezler, <i>Geschichte Bayerns</i>, Band i. (Gotha, 1878); W. +Bernhardi, <i>Lothar von Supplinburg</i> (Leipzig, 1879); W. von Giesebrecht, +<i>Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit</i>, Band iv. (Brunswick, +1877).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1129-1195), surnamed the “Lion,” duke of Saxony +and Bavaria, only son of Henry the Proud, duke of Saxony and +Bavaria, and Gertrude, daughter of the emperor Lothair the +Saxon, was born at Ravensburg, and was a member of the family +of Welf. In 1138 the German king Conrad III. had sought to +deprive Henry the Proud of his duchies, and when the duke died +in the following year the interests of his young son were +maintained in Saxony by his mother, and his grandmother +Richenza, widow of Lothair, and in Bavaria by his uncle, Count +Welf VI. This struggle ended in May 1142 when Henry was +invested as duke of Saxony at Frankfort, and Bavaria was given +to Henry II., Jasomirgott, margrave of Austria, who married +his mother Gertrude. In 1147 he married Clementia, daughter +of Conrad, duke of Zähringen (d. 1152), and began to take an +active part in administering his dukedom and extending its +area. He engaged in a successful expedition against the Abotrites, +or Obotrites, in 1147, and won a considerable tract of land +beyond the Elbe, in which were re-established the bishoprics of +Mecklenburg,<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Oldenburg<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and Ratzeburg. Hartwig, archbishop +of Bremen, wished these sees to be under his authority, +but Henry contested this claim, and won the right to invest +these bishops himself, a privilege afterwards confirmed by the +emperor Frederick I. Henry, meanwhile, had not forgotten +Bavaria. In 1147 he made a formal claim on this duchy, and +in 1151 sought to take possession, but failing to obtain the aid +of his uncle Welf, did not effect his purpose. The situation was +changed in his favour when Frederick I., who was anxious to +count the duke among his supporters, succeeded Conrad as +German king in February 1152. Frederick was unable at first to +persuade Henry Jasomirgott to abandon Bavaria, but in June +1154 he recognized the claim of Henry the Lion, who accompanied +him on his first Italian campaign and distinguished +himself in suppressing a rising at Rome, Henry’s formal investiture +as duke of Bavaria taking place in September 1156 +on the emperor’s return to Germany. Henry soon returned to +Saxony, where he found full scope for his untiring energy. +Adolph II., count of Holstein, was compelled to cede Lübeck +to him in 1158; campaigns in 1163 and 1164 beat down further +resistance of the Abotrites; and Saxon garrisons were established +in the conquered lands. The duke was aided in this work +by the alliance of Valdemar I., king of Denmark, and, it is said, +by engines of war brought from Italy. During these years he +had also helped Frederick I. in his expedition of 1157 against +the Poles, and in July 1159 had gone to his assistance in Italy, +where he remained for about two years.</p> + +<p>The vigorous measures taken by Henry to increase his power +aroused considerable opposition. In 1166 a coalition was formed +against him at Merseburg under the leadership of Albert the Bear, +margrave of Brandenburg, and Archbishop Hartwig. Neither +side met with much success in the desultory warfare that ensued, +and Frederick made peace between the combatants at Würzburg +in June 1168. Having obtained a divorce from his first wife in +1162, Henry was married at Minden in February 1168 to Matilda +(1156-1189), daughter of Henry II., king of England, and was +soon afterwards sent by the emperor Frederick I. on an embassy +to the kings of England and France. A war with Valdemar of +Denmark, caused by a quarrel over the booty obtained from +the conquest of Rügen, engaged Henry’s activity until June +1171, when, in pursuance of a treaty which restored peace, +Henry’s daughter, Gertrude, married the Danish prince, Canute. +Henry, whose position was now very strong, made a pilgrimage +to Jerusalem in 1172, was received with great respect by the +eastern emperor Manuel Comnenus at Constantinople, and +returned to Saxony in 1173.</p> + +<p>A variety of reasons were leading to a rupture in the harmonious +relations between Frederick and Henry, whose increasing +power could not escape the emperor’s notice, and who showed +little inclination to sacrifice his interests in Germany in order +to help the imperial cause in Italy. He was not pleased when +he heard that his uncle, Welf, had bequeathed his Italian and +Swabian lands to the emperor, and the crisis came after +Frederick’s check before Alessandria in 1175. The emperor +appealed personally to Henry for help in February, or March +1176, but Henry made no move in response, and his defection +contributed in some measure to the emperor’s defeat at Legnano. +The peace of Venice provided for the restoration of Ulalrich +to his see of Halberstadt. Henry, however, refused to give up +the lands which he had seized belonging to the bishopric, and +this conduct provoked a war in which Ulalrich was soon joined +by Philip, archbishop of Cologne. No attack on Henry appears +to have been contemplated by Frederick to whom both parties +carried their complaints, and a day was fixed for the settlement +of the dispute at Worms. But neither then, nor on two further +occasions, did Henry appear to answer the charges preferred +against him; accordingly in January 1180 he was placed under +the imperial ban at Würzburg, and was declared deprived of +all his lands.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the war with Ulalrich continued, but after his +victory at Weissensee Henry’s allies began to fall away, and his +cause to decline. When Frederick took the field in June 1181 +the struggle was soon over. Henry sought for peace, and the +conditions were settled at Erfurt in November 1181, when he +was granted the counties of Lüneburg and Brunswick, but was +banished under oath not to return without the emperor’s permission. +In July 1182 he went to his father-in-law’s court in +Normandy, and afterwards to England, returning to Germany +with Frederick’s permission in 1185. He was soon regarded once +more as a menace to the peace of Germany, and of the three +alternatives presented to him by the emperor in 1188 he rejected +the idea of making a formal renunciation of his claim, or of +participating in the crusade, and chose exile, going again to +England in 1189. In October of the same year, however, he +returned to Saxony, excusing himself by asserting that his lands +had not been defended according to the emperor’s promise. +He found many allies, took Lübeck, and soon almost the whole +of Saxony was in his power. King Henry VI. was obliged to +take the field against him, after which the duke’s cause declined, +and in July 1190 a peace was arranged at Fulda, by which he +retained Brunswick and Lüneburg, received half the revenues of +Lübeck, and gave two of his sons as hostages. Still hoping to +regain his former position, he took advantage of a league against +Henry VI. in 1193 to engage in a further revolt; but the captivity +of his brother-in-law Richard I., king of England, led to a +reconciliation. Henry passed his later years mainly at his +castle of Brunswick, where he died on the 6th of August 1195, +and was buried in the church of St Blasius which he had founded +in the town. He had by his first wife a son and a daughter, and +by his second wife five sons and a daughter. One of his sons +was Otto, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., and another was +Henry (d. 1227) count palatine of the Rhine.</p> + +<p>Henry was a man of great ambition, and won his surname of +“Lion” by his personal bravery. His influence on the fortunes +of Saxony and northern Germany was very considerable. He +planted Flemish and Dutch settlers in the land between the Elbe +and the Oder, fostered the growth and trade of Lübeck, and in +other ways encouraged trade and agriculture. He sought to +spread Christianity by introducing the Cistercians, founding +bishoprics, and building churches and monasteries. In 1874 a +colossal statue was erected to his memory at Brunswick.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>295</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The authorities for the life of Henry the Lion are those dealing +with the reign of the emperor Frederick I., and the early years of +his son King Henry VI. The chief modern works are H. Prutz, +<i>Heinrich der Löwe</i> (Leipzig, 1865); M. Philippson, <i>Geschichte +Heinrichs des Löwen</i> (Leipzig, 1867); and L. Weiland, <i>Das sächsische +Herzogthum unter Lothar und Heinrich dem Löwen</i> (Greifswald, 1866).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The see was transferred to Schwerin by Henry in 1167.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Transferred to Lübeck in 1163.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> <span class="sc">Prince of Battenberg</span> (1858-1896), was the third +son of Prince Alexander of Hesse and his morganatic wife, the +beautiful Countess Julia von Hauke, to whom was granted in +1858 the title of princess of Battenberg, which her children +inherited. He was born at Milan on the 5th of October 1858, +was educated with a special view to military service, and in due +time became a lieutenant in the first regiment of Rhenish +hussars. By their relationship to the grand dukes of Hesse the +princes of Battenberg were brought into close contact with the +English court, and Prince Henry paid several visits to England, +where he soon became popular both in public and in private +circles. It therefore created but little surprise when, towards +the close of 1884, it was announced that Queen Victoria had +sanctioned his engagement to the Princess Beatrice. The +wedding took place at Whippingham on the 23rd of July 1885, +and after the honeymoon the prince and princess settled down +to a quiet home life with the queen, being seldom absent from +the court, and accompanying her majesty in her annual visits +to the continent. Three sons and a daughter were the issue +of the marriage. On the 31st of July 1885 a bill to naturalize +Prince Henry was passed by the House of Lords, and he received +the title of royal highness. He was made a Knight of the Garter +and a member of the Privy Council, and also appointed a colonel +in the army, and afterwards captain-general and governor of the +Isle of Wight and governor of Carisbrooke Castle. He adapted +himself very readily to English country life, for he was an excellent +shot and an enthusiastic yachtsman. Coming of a martial race, +the prince would gladly have embraced an active military career, +and when the Ashanti expedition was organized in November +1895 he volunteered to join it. But when the expedition reached +Prahsu, about 30 m. from Kumasi, he was struck down by fever, +and being promptly conveyed back to the coast, was placed +on board H.M.S. “Blonde.” On the 17th of January he seemed +to recover slightly, but a relapse occurred on the 19th, and he +died on the evening of the 20th off the coast of Sierra Leone.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY FITZ HENRY<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1155-1183), second son of Henry II., +king of England, by Eleanor of Aquitaine, became heir to the +throne on the death of his brother William (1156), and at the +age of five was married to Marguerite, the infant daughter of +Louis VII. In 1170 he was crowned at Westminster by Roger +of York. The protests of Becket against this usurpation of +the rights of Canterbury were the ultimate cause of the primate’s +murder. The young king soon quarrelled with his father, who +allowed him no power and a wholly inadequate revenue, and +headed the great baronial revolt of 1173. He was assisted by his +father-in-law, to whose court he had repaired; but, failing +to shake the old king’s power either in Normandy or England, +made peace in 1174. Despite the generous terms which he +received, he continued to intrigue with Louis VII., and was +in consequence jealously watched by his father. In 1182 he +and his younger brother Geoffrey took up arms, on the side of +the Poitevin rebels, against Richard Cœur de Lion; apparently +from resentment at the favour which Henry II. had shown to +Richard in giving him the government of Poitou while they +were virtually landless. Henry II. took the field in aid of +Richard; but the young king and Geoffrey had no scruples +about withstanding their father, and continued to aid the +Aquitanian rising until the young king fell ill of a fever which +proved fatal to him (June 11, 1183). His death was bitterly +regretted by his father and by all who had known him. Though +of a fickle and treacherous nature, he had all the personal fascination +of his family, and is extolled by his contemporaries as a +mirror of chivalry. His train was full of knights who served +him without pay for the honour of being associated with his +exploits in the tilting-lists and in war.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The original authorities for Henry’s life are Robert de Torigni, +<i>Chronica</i>; Giraldus Cambrensis, <i>De instructione principum, Guillaume +le Maréchal</i> (ed. P. Meyer, Paris, 1891, &c.); Benedict, <i>Gesta +Henrici</i>, William of Newburgh. See also Kate Norgate, <i>England +under the Angevin Kings</i> (1887); Sir James Ramsay, <i>Angevin Empire</i> +(1903); and C. E. Hodgson, <i>Jung Heinrich, König von England</i> +(Jena, 1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> or in full, <span class="sc">Henry Benedict Maria Clement +Stuart</span> (1725-1807), usually known as Cardinal York, the +last prince of the royal house of Stuart, was the younger son +of James Stuart, and was born in the Palazzo Muti at Rome +on the 6th of March 1725. He was created duke of York by his +father soon after his birth, and by this title he was always +alluded to by Jacobite adherents of his house. British visitors +to Rome speak of him as a merry high-spirited boy with martial +instincts; nevertheless, he grew up studious, peace-loving and +serious. In order to be of assistance to his brother Charles, +who was then campaigning in Scotland, Henry was despatched +in the summer of 1745 to France, where he was placed in nominal +command of French troops at Dunkirk, with which the marquis +d’Argenson had some vague idea of invading England. Seven +months after Charles’s return from Scotland Henry secretly +departed to Rome and, with the full approval of his father, +but to the intense disgust of his brother, was created a cardinal +deacon under the title of the cardinal of York by Pope Benedict +XIV. on the 3rd of July 1747. In the following year he was +ordained priest, and nominated arch-priest of the Vatican +Basilica. In 1759 he was consecrated archbishop of Corinth +<i>in partibus</i>, and in 1761 bishop of Frascati (the ancient Tusculum) +in the Alban Hills near Rome. Six years later he was +appointed vice-chancellor of the Holy See. Henry Stuart +likewise held sinecure benefices in France, Spain and Spanish +America, so that he became one of the wealthiest churchmen of +the period, his annual revenue being said to amount to £30,000 +sterling. On the death of his father, James Stuart (whose +affairs he had managed during the last five years of his life), +Henry made persistent attempts to induce Pope Clement XIII. +to acknowledge his brother Charles as legitimate king of Great +Britain, but his efforts were defeated, chiefly through the adverse +influence of Cardinal Alessandro Albani, who was bitterly +opposed to the Stuart cause. On Charles’s death in 1788 Henry +issued a manifesto asserting his hereditary right to the British +crown, and likewise struck a medal, commemorative of the event, +with the legend “Hen. IX. Mag. Brit. Fr. et Hib. Rex. Fid. +Def. Card. Ep. Tusc:” (Henry the Ninth of Great Britain, France +and Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith, Cardinal, Bishop of +Frascati). In February 1798, at the approach of the invading +French forces, Henry was forced to fly from Frascati to Naples, +whence at the close of the same year he sailed to Messina. From +Messina he proceeded by sea in order to be present at the expected +conclave at Venice, where he arrived in the spring of +1799, aged, ill and almost penniless. His sad plight was now +made known by Cardinal Stefano Borgia to Sir John Coxe +Hippisley (d. 1825), who had formerly acted semi-officially on +behalf of the British government at the court of Pius VI. Sir +John Hippisley appealed to George III., who on the warm +recommendation of Prince Augustus Frederick, duke of Sussex, +gave orders for the annual payment of a pension of £4000 to the +last of the Royal Stuarts. Henry received the proffered assistance +gratefully, and in return for the king’s kindness subsequently +left by his will certain British crown jewels in his possession to +the prince regent. In 1800 Henry was able to return to Rome, +and in 1803, being now senior cardinal bishop, he became <i>ipso +facto</i> dean of the Sacred College and bishop of Ostia and Velletri. +He died at Frascati on the 13th of July 1807, and was buried in +the <i>Grotte Vaticane</i> of St Peter’s in an urn bearing the title +of “Henry IX.”; he is also commemorated in Canova’s well-known +monument to the Royal Stuarts (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">James</a></span>). The +Stuart archives, once the property of Cardinal York, were +subsequently presented by Pope Pius VII. to the prince +regent, who placed them in the royal library at Windsor +Castle.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See B. W. Kelly, <i>Life of Cardinal York</i>; H. M. Vaughan, <i>Last of +the Royal Stuarts</i>; and A. Shield, <i>Henry Stuart, Cardinal of York, +and his Times</i> (1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. M. V.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296"></a>296</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY OF PORTUGAL,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> surnamed the “Navigator” (1394-1460), +duke of Viseu, governor of the Algarve, was born at Oporto +on the 4th of March 1394. He was the third (or, counting +children who died in infancy, the fifth) son of John (João) I., +the founder of the Aviz dynasty, under whom Portugal, victorious +against Castile and against the Moors of Morocco, began to take +a prominent place among European nations; his mother was +Philippa, daughter of John of Gaunt. When Ceuta, the “African +Gibraltar,” was taken in 1415, Prince Henry performed the most +distinguished service of any Portuguese leader, and received +knighthood; he was now created duke of Viseu and lord of +Covilham, and about the same time began his explorations, +which, however, limited in their original conception, certainly +developed into a search for a better knowledge of the western +ocean and for a sea-way along the unknown coast of Africa to +the supposed western Nile (our Senegal), to the rich negro lands +beyond the Sahara desert, to the half-true, half-fabled realm +of Prester John, and so ultimately to the Indies.</p> + +<p>Disregarding the traditions which assign 1412 or even 1410 +as the commencement of these explorations, it appears that in +1415, the year of Ceuta, the prince sent out one John de Trasto +on a voyage which brought the Portuguese to Grand Canary. +There was no discovery here, for the whole Canarian archipelago +was now pretty well known to French and Spanish mariners, +especially since the conquest of 1402-06 by French adventurers +under Castillan overlordship; but in 1418 Henry’s captain, +João Gonçalvez Zarco rediscovered Porto Santo, and in 1420 +Madeira, the chief members of an island group which had +originally been discovered (probably by Genoese pioneers) +before 1351 or perhaps even before 1339, but had rather faded +from Christian knowledge since. The story of the rediscovery +of Madeira by the Englishman Robert Machim or Machin, +eloping from Bristol with his lady-love, Anne d’Arfet, in the reign +of Edward III. (about 1370), has been the subject of much controversy; +in any case it does not affect the original Italian +discovery, nor the first sighting of Porto Santo by Zarco, who, +while exploring the west African mainland coast, was driven by +storms to this island. In 1424-1425 Prince Henry attempted +to purchase the Canaries, and began the colonization of the +Madeira group, both in Madeira itself and in Porto Santo; +to aid this latter movement he procured the famous charters of +1430 and 1433 from the Portuguese crown. In 1427, again, +with the co-operation of his father King John, he seems to have +sent out the royal pilot Diogo de Sevill, followed in 1431 by +Gonçalo Velho Cabral, to explore the Azores, first mentioned +and depicted in a Spanish treatise of 1345 (the <i>Conosçimiento +de todos los Reynos</i>) and in an Italian map of 1351 (the <i>Laurentian +Portolano</i>, also the first cartographical work to give us the +Madeiras with modern names), but probably almost unvisited +from that time to the advent of Sevill. This rediscovery of the +far western archipelago, and the expeditions which, even within +Prince Henry’s life (as in 1452) pushed still deeper into the +Atlantic, seem to show that the infante was not entirely forgetful +of the possibility of such a western route to Asia as Columbus +attempted in 1492, only to find America across his path. Meantime, +in 1418, Henry had gone in person to relieve Ceuta from an +attack of Morocco and Granada Mussulmans; had accomplished +his task, and had planned, though he did not carry out, a seizure +of Gibraltar. About this time, moreover, it is probable that he +had begun to gather information from the Moors with regard to +the coast of “Guinea” and the interior of Africa. In 1419, +after his return to Portugal, he was created governor of the +“kingdom” of Algarve, the southernmost province of Portugal; +and his connexion now appears to have begun with what afterwards +became known as the “Infante’s Town” (<i>Villa do Iffante</i>) +at Sagres, close to Cape St Vincent; where, before 1438, a +<i>Tercena Nabal</i> or naval arsenal grew up; where, from 1438, +after the Tangier expedition, the prince certainly resided for +a great part of his later life; and where he died in 1460.</p> + +<p>In 1433 died King John, exhorting his son not to abandon +those schemes which were now, in the long-continued failure +to round Cape Bojador, ridiculed by many as costly absurdities; +and in 1434 one of the prince’s ships, commanded by Gil Eannes, +at length doubled the cape. In 1435 Affonso Gonçalvez Baldaya, +the prince’s cup-bearer, passed fifty leagues beyond; and before +the close of 1436 the Portuguese had almost reached Cape Blanco. +Plans of further conquest in Morocco, resulting in 1437 in the +disastrous attack upon Tangier, and followed in 1438 by the death +of King Edward (Duarte) and the domestic troubles of the +earlier minority of Affonso V., now interrupted Atlantic and +African exploration down to 1441, except only in the Azores. +Here rediscovery and colonization both progressed, as is shown +by the royal licence of the 2nd of July 1439, to people “the seven +islands” of the group then known. In 1441 exploration began +again in earnest with the venture of Antam Gonçalvez, who +brought to Portugal the first slaves and gold-dust from the +Guinea coasts beyond Bojador; while Nuno Tristam in the same +year pushed on to Cape Blanco. These successes produced a great +effect; the cause of discovery, now connected with boundless +hopes of profit, became popular; and many volunteers, especially +merchants and seamen from Lisbon and Lagos, came forward. +In 1442 Nuno Tristam reached the Bay or Bight of Arguim, +where the infante erected a fort in 1448, and where for years the +Portuguese carried on vigorous slave-raiding. Meantime the +prince, who had now, in 1443, been created by Henry VI. a +knight of the Garter of England, proceeded with his Sagres +buildings, especially the palace, church and observatory (the +first in Portugal) which formed the nucleus of the “Infante’s +Town,” and which were certainly commenced soon after the +Tangier fiasco (1437), if not earlier. In 1444-1446 there was an +immense burst of maritime and exploring activity; more than +30 ships sailed with Henry’s licence to Guinea; and several of +their commanders achieved notable success. Thus Diniz Diaz, +Nuno Tristam, and others reached the Senegal in 1445; Diaz +rounded Cape Verde in the same year; and in 1446 Alvaro +Fernandez pushed on almost to our Sierra Leone, to a point +110 leagues beyond Cape Verde. This was perhaps the most +distant point reached before 1461. In 1444, moreover, the +island of St Michael in the Azores was sighted (May 8), and +in 1445 its colonization was begun. During this latter year +also John Fernandez (<i>q.v.</i>) spent seven months among the natives +of the Arguim coast, and brought back the first trustworthy +first-hand European account of the Sahara hinterland. Slave-raiding +continued ceaselessly; by 1446 the Portuguese had carried +off nearly a thousand captives from the newly surveyed coasts; +but between this time and the voyages of Cadamosto (<i>q.v.</i>) +in 1455-1456, the prince altered his policy, forbade the kidnapping +of the natives (which had brought about fierce reprisals, causing +the death of Nuno Tristam in 1446, and of other pioneers in 1445, +1448, &c.), and endeavoured to promote their peaceful intercourse +with his men. In 1445-1446, again, Dom Henry renewed +his earlier attempts (which had failed in 1424-1425) to purchase +or seize the Canaries for Portugal; by these he brought his +country to the verge of war with Castile; but the home government +refused to support him, and the project was again +abandoned. After 1446 our most voluminous authority, Azurara, +records but little; his narrative ceases altogether in 1448; one +of the latest expeditions noticed by him is that of a foreigner in +the prince’s service, “Vallarte the Dane,” which ended in utter +destruction near the Gambia, after passing Cape Verde in 1448. +After this the chief matters worth notice in Dom Henry’s life +are, first, the progress of discovery and colonization in the Azores—where +Terceira was discovered before 1450, perhaps in 1445, +and apparently by a Fleming, called “Jacques de Bruges” +in the prince’s charter of the 2nd of March 1450 (by this charter +Jacques receives the captaincy of this isle as its intending +colonizer); secondly, the rapid progress of civilization in Madeira, +evidenced by its timber trade to Portugal, by its sugar, corn and +honey, and above all by its wine, produced from the Malvoisie +or Malmsey grape, introduced from Crete; and thirdly, the +explorations of Cadamosto and Diogo Gomez (<i>q.v.</i>). Of these +the former, in his two voyages of 1455 and 1456, explored part +of the courses of the Senegal and the Gambia, discovered the Cape +Verde Islands (1456), named and mapped more carefully than +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297"></a>297</span> +before a considerable section of the African littoral beyond +Cape Verde, and gave much new information on the trade-routes +of north-west Africa and on the native races; while Gomez, +in his first important venture (after 1448 and before 1458), +though not accomplishing the full Indian purpose of his voyage +(he took a native interpreter with him for use “in the event of +reaching India”), explored and observed in the Gambia valley +and along the adjacent coasts with fully as much care and profit. +As a result of these expeditions the infante seems to have sent +out in 1458 a mission to convert the Gambia negroes. Gomez’ +second voyage, resulting in another “discovery” of the Cape +Verde Islands, was probably in 1462, after the death of Prince +Henry; it is likely that among the infante’s last occupations +were the necessary measures for the equipment and despatch +of this venture, as well as of Pedro de Sintra’s important expedition +of 1461.</p> + +<p>The infante’s share in home politics was considerable, especially +in the years of Affonso V.’s minority (1438, &c.) when he helped +to make his elder brother Pedro regent, reconciled him with the +queen-mother, and worked together with them both in a council +of regency. But when Dom Pedro rose in revolt (1447), Henry +stood by the king and allowed his brother to be crushed. In the +Morocco campaigns of his last years, especially at the capture of +Alcazar the Little (1458), he restored the military fame which he +had founded at Ceuta and compromised at Tangier, and which +brought him invitations from the pope, the emperor and the +kings of Castile and England, to take command of their armies. +The prince was also grand master of the Order of Christ, the +successor of the Templars in Portugal; and most of his Atlantic +and African expeditions sailed under the flag of his order, whose +revenues were at the service of his explorations, in whose name +he asked and obtained the official recognition of Pope Eugenius +IV. for his work, and on which he bestowed many privileges in the +new-won lands—the tithes of St Michael in the Azores and one-half +of its sugar revenues, the tithe of all merchandise from +Guinea, the ecclesiastical dues of Madeira, &c. As “protector of +Portuguese studies,” Dom Henry is credited with having founded +a professorship of theology, and perhaps also chairs of mathematics +and medicine, in Lisbon—where also, in 1431, he is said to have +provided house-room for the university teachers and students. +To instruct his captains, pilots and other pioneers more fully in +the art of navigation and the making of maps and instruments he +procured, says Barros, the aid of one Master Jacome from Majorca, +together with that of certain Arab and Jewish mathematicians. +We hear also of one Master Peter, who inscribed and illuminated +maps for the infante; the mathematician Pedro Nunes declares +that the prince’s mariners were well taught and provided with +instruments and rules of astronomy and geometry “which all +map-makers should know”; Cadamosto tells us that the +Portuguese caravels in his day were the best sailing ships afloat; +while, from several matters recorded by Henry’s biographers, it +is clear that he devoted great attention to the study of earlier +charts and of any available information he could gain upon the +trade-routes of north-west Africa. Thus we find an Oran +merchant corresponding with him about events happening in the +negro-world of the Gambia basin in 1458. Even if there were +never a formal “geographical school” at Sagres, or elsewhere in +Portugal, founded by Prince Henry, it appears certain that his +court was the centre of active and useful geographical study, as +well as the source of the best practical exploration of the time.</p> + +<p>The prince died on the 13th of November 1460, in his town +near Cape St Vincent, and was buried in the church of St Mary in +Lagos, but a year later his body was removed to the superb +monastery of Batalha. His great-nephew, King Dom Manuel, +had a statue of him placed over the centre column of the side +gate of the church of Belem. On the 24th of July 1840, a monument +was erected to him at Sagres at the instance of the marquis +de Sá da Bandeira.</p> + +<p>The glory attaching to the name of Prince Henry does not rest +merely on the achievements effected during his own lifetime, but +on the subsequent results to which his genius and perseverance +had lent the primary inspiration. To him the human race is +indebted, in large measure, for the maritime exploration, within +one century (1420-1522), of more than half the globe, and +especially of the great waterways from Europe to Asia both by +east and by west. His own life only sufficed for the accomplishment +of a small portion of his task. The complete opening out of +the African or south-east route to the Indies needed nearly forty +years of somewhat intermittent labour after his death (1460-1498), +and the prince’s share has often been forgotten in that of +pioneers who were really his executors—Diogo Cam, Bartholomew +Diaz or Vasco da Gama. Less directly, other sides of his activity +may be considered as fulfilled by the Portuguese penetration of +inland Africa, especially of Abyssinia, the land of the “Prester +John” for whom Dom Henry sought, and even by the finding of +a western route to Asia through the discoveries of Columbus, +Balboa and Magellan.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Alguns documentos do archivo nacional da Torre do Tombo +acerca das navegações ... portuguezas</i> (Lisbon, 1892); Alves, +<i>Dom Henrique o Infante</i> (Oporto, 1894); <i>Archivo dos Açores</i> (Ponta +Delgada, 1878-1894); Gomes Eannes de Azurara, <i>Chronica do +descobrimento e conquista de Guiné</i>, ed. Carreira and Santarem (Paris, +1841; Eng. trans. by Raymond Beazley and Edgar Prestage, +Hakluyt Society, London, 1896-1899); João de Barros, <i>Decadas da +Asia</i> (Lisbon, 1652); Raymond Beazley, <i>Prince Henry the Navigator</i> +(London, 1895), and introduction to Azurara, vol. ii., in Hakluyt +Soc. trans. (see above); Antonio Cordeiro, <i>Historia Insultana</i> (Lisbon, +1717); Freire (Candido Lusitano), <i>Vida do Infante D. Henrique</i> +(Lisbon, 1858); “Diogo Gomez,” in Dr Schmeller’s <i>Über Valentim +Fernandez Alemão</i>, vol. iv. pt. iii., in the publications of the 1st +class of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences (Munich, 1845); +R. H. Major, <i>The Life of Henry of Portugal, surnamed the Navigator</i> +(London, 1868); Jules Mees, <i>Henri le Navigateur et l’académie ... +de Sagres</i> (Brussels, 1901), and <i>Histoire de la découverte des îles +Açores</i> (Ghent, 1901); Duarte Pacheco Pereira, <i>Esmeraldo de situ +orbis</i> (Lisbon, 1892); Sophus Ruge, “Prinz Heinrich der Seefahrer,” +in vol. 65 of <i>Globus</i>, p. 153 (Brunswick, 1894); Gustav de +Veer, <i>Prinz Heinrich der Seefahrer</i> (Danzig, 1863); H. E. Wauwerman, +<i>Henri le Navigateur et l’académie portugaise de Sagres</i> (Antwerp +and Brussels, 1890).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. R. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY OF ALMAIN<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1235-1271), so called from his father’s +German connexions, was the son of Richard, earl of Cornwall and +king of the Romans. As a nephew of both Henry III. and Simon +de Montfort he wavered between the two at the beginning of the +Barons’ War, but finally took the royalist side and was among the +prisoners taken by Montfort at Lewes (1264). In 1268 he took +the cross with his cousin Edward, who, however, sent him back +from Sicily to pacify the unruly province of Gascony. Henry +took the land route with the kings of France and Sicily. While +attending mass at Viterbo (13 March 1271) he was attacked by +Guy and Simon de Montfort, sons of Earl Simon, and foully +murdered. This revenge was the more outrageous since Henry +had personally exerted himself on behalf of the Montforts after +Evesham. The deed is mentioned by Dante, who put Guy de +Montfort in the seventh circle of hell.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. H. Blaauw’s <i>The Barons’ War</i> (ed. 1871); Ch. Bémont’s +<i>Simon de Montfort</i> (1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY OF BLOIS,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> bishop of Winchester (1101-1171), was the +son of Stephen, count of Blois, by Adela, daughter of William I., +and brother of King Stephen. He was educated at Cluny, and +consistently exerted himself for the principles of Cluniac reform. +If these involved high claims of independence and power for the +Church, they also asserted a high standard of devotion and +discipline. Henry was brought to England by Henry I. and +made abbot of Glastonbury. In 1129 he was given the bishopric +of Winchester and allowed to hold his abbey in conjunction with +it. His hopes of the see of Canterbury were disappointed, but +he obtained in 1139 a legatine commission which gave him a +higher rank than the primate. In fact as well as in theory he +became the master of the Church in England. He even contemplated +the erection of a new province, with Winchester as its +centre, which was to be independent of Canterbury. Owing both +to local and to general causes the power of the Church in England +has never been higher than in the reign of Stephen (1135-1154), +Henry as its leader and a legate of the pope was the real “lord of +England,” as the chronicles call him. Indeed, one of the ecclesiastical +councils over which he presided formally declared that the +election of the king in England was the special privilege of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>298</span> +clergy. Stephen owed his crown to Henry (1135), but they +quarrelled when Stephen refused to give Henry the primacy; +and the bishop took up the cause of Roger of Salisbury (1139). +After the battle of Lincoln (1141) Henry declared for Matilda; +but finding his advice treated with contempt, rejoined his +brother’s side, and his successful defence of Winchester against +the empress (Aug.-Sept. 1141) was the turning-point of the civil +war. The expiration of his legatine commission of 1144 deprived +him of much of his power. He spent the rest of Stephen’s reign in +trying to procure its renewal. But his efforts were unsuccessful, +though he made a personal visit to Rome. At the accession of +Henry II. (1154) he retired from the world and spent the rest of +his life in works of charity and penitence. He died in 1171. +Henry seems to have been a man of high character, great courage, +resolution and ability. Like most great bishops of his age he had +a passion for architecture. He built, among other castles, that +of Farnham; and he began the hospital of St Cross at Winchester.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Original: William of Malmesbury, <i>De gestis +regum</i>; the <i>Gesta Stephani</i>. Modern: Sir James Ramsay, <i>Foundations +of England</i>, vol. ii.; Kate Norgate’s <i>Angevin Kings</i>; +Kitchin’s <i>Winchester</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY OF GHENT<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> [Henricus a Gandavo] (<i>c.</i> 1217-1293), +scholastic philosopher, known as “Doctor Solennis,” was born +in the district of Mude, near Ghent, and died at Tournai (or +Paris). He is said to have belonged to an Italian family named +Bonicolli, in Flemish Goethals, but the question of his name +has been much discussed (see authorities below). He studied +at Ghent and then at Cologne under Albertus Magnus. After +obtaining the degree of doctor he returned to Ghent, and is +said to have been the first to lecture there publicly on philosophy +and theology. Attracted to Paris by the fame of the university, +he took part in the many disputes between the orders and the +secular priests, and warmly defended the latter. A contemporary +of Aquinas, he opposed several of the dominant theories of the +time, and united with the current Aristotelian doctrines a strong +infusion of Platonism. He distinguished between knowledge +of actual objects and the divine inspiration by which we cognize +the being and existence of God. The first throws no light upon +the second. Individuals are constituted not by the material +element but by their independent existence, <i>i.e.</i> ultimately by +the fact that they are created as separate entities. Universals +must be distinguished according as they have reference to our +minds or to the divine mind. In the divine intelligence exist +exemplars or types of the genera and species of natural objects. +On this subject Henry is far from clear; but he defends Plato +against the current Aristotelian criticism, and endeavours to +show that the two views are in harmony. In psychology, his +view of the intimate union of soul and body is remarkable. +The body he regards as forming part of the substance of the +soul, which through this union is more perfect and complete.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Works.</span>—<i>Quodlibeta theologica</i> (Paris, 1518; Venice, 1608 and +1613); <i>Summa theologiae</i> (Paris, 1520; Ferrara, 1646); <i>De scriptoribus +ecclesiasticis</i> (Cologne, 1580).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—F. Huet’s <i>Recherches hist. et crit. ... de H. de G.</i> +(Paris, 1838) has been superseded by F. Ehrle’s monograph in +<i>Archiv für Lit. u. Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters</i>, i. (1885); see +also A. Wauters and N. de Pauw in the <i>Bull. de la Com. royale +d’histoire de Belgique</i> (4th series, xiv., xv., xvi., 1887-1889); H. +Delehaye, <i>Nouvelles Recherches sur Henri de Gand</i> (1886); C. Werner, +<i>Heinrich von Gent als Repräsentant des christlichen Platonismus im +13ten Jahrh.</i> (Vienna, 1878); A. Stöckl, <i>Phil. d. Mittelalters</i>, ii. +738-758; C. Bréchillet Jourdain, <i>La Philosophie de St Thomas +d’Aquin</i> (1858), ii. 29-46; Alphonse le Roy in <i>Biographie nationale +de Belgique</i>, vii. (Brussels, 1880); and article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scholasticism</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY OF HUNTINGDON,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> English chronicler of the 12th +century, was born, apparently, between the years 1080 and 1090. +His father, by name Nicholas, was a clerk, who became archdeacon +of Cambridge, Hertford and Huntingdon, in the time of Remigius, +bishop of Lincoln (d. 1092). The celibacy of the clergy was not +strictly enforced in England before 1102. Hence the chronicler +makes no secret of his antecedents, nor did they interfere with +his career. At an early age Henry entered the household of +Bishop Robert Bloet, who appointed him, immediately after +the death of Nicholas (1110), archdeacon of Hertford and +Huntingdon. Henry was on familiar terms with his patron; +and also, it would seem, with Bloet’s successor, by whom he +was encouraged to undertake the writing of an English history +from the time of Julius Caesar. This work, undertaken before +1130, was first published in that year; the author subsequently +published in succession four more editions, of which the last +ends in 1154 with the accession of Henry II. The only recorded +fact of the chronicler’s later life is that he went with Archbishop +Theobald to Rome in 1139. On the way Henry halted at Bec, +and there made the acquaintance of Robert de Torigni, who +mentions their encounter in the preface to his Chronicle.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Historia Anglorum</i> was first printed in Savile, <i>Rerum Anglicarum +scriptores post Bedam</i> (London, 1596). The first six books +excepting the third, which is almost entirely taken from Bede, are +given in <i>Monumenta historica Britannica</i>, vol. i. (ed. H. Petrie and +J. Sharpe, London, 1848). The standard edition is that of T. Arnold +in the Rolls Series (London, 1879). There is a translation by T. +Forester in Bohn’s <i>Antiquarian Library</i> (London, 1853). The +Historia is of little independent value before 1126. Up to that point +the author compiles from Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, Nennius, Bede +and the English chronicles, particularly that of Peterborough; in +some cases he professes to supplement these sources from oral +tradition; but most of his amplifications are pure rhetoric (see +F. Liebermann in <i>Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte</i> for 1878, +pp. 265 seq.). Arnold prints, in an appendix, a minor work from +Henry’s pen, the <i>Epistola ad Walterum de contemptu mundi</i>, which +was written in 1135. It is a moralizing tract, but contains some +interesting anecdotes about contemporaries. Henry also wrote +epistles to Henry I. (on the succession of kings and emperors in the +great monarchies of the world) and to “Warinus, a Briton” (on the +early British kings, after Geoffrey of Monmouth). A book, <i>De +miraculis</i>, composed of extracts from Bede, was appended along +with these three epistles to the later recensions of the <i>Historia</i>. +Henry composed eight books of Latin epigrams; two books survive +in the Lambeth MS., No. 118. His value as a historian, formerly +much overrated, is discussed at length by Liebermann and in T. +Arnold’s introduction to the Rolls edition of the <i>Historia</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY OF LAUSANNE<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (variously known as of Bruys, of +Cluny, of Toulouse, and as the Deacon), French heresiarch of +the first half of the 12th century. Practically nothing is known +of his origin or early life. He may have been one of those +hermits who at that time swarmed in the forests of western +Europe, and particularly in France, always surrounded by +popular veneration, and sometimes the founders of monasteries +or religious orders, such as those of Prémontré or Fontevrault. +If St Bernard’s reproach (<i>Ep.</i> 241) be well founded, Henry was +an apostate monk—a “black monk” (Benedictine) according +to the chronicler Alberic de Trois Fontaines. The information +we possess as to his degree of instruction is scarcely more precise +or less conflicting. When he arrived at Le Mans in 1101, his +<i>terminus a quo</i> was probably Lausanne. At that moment +Hildebert, the bishop of Le Mans, was absent from his episcopal +town, and this is one of the reasons why Henry was granted +permission to preach (March to July 1101), a function jealously +guarded by the regular clergy. Whether by his prestige as a +hermit and ascetic or by his personal charm, he soon acquired +enormous influence over the people. His doctrine at that date +appears to have been very vague; he seemingly rejected the +invocation of saints and also second marriages, and preached +penitence. Women, inflamed by his words, gave up their jewels +and luxurious apparel, and young men married courtesans in +the hope of reclaiming them. Henry was peculiarly fitted for +a popular preacher. In person he was tall and had a long +beard; his voice was sonorous, and his eyes flashed fire. He +went bare-footed, preceded by a man carrying a staff surmounted +with an iron cross; he slept on the bare ground, and lived by +alms. At his instigation the inhabitants of Le Mans soon began +to slight the clergy of their town and to reject all ecclesiastical +authority. On his return from Rome, Hildebert had a public +disputation with Henry, in which, according to the bishop’s +<i>Acta episcoporum Cenomannensium</i>, Henry was shown to be +less guilty of heresy than of ignorance. He, however, was forced +to leave Le Mans, and went probably to Poitiers and afterwards +to Bordeaux. Later we find him in the diocese of Arles, where +the archbishop arrested him and had his case referred to the +tribunal of the pope. In 1134 Henry appeared before Pope +Innocent III. at the council of Pisa, where he was compelled +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>299</span> +to abjure his errors and was sentenced to imprisonment. It +appears that St Bernard offered him an asylum at Clairvaux; +but it is not known if he reached Clairvaux, nor do we know +when or in what circumstances he resumed his activities. +Towards 1139, however, Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny, +wrote a treatise called <i>Epistola seu tractatus adversus Petrobrusianos</i> +(Migne, <i>Patr. Lat.</i> clxxxix.) against the disciples +of Peter of Bruys and Henry of Lausanne, whom he calls Henry +of Bruys, and whom, at the moment of writing, he accuses of +preaching, in all the dioceses in the south of France, errors which +he had inherited from Peter of Bruys. According to Peter the +Venerable, Henry’s teaching is summed up as follows: rejection +of the doctrinal and disciplinary authority of the church; +recognition of the Gospel freely interpreted as the sole rule of +faith; condemnation of the baptism of infants, of the eucharist, +of the sacrifice of the mass, of the communion of saints, and of +prayers for the dead; and refusal to recognize any form of +worship or liturgy. The success of this teaching spread very +rapidly in the south of France. Speaking of this region, St +Bernard (<i>Ep.</i> 241) says: “The churches are without flocks, +the flocks without priests, the priests without honour; in a +word, nothing remains save Christians without Christ.” On +several occasions St Bernard was begged to fight the innovator +on the scene of his exploits, and in 1145, at the instance of the +legate Alberic, cardinal bishop of Ostia, he set out, passing through +the diocese of Angoulême and Limoges, sojourning for some time +at Bordeaux, and finally reaching the heretical towns of Bergerac, +Périgueux, Sarlat, Cahors and Toulouse. At Bernard’s approach +Henry quitted Toulouse, leaving there many adherents, both of +noble and humble birth, and especially among the weavers. +But Bernard’s eloquence and miracles made many converts, +and Toulouse and Albi were quickly restored to orthodoxy. +After inviting Henry to a disputation, which he refused to attend, +St Bernard returned to Clairvaux. Soon afterwards the heresiarch +was arrested, brought before the bishop of Toulouse, and +probably imprisoned for life. In a letter to the people of +Toulouse, undoubtedly written at the end of 1146, St Bernard +calls upon them to extirpate the last remnants of the heresy. In +1151, however, some Henricians still remained in Languedoc, for +Matthew Paris relates (<i>Chron. maj.</i>, at date 1151) that a young +girl, who gave herself out to be miraculously inspired by the +Virgin Mary, was reputed to have converted a great number +of the disciples of Henry of Lausanne. It is impossible to +designate definitely as Henricians one of the two sects discovered +at Cologne and described by Everwin, provost of Steinfeld, in +his letter to St Bernard (Migne, <i>Patr. Lat.</i>, clxxxii. 676-680), +or the heretics of Périgord mentioned by a certain monk Heribert +(Martin Bouquet, <i>Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France</i>, +xii. 550-551).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See “Les Origines de l’hérésie albigeoise,” by Vacandard in the +<i>Revue des questions historiques</i> (Paris, 1894, pp. 67-83).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (1841-  ), American genre +painter, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the 12th of +January 1841. He was a pupil of the schools of the Pennsylvania +Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia, and of Gleyre and Courbet +in Paris, and in 1870 was elected to the National Academy of +Design, New York. As a painter of colonial and early American +themes and incidents of rural life, he displays a quaint humour +and a profound knowledge of human nature. Among his best-known +compositions are some of early railroad travel, incidents +of stage coach and canal boat journeys, rendered with much +detail on a minute scale.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY, JAMES<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1798-1876), Irish classical scholar, was born +in Dublin on the 13th of December 1798. He was educated at +Trinity College, and until 1845 practised as a physician in the +city. In spite of his unconventionally and unorthodox views +on religion and his own profession, he was very successful. His +accession to a large fortune enabled him to devote himself +entirely to the absorbing occupation of his life—the study of +Virgil. Accompanied by his wife and daughter, he visited all +those parts of Europe where he was likely to find rare editions +or MSS. of the poet. He died near Dublin on the 14th of July +1876. As a commentator on Virgil Henry will always deserve +to be remembered, notwithstanding the occasional eccentricity +of his notes and remarks. The first fruits of his researches were +published at Dresden in 1853 under the quaint title <i>Notes of a +Twelve Years’ Voyage of Discovery in the first six Books of the +Eneis</i>. These were embodied, with alterations and additions, +in the <i>Aeneidea, or Critical, Exegetical and Aesthetical Remarks +on the Aeneis</i> (1873-1892), of which only the notes on the first +book were published during the author’s lifetime. As a textual +critic Henry was exceedingly conservative. His notes, written +in a racy and interesting style, are especially valuable for their +wealth of illustration and references to the less-known classical +authors. Henry was also the author of several poems, some of +them descriptive accounts of his travels, and of various pamphlets +of a satirical nature.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See obituary notice by J. P. Mahaffy in the <i>Academy</i> of the 12th +of August 1876, where a list of his works, nearly all of which were +privately printed, is given.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY, JOSEPH<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1797-1878), American physicist, was born +in Albany, N.Y., on the 17th of December 1797. He received +his education at an ordinary school, and afterwards at the +Albany Academy, which enjoyed considerable reputation for +the thoroughness of its classical and mathematical courses. +On finishing his academic studies he contemplated adopting the +medical profession, and prosecuted his studies in chemistry, +anatomy and physiology with that view. He occasionally +contributed papers to the Albany Institute, in the years 1824 +and 1825, on chemical and mechanical subjects; and in the +latter year, having been unexpectedly appointed assistant +engineer on the survey of a route for a state road from the Hudson +river to Lake Erie, a distance somewhat over 300 m., he at once +embarked with zeal and success in the new enterprise. This +diversion from his original bent gave him an inclination to the +career of civil and mechanical engineering; and in the spring +of 1826 he was elected by the trustees of the Albany Academy +to the chair of mathematics and natural philosophy in that +institution. In the latter part of 1827 he read before the Albany +Institute his first important contribution, “On Some Modifications +of the Electro-Magnetic Apparatus.” Struck with the great +improvements then recently introduced into such apparatus +by William Sturgeon of Woolwich, he had still further +extended their efficiency, with considerable reduction of battery-power, +by adopting in all the experimental circuits (where +applicable) the principle of J. S. C. Schweigger’s “multiplier,” +that is, by substituting for single wire circuits, voluminous coils +(<i>Trans. Albany Institute</i>, 1827, 1, p. 22). In June 1828 and in +March 1829 he exhibited before the institute small electro-magnets +closely and repeatedly wound with silk-covered wire, +which had a far greater lifting power than any then known. +Henry appears to have been the first to adopt insulated or silk-covered +wire for the magnetic coil; and also the first to employ +what may be called the “spool” winding for the limbs of the +magnet. He was also the first to demonstrate experimentally +the difference of action between what he called a “quantity” +magnet excited by a “quantity” battery of a single pair, and an +“intensity” magnet with long fine wire coil excited by an +“intensity” battery of many elements, having their resistances +suitably proportioned. He pointed out that the latter form alone +was applicable to telegraphic purposes. A detailed account +of these experiments and exhibitions was not, however, published +till 1831 (<i>Sill. Journ.</i>, 19, p. 400). Henry’s “quantity” magnets +acquired considerable celebrity at the time, from their unprecedented +attractive power—one (August 1830) lifting 750 ℔, +another (March 1831) 2300, and a third (1834) 3500.</p> + +<p>Early in 1831 he arranged a small office-bell to be tapped by +the polarized armature of an “intensity” magnet, whose coil +was in continuation of a mile of insulated copper wire, suspended +about one of the rooms of his academy. This was the first +instance of magnetizing iron at a distance, or of a suitable +combination of magnet and battery being so arranged as to be +capable of such action. It was, therefore, the earliest example +of a true “magnetic” telegraph, all preceding experiments to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>300</span> +this end having been on the galvanometer or needle principle. +About the same time he devised and constructed the first +electromagnetic engine with automatic polechanger (<i>Sill. Journ.</i>, +1831, 20, p. 340; and Sturgeon’s <i>Annals Electr.</i>, 1839, 3, p. 554). +Early in 1832 he discovered the induction of a current on itself, +in a long helical wire, giving greatly increased intensity of +discharge (<i>Sill. Journ.</i>, 1832, 22, p. 408). In 1832 he was elected +to the chair of natural philosophy in the New Jersey college +at Princeton. In 1834 he continued and extended his researches +“On the Influence of a Spiral Conductor in increasing the +Intensity of Electricity from a Galvanic Arrangement of a Single +Pair,” a memoir of which was read before the American Philosophical +Society on the 5th of February 1835. In 1835 he +combined the short circuit of his monster magnet (of 1834) with +the small “intensity” magnet of an experimental telegraph +wire, thereby establishing the fact that very powerful mechanical +effects could be produced at a great distance by the agency +of a very feeble magnet used as a circuit maker and breaker, +or as a “trigger”—the precursor of later forms of relay and +receiving magnets. In 1837 he paid his first visit to England +and Europe. In 1838 he made important investigations in +regard to the conditions and range of induction from electrical +currents—showing that induced currents, although merely +momentary, produce still other or tertiary currents, and thus on +through successive orders of induction, with alternating signs, +and with reversed initial and terminal signs. He also discovered +similar successive orders of induction in the case of the passage +of frictional electricity (<i>Trans. Am. Phil. Soc.</i>, 6, pp. 303-337). +Among many minor observations, he discovered in 1842 the +oscillatory nature of the electrical discharge, magnetizing about +a thousand needles in the course of his experiments (<i>Proc. Am. +Phil. Soc.</i>, 1, p. 301). He traced the influence of induction to surprising +distances, magnetizing needles in the lower story of a +house through several intervening floors by means of electrical +discharges in the upper story, and also by the secondary current +in a wire 220 ft. distant from the wire of the primary circuit. +The five numbers of his <i>Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism</i> +(1835-1842) were separately republished from the <i>Transactions</i>. +In 1843 he made some interesting original observations on +“Phosphorescence” (<i>Proc. Am. Phil. Soc.</i>, 3, pp. 38-44). In 1844, +by experiments on the tenacity of soap-bubbles, he showed that +the molecular cohesion of water is equal (if not superior) to that +of ice, and hence, generally, that solids and their liquids have +practically the same amount of cohesion (<i>Proc. Am. Phil. Soc.</i>, 4, +pp. 56 and 84). In 1845 he showed, by means of a thermo-galvanometer, +that the solar spots radiate less heat than the general +solar surface (<i>Proc. Am. Phil. Soc.</i>, 4, pp. 173-176).</p> + +<p>In December 1846 Henry was elected secretary and director of +the Smithsonian Institution, then just established. While closely +occupied with the exacting duties of that office, he still found time +to prosecute many original inquiries—as into the application of +acoustics to public buildings, and the best construction and +arrangement of lecture-rooms, into the strength of various +building materials, &c. Having early devoted much attention +to meteorology, both in observing and in reducing and discussing +observations, he (among his first administrative acts) organized +a large and widespread corps of observers, and made arrangements +for simultaneous reports by means of the electric telegraph, +which was yet in its infancy (<i>Smithson. Report</i> for 1847, pp. 146, +147). He was the first to apply the telegraph to meteorological +research, to have the atmospheric conditions daily indicated +on a large map, to utilize the generalizations made in weather +forecasts, and to embrace a continent under a single system—British +America and Mexico being included in the field of observation. +In 1852, on the reorganization of the American lighthouse +system, he was appointed a member of the new board; and +in 1871 he became the presiding officer of the establishment—a +position he continued to hold during the rest of his life. His +diligent investigations into the efficiency of various illuminants +in differing circumstances, and into the best conditions for +developing their several maximum powers of brilliancy, while +greatly improving the usefulness of the line of beacons along the +extensive coast of the United States, effected at the same time +a great economy of administration. His equally careful experiments +on various acoustic instruments also resulted in giving to +his country the most serviceable system of fog-signals known to +maritime powers. In the course of these varied and prolonged +researches from 1865 to 1877, he also made important contributions +to the science of acoustics; and he established by several +series of laborious observations, extending over many years and +along a wide coast range, the correctness of G. G. Stokes’s +hypothesis (<i>Report Brit. Assoc.</i>, 1857, part ii. 27) that the wind +exerts a very marked influence in refracting sound-beams. +From 1868 Henry continued to be annually chosen as president +of the National Academy of Sciences; and he was also president +of the Philosophical Society of Washington from the date of its +organization in 1871.</p> + +<p>Henry was by general concession the foremost of American +physicists. He was a man of varied culture, of large breadth and +liberality of views, of generous impulses, of great gentleness and +courtesy of manner, combined with equal firmness of purpose and +energy of action. He died at Washington on the 13th of May +1878.</p> +<div class="author">(S. F. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY, MATTHEW<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1662-1714), English nonconformist +divine, was born at Broad Oak, a farm-house on the confines of +Flintshire and Shropshire, on the 18th of October 1662. He +was the son of Philip Henry, who had, two months earlier, been +ejected by the Act of Uniformity. Unlike most of his fellow-sufferers, +Philip Henry possessed some private means, and was +thus enabled to give a good education to his son, who went first +to a school at Islington, and then to Gray’s Inn. He soon +relinquished his legal studies for theology, and in 1687 became +minister of a Presbyterian congregation at Chester, removing +in 1712 to Mare Street, Hackney. Two years later (22nd of June +1714), he died suddenly of apoplexy at Nantwich while on a +journey from Chester to London. Henry’s well-known <i>Exposition +of the Old and New Testaments</i> (1708-1710) is a commentary +of a practical and devotional rather than of a critical kind, +covering the whole of the Old Testament, and the Gospels and +Acts in the New. Here it was broken off by the author’s death, +but the work was finished by a number of ministers, and edited +by G. Burder and John Hughes in 1811. Of no value as criticism, +its unfailing good sense, its discriminating thought, its high moral +tone, its simple piety and its singular felicity of practical +application, combine with the well-sustained flow of its racy +English style to secure for it the foremost place among works +of its class.</p> + +<p>His <i>Miscellaneous Writings</i>, including a <i>Life of Mr Philip +Henry</i>, <i>The Communicant’s Companion</i>, <i>Directions for Daily +Communion with God</i>, <i>A Method for Prayer</i>, <i>A Scriptural Catechism</i>, +and numerous sermons, were edited in 1809 and in 1830. +See biographies by W. Tong (1816), C. Chapman (1859), J. B. +Williams (1828, new ed. 1865); and M. H. Lee’s <i>Diaries and +Letters of Philip Henry</i> (1883).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY, PATRICK<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1736-1799), American statesman and +orator, was born at Studley, Hanover county, Virginia, on the +29th of May 1736. He was the son of John Henry, a well-educated +Scotsman, among whose relatives was the historian +William Robertson, and who served in Virginia as county +surveyor, colonel and judge of a county court. His mother +was one of a family named Winston, of Welsh descent, noted for +conversational and musical talent. At the age of ten Patrick +was making slow progress in the study of reading, writing and +arithmetic at a small country school, when his father became +his tutor and taught him Latin, Greek and mathematics for +five years, but with limited success. His school days being +then terminated, he was employed as a store-clerk for one year. +Within the seven years next following he failed twice as a storekeeper +and once as a farmer; but in the meantime acquired a +taste for reading, of history especially, and read and re-read the +history of Greece and Rome, of England, and of her American +colonies. Then, poor but not discouraged, he resolved to be +a lawyer, and after reading <i>Coke upon Littleton</i> and the Virginia +laws for a few weeks only, he strongly impressed one of his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>301</span> +examiners, and was admitted to the bar at the age of twenty-four, +on condition that he spend more time in study before +beginning to practise. He rapidly acquired a considerable +practice, his fee books shewing that for the first three years he +charged fees in 1185 cases. Then in 1763 was delivered his +speech in “The Parson’s Cause”—a suit brought by a clergyman, +Rev. James Maury, in the Hanover County Court, to +secure restitution for money considered by him to be due on +account of his salary (16,000 pounds of tobacco by law) having +been paid in money calculated at a rate less than the current +market price of tobacco. This speech, which, according to +reports, was extremely radical and denied the right of the king +to disallow acts of the colonial legislature, made Henry the idol +of the common people of Virginia and procured for him an +enormous practice. In 1765 he was elected a member of the +Virginia legislature, where he became in the same year the author +of the “Virginia Resolutions,” which were no less than a declaration +of resistance to the Stamp Act and an assertion of the right +of the colonies to legislate for themselves independently of the +control of the British parliament, and gave a most powerful +impetus to the movement resulting in the War of Independence. +In a speech urging their adoption appear the often-quoted +words: “Tarquin and Caesar had each his Brutus, Charles the +First his Cromwell, and George the Third [here he was interrupted +by cries of “Treason”] and George the Third may profit by +their example! If <i>this</i> be treason, make the most of it.” Until +1775 he continued to sit in the House of Burgesses, as a leader +during all that eventful period. He was prominent as a radical +in all measures in opposition to the British government, and was +a member of the first Virginia committee of correspondence. +In 1774 and 1775 he was a delegate to the Continental Congress +and served on three of its most important committees: that on +colonial trade and manufactures, that for drawing up an address +to the king, and that for stating the rights of the colonies. In +1775, in the second revolutionary convention of Virginia, Henry, +regarding war as inevitable, presented resolutions for arming the +Virginia militia. The more conservative members strongly +opposed them as premature, whereupon Henry supported them +in a speech familiar to the American school-boy for several +generations following, closing with the words, “Is life so dear +or peace so sweet as to be purchased at the price of chains and +slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course +others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me +death!” The resolutions were passed and their author was made +chairman of the committee for which they provided. The chief +command of the newly organized army was also given to him, +but previously, at the head of a body of militia, he had demanded +satisfaction for powder removed from the public store by order +of Lord Dunmore, the royal governor, with the result that £330 +was paid in compensation. But his military appointment +required obedience to the Committee of Public Safety, and this +body, largely dominated by Edmund Pendleton, so restrained him +from active service that he resigned on the 28th of February +1776. In the Virginia convention of 1776 he favoured the +postponement of a declaration of independence, until a firm +union of the colonies and the friendship of France and Spain had +been secured. In the same convention he served on the committee +which drafted the first constitution for Virginia, and was +elected governor of the State—to which office he was re-elected +in 1777 and 1778, thus serving as long as the new constitution +allowed any man to serve continuously. As governor he gave +Washington able support and sent out the expedition under +George Rogers Clark (<i>q.v.</i>) into the Illinois country. In 1778 he +was chosen a delegate to Congress, but declined to serve. From +1780 to 1784 and from 1787 to 1790 he was again a member of +his State legislature; and from 1784 to 1786 was again governor. +Until 1786 he was a leading advocate of a stronger central +government but when chosen a delegate to the Philadelphia +constitutional convention of 1787, he had become cold in the +cause and declined to serve. Moreover, in the state convention +called to decide whether Virginia should ratify the Federal +Constitution he led the opposition, contending that the proposed +Constitution, because of its centralizing character, was dangerous +to the liberties of the country. This change of attitude is +thought to have been due chiefly to his suspicion of the North +aroused by John Jay’s proposal to surrender to Spain for twenty-five +or thirty years the navigation of the Mississippi. From +1794 until his death he declined in succession the following +offices: United States senator (1794), secretary of state in +Washington’s cabinet (1795), chief justice of the United States +Supreme Court (1795), governor of Virginia (1796), to which +office he had been elected by the Assembly, and envoy to France +(1799). In 1799, however, he consented to serve again in his +State legislature, where he wished to combat the Virginia +Resolutions; he never took his seat, since he died, on his Red +Hill estate in Charlotte county, Virginia, on the 6th of June of +that year. Henry was twice married, first to Sarah Skelton, and +second to Dorothea Spotswood Dandridge, a grand-daughter +of Governor Alexander Spotswocd.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Moses Coit Tyler, <i>Patrick Henry</i> (Boston, 1887; new ed., +1899), and William Wirt Henry (Patrick Henry’s grandson), <i>Patrick +Henry: Life, Correspondence and Speeches</i> (New York, 1890-1891); +these supersede the very unsatisfactory biography by William Wirt, +<i>Sketches of the Life and Character of Patrick Henry</i> (Philadelphia, +1817). See also George Morgan, <i>The True Patrick Henry</i> (Philadelphia, +1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(N. D. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY, ROBERT<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1718-1790), British historian, was the +son of James Henry, a farmer of Muirton, near Stirling. Born +on the 18th of February 1718 he was educated at the parish +school of St Ninians, and at the grammar school of Stirling, and, +after completing his course at Edinburgh University, became +master of the grammar school at Annan. In 1746 he was +licensed to preach, and in 1748 was chosen minister of a Presbyterian +congregation at Carlisle, where he remained until 1760, +when he removed to a similar charge at Berwick-on-Tweed. +In 1768 he became minister of the New Greyfriars’ Church, +Edinburgh, and having received the degree of D.D. from Edinburgh +University in 1771, and served as moderator of the +general assembly of the church of Scotland in 1774, he was +appointed one of the ministers of the Old Greyfriars’ Church, +Edinburgh, in 1776, remaining in this charge until his death +on the 24th of November 1790. During his residence in Berwick, +Henry commenced his <i>History of Great Britain, written on a new +plan</i>; but, owing to the difficulty of consulting the original +authorities, he did not make much progress with the work until +his removal to Edinburgh in 1768. The first five volumes +appeared between 1771 and 1785, and the sixth, edited and +completed by Malcolm Laing, was published three years after the +author’s death. A life of Henry was prefixed to this volume. +The <i>History</i> covers the years between the Roman invasion and +the death of Henry VIII., and the “new plan” is the combination +of an account of the domestic life and commercial and social +progress of the people with the narrative of the political events +of each period. The work was virulently assailed by Dr Gilbert +Stuart (1742-1786), who appeared anxious to damage the sale +of the book; but the injury thus effected was only slight, as +Henry received £3300 for the volumes published during his +lifetime. In 1781, through the influence of the earl of Mansfield, +he obtained a pension of £100 a year from the British +government.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>History of Great Britain</i> has been translated into French, and +has passed into several English editions. An account of Stuart’s +attack on Henry is given in Isaac D’Israeli’s <i>Calamities of Authors</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY, VICTOR<a name="ar99a" id="ar99a"></a></span> (1850-  ), French philologist, was born +at Colmar in Alsace. Having held appointments at Douai and +Lille, he was appointed professor of Sanskrit and comparative +grammar in the university of Paris. A prolific and versatile +writer, he is probably best known by the English translations +of his <i>Précis de Grammaire comparée de l’anglais et de l’allemand</i> +and <i>Précis ... du Grec et du Latin</i>. Important works by him +on India and Indian languages are: <i>Manuel pour étudier le +Sanscrit vedique</i> (with A. Bergaigne, 1890); <i>Éléments de Sanscrit +classique</i> (1902); <i>Précis de grammaire Pâlie</i> (1904); <i>Les Littératures +de l’Inde: Sanscrit, Pâli, Prâcrit</i> (1904); <i>La Magie dans +l’Inde antique</i> (1904); <i>Le Parsisme</i> (1905); <i>L’Agnistoma</i> (1906). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id="page302"></a>302</span> +Obscure languages (such as Innok, Quichua, Greenland) and +local dialects (<i>Lexique étymologique du Breton moderne; Le +Dialecte Alaman de Colmar</i>) also claimed his attention. <i>Le +Langage Martien</i> is a curious book. It contains a discussion of +some 40 phrases (amounting to about 300 words), which a certain +Mademoiselle Hélène Smith (a well-known spiritualist medium +of Geneva), while on a hypnotic visit to the planet Mars, learnt +and repeated and even wrote down during her trance as specimens +of a language spoken there, explained to her by a disembodied +interpreter.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRY, WILLIAM<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1775-1836), English chemist, son of +Thomas Henry (1734-1816), an apothecary and writer on +chemistry, was born at Manchester on the 12th of December +1775. He began to study medicine at Edinburgh in 1795, +taking his doctor’s degree in 1807, but ill-health interrupted his +practice as a physician, and he devoted his time mainly to +chemical research, especially in regard to gases. One of his +best-known papers (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1803) describes experiments +on the quantity of gases absorbed by water at different temperatures +and under different pressures, the conclusion he reached +(“Henry’s law”) being that “water takes up of gas condensed +by one, two or more additional atmospheres, a quantity which, +ordinarily compressed, would be equal to twice, thrice, &c. the +volume absorbed under the common pressure of the atmosphere.” +Others of his papers deal with gas-analysis, fire-damp, illuminating +gas, the composition of hydrochloric acid and of ammonia, +urinary and other morbid concretions, and the disinfecting +powers of heat. His <i>Elements of Experimental Chemistry</i> (1799) +enjoyed considerable vogue in its day, going through 11 editions +in 30 years. He died at Pendlebury, near Manchester, on the +2nd of September 1836.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENRYSON, ROBERT<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1425-<i>c.</i> 1500), Scottish poet, was +born about 1425. It has been surmised that he was connected +with the family of Henderson of Fordell, but of this there is +no evidence. He is described, on the title-page of the 1570 +edition of his <i>Fables</i>, as “scholemaister of Dunfermeling,” +probably of the grammar-school of the Benedictine Abbey +there. There is no record of his having studied at St Andrews, +the only Scottish university at this time; but in 1462 a “Master +Robert Henryson” is named among those incorporated in the +recently founded university of Glasgow. It is therefore likely +that his first studies were completed abroad, at Paris or Louvain. +He would appear to have been in lower orders, if, in addition +to being master of the grammar-school, he is the notary Robert +Henryson who subscribes certain deeds in 1478. As Dunbar +(<i>q.v.</i>) refers to him as deceased in his <i>Lament for the Makaris</i>, +his death may be dated about 1500.</p> + +<p>Efforts have been made to draw up a chronology of his poems; +but every scheme of this kind, is, in a stronger sense than in the +case of Dunbar, mere guess-work. There are no biographical +or bibliographical facts to guide us, and the “internal evidence” +is inconclusive.</p> + +<p>Henryson’s longest, and in many respects his most original +and effective work, is his <i>Morall Fabillis of Esope</i>, a collection +of thirteen fables, chiefly based on the versions of Anonymus, +Lydgate and Caxton. The outstanding merit of the work +is its freshness of treatment. The old themes are retold with +such vivacity, such fresh lights on human character, and with +so much local “atmosphere,” that they deserve the credit of +original productions. They are certainly unrivalled in English +fabulistic literature. The earliest available texts are the Charteris +text printed by Lekpreuik in Edinburgh in 1570 and the +Harleian MS. No. 3865 in the British Museum.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Testament of Cresseid</i> Henryson supplements Chaucer’s +tale of Troilus with the story of the tragedy of Cresseid. Here +again his literary craftsmanship saves him from the disaster +which must have overcome another poet in undertaking to continue +the part of the story which Chaucer had intentionally +left untold. The description of Cresseid’s leprosy, of her meeting +with Troilus, of his sorrow and charity, and of her death, give +the poem a high place in writings of this <i>genre</i>.</p> + +<p>The poem entitled <i>Orpheus and Eurydice</i>, which is drawn from +Boethius, contains some good passages, especially the lyrical +lament of Orpheus, with the refrains “Quhar art thow gane, +my luf Erudices?” and “My lady quene and luf, Erudices.” +It is followed by a long <i>moralitas</i>, in the manner of the <i>Fables</i>.</p> + +<p>Thirteen shorter poems have been ascribed to Henryson. +Of these the pastoral dialogue “Robene and Makyne,” perhaps +the best known of his work, is the most successful. Its model +may perhaps be found in the <i>pastourelles</i>, but it stands safely +on its own merits. Unlike most of the minor poems it is independent +of Chaucerian tradition. The other pieces deal with the +conventional 15th-century topics: Age, Death, Hasty Credence, +Want of Wise Men and the like. The verses entitled “Sum +Practysis of Medecyne,” in which some have failed to see Henryson’s +hand, is an example of that boisterous alliterative burlesque +which is represented by a single specimen in the work of the +greatest makers, Dunbar, Douglas and Lyndsay. For this +reason, if not for others, the difference of its manner is no argument +against its authenticity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The MS. authorities for the text are the Asloan, Bannatyne, +Maitland Folio, Makculloch, Gray and Riddell. Chepman and +Myllar’s Prints (1508) have preserved two of the minor poems and a +fragment of <i>Orpheus and Eurydice</i>. The first complete edition was +prepared by David Laing (1 vol., Edinburgh, 1865). A more exhaustive +edition in three volumes, containing all the texts, was +undertaken by the Scottish Text Society (ed. G. Gregory Smith), +the first volume of the text (vol. ii. of the work) appearing in 1907. +For a critical account of Henryson, see Irving’s <i>History of Scottish +Poetry</i>, Henderson’s <i>Vernacular Scottish Literature</i>, Gregory Smith’s +<i>Transition Period</i>, J. H. Millar’s <i>Literary History of Scotland</i>, and +the second volume of the <i>Cambridge History of English Literature</i> +(1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. G. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENSCHEL, GEORGE<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Isidor Georg</span>] (1850-  ), English +musician (naturalized 1890), of German family, was born at +Breslau, and educated as a pianist, making his first public +appearance in Berlin in 1862. He subsequently, however, took +up singing, having developed a fine baritone voice; and in 1868 +he sang the part of Hans Sachs in <i>Meistersinger</i> at Munich. +In 1877 he began a successful career in England, singing at the +principal concerts; and in 1881 he married the American +soprano, Lilian Bailey (d. 1901), who was associated with him +in a number of vocal recitals. He was also prominent as a conductor, +starting the London symphony concerts in 1886, and both +in England and America (where he was the first conductor of +the Boston symphony concerts, 1881) he took a leading part in +advancing his art. He composed a number of instrumental +works, a fine <i>Stabat Mater</i> (Birmingham festival, 1894), &c., +and an opera, <i>Nubia</i> (Dresden, 1899).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENSELT, ADOLF VON<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1814-1889), German composer, +was born at Schwabach, in Bavaria, on the 12th of May 1814. +At three years old he began to learn the violin, and at five the +pianoforte under Frau v. Fladt. On obtaining financial help +from King Louis I. he went to study under Hummel in Weimar, +and thence in 1832 to Vienna, where, besides studying composition +under Simon Sechter, he made a great success as a concert +pianist. In order to recruit his health he made a prolonged tour +in 1836 through the chief German towns. In 1837 he settled +at Breslau, where he had married, but in the following year he +migrated to St Petersburg, where previous visits had made him +<i>persona grata</i> at Court. He then became court pianist and +inspector of musical studies in the Imperial Institute of Female +Education, and was ennobled. In 1852 and again in 1867 he +visited England, though in the latter year he made no public +appearance. St Petersburg was his home practically until his +death, which took place at Warmbrunn on the 10th of October +1889. The characteristic of Henselt’s playing was a combination +of Liszt’s sonority with Hummel’s smoothness. It was full of +poetry, remarkable for the great use he made of extended +chords, and for his perfect technique. He excelled in his own +works and in those of Weber and Chopin. His concerto in F +minor is frequently played on the continent; and of his many +valuable studies, <i>Si oiseau j’étais</i> is very familiar. His A minor +trio deserves to be better known. At one time Henselt was +second to Rubinstein in the direction of the St Petersburg +Conservatorium.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>303</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENSLOW, JOHN STEVENS<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1796-1861), English botanist +and geologist, was born at Rochester on the 6th of February +1796. From his father, who was a solicitor in that city, he +imbibed a love of natural history which largely influenced his +career. He was educated at St John’s College, Cambridge, +where he graduated as sixteenth wrangler in 1818, the year in +which Sedgwick became Woodwardian professor of geology. +He accompanied Sedgwick in 1819 during a tour in the Isle +of Wight, and there he learned his first lessons in geology. He +also studied chemistry under Professor James Cumming and +mineralogy under E. D. Clarke. In the autumn of 1819 he made +some valuable observations on the geology of the Isle of Man +(<i>Trans. Geol. Soc.</i>, 1821), and in 1821 he investigated the geology +of parts of Anglesey, the results being printed in the first volume +of the <i>Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society</i> (1821), +the foundation of which society was originated by Sedgwick +and Henslow. Meanwhile, Henslow had studied mineralogy +with considerable zeal, so that on the death of Clarke he was in +1822 appointed professor of mineralogy in the university at +Cambridge. Two years later he took holy orders. Botany, however, +had claimed much of his attention, and to this science he +became more and more attached, so that he gladly resigned the +chair of mineralogy in 1825, to succeed to that of botany. As +a teacher both in the class-room and in the field he was eminently +successful. To him Darwin largely owed his attachment to natural +history, and also his introduction to Captain Fitzroy of H.M.S. +“Beagle.” In 1832 Henslow was appointed vicar of Cholsey-cum-Moulsford +in Berkshire, and in 1837 rector of Hitcham in +Suffolk, and at this latter parish he lived and laboured, endeared +to all who knew him, until the close of his life. His energies were +devoted to the improvement of his parishioners, but his influence +was felt far and wide. In 1843 he discovered nodules of coprolitic +origin in the Red Crag at Felixstowe in Suffolk, and two years +later he called attention to those also in the Cambridge Greensand +and remarked that they might be of use in agriculture. Although +Henslow derived no benefit, these discoveries led to the establishment +of the phosphate industry in Suffolk and Cambridgeshire; +and the works proved lucrative until the introduction of foreign +phosphates. The museum at Ipswich, which was established +in 1847, owed much to Henslow, who was elected president in +1850, and then superintended the arrangement of the collections. +He died at Hitcham on the 16th of May 1861. His publications +included <i>A Catalogue of British Plants</i> (1829; ed. 2, 1835); +<i>Principles of Descriptive and Physiological Botany</i> (1835); +<i>Flora of Suffolk</i> (with E. Skepper) (1860).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Memoir</i>, by the Rev. Leonard Jenyns (1862).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENSLOWE, PHILIP<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (d. 1616), English theatrical manager, +was the son of Edmund Henslowe of Lindfield, Sussex, master of +the game in Ashdown Forest and Broil Park. He was originally +a servant in the employment of the bailiff to Viscount Montague, +whose property included Montague House in Southwark, and his +duties led him to settle there before 1577. He subsequently +married the bailiff’s widow, and, with the fortune he got with her, +he developed into a clever business man and became a considerable +owner of Southwark property. He started his connexion +with the stage when, on the 24th of March 1584, he bought land +near what is now the southern end of Southwark Bridge, on +which stood the Little Rose playhouse, afterwards rebuilt as the +Rose. Successive companies played in it under Henslowe’s +financial management between 1592 and 1603. The theatre at +Newington Butts was also under him in 1594. A share of the +control in the Swan theatre, which like the Rose was on the +Bankside, fell to Henslowe before the close of the 16th century. +With the actor Edward Alleyn, who married his step-daughter +Joan Woodward, he built in Golden Lane, Cripplegate Without, +the Fortune Playhouse, opened in November 1600. In December +of 1594, they had secured the Paris Garden, a place for bear-baiting, +on the Bankside, and in 1604 they bought the office of +master of the royal game of bears, bulls and mastiffs from the +holder, and obtained a patent. Alleyn sold his share to Henslowe +in February 1610, and three years later Henslowe formed a new +partnership with Jacob Meade and built the Hope playhouse, +designed for stage performances as well as bull and bear-baiting, +and managed by Meade.</p> + +<p>In Henslowe’s theatres were first produced many plays by the +famous Elizabethan dramatists. What is known as “Henslowe’s +Diary” contains some accounts referring to Ashdown Forest +between 1576 and 1581, entered by John Henslowe, while the +later entries by Philip Henslowe from 1592 to 1609 are those +which throw light on the theatrical matters of the time, and which +have been subjected to much controversial criticism as a result of +injuries done to the manuscript. “Henslowe’s Diary” passed +into the hands of Edward Alleyn, and thence into the Library of +Dulwich College, where the manuscript remained intact for more +than a hundred and fifty years. In 1780 Malone tried to borrow +it, but it had been mislaid; in 1790 it was discovered and given +into his charge. He was then at work on his <i>Variorum Shakespeare</i>. +Malone had a transcript made of certain portions, and +collated it with the original; and this transcript, with various +notes and corrections by Malone, is now in the Dulwich +Library. An abstract of this transcript he also published +with his <i>Variorum Shakespeare</i>. The MS. of the diary was +eventually returned to the library in 1812 by Malone’s executor. +In 1840 it was lent to J. P. Collier, who in 1845 printed for the +Shakespeare Society what purported to be a full edition, but it +was afterwards shown by G. F. Warner (<i>Catalogue</i> of the Dulwich +Library, 1881) that a number of forged interpolations have been +made, the responsibility for which rests on Collier.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The complicated history of the forgeries and their detection has +been exhaustively treated in Walter W. Greg’s edition of <i>Henslowe’s +Diary</i> (London, 1904; enlarged 1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENTY, GEORGE ALFRED<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1832-1902), English war-correspondent +and author, was born at Trumpington, near +Cambridge, in December 1832, and educated at Westminster +School and Caius College, Cambridge. He served in the Crimea +in the Purveyor’s department, and after the peace filled various +posts in the department in England and Ireland, but he found the +routine little to his taste, and drifted into journalism for the +London <i>Standard</i>. He volunteered as Special Correspondent for +the Austro-Italian War of 1866, accompanied Garibaldi in his +Tirolese Campaign, followed Lord Napier through the mountain +gorges to Magdala, and Lord Wolseley across bush and swamp to +Kumassi. Next he reported the Franco-German War, starved in +Paris through the siege of the Commune, and then turned south to +rough it in the Pyrenees during the Carlist insurrection. He was +in Asiatic Russia at the time of the Khiva expedition, and later +saw the desperate hand-to-hand fighting of the Turks in the +Servian War. He found his real vocation in middle life. Invited +to edit a magazine for boys called the <i>Union Jack</i>, he became the +mainstay of the new periodical, to which he contributed several +serials in succession. The stories pleased their public, and had +ever increasing circulation in book form, until Henty became +a name to conjure with in juvenile circles. Altogether he wrote +about eighty of these books. Henty was an enthusiastic yachtsman, +having spent at least six months afloat each year, and he +died on board his yacht in Weymouth Harbour on the 16th +of November 1902.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENWOOD, WILLIAM JORY<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1805-1875), English mining +geologist, was born at Perron Wharf, Cornwall, on the 16th of +January 1805. In 1822 he commenced work as a clerk in a mining +office, and soon took an active interest in the working of mines +and in the metalliferous deposits. In 1832 he was appointed to the +office of assay-master and supervisor of tin in the duchy of +Cornwall, a post from which he retired in 1838. Meanwhile he +had commenced in 1826 to communicate papers on mining subjects +to the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and the +Geological Society of London, and in 1840 he was elected F.R.S. +In 1843 he went to take charge of the Gongo-Soco mines in Brazil; +afterwards he proceeded to India to report on certain metalliferous +deposits for the Indian government; and in 1858, impaired in +health, he retired and settled at Penzance. His most important +memoirs on the metalliferous deposits of Cornwall and Devon +were published in 1843 by the Royal Geological Society of +Cornwall. At a much later date he communicated with enlarged +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page304" id="page304"></a>304</span> +experience a second series of <i>Observations on Metalliferous +Deposits, and on Subterranean Temperature</i> (reprinted from +<i>Trans. R. Geol. Soc. Cornwall</i>, 2 vols., 1871). In 1874 he contributed +a paper on the <i>Detrital Tin-ore of Cornwall</i> (<i>Journ. R. +Inst. Cornwall</i>). The Murchison medal of the Geological Society +was awarded to him in 1875, and the mineral Henwoodite was +named after him. He died at Penzance on the 5th of August +1875.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HENZADA,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> a district of Lower Burma, formerly in the Pegu, +but now in the Irrawaddy division. Area, 2870 sq. m. Pop. +(1901) 484,558. It stretches from north to south in one vast +plain, forming the valley of the Irrawaddy, and is divided by +that river into two nearly equal portions. This country is +protected from inundation by immense embankments, so that +almost the whole area is suitable for rice cultivation. The chief +mountains are the Arakan and Pegu Yoma ranges. The greatest +elevation of the Arakan Yomas in Henzada, attained in the +latitude of Myan-aung, is 4003 ft. above sea-level. Numerous +torrents pour down from the two boundary ranges, and unite +in the plains to form large streams, which fall into the chief +streams of the district, which are the Irrawaddy, Hlaing and +Bassein, all of them branches of the Irrawaddy. The forests +comprise almost every variety of timber found in Burma. +The bulk of the cultivation is rice, but a number of acres are +under tobacco. The chief town of the district is <span class="sc">Henzada</span>, +which had in 1901 a population of 24,756. It is a municipal +town, with ten elective and three <i>ex-officio</i> members. Other +municipal towns in the district are Zalun, with a population of +6642; Myan-aung, with a population of 6351; and Kyangin, with +a population of 7183, according to the 1901 census. The town +of Lemyethna had a population of 5831. The steamers of the +Irrawaddy Flotilla Company call at Henzada and Myan-aung.</p> + +<p>The district was once a portion of the Talaing kingdom of +Pegu, afterwards annexed to the Burmese empire in 1753, and has +no history of its own. During the second Burmese war, after +Prome had been seized, the Burmese on the right bank of the +Irrawaddy crossed the river and offered resistance to the British, +but were completely routed. Meanwhile, in Tharawaddy, or +the country east of the Irrawaddy, and in the south of Henzada, +much disorder was caused by a revolt, the leaders of which were, +however, defeated by the British and their gangs dispersed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEPBURN, SIR JOHN<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1598-1636), Scottish soldier in +the Thirty Years’ War, was a son of George Hepburn of Athelstaneford +near Haddington. In 1620 and in the following years +he served in Bohemia, on the lower Rhine and in the Netherlands, +and in 1623 he entered the service of Gustavus Adolphus, who, +two years later, appointed him colonel of a Scottish regiment +of his army. He took part with his regiment in Gustavus’s +Polish wars, and in 1631, a few months before the battle of +Breitenfeld he was placed in command of the “Scots” or +“Green” brigade of the Swedish army. At Breitenfeld it was +Hepburn’s brigade which delivered the decisive stroke, and +after this he remained with the king, who placed the fullest +reliance on his skill and courage, until the battle of the Alte +Veste near Nuremberg. He then entered the French service, +and raised two thousand men in Scotland for the French army, +to which force was added in France the historic Scottish archer +bodyguard of the French kings. The existing Royal Scots +(Lothian) regiment (late 1st Foot) represents in the British army +of to-day Hepburn’s French regiment, and indirectly, through +the amalgamation referred to, the Scottish contingent of the +Hundred Years’ War. Hepburn’s claim to the right of the line +of battle was bitterly resented by the senior French regiments. +Shortly after this, in 1633, Hepburn was under a <i>maréchal de +camp</i>, and he took part in the campaigns in Alsace and Lorraine +(1634-36). In 1635 Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, on entering the +French service, brought with him Hepburn’s former Swedish +regiment, which was at once amalgamated with the French +“régiment d’Hébron,” the latter thus attaining the unusual +strength of 8300 men. Sir John Hepburn was killed shortly +afterwards during the siege of Saverne (Zabern) on the 8th of +July 1636. He was buried in Toul cathedral. With his friend +Sir Robert Monro, Hepburn was the foremost of the Scottish +soldiers of fortune who bore so conspicuous a part in the Thirty +Years’ War. He was a sincere Roman Catholic. It is stated +that he left Gustavus owing to a jest about his religion, and at +any rate he found in the French service, in which he ended his +days, the opportunity of reconciling his beliefs with the desire +of military glory which had led him into the Swedish army, and +with the patriotic feeling which had first brought him out to the +wars to fight for the Stuart princess, Queen Elizabeth of Bohemia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See James Grant, <i>Memoirs of Sir John Hepburn</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEPHAESTION,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> a Macedonian general, celebrated as the +friend of Alexander the Great, who, comparing himself with +Achilles, called Hephaestion his Patroclus. In the later campaigns +in Bactria and India, he was entrusted with the task of +founding cities and colonies, and built the fleet intended to sail +down the Indus. He was rewarded with a golden crown and the +hand of Drypetis, the sister of Alexander’s wife Stateira (324). +In the same year he died suddenly at Ecbatana. A general +mourning was ordered throughout Asia; at Babylon a funeral +pile was erected at enormous cost, and temples were built in +his honour (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alexander the Great</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEPHAESTION,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> a grammarian of Alexandria, who flourished +in the age of the Antonines. He was the author of a manual +(abridged from a larger work in 48 books) of Greek metres +(<span class="grk" title="Hegcheiridion peri metrôn">Ἐγχειρίδιον περὶ μέτρων</span>), which is most valuable as the +only complete treatise on the subject that has been preserved. +The concluding chapter (<span class="grk" title="Peri poiêmatos">Περὶ ποιήματος</span>) discusses the various +kinds of poetical composition. It is written in a clear and simple +style, and was much used as a school-book.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editions by T. Gaisford (1855, with the valuable scholia); R. +Westphal (1886, in <i>Scriptores metrici Graeci</i>) and M. Consbruch +(1906); translation by T. F. Barham (1843); see also W. Christ, +<i>Gesch. der griech. Litt.</i> (1898); M. Consbruch, <i>De veterum</i> <span class="grk" title="Peri +poiêmatos">Περὶ ποιήματος</span> <i>doctrina</i> (1890); J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. Class. Schol.</i> i. (1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEPHAESTUS,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the god of fire, analogous +to, and by the ancients often confused with, the Roman god +Vulcan (<i>q.v.</i>); the derivation of the name is uncertain, but it +may well be of Greek origin. The elemental character of +Hephaestus is far more apparent than is the case with the +majority of the Olympian gods; the word Hephaestus was used +as a synonym for fire not only in poetry (Homer, <i>Il.</i> ii. 426 and +later), but also in common speech (Diod. v. 74). It is doubtful +whether the origin of the god can be traced to any specific form +of fire. As all earthly fire was thought to have come from heaven, +Hephaestus has been identified with the lightning. This is +supported by the myth of his fall from heaven, and by the fact +that, according to the Homeric tradition, his father was Zeus, +the heaven-god. On the other hand, the lightning is not +associated with him in literature or cult, and his connexion with +volcanic fires is so close as to suggest that he was originally a +volcano-god. The connexion, however, though it may be early, +is probably not primitive, and it seems reasonable to conclude +that Hephaestus was a general fire-god, though some of his +characteristics were due to particular manifestations of the +element.</p> + +<p>In Homer the fire-god was the son of Zeus and Hera, and +found a place in the Olympian system as the divine smith. The +<i>Iliad</i> contains two versions of his fall from heaven. In one +account (i. 590) he was cast out by Zeus and fell on Lemnos; +in the other, Hera threw him down immediately after his birth +in disgust at his lameness, and he was received by the sea-goddesses +Eurynome and Thetis. The Lemnian version is due to +the prominence of his cult at Lemnos in very early times; and +his fall into the sea may have been suggested by volcanic +activity in Mediterranean islands, as at Lipara and Thera. +The subsequent return of Hephaestus to Olympus is a favourite +theme in early art. His wife was Charis, one of the Graces +(in the <i>Iliad</i>) or Aphrodite (in the <i>Odyssey</i>). The connexion of +the rough Hephaestus with these goddesses is curious; it may +be due to the beautiful works of the smith-god (<span class="grk" title="charienta erga">χαριέντα ἔργα</span>), +but it is possibly derived from the supposed fertilizing and +productive power of fire, in which case Hephaestus is a natural +mate of Charis, a goddess of spring, and Aphrodite the goddess +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305"></a>305</span> +of love. In Homer, the skill of Hephaestus in metallurgy is +often mentioned; his forge was on Olympus, where he was +served by images of golden handmaids which he had animated. +Similar myths are found in relation to the Finnish smith-god +Ilmarinen, who made a golden woman, and the Teutonic Wieland; +a belief in the magical power of metal-workers is a common +survival from an age in which their art was new and mysterious. +In epic poetry Hephaestus is rather a comic figure, and his +limping gait provokes “Homeric laughter” among the gods. +In Vedic poetry Agni, the fire-god, is footless; and the ancients +themselves attributed this lameness to the crooked appearance +of flame (Servius on <i>Aen.</i> viii. 814), and possibly no better +explanation can be found, though it has been suggested that in +an early stage of society the trade of a smith would be suitable +for the lame; Hephaestus and the lame Wieland would thus +conform to the type of their human counterparts.</p> + +<p>Except in Lemnos and Attica, there are few indications of +any cult of Hephaestus. His association with Lemnos can be +traced from Homer to the Roman age. A town in the island was +called Hephaestia, and the functions of the god must have been +wide, as we are told that his Lemnian priests could cure snake-bites. +Once a year every fire was extinguished on the island for +nine days, during which period sacrifice was offered to the gods +of the underworld and the dead. After the nine days were passed, +new fire was brought from the sacred hearth at Delos. The +significance of this and similar customs is examined by J. G. +Frazer, <i>Golden Bough</i>, iii. ch. 4. The close connexion of +Hephaestus with Lemnos and especially with its mountain +Mosychlus has been explained by the supposed existence of a +volcano; but no crater or other sign of volcanic agency is now +apparent, and the “Lemnian fire”—a phenomenon attributed +to Hephaestus—may have been due to natural gas (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lemnos</a></span>). +In Sicily, however, the volcanic nature of the god is prominent +in his cult at Etna, as well as in the neighbouring Liparaean +isles. The Olympian forge had been transferred to Etna or +some other volcano, and Hephaestus had become a subterranean +rather than a celestial power.</p> + +<p>The divine smith naturally became a “culture-god”; in +Crete the invention of forging in iron was attributed to him, +and he was honoured by all metal-workers. But we have little +record of his cult in this aspect, except at Athens, where his +worship was of real importance, belonging to the oldest stratum +of Attic religion. A tribe was called after his name, and Erichthonius, +the mythical father of the Attic people, was the son of +Hephaestus. Terra-cotta statuettes of the god seem to have been +placed before the hearths of Athenian houses. This temple has +been identified, not improbably, with the so-called “Theseum”; +it contained a statue of Athena, and the two deities are often +associated, in literature and cult, as the joint givers of civilization +to the Athenians. The class of artisans was under their special +protection; and the joint festival of the two divinities—the +Chalceia—commemorated the invention of bronze-working by +Hephaestus. In the Hephaesteia (the particular festival of the +god) there was a torch race, a ceremonial not indeed confined +to fire-gods like Hephaestus and Prometheus, but probably +in its origin connected with them, whether its object was to +purify and quicken the land, or (according to another theory) +to transmit a new fire with all possible speed to places where the +fire was polluted. If the latter view is correct, the torch race +would be closely akin to the Lemnian fire-ritual which has been +mentioned. The relation between Hephaestus and Prometheus +is in some respects close, though the distinction between these +gods is clearly marked. The fire, as an element, belongs to the +Olympian Hephaestus; the Titan Prometheus, a more human +character, steals it for the use of man. Prometheus resembles +the Polynesian Maui, who went down to fetch fire from the +volcano of Mahuika, the fire-god. Hephaestus is a culture-god +mainly in his secondary aspect as the craftsman, whereas +Prometheus originates all civilization with the gift of fire. But +the importance of Prometheus is mainly mythological; the +Titan belonged to a fallen dynasty, and in actual cult was largely +superseded by Hephaestus.</p> + +<p>In archaic art Hephaestus is generally represented as bearded, +though occasionally a younger beardless type is found, as on a +vase (in the British Museum), on which he appears as a young +man assisting Athena in the creation of Pandora. At a later +time the bearded type prevails. The god is usually clothed in a +short sleeveless tunic, and wears a round close-fitting cap. His +face is that of a middle-aged man, with unkempt hair. He is +in fact represented as an idealized Greek craftsman, with the +hammer, and sometimes the pincers. Some mythologists have +compared the hammer of Hephaestus with that of Thor, and +have explained it as the emblem of a thunder-god; but it is +Zeus, not Hephaestus, who causes the thunder, and the emblems +of the latter god are merely the signs of his occupation as a +smith. In art no attempt was made, as a rule, to indicate the +lameness of Hephaestus; but one sculptor (Alcamenes) is said +to have suggested the deformity without spoiling the statue.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—L. Preller (ed. C. Robert), <i>Griech. Mythologie</i>, +i. 174 f. (Berlin, 1894); W. H. Roscher, <i>Lex. der griech. u. röm. +Mythologie</i>, s.v. “Hephaistos” (Leipzig, 1884-1886); Harrison, +<i>Myth. and Mon. of Ancient Athens</i>, p. 119 f. (London, 1890); O. +Gruppe, <i>Griech. Mythologie u. Religionsgesch.</i> p. 1304 f. (Munich, +1906); O. Schrader and F. B. Jevons, <i>Prehistoric Antiquities of the +Aryan People</i>, p. 161, &c. (London, 1890); L. R. Farnell, <i>Cults of the +Greek States</i>, v. (1909).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. E. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEPPENHEIM,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of +Hesse-Darmstadt, on the Bergstrasse, between Darmstadt +and Heidelberg, 21 m. N. of the latter by rail. Pop. (1905), 6364. +It possesses a parish church, occupying the site of one reputed to +have been built by Charlemagne about 805, an interesting town +hall and several schools. On an isolated hill close by stand the +extensive ruins of the castle of Starkenburg, built by the abbot, +Ulrich von Lorsch, about 1064 and destroyed during the Seven +Years’ War, and another hill, the Landberg, was a place of +assembly in the middle ages. Heppenheim, at first the property +of the abbey of Lorsch, became a town in 1318. After belonging +to the Rhenish Palatinate, it came into the possession of Hesse-Darmstadt +in 1803. Hops, wine and tobacco are grown, and +there are large stone quarries, and several small industries +in the town.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEPPLEWHITE, GEORGE<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (d. 1786), one of the most famous +English cabinet-makers of the 18th century. There is practically +no biographical material relating to Hepplewhite. The only +facts that are known with certainty are that he was apprenticed +to Gillow at Lancaster, that he carried on business in the parish +of Saint Giles, Cripplegate, and that administration of his estate +was granted to his widow Alice on the 27th of June 1786. The +administrator’s accounts, which were filed in the Prerogative +Court of Canterbury a year later, indicate that his property was +of considerable value. After his death the business was continued +by his widow under the style of A. Hepplewhite & Co. Our only +approximate means of identifying his work are <i>The Cabinet-Maker +and Upholsterer’s Guide</i>, which was first published in +1788, two years after his death, and ten designs in <i>The Cabinet-maker’s +London Book of Prices</i> (1788), issued by the London +Society of Cabinet-Makers. It is, however, exceedingly difficult +to earmark any given piece of furniture as being the actual work +or design of Hepplewhite, since it is generally recognized that to +a very large extent the name represents rather a fashion than +a man. Lightness, delicacy and grace are the distinguishing +characteristics of Hepplewhite work. The massiveness of +Chippendale had given place to conceptions that, especially in +regard to chairs—which had become smaller as hoops went out +of fashion—depended for their effect more upon inlay than upon +carving. In one respect at least the Hepplewhite style was +akin to that of Chippendale—in both cases the utmost ingenuity +was lavished upon the chair, and if Hepplewhite was not the +originator he appears to have been the most constant and successful +user of the shield back. This elegant form was employed by +the school in a great variety of designs, and nearly always in +a way artistically satisfying. Where Chippendale, his contemporaries +and his immediate successors had used the cabriole +and the square leg with a good deal of carving, the Hepplewhite +manner preferred a slighter leg, plain, fluted or reeded, tapering to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306"></a>306</span> +a spade foot which often became the “spider leg” that characterized +much of the late 18th-century furniture; this form of leg +was indeed not confined to chairs but was used also for tables +and sideboards. Of the dainty drawing-room grace of the style +there can be no question. The great majority of modern chairs +are of Hepplewhite inspiration, while he, or those who worked +with him, appears to have a clear claim to have originated, or +at all events popularized, the winged easy-chair, in which the +sides are continued to the same height as the back. This is +probably the most comfortable type of chair that has ever been +made. The backs of Hepplewhite chairs were often adorned +with galleries and festoons of wheat-ears or pointed fern leaves, +and not infrequently with the prince of Wales’s feathers in some +more or less decorative form. The frequency with which this +badge was used has led to the suggestion either that A. Hepplewhite +& Co. were employed by George IV. when prince of Wales, +or that the feathers were used as a political emblem. The former +suggestion is obviously the more feasible, but there is little doubt +that the feathers were used by other makers working in the same +style. It has been objected as an artistic flaw in Hepplewhite’s +chairs that they have the appearance of fragility. They are, +however, constructionally sound as a rule. The painted and +japanned work has been criticized on safer grounds. This +delicate type of furniture, often made of satinwood, and painted +with wreaths and festoons, with amorini and musical instruments +or floral motives, is the most elegant and pleasing that can be +imagined. It has, however, no elements of decorative permanence. +With comparatively little use the paintings wear off +and have to be renewed. A piece of untouched painted satinwood +is almost unknown, and one of the essential charms of +old furniture as of all other antiques is that it should retain the +patina of time. A large proportion of Hepplewhite furniture +is inlaid with the exotic woods which had come into high favour +by the third quarter of the 18th century. While the decorative +use upon furniture of so evanescent a medium as paint is always +open to criticism, any form of marquetry is obviously legitimate, +and, if inlaid furniture be less ravishing to the eye, its beauty +is but enhanced by time. It was not in chairs alone that +the Hepplewhite manner excelled. It acquired, for instance, a +speciality of seats for the tall, narrow Georgian sash windows, +which in the Hepplewhite period had almost entirely superseded +the more picturesque forms of an earlier time. These window-seats +had ends rolling over outwards, and no backs, and despite +their skimpiness their elegant simplicity is decidedly pleasing. +Elegance, in fact, was the note of a style which on the whole was +more distinctly English than that which preceded or immediately +followed it. The smaller Hepplewhite pieces are much prized +by collectors. Among these may be included urn-shaped knife-boxes +in mahogany and satinwood, charming in form and +decorative in the extreme; inlaid tea-caddies, varying greatly +in shape and material, but always appropriate and <i>coquet</i>; +delicate little fire-screens with shaped poles; painted work-tables, +and inlaid stands. Hepplewhite’s bedsteads with carved +and fluted pillars were very handsome and attractive. The +evolution of the dining-room sideboard made rapid progress +towards the end of the 18th century, but neither Hepplewhite +nor those who worked in his style did much to advance it. Indeed +they somewhat retarded its development by causing it to revert +to little more than that side-table which had been its original +form. It was, however, a very delightful table with its undulating +front, its many elegant spade-footed legs and its delicate +carving. If we were dealing with a less elusive personality it +would be just to say that Hepplewhite’s work varies from the +extreme of elegance and the most delicious simplicity to an +unimaginative commonplace, and sometimes to actual ugliness. +As it is, this summary may well be applied to the style as a whole—a +style which was assuredly not the creation of any one man, +but owed much alike of excellence and of defect to a school +of cabinet-makers who were under the influence of conflicting +tastes and changing ideals. At its best the taste was so fine and +so full of distinction, so simple, modest and sufficient, that it +amounted to genius. On its lower planes it was clearly influenced +by commercialism and the desire to make what tasteless people +preferred. Yet this is no more than to say that the Hepplewhite +style succumbed sometimes, perhaps very often, to the eternal +enemy of all art—the uninspired banality of the average +man.</p> +<div class="author">(J. P.-B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEPTARCHY<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hepta">ἑπτά</span>, seven, and <span class="grk" title="archê">ἀρχή</span>, rule), a word +which is frequently used to designate the period of English +history between the coming of the Anglo-Saxons in 449 and the +union of the kingdoms under Ecgbert in 828. It was first used +during the 16th century because of the belief held by Camden +and other older historians, that during this period there were +exactly seven kingdoms in England, these being Northumbria, +Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex and Wessex. This +belief is erroneous, as the number of kingdoms varied considerably +from time to time; nevertheless the word still serves a +useful purpose to denote the period.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERA,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the sister and wife of Zeus and +queen of the Olympian gods; she was identified by the Romans +with Juno. The derivation of the name is obscure, but there +is no reason to doubt that she was a genuine Greek deity. There +are no signs of Oriental influence in her cults, except at Corinth, +where she seems to have been identified with Astarte. It is +probable that she was originally a personification of some department +of nature; but the traces of her primitive significance are +vague, and have been interpreted to suit various theories. Some +of the ancients connected her with the earth; Plato, followed +by the Stoics, derived her name from <span class="grk" title="aêr">ἀήρ</span>, the air. Both theories +have been revived in modern times, the former notably by F. G. +Welcker, the latter by L. Preller. A third view, that Hera is +the moon, is held by W. H. Roscher and others. Of these +explanations, that advanced by Preller has little to commend it, +even if, with O. Gruppe, we understand the air-goddess as a +storm deity; some of the arguments in support of the two other +theories will be examined in this article.</p> + +<p>Whatever may have been the origin of Hera, to the historic +Greeks (except a few poets or philosophers) she was a purely +anthropomorphic goddess, and had no close relation to any +province of nature. In literature, from the times of Homer +and Hesiod, she played an important part, appearing most +frequently as the jealous and resentful wife of Zeus. In this +character she pursues with vindictive hatred the heroines, such +as Alcmene, Leto and Semele, who were beloved by Zeus. She +visits his sins upon the children born of his intrigues, and is +thus the constant enemy of Heracles and Dionysus. This character +of the offended wife was borrowed by later poets from the +Greek epic; but it belongs to literature rather than to cult, in +which the dignity and power of the goddess is naturally more +emphasized.</p> + +<p>The worship of Hera is found, in different degrees of prominence, +throughout the Greek world. It was especially important +in the ancient Achaean centres, Argos, Mycenae and Sparta, +which she claims in the <i>Iliad</i> (iv. 51) as her three dearest cities. +Whether Hera was also worshipped by the early Dorians is uncertain; +after the Dorian invasion she remained the chief deity of +Argos, but her cult at Sparta was not so conspicuous. She received +honour, however, in other parts of the Peloponnese, particularly +in Olympia, where her temple was the oldest, and in Arcadia. +In several Boeotian cities she seems to have been one of the +principal objects of worship, while the neighbouring island of +Euboea probably derived its name from a title of Hera, who +was “rich in cows” (<span class="grk" title="Euboia">Εὔβοια</span>). Among the islands of the Aegean, +Samos was celebrated for the cult of Hera; according to the +local tradition, she was born in the island. As Hera Lacinia +(from her Lacinian temple near Croton) she was extensively +worshipped in Magna Graecia.</p> + +<p>The connexion of Zeus and Hera was probably not primitive, +since Dione seems to have preceded Hera as the wife of Zeus +at Dodona. The origin of the connexion may possibly be due +to the fusion of two “Pelasgic” tribes, worshipping Zeus and +Hera respectively; but speculation on the earliest cult of the +goddess, before she became the wife of Zeus, must be largely +conjectural. The close relation of the two deities appears in a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>307</span> +frequent community of altars and sacrifices, and also in the +<span class="grk" title="hieros gamos">ἱερὸς γάμος</span>, a dramatic representation of their sacred marriage. +The festival, which was certainly ancient, was held not only +in Argos, Samos, Euboea and other centres of Hera-worship, +but also in Athens, where the goddess was obscured by the +predominance of Athena. The details of the <span class="grk" title="hieros gamos">ἱερὸς γάμος</span> may +have varied locally, but the main idea of the ritual was the same. +In the Daedala, as the festival was called at Plataea, an effigy +was made from an oak-tree, dressed in bridal attire, and carried +in a cart with a woman who acted as bridesmaid. The image +was called Daedale, and the ritual was explained by a myth: +Hera had left Zeus in her anger; in order to win her back, +Zeus announced that he was about to marry, and dressed up a +puppet to imitate a bride; Hera met the procession, tore the +veil from the false bride, and, on discovering the ruse, became +reconciled to her husband. The image was put away after each +occasion; every sixty years a large number of such images, +which had served in previous celebrations, were carried in +procession to the top of Mount Cithaeron, and were burned on +an altar together with animals and the altar itself. As Frazer +notes (<i>Golden Bough</i>,² i. 227), this festival appears to belong +to the large class of mimetic charms designed to quicken the +growth of vegetation; the marriage of Zeus and Hera would +in this case represent the union of the king and queen of May. +But it by no means follows that Hera was therefore originally +a goddess of the earth or of vegetation. When the real nature +of the ritual had become lost or obscured, it was natural to +explain it by the help of an aetiological myth; in European +folklore, images, corresponding to those burnt at the Daedala, +were sometimes called Judas Iscariot or Luther (<i>Golden Bough</i>,² +iii. 315). At Samos the <span class="grk" title="hieros gamos">ἱερὸς γάμος</span> was celebrated annually; +the image of Hera was concealed on the sea-shore and solemnly +discovered. This rite seems to reflect an actual custom of +abduction; or it may rather refer to the practice of intercourse +between the betrothed before marriage. Such intercourse was +sanctioned by the Samians, who excused it by the example of +Zeus and Hera (schol. on <i>Il.</i> xiv. 296). There is nothing in the +Samian <span class="grk" title="hieros gamos">ἱερὸς γάμος</span> to suggest a marriage of heaven and earth, +or of two vegetation-spirits; as Dr Farnell points out, the +ritual appears to explain the custom of human nuptials. The +sacred marriage, therefore, though connected with vegetation +at the Daedala, was not necessarily a vegetation-charm in its +origin; consequently, it does not prove that Hera was an earth-goddess +or tree-spirit. It is at least remarkable that, except +at Argos, Hera had little to do with agriculture, and was not +closely associated with such deities as Cybele, Demeter, Persephone +and Dionysus, whose connexion with the earth, or with +its fruits, is beyond doubt.</p> + +<p>In her general cult Hera was worshipped in two main capacities: +(1) as the consort of Zeus and queen of heaven; (2) as +the goddess who presided over marriage, and, in a wider sense, +over the various phases of a woman’s life. Dionysius of Halicarnassus +(<i>Ars rhet.</i> ii. 2) calls Zeus and Hera the first wedded +pair, and a sacrifice to Zeus <span class="grk" title="teleios">τέλειος</span> and Hera <span class="grk" title="teleia">τελεία</span> was a +regular feature of the Greek wedding. Girls offered their hair +or veils to Hera before marriage. In Aristophanes (<i>Thesm.</i> 973) +she “keeps the keys of wedlock.” The marriage-goddess +naturally became the protector of women in childbed, and bore +the title of the birth-goddess (Eileithyia), at Argos and Athens. +In Homer (<i>Il.</i> xi. 270) and Hesiod (<i>Theog.</i> 922) she is the mother +of the Eileithyiae, or the single Eileithyia. Her cult-titles +<span class="grk" title="parthenos">παρθένος</span> (or <span class="grk" title="pais">παῖς</span>), <span class="grk" title="teleia">τελεία</span> and <span class="grk" title="chêra">χήρα</span> the “maiden,” “wife,” +and “widow” (or “divorced”) have been interpreted as +symbolical of the earth in spring, summer, and winter; but they +may well express the different conditions in the lives of her +human worshippers. The Argives believed that Hera recovered +her virginity every year by bathing in a certain spring (Paus. +viii. 22, 2), a belief which probably reflects the custom of ceremonial +purification after marriage (see Frazer, <i>Adonis</i>, p. 176). +Although Hera was not the bestower of feminine charm to the +same extent as Aphrodite, she was the patron of a contest +for beauty in a Lesbian festival (<span class="grk" title="kallisteia">καλλιστεῖα</span>). This intimate +relation with women has been held a proof that Hera was +originally a moon-goddess, as the moon is often thought to +influence childbirth and other aspects of feminine life. But +Hera’s patronage of women, though undoubtedly ancient, is +not necessarily primitive. Further, the Greeks themselves, +who were always ready to identify Artemis with the moon, +do not seem to have recognized any lunar connexion in +Hera.</p> + +<p>Among her particular worshippers, at Argos and Samos, +Hera was much more than the queen of heaven and the marriage-goddess. +As the patron of these cities (<span class="grk" title="poliouchos">πολιοῦχος</span>) she held a +place corresponding to that of Athena in Athens. The Argives +are called “the people of Hera” by Pindar; the Heraeum, +situated under a mountain significantly called Mt. Euboea, +was the most important temple in Argolis. Here the agricultural +character of her ritual is well marked; the first oxen used in +ploughing were, according to an Argive myth, dedicated to her +as <span class="grk" title="zeuxidia">ζευξιδία</span>; and the sprouting ears of corn were called “the +flowers of Hera.” She was worshipped as the goddess of flowers +(<span class="grk" title="antheia">ἀνθεία</span>); girls served in her temple under the name of “flower-bearers,” +and a flower festival (<span class="grk" title="Hêrosantheia, Hêroanthia">Ἠροσανθεία, Ἠροάνθια</span>) was +celebrated by Peloponnesian women in spring. These rites +recall our May day observance, and give colour to the earth-goddess +theory. On the other hand it must be remembered that +the patron deity of a Greek state had very wide functions; and +it is not surprising to find that Hera (whatever her origin may +have been) assumed an agricultural character among her own +people whose occupations were largely agricultural. So, although +the warlike character of Hera was not elsewhere prominent, +she assumed a militant aspect in her two chief cities; a festival +called the Shield (<span class="grk" title="aspis">ἀσπίς</span>, in Pindar <span class="grk" title="agôn chalkeos">ἀγὼν χάλκεος</span>) was part of the +Argive cult, and there was an armed procession in her honour +at Samos. The city-goddess, whether Hera or Athena, must be +chief alike in peace and war.</p> + +<p>The cow was the animal specially sacred to Hera both in ritual +and in mythology. The story of Io, metamorphosed into a cow, +is familiar; she was priestess of Hera, and was originally, no +doubt, a form of the goddess herself. The Homeric epithet +<span class="grk" title="boôpis">βοῶπις</span> may have meant “cow-faced” to the earliest worshippers +of Hera, though by Homer and the later Greeks it was understood +as “large-eyed,” like the cow. A car drawn by oxen seems to +have been widely used in the processions of Hera, and the cow +was her most frequent sacrifice. The origin of Hera’s association +with the cow is uncertain, but there is no need to see in it, with +Roscher, a symbol of the moon. The cuckoo was also sacred +to Hera, who, according to the Argive legend, was wooed by +Zeus in the form of the bird. In later times the peacock, which +was still unfamiliar to the Greeks in the 5th century, was her +favourite, especially at Samos.</p> + +<p>The earliest recorded images of Hera preceded the rise of +Greek sculpture; a log at Thespiae, a plank at Samos, a pillar +at Argos served to represent the goddess. In the archaic period +of sculpture the <span class="grk" title="xoanon">ξόανον</span> or wooden statue of the Samian Hera +by Smilis was famous. In the first half of the 5th century the +sacred marriage was represented on an extant metope from a +temple at Selinus. The most celebrated statue of Hera was the +chryselephantine work of Polyclitus, made for the Heraeum at +Argos soon after 423 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It is fully described by Pausanias, +who says that Hera was seated on a throne, wearing a crown +(<span class="grk" title="stephanos">στέφανος</span>), and carrying a sceptre in one hand and a pomegranate +in the other. Various ancient writers testify to the beauty and +dignity of the statue, which was considered equal to the Zeus +of Pheidias. Polyclitus seems to have fixed the type of Hera +as a youthful matron, but unfortunately the exact character +of her head cannot be determined. A majestic and rather +severe beauty marks the conception of Hera in later art, of +which the Farnese bust at Naples and the Ludovisi Hera are +the most conspicuous examples.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—F. G. Welcker, <i>Griech. Götterl.</i> i. 362 f. +(Göttingen, 1857-1863); L. Preller (ed. C. Robert), <i>Griech. Mythologie</i>, +i. 160 f. (Berlin, 1894); W. H. Roscher, <i>Lex. der griech. u. +röm. Mythologie</i>, s.v. (Leipzig, 1884); C. Daremberg and E. Saglio, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>308</span> +<i>Dict. des ant. grecques et rom.</i> s.v. “Juno” (Paris, 1877); L. R. +Farnell, <i>Cults of the Greek States</i>, i. 179 f. (Oxford, 1896); A. B. +Cook in <i>Class. Rev.</i> xx. 365 f. 416 f.; O. Gruppe, <i>Griech. Mythologie +u. Religionsgesch.</i> p. 1121 f. (Munich, 1903). In the article +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>, fig. 24, will be found a roughly executed head of Hera, +from the pediment of the treasury of the Megarians.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. E. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERACLEA,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> the name of a large number of ancient cities +founded by the Greeks.</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">Heraclea</span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Hêrakleia">Ἡράκλεια</span>), an ancient city of Lucania, +situated near the modern Policoro, 3 m. from the coast of the gulf +of Tarentum, between the rivers Aciris (Agri) and Siris (Sinni) +about 13 m. S.S.W. of Metapontum. It was a Greek colony +founded by the Tarentines and Thurians in 432 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the former +being predominant. It was chosen as the meeting-place of the +general assembly of the Italiot Greeks, which Alexander of +Epirus, after his alienation from Tarentum, tried to transfer to +Thurii. Here Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, defeated the consul +Laevinus in 280 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, after he had crossed the river Siris. In +278 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, or possibly in 282 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, probably in order to detach it +from Tarentum, the Romans made a special treaty with Heraclea, +on such favourable terms that in 89 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Roman citizenship +given to the inhabitants by the Lex Plautia Papiria was only +accepted after considerable hesitation. We hear that Heraclea +surrendered under compulsion to Hannibal in 212 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and that +in the Social war the public records were destroyed by fire. +Cicero in his defence of the poet Archias, an adopted citizen of +Heraclea, speaks of it as a flourishing town. As a consequence +of its having accepted Roman citizenship, it became a <i>municipium</i>; +part of a copy of the Lex Iulia Municipalis of 46 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (engraved +on the back of two bronze tablets, on the front of which is a Greek +inscription of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> defining the boundaries of +lands belonging to various temples), which was found between +Heraclea and Metapontum, is of the highest importance for our +knowledge of that law. It was still a place of some importance +under the empire; a branch road from Venusia joined the coast +road here. The circumstances of its destruction and abandonment +was unknown; the site is now marked by a few heaps of +ruins. Its medieval representative was Anglona, once a bishopric, +but now itself a heap of ruins, among which are those of an +11th-century church.</p> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Heraclea Minoa</span>, an ancient town on the south coast of +Sicily, at the mouth of the river Halycus, near the modern +Montallegro, some 20 m. N.W. of Girgenti. It was at first an +outpost of Selinus (Herod. v. 46), then overthrown by Carthage, +later a border town of Agrigentum. It passed into Carthaginian +hands by the treaty of 405 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was won back by Dionysius in +his first Punic war, but recovered by Carthage in 383. From this +date onwards coins bearing its Semitic name, <i>Ras Melkart</i>, +become common, and it was obviously an important border +fortress. It was here that Dion landed in 357 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when he +attacked Syracuse. The Agrigentines won it back in 309, but +it soon fell under the power of Agathocles. It was temporarily +recovered for Greece by Pyrrhus.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + +<p>3. <span class="sc">Heraclea Pontica</span> (mod. <i>Bender Eregli</i>), an ancient city +on the coast of Bithynia in Asia Minor, at the mouth of the +Kilijsu. It was founded by a Megarian colony, which soon +subjugated the native Mariandynians and extended its power +over a considerable territory. The prosperity of the city, rudely +shaken by the Galatians and the Bithynians, was utterly +destroyed in the Mithradatic war. It was the birthplace of +Heraclides Ponticus. The modern town is best known for its +lignite coal-mines, from which Constantinople receives a good +part of its supply.</p> + +<p>4. <span class="sc">Heraclea Sintica</span>, a town in Thracian Macedonia, to the +south of the Strymon, the site of which is marked by the village +of Zervokhori, and identified by the discovery of local coins.</p> + +<p>5. <span class="sc">Heraclea</span>, a town on the borders of Caria and Ionia, near +the foot of Mount Latmus. In its neighbourhood was the +burial cave of Endymion.</p> + +<p>6. <span class="sc">Heraclea-Cybistra</span> (mod. <i>Eregli</i> in the vilayet of Konia), +under the name Cybistra, had some importance in Hellenistic +times owing to its position near the point where the road to the +Cilician Gates enters the hills. It lay in the way of armies and was +more than once sacked by the Arab invaders of Asia Minor +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 805 and 832). It became Turkish (Seljuk) in the 11th +century. Modern Eregli had grown from a large village to a +town since the railway reached it from Konia and Karaman +in 1904; and it has now an hotel and good shops. Three hours’ +ride S. is the famous “Hittite” rock-relief of Ivriz, representing +a king (probably of neighbouring Tyana) adoring a god (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hittites</a></span>). This was the first “Hittite” monument discovered +in modern times (early 18th century, by the Swede Otter, an +emissary of Louis XIV.).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For Heraclea Trachinia see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trachis</a></span>, and for Heraclea Perinthus +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Perinthus</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Heraclea</span> was also the name of one of the Sporades, between +Naxos and Ios, which is still called Raklia, and bears traces of a +Greek township with temples to Tyche and Zeus Lophites.</p> +<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERACLEON,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> a Gnostic who flourished about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 125, +probably in the south of Italy or in Sicily, and is generally +classed by the early heresiologists with the Valentinian school +of heresy. In his system he appears to have regarded the +divine nature as a vast abyss in whose <i>pleroma</i> were aeons of +different orders and degrees,—emanations from the source of +being. Midway between the supreme God and the material +world was the Demiurgus, who created the latter, and under +whose jurisdiction the lower, animal soul of man proceeded after +death, while his higher, celestial soul returned to the pleroma +whence at first it issued. Though conspicuously uniting faith +in Christ with spiritual maturity, there are evidences that, like +other Valentinians, Heracleon did not sufficiently emphasize +abstinence from the moral laxity and worldliness into which his +followers fell. He seems to have received the ordinary Christian +scriptures; and Origen, who treats him as a notable exegete, +has preserved fragments of a commentary by him on the fourth +gospel (brought together by Grabe in the second volume of his +<i>Spicilegium</i>), while Clement of Alexandria quotes from him +what appears to be a passage from a commentary on Luke. +These writings are remarkable for their intensely mystical and +allegorical interpretations of the text.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERACLEONAS,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> east-Roman emperor (Feb.-Sept. 641), was +the son of Heraclius (<i>q.v.</i>) and Martina. At the end of Heraclius’ +reign he obtained through his mother’s influence the title of +Augustus (638), and after his father’s death was proclaimed +joint emperor with his half-brother Constantine III. The +premature death of Constantine, in May 641, left Heracleonas +sole ruler. But a suspicion that he and Martina had murdered +Constantine led soon after to a revolt, and to the mutilation +and banishment of the supposed offenders. Nothing further is +known about Heracleonas subsequent to 641.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERACLIDAE,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> the general name for the numerous descendants +of Heracles (Hercules), and specially applied in a narrower +sense to the descendants of Hyllus, the eldest of his four sons +by Deïaneirathe, conquerors of Peloponnesus. Heracles, whom +Zeus had originally intended to be ruler of Argos, Lacedaemon +and Messenian Pylos, had been supplanted by the cunning of +Hera, and his intended possessions had fallen into the hands of +Eurystheus, king of Mycenae. After the death of Heracles, +his children, after many wanderings, found refuge from Eurystheus +at Athens. Eurystheus, on his demand for their surrender +being refused, attacked Athens, but was defeated and slain. +Hyllus and his brothers then invaded Peloponnesus, but after +a year’s stay were forced by a pestilence to quit. They withdrew +to Thessaly, where Aegimius, the mythical ancestor of the +Dorians, whom Heracles had assisted in war against the Lapithae, +adopted Hyllus and made over to him a third part of his territory. +After the death of Aegimius, his two sons, Pamphilus and Dymas, +voluntarily submitted to Hyllus (who was, according to the +Dorian tradition in Herodotus v. 72, really an Achaean), who +thus became ruler of the Dorians, the three branches of that +race being named after these three heroes. Being desirous +of reconquering his paternal inheritance, Hyllus consulted the +Delphic oracle, which told him to wait for “the third fruit,” +and then enter Peloponnesus by “a narrow passage by sea.” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>309</span> +Accordingly, after three years, Hyllus marched across the +isthmus of Corinth to attack Atreus, the successor of Eurystheus, +but was slain in single combat by Echemus, king of Tegea. This +second attempt was followed by a third under Cleodaeus and +a fourth under Aristomachus, both of which were equally unsuccessful. +At last, Temenus, Cresphontes and Aristodemus, +the sons of Aristomachus, complained to the oracle that its +instructions had proved fatal to those who had followed them. +They received the answer that by the “third fruit” the “third +generation” was meant, and that the “narrow passage” was not +the isthmus of Corinth, but the straits of Rhium. They accordingly +built a fleet at Naupactus, but before they set sail, +Aristodemus was struck by lightning (or shot by Apollo) and +the fleet destroyed, because one of the Heraclidae had slain an +Acarnanian soothsayer. The oracle, being again consulted by +Temenus, bade him offer an expiatory sacrifice and banish +the murderer for ten years, and look out for a man with three +eyes to act as guide. On his way back to Naupactus, Temenus +fell in with Oxylus, an Aetolian, who had lost one eye, riding +on a horse (thus making up the three eyes) and immediately +pressed him into his service. According to another account, +a mule on which Oxylus rode had lost an eye. The Heraclidae +repaired their ships, sailed from Naupactus to Antirrhium, +and thence to Rhium in Peloponnesus. A decisive battle was +fought with Tisamenus, son of Orestes, the chief ruler in the +peninsula, who was defeated and slain. The Heraclidae, who +thus became practically masters of Peloponnesus, proceeded to +distribute its territory among themselves by lot. Argos fell to +Temenus, Lacedaemon to Procles and Eurysthenes, the twin sons +of Aristodemus; and Messene to Cresphontes. The fertile district +of Elis had been reserved by agreement for Oxylus. The Heraclidae +ruled in Lacedaemon till 221 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but disappeared much +earlier in the other countries. This conquest of Peloponnesus +by the Dorians, commonly called the “Return of the Heraclidae,” +is represented as the recovery by the descendants of Heracles +of the rightful inheritance of their hero ancestor and his sons. +The Dorians followed the custom of other Greek tribes in claiming +as ancestor for their ruling families one of the legendary heroes, +but the traditions must not on that account be regarded as +entirely mythical. They represent a joint invasion of Peloponnesus +by Aetolians and Dorians, the latter having been driven +southward from their original northern home under pressure +from the Thessalians. It is noticeable that there is no mention +of these Heraclidae or their invasion in Homer or Hesiod. +Herodotus (vi. 52) speaks of poets who had celebrated their +deeds, but these were limited to events immediately succeeding +the death of Heracles. The story was first amplified by the Greek +tragedians, who probably drew their inspiration from local +legends, which glorified the services rendered by Athens to the +rulers of Peloponnesus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Apollodorus ii. 8; Diod. Sic. iv. 57, 58; Pausanias i. 32, 41, +ii. 13, 18, iii. 1, iv. 3, v. 3; Euripides, <i>Heraclidae</i>; Pindar, +<i>Pythia</i>, ix. 137; Herodotus ix. 27. See Müller’s <i>Dorians</i>, i. ch. 3; +Thirlwall, <i>History of Greece</i>, ch. vii.; Grote, <i>Hist. of Greece</i>, pt. i. +ch. xviii.; Busolt, <i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, i. ch. ii. sec. 7, where a list +of modern authorities is given.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERACLIDES PONTICUS,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> Greek philosopher and miscellaneous +writer, born at Heraclea in Pontus, flourished in the 4th +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He studied philosophy at Athens under Speusippus, +Plato and Aristotle. According to Suidas, Plato, on his departure +for Sicily, left his pupils in charge of Heraclides. The latter +part of his life was spent at Heraclea. He is said to have been +vain and fat, and to have been so fond of display that he was +nicknamed Pompicus, or the Showy (unless the epithet refers +to his literary style). Various idle stories are related about him. +On one occasion, for instance, Heraclea was afflicted with famine, +and the Pythian priestess at Delphi, bribed by Heraclides, +assured his inquiring townsmen that the dearth would be stayed +if they granted a golden crown to that philosopher. This was +done; but just as Heraclides was receiving his honour in a +crowded assembly, he was seized with apoplexy, while the +dishonest priestess perished at the same moment from the bite +of a serpent. On his death-bed he is said to have requested a +friend to hide his body as soon as life was extinct, and, by putting +a serpent in its place, induce his townsmen to suppose that he +had been carried up to heaven. The trick was discovered, +and Heraclides received only ridicule instead of divine honours +(Diogenes Laërtius v. 6). Whatever may be the truth about +these stories, Heraclides seems to have been a versatile and +prolific writer on philosophy, mathematics, music, grammar, +physics, history and rhetoric. Many of the works attributed +to him, however, are probably by one or more persons of the +same name.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The extant fragment of a treatise <i>On Constitutions</i> (C. W. Müller, +<i>F.H.G.</i> ii. 197-207) is probably a compilation from the <i>Politics</i> of +Aristotle by Heraclides Lembos, who lived in the time of Ptolemy +VI. Philometor (181-146). See Otto Voss, <i>De Heraclidis Pontici vita +et scriptis</i> (1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERACLITUS<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Hêrakleitos">Ἡράκλειτος</span>; <i>c.</i> 540-475 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Greek philosopher, +was born at Ephesus of distinguished parentage. +Of his early life and education we know nothing; from the +contempt with which he spoke of all his fellow-philosophers and +of his fellow-citizens as a whole we may gather that he regarded +himself as self-taught and a pioneer of wisdom. So intensely +aristocratic (hence his nickname <span class="grk" title="ochloloidoros">ὀχλολοίδορος</span>, “he who rails +at the people”) was his temperament that he declined to exercise +the regal-hieratic office of <span class="grk" title="Basileus">βασιλεύς</span> which was hereditary in his +family, and presented it to his brother. It is probable, however, +that he did occasionally intervene in the affairs of the city at +the period when the rule of Persia had given place to autonomy; +it is said that he compelled the usurper Melancomas to abdicate. +From the lonely life he led, and still more from the extreme +profundity of his philosophy and his contempt for mankind in +general, he was called the “Dark Philosopher” (<span class="grk" title="ho skoteinos">ὁ σκοτεινός</span>), +or the “Weeping Philosopher,” in contrast to Democritus, the +“Laughing Philosopher.”</p> + +<p>Heraclitus is in a real sense the founder of metaphysics. +Starting from the physical standpoint of the Ionian physicists, +he accepted their general idea of the unity of nature, but entirely +denied their theory of being. The fundamental uniform fact +in nature is constant change (<span class="grk" title="panta chôrei kai ouden menei">πάντα χωρεῖ καὶ οὐδὲν μένει</span>); +everything both is and is not at the same time. He thus arrives +at the principle of Relativity; harmony and unity consist in +diversity and multiplicity. The senses are “bad witnesses” +(<span class="grk" title="kakoi martyres">κακοὶ μάρτυρες</span>); only the wise man can obtain knowledge.</p> + +<p>To appreciate the significance of the doctrines of Heraclitus, +it must be borne in mind that to Greek philosophy the sharp +distinction between subject and object which pervades modern +thought was foreign, a consideration which suggests the conclusion +that, while it is a great mistake to reckon Heraclitus with the +materialistic cosmologists of the Ionic schools, it is, on the other +hand, going too far to treat his theory, with Hegel and Lassalle, +as one of pure Panlogism. Accordingly, when he denies the +reality of Being, and declares Becoming, or eternal flux and +change, to be the sole actuality, Heraclitus must be understood +to enunciate not only the unreality of the abstract notion of being, +except as the correlative of that of not-being, but also the +physical doctrine that all phenomena are in a state of continuous +transition from non-existence to existence, and vice versa, without +either distinguishing these propositions or qualifying them by +any reference to the relation of thought to experience. “Every +thing is and is not”; all things are, and nothing remains. So +far he is in general agreement with Anaximander (<i>q.v.</i>), but he +differs from him in the solution of the problem, disliking, as a +poet and a mystic, the primary matter which satisfied the patient +researcher, and demanding a more vivid and picturesque element. +Naturally he selects fire, according to him the most complete +embodiment of the process of Becoming, as the principle of +empirical existence, out of which all things, including even the +soul, grow by way of a <i>quasi</i> condensation, and into which all +things must in course of time be again resolved. But this +primordial fire is in itself that divine rational process, the +harmony of which constitutes the law of the universe (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Logos</a></span>). +Real knowledge consists in comprehending this all-pervading +harmony as embodied in the manifold of perception, and the +senses are “bad-witnesses,” because they apprehend phenomena, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>310</span> +not as its manifestation, but as “stiff and dead.” In like +manner real virtue consists in the subordination of the individual +to the laws of this harmony as the universal reason wherein alone +true freedom is to be found. “The law of things is a law of +Reason Universal (<span class="grk" title="logos">λόγος</span>), but most men live as though they +had a wisdom of their own.” Ethics here stands to sociology +in a close relation, similar, in many respects, to that which we +find in Hegel and in Comte. For Heraclitus the soul approaches +most nearly to perfection when it is most akin to the fiery vapour +out of which it was originally created, and as this is most so in +death, “while we live our souls are dead in us, but when we die +our souls are restored to life.” The doctrine of immortality +comes prominently forward in his ethics, but whether this must +not be reckoned with the figurative accommodation to the +popular theology of Greece which pervades his ethical teaching, +is very doubtful.</p> + +<p>The school of disciples founded by Heraclitus flourished for +long after his death, the chief exponent of his teaching being +Cratylus. A good deal of the information in regard to his +doctrines has been gathered from the later Greek philosophy, +which was deeply influenced by it.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The only authentic extant work of Heraclitus is +the <span class="grk" title="peri physeôs">περὶ φύσεως</span>. The best edition (containing also the probably +spurious <span class="grk" title="Epistolai">Ἐπιστολαί</span>) is that of I. Bywater, <i>Heracliti Ephesii reliquiae</i> +(Oxford, 1877); of the epistles alone by A. Westermann (Leipzig, +1857). See also in A. H. Ritter and L. Preller’s <i>Historia philosophiae +Graecae</i> (8th ed. by E. Wellmann, 1898); F. W. A. Mullach, +<i>Fragm. philos. Graec.</i> (Paris, 1860); A. Fairbanks, <i>The First Philosophers +of Greece</i> (1898); H. Diels, <i>Heraklit von Ephesus</i> (2nd ed., +1909), Greek and German. English translation of Bywater’s edition +with introduction by G. T. W. Patrick (Baltimore, 1889). For +criticism see, in addition to the histories of philosophy, F. Lassalle, +<i>Die Philosophie Herakleitos’ des Dunklen</i> (Berlin, 1858; 2nd ed., +1892), which, however, is too strongly dominated by modern +Hegelianism; Paul Schuster, <i>Heraklit von Ephesus</i> (Leipzig, 1873); +J. Bernays, <i>Die heraklitischen Briefe</i> (Berlin, 1869); T. Gomperz, +<i>Zu Heraclits Lehre und den Überresten seines Werkes</i> (Vienna, 1887), +and in his <i>Greek Thinkers</i> (English translation, L. Magnus, vol. i. +1901); J. Burnet, <i>Early Greek Philosophy</i> (1892); A. Patin, <i>Heraklits +Einheitslehre</i> (Leipzig, 1886); E. Pfleiderer, <i>Die Philosophie des +Heraklitus von Ephesus im Lichte der Mysterienidee</i> (Berlin, 1886); +G. T. Schäfer, <i>Die Philosophie des Heraklit von Ephesus und die +moderne Heraklitforschung</i> (Leipzig, 1902); Wolfgang Schultz, <i>Studien +zur antiken Kultur</i>, i.; <i>Pythagoras und Heraklit</i> (Leipzig, 1905); +O. Spengler, <i>Heraklit. Eine Studie über den energetischen Grundgedanken +seiner Philosophie</i> (Halle, 1904); A. Brieger, “Die Grundzüge +der heraklitischen Physik” in <i>Hermes</i>, xxxix. (1904), 182-223, +and “Heraklit der Dunkle” in <i>Neue Jahrb. f. das klass. Altertum</i> +(1904), p. 687. For his place in the development of early philosophy +see also articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ionian School of Philosophy</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Logos</a></span>. Ancient +authorities: Diog. Laërt. ix.; Sext. Empiric., <i>Adv. mathem.</i> vii. +126, 127, 133; Plato, <i>Cratylus</i>, 402 <span class="scs">A</span> and <i>Theaetetus</i>, 152 <span class="scs">E</span>; Plutarch, +<i>Isis and Osiris</i>, 45, 48; Arist. <i>Nic. Eth.</i> vii. 3, 4; Clement of Alexandria, +<i>Stromata</i>, v. 599, 603 (ed. Paris).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. M. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERACLIUS<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Hêrakleios">Ἡρακλεῖος</span>) (<i>c.</i> 575-642), East Roman emperor, +was born in Cappadocia. His father held high military command +under the emperor Maurice, and as governor of Africa maintained +his independence against the usurper Phocas (<i>q.v.</i>). When +invited to head a rebellion against the latter, he sent his son with +a fleet which reached Constantinople unopposed, and precipitated +the dethronement of Phocas. Proclaimed emperor, Heraclius +set himself to reorganize the utterly disordered administration. +At first he found himself helpless before the Persian armies (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persia</a></span>: <i>Ancient History</i>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chosroës II.</a></span>) of Chosroës II., +which conquered Syria and Egypt and since 616 had encamped +opposite Constantinople; in 618 he even proposed in despair +to abandon his capital and seek a refuge in Carthage, but at the +entreaty of the patriarch he took courage. By securing a loan +from the Church and suspending the corn-distribution at +Constantinople, he raised sufficient funds for war, and after +making a treaty with the Avars, who had nearly surprised the +capital during an incursion in 619, he was at last able to take the +field against Persia. During his first expedition (622) he failed +to secure a footing in Armenia, whence he had hoped to take the +Persians in flank, but by his unwearied energy he restored the +discipline and efficiency of the army. In his second campaign +(624-26) he penetrated into Armenia and Albania, and beat the +enemy in the open field. After a short stay at Constantinople, +which his son Constantine had successfully defended against +renewed incursions by the Avars, Heraclius resumed his attacks +upon the Persians (627). Though deserted by the Khazars, +with whom he had made an alliance upon entering into Pontus, +he gained a decisive advantage by a brilliant march across the +Armenian highlands into the Tigris plain, and a hard-fought +victory over Chosroës’ general, Shahrbaraz, in which Heraclius +distinguished himself by his personal bravery. A subsequent +revolution at the Persian court led to the dethronement of +Chosroës in favour of his son Kavadh II. (<i>q.v.</i>); the new king +promptly made peace with the emperor, whose troops were +already advancing upon the Persian capital Ctesiphon (628). +Having thus secured his eastern frontier, Heraclius returned +to Constantinople with ample spoils, including the true cross, +which in 629 he brought back in person to Jerusalem. On the +northern frontier of the empire he kept the Avars in check by +inducing the Serbs to migrate from the Carpathians to the +Balkan lands so as to divert the attention of the Avars.</p> + +<p>The triumphs which Heraclius had won through his own +energy and skill did not bring him lasting popularity. In his +civil administration he followed out his own ideas without +deferring to the nobles or the Church, and the opposition which +he encountered from these quarters went far to paralyse his +attempts at reform. Worn out by continuous fighting and +weakened by dropsy, Heraclius failed to show sufficient energy +against the new peril that menaced his eastern provinces towards +the end of his reign. In 629 the Saracens made their first incursion +into Syria (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caliphate</a></span>, section A, § 1); in 636 they +won a notable victory on the Yermuk (Hieromax), and in the +following years conquered all Syria, Palestine and Egypt. +Heraclius made no attempt to retrieve the misfortunes of his +generals, but evacuated his possessions in sullen despair. The +remaining years of his life he devoted to theological speculation +and ecclesiastical reforms. His religious enthusiasm led him to +oppress his Jewish subjects; on the other hand he sought to +reconcile the Christian sects, and to this effect propounded in +his <i>Ecthesis</i> a conciliatory doctrine of monothelism. Heraclius +died of his disease in 642. He had been twice married; his +second union, with his niece Martina, was frequently made a +matter of reproach to him. In spite of his partial failures, +Heraclius must be regarded as one of the greatest of Byzantine +emperors, and his early campaigns were the means of saving the +realm from almost certain destruction.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—G. Finlay, <i>History of Greece</i> (Oxford, 1877) i. +311-358; J. B. Bury, <i>The Later Roman Empire</i> (London, +1889), ii. 207-273; T. E. Evangelides, <span class="grk" title="Hêrakleios ho autokratôr +tou Byzantiou">Ἡρακλεῖος ὁ αὐτοκράτωρ τοῦ Βυζαντίου</span> (Odessa, 1903); A. Pernice, <i>L’Imperatore Eraclio</i> +(Florence, 1905). On the Persian campaigns: the epic of George +Pisides (ed. 1836, Bonn); F. Macler, <i>Histoire d’Héraclius par +l’évêque Sebèos</i> (Paris, 1904); E. Gerland in <i>Byzantinische Zeitschrift</i>, +iii. (1894) 330-337; N. H. Baynes in the <i>English Historical +Review</i> (1904), pp. 694-702.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. O. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERALD<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>heraut</i>, <i>herault</i>; the origin is uncertain, but +O.H.G. <i>heren</i>, to call, or <i>hariwald</i>, leader of an army, have been +proposed; the Gr. equivalent is <span class="grk" title="kêryx">κῆρυξ</span>: Lat. <i>praeco</i>, <i>caduceator</i>, +<i>fetialis</i>), in Greek and Roman antiquities, the term for the +officials described below; in modern usage, while the word +“herald” is often used generally in a sense analogous to that +of the ancients, it is more specially restricted to that dealt with +in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heraldry</a></span>.</p> + +<p>The Greek heralds, who claimed descent from Hermes, the +messenger of the gods, through his son Keryx, were public +functionaries of high importance in early times. Like Hermes, +they carried a staff of olive or laurel wood surrounded by two +snakes (or with wool as messengers of peace); their persons +were inviolable; and they formed a kind of priesthood or corporation. +In the Homeric age, they summoned the assemblies of +the people, at which they preserved order and silence; proclaimed +war; arranged the cessation of hostilities and the +conclusion of peace; and assisted at public sacrifices and +banquets. They also performed certain menial offices for the +kings (mixing and pouring out the wine for the guests), by whom +they were treated as confidential servants. In later times, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>311</span> +their position was a less honourable one; they were recruited +from the poorer classes, and were mostly paid servants of the +various officials. Pollux in his <i>Onomasticon</i> distinguishes four +classes of heralds: (1) the sacred heralds at the Eleusinian +mysteries;<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (2) the heralds at the public games, who announced +the names of the competitors and victors; (3) those who superintended +the arrangements of festal processions; (4) those +who proclaimed goods for sale in the market (for which purpose +they mounted a stone), and gave notice of lost children and runaway +slaves. To these should be added (5) the heralds of the +boulē and demos, who summoned the members of the council and +ecclesia, recited the solemn formula of prayer before the opening +of the meeting, called upon the orators to speak, counted the +votes and announced the results; (6) the heralds of the law courts, +who gave notice of the time of trials and summoned the parties. +The heralds received payment from the state and free meals +together with the officials to whom they were attached. Their +appointment was subject to some kind of examination, probably +of the quality of their voice. Like the earlier heralds, they were +also employed in negotiations connected with war and peace.</p> + +<p>Among the Romans the <i>praecones</i> or “criers” exercised +their profession both in private and official business. As private +criers they were especially concerned with auctions; they advertized +the time, place and conditions of sale, called out the various +bids, and like the modern auctioneer varied the proceedings with +jokes. They gave notice in the streets of things that had been +lost, and took over various commissions, such as funeral arrangements. +Although the calling was held in little estimation, some +of these criers amassed great wealth. The state criers, who were +mostly freedmen and well paid, formed the lowest class of +<i>apparitores</i> (attendants on various magistrates). On the whole, +their functions resembled those of the Greek heralds. They called +the popular assemblies together, proclaimed silence and made +known the result of the voting; in judicial cases, they summoned +the plaintiff, defendant, advocates and witnesses; in criminal +executions they gave out the reasons for the punishment and +called on the executioner to perform his duty; they invited the +people to the games and announced the names of the victors. +Public criers were also employed at state auctions in the municipia +and colonies, but, according to the lex Julia municipalis of +Caesar, they were prohibited from holding office.</p> + +<p>Amongst the Romans the settlement of matters relating to +war and peace was entrusted to a special class of heralds called +<i>Fetiales</i> (not <i>Feciales</i>), a word of uncertain etymology, possibly +connected with <i>fateor</i>, <i>fari</i>, and meaning “the speakers.” They +formed a priestly college of 20 (or 15) members, the institution +of which was ascribed to one of the kings. They were chosen from +the most distinguished families, held office for life, and filled up +vacancies in their number by co-optation. Their duties were to +demand redress for insult or injury to the state, to declare war +unless satisfaction was obtained within a certain number of days +and to conclude treaties of peace. A deputation of four (or two), +one of whom was called <i>pater patratus</i>, wearing priestly garments, +with sacred herbs plucked from the Capitoline hill borne in front, +proceeded to the frontier of the enemy’s territory and demanded +the surrender of the guilty party. This demand was called +<i>clarigatio</i> (perhaps from its being made in a loud, clear voice). +If no satisfactory answer was given within 30 days, the deputation +returned to Rome and made a report. If war was decided +upon, the deputation again repaired to the frontier, pronounced +a solemn formula, and hurled a charred and blood-stained javelin +across the frontier, in the presence of three witnesses, which +was tantamount to a declaration of war (Livy i. 24, 32). With +the extension of the Roman empire, it became impossible to +carry out this ceremonial, for which was substituted the hurling +of a javelin over a column near the temple of Bellona in the +direction of the enemy’s territory. When the termination of +a war was decided upon, the fetiales either made an arrangement +for the suspension of hostilities for a definite term of years, +after which the war recommenced automatically or they concluded +a solemn treaty with the enemy. Conditions of peace or +alliance proposed by the general on his own responsibility +(<i>sponsio</i>) were not binding upon the people, and in case of +rejection the general, with hands bound, was delivered by the +fetiales to the enemy (Livy ix. 10). But if the terms were +agreed to, a deputation carrying the sacred herbs and the flint +stones, kept in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius for sacrificial +purposes, met a deputation of fetiales from the other side. +After the conditions of the treaty had been read, the sacrificial +formula was pronounced and the victims slain by a blow from a +stone (hence the expression <i>foedus ferire</i>). The treaty was then +signed and handed over to the keeping of the fetial college. +These ceremonies usually took place in Rome, but in 201 a +deputation of fetiales went to Africa to ratify the conclusion of +peace with Carthage. From that time little is heard of the fetiales, +although they appear to have existed till the end of the 4th +century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The <i>caduceator</i> (from <i>caduceus</i>, the latinized form +of <span class="grk" title="kêrykeion">κηρυκεῖον</span>) was the name of a person who was sent to treat for +peace. His person was considered sacred; and like the fetiales he +carried the sacred herbs, instead of the caduceus, which was not +in use amongst the Romans.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the Greek heralds, see Ch. Ostermann, <i>De praeconibus Graecorum</i> +(1845); for the Roman Praecones, Mommsen, <i>Römisches +Staatsrecht</i>, i. 363 (3rd ed., 1887); also article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Praecones</a></span> in +Pauly’s <i>Realencyclopädie</i> (1852 edition); for the Fetiales, monographs +by F. C. Conradi (1734, containing all the necessary material), +and G. Fusinato (1884, from <i>Atti della R. Accad. dei Lincei</i>, series +iii. vol. 13); also Marquardt, <i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, iii. 415 +(3rd ed., 1885), and A. Weiss in Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire +des antiquités</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. F.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> These heralds are regarded by some as a branch of the Eumolpidae, +by others as of Athenian origin. They enjoyed great prestige +and formed a hieratic caste like the Eumolpidae, with whom they +shared the most important liturgical functions. From them were +selected the <span class="grk" title="dadouchos">δαδοῦχος</span> or torch-bearer, the <span class="grk" title="hierokêryx">ἱεροκῆρυξ</span>, whose chief +duty was to proclaim silence, and <span class="grk" title="ho epi bômô">ὁ ἐπὶ βωμῷ</span>, an official connected +with the service at the altar (see L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek +States, iii. 161; J. Töpffer, <i>Attische Genealogie</i> (1889); Dittenberger +in <i>Hermes</i>, xx.; P. Foucart, “Les Grands Mystères +d’Eleusis” in <i>Mém. de l’Institut National de France</i>, xxxvii. (1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERALDRY.<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> Although the word Heraldry properly belongs +to all the business of the herald (<i>q.v.</i>), it has long attached itself +to that which in earlier times was known as armory, the science +of armorial bearings.</p> + +<p><i>History of Armorial Bearings.</i>—In all ages and in all quarters +of the world distinguishing symbols have been adopted by tribes +or nations, by families or by chieftains. Greek and Roman poets +describe the devices borne on the shields of heroes, and many +such painted shields are pictured on antique vases. Rabbinical +writers have supported the fancy that the standards of the tribes +set up in their camps bore figures devised from the prophecy of +Jacob, the ravening wolf for Benjamin, the lion’s whelp for +Judah and the ship of Zebulon. In the East we have such ancient +symbols as the five-clawed dragon of the Chinese empire and the +chrysanthemum of the emperor of Japan. In Japan, indeed, the +systematized badges borne by the noble clans may be regarded as +akin to the heraldry of the West, and the circle with the three +asarum leaves of the Tokugawa shoguns has been made as +familiar to us by Japanese lacquer and porcelain as the red pellets +of the Medici by old Italian fabrics. Before the landing of the +Spaniards in Mexico the Aztec chiefs carried shields and banners, +some of whose devices showed after the fashion of a phonetic +writing the names of their bearers; and the eagle on the new +banner of Mexico may be traced to the eagle that was once carved +over the palace of Montezuma. That mysterious business of +totemism, which students of folk-lore have discovered among +most primitive peoples, must be regarded as another of the forerunners +of true heraldry, the totem of a tribe supplying a badge +which was sometimes displayed on the body of the tribesman in +paint, scars or tattooing. Totemism so far touches our heraldry +that some would trace to its symbols the white horse of Westphalia, +the bull’s head of the Mecklenburgers and many other +ancient armories.</p> + +<p>When true heraldry begins in Western Europe nothing is more +remarkable than the suddenness of its development, once the +idea of hereditary armorial symbols was taken by the nobles and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>312</span> +knights. Its earliest examples are probably still to be discovered +by research, but certain notes may be made which narrow the +dates between which we must seek its origin. The older writers +on heraldry, lacking exact archaeology, were wont to carry back +the beginnings to the dark ages, even if they lacked the assurance +of those who distributed blazons among the angelic host before +the Creation. Even in our own times old misconceptions give +ground slowly. Georg Ruexner’s <i>Thurnier Buch</i> of 1522 is still +cited for its evidence of the tournament laws of Henry the Fowler, +by which those who would contend in tournaments were forced to +show four generations of arms-bearing ancestors. Yet modern +criticism has shattered the elaborated fiction of Ruexner. In +England many legends survive of arms borne by the Conqueror +and his companions. But nothing is more certain than that +neither armorial banners nor shields of arms were borne on either +side at Hastings. The famous record of the Bayeux tapestry +shows shields which in some cases suggest rudely devised armorial +bearings, but in no case can a shield be identified as one which is +recognized in the generations after the Conquest. So far is the +idea of personal arms from the artist, that the same warrior, seen +in different parts of the tapestry’s history, has his shield with +differing devices. A generation later, Anna Comnena, the +daughter of the Byzantine emperor, describing the shields of the +French knights who came to Constantinople, tells us that their +polished faces were plain.</p> + +<p>Of all men, kings and princes might be the first to be found +bearing arms. Yet the first English sovereign who appears on +his great seal with arms on his shield is Richard I. His seal of +1189 shows his shield charged with a lion ramping towards the +sinister side. Since one half only is seen of the rounded face of the +shield, English antiquaries have perhaps too hastily suggested +that the whole bearing was two lions face to face. But the +mounted figure of Philip of Alsace, count of Flanders, on his seal +of 1164 bears a like shield charged with a like lion, and in this case +another shield on the counterseal makes it clear that this is the +single lion of Flanders. Therefore we may take it that, in 1189, +King Richard bore arms of a lion rampant, while, nine years later, +another seal shows him with a shield of the familiar bearings +which have been borne as the arms of England by each one of his +successors.</p> + +<p>That seal of Philip of Alsace is the earliest known example of +the arms of the great counts of Flanders. The ancient arms of +the kings of France, the blue shield powdered with golden fleurs-de-lys, +appear even later. Louis le Jeune, on the crowning of his +son Philip Augustus, ordered that the young prince should be +clad in a blue dalmatic and blue shoes, sewn with golden fleurs-de-lys, +a flower whose name, as “Fleur de Loys,” played upon +that of his own, and possibly upon his epithet name of Florus. A +seal of the same king has the device of a single lily. But the first +French royal seal with the shield of the lilies is that of Louis VIII. +(1223-1226). The eagle of the emperors may well be as ancient +a bearing as any in Europe, seeing that Charlemagne is said, as +the successor of the Caesars, to have used the eagle as his badge. +The emperor Henry III. (1039-1056) has the sceptre on his seal +surmounted by an eagle; in the 12th century the eagle was +embroidered upon the imperial gloves. At Mölsen in 1080 the +emperor’s banner is said by William of Tyre to have borne the +eagle, and with the beginning of regular heraldry this imperial +badge would soon be displayed on a shield. The double-headed +eagle is not seen on an imperial seal until after 1414, when the +bird with one neck becomes the recognized arms of the king of the +Romans.</p> + +<p>There are, however, earlier examples of shields of arms than +any of these. A document of the first importance is the description +by John of Marmoustier of the marriage of Geoffrey of Anjou +with Maude the empress, daughter of Henry I., when the king is +said to have hung round the neck of his son-in-law a shield with +golden “lioncels.” Afterwards the monk speaks of Geoffrey in +fight, “pictos leones preferens in clypeo.” Two notes may be +added to this account. The first is that the enamelled plate now +in the museum at Le Mans, which is said to have been placed over +the tomb of Geoffrey after his death in 1151, shows him bearing a +long shield of azure with six golden lioncels, thus confirming the +monk’s story. The second is the well-known fact that Geoffrey’s +bastard grandson, William with the Long Sword, undoubtedly +bore these same arms of the six lions of gold in a blue field, even +as they are still to be seen upon his tomb at Salisbury. Some ten +years before Richard I. seals with the three leopards, his brother +John, count of Mortain, is found using a seal upon which he bears +two leopards, arms which later tradition assigns to the ancient +dukes of Normandy and to their descendants the kings of England +before Henry II., who is said to have added the third leopard in +right of his wife, a legend of no value. Mr Round has pointed out +that Gilbert of Clare, earl of Hertford, who died in 1152, bears on +his seal to a document sealed after 1138 and not later than 1146, +the three cheverons afterwards so well known in England as the +bearings of his successors. An old drawing of the seal of his uncle +Gilbert, earl of Pembroke (<i>Lansdowne MS.</i> 203), shows a cheveronny +shield used between 1138 and 1148. At some date between +1144 and 1150, Waleran, count of Meulan, shows on his seal a +pennon and saddle-cloth with a checkered pattern: the house of +Warenne, sprung from his mother’s son, bore shields checky of +gold and azure. If we may trust the inventory of Norman seals +made by M. Demay, a careful antiquary, there is among the +archives of the Manche a grant by Eudes, seigneur du Pont, +sealed with a seal and counterseal of arms, to which M. Demay +gives a date as early as 1128. The writer has not examined this +seal, the earliest armorial evidence of which he has any knowledge, +but it may be remarked that the arms are described as varying on +the seal and counterseal, a significant touch of primitive armory. +Another type of seal common in this 12th century shows +the personal device which had not yet developed into an armorial +charge. A good example is that of Enguerrand de Candavène, +count of St Pol, where, although the shield of the horseman +is uncharged, sheaves of oats, playing on his name, are strewn at +the foot of the seal. Five of these sheaves were the arms of +Candavène when the house came to display arms. In the same +fashion three different members of the family of Armenteres in +England show one, two or three swords upon their seals, but here +the writer has no evidence of a coat of arms derived from these +devices.</p> + +<p>From the beginning of the 13th century arms upon shields +increase in number. Soon the most of the great houses of the +west display them with pride. Leaders in the field, whether +of a royal army or of a dozen spears, saw the military advantage +of a custom which made shield and banner things that might +be recognized in the press. Although it is probable that armorial +bearings have their first place upon the shield, the charges of +the shield are found displayed on the knight’s long surcoat, +his “coat of arms,” on his banner or pennon, on the trappers +of his horse and even upon the peaks of his saddle. An attempt +has been made to connect the rise of armory with the adoption +of the barrel-shaped close helm; but even when wearing the +earlier Norman helmet with its long nasal the knight’s face was +not to be recognized. The Conqueror, as we know, had to +bare his head before he could persuade his men at Hastings that +he still lived. Armory satisfied a need which had long been +felt. When fully armed, one galloping knight was like another; +but friend and foe soon learned that the gold and blue checkers +meant that Warenne was in the field and that the gold and +red vair was for Ferrers. Earl Simon at Evesham sent up his +barber to a spying place and, as the barber named in turn the +banners which had come up against him, he knew that his last +fight was at hand. In spite of these things the growth of the +custom of sealing deeds and charters had at least as much influence +in the development of armory as any military need. +By this way, women and clerks, citizens and men of peace, +corporations and colleges, came to share with the fighting man +in the use of armorial bearings. Arms in stone, wood and brass +decorated the tombs of the dead and the houses of the living; +they were broidered in bed-curtains, coverlets and copes, painted +on the sails of ships and enamelled upon all manner of goldsmiths’ +and silversmiths’ work. And, even by warriors, the +full splendour of armory was at all times displayed more fully +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>313</span> +in the fantastic magnificence of the tournament than in the +rougher business of war.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate I.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:840px; height:1125px" src="images/img312.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">PART OF A ROLL OF ARMS PAINTED IN ENGLAND AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 14TH CENTURY. THE NAMES HAVE BEEN ADDED BY A +SOMEWHAT LATER HAND, AND ARE IN MANY CASES MISTAKEN AND MIS-SPELLED.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption8"><i>Drawn by William Gibb for the</i> ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.</td></tr></table> + +<p>There can be little doubt that ancient armorial bearings were +chosen at will by the man who bore them, many reasons guiding +his choice. Crosses in plenty were taken. Old writers have +asserted that these crosses commemorate the badge of the +crusaders, yet the fact that the cross was the symbol of the +faith was reason enough. No symbolism can be found in such +charges as bends and fesses; they are on the shield because a +broad band, aslant or athwart, is a charge easily recognized. +Medieval wisdom gave every noble and magnanimous quality +to the lion, and therefore this beast is chosen by hundreds of +knights as their bearing. We have already seen how the arms +of a Candavène play upon his name. Such an example was +imitated on all sides. Salle of Bedfordshire has two <i>sal</i>amanders +<i>sal</i>tirewise; Belet has his namesake the weasel. In ancient +shields almost all beasts and birds other than the lion and the +eagle play upon the bearer’s name. No object is so humble +that it is unwelcome to the knight seeking a pun for his shield. +Trivet has a three-legged trivet; Trumpington two trumps; and +Montbocher three pots. The legends which assert that certain +arms were “won in the Holy Land” or granted by ancient +kings for heroic deeds in the field are for the most part +worthless fancies.</p> + +<p>Tenants or neighbours of the great feudal lords were wont to +make their arms by differencing the lord’s shield or by bringing +some charge of it into their own bearings. Thus a group of +Kentish shields borrow lions from that of Leyborne, which is +azure with six lions of silver. Shirland of Minster bore the same +arms differenced with an ermine quarter. Detling had the +silver lions in a sable field. Rokesle’s lions are azure in a golden +field with a fesse of gules between them; while Wateringbury +has six sable lions in a field of silver, and Tilmanstone six +ermine lions in a field of azure. The Vipont ring or annelet is +in several shields of Westmorland knights, and the cheverons +of Clare, the cinquefoil badge of Beaumont and the sheaves of +Chester can be traced in the coats of many of the followers of +those houses. Sometimes the lord himself set forth such arms +in a formal grant, as when the baron of Greystock grants to +Adam of Blencowe a shield in which his own three chaplets +are charges. The Whitgreave family of Staffordshire still show +a shield granted to their ancestor in 1442 by the earl of Stafford, +in which the Stafford red cheveron on a golden field is four +times repeated.</p> + +<p><i>Differences.</i>—By the custom of the middle ages the “whole +coat,” which is the undifferenced arms, belonged to one man +only and was inherited whole only by his heirs. Younger +branches differenced in many ways, following no rule. In modern +armory the label is reckoned a difference proper only to an eldest +son. But in older times, although the label was very commonly +used by the son and heir apparent, he often chose another distinction +during his father’s lifetime, while the label is sometimes found +upon the shields of younger sons. Changing the colours or varying +the number of charges, drawing a bend or baston over the shield +or adding a border are common differences of cadet lines. +Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, bore “Gules with a fesse and six +crosslets gold.” His cousins are seen changing the crosslets for +martlets or for billets. Bastards difference their father’s arms, +as a rule, in no more striking manner than the legitimate cadets. +Towards the end of the 14th century we have the beginning of +the custom whereby certain bastards of princely houses differenced +the paternal arms by charging them upon a bend, a fesse or a +chief, a cheveron or a quarter. Before his legitimation the eldest +son of John of Gaunt by Katharine Swinford is said to have +borne a shield party silver and azure with the arms of Lancaster +on a bend. After his legitimation in 1397 he changed his bearings +to the royal arms of France and England within a border gobony +of silver and azure. Warren of Poynton, descended from the +last earl Warenne and his concubine, Maude of Neirford, bore +the checkered shield of Warenne with a quarter charged with the +ermine lion of Neirford. By the end of the middle ages the +baston under continental influence tended to become a bastard’s +difference in England and the jingle of the two words may have +helped to support the custom. About the same time the border +gobony began to acquire a like character. The “bar sinister” +of the novelists is probably the baston sinister, with the ends +couped, which has since the time of Charles II. been familiar +on the arms of certain descendants of the royal house. But +it has rarely been seen in England over other shields; and, +although the border gobony surrounds the arms granted to a +peer of Victorian creation, the modern heralds have fallen into +the habit of assigning, in nineteen cases out of twenty, a wavy +border as the standard difference for illegitimacy.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:120px; height:130px" src="images/img313a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> Shield from seal of +Robert de Pinkeny, an +early example of +parted arms.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Although no general register of arms was maintained it is +remarkable that there was little conflict between persons who +had chanced to assume the same arms. The famous suit in +which Scrope, Grosvenor and Carminow all claimed the blue +shield with the golden bend is well known, and there are a few +cases in the 14th century of like disputes which were never +carried to the courts. But the men of the middle ages would +seem to have had marvellous memories for blazonry; and we +know that rolls of arms for reference, some of them the records +of tournaments, existed in great numbers. A few examples of +these remain to us, with painted shields or descriptions in French +blazon, some of them containing many hundreds of names and +arms.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:245px; height:289px" src="images/img313b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Shield of Joan atte Pole, +widow of Robert of Hemenhale, +from her seal (1403), showing +parted arms.</td></tr></table> + +<p>To women were assigned, as a rule, the undifferenced arms +of their fathers. In the early days of armory married women—well-born +spinsters of full age were all +but unknown outside the walls of religious +houses—have seals on which appear +the shield of the husband or the father +or both shields side by side. But we have +some instances of the shield in which two +coats of arms are parted or, to use the +modern phrase, “impaled.” Early in +the reign of King John, Robert de Pinkeny +seals with a parted shield. On the right +or dexter side—the right hand of a shield +is at the right hand of the person covered +by it—are two fusils of an indented fesse: on the left or +sinister side are three waves. The arms of Pinkeny being an +indented fesse, we may see in this shield the parted arms of +husband and wife—the latter being probably a Basset. In +many of the earliest examples, as in this, the dexter half of the +husband’s shield was united with the sinister half of that of +the wife, both coats being, as modern antiquaries have it, +dimidiated. This “dimidiation,” however, had its inconvenience. +With some coats it was impossible. If the wife bore +arms with a quarter for the only charge, her half of the shield +would be blank. Therefore the +practice was early abandoned +by the majority of bearers of +parted shields although there +is a survival of it in the fact +that borders and tressures continue +to be “dimidiated” in +order that the charges within +them shall not be cramped. +Parted shields came into common +use from the reign of +Edward II., and the rule is +established that the husband’s +arms should take the dexter +side. There are, however, +several instances of the contrary +practice. On the seal +(1310) of Maude, wife of John +Boutetort of Halstead, the +engrailed saltire of the Boutetorts takes the sinister place. A +twice-married woman would sometimes show a shield charged +with her paternal arms between those of both of her husbands, as +did Beatrice Stafford in 1404, while in 1412 Elizabeth, Lady of +Clinton, seals with a shield paled with five coats—her arms +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>314</span> +of la Plaunche between those of four husbands. In most +cases the parted shield is found on the wife’s seal alone. Even +in our own time it is recognized that the wife’s arms should not +appear upon the husband’s official seal, upon his banner or +surcoat or upon his shield when it is surrounded by the collar +of an order. Parted arms, it may be noted, do not always represent +a husband and wife. Richard II. parted with his quartered +arms of France and England +those ascribed to Edward +the Confessor, and parting is +often used on the continent +where quartering would serve in +England. In 1497 the seal of +Giles Daubeney and Reynold +Bray, fellow justices in eyre, +shows their arms parted in one +shield. English bishops, by a +custom begun late in the 14th +century, part the see’s arms +with their own. By modern +English custom a husband and +wife, where the wife is not +an heir, use the parted coat +on a shield, a widow bearing +the same upon the lozenge +on which, when a spinster, +she displayed her father’s +coat alone. When the wife is an heir, her arms are now borne in +a little scocheon above those of her husband. If the husband’s +arms be in an unquartered shield the central charge is often +hidden away by this scocheon.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" style="width: 50%;"><img style="width:250px; height:295px" src="images/img314a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:248px; height:284px" src="images/img314b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90">Shield of Beatrice Stafford +from her seal (1404), showing her +arms of Stafford between those +of her husbands—Thomas, Lord +Roos, and Sir Richard Burley.</td> +<td class="tcl f90">Shield of John Talbot, first +earl of Shrewsbury (d. 1453), +showing four coats quartered.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The practice of marshalling arms by quartering spread in +England by reason of the example given by Eleanor, wife of +Edward I., who displayed the castle of Castile quartered with the +lion of Leon. Isabel of France, wife of Edward II., seals with a +shield in whose four quarters are the arms of England, France, +Navarre and Champagne. Early In the 14th century Simon de +Montagu, an ancestor of the earls of Salisbury, quartered with his +own arms a coat of azure with a golden griffon. In 1340 we +have Laurence Hastings, earl of Pembroke, quartering with the +Hastings arms the arms of Valence, as heir of his great-uncle +Aymer, earl of Pembroke. In the preceding year the king had +already asserted his claim to another kingdom by quartering +France with England, and after this quartered shields became +common in the great houses whose sons were carefully matched +with heirs female. When the wife was an heir the husband +would quarter her arms with his own, displaying, as a rule, +the more important coat in the +first quarter. Marshalling becomes +more elaborate with shields +showing both quarterings and +partings, as in the seal (1368) of +Sibil Arundel, where Arundel +(Fitzalan) is quartered with +Warenne and parted with the +arms of Montagu. In all, save +one, of these examples the quartering +is in its simplest form, +with one coat repeated in the +first and fourth quarters of the +shield and another in the second +and third. But to a charter of 1434 +Sir Henry Bromflete sets a seal +upon which Bromflete quarters +Vesci in the second quarter, Aton +in the third and St John in the fourth, after the fashion of the +much earlier seal of Edward II.’s queen. Another development +is that of what armorists style the “grand quarter,” a quarter +which is itself quartered, as in the shield of Reynold Grey of +Ruthyn, which bears Grey in the first and fourth quarters and +Hastings quartered with Valence in the third and fourth. +Humphrey Bourchier, Lord Cromwell, in 1469, bears one grand +quarter quartered with another, the first having Bourchier +and Lovaine, the second Tatershall and Cromwell.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:238px; height:283px" src="images/img314c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Shield of Richard Beauchamp, +earl of Warwick, from his garter +stall-plate (after 1423). The +arms are Beauchamp quartering +Newburgh, with a scocheon of +Clare quartering Despenser.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The last detail to be noted in medieval marshalling is the +introduction into the shield of another surmounting shield +called by old armorists the “innerscocheon” and by modern +blazoners the “inescutcheon.” John the Fearless, count of +Flanders, marshalled his arms in 1409 as a quartered shield +of the new and old coats of Burgundy. Above these coats a +little scocheon, borne over the crossing of the quartering lines, +had the black lion of Flanders, the arms of his mother. Richard +Beauchamp, the adventurous earl of Warwick, who had seen +most European courts during his wanderings, may have had +this shield in mind when, over his arms of Beauchamp quartering +Newburgh, he set a scocheon of Clare quartering Despenser, +the arms of his wife Isabel Despenser, co-heir of the earls of +Gloucester. The seal of his son-in-law, the King-Maker, shows +four quarters—Beauchamp quartering Clare, Montagu quartering +Monthermer, Nevill alone, and Newburgh quartering Despenser. +An interesting use of the scocheon <i>en surtout</i> is that made by +Richard Wydvile, Lord Rivers, +whose garter stall-plate has a +grand quarter of Wydvile and +Prouz quartering Beauchamp of +Hache, the whole surmounted +by a scocheon with the arms of +Reviers or Rivers, the house +from which he took the title +of his barony. On the continent +the common use of the scocheon +is to bear the paternal arms of a +sovereign or noble, surmounting +the quarterings of his kingdoms, +principalities, fiefs or seigniories. +Our own prince of Wales bears +the arms of Saxony above those +of the United Kingdom differenced +with his silver label. Marshalling +takes its most elaborate +form, the most removed from +the graceful simplicity of the +middle ages, in such shields as the “Great Arms” of the +Austrian empire, wherein are nine grand quarters each marshalling +in various fashions from three to eleven coats, six of the +grand-quarters bearing scocheons <i>en surtout</i>, each scocheon +ensigned with a different crown.</p> + +<p><i>Crests.</i>—The most important accessory of the arms is the +crested helm. Like the arms it has its pre-heraldic history in +the crests of the Greek helmets, the wings, the wild boar’s and +bull’s heads of Viking headpieces. A little roundel of the arms +of a Japanese house was often borne as a crest in the Japanese +helmet, stepped in a socket above the middle of the brim. The +12th-century seal of Philip of Alsace, count of Flanders, shows +a demi-lion painted or beaten on the side of the upper part of +his helm, and on his seal of 1198 our own Richard Cœur de +Lion’s barrel-helm has a leopard upon the semicircular comb-ridge, +the edge of which is set off with feathers arranged as +two wings. Crests, however, came slowly into use in England, +although before 1250 Roger de Quincy, earl of Winchester, +is seen on his seal with a wyver upon his helm. Of the long roll +of earls and barons sealing the famous letter to the pope in 1301 +only five show true crests on their seals. Two of them are the +earl of Lancaster and his brother, each with a wyver crest like +that of Quincy. One, and the most remarkable, is John St John +of Halnaker, whose crest is a leopard standing between two +upright palm branches. Ralph de Monthermer has an eagle +crest, while Walter de Moncy’s helm is surmounted by a fox-like +beast. In three of these instances the crest is borne, as was often +the case, by the horse as well as the rider. Others of these +seals to the barons’ letter have the fan-shaped crest without +any decoration upon it. But as the furniture of tournaments +grew more magnificent the crest gave a new field for display, +and many strange shapes appear in painted and gilded wood, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>315</span> +metal, leather or parchment above the helms of the jousters. +The Berkeleys, great patrons of abbeys, bore a mitre as their +crest painted with their arms, like crests being sometimes seen +on the continent where the wearer was <i>advocatus</i> of a bishopric +or abbey. The whole or half figures or the heads and necks +of beasts and birds were employed by other families. Saracens’ +heads topped many helms, that of the great Chandos among them. +Astley bore for his crest a silver harpy standing in marsh-sedge, +a golden chain fastened to a crown about her neck. Dymoke +played pleasantly on his name with a long-eared moke’s scalp. +Stanley took the eagle’s nest in which the eagle is lighting +down with a swaddled babe in his claws. Burnell had a burdock +bush, la Vache a cow’s leg, and Lisle’s strange fancy was to +perch a huge millstone on edge above his head. Many early +helms, as that of Sir John Loterel, painted in the Loterel psalter, +repeat the arms on the sides of a fan-crest. Howard bore for a +crest his arms painted on a pair of wings, while simple “bushes” +or feathers are seen in great plenty. The crest of a cadet is often +differenced like the arms, and thus a wyver or a leopard will +have a label about its neck. The Montagu griffon on the helm +of John, marquess of Montagu, holds in its beak the gimel ring +with which he differenced his father’s shield. His brother, +the King-Maker, following a custom commoner abroad than at +home, shows two crested helms on his seal, one for Montagu +and one for Beauchamp—none for his father’s house of Nevill. +It is often stated that a man, unless by some special grace or +allowance, can have but one crest. This, however, is contrary +to the spirit of medieval armory in which a man, inheriting the +coat of arms of another house than his own, took with it all its +belongings, crest, badge and the like. The heraldry books, +with more reason, deny crests to women and to the clergy, but +examples are not wanting of medieval seals in which even this +rule is broken. It is perhaps unfair to cite the case of the bishops +of Durham who ride in full harness on their palatinate seals; but +Henry Despenser, bishop of Norwich, has a helm on which the +winged griffon’s head of his house springs from a mitre, while +Alexander Nevill, archbishop of York, seals with shield, supporters +and crowned and crested helm like those of any lay magnate. +Richard Holt, a Northamptonshire clerk in holy orders, bears +on his seal in the reign of Henry V. a shield of arms and a mantled +helm with the crest of a collared greyhound’s head. About the +middle of the same century a seal cut for the wife of Thomas +Chetwode, a Cheshire squire, has a shield of her husband’s arms +parted with her own and surmounted by a crowned helm with the +crest of a demi-lion; and this is not the only example of such +bearings by a woman.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:476px; height:448px" src="images/img315a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Ralph de Monthermer (1301), showing shield of arms, helm with +crest and mantle, horse-crest and armorial trappers.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:174px; height:358px" src="images/img315b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Shield and crested +helm with hat and +mantle of Thomas of +Hengrave (1401).</td></tr></table> + +<p>Before passing from the crest let us note that in England the +juncture of crest and helm was commonly covered, especially +after the beginning of the 15th century, by a torse or “wreath” +of silk, twisted with one, two or three colours. Coronets or +crowns and “hats of estate” often take the place of the wreath as +a base for the crest, and there are other curious variants. With +the wreath may be considered the +mantle, a hanging cloth which, in its +earliest form, is seen as two strips of +silk or sendal attached to the top of the +helm below the crest and streaming +like pennants as the rider bent his head +and charged. Such strips are often +displayed from the conical top of an +uncrested helm, and some ancient examples +have the air of the two ends of +a stole or of the <i>infulae</i> of a bishop’s +mitre. The general opinion of antiquaries +has been that the mantle +originated among the crusaders as a +protection for the steel helm from the +rays of an Eastern sun; but the fact that +mantles take in England their fuller +form after our crusading days were over +seems against this theory. When the +fashion for slittering the edges of +clothing came in, the edges of the +mantle were slittered like the edge +of the sleeve or skirt, and, flourished +out on either side of the helm, it became the delight of +the painter of armories and the seal engraver. A worthless +tale, repeated by popular manuals, makes the slittered edge +represent the shearing work of the enemy’s sword, a fancy +which takes no account of the like developments in civil dress. +Modern heraldry in England paints the mantle with the principal +colour of the shield, lining it with the principal metal. This in +cases where no old grant of arms is cited as evidence of another +usage. The mantles of the king and of the prince of Wales are, +however, of gold lined with ermine and those of other members +of the royal house of gold lined with silver. In ancient examples +there is great variety and freedom. Where the crest is the head +of a griffon or bird the feathering of the neck will be carried on +to cover the mantle. Other mantles will be powdered with +badges or with charges from the shield, others checkered, barred +or paled. More than thirty of the mantles enamelled on the +stall-plates of the medieval Garter-knights are of red with an +ermine lining, tinctures which in most cases have no reference +to the shields below them.</p> + +<p><i>Supporters.</i>—Shields of arms, especially upon seals, are +sometimes figured as hung round the necks of eagles, lions, +swans and griffons, as strapped between the horns of a hart or to +the boughs of a tree. Badges may fill in the blank spaces at +the sides between the shield and the inscription on the rim, but +in the later 13th and early 14th centuries the commonest objects +so serving are sprigs of plants, lions, leopards, or, still more +frequently, lithe-necked wyvers. John of Segrave in 1301 flanks +his shields with two of the sheaves of the older coat of Segrave: +William Marshal of Hingham does the like with his two marshal’s +staves. Henry of Lancaster at the same time shows on his seal +a shield and a helm crested with a wyver, with two like wyvers +ranged on either side of the shield as “supporters.” It is +uncertain at what time in the 14th century these various fashions +crystallize into the recognized use of beasts, birds, reptiles, men +or inanimate objects, definitely chosen as “supporters” of the +shield, and not to be taken as the ornaments suggested by the +fancy of the seal engraver. That supporters originate in the +decoration of the seal there can be little doubt. Some writers, +the learned Menêtrier among them, will have it that they were +first the fantastically clad fellows who supported and displayed +the knight’s shield at the opening of the tournament. If the +earliest supporters were wild men, angels or Saracens, this theory +might be defended; but lions, boars and talbots, dogs and trees +are guises into which a man would put himself with difficulty. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id="page316"></a>316</span> +By the middle of the 14th century we find what are clearly +recognizable as supporters. These, as in a lesser degree the +crest, are often personal rather than hereditary, being changed +generation by generation. The same person is found using more +than one pair of them. The kings of France have had angels as +supporters of the shield of the fleurs de lys since the 15th century, +but the angels have only taken their place as the sole royal +supporters since the time of Louis XIV. Sovereigns of +England from Henry IV. to Elizabeth changed about between +supporters of harts, leopards, antelopes, bulls, greyhounds, boars +and dragons. James I. at his accession to the English throne +brought the Scottish unicorn to face the English leopard rampant +across his shield, and, ever since, the “lion and unicorn” have +been the royal supporters.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:530px; height:577px" src="images/img316a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Arms of William, Lord Hastings, from his seal (1477), showing +shield, crowned and crested helm with mantle and supporters.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:450px; height:258px" src="images/img316b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" style="width: 50%;"> Badge of John of Whethamstede,<br /> +abbot of St Albans (d. 1465), from<br /> +his tomb in the abbey church.</td> +<td class="caption">Rudder badge of +Willoughby.</td></tr></table> + +<p>An old herald wrote as his opinion that “there is little or +nothing in precedent to direct the use of supporters.” Modern +custom gives them, as a rule, only to peers, to knights of the +Garter, the Thistle and St Patrick, and to knights who are “Grand +Crosses” or Grand Commanders of other orders. Royal +warrants are sometimes issued for the granting of supporters +to baronets, and, in rare cases, they have been assigned to untitled +persons. But in spite of the jealousy with which official +heraldry hedges about the display of these supporters once +assumed so freely, a few old English families still assert their +right by hereditary prescription to use these ornaments as their +forefathers were wont to use them.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:196px; height:230px" src="images/img316c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Badge of Dacre of +Gilsland and Dacre of the +North.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Badges.</i>—The badge may claim a greater antiquity and a +wider use than armorial bearings. The “Plantagenet” broom +is an early example in England, sprigs +of it being figured on the seal of +Richard I. In the 14th and 15th centuries +every magnate had his badge, +which he displayed on his horse-furniture, +on the hangings of his bed, +his wall and his chair of state, besides +giving it as a “livery” to his servants +and followers. Such were the knots of +Stafford, Bourchier and Wake, the +scabbard-crampet of La Warr, the +sickle of Hungerford, the swan of +Toesni, Bohun and Lancaster, the dun-bull +of Nevill, the blue boar of Vere and +the bear and ragged staff of Beauchamp, +Nevill of Warwick and Dudley of Northumberland. So well +known of all were these symbols that a political ballad of 1449 +sings of the misfortunes of the great lords without naming one +of them, all men understanding what signified the Falcon, the +Water Bowge and the Cresset and the other badges of the +doggerel. More famous still were the White +Hart, the Red Rose, the White Rose, the +Sun, the Falcon and Fetterlock, the Portcullis +and the many other badges of the +royal house. We still call those wars that +blotted out the old baronage the Wars of +the Roses, and the Prince of Wales’s feathers +are as well known to-day as the royal arms. +The Flint and Steel of Burgundy make a +collar for the order of the Golden Fleece.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:136px; height:406px" src="images/img316d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Ostrich feather +badge of Beaufort, +from a garter stall-plate +of 1440. The +silver feather has +a quill gobony +silver and azure.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Mottoes.</i>—The motto now accompanies +every coat of arms in these islands. Few of +these Latin aphorisms, these bald assertions +of virtue, high courage, patriotism, piety and +loyalty have any antiquity. Some few, however, +like the “Espérance” of Percy, were +the war-cries of remote ancestors. “I mak’ +sicker” of Kirkpatrick recalls pridefully a +bloody deed done on a wounded man, +and the “Dieu Ayde,” “Agincourt” and +“D’Accomplir Agincourt” of the Irish +“Montmorencys” and the English Wodehouses +and Dalisons, glorious traditions +based upon untrustworthy genealogy. The +often-quoted punning mottoes may be illustrated +by that of Cust, who says “Qui +Cust-odit caveat,” a modern example and a +fair one. Ancient mottoes as distinct from +the war or gathering cry of a house are often cryptic sentences +whose meaning might be known to the user and perchance to +his mistress. Such are the “Plus est en vous” of Louis de +Bruges, the Flemish earl of Winchester, and the “So have I +cause” and “Till then thus” of two Englishmen. The word +motto is of modern use, our forefathers speaking rather of their +“word” or of their “reason.”</p> + +<p><i>Coronets of Rank.</i>—Among accessories of the shield may now +be counted the coronets of peers, whose present form is post-medieval. +When Edward III. made dukes of his sons, gold +circlets were set upon their heads in token of their new dignity. +In 1385 John de Vere, marquess of Dublin, was created in the +same fashion. Edward VI. extended the honour of the gold +circle to earls. Caps of honour were worn with these circles or +coronets, and viscounts wore the cap by appointment of James I., +Vincent the herald stating that “a verge of pearls on top of +the circulet of gold” was added at the creation of Robert Cecil +as Viscount Cranborne. At the coronation of Charles I. the +viscounts walked in procession with their caps and coronets. +A few days before the coronation of Charles II. the privilege +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>317</span> +of the cap of honour was given to the lowest rank of the peerage, +and letters patent of January 1661 assign to them both cap and +coronet. The caps of velvet turned up with miniver, which are +now always worn with the peer’s coronet, are therefore the ancient +caps of honour, akin to that “cap of maintenance” worn by +English sovereigns on their coronation days when walking to the +Abbey Church, and borne before them on occasions of royal state.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:829px; height:1106px" src="images/img316e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">SIXTEEN SHIELDS FROM A ROLL OF ARMS OF ENGLISH KNIGHTS AND BARONS MADE BY AN ENGLISH PAINTER EARLY IN THE REIGN OF EDWARD III.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Drawn by William Gibb.</i></td> +<td class="tcr f80"><i>Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y.</i></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The ancient circles were enriched according to the taste of +the bearer, and, although used at creations as symbols of the +rank conferred, were worn in the 14th and 15th centuries by men +and women of rank without the use signifying a rank in the +peerage. Edmund, earl of March, in his will of 1380, named his +<i>sercle ove roses, emeraudes et rubies d’alisaundre en les roses</i>, and +bequeathed it to his daughter. Modern coronets are of silver-gilt, +without jewels, set upon caps of crimson velvet turned up with +ermine, with a gold tassel at the top. A duke’s coronet has the +circle decorated with eight gold “strawberry leaves”; that of +a marquess has four gold strawberry leaves and four silver balls. +The coronet of an earl has eight silver balls, raised upon points, +with gold strawberry leaves between the points. A viscount’s +coronet has on the circle sixteen silver balls, and a baron’s coronet +six silver balls. On the continent the modern use of coronets +is not ordered in the precise English fashion, men of gentle birth +displaying coronets which afford but slight indication of the +bearer’s rank.</p> + +<p><i>Lines.</i>—Eleven varieties of lines, other than straight lines, +which divide the shield, or edge our cheverons, pales, bars and +the like, are pictured in the heraldry books and named as engrailed, +embattled, indented, invected, wavy or undy, nebuly, +dancetty, raguly, potenté, dovetailed and urdy.</p> + +<p>As in the case of many other such lists of the later armorists +these eleven varieties need some pruning and a new explanation.</p> + +<p>The most commonly found is the line engrailed, which for the +student of medieval armory must be associated with the line +indented. In its earliest form the line which a roll of arms will +describe indifferently as indented or engrailed takes almost +invariably the form to which the name indented is restricted +by modern armorists.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:259px; height:146px" src="images/img317a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Mohun.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The cross may serve as our first example. A cross, engrailed +or indented, the words being used indifferently, is a cross so +deeply notched at the edges that it seems made up of so many +lozenge-shaped wedges or fusils. About the middle of the 14th +century begins a tendency, resisted in practice by many conservative +families, to draw the engrailing lines in the fashion to which +modern armorists restrict the word “engrailed,” making +shallower indentures in the form of lines of half circles. Thus +the engrailed cross of the +Mohuns takes either of the +two forms which we illustrate. +Bends follow the same fashion, +early bends engrailed or indented +being some four or +more fusils joined bendwise by +their blunt sides, bends of less +than four fusils being very rare. +Thus also the engrailed or indented +saltires, pales or cheverons, the exact number of the fusils +which go to the making of these being unconsidered. For the fesse +there is another law. The fesse indented or engrailed is made up +of fusils as is the engrailed bend. But although early rolls of +arms sometimes neglect this detail in their blazon, the fusils +making a fesse must always be of an ascertained number. +Montagu, earl of Salisbury, bore a fesse engrailed or indented +of three fusils only, very few shields imitating this. Medieval +armorists will describe his arms as a fesse indented of three +indentures, as a fesse fusilly of three pieces, or as a fesse engrailed +of three points or pieces, all of these blazons having the same +value. The indented fesse on the red shield of the Dynhams +has four such fusils of ermine. Four, however, is almost as rare +a number as three, the normal form of a fesse indented being that +of five fusils as borne by Percys, Pinkenys, Newmarches and +many other ancient houses. Indeed, accuracy of blazon is served +if the number of fusils in a fesse be named in the cases of threes +and fours. Fesses of six fusils are not to be found. Note that +bars indented or engrailed are, for a reason which will be evident, +never subject to this counting of fusils. Fauconberg, for +example, bore “Silver with two bars engrailed, or indented, +sable.” Displayed on a shield of the flat-iron outline, the +lower bar would show fewer fusils than the upper, while on a +square banner each bar would have an equal number—usually +five or six.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:517px; height:144px" src="images/img317b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Montagu.</td> +<td class="caption">Dynham.</td> +<td class="caption">Percy.</td> +<td class="caption">Fauconberg.</td></tr></table> + +<p>While bends, cheverons, crosses, saltires and pales often +follow, especially in the 15th century, the tendency towards the +rounded “engrailing,” fesses keep, as a rule, their bold indentures—neither +Percy nor Montagu being ever found with his bearings +in aught but their ancient form. Borders take the newer fashion +as leaving more room for the charges of the field. But indented +chiefs do not change their fashion, although many saw-teeth +sometimes take the place of the three or four strong points of +early arms, and parti-coloured shields whose party line is indented +never lose the bold zig-zag.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:123px; height:144px" src="images/img317c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">West.</td></tr></table> + +<p>While bearing in mind that the two words have no distinctive +force in ancient armory, the student and the herald of modern +times may conveniently allow himself to blazon the sharp and +saw-toothed line as “indented” and the scolloped line as +“engrailed,” especially when dealing with the debased armory +in which the distinction is held to be a true one and one of the +first importance. One error at least he must avoid, and that +is the following of the heraldry-book compilers in their use of the +word “dancetty.” A “dancetty” line, we are told, is a line +having fewer and deeper indentures than the line indented. But +no dancetty line could make a bolder dash across the shield than +do the lines which the old armorists recognized as “indented.” +In old armory we have fesses dancy—commonly +called “dances”—bends dancy, or cheverons +dancy; there are no chiefs dancy nor borders +dancy, nor are there shields blazoned as parted +with a dancy line. Waved lines, battled lines +and ragged lines need little explanation that a +picture cannot give. The word invecked or +invected is sometimes applied by old-fashioned +heraldic pedants to engrailed lines; later +pedants have given it to a line found in +modern grants of arms, an engrailed line reversed. Dove-tailed +and urdy lines are mere modernisms. Of the very +rare nebuly or clouded line we can only say that the ancient +form, which imitated the conventional cloud-bank of the old +painters, is now almost forgotten, while the bold “wavy” lines +of early armory have the word “nebuly” misapplied to them.</p> + +<p><i>The Ordinary Charges.</i>—The writers upon armory have given +the name of Ordinaries to certain conventional figures commonly +charged upon shields. Also they affect to divide these into +Honourable Ordinaries and Sub-Ordinaries without explaining +the reason for the superior honour of the Saltire or for the +subordination of the Quarter. Disregarding such distinctions, +we may begin with the description of the “Ordinaries” most +commonly to be found.</p> + +<p>From the first the Cross was a common bearing on English +shields, “Silver a cross gules” being given early to St George, +patron of knights and of England, for his arms; and under St +George’s red cross the English were wont to fight. Our armorial +crosses took many shapes, but the “crosses innumerabill” +of the Book of St Albans and its successors may be left to the +heraldic dictionary makers who have devised them. It is more +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page318" id="page318"></a>318</span> +important to define those forms in use during the middle ages, +and to name them accurately after the custom of those who bore +them in war, a task which the heraldry books have never as yet +attempted with success.</p> + +<p>The cross in its simple form needs no definition, but it will be +noted that it is sometimes borne “voided” and that in a very +few cases it appears as a lesser charge with its ends cut off square, +in which case it must be clearly blazoned as “a plain Cross.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Andrew Harcla, the march-warden, whom Edward II. made an +earl and executed as a traitor, bore the arms of St George with a +martlet sable in the quarter.</p> + +<p>Crevequer of Kent bore “Gold a voided cross gules.”</p> + +<p>Newsom (14th century) bore “Azure a fesse silver with three plain +crosses gules.”</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:530px; height:151px" src="images/img318a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">St George.</td> +<td class="caption">Harcla.</td> +<td class="caption">Crevequer.</td> +<td class="caption">Latimer.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Next to the plain Cross may be taken the Cross paty, the +<i>croiz patee</i> or <i>pate</i> of old rolls of arms. It has several forms, +according to the taste of the artist and the age. So, in the +13th and early 14th centuries, its limbs curve out broadly, while +at a later date the limbs become more slender and of even breadth, +the ends somewhat resembling fleurs-de-lys. Each of these forms +has been seized by the heraldic writers as the type of a distinct +cross for which a name must be found, none of them, as a rule, +being recognized as a cross paty, a word which has its misapplication +elsewhere. Thus the books have “cross patonce” for the +earlier form, while “cross clechée” and “cross fleurie” serve +for the others. But the true identification of the various crosses +is of the first importance to the antiquary, since without it +descriptions of the arms on early seals or monuments must needs +be valueless. Many instances of this need might be cited from +the British Museum catalogue of seals, where, for example, +the cross paty of Latimer is described twice as a “cross flory,” +six times as a “cross patonce,” but not once by its own name, +although there is no better known example of this bearing in +England.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Latimer bore “Gules a cross paty gold.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The cross formy follows the lines of the cross paty save that its +broadening ends are cut off squarely.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Chetwode bore “Quarterly silver and gules with four crosses formy +countercoloured”—that is to say, the two crosses in the gules are +of silver and the two in the silver of gules.</p> +</div> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:126px; height:150px" src="images/img318b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Mill-rinds.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The cross flory or flowered cross, the “cross with the ends +flowered”—<i>od les boutes floretes</i> as some of the old rolls have +it—is, like the cross paty, a mark for the misapprehension of +writers on armory, who describe some shapes of the cross paty +by its name. Playing upon discovered or fancied variants of the +word, they bid us mark the distinctions between crosses “fleur-de-lisée,” +“fleury” and “fleurettée,” although each author has +his own version of the value which must be given these precious +words. But the facts of the medieval practice are clear to those +who take their armory from ancient examples +and not from phrases plagiarized from the +hundredth plagiarist. The flowered cross is one +whose limbs end in fleur-de-lys, which spring +sometimes from a knop or bud but more frequently +issue from the square ends of a cross of +the “formy” type.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Swynnerton bore “Silver a flowered cross sable.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The mill-rind, which takes its name from the +iron of a mill-stone—<i>fer de moline</i>—must be set with the +crosses. Some of the old rolls call it <i>croiz recercele</i>, from which +armorial writers have leaped to imagine a distinct type. Also +they call the mill-rind itself a “cross moline” keeping the word +mill-rind for a charge having the same origin but of somewhat +differing form. Since this charge became common in Tudor +armory it is perhaps better that the original mill-rind should +be called for distinction a mill-rind cross.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Willoughby bore “Gules a mill-rind cross silver.”</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:528px; height:146px" src="images/img318c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Chetwode.</td> +<td class="caption">Swynnerton.</td> +<td class="caption">Willoughby.</td> +<td class="caption">Brerelegh.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The crosslet, cross botonny or cross crosletted, is a cross whose +limbs, of even breadth, end as trefoils or treble buds. It is +rarely found in medieval examples in the shape—that of a cross +with limbs ending in squarely cut plain crosses—which it took +during the 16th-century decadence. As the sole charge of a +shield it is very rare; otherwise it is one of the commonest of +charges.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Brerelegh bore “Silver a crosslet gules.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Within these modest limits we have brought the greater part +of that monstrous host of crosses which cumber the dictionaries. +A few rare varieties may be noticed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Dukinfield bore “Silver a voided cross with sharpened ends.”</p> + +<p>Skirlaw, bishop of Durham (d. 1406), the son of a basket-weaver, +bore “Silver a cross of three upright wattles sable, crossed and +interwoven by three more.”</p> + +<p>Drury bore “Silver a chief vert with a St Anthony’s cross gold +between two golden molets, pierced gules.”</p> + +<p>Brytton bore “Gold a patriarch’s cross set upon three degrees or +steps of gules.”</p> + +<p>Hurlestone of Cheshire bore “Silver a cross of four ermine tails +sable.”</p> + +<p>Melton bore “Silver a Toulouse cross gules.” By giving this cross +a name from the counts of Toulouse, its best-known bearers, some +elaborate blazonry is spared.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:527px; height:148px" src="images/img318d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Skirlaw.</td> +<td class="caption">Drury.</td> +<td class="caption">St Anthony’s Cross.</td> +<td class="caption">Brytton.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The crosses paty and formy, and more especially the crosslets, +are often borne fitchy, that is to say, with the lower limb somewhat +lengthened and ending in a point, for which reason the +15th-century writers call these “crosses fixabill.” In the 14th-century +rolls the word “potent” is sometimes used for these +crosses fitchy, the long foot suggesting a potent or staff. From +this source modern English armorists derive many of their +“crosses potent,” whose four arms have the <b>T</b> heads of old-fashioned +walking staves.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Howard bore “Silver a bend between six crosslets fitchy gules.”</p> + +<p>Scott of Congerhurst in Kent bore “Silver a crosslet fitchy sable.”</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:527px; height:147px" src="images/img318e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Hurlestone.</td> +<td class="caption">Melton.</td> +<td class="caption">Howard.</td> +<td class="caption">Scott.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Saltire is the cross in the form of that on which St Andrew +suffered, whence it is borne on the banner of Scotland, and by +the Andrew family of Northamptonshire.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Nevile of Raby bore “Gules a saltire silver.”</p> + +<p>Nicholas Upton, the 15th-century writer on armory, bore “Silver +a saltire sable with the ends couped and five golden rings thereon.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319"></a>319</span></p> + +<p>Aynho bore “Sable a saltire silver having the ends flowered between +four leopards gold.”</p> + +<p>“Mayster Elwett of Yorke chyre” in a 15th-century roll bears +“Silver a saltire of chains sable with a crescent in the chief.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:516px; height:145px" src="images/img319a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Nevile.</td> +<td class="caption">Upton.</td> +<td class="caption">Aynho.</td> +<td class="caption">Elwett.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Restwolde bore “Party saltirewise of gules and ermine.”</p> +</div> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:120px; height:146px" src="images/img319b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Fenwick.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The chief is the upper part of the shield and, marked out by a +line of division, it is taken as one of the Ordinaries. Shields +with a plain chief and no more are rare in England, but Tichborne +of Tichborne has borne since the 13th century “Vair a chief +gold.” According to the heraldry books the +chief should be marked off as a third part of +the shield, but its depth varies, being broader +when charged with devices and narrower +when, itself uncharged, it surmounts a charged +field. Fenwick bore “Silver a chief gules +with six martlets countercoloured,” and in this +case the chief would be the half of the shield. +Clinging to the belief that the chief must not +fill more than a third of the shield, the heraldry +books abandon the word in such cases, blazoning them as “party +per fesse.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hastang bore “Azure a chief gules and a lion with a forked tail +over all.”</p> + +<p>Walter Kingston seals in the 13th century with a shield of “Two +rings or annelets in the chief.”</p> + +<p>Hilton of Westmoreland bore “Sable three rings gold and two +saltires silver in the chief.”</p> +</div> + +<p>With the chief may be named the Foot, the nether part of the +shield marked off as an Ordinary. So rare is this charge that +we can cite but one example of it, that of the shield of John +of Skipton, who in the 14th century bore “Silver with the foot +indented purple and a lion purple.” The foot, however, is a +recognized bearing in France, whose heralds gave it the name +of <i>champagne</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:517px; height:148px" src="images/img319c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Restwolde.</td> +<td class="caption">Hastang.</td> +<td class="caption">Hilton.</td> +<td class="caption">Provence.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Pale is a broad stripe running the length of the shield. +Of a single pale and of three pales there are several old examples. +Four red pales in a golden shield were borne by Eleanor of +Provence, queen of Henry III.; but the number did not commend +itself to English armorists. When the field is divided +evenly into six pales it is said to be paly; if into four or eight +pales, it is blazoned as paly of that number of pieces. But paly +of more or less than six pieces is rarely found.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Yorkshire house of Gascoigne bore “Silver a pale sable with +a golden conger’s head thereon, cut off at the shoulder.”</p> + +<p>Ferlington bore “Gules three pales vair and a chief gold.”</p> + +<p>Strelley bore “Paly silver and azure.”</p> + +<p>Rothinge bore “Paly silver and gules of eight pieces.”</p> +</div> + +<p>When the shield or charge is divided palewise down the middle +into two tinctures it is said to be “party.” “Party silver +and gules” are the arms of the Waldegraves. Bermingham +bore “Party silver and sable indented.” Caldecote bore “Party +silver and azure with a chief gules.” Such partings of the +field often cut through charges whose colours change about on +either side of the parting line. Thus Chaucer the poet bore +“Party silver and gules with a bend countercoloured.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:517px; height:146px" src="images/img319d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Gascoigne.</td> +<td class="caption">Ferlington.</td> +<td class="caption">Strelley.</td> +<td class="caption">Rothinge.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Fesse is a band athwart the shield, filling, according to the +rules of the heraldic writers, a third part of it. By ancient use, +however, as in the case of the chief and pale, its width varies +with the taste of the painter, narrowing when set in a field full +of charges and broadening when charges are displayed on itself. +When two or three fesses are borne they are commonly called +Bars. “Ermine <i>four</i> bars gules” is given as the shield of Sir +John Sully, a 14th-century Garter knight, on his stall-plate +at Windsor: but the plate belongs to a later generation, and +should probably have three bars only. Little bars borne in +couples are styled Gemels (twins). The field divided into an +even number of bars of alternate colours is said to be barry, +barry of six pieces being the normal number. If four or eight +divisions be found the number of pieces must be named; but with +ten or more divisions the number is unreckoned and “burely” +is the word.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:515px; height:147px" src="images/img319e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Bermingham.</td> +<td class="caption">Caldecote.</td> +<td class="caption">Colevile.</td> +<td class="caption">Fauconberg.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Colevile of Bitham bore “Gold a fesse gules.”</p> + +<p>West bore “Silver a dance (or fesse dancy) sable.”</p> + +<p>Fauconberg bore “Gold a fesse azure with three pales gules in the +chief.”</p> + +<p>Cayvile bore “Silver a fesse gules, flowered on both sides.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:517px; height:146px" src="images/img319f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Cayvile.</td> +<td class="caption">Devereux.</td> +<td class="caption">Chamberlayne.</td> +<td class="caption">Harcourt.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Devereux bore “Gules a fesse silver with three roundels silver in +the chief.”</p> + +<p>Chamberlayne of Northamptonshire bore “Gules a fesse and three +scallops gold.”</p> + +<p>Harcourt bore “Gules two bars gold.”</p> + +<p>Manners bore “Gold two bars azure and a chief gules.”</p> + +<p>Wake bore “Gold two bars gules with three roundels gules in the +chief.”</p> + +<p>Bussy bore “Silver three bars sable.”</p> + +<p>Badlesmere of Kent bore “Silver a fesse between two gemels +gules.”</p> + +<p>Melsanby bore “Sable two gemels and a chief silver.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:518px; height:147px" src="images/img319g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Manners.</td> +<td class="caption">Wake.</td> +<td class="caption">Melsanby.</td> +<td class="caption">Grey.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Grey bore “Barry of silver and azure.”</p> + +<p>Fitzalan of Bedale bore “Barry of eight pieces gold and gules.”</p> + +<p>Stutevile bore “Burely of silver and gules.”</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page320" id="page320"></a>320</span></p> + +<p>The Bend is a band traversing the shield aslant, arms with +one, two or three bends being common during the middle ages +in England. Bendy shields follow the rule of shields paly and +barry, but as many as ten pieces have been counted in them. +The bend is often accompanied by a narrow bend on either +side, these companions being called Cotices. A single narrow +bend, struck over all other charges, is the Baston, which during +the 13th and 14th centuries was a common difference for the +shields of the younger branches of a family, coming in later +times to suggest itself as a difference for bastards.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:528px; height:151px" src="images/img320a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Fitzalan of Bedale.</td> +<td class="caption">Mauley.</td> +<td class="caption">Harley.</td> +<td class="caption">Wallop.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Bend Sinister, the bend drawn from right to left beginning +at the “sinister” corner of the shield, is reckoned in the heraldry +books as a separate Ordinary, and has a peculiar significance +accorded to it by novelists. Medieval English seals afford +a group of examples of Bends Sinister and Bastons Sinister, +but there seems no reason for taking them as anything more +than cases in which the artist has neglected the common rule.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Mauley bore “Gold a bend sable.”</p> + +<p>Harley bore “Gold a bend with two cotices sable.”</p> + +<p>Wallop bore “Silver a bend wavy sable.”</p> + +<p>Ralegh bore “Gules a bend indented, or engrailed, silver.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:527px; height:152px" src="images/img320b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Ralegh.</td> +<td class="caption">Tracy.</td> +<td class="caption">Bodrugan.</td> +<td class="caption">St Philibert.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Tracy bore “Gold two bends gules with a scallop sable in the chief +between the bends.”</p> + +<p>Bodrugan bore “Gules three bends sable.”</p> + +<p>St Philibert bore “Bendy of six pieces, silver and azure.”</p> + +<p>Bishopsdon bore “Bendy of six pieces, gold and azure, with a +quarter ermine.”</p> + +<p>Montfort of Whitchurch bore “Bendy of ten pieces gold and +azure.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:530px; height:149px" src="images/img320c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Bishopsdon.</td> +<td class="caption">Montfort.</td> +<td class="caption">Lancaster.</td> +<td class="caption">Fraunceys.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Henry of Lancaster, second son of Edmund Crouchback, bore the +arms of his cousin, the king of England, with the difference of “a +baston azure.”</p> + +<p>Adam Fraunceys (14th century) bore “Party gold and sable +bendwise with a lion countercoloured.” The parting line is here +commonly shown as “sinister.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The Cheveron, a word found In medieval building accounts +for the barge-boards of a gable, is an Ordinary whose form is +explained by its name. Perhaps the very earliest of English +armorial charges, and familiarized by the shield of the great +house of Clare, it became exceedingly popular in England. +Like the bend and the chief, its width varies in different examples. +Likewise its angle varies, being sometimes so acute as to touch +the top of the shield, while in post-medieval armory the point +is often blunted beyond the right angle. One, two or three +cheverons occur in numberless shields, and five cheverons have +been found. Also there are some examples of the bearing of +cheveronny.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The earls of Gloucester of the house of Clare bore “Gold three +cheverons gules” and the Staffords derived from them their shield of +“Gold a cheveron gules.”</p> + +<p>Chaworth bore “Azure two cheverons gold.”</p> + +<p>Peytevyn bore “Cheveronny of ermine and gules.”</p> + +<p>St Quintin of Yorkshire bore “Gold two cheverons gules and a +chief vair.”</p> + +<p>Sheffield bore “Ermine a cheveron gules between three sheaves +gold.”</p> + +<p>Cobham of Kent bore “Gules a cheveron gold with three fleurs-de-lys +azure thereon.”</p> + +<p>Fitzwalter bore “Gold a fesse between two cheverons gules.”</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:527px; height:149px" src="images/img320d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Chaworth.</td> +<td class="caption">Peytevyn.</td> +<td class="caption">Sheffield.</td> +<td class="caption">Cobham.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Shields parted cheveronwise are common in the 15th century, +when they are often blazoned as having chiefs “enty” or +grafted. Aston of Cheshire bore “Party sable and silver cheveronwise” +or “Silver a chief enty sable.”</p> + +<p>The Pile or stake (<i>estache</i>) is a wedge-shaped figure jutting +from the chief to the foot of the shield, its name allied to the +pile of the bridge-builder. A single pile is found in the notable +arms of Chandos, and the black piles in the ermine shield of +Hollis are seen as an example of the bearing of two piles. Three +piles are more easily found, and when more than one is represented +the points are brought together at the foot. In ancient armory +piles in a shield are sometimes reckoned as a variety of pales, +and a Basset with three piles on his shield is seen with three +pales on his square banner.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Chandos bore “Gold a pile gules.”</p> + +<p>Bryene bore “Gold three piles azure.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The Quarter is the space of the first quarter of the shield +divided crosswise into four parts. As an Ordinary it is an +ancient charge and a common one in medieval England, although +it has all but disappeared from modern heraldry books, the +“Canton,” an alleged “diminutive,” unknown to early armory, +taking its place. Like the other Ordinaries, its size is found +to vary with the scheme of the shield’s charges, and this has +persuaded those armorists who must needs call a narrow bend +a “bendlet,” to the invention of the “Canton,” a word which +in the sense of a quarter or small quarter appears for the first +time in the latter part of the 15th century. Writers of the +14th century sometimes give it the name of the Cantel, but this +word is also applied to the void space on the opposite side of +the chief, seen above a bend.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:528px; height:149px" src="images/img320e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Aston.</td> +<td class="caption">Hollis.</td> +<td class="caption">Bryene.</td> +<td class="caption">Blencowe.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Blencowe bore “Gules a quarter silver.”</p> + +<p>Basset of Drayton bore “Gold three piles (or pales) gules with a +quarter ermine.”</p> + +<p>Wydvile bore “Silver a fesse and a quarter gules.”</p> + +<p>Odingseles bore “Silver a fesse gules with a molet gules in the +quarter.”</p> + +<p>Robert Dene of Sussex (14th century) bore “Gules a quarter +azure ‘embelif,’ or aslant, and thereon a sleeved arm and hand of +silver.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Shields or charges divided crosswise with a downward line +and a line athwart are said to be quarterly. An ancient coat +of this fashion is that of Say who bore (13th century) “Quarterly +gold and gules”—the first and fourth quarters being gold and +the second and third red. Ever or Eure bore the same with the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page321" id="page321"></a>321</span> +addition of “a bend sable with three silver scallops thereon.” +Phelip, Lord Bardolf, bore “Quarterly gules and silver with an +eagle gold in the quarter.”</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate III.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:818px; height:1125px" src="images/img320f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">SHIELDS OF ARMS OF “LE ROY DARRABE,” “LE ROY DE TARSSE,” AND OTHER SOVEREIGNS. MOSTLY MYTHICAL. TAKEN FROM A +ROLL OF ARMS MADE BY AN ENGLISH PAINTER IN THE TIME OF HENRY VI.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Drawn by William Gibb.</i></td> +<td class="tcr f80"><i>Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y.</i></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:516px; height:143px" src="images/img321a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Basset.</td> +<td class="caption">Wydvile.</td> +<td class="caption">Odingseles.</td> +<td class="caption">Ever.</td></tr></table> + +<p>With the 15th century came a fashion of dividing the shield +into more than four squares, six and nine divisions being often +found in arms of that age. The heraldry books, eager to work +out problems of blazonry, decide that a shield divided into +six squares should be described as “Party per fesse with a pale +counterchanged,” and one divided into nine squares as bearing +“a cross quarter-pierced.” It seems a simpler business to +follow a 15th-century fashion and to blazon such shields as +being of six or nine “pieces.” Thus John Garther (15th century) +bore “Nine pieces erminees and ermine” and Whitgreave of +Staffordshire “Nine pieces of azure and of Stafford’s arms, +which are gold with a cheveron gules.” The Tallow Chandlers +of London had a grant in 1456 of “Six pieces azure and silver +with three doves in the azure, each with an olive sprig in her +beak.”</p> + +<p>Squared into more than nine squares the shield becomes +checky or checkered and the number is not reckoned. Warenne’s +checker of gold and azure is one of the most ancient coats in +England and checkered fields and charges follow in great numbers. +Even lions have been borne checkered.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Warenne bore “Checky gold and azure.”</p> + +<p>Clifford bore the like with “a fesse gules.”</p> + +<p>Cobham bore “Silver a lion checky gold and sable.”</p> + +<p>Arderne bore “Ermine a fesse checky gold and gules.”</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:517px; height:150px" src="images/img321b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Phelip Lord Bardolf.</td> +<td class="caption">Whitgreave.</td> +<td class="caption">Tallow Chandlers.</td> +<td class="caption">Warenne.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Such charges as this fesse of Arderne’s and other checkered +fesses, bars, bends, borders and the like, will commonly bear but +two rows of squares, or three at the most. The heraldry writers +are ready to note that when two rows are used “counter-compony” +is the word in place of checky, and “compony-counter-compony” +in the case of three rows. It is needless to +say that these words have neither practical value nor antiquity +to commend them. But bends and bastons, labels, borders +and the rest are often coloured with a single row of alternating +tinctures. In this case the pieces are said to be “gobony.” +Thus John Cromwell (14th century) bore “Silver a chief gules +with a baston gobony of gold and azure.”</p> + +<p>The scocheon or shield used as a charge is found among the +earliest arms. Itself charged with arms, it served to indicate +alliance by blood or by tenure with another house, as in the +bearings of St Owen whose shield of “Gules with a cross silver” +has a scocheon of Clare in the quarter. In the latter half of the +15th century it plays an important part in the curious marshalling +of the arms of great houses and lordships.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Erpingham bore “Vert a scocheon silver with an orle (or border) +of silver martlets.”</p> + +<p>Davillers bore at the battle of Boroughbridge “Silver three +scocheons gules.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The scocheon was often borne voided or pierced, its field cut +away to a narrow border. Especially was this the case in the +far North, where the Balliols, who bore such a voided scocheon, +were powerful. The voided scocheon is wrongly named in all +the heraldry books as an orle, a term which belongs to a number +of small charges set round a central charge. Thus the martlets +in the shield of Erpingham, already described, may be called an +orle of martlets or a border of martlets. This misnaming of the +voided scocheon has caused a curious misapprehension of its +form, even Dr Woodward, in his <i>Heraldry, British and Foreign</i>, +describing the “orle” as “a narrow border detached from the +edge of the shield.” Following this definition modern armorial +artists will, in the case of quartered arms, draw the “orle” in +a first or second quarter of a quartered shield as a rectangular +figure and in a third or fourth quarter as a scalene triangle +with one arched side. Thereby the original voided scocheon +changes into forms without meaning.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Balliol bore “Gules a voided scocheon silver.”</p> + +<p>Surtees bore “Ermine with a quarter of the arms of Balliol.”</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:518px; height:146px" src="images/img321c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Clifford.</td> +<td class="caption">Arderne.</td> +<td class="caption">Cromwell.</td> +<td class="caption">Erpingham.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>Tressure</i> or flowered tressure is a figure which is correctly +described by Woodward’s incorrect description of the orle as +cited above, being a narrow inner border of the shield. It is +distinguished, however, by the fleurs-de-lys which decorate it, +setting off its edges. The double tressure which surrounds the +lion in the royal shield of Scotland, and which is borne by many +Scottish houses who have served their kings well or mated with +their daughters, is carefully described by Scottish heralds as +“flowered and counter-flowered,” a blazon which is held to +mean that the fleurs-de-lys show head and tail in turn from the +outer rim of the outer tressure and from the inner rim of the +innermost. But this seems to have been no essential matter +with medieval armorists and a curious 15th-century enamelled +roundel of the arms of Vampage shows that in this English +case the flowering takes the more convenient form of allowing +all the lily heads to sprout from the outer rim.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Vampage bore “Azure an eagle silver within a flowered tressure +silver.”</p> + +<p>The king of Scots bore “Gold a lion within a double tressure +flowered and counterflowered gules.”</p> + +<p>Felton bore “Gules two lions passant within a double tressure +flory silver.”</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:521px; height:148px" src="images/img321d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Davillers.</td> +<td class="caption">Balliol.</td> +<td class="caption">Surtees.</td> +<td class="caption">Vampage.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Border of the shield when marked out in its own tincture +is counted as an Ordinary. Plain or charged, it was commonly +used as a difference. As the principal charge of a shield it is +very rare, so rare that in most cases where it apparently occurs +we may, perhaps, be following medieval custom in blazoning +the shield as one charged with a scocheon and not with a border. +Thus Hondescote bore “Ermine a border gules” or “Gules a +scocheon ermine.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Somerville bore “Burely silver and gules and a border azure with +golden martlets.”</p> + +<p>Paynel bore “Silver two bars sable with a border, or orle, of +martlets gules.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The Flaunches are the flanks of the shield which, cut off by +rounded lines, are borne in pairs as Ordinaries. These charges +are found in many coats devised by 15th-century armorists. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page322" id="page322"></a>322</span> +“Ermine two flaunches azure with six golden wheat-ears” was borne +by John Greyby of Oxfordshire (15th century).</p> + +<p>The Label is a narrow fillet across the upper part of the chief, +from which hang three, four, five or more pendants, the pendants +being, in most old examples, broader than the fillet. Reckoned +with the Ordinaries, it was commonly used as a means of +differencing a cadet’s shield, and in the heraldry books it has +become the accepted difference for an eldest son, although the +cadets often bore it in the middle ages. John of Hastings bore in +1300 before Carlaverock “Gold a sleeve (or maunche) gules,” +while Edmund his brother bore the same arms with a sable label. +In modern armory the pendants are all but invariably reduced to +three, which, in debased examples, are given a dovetailed form +while the ends of the fillet are cut off.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:525px; height:146px" src="images/img322a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Scotland.</td> +<td class="caption">Hondescote.</td> +<td class="caption">Greyby.</td> +<td class="caption">Hastings.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Fret, drawn as a voided lozenge interlaced by a slender +saltire, is counted an Ordinary. A charge in such a shape is +extremely rare in medieval armory, its ancient form when the +field is covered by it being a number of bastons—three being +the customary number—interlaced by as many more from the +sinister side. Although the whole is described as a fret in +certain English blazons of the 15th century, the adjective +“fretty” is more commonly used. Trussel’s fret is remarkable for its +bezants at the joints, which stand, doubtless, for the golden +nail-heads of the “trellis” suggested by his name. Curwen, +Wyvile and other northern houses bearing a fret and a chief have, +owing to their fashion of drawing their frets, often seen them +changed by the heraldry books into “three cheverons braced or +interlaced.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Huddlestone bore “Gules fretty silver.”</p> + +<p>Trussel bore “Silver fretty gules, the joints bezanty.”</p> + +<p>Hugh Giffard (14th century) bore “Gules with an engrailed fret +of ermine.”</p> + +<p>Wyvile bore “Gules fretty vair with a chief gold.”</p> + +<p>Boxhull bore “Gold a lion azure fretty silver.”</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:528px; height:147px" src="images/img322b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Trussel.</td> +<td class="caption">Giffard.</td> +<td class="caption">Wyvile.</td> +<td class="caption">Mortimer.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Another Ordinary is the Giron or Gyron—a word now commonly +mispronounced with a hard “g.” It may be defined as the lower +half of a quarter which has been divided bendwise. No old example +of a single giron can be found to match the figure in the +heraldry books. Gironny, or gyronny, is a manner of dividing the +field into sections, by lines radiating from a centre point, of +which many instances may be given. Most of the earlier examples +have some twelve divisions although later armory gives eight as +the normal number, as Campbell bears them.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Bassingbourne bore “Gironny of gold and azure of twelve pieces.”</p> + +<p>William Stoker, who died Lord Mayor of London in 1484, bore +“Gironny of six pieces azure and silver with three popinjays in +the silver pieces.”</p> + +<p>A pair of girons on either side of a chief were borne in the +strange shield of Mortimer, commonly blazoned as “Barry azure +and gold of six pieces, the chief azure with two pales and two +girons gold, a scocheon silver over all.” An early example shows +that this shield began as a plain field with a gobony border.</p> +</div> + +<p>With the Ordinaries we may take the Roundels or Pellets, disks or +balls of various colours. Ancient custom gives the name of a +bezant to the golden roundel, and the folly of the heraldic +writers has found names for all the others, names which may be +disregarded together with the belief that, while bezants and +silver roundels, as representing coins, must be pictured with a +flat surface, roundels of other hues must needs be shaded by the +painter to represent rounded balls. Rings or Annelets were common +charges in the North, where Lowthers, Musgraves and many more, +differenced the six rings of Vipont by bearing them in various +colours.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:527px; height:149px" src="images/img322c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Campbell.</td> +<td class="caption">Bassingbourne.</td> +<td class="caption">Stoker.</td> +<td class="caption">Burlay.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Burlay of Wharfdale bore “Gules a bezant.”</p> + +<p>Courtenay, earl of Devon, bore “Gold three roundels gules with a +label azure.”</p> + +<p>Caraunt bore “Silver three roundels azure, each with three +cheverons gules.”</p> + +<p>Vipont bore “Gold six annelets gules.”</p> + +<p>Avenel bore “Silver a fesse and six annelets (<i>aunels</i>) gules.”</p> + +<p>Hawberk of Stapleford bore “Silver a bend sable charged with +three pieces of a mail hawberk, each of three linked rings of +gold.”</p> + +<p>Stourton bore “Sable a bend gold between six fountains.” The +fountain is a roundel charged with waves of white and blue.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:526px; height:151px" src="images/img322d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Courtenay.</td> +<td class="caption">Caraunt.</td> +<td class="caption">Vipont.</td> +<td class="caption">Avenel.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Lozenge is linked in the heraldry book with the Fusil. This +Fusil is described as a lengthened and sharper lozenge. But +it will be understood that the Fusil, other than as part of an +engrailed or indented bend, pale or fesse, is not known to true +armory. Also it is one of the notable achievements of the English +writers on heraldry that they should have allotted to the +lozenge, when borne voided, the name of Mascle. This “mascle” +is the word of the oldest armorists for the unvoided charge, the +voided being sometimes described by them as a lozenge, without +further qualifications. Fortunately the difficulty can be solved +by following the late 14th-century custom in distinguishing +between “lozenges” and “voided lozenges” and by abandoning +altogether this misleading word Mascle.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:529px; height:151px" src="images/img322e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Hawberk.</td> +<td class="caption">Stourton.</td> +<td class="caption">Charles.</td> +<td class="caption">Fitzwilliam.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Thomas of Merstone, a clerk, bore on his seal in 1359 “Ermine a +lozenge with a pierced molet thereon.”</p> + +<p>Braybroke bore “Silver seven voided lozenges gules.”</p> + +<p>Charles bore “Ermine a chief gules with five golden lozenges. +thereon.”</p> + +<p>Fitzwilliam bore “Lozengy silver and gules.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Billets are oblong figures set upright. Black billets in the +arms of Delves of Cheshire stand for “delves” of earth and the +gads of steel in the arms of the London Ironmongers’ Company took +a somewhat similar form.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id="page323"></a>323</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Sir Ralph Mounchensy bore in the 14th century “Silver a cheveron +between three billets sable.”</p> + +<p>Haggerston bore “Azure a bend with cotices silver and three billets +sable on the bend.”</p> +</div> + +<p>With the Billet, the Ordinaries, uncertain as they are in number, +may be said to end. But we may here add certain armorial +charges which might well have been counted with them.</p> + +<p>First of these is the Molet, a word corrupted in modern heraldry +to Mullet, a fish-like change with nothing to commend it. This +figure is as a star of five or six points, six points being perhaps +the commonest form in old examples, although the sixth point is, +as a rule, lost during the later period. Medieval armorists are +not, it seems, inclined to make any distinction between molets +of five and six points, but some families, such as the Harpedens +and Asshetons, remained constant to the five-pointed form. It +was generally borne pierced with a round hole, and then represents, +as its name implies, the rowel of a spur. In ancient rolls of arms +the word Rowel is often used, and probably indicated the pierced +molet. That the piercing was reckoned an essential difference +is shown by a roll of the time of Edward II., in which Sir John +of Pabenham bears “Barry azure and silver, with a bend gules +and three molets gold thereon,” arms which Sir John his son +differences by piercing the molets. Beside these names is that +of Sir Walter Baa with “Gules a cheveron and three rowels +silver,” rowels which are shown on seals of this family as pierced +molets. Probably an older bearing than the molet, which would +be popularized when the rowelled spur began to take the place +of the prick-spur, is the Star or Estoile, differing from the +molet in that its five or six points are wavy. It is possible that +several star bearings of the 13th century were changed in the +14th for molets. The star is not pierced in the fashion of the +molet; but, like the molet, it tends to lose its sixth point in armory +of the decadence. Suns, sometimes blazoned in old rolls as Sun-rays—<i>rays +de soleil</i>—are pictured as unpierced molets of many +points, which in rare cases are waved.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Harpeden bore “Silver a pierced molet gules.”</p> + +<p>Gentil bore “Gold a chief sable with two molets goles pierced +gules.”</p> + +<p>Grimston bore “Silver a fesse sable and thereon three molets silver +pierced gules.”</p> + +<p>Ingleby of Yorkshire bore “Sable a star silver.”</p> + +<p>Sir John de la Haye of Lincolnshire bore “Silver a sun gules.”</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:515px; height:146px" src="images/img323a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Mounchensy.</td> +<td class="caption">Haggerston.</td> +<td class="caption">Harpeden.</td> +<td class="caption">Gentil.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Crescent is a charge which has to answer for many idle +tales concerning the crusading ancestors of families who bear +it. It is commonly borne with both points uppermost, but when +representing the waning or the waxing moon—decrescent or +increscent—its horns are turned to the sinister or dexter side +of the shield.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Peter de Marines (13th century) bore on his seal a shield charged +with a crescent in the chief.</p> + +<p>William Gobioun (14th century) bore “A bend between two +waxing moons.”</p> + +<p>Longchamp bore “Ermine three crescents gules, pierced silver.”</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Tinctures.</i>—The tinctures or hues of the shield and its charges +are seven in number—gold or yellow, silver or white, red, blue, +black, green and purple. Medieval custom gave, according to +a rule often broken, “gules,” “azure” and “sable” as more +high-sounding names for the red, blue and black. Green was +often named as “vert,” and sometimes as “synobill,” a word +which as “sinople” is used to this day by French armorists. +The song of the siege of Carlaverock and other early documents +have red, gules or “vermeil,” sable or black, azure or blue, but +gules, azure, sable and vert came to be recognized as armorists’ +adjectives, and an early 15th-century romance discards the simple +words deliberately, telling us of its hero that</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“His shield was black and blue, sanz fable,</p> +<p class="i05">Barred of azure and of sable.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">But gold and silver served as the armorists’ words for yellows +and whites until late in the 16th century, when gold and silver +made way for “or” and “argent,” words which those for whom +the interest of armory lies in its liveliest days will not be eager +to accept. Likewise the colours of “sanguine” and “tenné” +brought in by the pedants to bring the tinctures to the mystical +number of nine may be disregarded.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:516px; height:145px" src="images/img323b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Grimston.</td> +<td class="caption">Ingilby.</td> +<td class="caption">Gobioun.</td> +<td class="caption">Longchamp.</td></tr></table> + +<p>A certain armorial chart of the duchy of Brabant, published +in 1600, is the earliest example of the practice whereby later +engravers have indicated colours in uncoloured plates by the +use of lines and dots. Gold is indicated by a powdering of dots; +silver is left plain. Azure is shown by horizontal shading lines; +gules by upright lines; sable by cross-hatching of upright and +horizontal lines. Diagonal lines from sinister to dexter indicate +purple; vert is marked with diagonal lines from dexter to +sinister. The practice, in spite of a certain convenience, has been +disastrous in its cramping effects on armorial art, especially +when applied to seals and coins.</p> + +<p>Besides the two “metals” and five “colours,” fields and +charges are varied by the use of the furs ermine and vair. Ermine +is shown by a white field flecked with black ermine tails, and vair +by a conventional representation of a fur of small skins sewn in +rows, white and blue skins alternately. In the 15th century +there was a popular variant of ermine, white tails upon a black +field. To this fur the books now give the name of “ermines”—a +most unfortunate choice, since ermines is a name used in old +documents for the original ermine. “Erminees,” which has +at least a 15th-century authority, will serve for those who are +not content to speak of “sable ermined with silver.” Vair, +although silver and blue be its normal form, may be made up +of gold, silver or ermine, with sable or gules or vert, but in these +latter cases the colours must be named in the blazon. To the +vairs and ermines of old use the heraldry books have added +“erminois,” which is a gold field with black ermine fails, “pean,” +which is “erminois” reversed, and “erminites,” which is +ermine with a single red hair on either side of each black tail. +The vairs, mainly by misunderstanding of the various patterns +found in old paintings, have been amplified with “countervair,” +“potent,” “counter-potent” and “vair-en-point,” no one of +which merits description.</p> + +<p>No shield of a plain metal or colour has ever been borne by +an Englishman, although the knights at Carlaverock and Falkirk +saw Amaneu d’Albret with his banner all of red having no +charge thereon. Plain ermine was the shield of the duke of +Brittany and no Englishman challenged the bearing. But +Beauchamp of Hatch bore simple vair, Ferrers of Derby “Vairy +gold and gules,” and Ward “Vairy silver and sable.” Gresley +had “Vairy ermine and gules,” and Beche “Vairy silver and +gules.”</p> + +<p>Only one English example has hitherto been discovered of a +field covered not with a fur but with overlapping feathers. +A 15th-century book of arms gives “Plumetty of gold and +purple” for “Mydlam in Coverdale.”</p> + +<p>Drops of various colours which variegate certain fields and +charges are often mistaken for ermine tails when ancient seals +are deciphered. A simple example of such spattering is in the +shield of Grayndore, who bore “Party ermine and vert, the vert +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id="page324"></a>324</span> +dropped with gold.” Sir Richard le Brun (14th century) bore +“Azure a silver lion dropped with gules.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:531px; height:152px" src="images/img324a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Brittany.</td> +<td class="caption">Beauchamp.</td> +<td class="caption">Mydlam.</td> +<td class="caption">Grayndorge.</td></tr></table> + +<p>A very common variant of charges and fields is the sowing +or “powdering” them with a small charge repeated many times. +Mortimer of Norfolk bore “gold powdered with fleurs-de-lys +sable” and Edward III. quartered for the old arms of France +“Azure powdered with fleurs-de-lys gold,” such fields being often +described as flowered or flory. Golden billets were scattered +in Cowdray’s red shield, which is blazoned as “Gules billety +gold,” and bezants in that of Zouche, which is “Gules bezanty +with a quarter ermine.” The disposition of such charges varied +with the users. Zouche as a rule shows ten bezants placed four, +three, two and one on his shield, while the old arms of France +in the royal coat allows the pattern of flowers to run over the +edge, the shield border thus showing halves and tops and stalk +ends of the fleurs-de-lys. But the commonest of these powderings +is that with crosslets, as in the arms of John la Warr “Gules +crusily silver with a silver lion.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:527px; height:148px" src="images/img324b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Mortimer.</td> +<td class="caption">Cowdray.</td> +<td class="caption">Zouche.</td> +<td class="caption">La Warr.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Trees, Leaves and Flowers.</i>—Sir Stephen Cheyndut, a 13th-century +knight, bore an oak tree, the <i>cheyne</i> of his first syllable, +while for like reasons a Piriton had a pear tree on his shield. +Three pears were borne (<i>temp.</i> Edward III.) by Nicholas Stivecle +of Huntingdonshire, and about the same date is Applegarth’s +shield of three red apples in a silver field. Leaves of burdock +are in the arms (14th century) of Sir John de Lisle and mulberry +leaves in those of Sir Hugh de Morieus. Three roots of trees +are given to one Richard Rotour in a 14th-century roll. Malherbe +(13th century) bore the “evil herb”—a teazle bush. +Pineapples are borne here and there, and it will be noted that +armorists have not surrendered this, our ancient word for the +“fir-cone,” to the foreign <i>ananas</i>. Out of the cornfield English +armory took the sheaf, three sheaves being on the shield of an +earl of Chester early in the 13th century and Sheffield bearing +sheaves for a play on his name. For a like reason Peverel’s +sheaves were sheaves of pepper. Rye bore three ears of rye on a +bend, and Graindorge had barley-ears. Flowers are few in this +field of armory, although lilies with their stalks and leaves are +in the grant of arms to Eton College. Ousethorpe has water +flowers, and now and again we find some such strange charges +as those in the 15th-century shield of Thomas Porthelyne who +bore “Sable a cheveron gules between three ‘popyebolles,’ or +poppy-heads vert.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:532px; height:148px" src="images/img324c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Cheyndut.</td> +<td class="caption">Applegarth.</td> +<td class="caption">Chester.</td> +<td class="caption">Rye.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The fleur-de-lys, a conventional form from the beginnings of +armory, might well be taken amongst the “ordinaries.” In +England as in France it is found in great plenty.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Aguylon bore “Gules a fleur-de-lys silver.”</p> + +<p>Peyferer bore “Silver three fleur-de-lys sable.”</p> +</div> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:124px; height:146px" src="images/img324d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Eton College.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Trefoils are very rarely seen until the 15th century, although +Hervey has them, and Gausill, and a Bosville coat seems to have +borne them. They have always their stalk left +hanging to them. Vincent, Hattecliffe and +Massingberd all bore the quatrefoil, while +the Bardolfs, and the Quincys, earls of Winchester, +had cinqfoils. The old rolls of arms +made much confusion between cinqfoils and +sixfoils (<i>quintefoilles e sisfoilles</i>) and the rose. +It is still uncertain how far that confusion +extended amongst the families which bore +these charges. The cinqfoil and sixfoil, however, +are all but invariably pierced in the middle like +the spur rowel, and the rose’s blunt-edged petals give it +definite shape soon after the decorative movement of the +Edwardian age began to carve natural buds and flowers in stone +and wood.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:514px; height:149px" src="images/img324e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Aguylon.</td> +<td class="caption">Peyferer.</td> +<td class="caption">Hervey.</td> +<td class="caption">Vincent.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hervey bore “Gules a bend silver with three trefoils vert thereon.”</p> + +<p>Vincent bore “Azure three quatrefoils silver.”</p> + +<p>Quincy bore “Gules a cinqfoil silver.”</p> + +<p>Bardolf of Wormegay bore “Gules three cinqfoils silver.”</p> + +<p>Cosington bore “Azure three roses gold.”</p> + +<p>Hilton bore “Silver three chaplets or garlands of red roses.”</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:527px; height:152px" src="images/img324f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Quincy.</td> +<td class="caption">Bardolf.</td> +<td class="caption">Cosington.</td> +<td class="caption">Hilton.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Beasts and Birds.</i>—The book of natural history as studied in +the middle ages lay open at the chapter of the lion, to which +royal beast all the noble virtues were set down. What is the +oldest armorial seal of a sovereign prince as yet discovered bears +the rampant lion of Flanders. In England we know of no royal +shield earlier than that first seal of Richard I. which has a like +device. A long roll of our old earls, barons and knights wore the +lion on their coats—Lacy, Marshal, Fitzalan and Montfort, +Percy, Mowbray and Talbot. By custom the royal beast is +shown as rampant, touching the ground with but one foot and +clawing at the air in noble rage. So far is this the normal +attitude of a lion that the adjective “rampant” was often +dropped, and we have leave and good authority for blazoning +the rampant beast simply as “a lion,” leave which a writer on +armory may take gladly to the saving of much repetition. In +France and Germany this licence has always been the rule, and +the modern English herald’s blazon of “Gules a lion rampant +or” for the arms of Fitzalan, becomes in French <i>de gueules au +lion d’or</i> and in German <i>in Rot ein goldener Loewe</i>. Other +positions must be named with care and the prowling “lion +passant” distinguished from the rampant beast, as well as from +such rarer shapes as the couchant lion, the lion sleeping, sitting +or leaping. Of these the lion passant is the only one commonly +encountered. The lion standing with his forepaws together is +not a figure for the shield, but for the crest, where he takes this +position for greater stableness upon the helm, and the sitting +lion is also found rather upon helms than in shields. For a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page325" id="page325"></a>325</span> +couchant lion or a dormant lion one must search far afield, +although there are some medieval instances. The leaping lion +is in so few shields that no maker of a heraldry book has, it +would appear, discovered an example. In the books this “lion +salient” is described as with the hind paws together on the +ground and the fore paws together in the air, somewhat after the +fashion of a diver’s first movement. But examples from seals +and monuments of the Felbrigges and the Merks show that the +leaping lion differed only from the rampant in that he leans +somewhat forward in his eager spring. The compiler of the +British Museum catalogue of medieval armorial seals, and others +equally unfamiliar with medieval armory, invariably describe +this position as “rampant,” seeing no distinction from other +rampings. As rare as the leaping lion is the lion who looks +backward over his shoulder. This position is called “regardant” +by modern armorists. The old French blazon calls it <i>rere +regardant or turnaunte le visage arere</i>, “regardant” alone meaning +simply “looking,” and therefore we shall describe it more +reasonably in plain English as “looking backward.” The two-headed +lion occurs in a 15th-century coat of Mason, and at the +same period a monstrous lion of three bodies and one head is +borne, apparently, by a Sharingbury.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate IV.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:831px; height:1079px" src="images/img324g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">THE BEGINNING OF A ROLL OF THE ARMS OF THOSE JOUSTING IN A TOURNAMENT HELD ON THE FIELD OF +THE CLOTH OF GOLD. BESIDES THE ARMS OF THE KINGS OF FRANCE AND ENGLAND ARE TWO COLUMNS +OF “CHEQUES,” MARKED WITH THE NAMES AND SCORING POINTS OF THE JOUSTERS.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Drawn by William Gibb.</i></td> +<td class="tcr f80"><i>Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y.</i></td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:122px; height:146px" src="images/img325a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">England.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The lion’s companion is the leopard. What might be the +true form of this beast was a dark thing to the old armorist, yet +knowing from the report of grave travellers that the leopard +was begotten in spouse-breach between the lion and the pard, +it was felt that his shape would favour his sire’s. But nice +distinctions of outline, even were they ascertainable, are not to be +marked on the tiny seal, or easily expressed by the broad strokes +of the shield painter. The leopard was indeed lesser than the +lion, but in armory, as in the Noah’s arks launched by the old +yards, the bear is no bigger than the badger. Then a happy +device came to the armorist. He would paint the leopard like +the lion at all points. But as the lion looks forward the leopard +should look sidelong, showing his whole face. The matter was +arranged, and until the end of the middle ages the distinction +held and served. The disregarded writers on armory, Nicholas +Upton, and his fellows, protested that a lion did not become a +leopard by turning his face sidelong, but none who fought in the +field under lion and leopard banners heeded this pedantry from +cathedral closes. The English king’s beasts were leopards in +blazon, in ballad and chronicle, and in the mouths of liegeman +and enemy. Henry V.’s herald, named from his master’s coat, +was Leopard Herald; and Napoleon’s gazettes +never fail to speak of the English leopards. In +our own days, those who deal with armory as +antiquaries and students of the past will observe +the old custom for convenience’ sake. Those +for whom the interest of heraldry lies in the +nonsense-language brewed during post-medieval +years may correct the medieval ignorance at +their pleasure. The knight who saw the king’s +banner fly at Falkirk or Crécy tells us that it +bore “Gules with three leopards of gold.” The modern +armorist will shame the uninstructed warrior with “Gules +three lions passant gardant in pale or.”</p> + +<p>As the lion rampant is the normal lion, so the normal leopard +is the leopard passant, the adjective being needless. In a few +cases only the leopard rises up to ramp in the lion’s fashion, +and here he must be blazoned without fail as a leopard rampant.</p> + +<p>Parts of the lion and the leopard are common charges. Chief +of these are the demi-lion and the demi-leopard, beasts complete +above their slender middles, even to the upper parts of +their lashing tails. Rampant or passant, they follow the customs +of the unmaimed brute. Also the heads of lion and leopard +are in many shields, and here the armorist of the modern handbooks +stumbles by reason of his refusal to regard clearly marked +medieval distinctions. The instructed will know a lion’s head +because it shows but half the face and a leopard’s head because +it is seen full-face. But the handbooks of heraldry, knowing +naught of leopards, must judge by absence or presence of a +mane, speaking uncertainly of leopards’ faces and lions’ heads +and faces. Here again the old path is the straighter. The head +of a lion, or indeed of any beast, bird or monster, is generally +painted as “razed,” or torn away with a ragged edge which +is pleasantly conventionalized. Less often it is found “couped” +or cut off with a sheer line. But the leopard’s head is neither +razed nor couped, for no neck is shown below it. Likewise the +lion’s fore leg or paw—“gamb” is the book word—may be +borne, razed or coupled. Its normal position is raided upright, +although Newdegate seems to have borne “Gules three lions’ +legs razed silver, the paws downward.” With the strange +bearing of the lion’s whip-like tail cut off at the rump, we may +end the list of these oddments.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fitzalan, earl of Arundel, bore “Gules a lion gold.”</p> + +<p>Simon de Montfort bore “Gules a silver lion with a forked tail.”</p> + +<p>Segrave bore “Sable a lion silver crowned gold.”</p> + +<p>Havering bore “Silver a lion rampant gules with a forked tail, +having a collar azure.”</p> + +<p>Felbrigge of Felbrigge bore “Gold a leaping lion gules.”</p> + +<p>Esturmy bore “Silver a lion sable (or purple) looking backward.”</p> + +<p>Marmion bore “Gules a lion vair.”</p> + +<p>Mason bore “Silver a two-headed lion gules.”</p> + +<p>Lovetot bore “Silver a lion parted athwart of sable and gules.”</p> + +<p>Richard le Jen bore “Vert a lion gold”—the arms of Wakelin +of Arderne—“with a fesse gules on the lion.”</p> + +<p>Fiennes bore “Azure three lions gold.”</p> + +<p>Leyburne of Kent bore “Azure six lions silver.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:518px; height:147px" src="images/img325b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Fitzalan.</td> +<td class="caption">Felbrigge.</td> +<td class="caption">Fiennes.</td> +<td class="caption">Leyburne.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Carew bore “Gold three lions passant sable.”</p> + +<p>Fotheringhay bore “Silver two lions passant sable, looking backward.”</p> + +<p>Richard Norton of Waddeworth (1357) sealed with arms of “A +lion dormant.”</p> + +<p>Lisle bore “Gules a leopard silver crowned gold.”</p> + +<p>Ludlowe bore “Azure three leopards silver.”</p> + +<p>Brocas bore “Sable a leopard rampant gold.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:518px; height:146px" src="images/img325c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Carew.</td> +<td class="caption">Fotheringhay.</td> +<td class="caption">Brocas.</td> +<td class="caption">Lisle.</td></tr></table> + +<p>John Hardrys of Kent seals in 1372 with arms of “a sitting +leopard.”</p> + +<p>John Northampton, Lord Mayor of London in 1381, bore “Azure +a crowned leopard gold with two bodies rampant against each other.”</p> + +<p>Newenham bore “Azure three demi-lions silver.”</p> + +<p>A deed delivered at Lapworth in Warwickshire in 1466 is sealed +with arms of “a molet between three demi-leopards.”</p> + +<p>Kenton bore “Gules three lions’ heads razed sable.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:518px; height:148px" src="images/img325d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Kenton.</td> +<td class="caption">Pole.</td> +<td class="caption">Cantelou.</td> +<td class="caption">Pynchebek.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Pole, earl and duke of Suffolk, bore “Azure a fesse between three +leopards’ heads gold.”</p> + +<p>Cantelou bore “Azure three leopards’ heads silver with silver +fleurs-de-lys issuing from them.”</p> + +<p>Wederton bore “Gules a cheveron between three lions’ legs razed +silver.”</p> + +<p>Pynchebek bore “silver three forked tails of lions sable.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The tiger is rarely named in collections of medieval arms. +Deep mystery wrapped the shape of him, which was never during +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326"></a>326</span> +the middle ages standardized by artists. A crest upon a 15th-century +brass shows him as a lean wolf-like figure, with a dash +of the boar, gazing after his vain wont into a looking-glass; +and the 16th-century heralds gave him the body of a lion with the +head of a wolf, head and body being tufted here and there with +thick tufts of hair. But it is noteworthy that the arms of Sir +John Norwich, a well-known knight of the 14th century, are +blazoned in a roll of that age as “party azure and gules with a +tiger rampant ermine.” Now this beast in the arms of Norwich +has been commonly taken for a lion, and the Norwich family +seem in later times to have accepted the lion as their bearing. +But a portion of a painted roll of Sir John’s day shows on careful +examination that his lion has been given two moustache-like +tufts to the nose. A copy made about 1600 of another roll gives +the same decoration to the Norwich lion, and it is at least possible +we have here evidence that the economy of the medieval armorist +allowed him to make at small cost his lion, his leopard and +his tiger out of a single beast form.</p> + +<p>Take away the lions and the leopards, and the other beasts +upon medieval shields are a little herd. In most cases they +are here to play upon the names of their bearers. Thus Swinburne +of Northumberland has the heads of swine in his coat +and Bacon has bacon pigs. Three white bears were borne by +Barlingham, and a bear ramping on his hind legs is for Barnard. +Lovett of Astwell has three running wolves, Videlou three +wolves’ heads, Colfox three foxes’ heads.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:449px; height:149px" src="images/img326a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Lovett.</td> +<td class="caption">Talbot.</td> +<td class="caption">Saunders.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Three hedgehogs were in the arms of Heriz. Barnewall +reminds us of extinct natives of England by bearing two beavers, +and Otter of Yorkshire had otters. Harewell had hares’ heads, +Cunliffe conies, Mitford moles or moldiwarps. A Talbot of +Lancashire had three purple squirrels in a silver shield. An +elephant was brought to England as early as the days of Henry +III., but he had no immediate armorial progeny, although +Saunders of Northants may have borne before the end of the +middle ages the elephants’ heads which speak of Alysaunder +the Great, patron of all Saunderses. Bevil of the west had a red +bull, and Bulkeley bore three silver bulls’ heads. The heads +in Neteham’s 14th-century shield are neat’s heads, ox heads +are for Oxwyk. Calves are for Veel, and the same mild beasts +are in the arms of that fierce knight Hugh Calveley. Stansfeld +bore three rams with bells at their necks, and a 14th-century +Lecheford thought no shame to bear the head of the ram who +is the symbol of lechery. Lambton had lambs. Goats were +borne by Chevercourt to play on his name, a leaping goat by +Bardwell, and goats’ heads by Gateshead. Of the race of dogs +the greyhound and the talbot, or mastiff, are found most often. +Thus Talbot of Cumberland had talbots, and Mauleverer, running +greyhounds or “leverers” for his name’s sake. The alaund, +a big, crop-eared dog, is in the 15th-century shield of John Woode +of Kent, and “kenets,” or little tracking dogs, in a 13th-century +coat of Kenet. The horse is not easily found as an English charge, +but Moyle’s white mule seems an old coat; horses’ heads are +in Horsley’s shield, and ass heads make crests for more than +one noble house. Askew has three asses in his arms. Three bats +or flittermice are in the shield of Burninghill and in that of +Heyworth of Whethamstede.</p> + +<p>As might be looked for in a land where forest and greenwood +once linked from sea to sea, the wild deer is a common charge +in the shield. Downes of Cheshire bore a hart “lodged” or +lying down. Hertford had harts’ heads, Malebis, fawns’ heads +(<i>testes de bis</i>), Bukingham, heads of bucks. The harts in Rotherham’s +arms are the roes of his name’s first syllable. Reindeer +heads were borne by Bowet in the 14th century. Antelopes, +fierce beasts with horns that have something of the ibex, show +by their great claws, their lion tails, and their boar muzzles +and tusks that they are midway between the hart and the +monster.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:124px; height:147px" src="images/img326b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Griffin.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:125px; height:145px" src="images/img326c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Drake.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Of the outlandish monsters the griffon is the oldest and the +chief. With the hinder parts of a lion, the rest of him is eagle, +head and shoulders, wings and fore legs. The +long tuft under the beak and his pointed ears +mark him out from the eagle when his head +alone is borne. At an early date a griffon +rampant, his normal position, was borne by +the great house of Montagu as a quartering, +and another griffon played upon Griffin’s name.</p> + +<p>The wyver, who becomes wyvern in the 16th +century, and takes a new form under the +care of inventive heralds, was in the middle +ages a lizard-like dragon, generally with small wings. Sir +Edmund Mauley in the 14th century is found differencing the +black bend of his elder brother by charging it with three wyvers +of silver. During the middle ages there seems small distinction +between the wyver and the still rarer dragon, which, with the +coming of the Tudors, who bore it as their +badge, is seen as a four-legged monster with +wings and a tail that ends like a broad +arrow. The monster in the arms of Drake, +blazoned by Tudor heralds as a wyvern, is +clearly a fire-drake or dragon in his origin.</p> + +<p>The unicorn rampant was borne by Harlyn +of Norfolk, unicorn’s heads by the Cambridgeshire +family of Paris. The mermaid with her +comb and looking-glass makes a 14th-century +crest for Byron, while “Silver a bend gules with three silver +harpies thereon” is found in the 15th century for Entyrdene.</p> + +<p>Concerning beasts and monsters the heraldry books have +many adjectives of blazonry which may be disregarded. Even +as it was once the pride of the cook pedant to carve each bird +on the board with a new word for the act, so it became the +delight of the pedant herald to order that the rampant horse +should be “forcené,” the rampant griffon “segreant,” +the passant hart “trippant”; while the same hart must +needs be “attired” as to its horns and “unguled” as to +its hoofs. There is ancient authority for the nice blazonry +which sometimes gives a separate colour to the tongue and claws +of the lion, but even this may be set aside. Though a black lion +in a silver field may be armed with red claws, and a golden +leopard in a red field given blue claws and tongues, these trifles +are but fancies which follow the taste of the painter, and are never +of obligation. The tusks and hoofs of the boar, and often the +horns of the hart, are thus given in some paintings a colour of +their own which elsewhere is neglected.</p> + +<p>As the lion is among armorial beasts, so is the eagle among +the birds. A bold convention of the earliest shield painters +displayed him with spread wing and claw, the feat of a few +strokes of the brush, and after this fashion he appears on many +scores of shields. Like the claws and tongue of the lion, the beak +and claws of the eagle are commonly painted of a second colour +in all but very small representations. Thus the golden eagle of +Lymesey in a red field may have blue beak and claws, and golden +beak and claws will be given to Jorce’s silver eagle upon red. +A lure, or two wings joined and spread like those of an eagle, +is a rare charge sometimes found. When fitted with the cord by +which a falconer’s lure is swung, the cord must be named.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Monthermer bore “Gold an eagle vert.”</p> + +<p>Siggeston bore “Silver a two-headed eagle sable.”</p> + +<p>Gavaston, earl of Cornwall, bore “Vert six eagles gold.”</p> + +<p>Bayforde of Fordingbridge sealed (in 1388) with arms of “An eagle +bendwise, with a border engrailed and a baston.”</p> + +<p>Graunson bore “Paly silver and azure with a bend gules and three +golden eagles thereon.”</p> + +<p>Seymour bore “Gules a lure of two golden wings.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Commoner than the eagle as a charge is the martlet, a humbler +bird which is never found as the sole charge of a shield. In all +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page327" id="page327"></a>327</span> +but a few early representations the feathers of the legs are seen +without the legs or claws. The martlet indicates both swallow +and martin, and in the arms of the Cornish Arundels the martlets +must stand for “hirundels” or swallows.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:515px; height:142px" src="images/img327a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Monthermer.</td> +<td class="caption">Siggeston.</td> +<td class="caption">Gavaston.</td> +<td class="caption">Graunson.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:119px; height:146px" src="images/img327b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Arundel.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The falcon or hawk is borne as a rule with close wings, so that +he may not be taken for the eagle. In most cases he is there +to play on the bearer’s name, and this may be +said of most of the flight of lesser birds.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Naunton bore “Sable three martlets silver.”</p> + +<p>Heron bore “Azure three herons silver.”</p> + +<p>Fauconer bore “Silver three falcons gules.”</p> + +<p>Hauvile bore “Azure a dance between three +hawks gold.”</p> + +<p>Twenge bore “Silver a fesse gules between +three popinjays (or parrots) vert.”</p> + +<p>Cranesley bore “Silver a cheveron gules between +three cranes azure.”</p> + +<p>Asdale bore “Gules a swan silver.”</p> + +<p>Dalston bore “Silver a cheveron engrailed between three daws’ +heads razed sable.”</p> + +<p>Corbet bore “Gold two corbies sable.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:515px; height:143px" src="images/img327c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Seymour.</td> +<td class="caption">Naunton.</td> +<td class="caption">Fauconer.</td> +<td class="caption">Twenge.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Cockfield bore “Silver three cocks gules.”</p> + +<p>Burton bore “Sable a cheveron sable between three silver owls.”</p> + +<p>Rokeby bore “Silver a cheveron sable between three rooks.”</p> + +<p>Duffelde bore “Sable a cheveron silver between three doves.”</p> + +<p>Pelham bore “Azure three pelicans silver.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:516px; height:146px" src="images/img327d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Asdale.</td> +<td class="caption">Corbet.</td> +<td class="caption">Cockfield.</td> +<td class="caption">Burton.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Sumeri (13th century) sealed with arms of “A peacock with his +tail spread.”</p> + +<p>John Pyeshale of Suffolk (14th century) sealed with arms of +“Three magpies.”</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Fishes, Reptiles and Insects.</i>—Like the birds, the fishes are +borne for the most part to call to mind their bearers’ names. +Unless their position be otherwise named, they are painted as +upright in the shield, as though rising towards the water surface. +The dolphin is known by his bowed back, old artists making +him a grotesquely decorative figure.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Lucy bore “Gules three luces (or pike) silver.”</p> + +<p>Heringaud bore “Azure, crusilly gold, with six golden herrings.”</p> + +<p>Fishacre bore “Gules a dolphin silver.”</p> + +<p>La Roche bore “Three roach swimming.”</p> + +<p>John Samon (14th century) sealed with arms of “Three salmon +swimming.”</p> + +<p>Sturgeon bore “Azure three sturgeon swimming gold, with a fret +gules over all.”</p> + +<p>Whalley bore “Silver three whales’ heads razed sable.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Shell-fish would hardly have place in English armory were +it not for the abundance of scallops which have followed their +appearance in the banners of Dacre and Scales. The crest +of the Yorkshire Scropes, playing upon their name, was a pair +of crabs’ claws.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Dacre bore “Gules three scallops silver.”</p> + +<p>Shelley bore “Sable a fesse engrailed between three whelk-shells +gold.”</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:519px; height:143px" src="images/img327e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Rokeby.</td> +<td class="caption">Pelham.</td> +<td class="caption">Lucy.</td> +<td class="caption">Fishacre.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:123px; height:145px" src="images/img327f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Roche.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Reptiles and insects are barely represented. The lizards +in the crest and supporters of the Ironmongers of London belong +to the 15th century. Gawdy of Norfolk may have borne the +tortoise in his shield in the same age. “Silver three toads +sable” was quartered as a second coat for Botreaux of Cornwall +in the 16th century—Botereau or Boterel +signifying a little toad in the old French +tongue—but the arms do not appear on the +old Botreaux seals beside their ancient bearing +of the griffon. Beston bore “Silver a bend +between six bees sable” and a 15-century +Harbottle seems to have sealed with arms of +three bluebottle flies. Three butterflies are in +the shield of Presfen of Lancashire in 1415, while +the winged insect shown on the seal of John Mayre, a King’s +Lynn burgess of the age of Edward I., is probably a mayfly.</p> + +<p><i>Human Charges.</i>—Man and the parts of him play but a small +part in English shields, and we have nothing to put beside such +a coat as that of the German Manessen, on which two armed +knights attack each other’s hauberks with their teeth. But +certain arms of religious houses and the like have the whole +figure, the see of Salisbury bearing the Virgin and Child in a +blue field. And old crests have demi-Saracens and falchion +men, coal-miners, monks and blackamoors. Sowdan bore in his +shield a turbaned soldan’s head; Eady, three old men’s “’eads”! +Heads of maidens, the “winsome marrows” of the ballad, are +in the arms of Marow. The Stanleys, as kings of Man, quartered +the famous three-armed legs whirling mill-sail fashion, and +Tremayne of the west bore three men’s arms in like wise. “Gules +three hands silver” was for Malmeyns as early as the 13th century, +and Tynte of Colchester displayed hearts.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:520px; height:145px" src="images/img327g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Dacre.</td> +<td class="caption">Shelley.</td> +<td class="caption">See of Salisbury.</td> +<td class="caption">Isle of Man.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Miscellaneous Charges.</i>—Other charges of the shield are less +frequent but are found in great variety, the reason for most of +them being the desire to play upon the bearer’s name.</p> + +<p>Weapons and the like are rare, having regard to the military +associations of armory. Daubeney bore three helms; Philip +Marmion took with his wife, the coheir of Kilpek, the Kilpek +shield of a sword (<i>espek</i>). Tuck had a stabbing sword or “tuck.” +Bent bows were borne by Bowes, an arblast by Arblaster, arrows +by Archer, birding-bolts or <i>bosouns</i> by Bosun, the mangonel +by Mangnall. The three lances of Amherst is probably a medieval +coat; Leweston had battle-axes.</p> + +<p>A scythe was in the shield of Praers; Picot had picks; Bilsby +a hammer or “beal”; Malet showed mallets. The chamberlain’s +key is in the shield of a Chamberlain, and the spenser’s key +in that of a Spenser. Porter bore the porter’s bell, Boteler +the butler’s cup. Three-legged pots were borne by Monbocher. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page328" id="page328"></a>328</span> +Crowns are for Coroun. Yarde had yard-wands; Bordoun a +burdon or pilgrim’s staff.</p> + +<p>Of horse-furniture we have the stirrups of Scudamore and +Giffard, the horse-barnacles of Bernake, and the horse-shoes +borne by many branches and tenants of the house of Ferrers.</p> + +<p>Of musical instruments there are pipes, trumps and harps +for Pipe, Trumpington and Harpesfeld. Hunting horns are +common among families bearing such names as Forester or +Horne. Remarkable charges are the three organs of Grenville, +who held of the house of Clare, the lords of Glamorgan.</p> + +<p>Combs play on the name of Tunstall, and gloves (<i>wauns</i> or +<i>gauns</i>) on that of Wauncy. Hose were borne by Hoese; buckles +by a long list of families. But the most notable of the charges +derived from clothing is the hanging sleeve familiar in the arms +of Hastings, Conyers and Mansel.</p> + +<p>Chess-rooks, hardly to be distinguished from the <i>roc</i> or <i>roquet</i> +at the head of a jousting-lance, were borne by Rokewode and +by many more. Topcliffe had pegtops in his shield, while +Ambesas had a cast of three dice which should each show the +point of one, for “to throw ambesace” is an ancient phrase +used of those who throw three aces.</p> + +<p>Although we are a sea-going people, there are few ships in our +armory, most of these in the arms of sea-ports. Anchors are +commoner.</p> + +<p>Castles and towers, bridges, portcullises and gates have all +examples, and a minster-church was the curious charge borne +by the ancient house of Musters of Kirklington.</p> + +<p>Letters of the alphabet are very rarely found in ancient armory; +but three capital T’s, in old English script, were borne by Toft +of Cheshire in the 14th century. In the period of decadence +whole words or sentences, commonly the names of military or +naval victories, are often seen.</p> + +<p><i>Blazonry.</i>—An ill-service has been done to the students of +armory by those who have pretended that the phrases in which +the shields and their charges are described or blazoned must +follow arbitrary laws devised by writers of the period of armorial +decadence. One of these laws, and a mischievous one, asserts +that no tincture should be named a second time in the blazon +of one coat. Thus if gules be the hue of the field any charge of +that colour must thereafter be styled “of the first.” Obeying +this law the blazoner of a shield of arms elaborately charged +may find himself sadly involved among “of the first,” “of the +second,” and “of the third.” It is needless to say that no such +law obtained among armorists of the middle ages. The only +rule that demands obedience is that the brief description should +convey to the reader a true knowledge of the arms described.</p> + +<p>The examples of blazonry given in that part of this article +which deals with armorial charges will be more instructive to the +student than any elaborated code of directions. It will be +observed that the description of the field is first set down, the +blazoner giving its plain tincture or describing it as burely, +party, paly or barry, as powdered or sown with roses, crosslets +or fleurs-de-lys. Then should follow the main or central charges, +the lion or griffon dominating the field, the cheveron or the pale, +the fesse, bend or bars, and next the subsidiary charges in the +field beside the “ordinary” and those set upon it. Chiefs and +quarters are blazoned after the field and its contents, and the +border, commonly an added difference, is taken last of all. +Where there are charges both upon and beside a bend, fesse or +the like, a curious inversion is used by pedantic blazoners. +The arms of Mr Samuel Pepys of the Admiralty Office would +have been described in earlier times as “Sable a bend gold between +two horses’ heads razed silver, with three fleurs-de-lys sable on the +bend.” Modern heraldic writers would give the sentence as +“Sable, on a bend or between two horses’ heads erased argent, +three fleurs-de-lys of the first.” Nothing is gained by this +inversion but the precious advantage of naming the bend but +once. On the other side it may be said that, while the newer +blazon couches itself in a form that seems to prepare for the +naming of the fleurs-de-lys as the important element of the shield, +the older form gives the fleurs-de-lys as a mere postscript, and +rightly, seeing that charges in such a position are very commonly +the last additions to a shield by way of difference. In like +manner when a crest is described it is better to say “a lion’s +head out of a crown” than “out of a crown a lion’s head.” +The first and last necessity in blazonry is lucidity, which is cheaply +gained at the price of a few syllables repeated.</p> + +<p><i>Modern Heraldry.</i>—With the accession of the Tudors armory +began a rapid decadence. Heraldry ceased to play its part in +military affairs, the badges and banners under which the medieval +noble’s retinue came into the field were banished, and even the +tournament in its later days became a renascence pageant which +did not need the painted shield and armorial trappers. Treatises +on armory had been rare in the days before the printing press, +but even so early a writer as Nicholas Upton had shown himself +as it were unconcerned with the heraldry that any man might +see in the camp and the street. From the Book of St Albans +onward the treatises on armory are informed with a pedantry +which touches the point of crazy mysticism in such volumes +as that of Sylvanus Morgan. Thus came into the books those +long lists of “diminutions of ordinaries,” the closets and escarpes, +the endorses and ribands, the many scores of strange crosses +and such wild fancies as the rule, based on an early German +pedantry, that the tinctures in peers shields should be given the +names of precious stones and those in the shields of sovereigns +the names of planets. Blazon became cumbered with that +vocabulary whose French of Stratford atte Bowe has driven +serious students from a business which, to use a phrase as true +as it is hackneyed, was at last “abandoned to the coachpainter +and the undertaker.”</p> + +<p>With the false genealogy came in the assumption or assigning +of shields to which the new bearers had often no better claim +than lay in a surname resembling that of the original owner. +The ancient system of differencing arms disappeared. Now and +again we see a second son obeying the book-rules and putting +a crescent in his shield or a third son displaying a molet, but +long before our own times the practice was disregarded, and the +most remote kinsman of a gentle house displayed the “whole +coat” of the head of his family.</p> + +<p>The art of armory had no better fate. An absurd rule current +for some three hundred years has ordered that the helms of +princes and knights should be painted full-faced and those of +peers and gentlemen sidelong. Obeying this, the herald painters +have displayed the crests of knights and princes as sideways +upon a full-faced helm; the torse or wreath, instead of being +twisted about the brow of the helm, has become a sausage-shaped +bar see-sawing above the helm; and upon this will be balanced +a crest which might puzzle the ancient craftsman to mould in +his leather or parchment. A ship on a lee-shore with a thunderstorm +lowering above its masts may stand as an example of such +devices. “Tastes, of course, differ,” wrote Dr Woodward, “but +the writer can hardly think that the épergne given to Lieut.-General +Smith by his friends at Bombay was a fitting ornament +for a helmet.” As with the crest, so with the shield. It became +crowded with ill-balanced figures devised by those who despised +and ignored the ancient examples whose painters had followed +instinctively a simple and pleasant convention. Landscapes +and seascapes, musical lines, military medals and corrugated +boiler-flues have all made their appearance in the shield. Even +as on the signs of public houses, written words have taken the +place of figures, and the often-cited arms exemplified to the first +Earl Nelson marked, it may be hoped, the high watermark of +these distressing modernisms. Of late years, indeed, official +armory in England has shown a disposition to follow the lessons +of the archaeologist, although the recovery of medieval use has +not yet been as successful as in Germany, where for a long +generation a school of vigorous armorial art has flourished.</p> + +<p><i>Officers of Arms.</i>—Officers of arms, styled kings of arms, +heralds and pursuivants, appear at an early period of the history +of armory as the messengers in peace and war of princes and +magnates. It is probable that from the first they bore in some +wise their lord’s arms as the badge of their office. In the 14th +century we have heralds with the arms on a short mantle, witness +the figure of the duke of Gelderland’s herald painted in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page329" id="page329"></a>329</span> +<i>Armorial de Gelre</i>. The title of Blue Mantle pursuivant, as old +as the reign of Edward III., suggests a like usage in England. +When the tight-laced coat of arms went out of fashion among the +knighthood the loose tabard of arms with its wide sleeves was +at once taken in England as the armorial dress of both herald +and cavalier, and the fashion of it has changed but little since +those days. Clad in such a coat the herald was the image of his +master and, although he himself was rarely chosen from any +rank above that of the lesser gentry, his person, as a messenger, +acquired an almost priestly sacredness. To injure or to insult +him was to affront the coat that he wore.</p> + +<p>We hear of kings of arms in the royal household of the 13th +century, and we may compare their title with those of such +officers as the King of the Ribalds and the King of the Minstrels; +but it is noteworthy that, even in modern warrants for heralds’ +patents, the custom of the reign of Edward III. is still cited as +giving the necessary precedents for the officers’ liveries. Officers +of arms took their titles from their provinces or from the titles +and badges of their masters. Thus we have Garter, Norroy +and Clarenceux, March, Lancaster, Windsor, Leicester, Leopard, +Falcon and Blanc Sanglier as officers attached to the royal house; +Chandos, the herald of the great Sir John Chandos; Vert Eagle +of the Nevill earls of Salisbury, Esperance and Crescent of the +Percys of Northumberland. The spirit of Henry VII.’s legislation +was against such usages in baronial houses, and in the age of the +Tudors the last of the private heralds disappears.</p> + +<p>In England the royal officers of arms were made a corporation +by Richard III. Nowadays the members of this corporation, +known as the College of Arms or Heralds’ College, are Garter +Principal King of Arms, Clarenceux King of Arms South of +Trent, Norroy King of Arms North of Trent, the heralds Windsor, +Chester, Richmond, Somerset, York and Lancaster, and the +pursuivants Rouge Croix, Bluemantle, Rouge Dragon and +Portcullis. Another king of arms, not a member of this corporation, +has been attached to the order of the Bath since the reign +of George I., and an officer of arms, without a title, attends the +order of St Michael and St George.</p> + +<p>There is no college or corporation of heralds in Scotland or +Ireland. In Scotland “Lyon-king-of-arms,” “Lyon rex armorum,” +or “Leo fecialis,” so called from the lion on the royal +shield, is the head of the office of arms. When first the dignity +was constituted is not known, but Lyon was a prominent figure +in the coronation of Robert II. in 1371. The office was at first, +as in England, attached to the earl marshal, but it has long +been conferred by patent under the great seal, and is held direct +from the crown. Lyon is also king-of-arms for the national +order of the Thistle. He is styled “Lord Lyon,” and the office +has always been held by men of family, and frequently by a +peer who would appoint a “Lyon depute.” He is supreme +in all matters of heraldry in Scotland. Besides the “Lyon +depute,” there are the Scottish heralds, Albany, Ross and +Rothesay, with precedence according to date of appointment; +and the pursuivants, Carrick, March and Unicorn. Heralds +and pursuivants are appointed by Lyon.</p> + +<p>In Ireland also there is but one king-of-arms, Ulster. The +office was instituted by Edward VI. in 1553. The patent is +given by Rymer, and refers to certain emoluments as “praedicto +officio ... ab antiquo spectantibus.” The allusion is to an +Ireland king-of-arms mentioned in the reign of Richard II. and +superseded by Ulster. Ulster holds office by patent, during +pleasure; under him the Irish office of arms consists of two +heralds, Cork and Dublin; and a pursuivant, Athlone. Ulster +is king-of-arms to the order of St Patrick. He held visitations +in parts of Ireland from 1568 to 1620, and these and other records, +including all grants of arms from the institution of the office, are +kept in the Birmingham Tower, Dublin.</p> + +<p>The armorial duties of the ancient heralds are not clearly +defined. The patent of Edward IV., creating John Wrythe +king of arms of England with the style of Garter, speaks vaguely +of the care of the office of arms and those things which belong to +that office. We know that the heralds had their part in the +ordering of tournaments, wherein armory played its greatest +part, and that their expert knowledge of arms gave them such +duties as reckoning the noble slain on a battlefield. But it is +not until the 15th century that we find the heralds following +a recognized practice of granting or assigning arms, a practice +on which John of Guildford comments, saying that such arms +given by a herald are not of greater authority than those which +a man has taken for himself. The Book of St Albans, put forth +in 1486, speaking of arms granted by princes and lords, is careful +to add that “armys bi a mannys proper auctorite take, if an +other man have not borne theym afore, be of strength enogh,” +repeating, as it seems, Nicholas Upton’s opinion which, in this +matter, does not conflict with the practice of his day. It is +probable that the earlier grants of arms by heralds were made +by reason of persons uncunning in armorial lore applying +for a suitable device to experts in such matters—and that such +setting forth of arms may have been practised even in the 14th +century.</p> + +<p>The earliest known grants of arms in England by sovereigns +or private persons are, as a rule, the conveyance of a right in a +coat of arms already existing or of a differenced version of it. +Thus in 1391 Thomas Grendale, a squire who had inherited +through his grandmother the right in the shield of Beaumeys, +granted his right in it to Sir William Moigne, a knight who seems +to have acquired the whole or part of the Beaumeys manor +in Sawtry. Under Henry VI. we have certain rare and curious +letters of the crown granting nobility with arms “<i>in signum +hujusmodi nobilitatis</i>” to certain individuals, some, and perhaps +all of whom, were foreigners who may have asked for letters which +followed a continental usage. After this time we have a regular +series of grants by heralds who in later times began to assert +that new arms, to be valid, must necessarily be derived from +their assignments, although ancient use continued to be recognized.</p> + +<p>An account of the genealogical function of the heralds, so +closely connected with their armorial duties will be found in the +article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Genealogy</a></span>. In spite of the work of such distinguished +men as Camden and Dugdale they gradually fell in public +estimation until Blackstone could write of them that the marshalling +of coat-armour had fallen into the hands of certain officers +called heralds, who had allowed for lucre such falsity and confusion +to creep into their records that even their common seal +could no longer be received as evidence in any court of justice. +From this low estate they rose again when the new archaeology +included heraldry in its interests, and several antiquaries of +repute have of late years worn the herald’s tabard.</p> + +<p>In spite of the vast amount of material which the libraries +catalogue under the head of “Heraldry,” the subject has as yet +received little attention from antiquaries working in the modern +spirit. The old books are as remarkable for their detachment +from the facts as for their folly. The work of Nicholas Upton, +<i>De studio militari</i>, although written in the first half of the 15th +century, shows, as has been already remarked, no attempt to +reconcile the conceits of the author with the armorial practice +which he must have seen about him on every side. Gerard Leigh, +Bossewell, Ferne and Morgan carry on this bad tradition, each +adding his own extravagances. The <i>Display of Heraldry</i>, first +published in 1610 under the name of John Guillim, is more +reasonable if not more learned, and in its various editions gives +a valuable view of the decadent heraldry of the 17th century. +In the 19th century many important essays on the subject are +to be found in such magazines as the <i>Genealogist</i>, the <i>Herald and +Genealogist</i> and the <i>Ancestor</i>, while Planché’s <i>Pursuivant of +Arms</i> contains some slight but suggestive work which attempts +original enquiry. But Dr Woodward’s <i>Treatise on Heraldry, +British and Foreign</i> (1896), in spite of many errors arising from +the author’s reliance upon unchecked material, must be counted +the only scholarly book in English upon a matter which has +engaged so many pens. Among foreign volumes may be cited +those of Menestrier and Spener, and the vast compilation of the +German Siebmacher. Notable ordinaries of arms are those of +Papworth and Renesse, companions to the armorials of Burke and +Rietstap. The student may be advised to turn his attention to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page330" id="page330"></a>330</span> +all works dealing with the effigies, brasses and other monuments +of the middle ages, to the ancient heraldic seals and to the +heraldry of medieval architecture and ornament.</p> +<div class="author">(O. Ba.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERAT,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> a city and province of Afghanistan. The city of +Herat lies in 340° 20′ 30″ N., and 62° 11′ 0″ E., at an altitude +of 2500 ft. above sea-level. Estimated pop. about 10,000. It +is a city of great interest historically, geographically, politically +and strategically, but in modern days it has quite lost its ancient +commercial importance. From this central point great lines +of communication radiate in all directions to Russian, British, +Persian and Afghan territory. Sixty-six miles to the north lies +the terminus of the Russian railway system; to the south-east +is Kandahar (360 m.) and about 70 m. beyond that, New Chaman, +the terminus of the British railway system. Southward lies +Seistan (200 m.), and eastward Kabul (550 m.); while on the +west four routes lead into Persia by Turbet to Meshed (215 m.), +and by Birjend to Kerman (400 m.), to Yezd (500 m.), or to +Isfahan (600 m.). The city forms a quadrangle of nearly 1 m. +square (more accurately about 1600 yds. by 1500 yds.); on +the western, southern and eastern faces the line of defence is +almost straight, the only projecting points being the gateways, +but on the northern face the contour is broken by a double +outwork, consisting of the <i>Ark</i> or citadel, which is built of sun-dried +brick on a high artificial mound within the enceinte, +and a lower work at its foot, called the <i>Ark-i-nao</i>, or “new +citadel,” which extends 100 yds. beyond the line of the city +wall. That which distinguishes Herat from all other Oriental +cities, and at the same time constitutes its main defence, is the +stupendous character of the earthwork upon which the city wall +is built. This earthwork averages 250 ft. in width at the base +and about 50 ft. in height, and as it is crowned by a wall 25 ft. +high and 14 ft. thick at the base, supported by about 150 semicircular +towers, and is further protected by a ditch 45 ft. in +width and 16 in depth, it presents an appearance of imposing +strength. When the royal engineers of the Russo-Afghan +Boundary Commission entered Herat in 1885 they found its +defences in various stages of disrepair. The gigantic rampart +was unflanked, and the covered ways in the face of it subject to +enfilade from end to end. The ditch was choked, the gates were +unprotected; the tumbled mass of irregular mud buildings +which constituted the city clung tightly to the walls; there +were no gun emplacements. Outside, matters were almost +worse than inside. To the north of the walls the site of old +Herat was indicated by a vast mass of débris—mounds of bricks +and pottery intersected by a network of shallow trenches, +where the only semblance of a protective wall was the irregular +line of the Tal-i-Bangi. South of the city was a vast area filled +in with the graveyards of centuries. Here the trenches dug by +the Persians during the last siege were still in a fair state of +preservation; they were within a stone’s-throw of the walls. +Round about the city on all sides were similar opportunities +for close approach; even the villages stretched out long irregular +streets towards the city gates. To the north-west, beyond the +Tal-i-Bangi, the magnificent outlines of the Mosalla filled a wide +space with the glorious curves of dome and gateway and the +stately grace of tapering minars, but the impressive beauty +of this, by far the finest architectural structure in all Afghanistan, +could not be permitted to weigh against the fact that the position +occupied by this pile of solid buildings was fatal to the interests +of effective defence. By the end of August 1885, when a political +crisis had supervened between Great Britain and Russia, under +the orders of the Amir the Mosalla was destroyed; but four +minars standing at the corners of the wide plinth still remain +to attest to the glorious proportions of the ancient structure, +and to exhibit samples of that decorative tilework, which for +intricate beauty of design and exquisite taste in the blending +of colour still appeals to the memory as unique. At the same time +the ancient graveyards round the city were swept smooth and +levelled; obstructions were demolished, outworks constructed, +and the defences generally renovated. Whether or no the strength +of this bulwark of North-Western Afghanistan should ever be +practically tested, the general result of the most recent investigations +into the value of Herat as a strategic centre has +been largely to modify the once widely-accepted view that the +key to India lies within it. Abdur Rahman and his successor +Habibullah steadfastly refused the offer of British engineers +to strengthen its defences; and though the Afghans themselves +have occasionally undertaken repairs, it is doubtful whether +the old walls of Herat are maintained in a state of efficiency.</p> + +<p>The exact position of Herat, with reference to the Russian +station of Kushk (now the terminus of a branch railway from +Merv), is as follows: From Herat, a gentle ascent northwards +for 3 m. reaches to the foot of the Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja, crossing +the Jui Nao or “new” canal, which here divides the gravel-covered +foot hills from the alluvial flats of the Hari Rud plain. +The crest of the outer ridges of this subsidiary range is about +700 ft. above the city, at a distance of 4 m. from it. For 28 m. +farther the road winds first amongst the broken ridges of the +Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja, then over the intervening <i>dasht</i> into the +southern spurs of the Paropamisus to the Ardewan pass. This +is the highest point it attains, and it has risen about 2150 ft. +from Herat. From the pass it drops over the gradually decreasing +grades of a wide sweep of Chol (which here happens to be +locally free from the intersecting network of narrow ravines +which is generally a distinguishing feature of Turkestan loess +formations) for a distance of 35 m. into the Russian railway +station, falling some 2700 ft. from the crest of the Paropamisus. +To the south the road from Herat to India through Kandahar +lies across an open plain, which presents no great engineering +difficulties, but is of a somewhat waterless and barren character.</p> + +<p>The city possesses five gates, two on the northern face, the +Kutab-chak near the north-east angle of the wall, and the Malik +at the re-entering angle of the Ark-i-nao; and three others +in the centres of the remaining faces, the Irak gate on the west, +the Kandahar gate on the south and the Kushk gate on the +east face. Four streets called the <i>Chahar-súk</i>, running from the +centre of each face, meet in the centre of the town in a small +domed quadrangle. The principal street runs from the south +or Kandahar gate to the market in front of the citadel, and is +covered in with a vaulted roof through its entire length, the +shops and buildings of this bazaar being much superior to those +of the other streets, and the merchants’ caravanserais, several +of which are spacious and well built, all opening out on this +great thoroughfare. Near the central quadrangle of the city +is a vast reservoir of water, the dome of which is of bold and +excellent proportions. The only other public building of any +consequence in Herat is the great mosque or <i>Mesjid-i-Juma</i>, +which comprises an area of 800 yds. square, and must have been +a most magnificent structure. It was erected towards the close +of the 15th century, during the reign of Shah Sultan Hussein +of the family of Timur, and is said when perfect to have been +465 ft. long by 275 ft. wide, to have had 408 cupolas, 130 windows, +444 pillars and 6 entrances, and to have been adorned in the +most magnificent manner with gilding, carving, precious mosaics +and other elaborate and costly embellishments. Now, however, +it is falling rapidly into ruin, the ever-changing provincial +governors who administer Herat having neither the means +nor the inclination to undertake the necessary repairs. Neither +the palace of the Charbagh within the city wall, which was the residence +of the British mission in 1840-1841, nor the royal quarters +in the citadel deserve any special notice. At the present day, +with the exception of the <i>Chahar-súk</i>, where there is always +a certain amount of traffic, and where the great diversity of race +and costume imparts much liveliness to the scene, Herat presents +a very melancholy and desolate appearance. The mud houses +in rear of the bazaars are for the most part uninhabited and in +ruins, and even the burnt brick buildings are becoming everywhere +dilapidated. The city is also one of the filthiest in the +East, as there are no means of drainage or sewerage, and garbage +of every description lies in heaps in the open streets.</p> + +<p>Along the slopes of the northern hills there is a space of some +4 m. in length by 3 m. in breadth, the surface of the plain, strewn +over its whole extent with pieces of pottery and crumbling +bricks, and also broken here and there by earthen mounds and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page331" id="page331"></a>331</span> +ruined walls, the débris of palatial structures which at one time +were the glory and wonder of the East. Of these structures +indeed some have survived to the present day in a sufficiently +perfect state to bear witness to the grandeur and beauty of the +old architecture of Herat. Such was the mosque of the Mosalla +before its destruction. Scarcely inferior in beauty of design +and execution, though of more moderate dimensions, is the tomb +of the saint Abdullah Ansari, in the same neighbourhood. This +building, which was erected by Shah Rukh Mirza, the grandson +of Timur, over 500 years ago, contains some exquisite specimens +of sculpture in the best style of Oriental art. Adjoining the tomb +also are numerous marble mausoleums, the sepulchres of princes +of the house of Timur; and especially deserving of notice is a +royal building tastefully decorated by an Italian artist named +Geraldi, who was in the service of Shah Abbas the Great. The +locality, which is further enlivened by gardens and running +streams, is named <i>Gazir-gáh</i>, and is a favourite resort of the +Heratis. It is held indeed in high veneration by all classes, and +the famous Dost Mahommed Khan is himself buried at the foot +of the tomb of the saint. Two other royal palaces named +respectively <i>Bagh-i-Shah</i> and <i>Takht-i-Sefer</i>, are situated on the +same rising ground somewhat farther to the west. The buildings +are now in ruins, but the view from the pavilions, shaded by +splendid plane trees on the terraced gardens formed on the +slope of the mountain, is said to be very beautiful.</p> + +<p>The population of Herat and the neighbourhood is of a very +mixed character. The original inhabitants of Ariana were no +doubt of the Aryan family, and immediately cognate with the +Persian race, but they were probably intermixed at a very early +period with the Sacae and Massagetae, who seem to have held +the mountains from Kabul to Herat from the first dawn of +history, and to whom must be ascribed—rather than to an +infusion of Turco-Tartaric blood introduced by the armies of +Jenghiz and Timur—the peculiar broad features and flattish +countenance which distinguish the inhabitants of Herat, Seistan +and the eastern provinces of Persia from their countrymen +farther to the west. Under the government of Herat, however, +there are a very large number cf tribes, ruled over by separate +and semi-independent chiefs, and belonging probably to different +nationalities. The principal group of tribes is called the <i>Chahar-Aimák</i>, +or “four races,” the constituent parts of which, however, +are variously stated by different authorities both as to strength +and nomenclature. The Heratis are an agricultural race, and +are not nearly so warlike as the Pathans from the neighbourhood +of Kabul or Kandahar.</p> + +<p>The long narrow valley of the Hari Rud, starting from the +western slopes of the Koh-i-Baba, extends almost due west +for 300 m. before it takes its great northern bend at +Kuhsan, and passes northwards through the broken +<span class="sidenote">Environs of Herat.</span> +ridges of the Siah Bubuk (the western extremity of the +range which we now call Paropamisus) towards Sarakhs. For +the greater part of its length it drains the southern slopes only +of the Paropamisus and the northern slopes of a parallel range +called Koh-i-Safed. The Paropamisus forms the southern face +of the Turkestan plateau, which contains the sources of the +Murghab river; the northern face of the same plateau is defined +by the Band-i-Turkestan. On the south of the plateau we find a +similar succession of narrow valleys dividing parallel flexures, +or anticlinals, formed under similar geological conditions to +those which appear to be universally applicable to the Himalaya, +the Hindu Kush, and the Indus frontier mountain systems. +From one of these long lateral valleys the Hari Rud receives its +principal tributary, which joins the main river below Obeh, 180 +m. from its source; and it is this tributary (separated from the +Hari Rud by the narrow ridges of the Koh-i-Safed and Band-i-Baian) +that offers the high road from Herat to Kabul, and not +the Hari Rud itself. From its source to Obeh the Hari Rud is a +valley of sandy desolation. There are no glaciers near its sources, +although they must have existed there in geologically recent +times, but masses of melting snow annually give rise to floods, +which rush through the midst of the valley in a turbid red stream, +frequently rendering the river impassable and cutting off the +crazy brick bridges at Herat and Tirpul. It is impossible, +whilst watching the rolling, seething volume of flood-water +which swirls westwards in April, to imagine the waste stretches +of dry river-bed which in a few months’ time (when every +available drop of water is carried off for irrigation) will represent +the Hari Rud. The soft shales or clays of the hills bounding +the valley render these hills especially subject to the action +of denudation, and the result, in rounded slopes and easily +accessible crests, determines the nature of the easy tracks and +passes which intersect them. At the same time, any excessive +local rainfall is productive of difficulty and danger from the +floods of liquid mud and loose boulders which sweep like an +avalanche down the hill sides. The intense cold which usually +accompanies these sudden northern blizzards of Herat and +Turkestan is a further source of danger.</p> + +<p>From Obeh, 50 m. east of Herat, the cultivated portion of the +valley commences, and it extends, with a width which varies +from 8 to 16 m., to Kuhsan, 60 m. west of the city. But the +great stretch of highly irrigated and valuable fruit-growing +land, which appears to spread from the walls of Herat east and +west as far as the eye can reach, and to sweep to the foot of the +hills north and south with an endless array of vineyards and +melon-beds, orchards and villages, varied with a brilliant patchwork +of poppy growth brightening the width of green wheat-fields +with splashes of scarlet and purple—all this is really comprised +within a narrow area which does not extend beyond a ten-miles’ +radius from the city. The system of irrigation by which these +agricultural results are attained is most elaborate. The despised +Herati Tajik, in blue shirt and skull-cap, and with no instrument +better than a three-cornered spade, is as skilled an agriculturist +as is the Ghilzai engineer, but he cannot effect more than the +limits of his water-supply will permit. He adopts the karez +(or, Persian, <i>kanát</i>) system of underground irrigation, as does the +Ghilzai, and brings every drop of water that he can find to the +surface; but it cannot be said that he is more successful than +the Ghilzai. It is the startling contrast of the Herati oasis with +the vast expanse of comparative sterility that encloses it which +has given such a fictitious value to the estimates of the material +wealth of the valley of the Hari Rud.</p> + +<p>The valley about Herat includes a flat alluvial plain which +might, for some miles on any side except the north, be speedily +reduced to an impassable swamp by means of flood-water from +the surrounding canals. Three miles to the south of the city +the river flows from east to west, spanned by the Pal-i-Malun, +a bridge possessing grand proportions, but which was in 1885 in +a state of grievous disrepair and practically useless. East and +west stretches the long vista of the Hari Rud. Due north the +hills called the Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja appear to be close and +dominating, but the foot of these hills is really about 3 m. distant +from the city. This northern line of barren, broken sandstone +hills is geographically no part of the Paropamisus range, from +which it is separated by a stretch of sandy upland about 20 m. +in width, called the Dasht-i-Hamdamao, or Dasht-i-Ardewán, +formed by the talus or drift of the higher mountains, which, +washed down through centuries of denudation, now forms long +sweeping spurs of gravel and sand, scantily clothed with wormwood +scrub and almost destitute of water. Through this stretch +of <i>dasht</i> the drainage from the main water-divide breaks downwards +to the plains of Herat, where it is arrested and utilized +for irrigation purposes. To the north-east of the city a very +considerable valley has been formed between the Paropamisus +and the subsidiary Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja range, called Korokh. +Here there are one or two important villages and a well-known +shrine marked by a group of pine trees which is unique in this +part of Afghanistan. The valley leads to a group of passes +across the Paropamisus into Turkestan, of which the Zirmast is +perhaps the best known. The main water-divide between Herat +and the Turkestan Chol (the loess district) has been called +Paropamisus for want of any well-recognized general name. +To the north of the Korokh valley it exhibits something of the +formation of the Hindu Kush (of which it is apparently a geological +extension), but as it passes westwards it becomes broken +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page332" id="page332"></a>332</span> +into fragments by processes of denudation, until it is hardly +recognizable as a distinct range at all. The direct passes across +it from Herat (the Baba and the Ardewán) wind amongst masses +of disintegrating sandstone for some miles on each side of the +dividing watershed, but farther west the rounded knolls of the +rain-washed downs may be crossed almost at any point without +difficulty. The names applied to this débris of a once formidable +mountain system are essentially local and hardly distinctive. +Beyond this range the sand and clay loess formation spreads +downwards like a tumbled sea, hiding within the folds of its +many-crested hills the twisting course of the Kushk and its +tributaries.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The origin of Herat is lost in antiquity. The name +first appears in the list of primitive Zoroastrian settlements +contained in the <i>Vendidād Sadē</i>, where, however, like most of +the names in the same list,—such as <i>Sughudu</i> (Sogdiana), <i>Mourū</i> +(Merv or Margus), <i>Haraquiti</i> (Arachotus or Arghand-ab), <i>Haetumant</i> +(Etymander or Helmund), and <i>Ragha</i> (or Argha-stan),—it +seems to apply to the river or river-basin, which was the special +centre of population. This name of <i>Haroyu</i>, as it is written in +the <i>Vendidād</i>, or <i>Hariwa</i>, as it appears in the inscriptions of Darius, +is a cognate form with the Sanskrit <i>Sarayu</i>, which signifies “a +river,” and its resemblance to the ethnic title of Aryan (Sans. +<i>Arya</i>) is purely fortuitous; though from the circumstance of +the city being named “Aria Metropolis” by the Greeks, and +being also recognized as the capital of Ariana, “the country of +the Arians,” the two forms have been frequently confounded. +Of the foundation of Herat (or Heri, as it is still often called) +nothing is known. We can only infer from the colossal character +of the earth-works which surround the modern town, that, like +the similar remains at Bost on the Helmund and at Ulan Robat +of Arachosia, they belong to that period of Central-Asian history +which preceded the rise of Achaemenian power, and which in +Grecian romance is illustrated by the names of Bacchus, of +Hercules and of Semiramis. To trace in any detail the fortunes +of Herat would be to write the modern history of the East, for +there has hardly been a dynastic revolution, or a foreign invasion, +or a great civil war in Central Asia since the time of the prophet, +in which Herat has not played a conspicuous part and suffered +accordingly. Under the Tahirids of Khorasan, the Saffarids +of Seistan and the Samanids of Bokhara, it flourished for some +centuries in peace and progressive prosperity; but during the +succeeding rule of the Ghaznevid kings its metropolitan +character was for a time obscured by the celebrity of the neighbouring +capital of Ghazni, until finally in the reign of Sultan +Sanjar of Merv about 1157 the city was entirely destroyed by +an irruption of the Ghuzz, the predecessors, in race as well as in +habitat, of the modern Turkomans. Herat gradually recovered +under the enlightened Ghorid kings, who were indeed natives +of the province, though they preferred to hold their court amid +their ancestral fortresses in the mountains of Ghor, so that at the +time of Jenghiz Khan’s invasion it equalled or even exceeded +in populousness and wealth its sister capitals Of Balkh, Merv +and Nishapur, the united strength of the four cities being +estimated at three millions of inhabitants. But this Mogul +visitation was most calamitous; forty persons, indeed, are +stated to have alone survived the general massacre of 1232, and +as a similar catastrophe overtook the city at the hands of Timur +in 1398, when the local dynasty of Kurt, which had succeeded +the Ghorides in eastern Khorasan, was put an end to, it is +astonishing to find that early in the 15th century Herat was again +flourishing and populous, and the favoured seat of the art and +literature of the East. It was indeed under the princes of the +house of Timur that most of the noble buildings were erected, +of which the remains still excite our admiration at Herat, while +all the great historical works relative to Asia, such as the <i>Rozetes-Sefā</i>, +the <i>Habīb-es-seir</i>, <i>Hafiz Abrū’s Tarīkh</i>, the <i>Matlā’ a-es-Sa’adin</i>, +&c., date from the same place and the same age. +Four times was Herat sacked by Turkomans and Usbegs during +the centuries which intervened between the Timuride princes +and the rise of the Afghan power, and it has never in modern +times attained to anything like its old importance. Afghan +tribes, who had originally dwelt far to the east, were first settled +at Herat by Nadir Shah, and from that time they have monopolized +the government and formed the dominant element in the +population. It will be needless to trace the revolutions and +counter-revolutions which have followed each other in quick +succession at Herat since Ahmad Shah Durani founded the +Afghan monarchy about the middle of the 18th century. Let +it suffice to say that Herat has been throughout the seat of an +Afghan government, sometimes in subordination to Kabul and +sometimes independent. Persia indeed for many years showed +a strong disposition to reassert the supremacy over Herat which +was exercised by the Safawid kings, but great Britain, disapproving +of the advance of Persia towards the Indian frontier, +steadily resisted the encroachment; and, indeed, after helping +the Heratis to beat off the attack of the Persian army in 1838, +the British at length compelled the shah in 1857 at the close of +his war with them to sign a treaty recognizing the further independence +of the place, and pledging Persia against any further +interference with the Afghans. In 1863 Herat, which for fifty +years previously had been independent of Kabul, was incorporated +by Dost Mahomed Khan in the Afghan monarchy, and +the Amir, Habibullah of Afghanistan, like his father Abdur +Rahman before him, remained Amir of Herat and Kandahar, as +well as Kabul.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Holdich, <i>Indian Borderland</i> (1901); C. E. Yate, <i>Northern +Afghanistan</i> (1888).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÉRAULT,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> a department in the south of France, formed +from Lower Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 482,779. Area, 2403 sq. m. +It is bounded N.E. by Gard, N.W. by Aveyron and Tarn, and +S. by Aude and the Golfe du Lion. The southern prolongation +of the Cévennes mountains occupies the north-western zone of +the department, the highest point being about 4250 ft. above +the sea-level. South-east of this range comes a region of hills +and plateaus decreasing in height as they approach the sea, +from which they are separated by the rich plains at the mouth +of the Orb and the Hérault and, farther to the north-east, by +the line of intercommunicating salt lagoons (Etang de Thau, &c.) +which fringes the coast. The region to the north-west of Montpellier +comprises an extensive tract of country known as the +Garrigues, a district of dry limestone plateaus and hills, which +stretches into the neighbouring department of Gard. The +mountains of the north-west form the watershed between the +Atlantic and Mediterranean basins. From them flow the +Hérault, its tributary the Lergue, and more to the south-west +the Livron and the Orb, which are the main rivers of the department. +Dry summers, varied by occasional violent storms, are +characteristic of Hérault. The climate is naturally colder and +more rainy in the mountains.</p> + +<p>A third of the surface of Hérault is planted with vines, which +are the chief source of agricultural wealth, the department +ranking first in France with respect to the area of its vineyards; +the red wines of St Georges, Cazouls-lès-Béziers, Picpoul and +Maranssan, and the white wines of Frontignan and Lunel (pop. +in 1906, 6769) are held in high estimation. The area given over +to arable land and pasture is small in extent. Fruit trees of +various kinds, but especially mulberries, olives and chestnuts +flourish. The rearing of silk-worms is largely carried on. Considerable +numbers of sheep are raised, their milk being utilized +for the preparation of Roquefort cheeses. The mineral wealth +of the department is considerable. There are mines of lignite, +coal in the vicinity of Graissessac, iron, calamine and copper, +and quarries of building-stone, limestone, gypsum, &c.; +the marshes supply salt. Mineral springs are numerous, the +most important being those of Lamalon-les-Bains and Balaruc-les-Bains. +The chief manufactures are woollen and cotton +cloth, especially for military use, silk (Ganges), casks, soap and +fertilizing stuffs. There are also oil-works, distilleries (Béziers) +and tanneries (Bédarieux). Fishing is an important industry. +Cette and Mèze (pop. in 1906, 5574) are the chief ports. Hérault +exports salt fish, wine, liqueurs, timber, salt, building-material, +&c. It imports cattle, skins, wool, cereals, vegetables, coal and +other commodities. The railway lines belong chiefly to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page333" id="page333"></a>333</span> +Southern and Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée companies. The Canal +du Midi traverses the south of the department for 44 m. and +terminates at Cette. The Canal des Étangs traverses the +department for about 20 m., forming part of a line of communication +between Cette and Aigues-Mortes. Montpellier, the +capital, is the seat of a bishopric of the province of Avignon, and +of a court of appeal and centre of an academic (educational +division). The department belongs to the 16th military region, +which has its headquarters at Montpellier. It is divided into +the arrondissements of Montpellier, Béziers, Lodève and St +Pons, with 36 cantons and 340 communes.</p> + +<p>Montpellier, Béziers, Lodève, Bédarieux, Cette, Agde, Pézenas, +Lamalou-les-Bains and Clermont-l’Hérault are the more noteworthy +towns and receive separate treatment. Among the other +interesting places in the department are St Pons, with a church +of the 12th century, once a cathedral, Villemagne, which has +several old houses and two ruined churches, one of the 13th, the +other of the 14th century; Pignan, a medieval town, near which +is the interesting abbey-church of Vignogoul in the early Gothic +style; and St Guilhem-le-Désert, which has a church of the +11th and 12th centuries. Maguelonne, which in the 6th century +became the seat of a bishopric transferred to Montpellier in 1536, +has a cathedral of the 12th century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÉRAULT DE SÉCHELLES, MARIE JEAN<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (1759-1794), +French politician, was born at Paris on the 20th of September +1759, of a noble family connected with those of Contades and +Polignac. He made his début as a lawyer at the Châtelet, and +delivered some very successful speeches; later he was <i>avocat +général</i> to the parlement of Paris. His legal occupations did not +prevent him from devoting himself also to literature, and after +1789 he published an account of a visit he had made to the comte +de Buffon at Montbard. Hérault’s account is marked by a +delicate irony, and it has with some justice been called a masterpiece +of interviewing, before the day of journalists. Hérault, +who was an ardent champion of the Revolution, took part in +the taking of the Bastille, and on the 8th of December 1789 +was appointed judge of the court of the first arrondissement +in the department of Paris. From the end of January to April +1791 Hérault was absent on a mission in Alsace, where he had +been sent to restore order. On his return he was appointed +<i>commissaire du roi</i> in the court of cassation. He was elected +as a deputy for Paris to the Legislative Assembly, where he +gravitated more and more towards the extreme left; he was a +member of several committees, and, when a member of the +diplomatic committee, presented a famous report demanding +that the nation should be declared to be in danger (11th June +1793). After the revolution of the 10th of August 1792 (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolution</a></span>), he co-operated with Danton, one of the +organizers of this rising, and on the 2nd of September was +appointed president of the Legislative Assembly. He was a +deputy to the National Convention for the department of +Seine-et-Oise, and was sent on a mission to organize the new +department of Mont Blanc. He was thus absent during the +trial of Louis XVI., but he made it known that he approved +of the condemnation of the king, and would probably have +voted for the death penalty. On his return to Paris, Hérault was +several times president of the Convention, notably on the 2nd of +June 1793, the occasion of the attack on the Girondins, and +on the 10th of August 1793, on which the passing of the new +constitution was celebrated. On this occasion Hérault, as +president of the Convention, had to make several speeches. It +was he, moreover, who, on the rejection of the projected constitution +drawn up by Condorcet, was entrusted with the task of +preparing a fresh one; this work he performed within a few days, +and his plan, which, however, differed very little from that of +Condorcet, became the Constitution of 1793, which was passed, +but never applied. As a member of the Committee of Public +Safety, it was with diplomacy that Hérault was chiefly concerned, +and from October to December 1793 he was employed on a +diplomatic and military mission in Alsace. But this mission +helped to make him an object of suspicion to the other members +of the Committee of Public Safety, and especially to Robespierre, +who as a deist and a fanatical follower of the ideas of Rousseau, +hated Hérault, the follower of the naturalism of Diderot. He +was accused of treason, and after being tried before the revolutionary +tribunal, was condemned at the same time as Danton, +and executed on the 16th Germinal in the year II. (5th April +1794). He was handsome, elegant and a lover of pleasure, and +was one of the most individual figures of the Revolution.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Voyage à Montbard</i>, published by A. Aulard (Paris, 1890); +A. Aulard, <i>Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la Convention</i>, 2nd ed. +(Paris, 1906); J. Claretie, <i>Camille Desmoulins ... étude sur les +Dantonistes</i> (Paris, 1875); Dr Robinet, <i>Le Procès des Dantonistes</i> +(Paris, 1879); “Hérault de Séchelles, sa première mission en +Alsace” in the review <i>La Révolution Française</i>, tome 22; E. Daudet, +<i>Le Roman d’un conventionnel. Hérault de Séchelles et les dames de +Bellegarde</i> (1904). His <i>Œuvres littéraires</i> were edited (Paris, 1907) +by E. Dard.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. A.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERB<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (Lat. <i>herba</i>, grass, food for cattle, generally taken to +represent the Old Lat. <i>forbea</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="phorbê">φορβή</span>, pasture, <span class="grk" title="pherbein">φέρβειν</span>, to feed, +Sans. <i>bharb</i>, to eat), in botany, the name given to those plants +whose stem or stalk dies entirely or down to the root each year, +and does not become, as in shrubs or trees, woody or permanent, +such plants are also called “herbaceous.” The term “herb” +is also used of those herbaceous plants, which possess certain +properties, and are used for medicinal purposes, for flavouring +or garnishing in cooking, and also for perfumes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horticulture</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pharmacology</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERBARIUM,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hortus Siccus</span>, a collection of plants so +dried and preserved as to illustrate as far as possible their +characters. Since the same plant, owing to peculiarities of climate, +soil and situation, degree of exposure to light and other influences +may vary greatly according to the locality in which it occurs, +it is only by gathering together for comparison and study a +large series of examples of each species that the flora of different +regions can be satisfactorily represented. Even in the best +equipped botanical garden it is impossible to have, at one and +the same time, more than a very small percentage of the representatives +of the flora of any given region or of any large group +of plants. Hence a good herbarium forms an indispensable part +of a botanical museum or institution. There are large herbaria +at the British Museum and at the Royal Gardens, Kew, and +smaller collections at the botanical institutions at the principal +British universities. The original herbarium of Linnaeus is in +the possession of the Linnaean Society of London. It was +purchased from the widow of Linnaeus by Dr (afterwards Sir) +J. E. Smith, one of the founders of the Linnaean Society, and +after his death was purchased by the society. Herbaria are also +associated with the more important botanic gardens and museums +in other countries. The value of a herbarium is much enhanced +by the possession of “types,” that is, the original specimens +on the study of which a species was founded. Thus the herbarium +at the British Museum, which is especially rich in the earlier +collections made in the 18th and early 19th centuries, contains +the types of many species founded by the earlier workers in +botany. It is also rich in the types of Australian plants in the +collections of Sir Joseph Banks and Robert Brown, and contains +in addition many valuable modern collections. The Kew +herbarium, founded by Sir William Hooker and greatly increased +by his son Sir Joseph Hooker, is also very rich in types, especially +those of plants described in the <i>Flora of British India</i> and +various colonial floras. The collection of Dillenius is deposited +at Oxford, and that of Professor W. H. Harvey at Trinity +College, Dublin. The collections of Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, +his son Adrien, and of Auguste de St Hilaire, are included in the +large herbarium of the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, and in the +same city is the extensive private collection of Dr Ernest Cosson. +At Geneva are three large collections—Augustin Pyrame de +Candolle’s, containing the typical specimens of the <i>Prodromus</i>, +a large series of monographs of the families of flowering plants, +Benjamin Delessert’s fine series at the Botanic Garden, and the +Boissier Herbarium, which is rich in Mediterranean and Oriental +plants. The university of Göttingen has had bequeathed to it +the largest collection (exceeding 40,000 specimens) ever made +by a single individual—that of Professor Grisebach. At the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id="page334"></a>334</span> +herbarium in Brussels are the specimens obtained by the traveller +Karl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, the majority of which +formed the groundwork of his <i>Flora Brasiliensis</i>. The Berlin +herbarium is especially rich in more recent collections, and other +national herbaria sufficiently extensive to subserve the requirements +of the systematic botanist exist at St Petersburg, Vienna, +Leiden, Stockholm, Upsala, Copenhagen and Florence. Of +those in the United States of America, the chief, formed by Asa +Gray, is the property of Harvard university; there is also a +large one at the New York Botanical Garden. The herbarium +at Melbourne, Australia, under Baron Müller, attained large +proportions; and that of the Botanical Garden of Calcutta is +noteworthy as the repository of numerous specimens described +by writers on Indian botany.</p> + +<p>Specimens of flowering plants and vascular cryptograms +are generally mounted on sheets of stout smooth paper, of +uniform quality; the size adopted at Kew is 17 in. long by 11 in. +broad, that at the British Museum is slightly larger; the palms +and their allies, however, and some ferns, require a larger size. +The tough but flexible coarse grey paper (German <i>Fliesspapier</i>), +upon which on the Continent specimens are commonly fixed by +gummed strips of the same, is less hygroscopic than ordinary +cartridge paper, but has the disadvantage of affording harbourage +in the inequalities of its surface to a minute insect, <i>Atropos +pulsatoria</i>, which commits great havoc in damp specimens, +and which, even if noticed, cannot be dislodged without difficulty. +The majority of plant specimens are most suitably fastened on +paper by a mixture of equal parts of gum tragacanth and gum +arabic made into a thick paste with water. Rigid leathery +leaves are fixed by means of glue, or, if they present too smooth +a surface, by stitching at their edges. Where, as in private +herbaria, the specimens are not liable to be handled with great +frequency, a stitch here and there round the stem, tied at the +back of the sheet, or slips of paper passed over the stem through +two slits in the sheet and attached with gum to its back, or +simply strips of gummed paper laid across the stem, may be +resorted to.</p> + +<p>To preserve from insects, the plants, after mounting, are +often brushed over with a liquid formed by the solution of +¼ ℔. each of corrosive sublimate and carbolic acid in 1 gallon +of methylated spirits. They are then laid out to dry on shelves +made of a network of stout galvanized iron wire. The use of +corrosive sublimate is not, however, recommended, as it forms +on drying a fine powder which when the plants are handled +will rub off and, being carried into the air, may prove injurious +to workers. If the plants are subjected to some process, before +mounting, by which injurious organisms are destroyed, such +as exposure in a closed chamber to vapour of carbon bisulphide +for some hours, the presence of pieces of camphor or naphthalene +in the cabinet will be found a sufficient preservative. After +mounting are written—usually in the right-hand corner of the +sheet, or on a label there affixed—the designation of each species, +the date and place of gathering, and the name of the collector. +Other particulars as to habit, local abundance, soil and claim +to be indigenous may be written on the back of the sheet or on +a slip of writing paper attached to its edge. It is convenient +to place in a small envelope gummed to an upper corner of the +sheet any flowers, seeds or leaves needed for dissection or +microscopical examination, especially where from the fixation +of the specimen it is impossible to examine the leaves for oil-receptacles +and where seed is apt to escape from ripe capsules +and be lost. The addition of a careful dissection of a flower +greatly increases the value of the specimen. To ensure that +all shall lie evenly in the herbarium the plants should be made +to occupy as far as possible alternately the right and left sides +of their respective sheets. The species of each genus are then +arranged either systematically or alphabetically in separate +covers of stout, usually light brown paper, or, if the genus be +large, in several covers with the name of the genus clearly indicated +in the lower left-hand corner of each, and opposite +it the names or reference numbers of the species. Undetermined +species are relegated to the end of the genus. Thus prepared, +the specimens are placed on shelves or movable trays, at intervals +of about 6 in., in an air-tight cupboard, on the inner side of the +door of which, as a special protection against insects, is suspended +a muslin bag containing a piece of camphor.</p> + +<p>The systematic arrangement varies in different herbaria. In +the great British herbaria the orders and genera of flowering +plants are usually arranged according to Bentham and Hooker’s +<i>Genera plantarum</i>; the species generally follow the arrangement +of the most recent complete monograph of the family. In non-flowering +plants the works usually followed are for ferns, Hooker +and Baker’s <i>Synopsis filicum</i>; for mosses, Müller’s <i>Synopsis +muscorum frondosorum</i>, Jaeger & Sauerbeck’s <i>Genera et species +muscorum</i>, and Engler & Prantl’s <i>Pflanzenfamilien</i>; for algae, +de Toni’s <i>Sylloge algarum</i>; for hepaticae, Gottsche, Lindenberg +and Nees ab Esenbeck’s <i>Synopsis hepaticarum</i>, supplemented +by Stephani’s <i>Species hepaticarum</i>; for fungi, Saccardo’s +<i>Sylloge fungorum</i>, and for mycetozoa Lister’s monograph of +the group. For the members of large genera, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Piper</i> and +<i>Ficus</i>, since the number of cosmopolitan or very widely distributed +species is comparatively few, a geographical grouping is +found specially convenient by those who are constantly receiving +parcels of plants from known foreign sources. The ordinary +systematic arrangement possesses the great advantage, in the +case of large genera, of readily indicating the affinities of any +particular specimen with the forms most nearly allied to it. +Instead of keeping a catalogue of the species contained in the +herbarium, which, owing to the constant additions, would be +almost impossible, such species are usually ticked off with a +pencil in the systematic work which is followed in arranging +them, so that by reference to this work it is possible to see at a +glance whether the specimen sought is in the herbarium and +what species are still wanted.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Specimens intended for the herbarium should be collected when +possible in dry weather, care being taken to select plants or portions +of plants in sufficient number and of a size adequate to illustrate +all the characteristic features of the species. When the root-leaves +and roots present any peculiarities, they should invariably be +collected, but the roots should be dried separately in an oven at a +moderate heat. Roots and fruits too bulky to be placed on the sheet +of the herbarium may be conveniently arranged in glass-covered +boxes contained in drawers. The best and most effective mode of +drying specimens is learned only by experience, different species +requiring special treatment according to their several peculiarities. +The chief points to be attended to are to have a plentiful supply of +botanical drying paper, so as to be able to use about six sheets for +each specimen; to change the paper at intervals of six to twelve +hours; to avoid contact of one leaf or flower with another; and to +increase the pressure applied only in proportion to the dryness of the +specimen. To preserve the colour of flowers pledgets of cotton wool, +which prevent bruising, should be introduced between them, as also, +if the stamens are thick and succulent, as in <i>Digitalis</i>, between these +and the corolla. A flower dissected and gummed on the sheets will +often retain the colour which it is impossible to preserve in a crowded +inflorescence. A flat sheet of lead or some other suitable weight +should be laid upon the top of the pile of specimens, so as to keep up +a continuous pressure. Succulent specimens, as many of the <i>Orchidaceae</i> +and sedums and various other Crassulaceous plants, require +to be killed by immersion in boiling water before being placed in +drying paper, or, instead of becoming dry, they will grow between the +sheets. When, as with some plants like <i>Verbascum</i>, the thick hard +stems are liable to cause the leaves to wrinkle in drying by removing +the pressure from them, small pieces of bibulous paper or cotton wool +may be placed upon the leaves near their point of attachment to +the stem. When a number of specimens have to be submitted to +pressure, ventilation is secured by means of frames corresponding +in size to the drying paper, and composed of strips of wood or wires +laid across each other so as to form a kind of network. Another mode +of drying is to keep the specimens in a box of dry sand in a warm +place for ten or twelve hours, and then press them in drying paper. +A third method consists in placing the specimen within bibulous +paper, and enclosing the whole between two plates of coarsely +perforated zinc supported in a wooden frame. The zinc plates are +then drawn close together by means of straps, and suspended before +a fire until the drying is effected. By the last two methods the +colour of the flowers may be well preserved. When the leaves are +finely divided, as in <i>Conium</i>, much trouble will be experienced in +lifting a half-dried specimen from one paper to another; but the +plant may be placed in a sheet of thin blotting paper, and the sheet +containing the plant, instead of the plant itself, can then be moved. +Thin straw-coloured paper, such as is used for biscuit bags, may be +conveniently employed by travellers unable to carry a quantity of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page335" id="page335"></a>335</span> +bibulous paper. It offers the advantage of fitting closely to thick-stemmed +specimens and of rapidly drying. A light but strong +portfolio, to which pressure by means of straps can be applied, and +a few quires of this paper, if the paper be changed night and morning, +will be usually sufficient to dry all except very succulent plants. +When a specimen is too large for one sheet, and it is necessary, in +order to show its habit, &c., to dry the whole of it, it may be divided +into two or three portions, and each placed on a separate sheet for +drying. Specimens may be judged to be dry when they no longer +cause a cold sensation when applied to the cheek, or assume a +rigidity not evident in the earlier stages of preparation.</p> + +<p>Each class of flowerless or cryptogamic plants requires special +treatment for the herbarium.</p> + +<p>Marine algae are usually mounted on tough smooth white cartridge +paper in the following manner. Growing specimens of good colour +and in fruit are if possible selected, and cleansed as much as practicable +from adhering foreign particles, either in the sea or a rocky pool. +Some species rapidly change colour, and cause the decay of any +others with which they come in contact. This is especially the case +with the <i>Ectocarpi</i>, <i>Desmarestiae</i>, and a few others, which should +therefore be brought home in a separate vessel. In mounting, the +specimen is floated out in a flat white dish containing sea-water, so +that foreign matter may be detected, and a piece of paper of suitable +size is placed under it, supported either by the fingers of the left hand +or by a palette. It is then pruned, in order clearly to show the mode +of branching, and is spread out as naturally as possible with the +right hand. For this purpose a bone knitting-needle answers well +for the coarse species, and a camel’s-hair pencil for the more delicate +ones. The paper with the specimen is then carefully removed from +the water by sliding it over the edge of the dish so as to drain it as +much as possible. If during this process part of the fronds run +together, the beauty of the specimen may be restored by dipping +the edge into water, so as to float out the part and allow it to subside +naturally on the paper. The paper, with the specimen upwards, is +then laid on bibulous paper for a few minutes to absorb as much as +possible of the superfluous moisture. When freed from excess of +water it is laid on a sheet of thick white blotting-paper, and a piece +of smooth washed calico is placed upon it (unwashed calico, on account +of its “facing,” adheres to the sea-weed). Another sheet of blotting-paper +is then laid over it; and, a number of similar specimens +being formed into a pile, the whole is submitted to pressure, the paper +being changed every hour or two at first. The pressure is increased, +and the papers are changed less frequently as the specimens become +dry, which usually takes place in thirty-six hours. Some species, +especially those of a thick or leathery texture, contract so much in +drying that without strong pressure the edges of the paper become +puckered. Other species of a gelatinous nature, like <i>Nemalion</i> and +<i>Dudresnaya</i>, may be allowed to dry on the paper, and need not be +submitted to pressure until they no longer present a gelatinous +appearance. Large coarse algae, such, for instance, as the <i>Fucaceae</i> +and <i>Laminariae</i>, do not readily adhere to paper, and require soaking +for some time in fresh water before being pressed. The less robust +species, such as <i>Sphacelaria scoparia</i>, which do not adhere well to +paper, may be made to do so by brushing them over either with milk +carefully skimmed, or with a liquid formed by placing isinglass (¼ oz.) +and water (1½ oz.) in a wide-mouthed bottle, and the bottle in a small +glue-pot or saucepan containing cold water, heating until solution is +effected, and then adding 1 oz. of rectified spirits of wine; the whole +is next stirred together, and when cold is kept in a stoppered bottle. +For use, the mixture is warmed to render it fluid, and applied by +means of a camel’s hair brush to the under side of the specimen, which +is then laid neatly on paper. For the more delicate species, such +as the <i>Callithamnia</i> and <i>Ectocarpi</i>, it is an excellent plan to place a +small fruiting fragment, carefully floated out in water, on a slip of +mica of the size of an ordinary microscopical slide, and allow it to +dry. The plant can then be at any time examined under the microscope +without injuring the mounted specimen. Many of the fresh-water +algae which form a mere crust, such as <i>Palmella cruenta</i>, may +be placed in a vessel of water, where after a time they float like a +scum, the earthy matter settling down to the bottom, and may then +be mounted by slipping a piece of mica under them and allowing it +to dry. <i>Oscillatoriae</i> may be mounted by laying a portion on a silver +coin placed on a piece of paper in a plate, and pouring in water until +the edge of the coin is just covered. The alga by its own peculiar +movement will soon form a radiating circle, perfectly free from dirt, +around the coin, which may then be removed. There is considerable +difficulty in removing mounted specimens of algae from paper, and +therefore a small portion preserved on mica should accompany each +specimen, enclosed for safety in a small envelope fastened at one +corner of the sheet of paper. Filamentous diatoms may be mounted +like ordinary sea-weeds, and, as well as all parasitic algae, should +whenever possible be allowed to remain attached to a portion of the +alga on which they grow, some species being almost always <span class="correction" title="duplicated found">found</span> +parasitical on particular plants. Ordinary diatoms and +desmids may be mounted on mica, as above described, by putting +a portion in a vessel of water and exposing it to sunlight, when they +rise to the surface, and may be thus removed comparatively free +from dirt or impurity. Owing to their want of adhesiveness, they are, +however, usually mounted on glass as microscopic slides, either in +glycerin jelly, Canada balsam or some other suitable medium.</p> + +<p>Lichens are generally mounted on sheets of paper of the ordinary +size, several specimens from different localities being laid upon one +sheet, each specimen having been first placed on a small square of +paper which is gummed on the sheet, and which has the locality, +date, name of collector, &c., written upon it. This mode has some +disadvantages attending it; such sheets are difficult to handle; +the crustaceous species are liable to have their surfaces rubbed; +the foliaceous species become so compressed as to lose their characteristic +appearance; and the spaces between the sheets caused by the +thickness of the specimen permit the entrance of dust. A plan which +has been found to answer well is to arrange them in cardboard boxes, +either with glass tops or in sliding covers, in drawers—the name being +placed outside each box and the specimens gummed into the boxes. +Lichens for the herbarium should, whenever possible, be sought for +on a slaty or laminated rock, so as to procure them on flat thin pieces +of the same, suitable for mounting. Specimens on the bark of trees +require pressure until the bark is dry, lest they become curled; +and those growing on sand or friable soil, such as <i>Coniocybe furfuracea</i>, +should be laid carefully on a layer of gum in the box in which they +are intended to be kept. Many lichens, such as the <i>Verrucariae</i> and +<i>Collemaceae</i>, are found in the best condition during the winter +months. In mounting collemas it is advisable to let the specimen +become dry and hard, and then to separate a portion from adherent +mosses, earth, &c., and mount it separately so as to show the branching +of the thallus. <i>Pertusariae</i> should be represented by both fruiting +and sorediate specimens.</p> + +<p>The larger species of fungi, such as the <i>Agaricini</i> and <i>Polyporei</i>, +&c., are prepared for the herbarium by cutting a slice out of the +centre of the plant so as to show the outline of the cap or pileus, the +attachment of the gills, and the character of the interior of the stem. +The remaining portions of the pileus are then lightly pressed, as well +as the central slices, between bibulous paper until dry, and the whole +is then “poisoned,” and gummed on a sheet of paper in such a manner +as to show the under surface of the one and the upper surface of the +other half of the pileus on the same sheet. A “map” of the spores +should be taken by separating a pileus and placing it flat on a piece +of thin paper for a few hours when the spores will fall and leave a +nature print of the arrangement of the gills which may be fixed by +gumming the other side of the paper. As it is impossible to preserve +the natural colours of fungi, the specimens should, whenever possible, +be accompanied by a coloured drawing of the plant. Microscopic +fungi are usually preserved in envelopes, or simply attached to sheets +of paper or mounted as microscopic slides. Those fungi which are +of a dusty nature, and the <i>Myxomycetes</i> or <i>Mycetozoa</i> may, like the +lichens, be preserved in small boxes and arranged in drawers. +Fungi under any circumstances form the least satisfactory portion +of an herbarium.</p> + +<p>Mosses when growing in tufts should be gathered just before the +capsules have become brown, divided into small flat portions, and +pressed lightly in drying paper. During this process the capsules +ripen, and are thus obtained in a perfect state. They are then preserved +in envelopes attached to a sheet of paper of the ordinary size, a +single perfect specimen being washed, and spread out under the +envelope so as to show the habit of the plant. For attaching it to the +paper a strong mucilage of gum tragacanth, containing an eighth +of its weight of spirit of wine, answers best. If not preserved in an +envelope the calyptra and operculum are very apt to fall off and +become lost. Scale-mosses are mounted in the same way, or may +be floated out in water like sea-weeds, and dried in white blotting +paper under strong pressure before gumming on paper, but are best +mounted as microscopic slides, care being taken to show the stipules. +The specimens should be collected when the capsules are just appearing +above or in the colesule or calyx; if kept in a damp saucer they +soon arrive at maturity, and can then be mounted in better condition, +the fruit-stalks being too fragile to bear carriage in a botanical tin +case without injury.</p> + +<p>Of the <i>Characeae</i> many are so exceedingly brittle that it is best +to float them out like sea-weeds, except the prickly species, which +may be carefully laid out on bibulous paper, and when dry fastened +on sheets of white paper by means of gummed strips. Care should +be taken in collecting charae to secure, in the case of dioecious +species, specimens of both forms, and also to get when possible the +roots of those species on which the small granular starchy bodies or +gemmae are found, as in <i>C. fragifera</i>. Portions of the fructification +may be preserved in small envelopes attached to the sheets.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERBART, JOHANN FRIEDRICH<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (1776-1841), German +philosopher and educationist, was born at Oldenburg on the +4th of May 1776. After studying under Fichte at Jena he gave +his first philosophical lectures at Göttingen in 1805, whence +he removed in 1809 to occupy the chair formerly held by Kant +at Königsberg. Here he also established and conducted a +seminary of pedagogy till 1833, when he returned once more to +Göttingen, and remained there as professor of philosophy till +his death on the 14th of August 1841.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Philosophy, according to Herbart, begins with reflection upon our +empirical conceptions, and consists in the reformation and elaboration +of these—its three primary divisions being determined by as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336"></a>336</span> +many distinct forms of elaboration. Logic, which stands first, has +to render our conceptions and the judgments and reasonings arising +from them clear and distinct. But some conceptions are such that +the more distinct they are made the more contradictory their elements +become; so to change and supplement these as to make them at +length thinkable is the problem of the second part of philosophy, +or metaphysics. There is still a class of conceptions requiring more +than a logical treatment, but differing from the last in not involving +latent contradictions, and in being independent of the reality of their +objects, the conceptions, viz. that embody our judgments of approval +and disapproval; the philosophic treatment of these conceptions +falls to Aesthetic.</p> + +<p>In Herbart’s writings logic receives comparatively meagre notice; +he insisted strongly on its purely formal character, and expressed +himself in the main at one with Kantians such as Fries and Krug.</p> + +<p>As a metaphysician he starts from what he terms “the higher +scepticism” of the Hume-Kantian sphere of thought, the beginnings +of which he discerns in Locke’s perplexity about the idea of substance. +By this scepticism the real validity of even the <i>forms</i> of experience +is called in question on account of the contradictions they are found +to involve. And yet that these forms are “given” to us, as truly as +sensations are, follows beyond doubt when we consider that we are +as little able to control the one as the other. To attempt at this stage +a psychological inquiry into the origin of these conceptions would be +doubly a mistake; for we should have to use these unlegitimated +conceptions in the course of it, and the task of clearing up their +contradictions would still remain, whether we succeeded in our enquiry +or not. But how are we to set about this task? We have given to us +a conception A uniting among its constituent marks two that prove +to be contradictory, say M and N; and we can neither deny the unity +nor reject one of the contradictory members. For to do either is +forbidden by experience; and yet to do nothing is forbidden by logic. +We are thus driven to the assumption that the conception is contradictory +because incomplete; but how are we to supplement it? +What we have must point the way to what we want, or our procedure +will be arbitrary. Experience asserts that M is the same (<i>i.e.</i> a mark +of the same concept) as N, while logic denies it; and so—it being +impossible for one and the same M to sustain these contradictory +positions—there is but one way open to us; we must posit <i>several</i> +Ms. But even now we cannot say one of these Ms is the same as N, +another is not; for every M must be both thinkable and valid. We +may, however, take the Ms not singly but together; and again, no +other course being open to us, this is what we must do; we must +assume that N results from a combination of Ms. This is Herbart’s +method of relations, the counterpart in his system of the Hegelian +dialectic.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Ontology</i> this method is employed to determine what in +reality corresponds to the empirical conceptions of substance and +cause, or rather of inherence and change. But first we must analyse +this notion of reality itself, to which our scepticism had already led +us, for, though we could doubt whether “the given” is what it +appears, we cannot doubt that it is something; the conception of the +real thus consists of the two conceptions of being and quality. That +which we are compelled to “posit,” which cannot be sublated, is +that which <i>is</i>, and in the recognition of this lies the simple conception +of being. But when is a thing thus posited? When it is posited +as we are wont to posit the things we see and taste and handle. +If we were without sensations, <i>i.e.</i> were never bound against our will +to endure the persistence of a presentation, we should never know +what being is. Keeping fast hold of this idea of absolute position, +Herbart leads us next to the quality of the real. (1) This must +exclude everything negative; for non-A sublates instead of positing, +and is not absolute, but relative to A. (2) The real must be absolutely +simple; for if it contain two determinations, A and B, then either +these are reducible to one, which is the true quality, or they are not, +when each is conditioned by the other and their position is no longer +absolute. (3) All quantitative conceptions are excluded, for quantity +implies parts, and these are incompatible with simplicity. (4) But +there may be a plurality of “reals,” albeit the mere conception of +being can tell us nothing as to this. The doctrine here developed +is the first cardinal point of Herbart’s system, and has obtained +for it the name of “pluralistic realism.”</p> + +<p>The contradictions he finds in the common-sense conception of +inherence, or of “a thing with several attributes,” will now become +obvious. Let us take some thing, say A, having <i>n</i> attributes, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, +<i>c</i> ...: we are forced to posit each of these because each is presented +in intuition. But in conceiving A we make, not <i>n</i> positions, still less +<i>n</i> + 1 positions, but one position simply; for common sense removes +the absolute position from its original source, sensation. So when we +ask, What is the one posited? we are told—the possessor of <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>..., +or in other words, their seat or substance. But if so, then +A, as a real, being simple, must = <i>a</i>; similarly it must = <i>b</i>; and so +on. Now this would be possible if <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> ... were but “contingent +aspects” of A, as <i>e.g.</i> 2³, √64, 4 + 3 + 1 are contingent aspects of 8. +Such, of course, is not the case, and so we have as many contradictions +as there are attributes; for we must say A is <i>a</i>, is not <i>a</i>, is <i>b</i>, +is not <i>b</i>, &c. There must then, according to the method of relations, +be several As. For a let us assume A<span class="su">1</span> + A<span class="su">1</span> + A<span class="su">1</span>...; for <i>b</i>, +A<span class="su">2</span> + A<span class="su">2</span> + A<span class="su">2</span>...; and so on for the rest. But now what relation +can there be among these several As, which will restore to us +the unity of our original A or substance? There is but one; we +must assume that the first A of every series is identical, just as the +centre is the same point in every radius. By way of concrete +illustration Herbart instances “the common observation that the +properties of things exist only under external conditions. Bodies, we +say, are coloured, but colour is nothing without light, and nothing +without eyes. They sound, but only in a vibrating medium, and +for healthy ears. Colour and tone present the appearance of inherence, +but on looking closer we find they are not really immanent +in things but rather presuppose a communion among several.” +The result then is briefly thus: In place of the one absolute position, +which in some unthinkable way the common understanding substitutes +for the absolute positions of the <i>n</i> attributes, we have really +a series of two or more positions for each attribute, every series, +however, beginning with the same (as it were, central) real (hence +the unity of substance in a group of attributes), but each being +continued by different reals (hence the plurality and difference of +attributes in unity of substance). Where there is the appearance of +inherence, therefore, there is always a plurality of reals; no such +correlative to substance as attribute or accident can be admitted +at all. Substantiality is impossible without causality, and to this +as its true correlative we now turn.</p> + +<p>The common-sense conception of change involves at bottom the +same contradiction of opposing qualities in one real. The same A +that was <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> ... becomes <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>d</i> ...; and this, which experience +thrusts upon us, proves on reflection unthinkable. The metaphysical +supplementing is also fundamentally as before. Since <i>c</i> +depended on a series of reals A<span class="su">3</span> + A<span class="su">3</span> + A<span class="su">3</span> ... in connexion with +A, and <i>d</i> may be said similarly to depend on a series A<span class="su">4</span> + A<span class="su">4</span> + A<span class="su">4</span> ..., +then the change from <i>c</i> to <i>d</i> means, not that the central real A or +any real has changed, but that A is now in connexion with A<span class="su">4</span>, &c., and +no longer in connexion with A<span class="su">3</span>, &c.</p> + +<p>But to think a number of reals “in connexion” (<i>Zusammensein</i>) +will not suffice as an explanation of phenomena; something or other +must happen when they are in connexion; what is it? The answer +to this question is the second hinge-point of Herbart’s theoretical +philosophy. What “actually happens” as distinct from all that +seems to happen, when two reals A and B are together is that, +assuming them to differ in quality, they tend to disturb each other +to the extent of that difference, at the same time that each preserves +itself intact by resisting, as it were, the other’s disturbance. And +so by coming into connexion with different reals the “self-preservations” +of A will vary accordingly, A remaining the same through +all; just as, by way of illustration, hydrogen remains the same in +water and in ammonia, or as the same line may be now a normal +and now a tangent. But to indicate this opposition in the qualities +of the reals A + B, we must substitute for these symbols others, +which, though only “contingent aspects” of A and B, <i>i.e.</i> representing +their relations, not themselves, yet like similar devices in +mathematics enable thought to advance. Thus we may put A = +α + β − γ, B = <i>m</i> + <i>n</i> + γ; γ then represents the character of the self-preservations +in this case, and α + β + <i>m</i> + <i>n</i> represents all that could +be observed by a spectator who did not know the simple qualities, +but was himself involved in the relations of A to B; and such is +exactly our position.</p> + +<p>Having thus determined what really is and what actually happens, +our philosopher proceeds next to explain synthetically the objective +semblance (<i>der objective Schein</i>) that results from these. But if +this construction is to be truly objective, <i>i.e.</i> valid for all intelligences, +ontology must furnish us with a clue. This we have in the forms of +Space, Time and Motion which are involved whenever we think the +reals as being in, or coming into, connexion and the opposite. +These forms then cannot be merely the products of our psychological +mechanism, though they may turn out to coincide with these. +Meanwhile let us call them “intelligible,” as being valid for all who +comprehend the real and actual by thought, although no such forms +are predicable of the real and actual themselves. The elementary +spatial relation Herbart conceives to be “the contiguity (<i>Aneinander</i>) +of two points,” so that every “pure and independent line” is discrete. +But an investigation of dependent lines which are often incommensurable +forces us to adopt the contradictory fiction of partially overlapping, +<i>i.e.</i> divisible points, or in other words, the conception of +Continuity.<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> But the contradiction here is one we cannot eliminate +by the method of relations, because it does not involve anything +real; and in fact as a necessary outcome of an “intelligible” form, +the fiction of continuity is valid for the “objective semblance,” +and no more to be discarded than say √−1. By its help we are +enabled to comprehend what actually happens among reals to +produce the appearance of matter. When three or more reals are +together, each disturbance and self-preservation will (in general) +be imperfect, <i>i.e.</i> of less intensity than when only two reals are +together. But “objective semblance” corresponds with reality; +the spatial or external relations of the reals in this case must, therefore, +tally with their inner or actual states. Had the self-preservations +been perfect, the coincidence in space would have been complete, +and the group of reals would have been inextended; or had the several +reals been simply contiguous, <i>i.e.</i> without connexion, then, as nothing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id="page337"></a>337</span> +would actually have happened, nothing would appear. As it is +we shall find a continuous molecule manifesting attractive and +repulsive forces; attraction corresponding to the tendency of the +self-preservations to become perfect, repulsion to the frustration of +this. Motion, even more evidently than space, implicates the contradictory +conception of continuity, and cannot, therefore, be a real +predicate, though valid as an intelligible form and necessary to the +comprehension of the objective semblance. For we have to think +of the reals as absolutely independent and yet as entering into connexions. +This we can only do by conceiving them as originally +moving through intelligible space in rectilinear paths and with +uniform velocities. For such motion no cause need be supposed; +motion, in fact, is no more a state of the moving real than rest is, +both alike being but relations, with which, therefore, the real has no +concern. The changes in this motion, however, for which we <i>should</i> +require a cause, would be the objective semblance of the self-preservations +that actually occur when reals meet. Further, by means of such +motion these actual occurrences, which are in themselves timeless, +fall for an observer in a definite time—a time which becomes continuous +through the partial coincidence of events.</p> + +<p>But in all this it has been assumed that we are spectators of the +objective semblance; it remains to make good this assumption, or, +in other words, to show the possibility of knowledge; this is the +problem of what Herbart terms Eidolology, and forms the transition +from metaphysic to psychology. Here, again, a contradictory conception +blocks the way, that, viz. of the Ego as the identity of +knowing and being, and as such the stronghold of idealism. The +contradiction becomes more evident when the ego is defined to be +a subject (and so a real) that is its own object. As real and not +merely formal, this conception of the ego is amenable to the method +of relations. The solution this method furnishes is summarily that +there are several objects which mutually modify each other, and so +constitute that ego we take for the presented real. But to explain +this modification is the business of psychology; it is enough now to +see that the subject like all reals is necessarily unknown, and that, +therefore, the idealist’s theory of knowledge is unsound. But though +the simple quality of the subject or soul is beyond knowledge, we +know what actually happens when it is in connexion with other’s +reals, for its self-preservations then are what we call sensations. +And these sensations are the sole material of our knowledge; but +they are not given to us as a chaos but in definite groups and series, +whence we come to know the relations of those reals, which, though +themselves unknown, our sensations compel us to posit absolutely.</p> + +<p>In his <i>Psychology</i> Herbart rejects altogether the doctrine of mental +faculties as one refuted by his metaphysics, and tries to show that +all psychical phenomena whatever result from the action and interaction +of elementary ideas or presentations (<i>Vorstellungen</i>). The +soul being one and simple, its separate acts of self-preservation +or primary presentations must be simple too, and its several presentations +must become united together. And this they can do at once +and completely when, as is the case, for example, with the several +attributes of an object, they are not of opposite quality. But otherwise +there ensues a conflict in which the opposed presentations +comport themselves like forces and mutually suppress or obscure +each other. The act of presentation (<i>Vorstellen</i>) then becomes +partly transformed into an effort, and its product, the idea, becomes +in the same proportion less and less intense till a position of equilibrium +is reached; and then at length the remainders coalesce. +We have thus a statics and a mechanics of mind which investigate +respectively the conditions of equilibrium and of movement among +presentations. In the statics two magnitudes have to be determined: +(1) the amount of the suppression or inhibition (<i>Hemmungssumme</i>), +and (2) the ratio in which this is shared among the opposing presentations. +The first must obviously be as small as possible; thus for +two totally-opposed presentations a and b, of which a is the greater, +the <i>inhibendum</i> = <i>b</i>. For a given degree of opposition this burden +will be shared between the conflicting presentations in the inverse +ratio of their strength. When its remainder after inhibition = 0, +a presentation is said to be on the threshold of consciousness, for on +a small diminution of the inhibition the “effort” will become actual +presentation in the same proportion. Such total exclusion from +consciousness is, however, manifestly impossible with only two +presentations,<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> though with three or a greater number the residual +value of one may even be negative. The first and simplest law in +psychological mechanics relates to the “sinking” of inhibited +presentations. As the presentations yield to the pressure, the +pressure itself diminishes, so that the velocity of sinking decreases, <i>i.e.</i> +we have the equation (S − σ) dt = dσ, where S is the total <i>inhibendum</i>, +and σ the intensity actually inhibited after the time <i>t</i>. Hence +<i>t</i> = log (S/S − σ), and σ = S(1 − e<span class="sp">−t</span>). From this law it follows, for example, +that equilibrium is never quite obtained for those presentations +which continue above the threshold of consciousness, while the rest +which cannot so continue are very speedily driven beyond the +threshold. More important is the law according to which a presentation +freed from inhibition and rising anew into consciousness tends +to raise the other presentations with which it is combined. Suppose +two presentations <i>p</i> and π united by the residua <i>r</i> and ρ; then the +amount of <i>p</i>’s “help” to π is <i>r</i>, the portion of which appropriated by +π is given by the ratio ρ : π; and thus the initial help is <i>r</i>ρ/π. + +But after a time <i>t</i>, when a portion of ρ represented by ω has been +actually brought into consciousness, the help afforded in the next +instant will be found by the equation</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>rρ</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>ρ − ω</td> +<td rowspan="2">dt = dω,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">π</td> <td class="denom">ρ</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">from which by integration we have the value of ω.</p> + +<p class="center">ω = ρ <span class="f150">(</span>1 − ε<span class="sp">−rt/π</span><span class="f150">)</span>.</p> + +<p class="noind">So that if there are several πs connected with <i>p</i> by smaller and +smaller parts, there will be a definite “serial” order in which they +will be revived by <i>p</i>; and on this fact Herbart rests all the phenomena +of the so-called faculty of memory, the development of spatial and +temporal forms and much besides. Emotions and volitions, he +holds, are not directly self-preservations of the soul, as our presentations +are, but variable states of such presentations resulting from +their interaction when above the threshold of consciousness. Thus +when some presentations tend to force a presentation into consciousness, +and others at the same time tend to drive it out, that +presentation is the seat of painful feeling; when, on the other hand, +its entrance is favoured by all, pleasure results. Desires are presentations +struggling into consciousness against hindrances, and when +accompanied by the supposition of success become volitions. Transcendental +freedom of will in Kant’s sense is an impossibility. +Self-consciousness is the result of an interaction essentially the same +in kind as that which takes place when a comparatively simple +presentation finds the field of consciousness occupied by a long-formed +and well-consolidated “mass” of presentations—as, <i>e.g.</i> +one’s business or garden, the theatre, &c., which promptly inhibit +the isolated presentation if incongruent, and unite it to themselves +if not. What we call Self is, above all, such a central mass, and +Herbart seeks to show with great ingenuity and detail how this +position is occupied at first chiefly by the body, then by the seat of +ideas and desires, and finally by that first-personal Self which recollects +the past and resolves concerning the future. But at any stage +the actual constituents of this “complexion” are variable; the +concrete presentation of Self is never twice the same. And, therefore, +finding on reflection any particular concrete factor contingent, we +abstract the position from that which occupies it, and so reach the +speculative notion of the pure Ego.</p> + +<p><i>Aesthetics</i> elaborates the “ideas” involved in the expression of +taste called forth by those relations of object which acquire for them +the attribution of beauty or the reverse. The beautiful (<span class="grk" title="kalon">καλόν</span>) is +to be carefully distinguished from the allied conceptions of the useful +and the pleasant, which vary with time, place and person; whereas +beauty is predicated absolutely and involuntarily by all who have +attained the right standpoint. Ethics, which is but one branch of +aesthetics, although the chief, deals with such relations among +volitions (<i>Willensverhältnisse</i>) as thus unconditionally please or displease. +These relations Herbart finds to be reducible to five, which do +not admit of further simplification; and corresponding to them are as +many moral ideas (<i>Musterbegriffe</i>), viz.: (1) <i>Internal Freedom</i>, the +underlying relation being that of the individual’s will to his judgment +of it; (2) <i>Perfection</i>, the relation being that of his several volitions +to each other in respect of intensity, variety and concentration; (3) +<i>Benevolence</i>, the relation being that between his own will and the +thought of another’s; (4) <i>Right</i>, in case of actual conflict with +another; and (5) <i>Retribution</i> or <i>Equity</i>, for intended good or evil +done. The ideas of a final society, a system of rewards and punishments, +a system of administration, a system of culture and a +“unanimated society,” corresponding to the ideas of law, equity, +benevolence, perfection and internal freedom respectively, result +when we take account of a number of individuals. Virtue is the +perfect conformity of the will with the moral ideas; of this the single +virtues are but special expressions. The conception of duty arises +from the existence of hindrances to the attainment of virtue. A +general scheme of principles of conduct is possible, but the subsumption +of special cases under these must remain matter of tact. +The application of ethics to things as they are with a view to the +realization of the moral ideas is moral technology (<i>Tugendlehre</i>), +of which the chief divisions are Paedagogy and Politics.</p> + +<p>In <i>Theology</i> Herbart held the argument from design to be as valid +for divine activity as for human, and to justify the belief in a super-sensible +real, concerning which, however, exact knowledge is neither +attainable nor on practical grounds desirable.</p> + +<p>Among the post-Kantian philosophers Herbart doubtless ranks +next to Hegel in importance, and this without taking into account +his very great contributions to the science of education. His +disciples speak of theirs as the “exact philosophy,” and the term +well expresses their master’s chief excellence and the character of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page338" id="page338"></a>338</span> +the chief influence he has exerted upon succeeding thinkers of his +own and other schools. His criticisms are worth more than his +constructions; indeed for exactness and penetration of thought he +is quite on a level with Hume and Kant. His merits in this respect, +however, can only be appraised by the study of his works at first +hand. But we are most of all indebted to Herbart for the enormous +advance psychology has been enabled to make, thanks to his fruitful +treatment of it, albeit as yet but few among the many who have +appropriated and improved his materials have ventured to adopt +his metaphysical and mathematical foundations.</p> +<div class="author">(J. W.*)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Herbart’s works were collected and published +by his disciple G. Hartenstein (Leipzig, 1850-1852; reprinted at +Hamburg, with supplementary volume, 1883-1893); another edition +by K. Kehrbach (Leipzig, 1882, and Langensalza, 1887). The +following are the most important: <i>Allgemeine Pädagogik</i> (1806; new +ed., 1894); <i>Hauptpunkte der Metaphysik</i> (1808); <i>Allgemeine praktische +Philosophie</i> (1808); <i>Lehrbuch zur Einleitung in die Philosophie</i> +(1813; new ed. by Hartenstein, 1883); <i>Lehrbuch der Psychologie</i> +(1816; new ed. by Hartenstein, 1887); <i>Psychologie als Wissenschaft</i> +(1824-1825); <i>Allgemeine Metaphysik</i> (1828-1829); <i>Encyklopädie +der Philosophie</i> (2nd ed., 1841); <i>Umriss pädagogischer Vorlesungen</i> +(2nd ed., 1841); <i>Psychologische Untersuchungen</i> (1839-1840).</p> + +<p>Some of his works have been translated into English under the +following titles: <i>Textbook in Psychology</i>, by M. K. Smith (1891); +<i>The Science of Education and the Aesthetic Revelation of the World</i> +(1892), and <i>Letters and Lectures on Education</i> (1898), by H. M. and +E. Felkin; <i>A B C of Sense Perception and minor pedagogical works</i> +(New York, 1896), by W. J. Eckhoff and others; <i>Application of +Psychology to the Science of Education</i> (1898), by B. C. Mulliner; +<i>Outlines of Educational Doctrine</i>, by A. F. Lange (1901).</p> + +<p>There is a life of Herbart in Hartenstein’s introduction to his +<i>Kleinere philosophische Schriften und Abhandlungen</i> (1842-1843) +and by F. H. T. Allihn in <i>Zeitschrift für exacte Philosophie</i> (Leipzig, +1861), the organ of Herbart and his school, which ceased to appear +in 1873. In America the National Society for the Scientific Study of +Education was originally founded as the National Herbart Society.</p> + +<p>Of the large number of writings dealing with Herbart’s works and +theories, the following may be mentioned: H. A. Fechner, <i>Zur +Kritik der Grundlagen von Herbart’s Metaphysik</i> (Leipzig, 1853); +J. Kaftan, <i>Sollen und Sein in ihrem Verhältniss zu einander: eine +Studie zur Kritik Herbarts</i> (Leipzig, 1872); M. W. Drobisch, <i>Über +die Fortbildung der Philosophie durch Herbart</i> (Leipzig, 1876); +K. S. Just, <i>Die Fortbildung der Kant’schen Ethik durch Herbart</i> +(Eisenach, 1876); C. Ufer, <i>Vorschule der Pädagogik Herbarts</i> (1883; +Eng. tr. by J. C. Zinser, 1895); G. Közle, <i>Die pädagogische Schule +Herbarts und ihre Lehre</i> (Gutersloh, 1889); L. Strümpell, <i>Das +System der Pädagogik Herbarts</i> (Leipzig, 1894); J. Christinger, +<i>Herbarts Erziehungslehre und ihre Fortbildner</i> (Zürich, 1895); O. H. +Lang, <i>Outline of Herbart’s Pedagogics</i> (1894); H. M. and E. Felkin, +<i>Introduction to Herbart’s Science and Practice of Education</i> (1895); +C. de Garmo, <i>Herbart and the Herbartians</i> (New York, 1895); E. +Wagner, <i>Die Praxis der Herbartianer</i> (Langensalza, 1897) and +<i>Vollständige Darstellung der Lehre Herbarts</i> (ib., 1899); J. Adams, +<i>The Herbartian Psychology applied to Education</i> (1897); F. H. +Hayward, <i>The Student’s Herbart</i> (1902), <i>The Critics of Herbartianism</i> +(1903), <i>Three Historical Educators: Pestalozzi, Fröbel, +Herbart</i> (1905), <i>The Secret of Herbart</i> (1907), <i>The Meaning of Education +as interpreted by Herbart</i> (1907); W. Kinkel, <i>J. F. Herbart: +sein Leben und seine Philosophie</i> (1903); A. Darroch, <i>Herbart and the +Herbartian Theory of Education</i> (1903); C. J. Dodd, <i>Introduction +to the Herbartian Principles of Teaching</i> (1904); J. Davidson, <i>A +new Interpretation of Herbart’s Psychology and Educational Theory +through the Philosophy of Leibnitz</i> (1906); see also J. M. Baldwin, +<i>Dictionary of Psychology and Philosophy</i> (1901-1905).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Hence Herbart gave the name Synechology to this branch of +metaphysics, instead of the usual one, Cosmology.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Thus, taking the case above supposed, the share of the inhibendum +falling to the smaller presentation b is the fourth term of the proportion +<i>a</i> + <i>b</i> : <i>a</i> :: <i>b</i> : <i>ab</i>/(<i>a</i> + <i>b</i>); and so <i>b</i>’s remainder is <i>b</i> − <i>ab</i>/(<i>a</i> + <i>b</i>) = <i>b</i><span class="sp">2</span>/(<i>a</i> + <i>b</i>), +which only = 0 when a = ∞.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERBELOT DE MOLAINVILLE, BARTHÉLEMY D’<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1625-1695), +French orientalist, was born on the 14th of December +1625 at Paris. He was educated at the university of Paris, +and devoted himself to the study of oriental languages, going +to Italy to perfect himself in them by converse with the orientals +who frequented its sea-ports. There he also made the acquaintance +of Holstenius, the Dutch humanist (1596-1661), and Leo +Allatius, the Greek scholar (1586-1669). On his return to +France after a year and a half, he was received into the house +of Fouquet, superintendent of finance, who gave him a pension +of 1500 livres. Losing this on the disgrace of Fouquet in 1661, +he was appointed secretary and interpreter of Eastern languages +to the king. A few years later he again visited Italy, when the +grand-duke Ferdinand II. of Tuscany presented him with a +large number of valuable Oriental MSS., and tried to attach him +to his court. Herbelot, however, was recalled to France by +Colbert, and received from the king a pension equal to the one +he had lost. In 1692 he succeeded D’Auvergne in the chair of +Syriac, in the Collège de France. He died in Paris on the 8th +of December 1695. His great work is the <i>Bibliothèque orientale, +ou dictionnaire universel contenant tout ce qui regarde la connaissance +des peuples de l’Orient</i>, which occupied him nearly all his +life, and was completed in 1697 by A. Galland. It is based +on the immense Arabic dictionary of Hadji Khalfa, of which +indeed it is largely an abridged translation, but it also contains +the substance of a vast number of other Arabic and Turkish +compilations and manuscripts.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Bibliothèque</i> was reprinted at Maestricht (fol. 1776), and at the +Hague (4 vols. 4to, 1777-1799). The latter edition is enriched with +the contributions of the Dutch orientalist Schultens, Johann Jakob +Reiske (1716-1774), and by a supplement provided by Visdelow +and Galland. Herbelot’s other works, none of which have been +published, comprise an <i>Oriental Anthology</i>, and an <i>Arabic, Persian, +Turkish and Latin Dictionary</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERBERAY DES ESSARTS, NICOLAS DE<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (d. about 1557), +French translator, was born in Picardy. He served in the +artillery, and at the expressed desire of Francis I. he translated +into French the first eight books of <i>Amadis de Gaul</i> (1540-1548). +The remaining books were translated by other authors. His +other translations from the Spanish include <i>L’Amant maltraité +de sa mye</i> (1539); <i>Le Premier Livre de la chronique de dom Florès +de Grèce</i> (1552); and <i>L’Horloge des princes</i> (1555) from Guevara. +He also translated the works of Josephus (1557). He died +about 1557. The <i>Amadis de Gaul</i> was translated into English +by Anthony Munday in 1619.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERBERT<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Family</span>). The sudden rising of this English +family to great wealth and high place is the more remarkable +in that its elevation belongs to the 15th century and not to +that age of the Tudors when many new men made their way +upwards into the ranks of the nobility. Earlier generations of +a pedigree which carries the origin of the Herberts to Herbert +the Chamberlain, a Domesday tenant, being disregarded, their +patriarch may be taken to be one Jenkin ap Adam (temp. +Edward III.), who had a small Monmouthshire estate at Llanvapley +and the office of master sergeant of the lordship of +Abergavenny, a place which gave him precedence after the +steward of that lordship. Jenkin’s son, Gwilim ap Jenkin, who +followed his father as master sergeant, is given six sons by the +border genealogists, no less than six score pedigrees finding their +origin in these six brothers. Their order is uncertain, although +the Progers of Werndee, the last of whom sold his ancestral +estate in 1780, are reckoned as the senior line of Gwilim’s +descendants. But Thomas ap Gwilim Jenkin, called the fourth +son, is ancestor of all those who bore the surname of Herbert.</p> + +<p>Thomas’s fifth son, William or Gwilim ap Thomas, who died +in 1446, was the first man of the family to make any figure in +history. This Gwilim ap Thomas was steward of the lordships +of Usk and Caerleon under Richard, duke of York. Legend +makes him a knight on the field of Agincourt, but his knighthood +belongs to the year 1426. He appears to have married twice, +his first wife being Elizabeth Bluet of Raglan, widow of Sir +James Berkeley, and his second a daughter of David Gam, a +valiant Welsh squire slain at Agincourt. Royal favour enriched +Sir William, and he was able to buy Raglan Castle from the Lord +Berkeley, his first wife’s son, the deed, which remains among +the Beaufort muniments, refuting the pedigree-maker’s statement +that he inherited the castle as heir of his mother “Maude, +daughter of Sir John Morley.” His sons William and Richard, +both partisans of the White Rose, took the surname of Herbert +in or before 1461. Playing a part in English affairs remote from +the Welsh Marches, their lack of a surname may well have +inconvenienced them, and their choice of the name Herbert +can only be explained by the suggestion that their long pedigree +from Herbert the Chamberlain, absurdly represented as a bastard +son of Henry I., must already have been discovered for them. +Copies exist of an alleged commission issued by Edward IV. +to a committee of Welsh bards for the ascertaining of the true +ancestry of William Herbert, earl of Pembroke, whom “the +chiefest men of skill” in the province of South Wales declare +to be the descendant of “Herbert, a noble lord, natural son to +King Henry the first,” and it is recited that King Edward, after +the creation of the earldom, commanded the earl and Sir Richard +his brother to “take their surnames after their first progenitor +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page339" id="page339"></a>339</span> +Herbert fitz Roy and to forego the British order and manner.” +But this commission, whose date anticipates by some years the +true date of the creation of the earldom, is the work of one +of the many genealogical forgers who flourished under the +Tudors.</p> + +<p>Sir William Herbert, called by the Welsh Gwilim Ddu or +Black William, was a baron in 1461 and a Knight of the Garter +in the following year. With many manors and castles on the +Marches he had the castle, town and lordship of Pembroke, and +after the attainder of Jasper Tudor in 1468 was created earl of +Pembroke. When in July 1469 he was taken by Sir John Conyers +and the northern Lancastrians on Hedgecote, he was beheaded +with his brother Sir Richard Herbert of Coldbrook. The second +earl while still a minor exchanged at the king’s desire in 1479 +his earldom of Pembroke for that of Huntingdon. In 1484 this +son of one whom Hall not unjustly describes as born “a mean +gentleman” contracted to marry Katharine the daughter of +King Richard III., but her death annulled the contract and the +earl married Mary, daughter of the Earl Rivers, by whom he had +a daughter Elizabeth, whose descendants, the Somersets, lived +in the Herbert’s castle of Raglan until the cannon of the parliament +broke it in ruins. With the second earl’s death in 1491 +the first Herbert earldom became extinct. No claim being set +up among the other descendants of the first earl, it may be taken +that their lines were illegitimate. One of the chief difficulties +which beset the genealogist of the Herberts lies in their Cambrian +disregard of the marriage tie, bastards and legitimate issue +growing up, it would seem, side by side in their patriarchal +households. Thus the ancestor of the present earls of Pembroke +and Carnarvon and of the Herbert who was created marquess +of Powis was a natural son of the first earl, one Richard Herbert, +whom the restored inscription on his tomb at Abergavenny +incorrectly describes as a knight. He was constable and porter +of Abergavenny Castle, and his son William, “a mad fighting +fellow” in his youth, married a sister of Catherine Parr and thus +in 1543 became nearly allied to the king, who made him one of +the executors of his will. The earldom of Pembroke was revived +for him in 1551. It is worthy of note that all traces of illegitimacy +have long since been removed from the arms of the noble +descendants of Richard Herbert.</p> + +<p>The honours and titles of this clan of marchmen make a long +list. They include the marquessate of Powis, two earldoms +with the title of Pembroke, two with that of Powis, and the +earldoms of Huntingdon and Montgomery, Torrington and +Carnarvon, the viscountcies of Montgomery and Ludlow, fourteen +baronies and seven baronetcies. Seven Herberts have worn the +Garter. The knights and rich squires of the stock can hardly +be reckoned, more especially as they must be sought among +Raglans, Morgans, Parrys, Vaughans, Progers, Hugheses, +Thomases, Philips, Powels, Gwyns, Evanses and Joneses, as +well as among those who have borne the surname of Herbert, a +surname which in the 19th century was adopted by the Joneses +of Llanarth and Clytha, although they claim no descent +from those sons of Sir William ap Thomas for whom it was +devised.</p> +<div class="author">(O. Ba.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERBERT, GEORGE<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (1593-1633), English poet, was born at +Montgomery Castle on the 3rd of April 1593. He was the fifth +son of Sir Richard Herbert and a brother of Lord Herbert of +Cherbury. His mother, Lady Magdalen Herbert, a woman of +great good sense and sweetness of character, and a friend of +John Donne, exercised great influence over her son. Educated +privately until 1605, he was then sent to Westminster School, +and in 1609 he became a scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge, +where he was made B.A. in 1613, M.A. and major fellow of the +college in 1616. In 1618 he became Reader in Rhetoric, and in +1619 orator for the university. In this capacity he was several +times brought into contact with King James. From Cambridge +he wrote some Latin satiric verses<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in defence of the universities +and the English Church against Andrew Melville, a Scottish +Presbyterian minister. He numbered among his friends Dr +Donne, Sir Henry Wotton, Izaak Walton, Bishop Andrewes +and Francis Bacon, who dedicated to him his translation of the +Psalms. Walton tells us that “the love of a court conversation, +mixed with a laudable ambition to be something more than he +was, drew him often from Cambridge to attend the king wheresoever +the court was,” and James I. gave him in 1623 the sinecure +lay rectory of Whitford, Flintshire, worth £120 a year. The +death of his patrons, the duke of Richmond and the marquess +of Hamilton, and of King James put an end to his hopes of +political preferment; moreover he probably distrusted the +conduct of affairs under the new reign. Largely influenced +by his mother, he decided to take holy orders, and in July 1626 +he was appointed prebendary of Layton Ecclesia (Leighton +Bromswold), Huntingdon. Here he was within two miles of Little +Gidding, and came under the influence of Nicholas Ferrar. +It was at Ferrar’s suggestion that he undertook to rebuild the +church at Layton, an undertaking carried through by his own +gifts and the generosity of his friends. There is little doubt +that the close friendship with Ferrar had a large share in Herbert’s +adoption of the religious life. In 1630 Charles I., at the instance +of the earl of Pembroke, whose kinsman Herbert was, presented +him to the living of Fugglestone with Bemerton, near Salisbury, +and he was ordained priest in September. A year before, after +three days’ acquaintance, he had married Jane Danvers, whose +father had been set on the marriage for a long time. He had +often spoken of his daughter Jane to Herbert, and “so much +commended Mr Herbert to her, that Jane became so much a +Platonic as to fall in love with Mr Herbert unseen.” The story +of the poet’s life at Bemerton, as told by Walton, is one of +the most exquisite pictures in literary biography. He devoted +much time to explaining the meaning of the various parts of the +Prayer-Book, and held services twice every day, at which many +of the parishioners attended, and some “let their plough rest +when Mr Herbert’s saints-bell rung to prayers, that they might +also offer their devotions to God with him.” Next to Christianity +itself he loved the English Church. He was passionately fond +of music, and his own hymns were written to the accompaniment +of his lute or viol. He usually walked twice a week to attend +the cathedral at Salisbury, and before returning home, would +“sing and play his part” at a meeting of music lovers. Walton +illustrates Herbert’s kindness to the poor by many touching +anecdotes, but he had not been three years in Bemerton when +he succumbed to consumption. He was buried beneath the +altar of his church on the 3rd of March 1633.</p> + +<p>None of Herbert’s English poems was published during his +lifetime. On his death-bed he gave to Nicholas Ferrar a manuscript +with the title <i>The Temple: Sacred Poems and Private +Ejaculations</i>. This was published at Cambridge, apparently for +private circulation, almost immediately after Herbert’s death, +and a second imprint followed in the same year. On the title-page +of both is the quotation “In his Temple doth every man speak +of his honour.” <i>The Temple</i> is a collection of religious poems +connected by unity of sentiment and inspiration. Herbert +tried to interpret his own devout meditations by applying +images of all kinds to the ritual and beliefs of the Church. +Nothing in his own church at Bemerton was too commonplace +to serve as a starting-point for the epigrammatic expression of +his piety. The church key reminds him that “it is my sin that +locks his handes,” and the stones of the floor are patience and +humility, while the cement that binds them together is love and +charity. The chief faults of the book are obscurity, verbal +conceits and a forced ingenuity which shows itself in grotesque +puns, odd metres and occasional want of taste. But the quaint +beauty of Herbert’s style and its musical quality give <i>The +Temple</i> a high place. “The Church Porch,” “The Agony,” +“Sin,” “Sunday,” “Virtue,” “Man,” “The British Church,” +“The Quip,” “The Collar,” “The Pulley,” “The Flower,” +“Aaron” and “The Elixir” are among the best known of +these poems. Herbert and Keble are the poets of Anglican +theology. No book is fuller of devotion to the Church of England +than <i>The Temple</i>, and no poems in our language exhibit more +of the spirit of true Christianity. Every page is marked by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page340" id="page340"></a>340</span> +transparent sincerity, and reflects the beautiful character of +“holy George Herbert.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Nicholas Ferrar’s translation (Oxford, 1638) of the <i>Hundred and +Ten Considerations ...</i> of Juan de Valdes contained a letter and +notes by Herbert. In 1652 appeared <i>Herbert’s Remains; or, +Sundry Pieces of that Sweet Singer of the Temple, Mr George Herbert</i>. +This included <i>A Priest to the Temple; or, The Country Parson, his +Character, and Rule of Holy Life</i>, in prose; <i>Jacula prudentum</i>, a +collection of proverbs with a separate title-page dated 1651, which +had appeared in a shorter form as <i>Outlandish Proverbs</i> in 1640; +and some miscellaneous matter. The completest edition of his +works is that by Dr A. B. Grosart in 1874, this edition of the Poetical +works being reproduced in the “Aldine edition” in 1876. <i>The +English Works of George Herbert ...</i> (3 vols., 1905) were edited in +much detail by G. H. Palmer. A contemporary account of Herbert’s +life by Barnabas Oley was prefixed to the <i>Remains</i> of 1652, but the +classic authority is Izaak Walton’s <i>Life of Mr George Herbert</i>, published +in 1670, with some letters from Herbert to his mother. See +also A. G. Hyde, <i>George Herbert and his Times</i> (1907), and the +“Oxford” edition of his poems by A. Waugh (1908).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Printed in 1662 as an appendix to J. Vivian’s <i>Ecclesiastes +Solomonis</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> [”Frank Forester”] (1807-1858), +English novelist and writer on sport, son of the Hon. and +Rev. William Herbert, dean of Manchester, a son of the first earl +of Carnarvon, was born in London on the 3rd of April 1807. He +was educated at Eton and at Caius College, Cambridge, where +he graduated B.A. in 1830. Having become involved in debt, +he emigrated to America, and from 1831 to 1839 was teacher +of Greek in a private school in New York. In 1833 he started +the <i>American Monthly Magazine</i>, which he edited, in conjunction +with A. D. Patterson, till 1835. In 1834 he published his first +novel, <i>The Brothers: a Tale of the Fronde</i>, which was followed +by a number of others which obtained a certain degree of popularity. +He also wrote a series of historical studies, including <i>The +Cavaliers of England</i> (1852), <i>The Knights of England, France +and Scotland</i> (1852), <i>The Chevaliers of France</i> (1853), and <i>The +Captains of the Old World</i> (1851); but he is best known for his +works on sport, published under the pseudonym of “Frank +Forester.” These include <i>The Field Sports of the United States +and British Provinces</i> (1849), <i>Frank Forester and his Friends</i> +(1849), <i>The Fish and Fishing of the United States</i> (1850), <i>The +Young Sportsman’s Complete Manual</i> (1852), and <i>The Horse and +Horsemanship in the United States and British Provinces of North +America</i> (1858). He also translated many of the novels of +Eugene Sue and Alexandre Dumas. Herbert was a man of +varied accomplishments, but of somewhat dissipated habits. +He died by his own hand in New York on the 17th of May 1858.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERBERT, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1606-1682), English traveller +and author, was born at York in 1606. Several of his ancestors +were aldermen and merchants in that city—<i>e.g.</i> his grandfather +and benefactor, Alderman Herbert (d. 1614)—and they traced +a connexion with the earls of Pembroke. Thomas became a +commoner of Jesus College, Oxford, in 1621, but afterwards +removed to Cambridge, through the influence of his uncle +Dr Ambrose Akroyd. In 1627 the earl of Pembroke procured +his appointment in the suite of Sir Dodmore Cotton, then +starting as ambassador for Persia with Sir Robert Shirley. +Sailing in March they visited the Cape, Madagascar, Goa and +Surat; landing at Gambrun (10th of January 1627-1628), +they travelled inland to Ashraf and thence to Kazvin, where +both Cotton and Shirley died, and whence Herbert made extensive +travels in the Persian <i>Hinterland</i>, visiting Kashan, Bagdad, +&c. On his return voyage he touched at Ceylon, the Coromandel +coast, Mauritius and St Helena. He reached England in 1629, +travelled in Europe in 1630-1631, married in 1632 and retired +from court in 1634 (his prospects perhaps blighted by Pembroke’s +death in 1630); after this he resided on his Tintern estate and +elsewhere till the Civil War, siding with the parliament till his +appointment to attend on the king in 1646. Becoming a devoted +royalist, he was rewarded with a baronetcy at the Restoration +(1660). He resided mainly in York Street, Westminster, till +the Great Plague (1666), when he retired to York, where he died +(at Petergate House) on the 1st of March 1682.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Herbert’s chief work is the <i>Description of the Persian Monarchy +now beinge: the Orientall Indyes, Iles and other parts of the Greater +Asia and Africk</i> (1634), reissued with additions, &c., in 1638 as +<i>Some Yeares Travels into Africa and Asia the Great</i> (al. <i>into divers +parts of Asia and Afrique</i>); a third edition followed in 1664, and a +fourth in 1677. This is one of the best records of 17th-century +travel. Among its illustrations are remarkable sketches of the dodo, +cuneiform inscriptions and Persepolis. Herbert’s <i>Threnodia Carolina; +or, Memoirs of the two last years of the reign of that unparallell’d prince +of ever blessed memory King Charles I.</i>, was in great part printed at +the author’s request in Wood’s <i>Athenae Oxonienses</i>; in full by Dr C. +Goodall in his <i>Collection of Tracts</i> (1702, repr. G. & W. Nicol, 1813). +Sir William Dugdale is understood to have received assistance from +Herbert in the <i>Monasticon Anglicanum</i>, vol. iv.; see two of Herbert’s +papers on St John’s, Beverley and Ripon collegiate church, now +cathedral, in Drake’s <i>Eboracum</i> (appendix). Cf. also Robert Davies’ +account of Herbert in <i>The Yorkshire Archaeological and Topographical +Journal</i>, part iii., pp. 182-214 (1870), containing a facsimile of the +inscription on Herbert’s tomb; Wood’s <i>Athenae</i>, iv. 15-41; and +<i>Fasti</i>, ii. 26, 131, 138, 143-144, 150.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERBERT OF CHERBURY, EDWARD HERBERT,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> +(1583-1648), English soldier, diplomatist, historian and religious +philosopher, eldest son of Richard Herbert of Montgomery Castle +(a member of a collateral branch of the family of the earls of +Pembroke) and of Magdalen, daughter of Sir Richard Newport, +was born at Eyton-on-Severn near Wroxeter on the 3rd of +March 1583. After careful private tuition he matriculated +at University College, Oxford, as a gentleman commoner, in +May 1596. On the 28th of February 1599 he married his cousin +Mary, daughter and heiress of Sir William Herbert (d. 1593). +He returned to Oxford with his wife and mother, continued +his studies, and obtained proficiency in modern languages as +well as in music, riding and fencing. On the accession of James I. +he presented himself at court and was created a knight of the +Bath on the 24th of July 1603. In 1608 he went to Paris, enjoying +the friendship and hospitality of the old constable de +Montmorency, and being entertained by Henry IV. On his +return, as he says himself with naïve vanity, he was “in great +esteem both in court and city, many of the greatest desiring +my company.” In 1610 he served as a volunteer in the Low +Countries under the prince of Orange, whose intimate friend +he became, and distinguished himself at the capture of Juliers +from the emperor. He offered to decide the war by engaging +in single combat with a champion chosen from among the +enemy, but his challenge was declined. During an interval +in the fighting he paid a visit to Spinola, in the Spanish camp +near Wezel, and afterwards to the elector palatine at Heidelberg, +subsequently travelling in Italy. At the instance of the duke +of Savoy he led an expedition of 4000 Huguenots from Languedoc +into Piedmont to help the Savoyards against Spain, but after +nearly losing his life in the journey to Lyons he was imprisoned +on his arrival there, and the enterprise came to nothing. Thence +he returned to the Netherlands and the prince of Orange, arriving +in England in 1617. In 1619 he was made by Buckingham ambassador +at Paris, but a quarrel with de Luynes and a challenge +sent by him to the latter occasioned his recall in 1621. After +the death of de Luynes Herbert resumed his post in February +1622. He was very popular at the French court and showed +considerable diplomatic ability, his chief objects being to +accomplish the union between Charles and Henrietta Maria and +secure the assistance of Louis XIII. for the unfortunate elector +palatine. This latter advantage he could not obtain, and he +was dismissed in April 1624. He returned home greatly in +debt and received little reward for his services beyond the Irish +peerage of Castle island in 1624 and the English barony of +Cherbury, or Chirbury, on the 7th of May 1629. In 1632 he +was appointed a member of the council of war. He attended +the king at York in 1639, and in May 1642 was imprisoned by +the parliament for urging the addition of the words “without +cause” to the resolution that the king violated his oath by +making war on parliament. He determined after this to take +no further part in the struggle, retired to Montgomery Castle, +and declined the king’s summons. On the 5th of September +1644 he surrendered the castle to the parliamentary forces, +returned to London, submitted, and was granted a pension +of £20 a week. In 1647 he paid a visit to Gassendi at Paris, +and died in London on the 20th of August, 1648, being buried +in the church of St Giles’s in the Fields.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page341" id="page341"></a>341</span></p> + +<p>Lord Herbert left two sons, Richard (<i>c.</i> 1600-1655), who +succeeded him as 2nd Lord Herbert of Cherbury, and Edward, +the title becoming extinct in the person of Henry Herbert, the +4th baron, grandson of the 1st Lord Herbert in 1691. In 1694, +however, it was revived in favour of Henry Herbert (1654-1709), +son of Sir Henry Herbert (1595-1673), brother of the 1st Lord +Herbert of Cherbury. Sir Henry was master of the revels to +Charles I. and Charles II., being busily employed in reading +and licensing plays and in supervising all kinds of public entertainments. +He died in April 1673; his son Henry died in +January 1709, when the latter’s son Henry became 2nd Lord +Herbert of Cherbury of the second creation. He died without +issue in April 1738, and again the barony became extinct. In +1743 it was revived for Henry Arthur Herbert (<i>c.</i> 1703-1772), +who five years later was created earl of Powis. This nobleman +was a great-grandson of the 2nd Lord Herbert of Cherbury of +the first creation, and since his time the barony has been held +by the earls of Powis.</p> + +<p>Lord Herbert’s cousin, Sir Edward Herbert (<i>c.</i> 1591-1657), +was a member of parliament under James I. and Charles I. +Having become attorney-general he was instructed by Charles +to take proceedings against some members of parliament who +had been concerned in the passing of the Grand Remonstrance; +the only result, however, was Herbert’s own impeachment by +the House of Commons and his imprisonment. Later in life +he was with the exiled royal family in Holland and in France, +becoming lord keeper of the great seal to Charles II., an office +which he had refused in 1645. He died in Paris in December +1657. One of Herbert’s son was Arthur Herbert, earl of Torrington, +and another was Sir Edward Herbert (<i>c.</i> 1648-1698), +titular earl of Portland, who was made chief justice of the king’s +bench in 1685 in succession to Lord Jeffreys. It was Sir Edward +who declared for the royal prerogative in the case of <i>Godden</i> v. +<i>Hales</i>, asserting that the kings of England, being sovereign +princes, could dispense with particular laws in particular cases. +After the escape of James II. to France this king made Herbert +his lord chancellor and created him earl of Portland, although +he was a Protestant and had exhibited a certain amount of +independence during 1687.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The first Lord Herbert’s real claim to fame and remembrance is +derived from his writings. Herbert’s first and most important work +is the <i>De veritate prout distinguitur a revelatione, a verisimili, a +possibili, et a falso</i> (Paris, 1624; London, 1633; translated into +French 1639, but never into English; a MS. in add. MSS. 7081. +Another, Sloane MSS. 3957, has the author’s dedication to his brother +George in his own hand, dated 1622). It combines a theory of +knowledge with a partial psychology, a methodology for the investigation +of truth, and a scheme of natural religion. The author’s +method is prolix and often far from clear; the book is no compact +system, but it contains the skeleton and much of the soul of a complete +philosophy. Giving up all past theories as useless, Herbert +professedly endeavours to constitute a new and true system. Truth, +which he defines as a just conformation of the faculties with one +another and with their objects, he distributed into four classes or +stages: (1) truth in the thing or the truth of the object; (2) truth +of the appearance; (3) truth of the apprehension (<i>conceptus</i>); +(4) truth of the intellect. The faculties of the mind are as numerous +as the differences of their objects, and are accordingly innumerable; +but they may be arranged in four groups. The first and fundamental +and most certain group is the <i>Natural Instinct</i>, to which belong the +<span class="grk" title="koinai ennoiai">κοιναὶ ἔννοιαι</span>, the <i>notitiae communes</i>, which are innate, of divine +origin and indisputable. The second group, the next in certainty, +is the <i>sensus internus</i> (under which head Herbert discusses amongst +others love, hate, fear, conscience with its <i>communis notitia</i>, and +free will); the third is the <i>sensus externus</i>; and the fourth is +<i>discursus</i>, reasoning, to which, as being the least certain, we have +recourse when the other faculties fail. The ratiocinative faculties +proceed by division and analysis, by questioning, and are slow and +gradual in their movement; they take aid from the other faculties, +those of the <i>instinctus naturalis</i> being always the final test. Herbert’s +categories or questions to be used in investigation are ten in number +whether (a thing is), what, of what sort, how much, in what relation, +how, when, where, whence, wherefore. No faculty, rightly used, can +err “even in dreams”; badly exercised, reasoning becomes the +source of almost all our errors. The discussion of the <i>notitiae communes</i> +is the most characteristic part of the book. The exposition +of them, though highly dogmatic, is at times strikingly Kantian in +substance. “So far are these elements or sacred principles from +being derived from experience or observation that without some +of them, or at least some one of them, we can neither experience +nor even observe.” Unless we felt driven by them to explore the +nature of things, “it would never occur to us to distinguish one +thing from another.” It cannot be said that Herbert proves the +existence of the common notions; he does not deduce them or even +give any list of them. But each faculty has its common notion; +and they may be distinguished by six marks, their <i>priority</i>, <i>independence</i>, +<i>universality</i>, <i>certainty</i>, <i>necessity</i> (for the well-being of man), +and <i>immediacy</i>. Law is based on certain <i>common notions</i>; so is +religion. Though Herbert expressly defines the scope of his book as +dealing with the intellect, not faith, it is the common notions of +religion he has illustrated most fully; and it is plain that it is in +this part of his system that he is chiefly interested. The common +notions of religion are the famous five articles, which became the +charter of the English deists (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deism</a></span>). There is little polemic +against the received form of Christianity, but Herbert’s attitude +towards the Church’s doctrine is distinctly negative, and he denies +revelation except to the individual soul. In the <i>De religione +gentilium</i> (completed 1645, published Amsterdam, 1663, translated +into English by W. Lewis, London, 1705) he gives what may be called, +in Hume’s words, “a natural history of religion.” By examining +the heathen religions Herbert finds, to his great delight, the universality +of his five great articles, and that these are clearly recognizable +under their absurdities as they are under the rites, ceremonies +and polytheism invented by sacerdotal superstition. The same vein +is maintained in the tracts <i>De causis errorum</i>, an unfinished work +on logical fallacies, <i>Religio laici</i>, and <i>Ad sacerdotes de religione +laici</i> (1645). In the <i>De veritate</i> Herbert produced the first purely +metaphysical treatise written by an Englishman, and in the <i>De +religione gentilium</i> one of the earliest studies extant in comparative +theology; while both his metaphysical speculations and his +religious views are throughout distinguished by the highest originality +and provoked considerable controversy. His achievements in historical +writing are vastly inferior, and vitiated by personal aims and his +preoccupation to gain the royal favour. Herbert’s first historical +work is the <i>Expeditio Buckinghami ducis</i> (published in a Latin +translation in 1656 and in the original English by the earl of Powis +for the Philobiblon Society in 1860), a defence of Buckingham’s +conduct of the ill-fated expedition of 1627. <i>The Life and Raigne +of King Henry VIII.</i> (1649) derives its chief value from its composition +from original documents, but is ill-proportioned, and the +author judges the character and statesmanship of Henry with too +obvious a partiality.</p> + +<p>His poems, published in 1665 (reprinted and edited by J. Churton +Collins in 1881), show him in general a faithful disciple of Donne, +obscure and uncouth. His satires are miserable compositions, but +a few of his lyrical verses show power of reflection and true inspiration, +while his use of the metre afterwards employed by Tennyson +in his “In Memoriam” is particularly happy and effective. His +Latin poems are evidence of his scholarship. Three of these had +appeared together with the <i>De causis errorum</i> in 1645. To these +works must be added <i>A Dialogue between a Tutor and a Pupil</i> +(1768; a treatise on education, MS. in the Bodleian Library); a +treatise on the king’s supremacy in the Church (MS. in the Record +Office and at Queen’s College, Oxford), and his well-known autobiography, +first published by Horace Walpole in 1764, a naïve and +amusing narrative, too much occupied, however, with his duels and +amorous adventures, to the exclusion of more creditable incidents +in his career, such as his contributions to philosophy and history, +his intimacy with Donne, Ben Jonson, Selden and Carew, Casaubon, +Gassendi and Grotius, or his embassy in France, in relation to which +he only described the splendour of his retinue and his social triumphs.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The autobiography edited by Sidney Lee with +correspondence from add. MSS. 7082 (1886); article in the <i>Dict. of +Nat. Biog.</i> by the same writer and the list of authorities there +collated; <i>Hist. MSS. Comm. Rep.</i> x. app. iv., 378; <i>Lord Herbert +de Cherbury</i>, by Charles de Rémusat (1874); <i>Eduard, Lord Herbert +von Cherbury</i>, by C. Güttler (a criticism of his philosophy; 1897); +<i>Collections Historical and Archaeological</i> relating to Montgomeryshire, +vols. vii., xi., xx.; R. Warner’s <i>Epistolary Curiosities</i>, i. ser.; +Reid’s works, edited by Sir William Hamilton; <i>National Review</i>, +xxxv. 661 (Leslie Stephen); Locke’s <i>Essay on Human Understanding</i>; +Wood, <i>Ath. Oxon.</i> (Bliss), iii. 239; <i>Gentleman’s Magazine</i> +(1816), i. 201 (print of remains of his birthplace); <i>Lord Herbert’s +Poems</i>, ed. by J. Churton Collins (1881); Aubrey’s <i>Lives of Eminent +Men</i>; also works quoted under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deism</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERBERT OF LEA, SIDNEY HERBERT,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1810-1861), +English statesman, was the younger son of the 11th earl +of Pembroke. Educated at Harrow and Oriel, Oxford, he +made a reputation at the Oxford Union as a speaker, and entered +the House of Commons as Conservative member for a division +of Wiltshire in 1832. Under Peel he held minor offices, and in +1845 was included in the cabinet as secretary at war, and again +held this office in 1852-1855, being responsible for the War +Office during the Crimean difficulties, and in 1859. It was +Sidney Herbert who sent Florence Nightingale out to the Crimea, +and he led the movement for War Office reform after the war, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page342" id="page342"></a>342</span> +the hard work entailed causing his breakdown in health, so that +in July 1861, having been created a baron, he had to resign office, +and died on the 2nd of August 1861. His statue was placed +in front of the War Office in Pall Mall. He was succeeded in the +title by his eldest son, who later became 13th earl of Pembroke, +and the barony is now merged in that earldom; his second son +became 14th earl. Another son, the Hon. Michael Herbert +(1857-1904), was British Ambassador at Washington in succession +to Lord Pauncefote.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A life of Lord Herbert by Lord Stanmore was published in 1906.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERBERTON,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> a mining town of Cardwell county, Queensland, +Australia, 55 m. S.W. of Cairns. Pop. (1901) 2806. Tin was +discovered in the locality in 1879, and to this mineral the town +chiefly owes its prosperity, though copper, bismuth and some +silver and gold are also found. Atherton, 12 m. from the town, +is served by rail from Cairns, which is the port for the Herberton +district.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERCULANEUM,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> an ancient city of Italy, situated about +two-thirds of a mile from the Portici station of the railway from +Naples to Pompeii. The ruins are less frequently visited than +those of Pompeii, not only because they are smaller in extent +and of less obvious interest, but also because they are more +difficult of access. The history of their discovery and exploration, +and the artistic and literary relics which they have yielded, +are worthy, however, of particular notice. The small part of +the city, which was investigated at the spot called <i>Gli scavi +nuovi</i> (the new excavations) was discovered in the 19th century. +But the more important works were executed in the 18th century; +and of the buildings then explored at a great depth, by means of +tunnels, none is visible except the theatre, the orchestra of +which lies 85 ft. below the surface.</p> + +<p>The brief notices of the classical writers inform us that Herculaneum<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +was a small city of Campania between Neapolis and +Pompeii, that it was situated between two streams at the foot +of Vesuvius on a hill overlooking the sea, and that its harbour +was at all seasons safe. With regard to its earlier history nothing +is known. The account given by Dionysius repeats a tradition +which was most natural for a city bearing the name of Hercules. +Strabo follows up the topographical data with a few brief +historical statements—<span class="grk" title="Oskoi eichon kai tautên kai tên ephexês +Pompêian ... eita Turrhênoi kai Pelasgoi, meta tauta Saunitai.">Ὄσκοι εἶχον καὶ ταύτην καὶ τὴν ἐφεξῆς Πομπηίαν ... +εἶτα Τυῤῥηνοὶ καὶ Πελασγοί, μετὰ ταῦτα Σαυνῖται</span>. +But leaving the questions suggested by these names (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Etruria</a></span>, +&c.),<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> as well as those which relate to the origin of Pompeii (<i>q.v.</i>), +it is sufficient here to say that the first historical record about +Herculaneum has been handed down by Livy (viii. 25), where he +relates how the city fell under the power of Rome during the +Samnite wars. It remained faithful to Rome for a long time, but +it joined the Italian allies in the Social War. Having submitted +anew in June of the year 665 (88 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), it appears to have been less +severely treated than Pompeii, and to have escaped the imposition +of a colony of Sulla’s veterans, although Zumpt has suspected +the contrary (<i>Comm. epigr.</i> i. 259). It afterwards became a +municipium, and enjoyed great prosperity towards the close of +the republic and in the earlier times of the empire, since many +noble families of Rome selected this pleasant spot for the construction +of splendid villas, one of which indeed belonged to +the imperial house (Seneca, <i>De ira</i>, iii.), and another to the +family of Calpurnius Piso. By means of the Via Campana it +had easy communication north-westward with Neapolis, Puteoli +and Capua, and thence by the Via Appia with Rome; and +southwards with Pompeii and Nuceria, and thence with Lucania +and the Bruttii. In the year <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 63 it suffered terribly from +the earthquake which, according to Seneca, “Campaniam +nunquam securam huius mali, indemnem tamen, et toties +defunctam metu magna strage vastavit. Nam et Herculanensis +oppidi pars ruit dubieque stant etiam quae relicta sunt” (<i>Nat. +quaest.</i> vi. 1). Hardly had Herculaneum completed the restoration +of some of its principal buildings (cf. Mommsen, I.N. n. +2384; <i>Catalogo del Museo Nazionale di Napoli</i>, n. 1151) when +it fell beneath the great eruption of the year 79, described by +Pliny the younger (<i>Ep.</i> vi. 16, 20), in which Pompeii also was +destroyed, with other flourishing cities of Campania. According +to the commonest account, on the 23rd of August of that year +Pliny the elder, who had command of the Roman fleet at Misenum, +set out to render assistance to a young lady of noble family +named Rectina and others dwelling on that coast, but, as there +was no escape by sea, the little harbour having been on a sudden +filled up so as to be inaccessible, he was obliged to abandon to their +fate those people of Herculaneum who had managed to flee from +their houses, overwhelmed in a moment by the material poured +forth by Vesuvius. But the text of Pliny the younger, where +this account is given, has been subjected to various interpretations; +and from the comparison of other classical testimonies +and the study of the excavations it has been concluded that it is +impossible to determine the date of the catastrophe, though +there are satisfactory arguments to justify the statement that +the event took place in the autumn. The opinion that immediately +after the first outbreak of Vesuvius a torrent of lava +was ejected over Herculaneum was refuted by the scholars of +the 18th century, and their refutation is confirmed by Beulé +(<i>Le Drame du Vésuve</i>, p. 240 seq.). And the last recensions of +the passage quoted from Pliny, aided by an inscription,<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a> prove +that Rectina cannot have been the name of the harbour described +by Beulé (<i>ib.</i> pp. 122, 247), but the name of a lady who had +implored succour, the wife of Caesius Bassus, or rather Tascius +(cf. Pliny, ed. Keil, Leipzig, 1870; Aulus Persius, ed. Jahn, +<i>Sat.</i> vi.). The shore, moreover, according to the accurate studies +of the engineer Michele Ruggiero, director of the excavations, was +not altered by the causes adduced by Beulé (p. 125), but by a +simpler event. “It is certain,” he says (<i>Pompei e la regione +sotterrata dal Vesuvio l’anno 79</i>, Naples, 1879, p. 21 seq.), “that +the districts between the south and west, and those between the +south and east, were overwhelmed in two quite different ways. +From Torre Annunziata (which is believed to be the site of the +ancient Oplontii) to San Giovanni a Teduccio, for a distance of +about 9 m., there flowed a muddy eruption which in Herculaneum +and the neighbouring places, where it was most abundant, +raised the level of the country more than 65 ft. The matter +transported consisted of soil of various kinds—sand, ashes, +fragments of lava, pozzolana and whitish pumice, enclosing +grains of uncalcined lime, similar in every respect to those of +Pompeii. In the part of Herculaneum already excavated the +corridors in the upper portions of the theatre are compactly +filled, up to the head of the arches, with pozzolana and pumice +transformed into tufa (which proves that the formation of this +stone may take place in a comparatively short time). Tufa is +also found in the lowest part of the city towards the sea in front +of the few houses that have been discovered; and in the very +high banks that surround them, as also in the lowest part of the +theatre, there are plainly to be seen earth, sand, ashes, fragments +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page343" id="page343"></a>343</span> +of lava and pumice, with little distinction of strata, almost +always confused and mingled together, and varying from spot +to spot in degree of compactness. It is clear that this immense +congeries of earth and stones could not flow in a dry state over +those 5 m. of country (in the beginning very steep, and at +intervals almost level), where certainly it would have been +arrested and all accumulated in a mound; but it must have +been borne along by a great quantity of water, the effects of +which may be distinctly recognized, not only in the filling and +choking up even of the most narrow, intricate and remote +parts of the buildings, but also in the formation of the tufa, in +which water has so great a share; for it cannot be supposed +that enough of it has filtered through so great a depth of earth. +The torrent ran in a few hours to the sea, and formed that shallow +or lagoon called by Pliny <i>Subitum Vadum</i>, which prevented the +ships approaching the shores.” Hence it is that, while many +made their escape from Pompeii (which was overwhelmed by +the fall of the small stones and afterwards by the rain of ashes), +comparatively few can have managed to escape from Herculaneum, +and these, according to the interpretation given to the +inscription preserved in the National Museum (Mommsen, +<i>I.N.</i> n. 2455), found shelter in the neighbouring city of Neapolis, +where they inhabited a quarter called that of the buried city +(Suetonius, <i>Titus</i>, 8; <i>C.I.L.</i> x. No. 1492, in Naples: “Regio +primaria splendidissima Herculanensium”). The name of +Herculaneum, which for some time remained attached to the +site of the disaster, is mentioned in the later itineraries; but +in the course of the middle ages all recollection of it perished.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1719, while Prince Elbeuf of the house of Lorraine, in command +of the armies of Charles VI., was seeking crushed marble to make +plaster for his new villa near Portici, he learned from the peasants +that there were in the vicinity some pits from which they not only +quarried excellent marble, but had extracted many statues in the +course of years (see Jorio, <i>Notizia degli scavi d’ Ercolano</i>, Naples, +1827). In 1738, while Colonel D. Rocco de Alcubierre was directing +the works for the construction of the “Reali Delizie” at Portici, +he received orders from Charles IV. (later, Charles III. of Spain) +to begin excavations on the spot where it had been reported to the +king that the Elbeuf statues had been found. At first it was believed +that a temple was being explored, but afterwards the inscriptions +proved that the building was a theatre. This discovery excited the +greatest commotion among the scholars of all nations; and many of +them hastened to Naples to see the marvellous statues of the Balbi +and the paintings on the walls. But everything was kept private, +as the government wished to reserve to itself the right of illustrating +the monuments. First of all Monsignor Bayardi was brought from +Rome and commissioned to write about the antiquities which were +being collected in the museum at Portici under the care of Camillo +Paderni, and when it was recognized that the prelate had not sufficient +learning, and by the progress of the excavations other most +abundant material was accumulated, about which at once scholars +and courtiers were anxious to be informed, Bernardo Tanucci, +having become secretary of state in 1755, founded the Accademia +Ercolanese, which published the principal works on Herculaneum +(<i>Le Pitture ed i bronzi d’ Ercolano</i>, 8 vols., 1757, 1792; <i>Dissertations +isagogicae ad Herculanensium voluminum explanationem pars +prima</i>, 1797). The criterion which guided the studies of the +academicians was far from being worthy of unqualified praise, and +consequently their work did not always meet the approval of the +best scholars who had the opportunity of seeing the monuments. +Among these was Winckelmann, who in his letters gave ample +notices of the excavations and the antiquities which he was able to +visit on several occasions. Other notices were furnished by Gori, +<i>Symbolae litterariae Florentinae</i> (1748, 1751), by Marcello Venuti, +<i>Descrizione delle prime scoperte d’ Ercolano</i> (Rome, 1748), and Scipione +Maffei, <i>Tre lettere intorno alle scoperte d’ Ercolano</i> (Verona, 1748). +The excavations, which continued for more than forty years (1738-1780), +were executed at first under the immediate direction of +Alcubierre (1738-1741), and then with the assistance of the engineers +Rorro and Bardet (1741-1745), Carl Weber (1750-1764), and +Francesco La Vega. After the death of Alcubierre (1780) the +last-named was appointed director-in-chief of the excavations; but +from that time the investigations at Herculaneum were intermitted, +and the researches at Pompeii were vigorously carried on. Resumed +in 1827, the excavations at Herculaneum were shortly after suspended, +nor were the new attempts made in 1866 with the money +bestowed by King Victor Emmanuel attended with success, being +impeded by the many dangers arising from the houses built overhead. +The meagreness of the results obtained by the occasional works +executed in the last century, and the fact that the investigators were +unfortunate enough to strike upon places already explored, gave +rise to the opinion that the whole area of the city had been crossed +by tunnels in the time of Charles III. and in the beginning of the +reign of Ferdinand IV. And although it is recognized that the works +had not been prosecuted with the caution that they required, yet +in view of the serious difficulties that would attend the collection +of the little that had been left by the first excavators, every proposal +for new investigations has been abandoned. But in a memoir which +Professor Barnabei read in the Reale Accademia dei Lincei (<i>Atti +della R. Ac.</i> series iii. vol. ii. p. 751) he undertook to prove that +the researches made by the government in the 18th century did not +cover any great area. The antiquities excavated at Herculaneum +in that century (<i>i.e.</i> the 18th) form a collection of the highest scientific +and artistic value. They come partly from the buildings of the ancient +city (theatre, basilica, houses and forum), and partly from the +private villa of a great Roman family (cf. Comparetti and de Petra, +<i>La Villa Ercolanese dei Pisoni</i>, Turin, 1883). From the city come, +among many other marble statues, the two equestrian statues of +the Balbi (<i>Museo Borbonico</i>, vol. ii. pl. xxxviii.-xxxix.), and the great +imperial and municipal bronze statues. Mural paintings of extraordinary +beauty were also discovered here, such as those that represent +Theseus after the slaughter of the Minotaur (Helbig, <i>Wandgemälde</i>, +Leipzig, 1878, No. 1214), Chiron teaching Achilles the art +of playing on the lyre (<i>ibid.</i> No. 1291), and Hercules finding Telephus +who is being suckled by the hind (<i>ibid.</i> No. 1143).</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding subsequent discoveries of stupendous paintings +in the gardens of the Villa Farnesina on the banks of the Tiber, the +monochromes of Herculaneum remain among the finest specimens +of the exquisite taste and consummate skill displayed by the ancient +artists. Among the best preserved is Leto and Niobe, which has +been the subject of so many studies and so many publications (<i>ibid.</i> +No. 1706). There is also a considerable number of lapidary inscriptions +edited in vol. ii. of the epigraphic collection of the <i>Cat. del +Mus. Naz. di Napoli</i>. The Villa Suburbana has given us a good +number of marble busts, and the so-called statue of Aristides, but +above all that splendid collection of bronze statues and busts mostly +reproductions of famous Greek works now to be found in the Naples +Museum. It is thence that we have obtained the reposing Hermes, +the drunken Silenus, the sleeping Faunus, the dancing girls, the +bust called Plato’s, that believed to be Seneca’s, the two quoit-throwers +or discoboli, and so many masterpieces more, figured by +the academicians in their volume on the bronzes. But a still further +discovery made in the Villa Suburbana contributed to magnify the +greatness of Herculaneum; within its walls was found the famous +library, of which, counting both entire and fragmentary volumes, 1803 +papyri are preserved. Among the nations which took the greatest +interest in the discovery of the Herculaneum library, the most +honourable rank belongs to England, which sent Hayter and other +scholars to Naples to solicit the publication of the volumes. Of the +341 papyri which have been unrolled, 195 have been published +(<i>Herculanensium voluminum quae supersunt</i> (Naples, 1793-1809); +<i>Collectio altera</i>, 1862-1876). They contain works by Epicurus, +Demetrius, Polystratus, Colotes, Chrysippus, Carniscus and Philodemus. +The names of the authors are in themselves sufficient to +show that the library belonged to a person whose principal study +was the Epicurean philosophy. But of the great master of this +school only a few works have been found. Of his treatise <span class="grk" title="Peri physeôs">Περὶ φύσεως</span>, +divided into 37 books, it is known that there were three copies in the +library (<i>Coll. alt.</i> vi.). Professor Comparetti, studying the first +fasciculus of volume xi. of the same new collection, recognized most +important fragments of the <i>Ethics</i> of Epicurus, and these he published +in 1879 in Nos. ix. and xi. of the <i>Rivista di filologia e d’ istruzione +classica</i> (Turin). Even the other authors above mentioned are but +poorly represented, with the exception of Philodemus, of whom +26 different treatises have been recognized. But all these philosophic +discussions, belonging for the most part to an author less than +secondary among the Epicureans, fall short of the high expectations +excited by the first discovery of the library. Among the many +volumes unrolled only a few are of historical importance—that +edited by Bücheler, which treats of the philosophers of the academy +(<i>Acad. phil. index Hercul.</i>, Greifswald, 1859), and that edited by +Comparetti, which deals with the Stoics (“Papiro ercolanese inedito,” +in <i>Rivista di fil. e d’ ist. class.</i> anno iii. fasc. x.-xii.). To appreciate the +value of the volumes unrolled but not yet published (for 146 vols. +were only copied and not printed) the student must read Comparetti’s +paper, “Relazione sui papiri ercolanesi.” Contributions +of some value have been made to the study of Herculaneum fragments +by Spengel (“Die hercul. Rollen,” in <i>Philologus</i>, 1863, suppl. +vol.), and Gomperz (<i>Hercul. Studien</i>, Leipzig, 1865-1866, cf. <i>Zeitschr. +f. österr. Gymn.</i>, 1867-1872). There are in the library some volumes +written in Latin, which, according to Boot (<i>Notice sur les manuscrits +trouvés à Herculaneum</i>, Amsterdam, 1845), were found tied up in a +bundle apart. Of these we know 18, but they are all so damaged +that hardly any of them can be deciphered. One with verses +relating to the battle of Actium is believed to belong to a poem of +Rabirius. The numerical preponderance of the works of Philodemus +led some people to believe that this had been the library of that +philosopher. Professor Comparetti has thrown out a conjecture +(cf. Comparetti and de Petra, <i>op. cit.</i>) that the library was collected +by Lucius Piso Caesoninus (see <i>Regione sotterrata dal Vesuvio</i>, +Naples, 1879, p. 159 sq.), but this conjecture has not found many +supporters. Professor de Petra (in the same work) has also published +the official notices upon the antiquities unearthed in the sumptuous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>344</span> +villa, giving the plan executed by Weber and recovered by chance +by the director of excavations, Michele Ruggiero. This plan, which +is here reproduced from de Petra<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> is the only satisfactory document +for the topography of Herculaneum; for the plan of the theatre +published in the <i>Bullettino archeologico italiano</i> (Naples, 1861, i. +53, tab. iii.) was executed in 1747, when the excavations were not +completed. And even for the history of the “finds” made in the +Villa Suburbana the necessity for further studies makes itself felt, +since there is a lack of agreement between the accounts given by +Alcubierre and Weber and those communicated to the <i>Philosophical +Transactions</i> (London, vol. x.) by Camillo Paderni, conservator of +the Portici Museum.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:448px; height:1482px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img344.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">Among the older works relating to Herculaneum, in addition to +those already quoted, may be mentioned de Brosses, <i>Lettre sur +l’état actuel de la ville souterraine d’Héracléa</i> (Paris, 1750); Seigneux +de Correvon, <i>Lettre sur la découverte de l’ancienne ville d’Herculane</i> +(Yverdon, 1770); David, <i>Les Antiquités d’Herculaneum</i> (Paris, 1780); +D’ Ancora Gaetano, <i>Prospetto storico-fisico degli scavi d’ Ercolano e +di Pompei</i> (Naples, 1803); Venuti, <i>Prime Scoverte di Ercolano</i> (Rome, +1748); and Romanelli, <i>Viaggio ad Ercolano</i> (Naples, 1811). A full +list will be found in vol. i. of <i>Museo Borbonico</i> (Naples, 1824), pp. 1-11.</p> + +<p>The most important reference work is C. Waldstein and L. Shoobridge, +<i>Herculaneum, Past, Present and Future</i> (London, 1908); it +contains full references to the history and the explorations, and to +the buildings and objects found (with illustrations). Miss E. R. +Barker’s <i>Buried Herculaneum</i> (1908) is exceedingly useful.</p> + +<p>In 1904 Professor Waldstein expounded both in Europe and in +America an international scheme for thorough investigation of the +site. Negotiations of a highly complex character ensued with the +Italian government, which ultimately in 1908 decided that the work +should be undertaken by Italian scholars with Italian funds. The +work was begun in the autumn of 1908, but financial difficulties with +property owners in Resina immediately arose with the result that +progress was practically stopped.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A fragment of L. Sisenna calls it “Oppidum tumulo in excelso +loco propter mare, parvis moenibus, inter duas fluvias, infra Vesuvium +collocatum” (lib. iv., fragm. 53, Peters). Of one of these rivers this +historian again makes mention in the passage where probably he +related the capture of Herculaneum by Minatius Magius and T. Didius +(Velleius Paterculus ii. 16). Further topographical details are supplied +by Strabo, who, after speaking about Naples, continues—<span class="grk" title="hechomenon +de phrourion estin Hrakleion ekkeimenên eis tên thalattan akran +echon, katapneomenon Libi thaumastôs hoshth hugieinên poiein tên katoikian.">ἐχόμενον δὲ φρούριόν ἐστιν Ἡράκλειον ἐκκειμένην εἰς τὴν θάλατταν ἄκραν ἔχον, +καταπνεόμενον Λιβὶ θαυμαστῶς ὤσθ᾿ ὑγιεινὴν ποιεῖν τὴν κατοικίαν</span>. +Dionysius of Halicarnassus relates that Heracles, in the place where +he stopped with his fleet on the return voyage from Iberia, founded +a little city (<span class="grk" title="polichnên">πολίχνην</span>), to which he gave his own name; and he adds +that this city was in his time inhabited by the Romans, and that, +situated between Neapolis and Pompeii, it had <span class="grk" title="limenas en panti +kairô bebaious">λιμένας ἐν παντὶ καιρῷ βεβαἰους</span> (i. 44).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See also Niebuhr, <i>Hist. of Rome</i>, i. 76, and Mommsen, <i>Die +unteritalischen Dialekte</i> (1850), p. 314; for later discussions see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Osca Lingua</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pelasgians</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>C.I.L.</i> ii. No. 3866. This Spanish inscription refers to a Rectina +who died at the age of 18 and was the wife of Voconius Romanus. +It is quite possible that she was the Rectina whom Pliny the elder +wished to assist during the disaster of Vesuvius, for her husband, +Voconius Romanus, was an intimate friend of Pliny the younger. +The latter addressed four letters to Voconius (i. 5, ii. 1, iii. 13, ix. 28), +in another letter commended him to the emperor Trajan (x. 3), +and in another (ii. 13) says of him: “Hunc ego cum simul studere, +mus arte familiariterque dilexi; ille meus in urbe, ille in secessu +contubernalis; cum hoc seria et jocos miscui.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The diagram shows the arrangement and proportions of the Villa +Ercolanese. The dotted lines show the course taken by the excavations, +which began at the lower part of the plan.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERCULANO DE CARVALHO E ARAUJO, ALEXANDRE<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> +(1810-1877), Portuguese historian, was born in Lisbon of humble +stock, his grandfather having been a foreman stonemason in the +royal employ. He received his early education, comprising +Latin, logic and rhetoric, at the Necessidades Monastery, and +spent a year at the Royal Marine Academy studying mathematics +with the intention of entering on a commercial career. In 1828 +Portugal fell under the absolute rule of D. Miguel, and Herculano, +becoming involved in the unsuccessful military <i>pronunciamento</i> +of August 1831, had to leave Portugal clandestinely and take +refuge in England and France. In 1832 he accompanied the +Liberal expedition to Terceira as a volunteer, and was one of +D. Pedro’s famous army of 7500 men who landed at the Mindello +and occupied Oporto. He took part in all the actions of the great +siege, and at the same time served as a librarian in the city +archives. He published his first volume of verses, <i>A Voz de +Propheta</i>, in 1832, and two years later another entitled <i>A Harpa +do Crente</i>. Privation had made a man of him, and in these +little books he proves himself a poet of deep feeling and considerable +power of expression. The stirring incidents in the political +emancipation of Portugal inspired his muse, and he describes +the bitterness of exile, the adventurous expedition to Terceira, +the heroic defence of Oporto, and the final combats of liberty. +In 1837 he founded the <i>Panorama</i> in imitation of the <i>English +Penny Magazine</i>, and there and in <i>Illustração</i> he published the +historical tales which were afterwards collected into <i>Lendas e +Narratives</i>; in the same year he became royal librarian at the +Ajuda Palace, which enabled him to continue his studies +of the past. The <i>Panorama</i> had a large circulation and influence, +and Herculano’s biographical sketches of great men +and his articles of literary and historical criticism did much to +educate the middle class by acquainting them with the story +of their nation, and with the progress of knowledge and the +state of letters in foreign countries. On entering parliament +in 1840 he resigned the editorship to devote himself to history, +but he still remained its most important contributor.</p> + +<p>Up to the age of twenty-five Herculano had been a poet, but +he then abandoned poetry to Garrett, and after several essays +in that direction he definitely introduced the historical novel +into Portugal in 1844 by a book written in imitation of Walter +Scott. <i>Eurico</i> treats of the fall of the Visigothic monarchy +and the beginnings of resistance in the Asturias which gave +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page345" id="page345"></a>345</span> +birth to the Christian kingdoms of the Peninsula, while the +<i>Monge de Cister</i>, published in 1848, describes the time of King +John I., when the middle class and the municipalities first +asserted their power and elected a king in opposition to the +nobility. From an artistic standpoint, these stories are rather +laboured productions, besides being ultra-romantic in tone; +but it must be remembered that they were written mainly with +an educational object, and, moreover, they deserve high praise +for their style. Herculano had greater book learning than +Scott, but lacked descriptive talent and skill in dialogue. His +touch is heavy, and these novels show no dramatic power, which +accounts for his failure as a playwright, but their influence was +as great as their followers were many, and they still find readers. +These and editions of two old chronicles, the <i>Chronica de D. +Sebastião</i> (1839) and the <i>Annaes del rei D. João III</i> (1844), +prepared Herculano for his life’s work, and the year 1846 saw +the first volume of his <i>History of Portugal from the Beginning +of the Monarchy to the end of the Reign of Affonso III.</i>, a book +written on critical lines and based on documents. The difficulties +he encountered in producing it were very great, for the foundations +had been ill-prepared by his predecessors, and he was +obliged to be artisan and architect at the same time. He had to +collect MSS. from all parts of Portugal, decipher, classify and +weigh them before he could begin work, and then he found it +necessary to break with precedents and destroy traditions. +Serious students in Portugal and abroad welcomed the book +as an historical work of the first rank, for its evidence of careful +research, its able marshalling of facts, its learning and its painful +accuracy, while the sculptural simplicity of the style and the +correctness of the diction have made it a Portuguese classic. +The first volume, however, gave rise to a celebrated controversy, +because Herculano had reduced the famous battle of Ourique, +which was supposed to have seen the birth of the Portuguese +monarchy, to the dimensions of a mere skirmish, and denied the +apparition of Christ to King Affonso, a fable first circulated in +the 15th century. Herculano was denounced from the pulpit +and the press for his lack of patriotism and piety, and after +bearing the attack for some time his pride drove him to reply. +In a letter to the cardinal patriarch of Lisbon entitled <i>Eu e o +Clero</i> (1850), he denounced the fanaticism and ignorance of the +clergy in plain terms, and this provoked a fierce pamphlet war +marked by much personal abuse. The professor of Arabic in +Lisbon intervened to sustain the accepted view of the battle, +and charged Herculano and his supporter Gayangos with +ignorance of the Arab historians and of their language. The +conduct of the controversy, which lasted some years, did credit +to none of the contending parties, but Herculano’s statement +of the facts is now universally accepted as correct. The second +volume of his history appeared in 1847, the third in 1849 and the +fourth in 1853. In his youth, the excesses of absolutism had +made Herculano a Liberal, and the attacks on his history turned +this man, full of sentiment and deep religious conviction, into an +anti-clerical who began to distinguish between political Catholicism +and Christianity. His <i>History of the Origin and Establishment +of the Inquisition</i> (1854-1855), relating the thirty years’ +struggle between King John III. and the Jews—he to establish +the tribunal and they to prevent him—was compiled, as the +preface showed, to stem the Ultramontane reaction, but none +the less carried weight because it was a recital of events with +little or no comment or evidence of passion in its author. Next +to these two books his study, <i>Do Estado das classes servas na +Peninsula desde o VII. até o XII. seculo</i>, is Herculano’s most +valuable contribution to history. In 1856 he began editing a +series of <i>Portugalliae monumenta historica</i>, but personal differences +between him and the keeper of the Archive office, which +he was forced to frequent, caused him to interrupt his historical +studies, and on the death of his friend King Pedro V. he left the +Ajuda and retired to a country house near Santarem.</p> + +<p>Disillusioned with men and despairing of the future of his +country, he spent the rest of his life devoted to agricultural +pursuits, and rarely emerged from his retirement; when he +did so, it was to fight political and religious reaction. Once he +had defended the monastic orders, advocating their reform and +not their suppression, supported the rural clergy and idealized +the village priest in his <i>Parocho da Aldeia</i>, after the manner of +Goldsmith in the <i>Vicar of Wakefield</i>. Unfortunately, however, +the brilliant epoch of the alliance of Liberalism and Catholicism, +represented on its literary side by Chateaubriand and by Lamartine, +to whose poetic school Herculano had belonged, was past, +and fanatical attacks and the progress of events drove this +former champion of the Church into conflict with the ecclesiastical +authorities. His protest against the Concordat of the 21st of +February 1857 between Portugal and the Holy See, regulating +the Portuguese Padroado in the East, his successful opposition +to the entry of foreign religious orders, and his advocacy of civil +marriage, were the chief landmarks in his battle with Ultra-montanism, +and his <i>Estudos sobre o Casamento Civil</i> were put on +the Index. Finally in 1871 he attacked the dogmas of the +Immaculate Conception and papal infallibility, and fell into +line with the Old Catholics. In the domain of letters he remained +until his death a veritable pontiff, and an article or book of his +was an event celebrated from one end of Portugal to the other. +The nation continued to look up to him for mental leadership, +but, in his later years, lacking hope himself, he could not stimulate +others or use to advantage the powers conferred upon him. In +politics he remained a constitutional Liberal of the old type, +and for him the people were the middle classes in opposition to +the lower, which he saw to have been the supporters of tyranny +in all ages, while he considered Radicalism to mean a return via +anarchy to absolutism. However, though he conducted a political +propaganda in the newspaper press in his early days, Herculano +never exercised much influence in politics. Grave as most of +his writings are, they include a short description of a crossing +from Jersey to Granville, in which he satirizes English character +and customs, and reveals an unexpected sense of humour. +A rare capacity for tedious work, a dour Catonian rectitude, a +passion for truth, pride, irritability at criticism and independence +of character, are the marks of Herculano as a man. He could +be broken but never bent, and his rude frankness accorded +with his hard, sombre face, and alienated men’s sympathies +though it did not lose him their respect. His lyrism is vigorous, +feeling, austere and almost entirely subjective and personal, +while his pamphlets are distinguished by energy of conviction, +strength of affirmation, and contempt for weaker and more +ignorant opponents. His <i>History of Portugal</i> is a great but +incomplete monument. A lack of imagination and of the +philosophic spirit prevented him from penetrating or drawing +characters, but his analytical gift, joined to persevering toil +and honesty of purpose enabled him to present a faithful account +of ascertained facts and a satisfactory and lucid explanation +of political and economic events. His remains lie in a majestic +tomb in the Jeronymos at Belem, near Lisbon, which was raised +by public subscription to the greatest modern historian of +Portugal and of the Peninsula. His more important works have +gone through many editions and his name is still one to conjure +with.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Antonio de Serpa Pimentel, <i>Alexandre Herculano +e o seu tempo</i> (Lisbon, 1881); A. Romero Ortiz, <i>La Litteratura +Portuguesa en el siglo XIX.</i> (Madrid, 1869); Moniz Barreto, <i>Revista +de Portugal</i> (July 1889).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Pr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERCULES<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (O. Lat. <i>Hercoles</i>, <i>Hercles</i>), the latinized form +of the mythical Heracles, the chief national hero of Hellas. +The name <span class="grk" title="Heraklês">Ἡρακλῆς</span> (<span class="grk" title="Hera">Ἥρα</span>, and <span class="grk" title="kleos">κλέος</span> = glory) is explained as “renowned +through Hera” (<i>i.e.</i> in consequence of her persecution) +or “the glory of Hera” <i>i.e.</i> of Argos. The thoroughly national +character of Heracles is shown by his being the mythical ancestor +of the Dorian dynastic tribe, while revered by Ionian Athens, +Lelegian Opus and Aeolo-Phoenician Thebes, and closely +associated with the Achaean heroes Peleus and Telamon. The +Perseid Alcmena, wife of Amphitryon of Tiryns, was Hercules’ +mother, Zeus his father. After his father he is often called +Amphitryoniades, and also Alcides, after the Perseid Alcaeus, +father of Amphitryon. His mother and her husband lived at +Thebes in exile as guests of King Creon. By the craft of Hera, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page346" id="page346"></a>346</span> +his foe through life, his birth was delayed, and that of Eurystheus, +son of Sthenelus of Argos, hastened, Zeus having in effect sworn +that the elder of the two should rule the realm of Perseus. Hera +sent two serpents to <span class="correction" title="amended from destory">destroy</span> the new-born Hercules, but he +strangled them. He was trained in all manly accomplishments +by heroes of the highest renown in each, until in a transport +of anger at a reprimand he slew Linus, his instructor in music, +with the lyre. Thereupon he was sent to tend Amphitryon’s +oxen, and at this period slew the lion of Mount Cithaeron. By +freeing Thebes from paying tribute to the Minyans of Orchomenus +he won Creon’s daughter, Megara, to wife. Her children by him +he killed in a frenzy induced by Hera. After purification he +was sent by the Pythia to serve Eurystheus. Thus began the +cycle of the twelve labours.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. Wrestling with the Nemean lion.</p> + +<p>2. Destruction of the Lernean hydra.</p> + +<p>3. Capture of the Arcadian hind (a <i>stag</i> in art).</p> + +<p>4. Capture of the boar of Erymanthus, while chasing which he +fought the Centaurs and killed his friends Chiron and Pholus, this +homicide leading to Demeter’s institution of <i>mysteries</i>.</p> + +<p>5. Cleansing of the stables of Augeas.</p> + +<p>6. Shooting the Stymphalian birds.</p> + +<p>7. Capture of the Cretan bull subsequently slain by Theseus at +Marathon.</p> + +<p>8. Capture of the man-eating mares of the Thracian Diomedes.</p> + +<p>9. Seizure of the girdle of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons.</p> + +<p>10. Bringing the oxen of Geryones from Erythia in the far west, +which errand involved many adventures in the coast lands of the +Mediterranean, and the setting up of the “Pillars of Hercules” at +the Straits of Gibraltar.</p> + +<p>11. Bringing the golden apples from the garden of the Hesperides.</p> + +<p>12. Carrying Cerberus from Hades to the upper world.</p> +</div> + +<p>Most of the labours lead to various adventures called <span class="grk" title="parerga">πάρεργα</span>. +On Hercules’ return to Thebes he gave his wife Megara to his +friend and charioteer Iolaus, son of Iphicles, and by beating +Eurytus of Oechalia and his sons in a shooting match won a +claim to the hand of his daughter Iole, whose family, however, +except her brother Iphitus, withheld their consent to the union. +Iphitus persuaded Hercules to search for Eurytus’ lost oxen, +but was killed by him at Tiryns in a frenzy. He consulted the +Pythia about a cure for the consequent madness, but she declined +to answer him. Whereupon he seized the oracular tripod, +and so entered upon a contest with Apollo, which Zeus stopped +by sending a flash of lightning between the combatants. The +Pythia then sent him to serve the Lydian queen Omphale. He +then, with Telamon, Peleus and Theseus, took Troy. He next +helped the gods in the great battle against the giants. He +destroyed sundry sea-monsters, set free the bound Prometheus, +took part in the Argonautic voyage and the Calydonian boar +hunt, made war against Augeas, and against Nestor and the +Pylians, and restored Tyndareus to the sovereignty of Lacedaemon. +He sustained many single combats, one very famous +struggle being the wrestling with the Libyan Antaeus, son of +Poseidon and Ge (Earth), who had to be held in the air, as he +grew stronger every time he touched his mother, Earth. +Hercules withstood Ares, Poseidon and Hera, as well as Apollo. +The close of his career is assigned to Aetolia and Trachis. He +wrestles with Achelous for Deianeira (“destructive to husband”), +daughter of Oeneus, king of Calydon, vanquishes the river +god, and breaks off one of his horns, which as a horn of plenty +is found as an attribute of Hercules in art. Driven from Calydon +for homicide, he goes with Deianeira to Trachis. On the way +he slays the centaur Nessus, who persuades Deianeira that +his blood is a love-charm. From Trachis he wages successful +war against the Dryopes and Lapithae as ally of Aegimius, king +of the Dorians, who promised him a third of his realm, and after +his death adopted Hyllus, his son by Deianeira. Finally Hercules +attacks Eurytus, takes Oechalia and carries off Iola. Thereupon +Deianeira, prompted by love and jealousy, sends him a tunic +dipped in the blood of Nessus, and the unsuspecting hero puts +it on just before sacrificing at the headland of Cenaeum in +Euboea. (So far the dithyramb of Bacchylides xv. [xvi.], +agrees with Sophocles’ <i>Trachiniae</i> as to the hero’s end.) Mad +with pain, he seizes Lichas, the messenger who had brought +the fatal garment, and hurls him on the rocks; and then he +wanders in agony to Mount Oeta, where he mounts a pyre, which, +however, no one will kindle. At last Poeas, father of Philoctetes, +takes pity on him, and is rewarded with the gift of his bow and +arrows. The immortal part of Hercules passes to Olympus, +where he is reconciled to Hera and weds her daughter Hebe. +This account of the hero’s principal labours, exploits and crimes +is derived from the mythologists Apollodorus and Diodorus, +who probably followed the <i>Heracleia</i> by Peisander of Rhodes +as to the twelve labours or that of Panyasis of Halicarnassus, +but sundry variations of order and incident are found in classical +literature.</p> + +<p>In one aspect Hercules is clearly a sun-god, being identified, +especially in Cyprus and in Thasos (as Makar), with the Tyrian +Melkarth. The third and twelfth labours may be solar, the horned +hind representing the moon, and the carrying of Cerberus to the +upper world an eclipse, while the last episode of the hero’s tragedy +is possibly a complete solar myth developed at Trachis. The +winter sun is seen rising over the Cenaean promontory to toil +across to Mount Oeta and disappear over it in a bank of fiery +cloud. But more important and less speculative is the hero’s aspect +as a national type or an amalgamation of tribal types of physical +force, of dauntless effort and endurance, of militant civilization, +and of Hellenic enterprise, “stronger than everything except +his own passions,” and “at once above and below the noblest +type of man” (Jebb). The fifth labour seems to symbolize +some great improvement in the drainage of Elis. Strenuous +devotion to the deliverance of mankind from dangers and +pests is the “virtue” which, in Prodicus’ famous apologue on +the <i>Choice of Hercules</i>, the hero preferred to an easy and happy +life. Ethically, Hercules symbolizes the attainment of glory +and immortality by toil and suffering.</p> + +<p>The Old-Dorian Hercules is represented in three cycles of +myth, the Argive, the Boeotian and the Thessalian; the legends +of Arcadia, Aetolia, Lydia, &c., and Italy are either local or +symbolical and comparatively late. The fatality by which +Hercules kills so many friends as well as foes recalls the destroying +Apollo; while his career frequently illustrates the Delphic views +on blood-guiltiness and expiation. As Apollo’s champion +Hercules is Daphnephoros, and fights Cycnus and Amyntor +to keep open the sacred way from Tempe to Delphi. As the +Dorian tutelar he aids Tyndareus and Aegimius. As patron +of maritime adventure (<span class="grk" title="hêgemonios">ἡγεμόνιος</span>) he struggles with Nereus +and Triton, slays Eryx and Busiris, and perhaps captures the +wild horses and oxen, which may stand for pirates. As a god of +athletes he is often a wrestler (<span class="grk" title="palaimôn">παλαίμων</span>), and founds the Olympian +games. In comedy and occasionally in myths he is depicted +as voracious (<span class="grk" title="bouphagos">βουφάγος</span>). He is also represented as the companion +of Dionysus, especially in Asia Minor. The “Resting” +(<span class="grk" title="anapauomenos">ἀναπαυόμενος</span>) Hercules is, as at Thermopylae and near Himera, +the natural tutelar of hot springs in conjunction with his +protectress Athena, who is usually depicted attending him on +ancient vases. The glorified Hercules was worshipped both +as a god and a hero. In the Attic deme Melita he was invoked +as <span class="grk" title="alexikakos">ἀλεξίκακος</span> (“Helper in ills”), at Olympia as <span class="grk" title="kallinikos">καλλίνικος</span> +(“Nobly-victorious”), in the rustic worship of the Oetaeans +as <span class="grk" title="kornopiôn">κορνοπίων</span> (<span class="grk" title="kornopes">κόρνοπες</span>, “locusts”), by the Erythraeans of +Ionia as <span class="grk" title="ipoktonos">ἰποκτόνος</span> (“Canker-worm-slayer”). He was <span class="grk" title="sôtêr">σωτήρ</span> +(“Saviour”), <i>i.e.</i> a protector of voyagers, at Thasos and +Smyrna. Games in his honour were held at Thebes and Marathon +and annual festivals in every deme of Attica, in Sicyon and +Agyrium (Sicily). His guardian goddess was Athena (Homer, +<i>Il.</i> viii. 638; Bacchylides v. 91 f.). In early poetry, as often +in art, he is an archer, afterwards a club-wielder and fully-armed +warrior. In early art the adult Hercules is bearded, +but not long-haired. Later he is sometimes youthful and beardless, +always with short curly hair and thick neck, the lower +part of the brow prominent. A lion’s skin is generally worn +or carried. Lysippus worked out the finest type of sculptured +Hercules, of which the Farnese by Glycon is a grand specimen. +The infantine struggle with serpents was a favourite subject.</p> + +<p>Quite distinct was the Idaean Hercules, a Cretan Dactyl connected +with the cult of Rhea or Cybele. The Greeks recognized +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page347" id="page347"></a>347</span> +Hercules in an Egyptian deity <i>Chons</i> and an Indian <i>Dorsanes</i>, +not to mention personages of other mythologies.</p> + +<p>Hercules is supposed to have visited Italy on his return from +Erythia, when he slew Cacus, son of Vulcan, the giant of the +Aventine mount of Rome, who had stolen his oxen. To this +victory was assigned the founding of the <i>Ara maxima</i> by Evander. +His worship, introduced from the Greek colonies in Etruria +and in the south of Italy, seems to have been established in Rome +from the earliest times, as two old Patrician <i>gentes</i> were associated +with his cult and the Fabii claimed him as their ancestor. The +tithes vowed to him by Romans and men of Sora and Reate, +for safety on journeys and voyages, furnished sacrifices and (in +Rome) public entertainment (<i>polluctum</i>). Tibur was a special +seat of his cult. In Rome he was patron of gladiators, as of +athletes in Greece. With respect to the Roman relations of +the hero, it is manifest that the native myths of Recaranus, +or Sancus, or Dius Fidius, were transferred to the Hellenic +Hercules.</p> +<div class="author">(C. A. M. F.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L. Preller, <i>Griechische Mythologie</i> (4th ed., Berlin, 1900); +W. H. Roscher, <i>Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen +Mythologie</i> (1884); Sir R. C. Jebb, <i>Trachiniae</i> of Sophocles (Introd.), +(1892); Ch. Daremberg and E. Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités +grecques et romaines</i>; Bréal, <i>Hercule et Cacus</i>, 1863; J. G. Winter, +<i>Myth of Hercules at Rome</i> (New York, 1910).</p> + +<p>In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>, fig. 16 represents Heracles wrestling +with the river-god Achelous; fig. 20 (from a small pediment, possibly +of a shrine of the hero) the slaying of the Hydra; fig. 35 Heracles +holding up the sky on a cushion.</p> + +<p>Hercules was a favourite figure in French medieval literature. +In the romance of Alexander the tent of the hero is decorated with +incidents from his adventures. In the prose romance <i>Les Prouesses +et vaillances du preux Hercule</i> (Paris, 1500), the hero’s labours are +represented as having been performed in honour of a Boeotian +princess; Pluto is a king dwelling in a dismal castle; the Fates are +duennas watching Proserpine; the entrance to Pluto’s castle is +watched by the giant Cerberus. Hercules conquers Spain and takes +Merida from Geryon. The book is translated into English as <i>Hercules +of Greece</i> (n. d.). Fragments of a French poem on the subject will +be found in the <i>Bulletin de la soc. des anciens textes français</i> (1877). +Don Enrique de Villena took from <i>Les Prouesses</i> his prose <i>Los Doze +Trabajos de Hercules</i> (Zamora, 1483 and 1499), and Fernandez de +Heredia wrote <i>Trabajos y afanes de Hercules</i> (Madrid, 1682), which +belies its title, being a collection of adages and allegories. <i>Le Fatiche +d’Ercole</i> (1475) is a romance in poetic prose by Pietro Bassi, and the +<i>Dodeci Travagli di Ercole</i> (1544) a poem by J. Perillos.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERCULES,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> in astronomy, a constellation of the northern +hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and +Aratus (3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and catalogued by Ptolemy (29 stars) +and Tycho Brahe (28 stars). Represented by a man kneeling, +this constellation was first known as “the man on his knees,” +and was afterwards called Cetheus, Theseus and Hercules +by the ancient Greeks. Interesting objects in this constellation +are: α <i>Herculis</i>, a fine coloured double star, composed of an +orange star of magnitude 2½, and a blue star of magnitude 6; +ζ <i>Herculis</i>, a binary star, discovered by Sir William Herschel +in 1782; one component is a yellow star of the third magnitude, +the other a bluish, which appears to vary from red to blue, of +magnitude 6; <i>g</i> and <i>u</i> <i>Herculis</i>, irregularly variable stars; +and the cluster <i>M. 13 Herculis</i>, the finest globular cluster in the +northern hemisphere, containing at least 5000 stars and of the +1000 determined only 2 are variable.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERD<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (a word common to Teutonic languages; the O. Eng. +form was <i>heord</i>; cf. Ger. <i>Herde</i>, Swed. and Dan. <i>hjord</i>; the +Sans. <i>ca‘rdhas</i>, which shows the pre-Teutonic form, means +a troop), a number of animals of one kind driven or fed together, +usually applied to cattle as “flock” is to sheep, but used also +of whales, porpoises, &c., and of birds, as swans, cranes and +curlews. A “herd-book” is a book containing the pedigree +and other information of any breed of cattle or pigs, like the +“flock-book” for sheep or “stud-book” for horses. Formerly +the word “herdwick” was applied to the pasture ground under +the care of a shepherd, and it is now used of a special hardy +breed of sheep in Cumberland and Westmorland. The word +“herd” is also applied in a disparaging sense to a company of +people, a mob or rabble, as “the vulgar herd.” As the name +for a keeper of a herd or flock of domestic animals, the herdsman, +it is usually qualified to denote the kind of animal under his +protection, as swine-herd, shepherd, &c., but in Ireland, Scotland +and the north of England, “herd” alone is commonly used.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERDER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED VON<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1744-1803), one of +the most prolific and influential writers that Germany has produced, +was born in Mohrungen, a small town in East Prussia, +on the 25th of August 1744. Like his contemporary Lessing, +Herder had throughout his life to struggle against adverse +circumstances. His father was poor, having to put together a +subsistence by uniting the humble offices of sexton, choir-singer +and petty schoolmaster. After receiving some rudimentary +instruction from his father, the boy was sent to the grammar +school of his native town. The mode of discipline practised +by the pedantic and irritable old man who stood at the head of +this institution was not at all to the young student’s liking, +and the impression made upon him stimulated him later on to +work out his projects of school reform. The hardships of his +early years drove him to introspection and to solitary communion +with nature, and thus favoured a more than proportionate +development of the sentimental and poetic side of his mind. +When quite young he expressed a wish to become a minister +of the gospel, but his aspirations were discouraged by the +local clergyman. In 1762, at the age of eighteen, he went up +to Königsberg with the intention of studying medicine, but +finding himself unequal to the operations of the dissecting-room, +he abandoned this object, and, by the help of one or two friends +and his own self-supporting labours, followed out his earlier +idea of the clerical profession by joining the university. There +he came under the influence of Kant, who was just then passing +from physical to metaphysical problems. Without becoming +a disciple of Kant, young Herder was deeply stimulated to fresh +critical inquiry by that thinker’s revolutionary ideas in philosophy. +To Kant’s lectures and conversations he further owed +something of his large interest in cosmological and anthropological +problems. Among the writers whom he most carefully read +were Plato, Hume, Shaftesbury, Leibnitz, Diderot and Rousseau. +Another personal influence under which he fell at Königsberg, +and which was destined to be far more permanent, was that of +J. G. Hamann, “the northern Mage.” This writer had already +won a name, and in young Herder he found a mind well fitted +to be the receptacle and vehicle of his new ideas on literature. +From this vague, incoherent, yet gifted writer our author acquired +some of his strong feeling for the naïve element in poetry, and for +the earliest developments of national literature. Even before +he went to Königsberg he had begun to compose verses, and at +the age of twenty he took up the pen as a chief occupation. +His first published writings were occasional poems and reviews +contributed to the <i>Königsbergische Zeitung</i>. Soon after this he +got an appointment at Riga, as assistant master at the cathedral +school, and a few years later, became assistant pastor. In +this busy commercial town, in somewhat improved pecuniary +and social circumstances, he developed the main ideas +of his writings. In the year 1767 he published his first +considerable work <i>Fragmente über die neuere deutsche Literatur</i>, +which at once made him widely known and secured for him the +favourable interest of Lessing. From this time he continued +to pour forth a number of critical writings on literature, art, &c. +His bold ideas on these subjects, which were a great advance +even on Lessing’s doctrines, naturally excited hostile criticism, +and in consequence of this opposition, which took the form of +aspersions on his religious orthodoxy, he resolved to leave +Riga. He was much carried away at this time by the idea of +a radical reform of social life in Livonia, which (after the example +of Rousseau) he thought to effect by means of a better method +of school-training. With this plan in view he began (1769) a +tour through France, England, Holland, &c., for the purpose of +collecting information respecting their systems of education. +It was during the solitude of his voyage to France, when on deck +at night, that he first shaped his idea of the genesis of primitive +poetry, and of the gradual evolution of humanity. Having +received an offer of an appointment as travelling tutor and chaplain +to the young prince of Eutin-Holstein, he abandoned his +somewhat visionary scheme of a social reconstruction of a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id="page348"></a>348</span> +Russian province. He has, however, left a curious sketch of +his projected school reforms. His new duties led him to Strassburg, +where he met the young Goethe, on whose poetical development +he exercised so potent an influence. At Darmstadt he +made the acquaintance of Caroline Flachsland, to whom he soon +became betrothed, and who for the rest of his life supplied him +with that abundance of consolatory sympathy which his sensitive +and rather querulous nature appeared to require. The engagement +as tutor did not prove an agreeable one, and he soon threw +it up (1771) in favour of an appointment as court preacher +and member of the consistory at Bückeburg. Here he had to +encounter bitter opposition from the orthodox clergy and their +followers, among whom he was regarded as a freethinker. His +health continued poor, and a fistula in the eye, from which he +had suffered from early childhood, and to cure which he had +undergone a number of painful operations, continued to trouble +him. Further, pecuniary difficulties, from which he never +long managed to keep himself free, by delaying his marriage, +added to his depression. Notwithstanding these trying circumstances +he resumed literary work, which his travels had interrupted. +For some time he had been greatly interested by the +poetry of the north, more particularly Percy’s <i>Reliques</i>, the +poems of “Ossian” (in the genuineness of which he like many +others believed) and the works of Shakespeare. Under the +influence of this reading he now finally broke with classicism +and became one of the leaders of the new <i>Sturm und Drang</i> +movement. He co-operated with a band of young writers at +Darmstadt and Frankfort, including Goethe, who in a journal +of their own sought to diffuse the new ideas. His marriage took +place in 1773. In 1776 he obtained through Goethe’s influence +the post of general superintendent and court preacher at Weimar, +where he passed the rest of his life. There he enjoyed the society +of Goethe, Wieland, Jean Paul (who came to Weimar in order +to be near Herder), and others, the patronage of the court, with +whom as a preacher he was very popular, and an opportunity +of carrying out some of his ideas of school reform. Yet the social +atmosphere of the place did not suit him. His personal relations +with Goethe again and again became embittered. This, added +to ill-health, served to intensify a natural irritability of temperament, +and the history of his later Weimar days is a rather +dreary page in the chronicles of literary life. He had valued +more than anything else a teacher’s influence over other minds, +and as he began to feel that he was losing it he grew jealous of +the success of those who had outgrown this influence. Yet +while presenting these unlovely traits, Herder’s character was +on the whole a worthy and attractive one. This seems to be +sufficiently attested by the fact that he was greatly liked and +esteemed, not only in the pulpit but in private intercourse, +by cultivated women like the countess of Bückeburg, the duchess +of Weimar and Frau von Stein, and, what perhaps is more, +was exceedingly popular among the gymnasium pupils, in whose +education he took so lively an interest. While much that Herder +produced after settling in Weimar has little value, he wrote +also some of his best works, among others his collection of popular +poetry on which he had been engaged for many years, <i>Stimmen +der Völker in Liedern</i> (1778-1779); his translation of the Spanish +romances of the <i>Cid</i> (1805); his celebrated work on Hebrew +poetry, <i>Vom Geist der hebräischen Poesie</i> (1782-1783); and his +<i>opus magnum</i>, the <i>Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der +Menschheit</i> (1784-1791). Towards the close of his life he occupied +himself, like Lessing, with speculative questions in philosophy +and theology. The boldness of some of his ideas cost him some +valuable friendships, as that of Jacobi, Lavater and even of +his early teacher Hamann. He died on the 18th of December +1803, full of new literary plans up to the very last.</p> + +<p>Herder’s writings were for a long time regarded as of temporary +value only, and fell into neglect. Recent criticism, however, +has tended very much to raise their value by tracing out their +wide and far-reaching influence. His works are very voluminous, +and to a large extent fragmentary and devoid of artistic finish; +nevertheless they are nearly always worth investigating for the +brilliant suggestions in which they abound. His place in German +literature has already been indicated in tracing his mental +development. Like Lessing, whose work he immediately +continued, he was a pioneer of the golden age of this literature. +Lessing had given the first impetus to the formation of a national +literature by exposing the folly of the current imitation of +French writers. But in doing this he did not so much call his +fellow-countrymen to develop freely their own national sentiments +and ideas as send them back to classical example and +principle. Lessing was the exponent of German classicism; +Herder, on the contrary, was a pioneer of the romantic movement. +He fought against all imitation as such, and bade German +writers be true to themselves and their national antecedents. +As a sort of theoretic basis for this adhesion to national type +in literature, he conceived the idea that literature and art, +together with language and national culture as a whole, are +evolved by a natural process, and that the intellectual and +emotional life of each people is correlated with peculiarities of +physical temperament and of material environment. In this +way he became the originator of that genetic or historical +method which has since been applied to all human ideas and +institutions. Herder was thus an evolutionist, but an evolutionist +still under the influence of Rousseau. That is to say, in tracing +back the later acquisitions of civilization to impulses which are +as old as the dawn of primitive culture, he did not, as the modern +evolutionist does, lay stress on the superiority of the later to +the earlier stages of human development, but rather became +enamoured of the simplicity and spontaneity of those early +impulses which, since they are the oldest, easily come to look +like the most real and precious. Yet even in this way he helped +to found the historical school in literature and science, for it was +only after an excessive and sentimental interest in primitive +human culture had been awakened that this subject would +receive the amount of attention which was requisite for the +genetic explanation of later developments. This historical idea +was carried by Herder into the regions of poetry, art, religion, +language, and finally into human culture as a whole. It colours +all his writings, and is intimately connected with some of the +most characteristic attributes of his mind, a quick sympathetic +imagination, a fine feeling for local differences, and a scientific +instinct for seizing the sequences of cause and effect.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Herder’s works may be arranged in an ascending series, corresponding +to the way in which the genetic or historical idea was +developed and extended. First come the works on poetic literature, +art, language and religion as special regions of development. +Secondly, we have in the <i>Ideen</i> a general account of the process of +human evolution. Thirdly, there are a number of writings which, +though inferior in interest to the others, may be said to supply the +philosophic basis of his leading ideas.</p> + +<p>1. In the region of poetry Herder sought to persuade his countrymen, +both by example and precept, to return to a natural and +spontaneous form of utterance. His own poetry has but little value; +Herder was a skilful verse-maker but hardly a creative poet. He +was most successful in his translation of popular song, in which he +shows a rare sympathetic insight into the various feelings and ideas +of peoples as unlike as Greenlanders and Spaniards, Indians and +Scots. In the <i>Fragmente</i> he aims at nationalizing German poetry +and freeing it from all extraneous influence. He ridicules the ambition +of German writers to be classic, as Lessing had ridiculed their +eagerness to be French. He looked at poetry as a kind of “proteus +among the people, which changes its form according to language, +manners, habits, according to temperament and climate, nay, even +according to the accent of different nations.” This fact of the +idiosyncrasy of national poetry he illustrated with great fulness and +richness in the case of Homer, the nature of whose works he was one +of the first to elucidate, the Hebrew poets, and the poetry of the +north as typified in “Ossian.” This same idea of necessary relation +to national character and circumstance is also applied to dramatic +poetry, and more especially to Shakespeare. Lessing had done much +to make Shakespeare known to Germany, but he had regarded him +in contrast to the French dramatists with whom he also contrasted +the Greek dramatic poets, and accordingly did not bring out his +essentially modern and Teutonic character. Herder does this, and +in doing so shows a far deeper understanding of Shakespeare’s +genius than his predecessor had shown.</p> + +<p>2. The views on art contained in Herder’s <i>Kritische Wälder</i> (1769), +<i>Plastik</i> (1778), &c., are chiefly valuable as a correction of the excesses +into which reverence for Greek art had betrayed Winckelmann and +Lessing, by help of his fundamental idea of national idiosyncrasy. +He argues against the setting up of classic art as an unchanging type, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page349" id="page349"></a>349</span> +valid for all peoples and all times. He was one of the first to bring to +light the characteristic excellences of Gothic art. Beyond this, he +eloquently pleaded the cause of painting as a distinct art, which +Lessing in his desire to mark off the formative arts from poetry and +music had confounded with sculpture. He regarded this as the art +of the eye, while sculpture was rather the art of the organ of touch. +Painting being less real than sculpture, because lacking the third +dimension of space, and a kind of dream, admitted of much greater +freedom of treatment than this last. Herder had a genuine appreciation +for early German painters, and helped to awaken the modern +interest in Albrecht Dürer.</p> + +<p>3. By his work on language <i>Über den Ursprung der Sprache</i> (1772), +Herder may be said to have laid the first rude foundations of the +science of comparative philology and that deeper science of the ultimate +nature and origin of language. It was specially directed against +the supposition of a divine communication of language to man. +Its main argument is that speech is a necessary outcome of that +special arrangement of mental forces which distinguishes man, and +more particularly from his habits of reflection. “If,” Herder says, +“it is incomprehensible to others how a human mind could invent +language, it is as incomprehensible to me how a human mind could +be what it is without discovering language for itself.” The writer +does not make that use of the fact of man’s superior organic endowments +which one might expect from his general conception of the +relation of the physical and the mental in human development.</p> + +<p>4. Herder’s services in laying the foundations of a comparative +science of religion and mythology are even of greater value than his +somewhat crude philological speculations. In opposition to the +general spirit of the 18th century he saw, by means of his historic +sense, the naturalness of religion, its relation to man’s wants and +impulses. Thus with respect to early religious beliefs he rejected +Hume’s notion that religion sprang out of the fears of primitive +men, in favour of the theory that it represents the first attempts of +our species to explain phenomena. He thus intimately associated +religion with mythology and primitive poetry. As to later forms of +religion, he appears to have held that they owe their vitality to their +embodiment of the deep-seated moral feelings of our common +humanity. His high appreciation of Christianity, which contrasts +with the contemptuous estimate of the contemporary rationalists, +rested on a firm belief in its essential humanity, to which fact, and +not to conscious deception, he attributes its success. His exposition +of this religion in his sermons and writings was simply an unfolding +of its moral side. In his later life, as we shall presently see, he found +his way to a speculative basis for his religious beliefs.</p> + +<p>5. Herder’s masterpiece, the <i>Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte</i>, +has the ambitious aim of explaining the whole of human development +in close connexion with the nature of man’s physical environment. +Man is viewed as a part of nature, and all his widely differing forms +of development as strictly natural processes. It thus stands in sharp +contrast to the anthropology of Kant, which opposes human development +conceived as the gradual manifestation of a growing faculty +of rational free will to the operations of physical nature. Herder +defines human history as “a pure natural history of human powers, +actions and propensities, modified by time and place.” The <i>Ideen</i> +shows us that Herder is an evolutionist after the manner of Leibnitz, +and not after that of more modern evolutionists. The lower forms +of life prefigure man in unequal degrees of imperfection; they exist +for his sake, but they are not regarded as representing necessary +antecedent conditions of human existence. The genetic method is +applied to varieties of man, not to man as a whole. It is worth +noting, however, that Herder in his provokingly tentative way of +thinking comes now and again very near ideas made familiar to us by +Spencer and Darwin. Thus in a passage in book xv. chap, ii., which +unmistakably foreshadows Darwin’s idea of a struggle for existence, +we read: “Among millions of creatures whatever could preserve +itself abides, and still after the lapse of thousands of years remains +in the great harmonious order. Wild animals and tame, carnivorous +and graminivorous, insects, birds, fishes and man are adapted to each +other.” With this may be compared a passage in the <i>Ursprung der +Sprache</i>, where there is a curious adumbration of Spencer’s idea that +intelligence, as distinguished from instinct, arises from a growing +complexity of action, or, to use Herder’s words, from the substitution +of a more for a less contracted sphere. Herder is more successful +in tracing the early developments of particular peoples than in constructing +a scientific theory of evolution. Here he may be said to have +laid the foundations of the science of primitive culture as a whole. +His account of the first dawnings of culture, and of the ruder Oriental +civilizations, is marked by genuine insight. On the other hand the +development of classic culture is traced with a less skilful hand. +Altogether this work is rich in suggestion to the philosophic historian +and the anthropologist, though marked by much vagueness of conception +and hastiness of generalization.</p> + +<p>6. Of Herder’s properly metaphysical speculations little needs to +be said. He was too much under the sway of feeling and concrete +imagination to be capable of great things in abstract thought. It is +generally admitted that he had no accurate knowledge either of +Spinoza, whose monism he advocated, or of Kant, whose critical +philosophy he so fiercely attacked. Herder’s Spinozism, which is +set forth in his little work, <i>Vom Erkennen und Empfinden der +menschlichen Seele</i> (1778), is much less logically conceived than +Lessing’s. It is the religious aspect of it which attracts him, the +presentation in God of an object which at once satisfies the feelings +and the intellect. With respect to his attacks on the critical philosophy +in the <i>Metakritik</i> (1799), it is easy to understand how his +concrete mind, ever alive to the unity of things, instinctively rebelled +against that analytic separation of the mental processes which Kant +attempted. However crude and hasty this critical investigation, it +helped to direct philosophic reflection to the unity of mind, and so +to develop the post-Kantian line of speculation. Herder was much +attracted by Schelling’s early writings, but appears to have disliked +Hegelianism because of the atheism it seemed to him to involve. +In the <i>Kalligone</i> (1800), work directed against Kant’s <i>Kritik der +Urteilskraft</i>, Herder argues for the close connexion of the beautiful +and the good. To his mind the content of art, which he conceived +as human feeling and human life in its completeness, was much more +valuable than the form, and so he was naturally led to emphasize +the moral element in art. Thus his theoretic opposition to the +Kantian aesthetics is but the reflection of his practical opposition +to the form-idolatry of the Weimar poets.</p> +<div class="author">(J. S.)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—An edition of Herder’s <i>Sämtliche Werke</i> in 45 +vols. was published after his death by his widow (1805-1820); a +second in 60 vols. followed in 1827-1830; a third in 40 vols. in 1852-1854. +There is also an edition by H. Düntzer (24 vols., 1869-1879). +But these have all been superseded by the monumental critical +edition by B. Suphan (32 vols., 1877 <i>sqq.</i>). Of the many “selected +works,” mention may be made of those by B. Suphan (4 vols., +1884-1887); by H. Lambel, H. Meyer and E. Kühnemann in +Kürschner’s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i> (10 vols., 1885-1894). +For Herder’s correspondence, see <i>Aus Herders Nachlass</i> (3 vols., +1856-1857), <i>Herders Reise nach Italien</i> (1859), <i>Von und an Herder: +Ungedruckte Briefe</i> (3 vols., 1861-1862)—all three works edited by +H. Düntzer and F. G. von Herder. Herder’s <i>Briefwechsel mit Nicolai</i> +and his <i>Briefe an Hamann</i> have been edited by O. Hoffmann (1887 +and 1889). For biography and criticism, see <i>Erinnerungen aus +dem Leben Herders</i>, by his wife, edited by J. G. Müller (2 vols., 1820); +<i>J. G. von Herders Lebensbild</i> (with his correspondence), by his son, +E. G. von Herder (6 vols., 1846); C. Joret, <i>Herder et la renaissance +littéraire en Allemagne au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1875); F. von Bärenbach, +<i>Herder als Vorgänger Darwins</i> (1877); R. Haym, <i>Herder nach seinem +Leben und seinen Werken</i> (2 vols., 1880-1885); H. Nevinson, <i>A +Sketch of Herder and his Times</i> (1884); M. Kronenberg, <i>Herders +Philosophie nach ihrem Entwicklungsgang</i> (1889); E. Kühnemann, <i>Herders +Leben</i> (1895); R. Bürkner, <i>Herder, sein Leben und Wirken</i> (1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEREDIA, JOSÉ MARIA DE<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1842-1905), French poet, the +modern master of the French sonnet, was born at Fortuna +Cafeyere, near Santiago de Cuba, on the 22nd of November 1842, +being in blood part Spanish Creole and part French. At the +age of eight he came from the West Indies to France, returning +thence to Havana at seventeen, and finally making France his +home not long afterwards. He received his classical education +with the priests of Saint Vincent at Senlis, and after a visit to +Havana he studied at the École des Chartes at Paris. In the +later ’sixties, with François Coppée, Sully-Prudhomme, Paul +Verlaine and others less distinguished, he made one of the band +of poets who gathered round Leconte de Lisle, and received the +name of Parnassiens. To this new school, form—the technical +side of their art—was of supreme importance, and, in reaction +against the influence of Musset, they rigorously repressed in their +work the expression of personal feeling and emotion. “True +poetry,” said M. de Heredia in his discourse on entering the +Academy—“true poetry dwells in nature and in humanity, +which are eternal, and not in the heart of the creature of a day, +however great.” M. de Heredia’s place in the movement was +soon assured. He wrote very little, and published even less, +but his sonnets circulated in MS., and gave him a reputation +before they appeared in 1893, together with a few longer poems, +as a volume, under the title of <i>Les Trophées</i>. He was elected +to the Academy on the 22nd of February 1894, in the place of +Louis de Mazade-Percin the publicist. Few purely literary +men can have entered the Academy with credentials so small in +quantity. A small volume of verse—a translation, with introduction, +of Diaz del Castillo’s <i>History of the Conquest of New +Spain</i> (1878-1881)—a translation of the life of the nun Alferez +(1894), de Quincey’s “Spanish Military Nun”—and one or two +short pieces of occasional verse, and an introduction or so—this +is but small literary baggage, to use the French expression. +But the sonnets are of their kind among the most superb in +modern literature. “A <i>Légende des siècles</i> in sonnets” M. +François Coppée called them. Each presents a picture, striking, +brilliant, drawn with unfaltering hand—the picture of some +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page350" id="page350"></a>350</span> +characteristic scene in man’s long history. The verse is flawless, +polished like a gem; and its sound has distinction and fine +harmony. If one may suggest a fault, it is that each picture +is sometimes too much of a picture only, and that the poetical +line, like that of M. de Heredia’s master, Leconte de Lisle +himself, is occasionally overcrowded. M. de Heredia was none +the less one of the most skilful craftsmen who ever practised +the art of verse. In 1901 he became librarian of the Bibliothèque +de l’Arsénal at Paris. He died at the Château de Bourdonné +(Seine-et-Oise) on the 3rd of October 1905, having completed +his critical edition of André Chénier’s works.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEREDIA Y CAMPUZANO, JOSÉ MARIA<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1803-1839), +Cuban poet, was born at Santiago de Cuba on the 31st of +December 1803, studied at the university of Havana, and was +called to the bar in 1823. In the autumn of 1823 he was arrested +on a charge of conspiracy against the Spanish government, and +was sentenced to banishment for life. He took refuge in the +United States, published a volume of verses at New York in +1825, and then went to Mexico, where, becoming naturalized, he +obtained a post as magistrate. In 1832 a collection of his poems +was issued at Toluca, and in 1836 he obtained permission to visit +Cuba for two months. Disappointed in his political ambitions, +and broken in health, Heredia returned to Mexico in January +1837, and died at Toluca on the 21st of May 1839. Many of his +earlier pieces are merely clever translations from French, English +and Italian; but his originality is placed beyond doubt by such +poems as the <i>Himno del desterrado</i>, the epistle to Emilia, <i>Desengaños</i>, +and the celebrated ode to Niagara. Bello may be thought +to excel Heredia in execution, and a few lines of Olmedo’s <i>Canto +á Junín</i> vibrate with a virile passion to which the Cuban poet +rarely attained; but the sincerity of his patriotism and the +sublimity of his imagination have secured for Heredia a real +supremacy among Spanish-American poets.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best edition of his works is that published at Paris in 1893 +with a preface by Elias Zerolo.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEREDITAMENT<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>hereditare</i>, to inherit, <i>heres</i>, +heir), in law, every kind of property that can be <i>inherited</i>. +Hereditaments are divided into corporeal and incorporeal; +corporeal hereditaments are “such as affect the senses, and may +be seen and handled by the body; incorporeal are not the +subject of sensation, can neither be seen nor handled, are creatures +of the mind, and exist only in contemplation” (Blackstone, +<i>Commentaries</i>). An example of a corporeal hereditament is land +held in freehold, of incorporeal <span class="correction" title="amended from herditaments">hereditaments</span>, tithes, advowsons, +pensions, annuities, rents, franchises, &c. It is still used in the +phrase “lands, tenements and hereditaments” to describe +property in land, as distinguished from goods and chattels or +movable property.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEREDITY,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> in biological science, the name given to the +generalization, drawn from the observed facts, that animals +and plants closely resemble their progenitors. (That the +resemblance is not complete involves in the first place the +subject of variation (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Variation and Selection</a></span>); but it +must be clearly stated that there is no adequate ground for the +current loose statements as to the existence of opposing “laws” +or “forces” of heredity and variation.) In the simplest cases +there seems to be no separate problem of heredity. When a +creeping plant propagates itself by runners, when a <i>Nais</i> or +<i>Myrianida</i> breaks up into a series of similar segments, each of +which becomes a worm like the parent, we have to do with the +general fact that growing organisms tend to display a symmetrical +repetition of equivalent parts, and that reproduction by fission +is simply a special case of metamerism. When we try to answer +the question why the segments of an organism resemble one +another, whether they remain in association to form a segmented +animal, or break into different animals, we come to the conclusion, +which at least is on the way to an answer, that it is because they +are formed from pieces of the same protoplasm, growing under +similar conditions. It is apparently a fundamental property +of protoplasm to be able to multiply by division into parts, +the properties of which are similar to each other and to those +of the parent.</p> + +<p>This leads us directly to the cases of reproduction where there +is an obvious problem of heredity. In the majority of cases +among animals and plants the new organisms arise from portions +of living matter, separated from the parents, but different from +the parents in size and structure. These germs of the new +organisms may be spores, reproductive cells, fused reproductive +cells or multicellular masses (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Reproduction</a></span>). For the +present purpose it is enough to state that they consist of portions +of the parental protoplasm. These pass through an embryological +history, in which by growth, multiplication and specialization +they form structures closely resembling the parents. Now, +if it could be shown that these reproductive masses arose directly +from the reproductive masses which formed the parent body, +the problems of heredity would be extremely simplified. If the +first division of a reproductive cell set apart one mass to lie +dormant for a time and ultimately to form the reproductive +cells of the new generation, while the other mass, exactly of the +same kind, developed directly into the new organism, then +heredity would simply be a delayed case of what is called organic +symmetry, the tendency of similar living material to develop +in similar ways under the stimulus of similar external conditions. +The cases in which this happens are very rare. In the Diptera +the first division of the egg-cell separates the nuclear material +of the subsequent reproductive cells from the material that is +elaborated into the new organism to contain these cells. In the +<i>Daphnidae</i> and in <i>Sagitta</i> a similar separation occurs at slightly +later stages; in vertebrates it occurs much later; while in some +hydroids the germ-cells do not arise in the individual which is +developed from the egg-cell at all, but in a much later generation, +which is produced from the first by budding. However, it is not +necessary to dismiss the fertile idea of what Moritz Nussbaum +and August Weismann, who drew attention to it, called “continuity +of the germ-plasm.” Weismann has shown that an +actual series of organic forms might be drawn up in which the +formation of germ-cells begins at stages successively more remote +from the first division of the egg-cell. He has also shown +evidence, singularly complete in the case of the hydroids, for +the existence of an actual migration of the place of formation +of the germ-cells, the migration reaching farther and farther +from the egg-cell. He has elaborated the conception of the +germ-track, a chain of cell generations in the development +of any creature along which the reproductive material saved +over from the development of one generation for the germ-cells +of the next generation is handed on in a latent condition to its +ultimate position. And thus he supposes a real continuity of +the germ-plasm, extending from generation to generation in +spite of the apparent discontinuity in the observed cases. The +conception certainly ranks among the most luminous and most +fertile contributions of the 19th century to biological thought, +and it is necessary to examine at greater length the superstructure +which Weismann has raised upon it.</p> + +<p><i>Weismann’s Theory of the Germ-plasm.</i>—A living being takes +its individual origin only where there is separated from the stock +of the parent a little piece of the peculiar reproductive plasm, +the so-called germ-plasm. In sexless reproduction one parent +is enough; in sexual reproduction equivalent masses of germ-plasm +from each parent combine to form the new individual. +The germ-plasm resides in the nucleus of cells, and Weismann +identifies it with the nuclear material named chromatin. Like +ordinary protoplasm, of which the bulk of cell bodies is composed, +germ-plasm is a living material, capable of growing in bulk +without alteration of structure when it is supplied with appropriate +food. But it is a living material much more complex +than protoplasm. In the first place, the mass of germ-plasm +which is the starting-point of a new individual consists of several, +sometimes of many, pieces named “idants,” which are either +the chromosomes into a definite number of which the nuclear +material of a dividing cell breaks up, or possibly smaller units +named chromomeres. These idants are a collection of “ids,” +which Weismann tentatively identifies with the microsomata +contained in the chromosomes, which are visible after treatment +with certain reagents. Each id contains all the possibilities—generic, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id="page351"></a>351</span> +specific, individual—of a new organism, or rather +the directing substance which in appropriate surroundings of +food, &c., forms a new organism. Each id is a veritable microcosm, +possessed of an historic architecture that has been elaborated +slowly through the multitudinous series of generations that +stretch backwards in time from every living individual. This +microcosm, again, consists of a number of minor vital units +called “determinants,” which cohere according to the architecture +of the whole id. The determinants are hypothetical units +corresponding to the number of parts of the organism independently +variable. Lastly, each determinant consists of a +number of small hypothetical units, the “biophores.” These +are adaptations of a conception of H. de Vries, and are supposed +to become active by leaving the nucleus of the cell in which they +lie, passing out into the general protoplasm of the cell and ruling +its activities. Each new individual begins life as a nucleated +cell, the nucleus of which contains germ-plasm of this complex +structure derived from the parent. The reproductive cell gives +rise to the new individual by continued absorption of food, by +growth, cell-divisions and cell-specializations. The theory +supposes that the first divisions of the nucleus are “doubling,” +or homogeneous divisions. The germ-plasm has grown in +bulk without altering its character in any respect, and, when it +divides, each resulting mass is precisely alike. From these +first divisions a chain of similar doubling divisions stretches +along the “germ-tracks,” so marshalling unaltered germ-plasm +to the generative organs of the new individual, to be ready to +form the germ-cells of the next generation. In this mode the +continuity of the germ-plasm from individual to individual is +maintained. This also is the immortality of the germ-cells, +or rather of the germ-plasm, the part of the theory which has +laid so large a hold on the popular imagination, although it is +really no more than a reassertion in new terms of biogenesis. +With this also is connected the celebrated denial of the inheritance +of acquired characters. It seemed a clear inference that, if the +hereditary mass for the daughters were separated off from the +hereditary mass that was to form the mother, at the very first, +before the body of the mother was formed, the daughters were +in all essentials the sisters of their mother, and could take from +her nothing of any characters that might be impressed on her +body in subsequent development. In the later elaboration of his +theory Weismann has admitted the possibility of some direct +modification of the germ-plasm within the body of the individual +acting as its host.</p> + +<p>The mass of germ-plasm which is not retained in unaltered +form to provide for the generative cells is supposed to be employed +for the elaboration of the individual body. It grows, dividing +and multiplying, and forms the nuclear matter of the tissues of +the individual, but the theory supposes this process to occur in +a peculiar fashion. The nuclear divisions are what Weismann +calls “differentiating” or heterogeneous divisions. In them +the microcosms of the germ-plasm are not doubled, but slowly +disintegrated in accordance with the historical architecture +of the plasm, each division differentiating among the determinants +and marshalling one set into one portion, another into another +portion. There are differences in the observed facts of nuclear +division which tend to support the theoretical possibility of two +sorts of division, but as yet these have not been correlated +definitely with the divisions along the germ-tracks and the +ordinary divisions of embryological organogeny. The theoretical +conception is, that when the whole body is formed, the cells +contain only their own kind of determinants, and it would follow +from this that the cells of the tissues cannot give rise to structures +containing germ-plasm less disintegrated than their own nuclear +material, and least of all to reproductive cells which must contain +the undisintegrated microcosms of the germ-plasm. Cases of +bud-formation and of reconstructions of lost parts (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Regeneration +Of Lost Parts</a></span>) are regarded as special adaptations +made possible by the provision of latent groups of accessory +determinants, to become active only on emergency.</p> + +<p>It is to be noticed that Weismann’s conception of the processes +of ontogeny is strictly evolutionary, and in so far is a reversion +to the general opinion of biologists of the 17th and 18th centuries. +These supposed that the germ-cell contained an image-in-little +of the adult, and that the process of development was a mere +unfolding or evolution of this, under the influence of favouring +and nutrient forces. Hartsoeker, indeed, went so far as to +figure the human spermatozoon with a mannikin seated within +the “head,” and similar extremes of imagination were indulged +in by other writers for the spermatozoon or ovum, according +to the view they took of the relative importance of these two +bodies. C. F. Wolff, in his <i>Theoria generationis</i> (1759), was +the first distinguished anatomist to make assault on these +evolutionary views, but his direct observations on the process +of development were not sufficient in bulk nor in clarity of +interpretation to convince his contemporaries. Naturally the +improved methods and vastly greater knowledge of modern +days have made evolution in the old sense an impossible conception; +we know that the egg is morphologically unlike the +adult, that various external conditions are necessary for its +subsequent progress through a slow series of stages, each of +which is unlike the adult, but gradually approaching it until +the final condition is reached. None the less, Weismann’s +theory supposes that the important determining factor in these +gradual changes lies in the historical architecture of the germ-plasm, +and from the theoretical point of view his theory remains +strictly an unfolding, a becoming manifest of hidden complexity.</p> + +<p><i>Hertwig’s View.</i>—The chief modern holder of the rival view, +and the writer who has put together in most cogent form the +objections to Weismann’s theory, is Oscar Hertwig. He points +out that there is no direct evidence for the existence of differentiating +as opposed to doubling divisions of the nuclear matter, +and, moreover, he thinks that there is very generally diffused +evidence as to the universality of doubling division. In the first +place, there is the fundamental fact that single-celled organisms +exhibit only doubling division, as by that the persistence of +species which actually occurs alone is possible. In the case of +higher plants, the widespread occurrence of tissues with power +of reproduction, the occurrence of budding in almost any part +of the body in lower animals and in plants, and the widespread +powers of regeneration of lost parts, are easily intelligible if +every cell like the egg-cell has been formed by doubling division, +and so contains the germinal material for every part of the +organism, and thus, on the call of special conditions, can become +a germ-cell again. He lays special stress on those experiments in +which the process of development has been interfered with in +various ways at various stages, as showing that the cells which +arise from the division of the egg-cell were not predestined +unalterably for a particular rôle, according to a predetermined +plan. He dismisses Weismann’s suggestion of the presence of +accessory determinants which remain latent unless they happen +to be required, as being too complicated a supposition to be +supported without exact evidence, a view in which he has +received strong support from those who have worked most at +the experimental side of the question. From consideration of a +large number of physiological facts, such as the results of grafting, +transplantations of tissues and transfusions of blood, he concludes +that the cells of an organism possess, in addition to their +patent microscopical characters, latent characters peculiar to +the species, and pointing towards a fundamental identity of the +germinal substance in every cell.</p> + +<p><i>The Nuclear Matter.</i>—Apart from these two characteristic +protagonists of extreme and opposing views, the general consensus +of biological opinion does not take us very far beyond the plainest +facts of observation. The resemblances of heredity are due to +the fact that the new organism takes its origin from a definite +piece of the substance of its parent or parents. This piece always +contains protoplasm, and as the protoplasm of every animal +and plant appears to have its own specific reactions, we cannot +exclude this factor; indeed many, following the views of +M. Verworn, and seeing in the specific metabolisms of protoplasm +a large part of the meaning of life, attach an increasing +importance to the protoplasm in the hereditary mass. Next, +it always contains nuclear matter, and, in view of the extreme +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page352" id="page352"></a>352</span> +specialization of the nuclear changes in the process of maturation +and fertilization of the generative cells, there is more than +sufficient reason for believing that the nuclear substance, if not +actually the specific germ-plasm, is of vast importance in heredity. +The theory of its absolute dominance depends on a number of +experiments, the interpretation of which is doubtful. Moritz +Nussbaum showed that in Infusoria non-nucleated fragments +of a cell always died, while nucleated fragments were able to +complete themselves; but it may be said with almost equal +confidence that nuclei separated from protoplasm also invariably +die—at least, all attempts to preserve them have failed. Hertwig +and others, in their brilliant work on the nature of fertilization, +showed that the process always involved the entrance into the +female cell of the nucleus of the male cell, but we now know +that part of the protoplasm of the spermatozoon also enters. +T. Boveri made experiments on the cross-fertilization of non-nucleated +fragments of the eggs of <i>Sphaerechinus granularis</i> +with spermatozoa of <i>Echinus microtuberculatus</i>, and obtained +dwarf larvae with only the paternal characters; but the nature +of his experiments was not such as absolutely to exclude doubt. +Finally, in addition to the nucleus and the protoplasm, another +organism of the cell, the centrosome, is part of the hereditary +mass. In sum, while most of the evidence points to a preponderating +importance of the nuclear matter, it cannot be said +to be an established proposition that the nuclear matter is the +germ-plasm. Nor are we yet definitely in a position to say that +the germinal mass (nuclear matter, protoplasm, &c., of the reproductive +cells) differs essentially from the general substance of +the organism—whether, in fact, there is continuity of <i>germ-plasm</i> +as opposed to continuity of living material from individual +to individual. The origin of sexual cells from only definite places, +in the vast majority of cases, and such phenomena as the phylo-genetic +migration of their place of origin among the Hydro-medusae, +tell strongly in favour of Weismann’s conception. +Early experiments on dividing eggs, in which, by separation or +transposition, cells were made to give rise to tissues and parts +of the organism which in the natural order they would not have +produced, tell strongly against any profound separation between +germ-plasm and body-plasm. It is also to be noticed that the +failure of germ-cells to arise except in specific places may be +only part of the specialized ordering of the whole body, and does +not necessarily involve the interpretation that reproductive +material is absolutely different in kind.</p> + +<p><i>Amphimixis.</i>—Hitherto we have considered the material +bearer of heredity apart from the question of sexual union, and +we find that the new organism takes origin from a portion of +living matter, forming a material which may be called germ-plasm, +in which resides the capacity to correspond to the same +kind of surrounding forces as stimulated the parent germ-plasm +by growth of the same fashion. In many cases (<i>e.g.</i> asexual +spores) the piece of germ-plasm comes from one parent, and +from an organ or tissue not associated with sexual reproduction; +in other cases (parthenogenetic eggs) it comes from the ovary +of a female, and may have the apparent characters of a sexual +egg, except that it develops without fertilization; here also are +to be included the cases where normal female ova have been +induced to develop, not by the entrance of a spermatozoon, but +by artificial chemical stimulation. In such cases the problem +of heredity does not differ fundamentally from the symmetrical +repetition of parts. In most of the higher plants and animals, +however, sexual reproduction is the normal process, and from +our present point of view the essential feature of this is that the +germ-plasm which starts the new individual (the fertilized egg) +is derived from the male (the spermatozoon) and from the female +parent (the ovum). Although it cannot yet be set down sharply +as a general proposition, there is considerable evidence to show +that in the preparation of the ovum and spermatozoon for +fertilization the nuclear matter of each is reduced by half (reducing +division of the chromosomes), and that fertilization means +the restoration of the normal bulk in the fertilized cell by equal +contributions from male and female. So far as the known facts +of this process of union of germ-plasms go, they take us no +farther than to establish such a relation between the offspring +and two parents as exists between the offspring and one parent +in the other cases. Amphimixis has a vast importance in the +theory of evolution (Weismann, for instance, regards it as the +chief factor in the production of variations); for its relation to +heredity we are as yet dependent on empirical observations.</p> + +<p><i>Heredity and Development.</i>—The actual process by which the +germinal mass slowly assumes the characters of the adult—that +is, becomes like the parent—depends on the interaction of two +sets of factors: the properties of the germinal material itself, +and the influences of substances and conditions external to the +germinal material. Naturally, as K. W. von Nägeli and Hertwig +in particular have pointed out, there is no perpetual sharp +contrast between the two sets of factors, for, as growth proceeds, +the external is constantly becoming the internal; the results +of influences, which were in one stage part of the environment, +are in the next and subsequent stages part of the embryo. The +differences between the exponents of evolution and epigenesis +offer practical problems to be decided by experiment. Every +phenomenon in development that is proved the direct result of +epigenetic factors can be discounted from the complexity of the +germinal mass. If, for instance, as H. Driesch and Hertwig have +argued, much of the differentiation of cells and tissues is a +function of locality and is due to the action of different external +forces on similar material, then just so much burden is removed +from what evolutionists have to explain. That much remains +cannot be doubted. Two eggs similar in appearance develop +side by side in the same sea-water, one becoming a mollusc, the +other an <i>Amphioxus</i>. Hertwig would say that the slight differences +in the original eggs would determine slight differences in +metabolism and so forth, with the result that the segmentation +of the two is slightly different; in the next stage the differences +in metabolisms and other relations will be increased, and so on +indefinitely. But in such cases <i>c’est le premier pas qui coûte</i>, and +the absolute cost in theoretical complexity of the germinal +material can be estimated only after a prolonged course of +experimental work in a field which is as yet hardly touched.</p> + +<p><i>Empirical Study of Heredity.</i>—The fundamental basis of +heredity is the separation of a mass from the parent (germ-plasm) +which under certain conditions grows into an individual resembling +the parent. The goal of the study of heredity will be +reached only when all the phenomena can be referred to the +nature of the germ-plasm and of its relations to the conditions +under which it grows, but we have seen how far our knowledge +is from any attempt at such references. In the meantime, the +empirical facts, the actual relations of the characters in the +offspring to the characters of the parents and ancestors, are +being collected and grouped. In this inquiry it at once becomes +obvious that every character found in a parent may or may not +be present in the offspring. When any character occurs in both, +it is generally spoken of as transmissible and of having been +transmitted. In this broad sense there is no character that is +not transmissible. In all kinds of reproduction, the characters +of the class, family, genus, species, variety or race, and of the +actual individual, are transmissible, the certainty with which +any character appears being almost in direct proportion to its +rank in the descending scale from order to individual. The +transmitted characters are anatomical, down to the most minute +detail; physiological, including such phenomena as diatheses, +timbre of voice and even compound phenomena, such as <i>gaucherie</i> +and peculiarity of handwriting; psychological; pathological; +teratological, such as syndactylism and all kinds of +individual variations. Either sex may transmit characters +which in themselves are necessarily latent, as, for instance, a +bull may transmit a good milking strain. In forms of asexual +reproduction, such as division, budding, propagation by slips and +so forth, every character of the parent may appear in the +descendant, and apparently even in the descendants produced +from that descendant by the ordinary sexual processes. In +reproduction by spore formation, in parthenogenesis and in +ordinary sexual modes, where there is an embryological history +between the separated mass and the new adult, it is necessary +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page353" id="page353"></a>353</span> +to attempt a difficult discrimination between acquired and innate +characters.</p> + +<p><i>Acquired Characters.</i>—Every character is the result of two +sets of factors, those resident in the germinal material and those +imposed from without. Our knowledge has taken us far beyond +any such idea as the formation of a germinal material by the +collection of particles from the adult organs and tissues (gemmules +of C. Darwin). The inheritance of any character means +the transmission in the germinal material of matter which, +brought under the necessary external conditions, develops into +the character of the parent. There is necessarily an acquired +or epigenetic side to every character; but there is nothing in +our knowledge of the actual processes to make necessary or +even probable the supposition that the result of that factor in +one generation appears in the germ-plasm of the subsequent +generations, in those cases where an embryological development +separates parent and offspring. The development of any normal, +so-called “innate,” character, such as, say, the assumption of +the normal human shape and relations of the frontal bone, +requires the co-operation of many factors external to the developing +embryo, and the absence of abnormal distorting factors. +When we say that such an innate character is transmitted, we +mean only that the germ-plasm has such a constitution that, +in the presence of the epigenetic factors and the absence of +abnormal epigenetic factors, the bone will appear in due course +and in due form. If an abnormal epigenetic factor be applied +during development, whether to the embryo <i>in utero</i>, to the +developing child, or in after life, abnormality of some kind will +appear in the bone, and such an abnormality is a good type of +what is spoken of as an “acquired” character. Naturally such +a character varies with the external stimulus and the nature of +the material to which the stimulus is applied, and probability +and observation lead us to suppose that as the germ-plasm of +the offspring is similar to that of the parent, being a mass +separated from the parent, abnormal epigenetic influences +would produce results on the offspring similar to those which +they produced on the parent. Scrutiny of very many cases +of the supposed inheritance of acquired characters shows that +they may be explained in this fashion—that is to say, that they +do not necessarily involve any feature different in kind from +what we understand to occur in normal development. The +effects of increased use or of disuse on organs or tissues, the +reactions of living tissues to various external influences, to +bacteria, to bacterial or other toxins, or to different conditions +of respiration, nutrition and so forth, we know empirically to +be different in the case of different individuals, and we may +expect that when the living matter of a parent responds in a +certain way to a certain external stimulus, the living matter of +the descendant will respond to similar circumstances in a similar +fashion. The operation of similar influences on similar material +accounts for a large proportion of the facts. In the important +case of the transmission of disease from parent to offspring it is +plain that three sets of normal factors may operate, and other +cases of transmission must be subjected to similar scrutiny: +(1) a child may inherit the anatomical and physiological constitution +of either parent, and with that a special liability of +failure to resist the attacks of a widespread disease; (2) the +actual bacteria may be contained in the ovum or possibly in the +spermatozoon; (3) the toxins of the disease may have affected +the ovum, or the spermatozoon, or through the placenta the +growing embryo. Obviously in the first two cases the offspring +cannot be said in any strict sense to have inherited the disease; +in the last case, the theoretical nomenclature is more doubtful, +but it is at least plain that no inexplicable factor is involved.</p> + +<p>It is to be noticed, however, that “Lamarckians” and “Neo-Lamarckians” +in their advocacy of an inheritance of “acquired +characters” make a theoretical assumption of a different kind, +which applies equally to “acquired” and to “innate” characters. +They suppose that the result of the epigenetic factors +is reflected on the germ-plasm in such a mode that in development +the products would display the same or a similar character +without the co-operation of the epigenetic factors on the new +individual, or would display the result in an accentuated form +if with the renewed co-operation of the external factors. Such +an assumption presents its greatest theoretical difficulty if, with +Weismann, we suppose the germ-plasm to be different in kind +from the general soma-plasm, and its least theoretical difficulty +if, with Hertwig, we suppose the essential matter of the reproductive +cells to be similar in kind to the essential substance of +the general body cells. But, apart from the differences between +such theories, it supposes, in all cases where an embryological +development lies between parent and descendant, the existence +of a factor towards which our present knowledge of the actual +processes gives us no assistance. The separated hereditary +mass does not contain the organs of the adult; the Lamarckian +factor would involve the translation of the characters of the adult +back into the characters of the germ-cell in such a fashion that +when the germ-cell developed these characters would be re-translated +again into those which originally had been produced +by co-operation between germ-plasm characters and epigenetic +factors. In the present state of our knowledge the theoretical +difficulty is not fatal to the Lamarckian supposition; it does +no more than demand a much more careful scrutiny of the +supposed cases. Such a scrutiny has been going on since Weismann +first raised the difficulty, and the present result is that no known +case has appeared which cannot be explained without the +Lamarckian factor, and the vast majority of cases have been +resolved without any difficulty into the ordinary events of which +we have full experience. Taking the empirical data in detail, +it would appear first that the effects of single mutilations are +not inherited. The effects of long-continued mutilations are +not inherited, but Darwin cites as a possible case the Mahommedans +of Celebes, in whom the prepuce is very small. C. E. +Brown-Séquard thought that he had shown in the case of guinea-pigs +the inheritance of the results of nervous lesions, but analyses +of his results leave the question extremely doubtful. The +inheritance of the effects of use and disuse is not proved. The +inheritance of the effects of changed conditions of life is quite +uncertain. Nägeli grew Alpine plants at Munich, but found +that the change was produced at once and was not increased +in a period of thirteen years. Alphonse de Candolle starved +plants, with the result of producing better blooms, and found +that seedlings from these were also above the average in luxuriance +of blossom, but in these experiments the effects of selection +during the starvation, and of direct effect on the nutrition of the +seeds, were not eliminated. Such results are typical of the +vast number of experiments and observations recorded. The +empirical issue is doubtful, with a considerable balance against +the supposed inheritance of acquired characters.</p> + +<p><i>Empirical Study of Effects of Amphimixis.</i>—Inheritance is +theoretically possible from each parent and from the ancestry +of each. In considering the total effect it is becoming customary +to distinguish between “blended” inheritance, where the offspring +appears in respect of any character to be intermediate +between the conditions in the parents; “prepotent” inheritance, +where one parent is supposed to be more effective than the other +in stamping the offspring (thus, for instance, Negroes, Jews +and Chinese are stated to be prepotent in crosses); “exclusive” +inheritance, where the character of the offspring is definitely +that of one of the parents. Such a classification depends on the +interpretation of the word character, and rests on no certain +grounds. An apparently blended character or a prepotent +character may on analysis turn out to be due to the inheritance +of a certain proportion of minuter characters derived exclusively +from either parent. H. de Vries and later on a number of other +biologists have advanced the knowledge of heredity in crosses +by carrying out further the experimental and theoretical work +of Gregor Mendel (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mendelism</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hybridism</a></span>), and results +of great practical importance to breeders have already been +obtained. These experiments and results, however, appear +to relate exclusively to sexual reproduction and almost entirely +to the crossing of artificial varieties of animals and plants. So +far as they go, they point strongly to the occurrence of alternate +inheritance instead of blended inheritance in the case of artificial +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354"></a>354</span> +varieties. On the other hand, in the case of natural varieties +it appears that blended inheritance predominates. The difficulty +of the interpretation of the word “character” still remains +and the Mendelian interpretation cannot be dismissed with regard +to the behaviour of any “character” in inheritance until it is +certain that it is a unit and not a composite. There is another +fundamental difficulty in making empirical comparisons between +the characters of parents and offspring. At first sight it seems +as if this mode of work were sufficiently direct and simple, and +involved no more than a mere collection of sufficient data. The +cranial index, or the height of a human being and of so many +of his ancestors being given, it would seem easy to draw an +inference as to whether or no in these cases brachycephaly or +stature were inherited. But our modern conceptions of the +individual and the race make it plain that the problems are not +so simple. With regard to any character, the race type is not a +particular measurement, but a curve of variations derived from +statistics, and any individual with regard to the particular +character may be referable to any point of the curve. A tall +race like the modern Scots may contain individuals of any height +within the human limits; a dolichocephalic race like the modern +Spaniards may contain extremely round-headed individuals. +What is meant by saying that one race is tall or the other dolichocephalic, +is merely that if a sufficiently large number be chosen +at random, the average height of the one race will be great, +the cranial index of the other low. It follows that the study +of variation must be associated with, or rather must precede, +the empirical study of heredity, and we are beginning to know +enough now to be certain that in both cases the results to be +obtained are practically useless for the individual case, and of +value only when large masses of statistics are collected. No +doubt, when general conclusions have been established, they must +be acted on for individual cases, but the results can be predicted +not for the individual case, but only for the average of a mass +of individual cases. It is impossible within the limits of this +article to discuss the mathematical conceptions involved in the +formation and applications of the method, but it is necessary +to insist on the fact that these form an indispensable part of any +valuable study of empirical data. One interesting conclusion, +which may be called the “ancestral law” of heredity, with regard +to any character, such as height, which appears to be a blend +of the male and female characters, whether or no the apparent +blend is really due to an exclusive inheritance of separate components, +may be given from the work of F. Galton and K. Pearson. +Each parent, on the average, contributes ¼ or (0.5)², each grandparent +<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> or (0.5)<span class="sp">4</span>, and each ancestor of n<span class="sp">th</span> place (0.5)<span class="sp">2n</span>. But +this, like all other deductions, is applicable only to the mass +of cases and not to any individual case.</p> + +<p><i>Regression.</i>—An important result of quantitative work brings +into prominence the steady tendency to maintain the type +which appears to be one of the most important results of amphimixis. +In the tenth generation a man has 1024 tenth grandparents, +and is thus the product of an enormous population, +the mean of which can hardly differ from that of the general +population. Hence this heavy weight of mediocrity produces +regression or progression to type. Thus in the case of height, +a large number of cases being examined, it was found that +fathers of a stature of 72 in. had sons with a mean stature of +70.8 in., a regression towards the normal stature of the race. +Fathers with a stature of 66 in. had sons with a mean of 68.3 in., +a progression towards the normal. It follows from this that where +there is much in-and-in breeding the weight of mediocrity will +be less, and the peculiarities of the breed will be accentuated.</p> + +<p><i>Atavism.</i>—Under this name a large number of ordinary cases +of variation are included. A tall man with very short parents +would probably be set down as a case of atavism if the existence +of a very tall ancestor were known. He would, however, simply +be a case of normal variation, the probability of which may be +calculated from a table of stature variations in his race. Less +marked cases set down to atavism may be instances merely +of normal regression. Many cases of more abnormal structure, +which are really due to abnormal embryonic or post-embryonic +development, are set down to atavism, as, for instance, the +cervical fistulae, which have been regarded as atavistic persistences +of the gill clefts. It is also used to imply the reversion +that takes place when domestic varieties are set free and when +species or varieties are crossed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hybridism</a></span>). Atavism is, +in fact, a misleading name covering a number of very different +phenomena.</p> + +<p><i>Telegony</i> is the name given to the supposed fact that offspring +of a mother to one sire may inherit characters from a sire with +which the mother had previously bred. Although breeders +of stock have a strong belief in the existence of this, there are +no certain facts to support it, the supposed cases being more +readily explained as individual variations of the kind generally +referred to as “atavism.” None the less, two theoretical +explanations have been suggested: (1) that spermatozoa, or +portions of spermatozoa, from the first sire may occasionally +survive within the mother for an abnormally long period; (2) +that the body, or the reproductive cells of the mother, may be +influenced by the growth of the embryo within her, so that +she acquires something of the character of the sire. The first +supposition has no direct evidence to support it, and is made +highly improbable from the fact that a second impregnation is +always necessary. Against the second supposition Pearson +brings the cogent empirical evidence that the younger children +of the same sire show no increased tendency to resemble him. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Telegony</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The following books contain a fair proportion +of the new and old knowledge on this subject:—W. Bateson, <i>Materials +for the Study of Variation</i> (1894); Y. Delage, <i>La Structure du protoplasma +et les théories sur l’hérédité</i> (a very full discussion and list of +literature); G. H. T. Eimer, <i>Organic Evolution</i>, Eng. trans. by +Cunningham (1890); J. C. Ewart, <i>The Penycuik Experiments</i> (1899); +F. Galton, <i>Natural Inheritance</i> (1887); O. Hertwig, <i>Evolution or +Epigenesis?</i> Eng. trans. by P. C. Mitchell (1896); K. Pearson, <i>The +Grammar of Science</i> (1900); Verworn, <i>General Physiology</i>, Eng. trans. +(1899); A. Weismann, <i>The Germ Plasm</i>, Eng. trans. by Parker +(1893). Lists of separate papers are given in the annual volumes of +the <i>Zoological Record</i> under heading “General Subject.”</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. C. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEREFORD,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> a city and municipal and parliamentary borough, +and the county town of Herefordshire, England, on the river +Wye, 144 m. W.N.W. of London, on the Worcester-Cardiff line +of the Great Western railway and on the west-and-north joint +line of that company and the North-Western. It is connected +with Ross and Gloucester by a branch of the Great Western, +and is the terminus of a line from the west worked by the Midland +and Neath & Brecon companies. Pop. (1901) 21,382. It is +mainly on the left bank of the river, which here traverses a +broad valley, well wooded and pleasant. The cathedral of St +Ethelbert exemplifies all styles from Norman to Perpendicular. +The see was detached from Lichfield in 676, Putta being its first +bishop; and the modern diocese covers most of Herefordshire, a +considerable part of Shropshire, and small portions of Worcestershire, +Staffordshire and Monmouthshire; extending also a short +distance across the Welsh border. The removal of murdered +Aethelbert’s body from Marden to Hereford led to the foundation +of a superior church, reconstructed by Bishop Athelstane, and +burnt by the Welsh in 1055. Begun again in 1079 by Bishop +Robert Losinga, it was carried on by Bishop Reynelm and +completed in 1148 by Bishop R. de Betun. In 1786 the great +western tower fell and carried with it the west front and the first +bay of the nave, when the church suffered much from unhappy +restoration by James Wyatt, but his errors were partly corrected +by the further work of Lewis Cottingham and Sir Gilbert Scott +in 1841 and 1863 respectively, while the present west front is +a reconstruction completed in 1905. The total length of the +cathedral outside is 342 ft., inside 327 ft. 5 in., the nave being +158 ft. 6 in., the choir from screen to reredos 75 ft. 6 in. and +the lady chapel 93 ft. 5 in. Without, the principal features are +the central tower, of Decorated work with ball-flower ornament, +formerly surmounted by a timber spire; and the north porch, +rich Perpendicular with parvise. The lady chapel has a bold +east end with five narrow lancet windows. The bishop’s cloisters, +of which only two walks remain, are Perpendicular of curious +design, with heavy tracery in the bays. A picturesque tower +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id="page355"></a>355</span> +at the south-east corner, in the same style, is called the “Lady +Arbour,” but the origin of the name is unknown. Of the former +fine decagonal Decorated chapter-house, only the doorway and +slight traces remain. Within, the nave has Norman arcades, +showing the wealth of ornament common to the work of this +period in the church. Wyatt shortened it by one bay, and the +clerestory is his work. There is a fine late Norman font, springing +from a base with the rare design of four lions at the corners. +The south transept is also Norman, but largely altered by the +introduction of Perpendicular work. The north transept was +wholly rebuilt in 1287 to contain the shrine of St Thomas de +Cantilupe, bishop of Hereford, of which there remains the +magnificent marble pedestal surmounted by an ornate arcade. +The fine lantern, with its many shafts and vaulting, was thrown +open to the floor of the bell-chamber by Cottingham. The choir +screen is a florid design by Sir Gilbert Scott, in light wrought +iron, with a wealth of ornament in copper, brass, mosaic and +polished stones. The dark choir is Norman in the arcades and +the stage above, with Early English clerestory and vaulting. +At the east end is a fine Norman arch, blocked until 1841 by +a Grecian screen erected in 1717. The choir stalls are largely +Decorated. The organ contains original work by the famous +builder Renatus Harris, and was the gift of Charles II. to the +cathedral. The small north-east and south-east transepts are +Decorated but retain traces of the Norman apsidal terminations +eastward. The eastern lady chapel, dated about 1220, shows +elaborate Early English work. On the south side opens the +little Perpendicular chantry of Bishop Audley (1492-1502). +In the north choir aisle is the beautiful fan-vaulted chantry +of Bishop Stanbury (1470). The crypt is remarkable as being, +like the lady chapel, Early English, and is thus the only cathedral +crypt in England of a later date than the 11th century. The +ancient monastic library remains in the archive room, with its +heavy oak cupboards. Deeds, documents and several rare +manuscripts and relics are preserved, and several of the precious +books are still secured by chains. But the most celebrated relic +is in the south choir aisle. This is the Map of the World, dating +from about 1314, the work of a Lincolnshire monk, Richard of +Haldingham. It represents the world as surrounded by ocean, +and embodies many ideas taken from Herodotus, Pliny and other +writers, being filled with grotesque figures of men, beasts, birds +and fishes, together with representations of famous cities and +scenes of scriptural classical story, such as the Labyrinth of +Crete, the Egyptian pyramids, Mount Sinai and the journeyings +of the Israelites. The map is surmounted by representations of +Paradise and the Day of Judgment.</p> + +<p>From the south-east transept of the cathedral a cloister leads +to the quadrangular college of the Vicars-Choral, a beautiful +Perpendicular building. On this side of the cathedral, too, +the bishop’s palace, originally a Norman hall, overlooks the Wye, +and near it lies the castle green, the site of the historic castle, +which is utterly effaced. There is here a column (1809) commemorating +the victories of Nelson. The church of All Saints +is Early English and Decorated, and has a lofty spire. Both +this and St Peter’s (originally Norman) have good carved stalls, +but the fabric of both churches is greatly restored. One only of +the six gates and a few fragments of the old walls are still to be +seen, but there are ruins of the Black Friars’ Monastery in +Widemarsh, and a mile out of Hereford on the Brecon Road, +the White Cross, erected in 1347 by Bishop Louis Charlton, and +restored by Archdeacon Lord Saye and Sele, commemorates +the departure of the Black Plague. Of domestic buildings the +“Old House” is a good example of the picturesque half-timbered +style, dating from 1621, and the Coningsby Hospital (almshouses) +date from 1614. The inmates wear a remarkable uniform of +red, designed by the founder, Sir T. Coningsby. St Ethelbert’s +hospital is an Early English foundation. Old-established schools +are the Cathedral school (1384) and the Blue Coat school (1710); +there is also the County College (1880). The public buildings +are the shire hall in St Peter’s Street, in the Grecian Doric style, +with a statue in front of it of Sir George Cornewall Lewis, who +represented the county in parliament from 1847 to 1852, the +town hall (1904), the corn-exchange (1858), the free library and +museum in Broad Street; the guildhall and mansion house. +A musical festival of the choirs of Hereford, Gloucester and +Worcester cathedrals is held annually in rotation at these cities.</p> + +<p>The government is in the hands of a municipal council consisting +of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, +5031 acres.</p> + +<p>Hereford (<i>Herefortuna</i>), founded after the crossing of the +Severn by the West Saxons early in the 7th century, had a +strategic importance due to its proximity to the Welsh March. +The foundation of the castle is ascribed to Earl Harold, afterwards +Harold II. The castle was successfully besieged by Stephen, +and was the prison of Prince Edward during the Barons’ Wars. +The pacification of Wales deprived Hereford of military significance +until it became a Royalist stronghold during the Civil Wars. +It surrendered easily to Waller in 1643; but was reoccupied +by the king’s troops and received Rupert on his march to Wales +after Naseby. It was besieged by the Scots during August +1645 and relieved by the king. It fell to the Parliamentarians +in this year. In 1086 the town included fees of the bishop, the +dean and chapter, and the Knights Hospitallers, but was otherwise +royal demesne. Richard I. in 1189 sold their town to +the citizens at a fee farm rent, which grant was confirmed by +John, Henry III., Edward II., Edward III., Richard II., Henry +IV. and Edward IV. Incorporation was granted to the mayor, +aldermen and citizens in 1597, and confirmed in 1620 and +1697-1698. Hereford returned two members to parliament +from 1295 until 1885, when the Redistribution Act deprived it of +one representative. In 1116-1117 a fair beginning on St Ethelberta’s +day was conferred on the bishop, the antecedent of the +modern fair in the beginning of May. A fair beginning on St +Denis’ day, granted to the citizens in 1226-1227, is represented +by that held in October. The fair of Easter Wednesday was +granted in 1682. In 1792 the existing fairs of Candlemas week +and the beginning of July were held. Market days were, under +Henry VIII. and in 1792, Wednesday, Friday and Saturday; +the Friday market was discontinued before 1835. Hereford was +the site of a provincial mint in 1086 and later. A grant of an +exclusive merchant gild, in 1215-1216, was several times confirmed. +The trade in wool was important in 1202, and eventually +responsible for gilds of tailors, drapers, mercers, dyers, fullers, +cloth workers, weavers and haberdashers; it brought into the +market Welsh friezes and white cloth; but declined in the 16th +century, although it existed in 1835. The leather trade was +considerable in the 13th century. In 1835 the glove trade had +declined. The city anciently had an extensive trade in bread +with Wales. It was the birthplace of David Garrick, the actor, +in 1716, and probably of Nell Gwyn, mistress of Charles II., to +whose memory a tablet was erected in 1883, marking the supposed +site of her house.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. Johnson, <i>Ancient Customs of Hereford</i> (London, 1882); +J. Duncumbe, <i>History of Hereford</i> (Hereford, 1882); <i>Journal</i> of +Brit. Arch. Assoc. xxvi.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEREFORDSHIRE,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> an inland county of England on the +south Welsh border, bounded N. by Shropshire, E. by Worcestershire, +S. by Monmouthshire and Gloucestershire, and W. by +Radnorshire and Brecknockshire. The area is 839.6 sq. m. +The county is almost wholly drained by the Wye and its tributaries, +but on the north and east includes a small portion of the +Severn basin. The Wye enters Herefordshire from Wales at Hay, +and with a sinuous and very beautiful course crosses the south-western +part of the county, leaving it close above the town of +Monmouth. Of its tributaries, the Lugg enters in the north-west +near Presteign, and has a course generally easterly to Leominster, +where it turns south, receives the Arrow from the west, and +joins the Wye 6 m. below Hereford, the Frome flowing in from +the east immediately above the junction. The Monnow rising +in the mountains of Brecknockshire forms the boundary between +Herefordshire and Monmouthshire over one-half of its course +(about 20 m.), but it joins the main river at Monmouth. Its +principal tributary in Herefordshire is the Dore, which traverses +the picturesque Golden Valley. The Wye is celebrated for its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page356" id="page356"></a>356</span> +salmon fishing, which is carefully preserved, while the Lugg, +Arrow and Frome abound in trout and grayling, as does the +Teme. This last is a tributary of the Severn, and only two short +reaches lie within this county in the north, while it also forms +parts of the northern and eastern boundary. The Leddon, also +flowing to the Severn, rises in the east of the county and leaves +it in the south-east, passing the town of Ledbury. High ground, +of an elevation from 500 to 800 ft., separates the various valleys, +while on the eastern boundary rise the Malvern Hills, reaching +1194 ft. in the Herefordshire Beacon, and 1395 ft. in the +Worcestershire Beacon, and on the boundary with Brecknockshire +the Black Mountains exceed 2000 ft. The scenery of the +Wye, with its wooded and often precipitous banks, is famous, +the most noteworthy point in this county being about Symond’s +Yat, on the Gloucestershire border below Ross.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The Archean or Pre-Cambrian rocks, the most ancient +in the county, emerge from beneath the newer deposits in three small +isolated areas. On the western border, Stanner Rock, a picturesque +craggy hill near Kington, consists of igneous materials (granitoid +rock, felstone, dolerite and gabbro), apparently of intrusive origin +and possibly of Uriconian age. In Brampton Bryan Park, a few +miles to the north-east, some ancient conglomerates emerge and may +be of Longmyndian age. On the east of the county the Herefordshire +Beacon in the Malvern chain consists of gneisses and schists and +Uriconian volcanic rocks; these have been thrust over various +members of the Cambrian and Silurian systems, and owing to their +hard and durable nature they form the highest ground in the county. +The Cambrian rocks (Tremadoc Beds) come next in order of age and +consist of quartzites, sandstones and shales, well exposed at the +southern end of the Malvern chain and also at Pedwardine near +Brampton Bryan. The Silurian rocks are well developed in the +north-west part of the county, between Presteign and Ludlow; also +along the western flanks of the Malvern Hills and in the eroded dome +of Woolhope. Smaller patches come to light at Westhide east of +Hereford and at May Hill near Newent. They consist of highly +fossiliferous sandstones, mudstones, shales and limestones, known +as the Llandovery, Wenlock and Ludlow Series; the Woolhope, +Wenlock and Aymestry Limestones are famed for their rich fossil +contents. The remainder and by far the greater part of the county +is occupied by the Old Red Sandstone, through which the rocks +above described project in detached areas. The Old Red Sandstone +consists of a great thickness of red sandstones and marls, with +impersistent bands of impure concretionary limestone known as +cornstones, which by their superior hardness give rise to scarps and +rounded ridges; they have yielded remains of fishes and crustaceans. +Some of the upper beds are conglomeratic. On its south-eastern +margin the county just reaches the Carboniferous Limestone cliffs +of the Wye Valley near Ross. Glacial deposits, chiefly sand and +gravel, are found in the lower ground along the river-courses, while +caves in the Carboniferous Limestone have yielded remains of the +hyena, cave-lion, rhinoceros, mammoth and reindeer.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Agriculture and Industries.</i>—The soil is generally marl and +clay, but in various parts contains calcareous earth in mixed +proportions. Westward the soil is tenacious and retentive of +water; on the east it is a stiff and often reddish clay. In the +south is found a light sandy loam. More than four-fifths of the +total area of the county is under cultivation and about two-thirds +of this is in permanent pasture. Ash and oak coppices and +larch plantations clothe its hillsides and crests. The rich red +soil of the Old Red Sandstone formation is famous for its pear +and apple orchards, the county, notwithstanding its much +smaller area, ranking in this respect next to Devonshire. The +apple crop, generally large, is enormous one year out of four. +Twenty hogsheads of cider have been made from an acre of +orchard, twelve being the ordinary yield. Cider is the staple +beverage of the county, and the trade in cider and perry is large. +Hops are another staple of the county, the vines of which are +planted in rows on ploughed land. As early as Camden’s day a +Herefordshire adage coupled Weobley ale with Leominster +bread, indicating the county’s capacity to produce fine wheat +and barley, as well as hops.</p> + +<p>Herefordshire is also famous as a breeding county for its +cattle of bright red hue, with mottled or white faces and sleek +silky coats. The Herefords are stalwart and healthy, and, +though not good milkers, put on more meat and fat at an early +age, in proportion to food consumed, than almost any other +variety. They produce the finest beef, and are more cheaply +fed than Devons or Durhams, with which they are advantageously +crossed. As a dairy county Herefordshire does not rank high. +Its small, white-faced, hornless, symmetrical breed of sheep +known as “the Ryelands,” from the district near Ross, where +it was bred in most perfection, made the county long famous +both for the flavour of its meat and the merino-like texture of +its wool. Fuller says of this that it was best known as “Lempster +ore,” and the finest in all England. In its original form the +breed is extinct, crossing with the Leicester having improved +size and stamina at the cost of the fleece, and the chief breeds +of sheep on Herefordshire farms at present are Shropshire +Downs, Cotswolds and Radnors, with their crosses. Agricultural +horses of good quality are bred in the north, and saddle and +coach horses may be met with at the fairs. Breeders’ names +from the county are famous at the national cattle shows, and +the number, size and quality of the stock are seen in their supply +of the metropolitan and other markets. Prize Herefords are +constantly exported to the colonies.</p> + +<p>Manufacturing enterprise is small. There are some iron +foundries and factories for agricultural implements, and some +paper is made. There are considerable limestone quarries, as +near Ledbury.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—Hereford is an important railway centre. +The Worcester and Cardiff line of the Great Western railway, +entering on the east, runs to Hereford by Ledbury and then +southward. The joint line of the Great Western and North-Western +companies runs north from Hereford by Leominster, +proceeding to Shrewsbury and Crewe. At Leominster a Great +Western branch crosses, connecting Worcester, Bromyard and +New Radnor. From Hereford a Great Western branch follows +the Wye south to Ross, and thence to the Forest of Dean and +to Gloucester; a branch connects Ledbury with Gloucester, +and the Golden Valley is traversed by a branch from Pontrilas +on the Worcester-Cardiff line. From Hereford the Midland and +Neath and Brecon line follows the Wye valley westward. None +of the rivers is commercially navigable and the canals are out +of use.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>—The area of the ancient +county is 537,363 acres, with a population in 1891 of 115,949 +and in 1901 of 114,380. The area of the administrative county +is 538,921 acres. The county contains 12 hundreds. It is +divided into two parliamentary divisions, Leominster (N.) and +Ross (S.), and it also includes the parliamentary borough of +Hereford, each returning one member. There are two municipal +boroughs—Hereford (pop. 21,382) and Leominster (5826). +The other urban districts are Bromyard (1663), Kington (1944), +Ledbury (3259) and Ross (3303). The county is in the Oxford +circuit, and assizes are held at Hereford. It has one court of +quarter sessions and is divided into 11 petty sessional divisions. +The boroughs of Hereford and Leominster have separate commissions +of the peace, and the borough of Hereford has in +addition a separate court of quarter sessions. There are 260 +civil parishes. The ancient county, which is almost entirely +in the diocese of Hereford, with small parts in those of Gloucester, +Worcester and Llandaff, contains 222 ecclesiastical parishes or +districts, wholly or in part.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—At some time in the 7th century the West Saxons +pushed their way across the Severn and established themselves +in the territory between Wales and Mercia, with which kingdom +they soon became incorporated. The district which is now +Herefordshire was occupied by a tribe the Hecanas, who congregated +chiefly in the fertile area about Hereford and in the +mining districts round Ross. In the 8th century Offa extended +the Mercian frontier to the Wye, securing it by the earthwork +known as Offa’s dike, portions of which are visible at Knighton +and Moorhampton in this county. In 915 the Danes made their +way up the Severn to the district of Archenfield, where they +took prisoner Cyfeiliawg bishop of Llandaff, and in 921 they +besieged Wigmore, which had been rebuilt in that year by Edward. +From the time of its first settlement the district was the scene +of constant border warfare with the Welsh, and Harold, whose +earldom included this county, ordered that any Welshman +caught trespassing over the border should lose his right hand. +In the period preceding the Conquest much disturbance was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page357" id="page357"></a>357</span> +caused by the outrages of the Norman colony planted in this +county by Edward the Confessor. Richard’s castle in the north +of the county was the first Norman fortress erected on English +soil, and Wigmore, Ewyas Harold, Clifford, Weobley, Hereford, +Donnington and Caldecot were all the sites of Norman strongholds. +The conqueror entrusted the subjugation of Herefordshire +to William FitzOsbern, but Edric the Wild in conjunction +with the Welsh prolonged resistance against him for two years.</p> + +<p>In the wars of Stephen’s reign Hereford and Weobley castles +were held against the king, but were captured in 1138. Edward, +afterwards Edward I., was imprisoned in Hereford Castle, and +made his famous escape thence in 1265. In 1326 the parliament +assembled at Hereford which deposed Edward II. In the 14th +and 15th centuries the forest of Deerfold gave refuge to some +of the most noted followers of Wycliffe. During the Wars of +the Roses the influence of the Mortimers led the county to +support the Yorkist cause, and Edward, afterwards Edward +IV., raised 23,000 men in this neighbourhood. The battle +of Mortimer’s Cross was fought in 1461 near Wigmore. Before +the outbreak of the civil war of the 17th century, complaints +of illegal taxation were rife in Herefordshire, but a strong anti-puritan +feeling induced the county to favour the royalist cause. +Hereford, Goodrich and Ledbury all endured sieges.</p> + +<p>The earldom of Hereford was granted by William I. to William +FitzOsbern, about 1067, but on the outlawry of his son Roger +in 1074 the title lapsed until conferred on Henry de Bohun +about 1199. It remained in the possession of the Bohuns until +the death of Humphrey de Bohun in 1373; in 1397 Henry, +earl of Derby, afterwards King Henry IV., who had married +Mary Bohun, was created duke of Hereford. Edward VI. +created Walter Devereux, a descendant of the Bohun family, +Viscount Hereford, in 1550, and his grandson, the famous earl +of Essex, was born in this county. Since this date the viscounty +has been held by the Devereux family, and the holder ranks +as the premier viscount of England. The families of Clifford, +Giffard and Mortimer figured prominently in the warfare on +the Welsh border, and the Talbots, Lacys, Crofts and Scudamores +also had important seats in the county, Sir James Scudamore +of Holme Lacy being the original of the Sir Scudamore of +Spenser’s <i>Faery Queen</i>. Sir John Oldcastle, the leader of the +Lollards, was sheriff of Herefordshire in 1406.</p> + +<p>Herefordshire probably originated as a shire in the time of +Æthelstan, and is mentioned in the Saxon <span class="correction" title="amended from Chroncile">Chronicle</span> in 1051. +In the Domesday Survey parts of Monmouthshire and Radnorshire +are assessed under Herefordshire, and the western and +southern borders remained debatable ground until with the +incorporation of the Welsh marches in 1535 considerable territory +was restored to Herefordshire and formed into the hundreds of +Wigmore, Ewyas Lacy and Huntingdon, while Ewyas Harold +was united to Webtree. At the time of the Domesday Survey +the divisions of the county were very unsettled. As many as +nineteen hundreds are mentioned, but these were of varying +extent, some containing only one manor, some from twenty +to thirty. Of the twelve modern hundreds, only Greytree, +Radlow, Stretford, Wolphy and Wormelow retain Domesday +names. Herefordshire has been included in the diocese of +Hereford since its foundation in 676. In 1291 it comprised the +deaneries of Hereford, Weston, Leominster, Weobley, Frome, +Archenfield and Ross in the archdeaconry of Hereford, and the +deaneries of Burford, Stottesdon, Ludlow, Pontesbury, Clun +and Wenlock, in the archdeaconry of Shropshire. In 1877 the +name of the archdeaconry of Shropshire was changed to Ludlow, +and in 1899 the deaneries of Abbey Dore, Bromyard, Kingsland, +Kington and Ledbury were created in the archdeaconry of +Hereford.</p> + +<p>Herefordshire was governed by a sheriff as early as the reign +of Edward the Confessor, the shire-court meeting at Hereford +where later the assizes and quarter sessions were also held. In +1606 an act was passed declaring Hereford free from the jurisdiction +of the council of Wales, but the county was not finally +relieved from the interference of the Lords Marchers until the +reign of William and Mary.</p> + +<p>Herefordshire has always been esteemed an exceptionally +rich agricultural area, the manufactures being unimportant, +with the sole exception of the woollen and the cloth trade which +flourished soon after the Conquest. Iron was worked in Wormelow +hundred in Roman times, and the Domesday Survey mentions +iron workers in Marcle. At the time of Henry VIII. the towns +had become much impoverished, and Elizabeth in order to +encourage local industries, insisted on her subjects wearing +English-made caps from the factory of Hereford. Hops were +grown in the county soon after their introduction into England +in 1524. In 1580 and again in 1637 the county was severely +visited by the plague, but in the 17th century it had a flourishing +timber trade and was noted for its orchards and cider.</p> + +<p>Herefordshire was first represented in parliament in 1295, +when it returned two members, the boroughs of Ledbury, Hereford, +Leominster and Weobley being also represented. Hereford +was again represented in 1299, and Bromyard and Ross in 1304, +but the boroughs made very irregular returns, and from 1306 +until Weobley regained representation in 1627, only Hereford +and Leominster were represented. Under the act of 1832 the +county returned three members and Weobley was disfranchised. +The act of 1868 deprived Leominster of one member, and under +the act of 1885 Leominster was disfranchised, and Hereford +lost one member.</p> + +<p><i>Antiquities.</i>—There are remains of several of the strongholds +which Herefordshire possessed as a march county, some of which +were maintained and enlarged, after the settlement of the border, +to serve in later wars. To the south of Ross are those of Wilton +and Goodrich, commanding the Wye on the right bank, the +latter a ruin of peculiar magnificence, and both gaining picturesqueness +from their beautiful situations. Of the several castles +in the valleys of the boundary-river Monnow and its tributaries, +those in this county include Pembridge, Kilpeck and Longtown; +of which the last shows extensive remains of the strong keep and +thick walls. In the north the finest example is Wigmore, +consisting of a keep on an artificial mound within outer walls, +the seat of the powerful family of Mortimer.</p> + +<p>Beside the cathedral of Hereford, and the fine churches of +Ledbury, Leominster and Ross, described under separate +headings, the county contains some churches of almost unique +interest. In that of Kilpeck remarkable and unusual Norman +work is seen. It consists of the three divisions of nave, choir +and chancel, divided by ornate arches, the chancel ending in +an apse, with a beautiful and elaborate west end and south +doorway. The columns of the choir arch are composed of +figures. A similar plan is seen in Peterchurch in the Golden +Valley, and in Moccas church, on the Wye above Hereford. +Among the large number of churches exhibiting Norman details +that at Bromyard is noteworthy. At Abbey Dore, the Cistercian +abbey church, still in use, is a large and beautiful specimen of +Early English work, and there are slight remains of the monastic +buildings. At Madley, south of the Wye 5 m. W. of Hereford, +is a fine Decorated church (with earlier portions), with the +rare feature of a Decorated apsidal chancel over an octagonal +crypt. Of the churches in mixed styles those in the larger +towns are the most noteworthy, together with that of Weobley.</p> + +<p>The half-timbered style of domestic architecture, common in +the west and midlands of England in the 16th and 17th centuries, +beautifies many of the towns and villages. Among country +houses, that of Treago, 9 m. W. of Ross, is a remarkable example +of a fortified mansion of the 13th century, in a condition little +altered. Rudhall and Sufton Court, between Ross and Hereford, +are good specimens of 15th-century work, and portions of +Hampton Court, 8 m. N. of Hereford, are of the same period, +built by Sir Rowland Lenthall, a favourite of Henry IV. Holme +Lacy, 5 m. S.E. of Hereford, is a fine mansion of the latter part +of the 17th century, with picturesque Dutch gardens, and much +wood-carving by Grinling Gibbons within. This was formerly +the seat of the Scudamores, from whom it was inherited by +the Stanhopes, earls of Chesterfield, the 9th earl of Chesterfield +taking the name of Scudamore-Stanhope. His son, the +10th earl, has recently (1909) sold Holme Lacy to Sir Robert +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page358" id="page358"></a>358</span> +Lucas-Tooth, Bart. Downton Castle possesses historical interest +in having been designed in 1774, in a strange mixture of Gothic +and Greek styles, by Richard Payne Knight (1750-1824), a +famous scholar, numismatist and member of parliament for Leominster +and Ludlow; while Eaton Hall, now a farm, was the +seat of the family of the famous geographer Richard Hakluyt.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Herefordshire</i>; J. Duncomb, <i>Collections +towards the History and Antiquities of the County of Hereford</i> +(Hereford, 1804-1812); John Allen, <i>Bibliotheca Herefordiensis</i> (Hereford, +1821); John Webb, <i>Memorials of the Civil War between Charles +I. and the Parliament of England as it affected Herefordshire and the +adjacent Counties</i> (London, 1879); R. Cooke, <i>Visitation of Herefordshire, +1569</i> (Exeter, 1886); F. T. Havergal, <i>Herefordshire Words +and Phrases</i> (Walsall, 1887); J. Hutchinson, <i>Herefordshire Biographies</i> +(Hereford, 1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERERO,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ovaherero</span> (“merry people”), a Bantu people +of German South-West Africa, living in the region known as +Damaraland or Hereroland. They call themselves Ovaherero +and their language Otshi-herero. Sometimes they are described +as Cattle Damara or “Damara of the Plains” in distinction +from the Hill Damara who are of mixed blood and Hottentots +in language. The Herero, whose main occupation is that of +cattle-rearing, are a warlike race, possessed of considerable military +skill, as was shown in their campaigns of 1904-5 against +the Germans. (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">German South-West Africa</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERESY,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> the English equivalent of the Greek word <span class="grk" title="hairesis">αἵρεσις</span> +which is used in the Septuagint for “free choice,” in later +classical literature for a philosophical school or sect as “chosen” +by those who belong to it, in Philo for religion, in Josephus for +a religious party (the Sadducees, the Pharisees and the Essenes).</p> + +<p>It is in this last sense that the term is used in the New Testament, +usually with an implicit censure of the factious spirit to +which such divisions are due. The term is applied +to the Sadducees (Acts v. 17) and Pharisees (Acts xv. +<span class="sidenote">New Testament.</span> +5, xxvi. 5). From the standpoint of opponents, +Christianity is itself so described (Acts xxiv. 14, xxviii. +22). In the Pauline Epistles it is used with severe condemnation +of the divisions within the Christian Church itself. Heresies +with “enmities, strife, jealousies, wraths, factions, divisions, +envyings” are reckoned among “the works of the flesh” +(Gal. v. 20). Such divisions, proofs of a carnal mind, are censured +in the church of Corinth (1 Cor. iii. 3, 4); and the church of +Rome is warned against those who cause them (Rom. xvi. 17). +The term “schism,” afterwards distinguished from “heresy,” +is also used of these divisions (1 Cor. i. 10). The estrangements +of the rich and the poor in the church at Corinth, leading to +a lack of Christian fellowship even at the Lord’s Supper, is +described as “heresy” (1 Cor. xi. 19). Breaches of the law of +love, not errors about the truth of the Gospel, are referred to in +these passages. But the first step towards the ecclesiastical +use of the term is found already in 2 Peter ii. 1, “Among you +also there shall be false teachers who shall privily bring in +destructive heresies (R.V. margin “sects of perdition”), denying +even the Master that bought them, bringing upon themselves +swift destruction.” The meaning here suggested is “falsely +chosen or erroneous tenets. Already the emphasis is moving +from persons and their temper to mental products—from the +sphere of sympathetic love to that of objective truth” (Bartlet, +art. “Heresy,” Hastings’s <i>Bible Dictionary</i>). As the parallel +passage in Jude, verse 4, shows, however, that these errors had +immoral consequences, the moral reference is not absent even +from this passage. The first employment of the term outside +the New Testament is also its first use for theological error. +Ignatius applies it to Docetism (<i>Ad Trall.</i> 6). As doctrine came +to be made more important, heresy was restricted to any departure +from the recognized creed. Even Constantine the Great +describes the Christian Church as “the Catholic heresy,” “the +most sacred heresy” (Eusebius, <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>, x. c. 5, +the letter to Chrestus, bishop of Syracuse); but this use was +very soon abandoned, and the Catholic Church distinguished +itself from the dissenting minorities, which it condemned as +“heresies.” The use of the term heresy in the New Testament +cannot be regarded as defining the attitude of the Christian +Church, even in the Apostolic age, towards errors in belief. +The Apostolic writings show a vehement antagonism towards all +teaching opposed to the Gospel. Paul declares <i>anathema</i> the +Judaizer, who required the circumcision of the Gentiles (Gal. i. 8), +and even calls them the “dogs of the concision” and “evil +workers” (Phil. iii. 2). The elders of Ephesus are warned +against the false teachers who would appear in the church after +the apostle’s death as “grievous wolves not sparing the flock” +(Acts xx. 29); and the speculations of the Gnostics are denounced +as “seducing spirits and doctrines of devils” (1 Tim. iv. 1), as +“profane babblings and oppositions of the knowledge which is +falsely so called” (vi. 20). John’s warnings are as earnest and +severe. Those who deny the fact of the Incarnation are described +as “antichrist,” and as “deceivers” (1 John iv. 3; 2 John 7). +The references to heretics in 2 Peter and Jude have already been +dealt with. This antagonism is explicable by the character of +the heresies that threatened the Christian Church in the Apostolic +age. Each of these heresies involved such a blending of the +Gospel with either Jewish or pagan elements, as would not only +pollute its purity, but destroy its power. In each of these the +Gospel was in danger of being made of none effect by the environment, +which it must resist in order that it might transform (see +Burton’s Bampton Lectures on <i>The Heresies of the Apostolic Age</i>).</p> + +<p>These Gnostic heresies, which threatened to paganize the +Christian Church, were condemned in no measured terms by the +fathers. These false teachers are denounced as +“servants of Satan, beasts in human shape, dealers +<span class="sidenote">Gnosticism.</span> +in deadly poison, robbers and pirates.” Polycarp, +Ignatius, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Tertullian and +even Clement of Alexandria and Origen are as severe in condemnation +as the later fathers (cf. Matt. xiii. 35-43; Tertullian, +<i>Praescr.</i> 31). While the necessity of the heresies is admitted in +accordance with 1 Cor. xi. 19, yet woe is pronounced on those +who have introduced them, according to Matt. xviii. 7. (This +application of these passages, however, is of altogether doubtful +validity.) “It was necessary,” says Tertullian (<i>ibid.</i> 30), “that +the Lord should be betrayed; but woe to the traitor.” The +very worst motives, “pride, disappointed ambition, sensual +lust, and avarice,” are recklessly imputed to the heretics; and +no possibility of morally innocent doubt, difficulty or difference +in thought is admitted. Origen and Augustine do, however, +recognize that even false teachers may have good motives. +While we must admit that there was a very serious peril to the +thought and life of the Christian Church in the teaching thus +denounced, yet we must not forget that for the most part these +teachers are known to us only in the <i>ex parte</i> representation that +their opponents have given of them; and we must not assume +that even their doctrines, still less their characters, were so bad +as they are described.</p> + +<p>The attitude of the church in the post-Nicene period differs +from that in the ante-Nicene in two important respects. (1) +As has already been indicated, the earlier heresies threatened to +introduce Jewish or pagan elements into the faith of the church, +and it was necessary that they should be vigorously resisted +if the church was to retain its distinctive character. Many of +the later heresies were differences in the interpretation of Christian +truth, which did not in the same way threaten the very life of +the church. No vital interest of Christian faith justified the +extravagant denunciations in which theological partisanship +so recklessly and ruthlessly indulged. (2) In the ante-Nicene +period only ecclesiastical penalties, such as reproof, deposition +or excommunication, could be imposed. In the post-Nicene the +union of church and state transformed theological error into +legal offence (see below).</p> + +<p>We must now consider the definition of heresy which was +gradually reached in the Christian Church. It is “a religious +error held in wilful and persistent opposition to the +truth after it has been defined and declared by the +<span class="sidenote">Christian definition.</span> +church in an authoritative manner,” or “pertinax +defensio dogmatis ecclesiae universalis judicio condemnati” +(Schaff’s <i>Ante-Nicene</i> Christianity, ii. 512-516). +(i.) It “denotes an opinion antagonistic to a fundamental +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359"></a>359</span> +article of the Christian faith,” due to the introduction of “foreign +elements” and resulting in a perversion of Christianity, and an +amalgamation with it of ideas discordant with its nature (Fisher’s +<i>History of Christian Doctrine</i>, p. 9). It has been generally +assumed that the ecclesiastical authority was always competent +to determine what are the fundamental articles of the Christian +faith, and to detect any departures from them; but it is necessary +to admit the possibility that the error was in the church, and the +truth was with the heresy. (ii.) There cannot be any heresy +where there is no orthodoxy, and, therefore, in the definition +it is assumed that the church has declared what is the truth +or the error in any matter. Accordingly “heresy is to be +distinguished from defective stages of Christian knowledge. +For example, the Jewish believers, including the Apostles +themselves, at the outset required the Gentile believers to be +circumcised. They were not on this account chargeable with +heresy. Additional light must first come in, and be rejected, +before that earlier opinion could be thus stigmatized. Moreover, +heresies are not to be confounded with tentative and faulty +hypotheses broached in a period prior to the scrutiny of a topic +of Christian doctrine, and before that scrutiny has led the general +mind to an assured conclusion. Such hypotheses—for example, +the idea that in the person of Christ the Logos is substituted +for a rational human spirit—are to be met with in certain early +fathers” (<i>ibid.</i> p. 10). Origen indulged in many speculations +which were afterwards condemned, but, as these matters were +still open questions in his day, he was not reckoned a heretic. +(iii.) In accordance with the New Testament use of the term +heresy, it is assumed that moral defect accompanies the intellectual +error, that the false view is held pertinaciously, in spite +of warning, remonstrance and rebuke; aggressively to win +over others, and so factiously, to cause division in the church, +a breach in its unity.</p> + +<p>A distinction is made between “heresy” and “schism” +(from Gr. <span class="grk" title="schizein">σχίζειν</span>, rend asunder, divide). “The fathers +commonly use ‘heresy’ of false teaching in opposition +to Catholic doctrine, and ‘schism’ of a breach of +<span class="sidenote">Schism.</span> +discipline, in opposition to Catholic government” (Schaff). But +as the claims of the church to be the guardian through its +episcopate of the apostolic tradition, of the Christian faith +itself, were magnified, and unity in practice as well as in doctrine +came to be regarded as essential, this distinction became a +theoretical rather than a practical one. While severely condemning, +both Irenaeus and Tertullian distinguished schismatics +from heretics. “Though we are by no means entitled to say +that they acknowledged orthodox schismatics they did not yet +venture to reckon them simply as heretics. If it was desired +to get rid of these, an effort was made to impute to them some +deviation from the rule of faith; and under this pretext the +church freed herself from the Montanists and the Monarchians. +Cyprian was the first to proclaim the identity of heretics and +schismatics by making a man’s Christianity depend on his +belonging to the great episcopal church confederation. But +in both East and West, this theory of his became established +only by very imperceptible degrees, and indeed, strictly speaking, +the process was never completed. The distinction between +heretics and schismatics was preserved because it prevented a +public denial of the old principles, because it was advisable +on political grounds to treat certain schismatic communities +with indulgence, and because it was always possible in case of +need to prove heresy against the schismatics.” (Harnack’s +<i>History of Dogma</i>, ii. 92-93).</p> + +<p>There was considerable controversy in the early church as +to the validity of heretical baptism. As even “the Christian +virtues of the heretics were described as hypocrisy +and love of ostentation,” so no value whatever was +<span class="sidenote">Heretical baptism.</span> +attached by the orthodox party to the sacraments +performed by heretics. Tertullian declares that the church +can have no communion with the heretics, for there is nothing +common; as they have not the same God, and the same Christ, +so they have not the same baptism (<i>De bapt.</i> 15). Cyprian +agreed with him. The validity of heretical baptism was denied +by the church of Asia Minor as well as of Africa; but the practice +of the Roman Church was to admit without second baptism +heretics who had been baptized with the name of Christ, or of +the Holy Trinity. Stephen of Rome attempted to force the +Roman practice on the whole church in 253. The controversy +his intolerance provoked was closed by Augustine’s controversial +treatise <i>De Baptismo</i>, in which the validity of baptism administered +by heretics is based on the objectivity of the sacrament. +Whenever the name of the three-one God is used, the +sacrament is declared valid by whomsoever it may be performed. +This was a triumph of sacramentarianism, not of charity.</p> + +<p>Three types of heresy have appeared in the history of the +Christian Church.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The earliest may be called the <i>syncretic</i>; +it is the fusion of Jewish or pagan with Christian +elements. <i>Ebionitism</i> asserted “the continual obligation +<span class="sidenote">Types of heresy.</span> +to observe the whole of the Mosaic law,” and +“outran the Old Testament monotheism by a barren monarchianism +that denied the divinity of Christ” (Kurtz, <i>Church History</i>, +i. 120). “<i>Gnosticism</i> was the result of the attempt to blend +with Christianity the religious notions of pagan mythology, +mysterology, theosophy and philosophy” (p. 98). The Judaizing +and the paganizing tendency were combined in <i>Gnostic Ebionitism</i> +which was prepared for in <i>Jewish Essenism</i>. In the later heresy +of <i>Manichaeism</i> there were affinities to Gnosticism, but it was +a mixture of many elements, Babylonian-Chaldaic theosophy, +Persian dualism and even Buddhist ethics (p. 126).</p> + +<p>The next type of heresy may be called <i>evolutionary</i> or <i>formatory</i>. +When the Christian faith is being formulated, undue emphasis +may be put on one aspect, and thus so partial a statement of +truth may result in error. Thus when in the ante-Nicene age +the doctrine of the Trinity was under discussion, dynamic +<i>Monarchianism</i> “regarded Christ as a mere man, who, like the +prophets, though in a much higher measure, had been endued +with divine wisdom and power”; modal <i>Monarchianism</i> saw +in the Logos dwelling in Christ “only a mode of the activity of +the Father”; <i>Patripassianism</i> identified the Logos with the +Father; and <i>Sabellianism</i> regarded Father, Son and Spirit +as “the <i>rôles</i> which the God who manifests Himself in the world +assumes in succession” (Kurtz, <i>Church History</i>, i. 175-181). +When Arius asserted the subordination of the Son to the Father, +and denied the eternal generation, Athanasius and his party +asserted the <i>Homoousia</i>, the cosubstantiality of the Father and +the Son. This assertion of the divinity of Christ triumphed, +but other problems at once emerged. How was the relation +of the humanity to the divinity in Christ to be conceived? +Apollinaris denied the completeness of the human nature, and +substituted the divine Logos for the reasonable soul of man. +Nestorius held the two natures so far apart as to appear to sacrifice +the unity of the person of Christ. Eutyches on the contrary +“taught not only that after His incarnation Christ had only +one nature, but also that the body of Christ as the body of God +is not of like substance with our own” (Kurtz, <i>Church History</i>, +i, 330-334). The Church in the Creed of Chalcedon in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 451 +affirmed “that Christ is true God and true man, according to +His Godhead begotten from eternity and like the Father in +everything, only without sin; and that after His incarnation +the unity of the person consists in two natures which are conjoined +without confusion, and without change, but also without +rending and without separation.” The problem was not solved, +but the inadequate solutions were excluded, and the data to be +considered in any adequate solution were affirmed. After this +decision the controversies about the Person of Christ degenerated +into mere hair-splitting; and the interference of the imperial +authority from time to time in the dispute was not conducive +to the settlement of the questions in the interests of truth alone. +This problem interested the East for the most part; in the +West there was waged a theological warfare around the nature +of man and the work of Christ. To Augustine’s doctrine of man’s +total depravity, his incapacity for any good, and the absolute +sovereignty of the divine grace in salvation according to the +divine election, Pelagius opposed the view that “God’s grace +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360"></a>360</span> +is destined for all men, but man must make himself worthy +of it by honest striving after virtue” (Kurtz, <i>Church History</i>, +i. 348). While Pelagius was condemned, it was only a modified +Augustinianism which became the doctrine of the church. It is +not necessary in illustration of the second type of heresy—that +which arises when the contents of the Christian faith are being +defined—to refer to the doctrinal controversies of the middle +ages. It may be added that after the Reformation Arianism +was revived in Socinianism, and Pelagianism in Arminianism; +but the conception of heresy in Protestantism demands subsequent +notice.</p> + +<p>The third type of heresy is the <i>revolutionary</i> or <i>reformatory</i>. +This is not directed against doctrine as such, but against the +church, its theory and its practice. Such movements of antagonism +to the errors or abuses of ecclesiastical authority may be +so permeated by defective conceptions and injurious influences +as by their own character to deserve condemnation. But on +the other hand the church in maintaining its place and power +may condemn as heretical genuine efforts at reform by a return, +though partial, to the standard set by the Holy Scriptures or the +Apostolic Church. On the one hand there were during the +middle ages sects, like the Catharists and Albigenses, whose +“opposition as a rule developed itself from dualistic or pantheistic +premises (surviving effects of old Gnostic or Manichaean +views)” and who “stood outside of ordinary Christendom, +and while no doubt affecting many individual members within +it, had no influence on church doctrine.” On the other hand +there were movements, such as the Waldensian, the Wycliffite +and Hussite, which are often described as “reformations anticipating +the Reformation” which “set out from the Augustinian +conception of the Church, but took exception to the development +of the conception,” and were pronounced by the medieval +church as heretical for (1) “contesting the hierarchical gradation +of the priestly order; or (2) giving to the religious idea of the +Church implied in the thought of predestination a place superior +to the conception of the empirical Church; or (3) applying to +the priests, and thereby to the authorities of the Church, the +test of the law of God, before admitting their right to exercise, +as holding the keys, the power of binding and loosing” (Harnack’s +<i>History of Dogma</i>, vi. 136-137). The Reformation itself was +from the standpoint of the Roman Catholic Church heresy and +schism.</p> + +<p>“In the present divided state of Christendom,” says Schaff +(<i>Ante-Nicene Christianity</i>, ii. 513-514), “there are different +kinds of orthodoxy and heresy. Orthodoxy is conformity +to the recognized creed or standard of public +<span class="sidenote">Modern use of the term.</span> +doctrine; heresy is a wilful departure from it. The +Greek Church rejects as heretical, because contrary +to the teaching of the first seven ecumenical councils, the Roman +dogmas of the papacy, of the double procession of the Holy +Ghost, the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary, and the +infallibility of the Pope. The Roman Church anathematized, +in the council of Trent, all the distinctive doctrines of the Protestant +Reformation. Among Protestant churches again there +are minor doctrinal differences, which are held with various +degrees of exclusiveness or liberality according to the degree +of departure from the Roman Catholic Church. Luther, for +instance, would not tolerate Zwingli’s view on the Lord’s Supper, +while Zwingli was willing to fraternize with him notwithstanding +this difference.” At the colloquy of Marburg “Zwingli offered +his hand to Luther with the entreaty that they be at least +Christian brethren, but Luther refused it and declared that the +Swiss were of another spirit. He expressed surprise that a man +of such views as Zwingli should wish brotherly relations with the +Wittenberg reformers” (Walker, <i>The Reformation</i>, p. 174). +A difference of opinion on the question of the presence of Christ +in the elements at the Lord’s Supper was thus allowed to divide +and to weaken the forces of the Reformation. On the problem +of divine election Lutheranism and Calvinism remained divided. +The Formula of Concord (1577), which gave to the whole Lutheran +Church of Germany a common doctrinal system, declined to +accept the Calvinistic position that man’s condemnation as well +as his salvation is an object of divine predestination. Within +Calvinism itself Pelagianism was revived in Arminianism, +which denied the irresistibility, and affirmed the universality +of grace. This heresy was condemned by the synod of Dort +(1619). The standpoint of the Reformed churches was the +substitution of the authority of the Scriptures for the authority +of the church. Whatever was conceived as contrary to the +teaching of the Bible was regarded as heresy. The position is +well expressed in the <i>Scotch Confession</i> (1559). “Protesting, +that if any man will note in this our Confession any article or +sentence repugning to God’s Holy Word, that it would please +him, of his gentleness, and for Christian charity’s sake, to admonish +us of the same in writ, and we of our honour and fidelity +do promise unto him satisfaction from the mouth of God; that +is, from His Holy Scripture, or else reformation of that which +he shall prove to be amiss. In God we take to record in our +consciences that from our hearts we abhor all sects of heresy, +and all teachers of erroneous doctrines; and that with all +humility we embrace purity of Christ’s evangel, which is the only +food of our souls” (Preface).</p> + +<p>Although subsequently to the Reformation period the Protestant +churches for the most part relapsed into the dogmatism +of the Roman Catholic Church, and were ever ready with +censure for every departure from orthodoxy—yet to-day a spirit +of diffidence in regard to one’s own beliefs, and of tolerance +towards the beliefs of others, is abroad. The enlargement of +the horizon of knowledge by the advance of science, the recognition +of the only relative validity of human opinions and beliefs as +determined by and adapted to each stage of human development, +which is due to the growing historical sense, the alteration of +view regarding the nature of inspiration, and the purpose of the +Holy Scriptures, the revolt against all ecclesiastical authority, +and the acceptance of reason and conscience as alone authoritative, +the growth of the spirit of Christian charity, the clamorous +demand of the social problem for immediate attention, all combine +in making the Christian churches less anxious about the +danger, and less zealous in the discovery and condemnation +of heresy.</p> + +<p>Having traced the history of opinion in the Christian churches +on the subject of heresy, we must now return to resume a subject +already mentioned, the persecution of heretics. +According to the Canon Law, which “was the ecclesiastical +<span class="sidenote">Persecution of heretics.</span> +law of medieval Europe, and is still the law of +the Roman Catholic Church,” heresy was defined as +“error which is voluntarily held in contradiction to a doctrine +which has been clearly stated in the creed, and has become part +of the defined faith of the church,” and which is “persisted in by +a member of the church.” It was regarded not only as an error, +but also as a crime to be detected and punished. As it belongs, +however, to a man’s thoughts and not his deeds, it often can be +proved only from suspicions. The canonists define the degrees +of suspicion as “light” calling for vigilance, “vehement” +demanding denunciation, and “violent” requiring punishment. +The grounds of suspicion have been formulated “Pope Innocent +III. declared that to lead a solitary life, to refuse to accommodate +oneself to the prevailing manners of society and to frequent +unauthorized religious meetings were abundant grounds of +suspicion; while later canonists were accustomed to give lists +of deeds which made the doers suspect: a priest who did not +celebrate mass, a layman who was seen in clerical robes, those +who favoured heretics, received them as guests, gave them safe +conduct, tolerated them, trusted them, defended them, fought +under them or read their books were all to be suspect” (T. M. +Lindsay in article “Heresy,” <i>Ency. Brit.</i> 9th edition). That +the dangers of heresy might be avoided, laymen were forbidden +to argue about matters of faith by Pope Alexander IV., an oath +“to abjure every heresy and to maintain in its completeness +the Catholic faith” was required by the council of Toledo (1129), +the reading of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue was not allowed +to the laity by Pope Pius IV. The reading of books was restricted +and certain books were prohibited. Regarding heresy as a crime, +the church was not content with inflicting its spiritual penalties, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page361" id="page361"></a>361</span> +such as excommunication and such civil disabilities as its own +organization allowed it to impose (<i>e.g.</i> the heretics were forbidden +to give evidence in ecclesiastical courts, fathers were forbidden +to allow a son or a daughter to marry a heretic, and to hold +social intercourse with a heretic was an offence). It regarded +itself as justified in invoking the power of the state to suppress +heresy by civil pains and penalties, including even torture and +death.</p> + +<p>The story of the persecution of heretics by the state must be +briefly sketched.</p> + +<p>As long as the Christian Church was itself persecuted by the +pagan empire, it advocated freedom of conscience, and insisted +that religion could be promoted only by instruction and persuasion +(Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Lactantius); but almost +immediately after Christianity was adopted as the religion of +the Roman empire the persecution of men for religious opinions +began. While Constantine at the beginning of his reign (313) +declared complete religious liberty, and kept on the whole to +this declaration, yet he confined his favours to the orthodox +hierarchical church, and even by an edict of the year 326 formally +asserted the exclusion from these of heretics and schismatics. +Arianism, when favoured by the reigning emperor, showed itself +even more intolerant than Catholic Orthodoxy. Theodosius +the Great, in 380, soon after his baptism, issued, with his co-emperors, +the following edict: “We, the three emperors, will +that all our subjects steadfastly adhere to the religion which was +taught by St Peter to the Romans, which has been faithfully +preserved by tradition, and which is now professed by the pontiff +Damasus of Rome, and Peter, bishop of Alexandria, a man of +apostolic holiness. According to the institution of the Apostles, +and the doctrine of the Gospel, let us believe in the one Godhead +of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, of equal majesty +in the Holy Trinity. We order that the adherents of this faith +be called <i>Catholic Christians</i>; we brand all the senseless followers +of the other religions with the infamous name of <i>heretics</i>, and +forbid their conventicles assuming the name of churches. Besides +the condemnation of divine justice, they must expect the heavy +penalties which our authority, guided by heavenly wisdom, +shall think proper to inflict” (Schaff’s <i>Nicene and Post-Nicene +Christianity</i>, i. 142). The fifteen penal laws which this emperor +issued in as many years deprived them of all right to the exercise +of their religion, “excluded them from all civil offices, and +threatened them with fines, confiscation, banishment and even +in some cases with death.” In 385 Maximus, his rival and +colleague, caused seven heretics to be put to death at Treves +(Trier). Many bishops approved the act, but Ambrose of Milan +and Martin of Tours condemned it. While Chrysostom disapproved +of the execution of heretics, he approved “the prohibition +of their assemblies and the confiscation of their churches.” +Jerome by an appeal to Deut. xiii. 6-10 appears to defend even +the execution of heretics. Augustine found a justification for +these penal measures in the “compel them to come in” of +Luke xiv. 23, although his personal leanings were towards +clemency. Only the persecuted themselves insisted on toleration +as a Christian duty. In the middle ages the church showed no +hesitation about persecuting unto death all who dared to contradict +her doctrine, or challenge her practice, or question her +authority. The instruction and persuasion which St Bernard +favoured found little imitation. Even the Dominicans, who +began as a preaching order to convert heretics, soon became +persecutors. In the Albigensian Crusade (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1209-1229) +thousands were slaughtered. As the bishops were not zealous +enough in enforcing penal laws against heretics, the Tribunal of +the Inquisition was founded in 1232 by Gregory IX., and was +entrusted to the Dominicans who “as <i>Domini canes</i> subjected +to the most cruel tortures all on whom the suspicion of heresy +fell, and all the resolute were handed over to the civil authorities, +who readily undertook their execution” (Kurtz, <i>Church History</i>, +ii. 137-138).</p> + +<p>At the Reformation Luther laid down the principle that the +civil government is concerned with the province of the external +and temporal life, and has nothing to do with faith and conscience. +“How could the emperor gain the right,” he asks, “to rule my +faith?” With that only the Word of God is concerned. +“Heresy is a spiritual thing,” he says, “which one cannot hew +with any iron, burn with any fire, drown with any water. The +Word of God alone is there to do it.” Nevertheless Luther +assigned to the state, which he assumes to be Christian, the +function of maintaining the Gospel and the Word of God in +public life. He was not quite consistent in carrying out his +principle (see Luthard’s <i>Geschichte der christlichen Ethik</i>, ii. +33). In the Religious Peace of Augsburg the principle “cujus +regio ejus religio” was accepted; by it a ruler’s choice between +Catholicism and Lutheranism bound his subjects, but any +subject unwilling to accept the decision might emigrate without +hindrance.</p> + +<p>In Geneva under Calvin, while the <i>Consistoire</i>, or ecclesiastical +court, could inflict only spiritual penalties, yet the medieval +idea of the duty of the state to co-operate with the church to +maintain the religious purity of the community in matters of +belief as well as of conduct so far survived that the civil authority +was sure to punish those whom the ecclesiastical had censured. +Calvin consented to the death of Servetus, whose views on the +Trinity he regarded as most dangerous heresy, and whose denial +of the full authority of the Scriptures he dreaded as overthrowing +the foundations of all religious authority. Protestantism +generally, it is to be observed, quite approved the execution of +the heretic. The Synod of Dort (1619) not only condemned +Arminianism, but its defenders were expelled from the Netherlands; +only in 1625 did they venture to return, and not till 1630 +were they allowed to erect schools and churches. In modern +Protestantism there is a growing disinclination to deal even with +errors of belief by ecclesiastical censure; the appeal to the civil +authority to inflict any penalty is abandoned. During the +course of the 19th century in Scottish Presbyterianism the +affirmation of Christ’s atoning death for <i>all</i> men, the denial of +eternal punishment, the modification of the doctrine of the +inspiration of the Scriptures by acceptance of the results of the +Higher Criticism, were all censured as perilous errors.</p> + +<p>The subject cannot be left without a brief reference to the +persecution of witches. To the beginning of the 13th century +the popular superstitions regarding sorcery, witchcraft and +compacts with the devil were condemned by the ecclesiastical +authorities as heathenish, sinful and heretical. But after the +establishment of the Inquisition “heresy and sorcery were +regarded as correlates, like two agencies resting on and serviceable +to the demoniacal powers, and were therefore treated in +the same way as offences to be punished with torture and the +stake” (Kurtz, <i>Church History</i>, ii. 195). While the Franciscans +rejected the belief in witchcraft, the Dominicans were most +zealous in persecuting witches. In the 15th century this delusion, +fostered by the ecclesiastical authorities, took possession of the +mind of the people, and thousands, mostly old women, but also +a number of girls, were tortured and burned as witches. Protestantism +took over the superstition from Catholicism. It +was defended by James I. of England. As late as the 18th +century death was inflicted in Germany and Switzerland on men, +women and even children accused of this crime. This superstition +dominated Scotland. Not till 1736 were the statutes against +witchcraft repealed; an act which the Associate Presbytery +at Edinburgh in 1743 declared to be “contrary to the express +law of God, for which a holy God may be provoked in a way of +righteous judgment.”</p> + +<p>The recognition and condemnation of errors in religious +belief is by no means confined to the Christian Church. Only +a few instances of heresy in other religions can be +given. In regard to the fetishism of the Gold Coast +<span class="sidenote">Non-Christian religions.</span> +of Africa, Jevons (<i>Introduction to the History of +Religion</i>, pp. 165-166) maintains that “public opinion +does not approve of the worship by an individual of a <i>suhman</i>, +or private tutelary deity, and that his dealings with it are +regarded in the nature of ‘black art’ as it is not a god of +the community.” In China there is a “classical or canonical, +primitive and therefore alone orthodox (<i>tsching</i>) and true +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page362" id="page362"></a>362</span> +religion,” Confucianism and Taoism, while the “heterodox +(<i>sic</i>),” Buddhism especially, is “partly tolerated, but generally +forbidden, and even cruelly persecuted” (Chantepie de la +Saussaye, <i>Religionsgeschichte</i>, i. 57). In Islam “according +to an unconfirmed tradition Mahomet is said to have foretold +that his community would split into seventy-three sects (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Religion</a></span>, § <i>Sects</i>), of which only one would +escape the flames of hell.” The first split was due to uncertainty +regarding the principle which should rule the succession to the +Caliphate. The Arabic and orthodox party (<i>i.e.</i> the Sunnites, +who held by the Koran and tradition) maintained that this +should be determined by the choice of the community. The +Persian and heterodox party (the Shiites) insisted on heredity. +But this political difference was connected with theological +differences. The sect of the Mu’tazilites which affirmed that the +Koran had been created, and denied predestination, began to +be persecuted by the government in the 9th century, and +discussion of religious questions was forbidden (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caliphate</a></span>, +sections B and C). The mystical tendency in Islam, Sufism, is +also regarded as heretical (see Kuenen’s Hibbert Lecture, pp. +45-50). Buddhism is a wide departure in doctrine and practice +from Brahmanism, and hence after a swift unfolding and quick +spread it was driven out of India and had to find a home in +other lands. Essenism from the standpoint of Judaism was +heterodox in two respects, the abandonment of animal sacrifices +and the adoration of the sun.</p> + +<p>Although in Greece there was generally wide tolerance, yet +in 399 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Socrates “was indicted as an irreligious man, a +corrupter of youth, and an innovator in worship.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides the works quoted above, see Gottfried Arnold’s <i>Unparteiische +Kirchen- und Ketzer-Historie</i> (1699-1700; ed. Schaffhausen, +1740). A very good list of writers on heresy, ancient and medieval, +is given in Burton’s <i>Bampton Lectures on Heresies of the Apostolic Age</i> +(1829). The various Trinitarian and Christological heresies may be +studied in Dorner’s <i>History of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ</i> (1845-1856; +Eng. trans., 1861-1862); the Gnostic and Manichaean heresies +in the works of Mansel, Matter and Beausobre; the medieval heresies +in Hahn’s <i>Geschichte der Ketzer im Mittelalter</i> (1846-1850), and +Preger’s <i>Geschichte der deutschen Mystik</i> (1875); Quietism in Heppe’s +<i>Geschichte der quietistischen Mystik</i> (1875); the Pietist sects in +Palmer’s <i>Gemeinschaften und Secten Württembergs</i> (1875); the +Reformation and 17th-century heresies and sects in the <i>Anabaptisticum +et enthusiasticum Pantheon und geistliches Rüst-Haus</i> (1702). +Böhmer’s <i>Jus ecclesiasticum Protestantium</i> (1714-1723), and van +Espen’s <i>Jus ecclesiasticum</i> (1702) detail at great length the relations +of heresy to canon and civil law. On the question of the baptism +of heretics see Smith and Cheetham’s <i>Dict. of Eccl. Antiquities</i>, +“Baptism, Iteration of”; and on that of the readmission of heretics +into the church, compare Martene, <i>De ritibus</i>, and Morinus, <i>De +poenitentia</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(A. E. G.*)</div> + +<p><i>Heresy according to the Law of England.</i>—The highest point reached +by the ecclesiastical power in England was in the Act <i>De Haeretico +comburendo</i> (2 Henry IV. c. 15). Some have supposed that a writ +of that name is as old as the common law, but its execution might +be arrested by a pardon from the crown. The Act of Henry IV. +enabled the diocesan alone, without the co-operation of a synod, +to pronounce sentence of heresy, and required the sheriff to execute +it by burning the offender, without waiting for the consent of the +crown.<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> A large number of penal statutes were enacted in the +following reigns, and the statute 1 Eliz. c. 1 is regarded by lawyers as +limiting for the first time the description of heresy to tenets declared +heretical either by the canonical Scripture or by the first four general +councils, or such as should thereafter be so declared by parliament +with the assent of Convocation. The writ was abolished by 29 Car. II. +c. 9, which reserved to the ecclesiastical courts their jurisdiction over +heresy and similar offences, and their power of awarding punishments +not extending to death. Heresy became henceforward a purely +ecclesiastical offence, although disabling laws of various kinds +continued to be enforced against Jews, Catholics and other dissenters. +The temporal courts have no knowledge of any offence known as +heresy, although incidentally (<i>e.g.</i> in questions of copyright) they +have refused protection to persons promulgating irreligious or +blasphemous opinions. As an ecclesiastical offence it would at this +moment be almost impossible to say what opinion, in the case of a +layman at least, would be deemed heretical. Apparently, if a proper +case could be made out, an ecclesiastical court might still sentence +a layman to excommunication for heresy, but by no other means +could his opinions be brought under censure. The last case on the +subject (Jenkins <i>v.</i> Cook, <i>L.R.</i> 1 P.D. 80) leaves the matter in the +same uncertainty. In that case a clergyman refused the communion +to a parishioner who denied the personality of the devil. The judicial +committee held that the rights of the parishioners are expressly +defined in the statute of I Edw. VI. c. i, and, without admitting that +the canons of the church, which are not binding on the laity, could +specify a lawful cause for rejection, held that no lawful cause within +the meaning of either the canons or the rubric had been shown. +It was maintained at the bar that the denial of the most fundamental +doctrines of Christianity would not be a lawful cause for such +rejection, but the judgment only queries whether a denial of the +personality of the devil or eternal punishment is consistent with +membership of the church. The right of every layman to the offices +of the church is established by statute without reference to opinions, +and it is not possible to say what opinions, if any, would operate to +disqualify him.</p> + +<p>The case of clergymen is entirely different. The statute 13 Eliz. +c. 12, § 2, enacts that “if any person ecclesiastical, or which shall +have an ecclesiastical living, shall advisedly maintain or affirm any +doctrine directly contrary or repugnant to any of the said articles, +and by conventicle before the bishop of the diocese, or the ordinary, +or before the queen’s highness’s commissioners in matters ecclesiastical, +shall persist therein or not revoke his error, or after such revocation +eftsoons affirm such untrue doctrine,” he shall be deprived of +his ecclesiastical promotions. The act it will be observed applies +only to clergymen, and the punishment is strictly limited to deprivation +of benefice. The judicial committee of the privy council, as +the last court of appeal, has on several occasions pronounced judgments +by which the scope of the act has been confined to its narrowest +legal effect. The court will construe the Articles of Religion and +formularies according to the <i>legal rules for the interpretation of statutes +and written instruments</i>. No rule of doctrine is to be ascribed to the +church which is not distinctly and expressly stated or plainly involved +in the <i>written law of the Church</i>, and where there is no rule, a clergyman +may express his opinion without fear of penal consequences. +In the <i>Essays and Reviews</i> cases (Williams <i>v.</i> the Bishop of Salisbury, +and Wilson <i>v.</i> Fendall, 2 <i>Moo.</i> P.C.C., N.S. 375) it was held to be +not penal for a clergyman to speak of merit by transfer as a “fiction,” +or to express a hope of the ultimate pardon of the wicked, or to +affirm that any part of the Old or New Testament, however unconnected +with religious faith or moral duty, was not written under +the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. In the case of Noble <i>v.</i> Voysey +(<i>L.R.</i> 3 P.C. 357) in 1871 the committee held that it was not bound +to affix a meaning to articles of really dubious import, as it +would have been in cases affecting property. At the same time +any manifest contradiction of the Articles, or any obvious evasion +of them, would subject the offender to the penalties of deprivation. +In some of the cases the question has been raised how far the doctrine +of the church could be ascertained by reference to the opinions +generally expressed by divines belonging to its communion. Such +opinions, it would seem, might be taken into account as showing the +extent of liberty which had been in practice, claimed and exercised +on the interpretation of the articles, but would certainly not be +allowed to increase their stringency. It is not the business of the +court to pronounce upon the absolute truth or falsehood of any given +opinion, but simply to say whether it is formally consistent with the +legal doctrines of the Church of England. Whether Convocation +has any jurisdiction in cases of heresy is a question which has +occasioned some difference of opinion among lawyers. Hale, as +quoted by Phillimore (<i>Ecc. Law</i>), says that before the time of Richard +II., that is, before any acts of Parliament were made about heretics, +it is without question that in a convocation of the clergy or provincial +synod “they might and frequently did here in England proceed to +the sentencing of heretics.” But later writers, while adhering to the +statement that Convocation might declare opinions to be heretical, +doubted whether it could proceed to punish the offender, even when +he was a clerk in orders. Phillimore states that there is no longer +any doubt, even apart from the effect of the Church Discipline Act +1840, that Convocation has no power to condemn clergymen for +heresy. The supposed right of Convocation to stamp heretical +opinions with its disapproval was exercised on a somewhat memorable +occasion. In 1864 the Convocation of the province of Canterbury, +having taken the opinion of two of the most eminent lawyers of the +day (Sir Hugh Cairns and Sir John Rolt), passed judgment upon +the volume entitled <i>Essays and Reviews</i>. The judgment purported +to “synodically condemn the said volume as containing teaching +contrary to the doctrine received by the United Church of England +and Ireland, in common with the whole Catholic Church of Christ.” +These proceedings were challenged in the House of Lords by Lord +Houghton, and the lord chancellor (Westbury), speaking on behalf +of the government, stated that if there was any “synodical judgment” +it would be a violation of the law, subjecting those concerned in it +to the penalties of a <i>praemunire</i>, but that the sentence in question, +was “simply nothing, literally no sentence at all.” It is thus at +least doubtful whether Convocation has a right even to express an +opinion unless specially authorized to do so by the crown, and it is +certain that it cannot do anything more. Heresy or no heresy, in +the last resort, like all other ecclesiastical questions, is decided by +the judicial committee of the council.</p> + +<p>The English lawyers, following the Roman law, distinguish +between heresy and apostasy. The latter offence is dealt with by an +act which still stands on the statute book, although it has long been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page363" id="page363"></a>363</span> +virtually obsolete—the 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 35. If any person <i>who has +been educated in or has professed the Christian religion</i> shall, by writing, +printing, teaching, or advised speaking, assert or maintain that there +are more Gods than one, or shall deny any of the persons of the Holy +Trinity to be God, or shall deny the Christian religion to be true or the +Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testament to be of divine +authority, he shall for the first offence be declared incapable of +holding any ecclesiastical, civil, or military office or employment, +and for the second incapable of bringing any action, or of being +guardian, executor, legatee, or grantee, and shall suffer three years’ +imprisonment without bail. Unitarians were saved from these +atrocious penalties by a later act (53 Geo. III. c. 160), which permits +Christians to deny any of the persons in the Trinity without penal +consequences.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For fuller details see separate articles.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Stephen’s <i>Commentaries</i>, bk. iv. ch. 7.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HEREWARD,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> usually but erroneously styled “the Wake” +(an addition of later days), an Englishman famous for his resistance +to William the Conqueror. It is now established that +he was a tenant of Peterborough Abbey, from which he held +lands at Witham-on-the-Hill and Barholme with Stow in the +south-western corner of Lincolnshire, and of Crowland Abbey +at Rippingale in the neighbouring fenland. His first authentic +act is the storm and sacking of Peterborough in 1070, in company +with outlaws and Danish invaders. The next year he took part +in the desperate stand against the Conqueror’s rule made in +the isle of Ely, and, on its capture by the Normans, escaped +with his followers through the fens. That his exploits made +an exceptional impression on the popular mind is certain from +the mass of legendary history that clustered round his name; +he became, says Mr Davis, “in popular eyes the champion of +the English national cause.” The Hereward legend has been +fully dealt with by him and by Professor Freeman, who observed +that “with no name has fiction been more busy.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. A. Freeman, <i>History of the Norman Conquest</i>, vol. iv.; +J. H. Round, <i>Feudal England</i>; H. W. C. Davis, <i>England under the +Normans and Angevins</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERFORD,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia, +situated at the confluence of the Werre and Aa, on the Minden +& Cologne railway, 9 m. N.E. of Bielefeld, and at the junction +of the railway to Detmold and Altenbeken. Pop. (1885) 15,902; +(1905) 24,821. It possesses six Evangelical churches, notably the +Münsterkirche, a Romanesque building with a Gothic apse of the +15th century; the Marienkirche, in the Gothic style; and the +Johanniskirche, with a steeple 280 ft. high. The other principal +buildings are the Roman Catholic church, the synagogue, the +gymnasium founded in 1540, the agricultural school and the +theatre. There is a statue of Frederick William of Brandenburg. +The industries include cotton and flax-spinning, and the manufacture +of linen cloth, carpets, furniture, machinery, sugar, +tobacco and leather.</p> + +<p>Herford owes its origin to a Benedictine nunnery which is +said to have been founded in 832, and was confirmed by the +emperor Louis the Pious in 839. From the emperor Frederick +I. the abbess obtained princely rank and a seat in the imperial +diet. Among the abbesses was the celebrated Elizabeth (1618-1680), +eldest daughter of the elector palatine Frederick V., who +was a philosophical princess, and a pupil of Descartes. Under +her rule the sect of the Labadists settled for some time in Herford. +The foundation was secularized in 1803. Herford was a member +of the Hanseatic League, and its suzerainty passed in 1547 from +the abbesses to the dukes of Juliers. In 1631 it became a free +imperial town, but in 1647 it was subjugated by the elector of +Brandenburg. It came into the possession of Westphalia in +1807, and in 1813 into that of Prussia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L. Hölscher, <i>Reformationsgeschichte der Stadt Herford</i> (Gütersloh, +1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERGENRÖTHER, JOSEPH VON<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1824-1890), German +theologian, was born at Würzburg in Bavaria on the 15th of +September 1824. He studied at Würzburg and at Rome. +After spending a year as parish priest at Zellingen, near his +native city, he went, in 1850, at his bishop’s command, to the +university of Munich, where he took his degree of doctor of +theology the same year, becoming in 1851 <i>Privatdozent</i>, and in +1855 professor of ecclesiastical law and history. At Munich +he gained the reputation of being one of the most learned +theologians on the Ultramontane side of the Infallibility question, +which had begun to be discussed; and in 1868 he was sent to +Rome to arrange the proceedings of the Vatican Council. He +was a stanch supporter of the infallibility dogma; and in 1870 +he wrote <i>Anti-Janus</i>, an answer to <i>The Pope and the Council</i>, +by “Janus” (Döllinger and J. Friedrich), which made a great +sensation at the time. In 1877 he was made prelate of the +papal household; he became cardinal deacon in 1879, and was +afterwards made curator of the Vatican archives. He died in +Rome on the 3rd of October 1890.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hergenröther’s first published work was a dissertation on the +doctrine of the Trinity according to Gregory Nazianzen (Regensburg, +1850), and from this time onward his literary activity was immense. +After several articles and brochures on Hippolytus and the question +of the authorship of the <i>Philosophumena</i>, he turned to the study of +Photius, patriarch of Constantinople, and the history of the Greek +schism. For twelve years he was engaged upon this work, the +result being his monumental <i>Photius, Patriarch von Constantinopel. +Sein Leben, seine Schriften und das griechische Schisma</i> (3 vols., +Regensburg, 1867-1869); an additional volume (1869) gave, under +the title <i>Monumenta Graeca ad Photium ... pertinentia</i>, a collection +of the unpublished documents on which the work was largely based. +Of Hergenröther’s other works, the most important are his history +of the Papal States since the Revolution (<i>Der Kirchenstaat seit der +französischen Revolution</i>, Freiburg i. B., 1860; Fr. trans., Leipzig, +1860), his great work on the relations of church and state (<i>Katholische +Kirche und christlicher Staat in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwickelung +und in Beziehung auf Fragen der Gegenwart</i>, 2 parts, Freiburg i. B., +1872; 2nd ed. expanded, 1876; Eng. trans., London, 1876, Baltimore, +1889), and his universal church history (<i>Handbuch der allgemeinen +Kirchengeschichte</i>, 3 vols., Freiburg i. B., 1876-1880; 2nd +ed., 1879, &c.; 3rd ed., 1884-1886; 4th ed., by Peter Kirsch, +1902, &c.; French trans., Paris, 1880, &c.). He also found time +for a while to edit the new edition of Wetzer and Welte’s <i>Kirchenlexikon</i> +(1877), to superintend the publication of part of the <i>Regesta</i> +of Pope Leo X. (Freiburg i. B., 1884-1885), and to add two volumes to +Hefele’s <i>Conciliengeschichte</i> (<i>ib.</i>, 1887 and 1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERINGSDORF,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> a seaside resort of Germany, in the Prussian +province of Pomerania, on the north coast of the island of +Usedom, 5 m. by rail N.W. of Swinemünde. It is surrounded by +beech woods, and is perhaps the most popular seaside resort +on the German shore of the Baltic, being frequented by some +12,000 visitors annually.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERIOT, GEORGE<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1563-1623), the founder of Heriot’s +Hospital, Edinburgh, was descended from an old Haddington +family; his father, a goldsmith in Edinburgh, represented +the city in the Scottish parliament. George was born in 1563, +and after receiving a good education was apprenticed to his +father’s trade. In 1586 he married the daughter of a deceased +Edinburgh merchant, and with the assistance of her patrimony +set up in business on his own account. At first he occupied a +small “buith” at the north-east corner of St Giles’s church, +and afterwards a more pretentious shop at the west end of the +building. To the business of a goldsmith he joined that of a +money-lender, and in 1597 he had acquired such a reputation +that he was appointed goldsmith to Queen Anne, consort of +James VI. In 1601 he became jeweller to the king, and followed +him to London, occupying a shop opposite the Exchange. Heriot +was largely indebted for his fortune to the extravagance of the +queen, and the imitation of this extravagance by the nobility. +Latterly he had such an extensive business as a jeweller that +on one occasion a government proclamation was issued calling +upon all the magistrates of the kingdom to aid him in securing +the workmen he required. He died in London on the 10th of +February 1623. In 1608, having some time previously lost his +first wife, he married Alison Primrose, daughter of James +Primrose, grandfather of the first earl of Rosebery, but she died +in 1612; by neither marriage had he any issue. The surplus +of his estate, after deducting legacies to his nearest relations +and some of his more intimate friends, was bequeathed to found +a hospital for the education of freemen’s sons of the town of +Edinburgh; and its value afterwards increased so greatly as to +supply funds for the erection of several Heriot foundation +schools in different parts of the city.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Heriot takes a leading part in Scott’s novel, <i>The Fortunes of Nigel</i> +(see also the Introduction). A <i>History of Heriot’s Hospital, with +a Memoir of the Founder</i>, by William Steven, D.D., appeared in +1827; 2nd ed. 1859.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page364" id="page364"></a>364</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERIOT,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> by derivation the arms and equipment (<i>geatwa</i>) of a +soldier or army (<i>here</i>); the O. Eng. word is thus here-geatwa. +The lord of a fee provided his tenant with arms and a horse, +either as a gift or loan, which he was to use in the military +service paid by him. On the death of the tenant the lord claimed +the return of the equipment. When by the 10th century land +was being given instead of arms, the heriot was still paid, but +more in the nature of a “relief” (<i>q.v.</i>). There seems to have +been some connexion between the payment of the heriot and +the power of making a will (F. W. Maitland, <i>Domesday Book +and Beyond</i>, p. 298). By the 13th century the payment was +made either in money or in kind by the handing over of the best +beast or of the best other chattel of the tenant (see Pollock and +Maitland, <i>History of English Law</i>, i. 270 sq.). For the +manorial law relating to heriots, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Copyhold</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERISAU,<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> the largest town in the entire Swiss canton of +Appenzell, built on the Glatt torrent, and by light railway +7 m. south-west of St Gall or 13½ m. north of Appenzell. In +1900 it had 13,497 inhabitants, mainly Protestant and German-speaking. +The lower portion of the massive tower of the parish +church (Protestant) dates from the 11th century or even earlier. +It is a prosperous little industrial town in the Ausser Rhoden +half of the canton, especially busied with the manufacture of +embroidery by machinery, and of muslins. Near it is the +goats’ whey cure establishment of Heinrichsbad, and the two +castles of Rosenberg and Rosenburg, ruined in 1403 when the +land rose against its lord, the abbot of St Gall. About 5 m. +to the south-east is Hundwil, a village of 1523 inhabitants, +where the <i>Landsgemeinde</i> of Ausser Rhoden meets In the odd +years (in other years at Trogen) on the last Sunday in April.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> in the law of Scotland, grants +of jurisdiction made to a man and his heirs. They were a usual +accompaniment to feudal tenures, and the power which they +conferred on great families, being recognized as a source of +danger to the state, led to frequent attempts being made by +statute to restrict them, both before and after the Union. They +were all abolished in 1746.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERKIMER,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> a village and the county-seat of Herkimer +county, New York, U.S.A., in the township of the same name, +on the Mohawk river, about 15 m. S.E. of Utica. Pop. (1900) +5555 (724 being foreign-born); (1905, state census) 6596; (1910) +7520. It is served by the New York Central & Hudson River +railway, a branch of which (the Mohawk & Malone railway) +extends through the Adirondacks to Malone, N.Y.; by inter-urban +electric railway to Little Falls, Syracuse, Richfield Springs, +Cooperstown and Oneonta, and by the Erie canal. The village +has a public library, and is the seat of the Folts Mission Institute +(opened 1893), a training school for young women, controlled +by the Women’s Foreign Missionary Society of the Methodist +Episcopal Church. Herkimer is situated in a rich dairying +region, and has various manufactures. The municipality owns +and operates its water-supply system and electric-lighting +plant. Herkimer, named in honour of General Nicholas Herkimer +(<i>c.</i> 1728-1777), who was mortally wounded in the Battle of +Oriskany, and in whose memory there is a monument (unveiled +on the 6th of August 1907) in the village, was settled about 1725 +by Palatine Germans, who bought from the Mohawk Indians +a large tract of land including the present site of the village +and established thereon several settlements which became +known collectively as the “German Flats.” In 1756 a stone +house, built in 1740 by General Herkimer’s father, John Jost +Herkimer (d. 1775)—apparently one of the original group of +settlers—a stone church, and other buildings, standing within +what is now Herkimer village, were enclosed in a stockade and +ditch fortifications by Sir William Johnson, and this post, at +first known as Fort Kouari (the Indian name), was subsequently +called Fort Herkimer. Another fort (Ft. Dayton) was built +within the limits of the present village in 1776 by Colonel Elias +Dayton (1737-1807), who later became a brigadier-general +(1783) and served in the Confederation Congress in 1787-1788. +During the French and Indian War the settlement was attacked +(12th November 1757) and practically destroyed, many of the +settlers being killed or taken prisoners; and it was again attacked +on the 30th of April 1758. In the War of Independence General +Herkimer assembled here the force which on the 6th of August +1777 was ambushed near Oriskany on its march from Ft. Dayton +to the relief of Ft. Schuyler (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oriskany</a></span>); and the settlement +was attacked by Indians and “Tories” in September 1778 and +in June 1782. The township of Herkimer was organized in 1788, +and in 1807 the village was incorporated.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Nathaniel I. Benton, <i>History of Herkimer County</i> (Albany, +1856); and Phoebe S. Cowen, <i>The Herkimers and Schuylers</i>, (1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERKOMER, SIR HUBERT VON<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (1849-  ), British painter, +was born at Waal, in Bavaria, and eight years later was brought +to England by his father, a wood-carver of great ability. He +lived for some time at Southampton and in the school of art +there began his art training; but in 1866 he entered upon a +more serious course of study at the South Kensington Schools, +and in 1869 exhibited for the first time at the Royal Academy. +By his picture, “The Last Muster,” at the Academy in 1875, he +definitely established his position as an artist of high distinction. +He was elected an associate of the Academy in 1879, and academician +in 1890; an associate of the Royal Society of Painters in +Water Colours in 1893, and a full member in 1894; and in 1885 +he was appointed Slade professor at Oxford. He exhibited a +very large number of memorable portraits, figure subjects and +landscapes, in oil and water colour; he achieved marked success +as a worker in enamel, as an etcher, mezzotint engraver and +illustrative draughtsman; and he exercised wide influence upon +art education by means of the Herkomer School (Incorporated), +at Bushey, which he founded in 1883 and directed gratuitously +until 1904, when he retired. It was then voluntarily wound up, and +is now conducted privately. Two of his pictures, “Found” (1885) +and “The Chapel of the Charterhouse” (1889), are in the National +Gallery of British Art. In the year 1907 he received the honorary +degree of D.C.L. at Oxford, and a knighthood was conferred upon +him by the king in addition to the commandership of the Royal +Victorian Order with which he was already decorated.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Hubert von Herkomer, R.A., a Study and a Biography</i>, by +A. L. Baldry (London, 1901); <i>Professor Hubert Herkomer, Royal +Academician, His Life and Work</i>, by W. L. Courtney (London, 1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERLEN<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Herlin</span>), <b>FRITZ,</b> of Nördlingen, German artist of +the early Swabian school, in the 15th century. The date and +place of his birth are unknown, but his name is on the roll of the +tax-gatherers of Ulm in 1449; and in 1467 he was made citizen +and town painter at Nördlingen, “because of his acquaintance +with Flemish methods of painting.” One of the first of his +acknowledged productions is a shrine on one of the altars of +the church of Rothenburg on the Tauber, the wings of which +were finished in 1466, with seven scenes from the lives of +Christ and the Virgin Mary. In the town-hall of Rothenburg is a +Madonna and St Catherine of 1467; and in the choir of Nördlingen +cathedral a triptych of 1488, representing the “Nativity” and +“Christ amidst the Doctors,” at the side of a votive Madonna +attended by St Joseph and St Margaret as patrons of a family. +In each of these works the painter’s name certifies the picture, +and the manner is truly that of an artist “acquainted with +Flemish methods.” We are not told under whom Herlen +laboured in the Netherlands, but he probably took the same +course as Schongauer and Hans Holbein the elder, who studied in +the school of van der Weyden. His altarpiece at Rothenburg +contains groups and figures, as well as forms of action and drapery, +which seem copied from those of van der Weyden’s or Memlinc’s +disciples, and the votive Madonna of 1488, whilst characterized +by similar features, only displays such further changes as may +be accounted for by the master’s constant later contact with +contemporaries in Swabia. Herlen had none of the genius of +Schongauer. He failed to acquire the delicacy even of the +second-rate men who handed down to Matsys the traditions of the +15th century; but his example was certainly favourable to the +development of art in Swabia. By general consent critics have +assigned to him a large altar-piece, with scenes from the gospels +and figures of St Florian and St Floriana, and a Crucifixion, the +principal figure of which is carved in high relief on the surface of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page365" id="page365"></a>365</span> +a large panel in the church of Dinkelsbühl. A Crucifixion, with +eight scenes from the New Testament, is shown as his in the +cathedral, a “Christ in Judgment, with Mary and John,” and the +“Resurrection of Souls” in the town-hall of Nördlingen. A small +Epiphany, once in the convent of the Minorites of Ulm, is in +the Holzschuher collection at Augsburg, a Madonna and Circumcision +in the National Museum at Munich. Herlen’s epitaph, +preserved by Rathgeber, states that he died on the 12th of +October 1491, and was buried at Nördlingen.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMAE,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> in Greek antiquities, quadrangular pillars, broader +above than at the base, surmounted by a head or bust, so called +either because the head of Hermes was most common or from +their etymological connexion with the Greek word <span class="grk" title="hermata">ἕρματα</span> (blocks +of stone), which originally had no reference to Hermes at all. In +the oldest times Hermes, like other divinities, was worshipped in +the form of a heap of stones or of an amorphous block of wood or +stone, which afterwards took the shape of a phallus, the symbol +of productivity. The next step was the addition of a head to this +phallic column which became quadrangular (the number 4 was +sacred to Hermes, who was born on the fourth day of the month), +with the significant indication of sex still prominent. In this +shape the number of herms rapidly increased, especially those of +Hermes, for which the distinctive name of Hermhermae has been +suggested. In Athens they were found at the corners of streets; +before the gates and in the courtyards of houses, where they +were worshipped by women as having the power to make them +prolific; before the temples; in the gymnasia and palaestrae. On +each side of the road leading from the Stoa Poikile to the Stoa +Basileios, rows of Hermae were set up in such numbers by the +piety of private individuals or public corporations, that the Stoa +Basileios was called the Stoa of the Hermae. The function of +Hermes as protector of the roads, of merchants and of commerce, +explains the number of Hermae that served the purpose of signposts +on the roads outside the city. It is stated in the pseudo-Platonic +<i>Hipparchus</i> that the son of Peisistratus had set up +marble pillars at suitable places on the roads leading from the +different country districts to Athens, having the places connected +with the roads inscribed on the one side in a hexameter verse, +and on the other a pentameter containing a short proverb or +moral precept for the edification of travellers. Sometimes they +bore inscriptions celebrating the valour of those who had fought +for their country. Just as it was customary for the passer-by to +show respect to the rudest form of the god (the heap of stones) by +contributing a stone to the heap or anointing it with oil, in like +manner small offerings, generally of dried figs, were deposited +near the Hermae, to appease the hunger of the necessitous wayfarer. +Garlands of flowers were also suspended on the two arm-like +tenons projecting from either side of the column at the top +(for the oracle at Pharae see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hermes</a></span>). These pillars were also +used to mark the frontier boundaries or the limits of different +estates. The great respect attaching to them is shown by the +excitement caused in Athens by the “Mutilation of the Hermae” +just before the departure of the Sicilian expedition (May 415 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). +They formed the object of a special industry, the makers of them +being called Hermoglyphi. The surmounting heads were not, +however, confined to those of Hermes; those of other gods and +heroes, and even of distinguished mortals, were of frequent +occurrence. In this case a compound was formed: Hermathena +(a herm of Athena), Hermares, Hermaphroditus, Hermanubis, +Hermalcibiades, and so on. In the case of these compounds it is +disputed whether they indicated a herm with the head of Athena, +or with a Janus-like head of both Hermes and Athena, or a +figure compounded of both deities. The Romans not only +borrowed the Hermes pillars for their deities which at an early +period they assimilated to those of the Greeks (as Heracles—Hercules) +but also for the indigenous gods who preserved their +individuality. Thus herms of Jupiter Terminalis (the hermae +being identified with the Roman termini) and of Silvanus occur. +Under the empire, the function of the hermae was rather architectural +than religious. They were used to keep up the draperies +in the interior of a house, and in the Circus Maximus they were +used to support the barriers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the article with bibliography by Pierre Paris in Daremberg +and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>; for the mutilation of the +Hermae, Thucydides vi. 27; Andocides, <i>De mysteriis</i>; Grote, +<i>Hist. of Greece</i>, ch. 58; H. Weil, <i>Études sur l’antiquité grecque</i> (1900); +Burolt, <i>Griech. Gesch.</i> (ed. 1904), III. ii. p. 1287.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMAGORAS,<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> of Temnos, Greek rhetorician of the Rhodian +school and teacher of oratory in Rome, flourished during the +first half of the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He obtained a great reputation +among a certain section and founded a special school, the members +of which called themselves Hermagorei. His chief opponent +was Posidonius of Rhodes, who is said to have contended with +him in argument in the presence of Pompey (Plutarch, <i>Pompey</i>, +42). Hermagoras devoted himself particularly to the branch of +rhetoric known as <span class="grk" title="oikonomia">οἰκονομία</span> (<i>inventio</i>), and is said to have +invented the doctrine of the four <span class="grk" title="staseis">στάσεις</span> (<i>status</i>) and to have +arranged the parts of an oration differently from his predecessors. +Cicero held an unfavourable opinion of his methods, which were +approved by Quintilian, although he considers that Hermagoras +neglected the practical side of rhetoric for the theoretical. +According to Suidas and Strabo, he was the author of <span class="grk" title="technai +rhêtorikai">τέχναι ῥητορικαί</span> (rhetorical manuals) and of other works, which should +perhaps be attributed to his younger namesake, surnamed +Carion, the pupil of Theodorus of Gadara.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Strabo xiii. p. 621; Cicero, <i>De inventione</i>, i. 6. 8, <i>Brutus</i>, +76, 263. 78, 271; Quintilian, <i>Instit.</i> iii. 1. 16, 3. 9, 11. 22; +C. W. Piderit, <i>De Hermagora rhetore</i> (1839); G. Thiele, <i>Hermagoras +Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Rhetorik</i> (1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMANDAD<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (from <i>hermano</i>, Lat. <i>germanus</i>, a brother), a +Castilian word meaning, strictly speaking, a brotherhood. In +the Romance language spoken on the east coast of Spain in +Catalonia it is written <i>germandat</i> or <i>germania</i>. In the form +<i>germania</i> it has acquired the significance of “thieves’ Latin” +or “thieves’ cant,” and is applied to any jargon supposed to be +understood only by the Initiated. But the typical “germania” +is a mixture of slang and of the gipsy language. The hermandades +have played a conspicuous part in the history of Spain. +The first recorded case of the formation of an hermandad +occurred in the 12th century when the towns and the peasantry +of the north united to police the pilgrim road to Santiago in +Galicia, and protect the pilgrims against robber knights. +Throughout the middle ages such alliances were frequently +formed by combinations of towns to protect the roads connecting +them, and were occasionally extended to political purposes. +They acted to some extent like the Fehmic courts of Germany. +The Catholic sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella, adapted an +existing hermandad to the purpose of a general police acting +under officials appointed by themselves, and endowed with +large powers of summary jurisdiction even in capital cases. +The hermandad became, in fact, a constabulary, which, however, +fell gradually into neglect. In Catalonia and Valencia the +“germanias” were combinations of the peasantry to resist +the exactions of the feudal lords.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMAN DE VALENCIENNES,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> 12th-century French poet, +was born at Valenciennes, of good parentage. His father and +mother, Robert and Hérembourg, belonged to Hainault, and +gave him for god-parents Count Baldwin and Countess Yoland—doubtless +Baldwin IV. of Hainault and his mother Yoland. +Herman was a priest and the author of a verse <i>Histoire de la +Bible</i>, which includes a separate poem on the Assumption of the +Virgin. The work is generally known as <i>Le Roman de sapience</i>, +the name arising from a copyist’s error in the first line of the +poem:</p> + +<p class="center f90">“Comens de sapiense, ce est la cremors de Deu”</p> + +<p class="noind">the first word being miswritten in one MS. <i>Romens</i>, and In +another <i>Romanz</i>. His work has, indeed, the form of an ordinary +romance, and cannot be regarded as a translation. He selects +such stories from the Bible as suit his purpose, and adds freely +from legendary sources, displaying considerable art in the +selection and use of his materials. This scriptural poem, very +popular in its day, mentions Henry II. of England as already +dead, and must therefore be assigned to a date posterior to 1189.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Notices et extraits des manuscrits</i> (Paris, vol. 34), and Jean +Bonnard, <i>Les Traductions de la Bible en vers français au moyen âge</i> +(1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page366" id="page366"></a>366</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">HERMANN I.<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (d. 1217), landgrave of Thuringia and count +palatine of Saxony, was the second son of Louis II. the Hard, +landgrave of Thuringia, and Judith of Hohenstaufen, sister of +the emperor Frederick I. Little is known of his early years, +but in 1180 he joined a coalition against Henry the Lion, duke +of Saxony, and with his brother, the landgrave Louis III., +suffered a short imprisonment after his defeat at Weissensee by +Henry. About this time he received from his brother Louis the +Saxon palatinate, over which he strengthened his authority by +marrying Sophia, sister of Adalbert, count of Sommerschenburg, +a former count palatine. In 1190 Louis died and Hermann +by his energetic measures frustrated the attempt of the emperor +Henry VI. to seize Thuringia as a vacant fief of the Empire, +and established himself as landgrave. Having joined a league +against the emperor he was accused, probably wrongly, of an +attempt to murder him. Henry was not only successful in +detaching Hermann from the hostile combination, but gained +his support for the scheme to unite Sicily with the Empire. In +1197 Hermann went on crusade. When Henry VI. died in 1198 +Hermann’s support was purchased by the late emperor’s brother +Philip, duke of Swabia, but as soon as Philip’s cause appeared +to be weakening he transferred his allegiance to Otto of Brunswick, +afterwards the emperor Otto IV. Philip accordingly +invaded Thuringia in 1204 and compelled Hermann to come to +terms by which he surrendered the lands he had obtained in 1198. +After the death of Philip and the recognition of Otto he was +among the princes who invited Frederick of Hohenstaufen, +afterwards the emperor Frederick II., to come to Germany and +assume the crown. In consequence of this step the Saxons +attacked Thuringia, but the landgrave was saved by Frederick’s +arrival in Germany in 1212. After the death of his first wife in +1195 Hermann married Sophia, daughter of Otto I., duke of +Bavaria. By her he had four sons, two of whom, Louis and +Henry Raspe, succeeded their father in turn as landgrave. +Hermann died at Gotha on the 25th of April 1217, and was +buried at Reinhardsbrunn. He was fond of the society of men +of letters, and Walther von der Vogelweide and other Minnesingers +were welcomed to his castle of the Wartburg. In this +connexion he figures in Wagner’s <i>Tannhäuser</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Winkelmann, <i>Philipp von Schwaben und Otto IV. von +Braunschweig</i> (Leipzig, 1873-1878); T. Knochenhauer, <i>Geschichte +Thüringens</i> (Gotha, 1871); and F. Wachter, <i>Thüringische und obersächsische +Geschichte</i> (Leipzig, 1826).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMANN OF REICHENAU<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Herimannus Augiensis</span>), +commonly distinguished as Hermannus Contractus, <i>i.e.</i> the Lame +(1013-1054), German scholar and chronicler, was the son of +Count Wolferad of Alshausen in Swabia. Hermann, who +became a monk of the famous abbey of Reichenau, is at once one +of the most attractive and one of the most pathetic figures of +medieval monasticism. Crippled and distorted by gout from +his childhood, he was deprived of the use of his legs; but, in +spite of this, he became one of the most learned men of his time, +and exercised a great personal and intellectual influence on the +numerous band of scholars he gathered round him. He died on +the 24th of September 1054, at the family castle of Alshausen near +Biberach. Besides the ordinary studies of the monastic scholar, +he devoted himself to mathematics, astronomy and music, +and constructed watches and instruments of various kinds.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His chief work is a <i>Chronicon ad annum</i> 1054, which furnishes +important and original material for the history of the emperor Henry +III. The first edition, from a MS. no longer extant, was printed by +J. Sichard at Basel in 1529, and reissued by Heinrich Peter in 1549; +another edition appeared at St Blaise in 1790 under the supervision +of Ussermann; and a third, as a result of the collation of numerous +MSS., forms part of vol. v. of Pertz’s <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>. +A German translation of the last is contributed by K. F. A. Nobbe +to <i>Die Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit</i> (1st ed., Berlin, +1851; 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1893). The separate lives of Conrad II. +and Henry III., often ascribed to Hermann, appear to have perished. +His treatises <i>De mensura astrolabii</i> and <i>De utilitatibus astrolabii</i> +(to be found, on the authority of Salzburg MSS., in Pez, <i>Thesaurus +anecdotorum novissimus</i>, iii.) being the first contributions of moment +furnished by a European to this subject, Hermann was for a time +considered the inventor of the astrolabe. A didactic poem from his +pen, <i>De octo vitiis principalibus</i>, is printed in Haupt’s <i>Zeitschrift +für deutsches Alterthum</i> (vol. xiii.); and he is sometimes credited +with the composition of the Latin hymns <i>Veni Sancte Spiritus, Salve +Regina</i>, and <i>Alma Redemptoris</i>. A <i>martyrologium</i> by Hermann was +discovered by E. Dümmler in a MS. at Stuttgart, and was published +by him in “Das Martyrologium Notkers und seine Verwandten” +in <i>Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte</i>, xxv. (Göttingen, 1885).</p> + +<p>See H. Hansjakob, <i>Herimann der Lahme</i> (Mainz, 1875); Potthast, +<i>Bibliotheca med. aev.</i> s. “Herimannus Augiensis.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMANN OF WIED<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1477-1552), elector and archbishop +of Cologne, was the fourth son of Frederick, count of Wied +(d. 1487), and was born on the 14th of January 1477. Educated +for the Church, he became elector and archbishop in 1515, and +ruled his electorate with vigour and intelligence, taking up at +first an attitude of hostility towards the reformers and their +teaching. A quarrel with the papacy turned, or helped to turn, +his thoughts in the direction of Church reform, but he hoped +this would come from within rather than from without, and with +the aid of his friend John Gropper (1503-1559), began, about +1536, to institute certain reforms in his own diocese. One step led +to another, and as all efforts at union failed the elector invited +Martin Bucer to Cologne in 1542. Supported by the estates +of the electorate, and relying upon the recess of the diet of +Regensburg in 1541, he encouraged Bucer to press on with +the work of reform, and in 1543 invited Melanchthon to his +assistance. His conversion was hailed with great joy by the +Protestants, and the league of Schmalkalden declared they were +resolved to defend him; but the Reformation in the electorate +received checks from the victory of Charles V. over William, +duke of Cleves, and the hostility of the citizens of Cologne. +Summoned both before the emperor and the pope, the elector +was deposed and excommunicated by Paul III. in 1546. He +resigned his office in February 1547, and retired to Wied. +Hermann, who was also a bishop of Paderborn from 1532 to +1547, died on the 15th of August 1552.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Varrentrapp, <i>Hermann von Wied</i> (Leipzig, 1878).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMANN, FRIEDRICH BENEDICT WILHELM VON<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1795-1868), +German economist, was born on the 5th of December +1795, at Dinkelsbühl in Bavaria. After finishing his primary +education he was for some time employed in a draughtsman’s +office. He then resumed his studies, partly at the gymnasium +in his native town, partly at the universities of Erlangen and +Würzburg. In 1817 he took up a private school at Nuremberg, +where he remained for four years. After filling an appointment +as teacher of mathematics at the gymnasium of Erlangen, he +became in 1823 <i>Privatdozent</i> at the university in that town. +His inaugural dissertation was on the notions of political economy +among the Romans (<i>Dissertatio exhibens sententias Romanorum +ad oeconomiam politicam pertinentes</i>, Erlangen, 1823). He afterwards +acted as professor of mathematics at the gymnasium +and polytechnic school in Nuremberg, where he continued till +1827. During his stay there he published an elementary +treatise on arithmetic and algebra (<i>Lehrbuch der Arith. u. Algeb.</i>, +1826), and made a journey to France to inspect the organization +and conduct of technical schools in that country. The results +of his investigation were published in 1826 and 1828 (<i>Über +technische Unterrichts-Anstalten</i>). Soon after his return from +France he was made <i>professor extraordinarius</i> of political +science of the university of Munich, and in 1833 he was advanced +to the rank of ordinary professor. In 1832 appeared the first +edition of his great work on political economy, <i>Staatswirthschaftliche +Untersuchungen</i>. In 1835 he was made member of the +Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences. From the year 1836 he +acted as inspector of technical instruction in Bavaria, and made +frequent journeys to Berlin and Paris in order to study the +methods there pursued. In the state service of Bavaria, to which +he devoted himself, he rose rapidly. In 1837 he was placed on +the council for superintendence of church and school work; in +1839 he was entrusted with the direction of the bureau of +statistics; in 1845 he was one of the councillors for the interior; +in 1848 he sat as member for Munich in the national assembly +at Frankfort. In this assembly Hermann, with Johann Heckscher +and others, was mainly instrumental in organizing the so-called +“Great German” party, and was selected as one of the representatives +of their views at Vienna. Warmly supporting the customs +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page367" id="page367"></a>367</span> +union (Zollverein), he acted in 1851 as one of its commissioners +at the great industrial exhibition at London, and published +an elaborate report on the woollen goods. Three years later +he was president of the committee of judges at the similar +exhibition at Munich, and the report of its proceedings was +drawn up by him. In 1855 he became councillor of state, the +highest honour in the service. From 1835 to 1847 he contributed +a long series of reviews, mainly of works on economical subjects, +to the <i>Münchener gelehrte Anzeigen</i> and also wrote for Rau’s +<i>Archiv der politischen Ökonomie</i> and the <i>Augsburger allgemeine +Zeitung</i>. As head of the bureau of statistics he published a +series of valuable annual reports (<i>Beiträge zur Statistik des +Königreichs Bayern</i>, Hefte 1-17, 1850-1867). He was engaged +at the time of his death, on the 23rd of November 1868, upon +a second edition of his <i>Staatswirthschaftliche Untersuchungen</i>, +which was published in 1870.</p> + +<p>Hermann’s rare technological knowledge gave him a great +advantage in dealing with some economic questions. He +reviewed the principal fundamental ideas of the science with +great thoroughness and acuteness. “His strength,” says +Roscher, “lies in his clear, sharp, exhaustive distinction between +the several elements of a complex conception, or the several +steps comprehended in a complex act.” For keen analytical +power his German brethren compare him with Ricardo. But +he avoids several one-sided views of the English economist. +Thus he places public spirit beside egoism as an economic motor, +regards price as not measured by labour only but as a product +of several factors, and habitually contemplates the consumption +of the labourer, not as a part of the cost of production to the +capitalist, but as the main practical end of economics.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Kautz, <i>Gesch. Entwicklung d. National-Ökonomik</i>, pp. 633-638; +Roscher, <i>Gesch. d. Nat.-Ökon. in Deutschland</i>, pp. 860-879.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (1772-1848), +German classical scholar and philologist, was born at Leipzig on +the 28th of November 1772. Entering the university of his +native city at the age of fourteen, Hermann at first studied law, +which he soon abandoned for the classics. After a session at +Jena in 1793-1794, he became a lecturer on classical literature in +Leipzig, in 1798 <i>professor extraordinarius</i> of philosophy in the +university, and in 1803 professor of eloquence (and poetry, 1809). +He died on the 31st of December 1848. Hermann maintained +that an accurate knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages was +the only road to a clear understanding of the intellectual life of the +ancient world, and the chief, if not the only, aim of philology. +As the leader of this grammatico-critical school, he came into +collision with A. Böckh and Otfried Müller, the representatives of +the historico-antiquarian school, which regarded Hermann’s view +of philology as inadequate and one-sided.</p> + +<p>Hermann devoted his early attention to the classical poetical +metres, and published several works on that subject, the most +important being <i>Elementa doctrinae metricae</i> (1816), in which he +set forth a scientific theory based on the Kantian categories. +His writings on Greek grammar are also valuable, especially <i>De +emendanda ratione Graecae grammaticae</i> (1801), and notes and +excursus on Viger’s treatise on Greek idioms. His editions of +the classics include several of the plays of Euripides; the <i>Clouds</i> +of Aristophanes (1799); <i>Trinummus</i> of Plautus (1800); <i>Poëtica</i> +of Aristotle (1802); <i>Orphica</i> (1805); the Homeric <i>Hymns</i> +(1806); and the <i>Lexicon</i> of Photius (1808). In 1825 Hermann +finished the edition of Sophocles begun by Erfurdt. His edition +of Aeschylus was published after his death in 1852. The <i>Opuscula</i>, +a collection of his smaller writings in Latin, appeared in seven +volumes between 1827 and 1839.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See monographs by O. Jahn (1849) and H. Köchly (1874); C. +Bursian, <i>Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland</i> (1883); +art. in <i>Allgem. deutsche Biog.</i>; Sandys, <i>Hist. Class. Schol.</i> iii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> (1804-1855), German classical +scholar and antiquary, was born on the 4th of August 1804, at +Frankfort-on-Main. Having studied at the universities of +Heidelberg and Leipzig, he went for a tour in Italy, on his return +from which he lectured as <i>Privatdozent</i> in Heidelberg. In 1832 +he was called to Marburg as <i>professor ordinarius</i> of classical +literature; and in 1842 he was transferred to Göttingen to the +chair of philology and archaeology, vacant by the death of +Otfried Müller. He died at Göttingen on the 31st of December +1855. His knowledge of all branches of classical learning was +profound, but he was chiefly distinguished for his works on Greek +antiquities and ancient philosophy. Among these may be +mentioned the <i>Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitäten</i> (new ed., +1889) dealing with political, religious and domestic antiquities; +the <i>Geschichte und System der Platonischen Philosophie</i> (1839), +unfinished; an edition of the Platonic Dialogues (6 vols., 1851-1853); +and <i>Culturgeschickte der Griechen und Römer</i> (1857-1858), +published after his death by C. G. Schmidt. He also +edited the text of Juvenal and Persius (1854) and Lucian’s +<i>De conscribenda historia</i> (1828). A collection of <i>Abhandlungen +und Beiträge</i> appeared in 1849.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M. Lechner, <i>Zur Erinnerung an K. F. Hermann</i> (1864), and +article by C. Halm in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, xii. (1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMAPHRODITUS,<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> in Greek mythology, a being, partly male, +partly female, originally worshipped as a divinity. The conception +undoubtedly had its origin in the East, where deities of a similar +dual nature frequently occur. The oldest traces of the cult in +Greek countries are found in Cyprus. Here, according to +Macrobius (<i>Saturnalia</i>, iii. 8) there was a bearded statue of a +male aphrodite, called Aphroditos by Aristophanes (probably in +his <span class="grk" title="Niobos">Νίοβος</span>, a similar variant). Philochorus in his <i>Atthis</i> (<i>ap.</i> +Macrobius <i>loc. cit.</i>) further identified this divinity, at whose +sacrifices men and women exchanged garments, with the moon. +This double sex also attributed to Dionysus and Priapus—the +union in one being of the two principles of generation and conception—denotes +extensive fertilizing and productive powers. +This Cyprian Aphrodite is the same as the later Hermaphroditos, +which simply means Aphroditos in the form of a herm +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hermae</a></span>), and first occurs in the <i>Characteres</i> (16) of +Theophrastus. After its introduction at Athens (probably in the +5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the importance of this being seems to have +declined. It appears no longer as the object of a special cult, but +limited to the homage of certain sects, expressed by superstitious +rites of obscure significance. The still later form of the legend, a +product of the Hellenistic period, is due to a mistaken etymology +of the name. In accordance with this, Hermaphroditus is the son +of Hermes and Aphrodite, of whom the nymph of the fountain of +Salmacis in Caria became enamoured while he was bathing. When +her overtures were rejected, she embraced him and entreated +the gods that she might be for ever united with him. The result +was the formation of a being, half man, half woman. This story +is told by Ovid (<i>Metam.</i> iv. 285) to explain the peculiarly enervating +qualities of the water of the fountain. Strabo (xiv. p. 656) +attributes its bad reputation to the attempt of the inhabitants of +the country to find some excuse for the demoralization caused by +their own luxurious and effeminate habits of life. There was a +famous statue of Hermaphroditus by Polycles of Athens, probably +the younger of the two statuaries of that name. In later Greek +art he was a favourite subject.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See articles in Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>, +and Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>; and for art, A. Baumeister, +<i>Denkmäler des klassischen Altertums</i> (1884-1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> one of the works representing the +Apostolic Fathers (<i>q.v.</i>), a hortatory writing which “holds the +mirror up” to the Church in Rome during the 3rd Christian +generation. This is the period indicated by the evidence of the +Muratorian Canon, which assigns it to the brother of Pius, +Roman bishop <i>c.</i> 139-154. Probably it was not the fruit of a +single effort of its author. Rather its contents came to him +piecemeal and at various stages in his ministry as a Christian +“prophet,” extending over a period of years; and, like certain +Old Testament prophets, he shows us how by his own experiences +he became the medium of a divine message to his church and to +God’s “elect” people at large.</p> + +<p>In its present form it falls under three heads: <i>Visions</i>, <i>Mandates</i>, +<i>Similitudes</i>. But these divisions are misleading. The personal +and preliminary revelation embodied in <i>Vision</i> i. brings the +prophet a new sense of sin as essentially a matter of the heart, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368"></a>368</span> +and an awakened conscience as before the “glory of God,” the +Creator and Upholder of all things. His responsibility also for the +sad state of religion at home is emphasized, and he is given a +mission of repentance to his erring children. How far in all this +and in the next vision the author is describing facts, and how far +transforming his personal history into a type (after the manner of +Bunyan’s <i>Pilgrim’s Progress</i>), the better to impress his moral +upon his readers, is uncertain. But the whole style of the work, +with its use of conventional apocalyptic forms, favours the more +symbolic view. <i>Vision</i> ii. records his call proper, through revelation +of his essential message, to be delivered both to his wife and +children and to “all the saints who have sinned unto this day” +(2. 4). It contains the assurances of forgiveness even for the +gravest sins after baptism (save blasphemy of the Name and +betrayal of the brethren, <i>Sim.</i> ix. 19), “if they repent with their +whole heart and remove doubts from their minds. For the Master +hath sworn by His glory (‘His Son,’ below) touching His elect, +that if there be more sinning after this day which He hath +limited, they shall not obtain salvation. For the repentance of +the righteous hath an end; the days of repentance for all saints +are fulfilled.... Stand fast, then, ye that work righteousness and +be not of doubtful mind.... Happy are all ye that endure the +great tribulation which is to come.... <i>The Lord is nigh unto +them that turn to Him</i>, as it is written in the book of Eldad and +Modad, who prophesied to the people in the wilderness.”</p> + +<p>Here, in the gist of the “booklet” received from the hand of +a female figure representing the Church, we have in germ the +message of <i>The Shepherd</i>. But before Hermas announces it to the +Roman Church, and through “Clement”<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> to the churches +abroad, there are added two <i>Visions</i> (iii. iv.) tending to heighten +its impressiveness. He is shown the “holy church” under the +similitude of a tower in building, and the great and final tribulation +(already alluded to as near at hand) under that of a +devouring beast, which yet is innocuous to undoubting faith.</p> + +<p>Hermas begins to deliver the message of <i>Vis.</i> i.-iv., as bidden. +But as he does so, it is added to, in the way of detail and illustration, +by a fresh series of revelations through an angel in the +guise of a Shepherd, who in a preliminary interview announces +himself as the Angel of Repentance, sent to administer the +special “repentance” which it was Hermas’s mission to declare. +This interview appears in our MSS. as <i>Vis.</i> v.,<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> but is really a +prelude to the <i>Mandates</i> and <i>Similitudes</i> which form the bulk of +the whole work, hence known as “The Shepherd.” The relation of +this second part to <i>Vis.</i> i.-iv. is set forth by the Shepherd himself. +“I was sent, quoth he, to show thee <i>again</i> all that thou sawest +before, to wit the sum of the things profitable for thee. First of +all write thou my mandates and similitudes; and <i>the rest</i>, as I +will show thee, so shalt thou write.” This programme is fulfilled +in the xii. <i>Mandates</i>—perhaps suggested by the <i>Teaching of the +Twelve Apostles</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Didache</a></span>), which Hermas knows—and +<i>Similitudes</i> i.-viii., while <i>Simil.</i> ix. is “the rest” and constitutes +a distinct “book” (<i>Sim.</i> ix. 1. 1, x. 1. 1). In this latter the +building of the Tower, already shown in outline in <i>Vis.</i> iii., is +shown “more carefully” in an elaborate section dealing with the +same themes. One may infer that <i>Sim.</i> ix. represents a distinctly +later stage in Hermas’s ministry—during the whole of which he +seems to have committed to writing what he received on each +occasion,<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a> possibly for recital to the church (cf. <i>Vis.</i> ii. <i>fin.</i>). +Finally came <i>Sim.</i> x., really an epilogue in which Hermas is +“delivered” afresh to the Shepherd, for the rest of his days. +He is “to continue in this ministry” of proclaiming the Shepherd’s +teaching, “so that they who have repented or are about to repent +may have the same mind with thee,” and so receive a good report +before God (<i>Sim.</i> x. 2 2-4). Only they must “make haste to do +aright,” lest while they delay the tower be finished (4. 4), and the +new aeon dawn (after the final tribulation: cf. <i>Vis.</i> iv. 3. 5).</p> + +<p>The relation here indicated between the Shepherd’s instruction +and the initial message of one definitive repentance, open to those +believers who have already “broken” their “seal” of baptism by +deadly sins, as announced in <i>Visions</i> i.-iv. is made yet plainer by +<i>Sim.</i> vi. 1. 3 f. “These mandates are profitable to such as are +about to repent; for except they walk in them their repentance +is in vain.” Hermas sees that mere repentance is not enough to +meet the backsliding condition in which so many Christians then +were, owing to the recoil of inveterate habits of worldliness<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +entrenched in society around and within. It is, after all, too +negative a thing to stand by itself or to satisfy God. “Cease, +Hermas,” says the Church, “to pray all about thy sins. Ask for +righteousness also” (<i>Vis.</i> iii. 1. 6). The positive Christian ideal +which “the saints” should attain, “the Lord enabling,” it is the +business of the Shepherd to set forth.</p> + +<p>Here lies a great merit of Hermas’s book, his insight into +experimental religion and the secret of failure in Christians about +him, to many of whom Christianity had come by birth rather than +personal conviction. They shared the worldly spirit in its various +forms, particularly the desire for wealth and the luxuries it +affords, and for a place in “good society”—which meant a pagan +atmosphere. Thus they were divided in soul between spiritual +goods and worldly pleasures, and were apt to doubt whether the +rewards promised by God to the life of “simplicity” (all Christ +meant by the childlike spirit, including generosity in giving and +forgiving) and self-restraint, were real or not. For while the +expected “end of the age” delayed, persecutions abounded. +Such “doubled-souled” persons, like Mr Facing-both-ways, +inclined to say, “The Christian ideal may be glorious, but is it +practicable?” It is this most fatal doubt which evokes the +Shepherd’s sternest rebuke; and he meets it with the ultimate +religious appeal, viz. to “the glory of God.” He who made man +“to rule over all things under heaven,” could He have given +behests beyond man’s ability? If only a man “hath the Lord in +his heart,” he “shall know that there is nothing easier nor +sweeter nor gentler than these mandates” (<i>Mand.</i> xii. 3-4). +So in the forefront of the <i>Mandates</i> stands the secret of all: +“First of all believe that there is one God.... Believe therefore +in Him, and fear Him, and fearing Him have self-mastery. For +the fear of the Lord dwelleth in the good desire,” and to “put on” +this master-desire is to possess power to curb “evil desire” in all +its shapes (<i>Mand.</i> xii. 1-2). Elsewhere “good desire” is analysed +into the “spirits” of the several virtues, which yet are organically +related, Faith being mother, and Self-mastery her daughter, and +so on (<i>Vis.</i> iii. 8. 3 seq.; cf. <i>Sim.</i> ix. 15). These are the specific +forms of the Holy Spirit power, without whose indwelling the +mandates cannot be kept (<i>Sim.</i> x. 3; cf. ix. 13. 2, 24. 2).</p> + +<p>Thus the “moralism” sometimes traced in Hermas is apparent +rather than real, for he has a deep sense of the enabling grace of +God. His defect lies rather in not presenting the historic Christ +as the Christian’s chief inspiration, a fact which connects itself +with the strange absence of the names “Jesus” and “Christ.” +He uses rather “the Son of God,” in a peculiar Adoptianist +sense, which, as taken for granted in a work by the bishop’s own +brother, must be held typical of the Roman Church of his day. +But as it is implicit and not part of his distinctive message, it did +not hinder his book from enjoying wide quasi-canonical honour +during most of the Ante-Nicene period.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The absence of the historic names, “Jesus” and “Christ,” may +be due to the form of the book as purporting to quote angelic communications. +This would also explain the absence of explicit +scriptural citations generally, though knowledge both of the Old +Testament and of several New Testament books—including the +congenially symbolic Gospel of John—is clear (cf. <i>The New Testament +in the Apostolic Fathers</i>, Oxford, 1905, 105 seq.). The one exception +is a prophetic writing, the apocryphal <i>Book of Eldad and Modad</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page369" id="page369"></a>369</span> +which is cited apparently as being similar in the scope of its message. +Among its non-scriptural sources may be named the allegoric picture +of human life known as <i>Tabula Cebetis</i> (cf. C. Taylor, as below), the +<i>Didache</i>, and perhaps certain “Sibylline Oracles.”</p> + +<p>Hermas regarded Christians as “justified by the most reverend +Angel” (<i>i.e.</i> the pre-existent Holy Spirit or Son, who dwelt in +Christ’s “flesh”), in baptism, the “seal” which even Old Testament +saints had to receive in Hades (<i>Sim.</i> ix. 16. 3-7) and so attain to +“life.” Yet the degree of “honour” (<i>e.g.</i> that of martyrs, <i>Vis.</i> +iii. 2; <i>Sim.</i> ix. 28), the exact place in the kingdom or consummated +church (the Tower), is given as reward for zeal in doing God’s will +beyond the minimum requisite in all. Here comes in Hermas’s +doctrine of works of supererogation, in fulfilment of counsels of +perfection, on lines already seen in <i>Did.</i> vi. 2, cf. i. 4, and reappearing +in the two types of Christian recognized by Clement and Origen and +in later Catholicism. Again his doctrine of fasting is a spiritualizing +of a current <i>opus operatum</i> conception on Jewish lines as though +“keeping a watch” (<i>statio</i>) in that way atoned for sins (<i>Sim.</i> v.). +The Shepherd enjoins instead, first, as “a perfect fast,” a fast +“from every evil word and every evil desire, ... from all the +vanities of this world-age” (3. 6; cf. <i>Barn.</i> iii. and the Oxyrhynchus +Saying, “except ye fast from the world”); and next, as a counsel +of perfection, a fast to yield somewhat for the relief of the widow +and orphan, that this extra “service” may be to God for a +“sacrifice.”</p> + +<p>Generally speaking, Hermas’s piety, especially in its language, +adheres closely to Old Testament forms. But it is doubtful (<i>pace</i> +Spina and Völter, who assume a Jewish or a proselyte basis) whether +this means more than that the Old Testament was still <i>the</i> Scriptures +of the Church. In this respect, too, Hermas faithfully reflects the +Roman Church of the early 2nd century (cf. the language of 1 Clem., +esp. the liturgical parts, and even the Roman Mass). Indeed the +prime value of the <i>Shepherd</i> is the light it casts on Christianity at +Rome in the otherwise obscure period <i>c.</i> 110-140, when it had as +yet hardly felt the influences converging on it from other centres +of tradition and thought. Thus Hermas’s comparatively mild +censures on Gnostic teachers in <i>Sim.</i> ix. suggest that the greater +systems, like the Valentinian and Marcionite, had not yet made an +impression there, as Harnack argues that they must have done by +<i>c.</i> 145. This date, then, is a likely lower limit for Hermas’s revision +of his earlier prophetic memoranda, and their publication in a single +homogeneous work, such as the <i>Shepherd</i> appears to be. Its wider +historic significance—it was felt by its author to be adapted to the +needs of the Church at large, and was generally welcomed as such—is +great but hard to determine in detail.<a name="fa5k" id="fa5k" href="#ft5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a> What is certain is its +influence on the development of the Church’s policy as to discipline +in grave cases, like apostasy and adultery—a burning question for +some generations from the end of the 2nd century, particularly in +Rome and North Africa. Indirectly, too, Hermas tended to keep +alive the idea of the Christian prophet, even after Montanism had +helped to discredit it.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—The chief modern edition is by O. von Gebhardt +and A. Harnack, in Fasc. iii. of their <i>Patr. apost. opera</i> (Leipzig, +1877); it is edited less fully by F. X. Funk, <i>Patr. apost.</i> (Tübingen, +1901), and in an English trans., with Introduction and occasional +notes, by Dr C. Taylor (S.P.C.K., 2 vols., 1903-1906). For the wide +literature of the subject, see the two former editions, also Harnack’s +<i>Chronologie der altchr. Lit.</i> i. 257 seq., and O. Bardenhewer, <i>Gesch. +der altkirchl. Lit.</i> i. 557 seq. For the authorship see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apocalyptic +Literature</a></span>, sect. III.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. V. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> More than one interpretation, typical or otherwise, of this +“Clement” is possible; but none justifies us in assigning even to +this <i>Vision</i> a date consistent with that usually given to the traditional +bishop of this name (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clement I.</a></span>). Yet we may have to +correct the dubious chronology of the first Roman bishops by this +datum, and prolong his life to about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 110. This is Harnack’s +date for the nucleus of <i>Vis.</i> ii., though he places our <i>Vis.</i> i.-iii. later +in Trajan’s reign, and thinks <i>Vis.</i> iv. later still.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> That a prior vision in which Hermas was “delivered” to the +Shepherd’s charge, has dropped out, seems implied by <i>Vis.</i> v. 3 f., +<i>Sim.</i> x. 1. 1.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Harnack places “The Shepherd” proper mostly under Hadrian +(117-138), and the completed work <i>c.</i> 140-145.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> A careful study of practical Christian ethics at Rome as implied +in the <i>Shepherd</i>, will be found in E. von Dobschütz, <i>Christian Life +in the Primitive Church</i> (1904).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5k" id="ft5k" href="#fa5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Note the prestige of martyrs and confessors, the ways of true and +false prophets in <i>Mand.</i> xi., and the different types of evil and good +“walk” among Christians, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Vis.</i> iii. 5-7; <i>Mand.</i> viii.; <i>Sim.</i> viii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMENEUTICS<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hermêneutikê">ἑρμηνευτική</span>, <i>sc.</i> <span class="grk" title="technê">τέχνη</span>, Lat. <i>ars +hermeneutica</i>, from <span class="grk" title="hermêneuein">ἑρμηνεύειν</span>, to interpret, from Hermes, the +messenger of the gods), the science or art of interpretation or +explanation, especially of the Holy Scriptures (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theology</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMES,<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> a Greek god, identified by the Romans with +Mercury. The derivation of his name and his primitive character +are very uncertain. The earliest centres of his cult were Arcadia, +where Mt. Cyllene was reputed to be his birthplace, the islands +of Lemnos, Imbros and Samothrace, in which he was associated +with the Cabeiri and Attica. In Arcadia he was specially +worshipped as the god of fertility, and his images were ithyphallic, +as also were the “Hermae” at Athens. Herodotus (ii. 51) +states that the Athenians borrowed this type from the Pelasgians, +thus testifying to the great antiquity of the phallic Hermes. At +Cyllene in Elis a mere phallus served as his emblem, and was +highly venerated in the time of Pausanias (vi. 26. 3). Both in +literature and cult Hermes was constantly associated with the +protection of cattle and sheep; at Tanagra and elsewhere his +title was <span class="grk" title="kriophoros">κριοφόρος</span>, the ram-bearer. As a pastoral god he was +often closely connected with deities of vegetation, especially Pan +and the nymphs. His pastoral character is recognized in the +<i>Iliad</i> (xiv. 490) and the later epic hymn to Hermes; and his +Homeric titles <span class="grk" title="akakêta, eriounios, dôtôr eaôn">ἀκάκητα, ἐριούνιος, δώτωρ ἐάων</span>, probably refer to +him as the giver of fertility. In the <i>Odyssey</i>, however, he appears +mainly as the messenger of the gods, and the conductor of the +dead to Hades. Hence in later times he is often represented in +art and mythology as a herald. The conductor of souls was +naturally a chthonian god; at Athens there was a festival in +honour of Hermes and the souls of the dead, and Aeschylus +(<i>Persae</i>, 628) invokes Hermes, with Earth and Hades, in summoning +a spirit from the underworld. The function of a messenger-god +may have originated the conception of Hermes as a dream-god; +he is called the “conductor of dreams” (<span class="grk" title="hêgêtôr oneirôn">ἡγήτωρ ὀνείρων</span>), +and the Greeks offered to him the last libation before sleep. As a +messenger he may also have become the god of roads and doorways; +he was the protector of travellers and his images were +used for boundary-marks (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hermae</a></span>). It was a custom to +make a cairn of stones near the wayside statues of Hermes, each +passer-by adding a stone; the significance of the practice, +which is found in many countries, is discussed by Frazer (<i>Golden +Bough</i>, 2nd ed., iii. 10 f.) and Hartland (<i>Legend of Perseus</i>, ii. 228). +Treasure found in the road (<span class="grk" title="hermaion">ἕρμαιον</span>) was the gift of Hermes, and +any stroke of good luck was attributed to him; but it may be +doubted whether his patronage of luck in general was developed +from his function as a god of roads. As the giver of luck he +became a deity of gain and commerce (<span class="grk" title="kerdôos, agoraios">κερδῷος, ἀγοραῖος</span>), an +aspect which caused his identification with Mercury, the Roman +god of trade. From this conception his thievish character may +have been evolved. The trickery and cunning of Hermes is a +prominent theme in literature from Homer downwards, although +it is very rarely recognized in official cult.<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In the hymn to +Hermes the god figures as a precocious child (a type familiar in +folk-lore), who when a new-born babe steals the cows of Apollo. +In addition to these characteristics various other functions were +assigned to Hermes, who developed, perhaps, into the most +complete type of the versatile Greek. In many respects he was a +counterpart of Apollo, less dignified and powerful, but more +human than his greater brother. Hermes was a patron of music, +like Apollo, and invented the cithara; he presided over the +games, with Apollo and Heracles, and his statues were common in +the stadia and gymnasia. He became, in fact, the ideal Greek +youth, equally proficient in the “musical” and “gymnastic” +branches of Greek education. On the “musical” side he was +the special patron of eloquence (<span class="grk" title="logios">λόγιος</span>); in gymnastic, he was +the giver of grace rather than of strength, which was the province +of Heracles. Though athletic, he was one of the least militant of +the gods; a title <span class="grk" title="promachos">πρόμαχος</span>, the Defender, is found only in connexion +with a victory of young men (“ephebes”) in a battle at +Tanagra. A further point of contact between Hermes and Apollo +may here be noted: both had prophetic powers, although +Hermes held a place far inferior to that of the Pythian god, and +possessed no famous oracle. Certain forms of popular divination +were, however, under his patronage, notably the world-wide +process of divination by pebbles (<span class="grk" title="thriai">θριαί</span>). The “Homeric” Hymn +to Hermes explains these minor gifts of prophecy as delegated by +Apollo, who alone knew the mind of Zeus. Only a single oracle is +recorded for Hermes, in the market-place of Pharae in Achaea, +and here the procedure was akin to popular divination. An altar, +furnished with lamps, was placed before the statue; the inquirer, +after lighting the lamps and offering incense, placed a coin in the +right hand of the god; he then whispered his question into the +ear of the statue, and, stopping his own ears, left the market +place. The first sound which he heard outside was an omen.</p> + +<p>From the foregoing account it will be seen that it is difficult to +derive the many-sided character of Hermes from a single elemental +conception. The various theories which identified him +with the sun, the moon or the dawn, may be dismissed, as they do +not rest on evidence to which value would now be attached. The +Arcadian or “Pelasgic” Hermes may have been an earth-deity, +as his connexion with fertility suggests; but his symbol at Cyllene +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370"></a>370</span> +rather points to a mere personification of reproductive powers. +According to Plutarch the ancients “set Hermes by the side of +Aphrodite,” <i>i.e.</i> the male and female principles of generation; +and the two deities were worshipped together in Argos and elsewhere. +But this phallic character does not explain other aspects +of Hermes, as the messenger-god, the master-thief or the ideal +Greek ephebe. It is impossible to adopt the view that the +Homeric poets turned the rude shepherd-god of Arcadia into a +messenger, in order to provide him with a place in the Olympian +circle. To their Achaean audience Hermes must have been more +than a phallic god. It is more probable that the Olympian +Hermes represents the fusion of several distinct deities. Some +scholars hold that the various functions of Hermes may have +originated from the idea of good luck which is so closely bound up +with his character. As a pastoral god he would give luck to the +flocks and herds; when worshipped by townspeople, he would +give luck to the merchant, the orator, the traveller and the +athlete. But though the notion of luck plays an important part +in early thought, it seems improbable that the primitive Greeks +would have personified a mere abstraction. Another theory, +which has much to commend it, has been advanced by Roscher, +who sees in Hermes a wind-god. His strongest arguments are +that the wind would easily develop into the messenger of the +gods (<span class="grk" title="Dios ouros">Διὸς οὖρος</span>), and that it was often thought to promote +fertility in crops and cattle. Thus the two aspects of Hermes +which seem most discordant are referred to a single origin. The +Homeric epithet <span class="grk" title="Argeiphontês">Ἀργειφόντης</span>, which the Greeks interpreted as +“the slayer of Argus,” inventing a myth to account for Argus, is +explained as originally an epithet of the wind (<span class="grk" title="argestês">ἀργεστής</span>), which +clears away the mists (<span class="grk" title="argos, phainô">ἀργός, φαίνω</span>). The uncertainty of the +wind might well suggest the trickery of a thief, and its whistling +might contain the germ from which a god of music should be +developed. But many of Roscher’s arguments are forced, and +his method of interpretation is not altogether sound. For +example, the last argument would equally apply to Apollo, and +would lead to the improbable conclusion that Apollo was a +wind-god. It must, in fact, be remembered that men make +their gods after their own likeness; and, whatever his origin, +Hermes in particular was endowed with many of the qualities and +habits of the Greek race. If he was evolved from the wind, his +character had become so anthropomorphic that the Greeks +had practically lost the knowledge of his primitive significance; +nor did Greek cult ever associate him with the wind.</p> + +<p>The oldest form under which Hermes was represented was that +of the Hermae mentioned above. Alcamenes, the rival or pupil +of Pheidias, was the sculptor of a herm at Athens, a copy of which, +dating from Roman times, was discovered at Pergamum in 1903. +But side by side with the Hermae there grew up a more anthropomorphic +conception of the god. In archaic art he was portrayed +as a full-grown and bearded man, clothed in a long chiton, and +often wearing a cap (<span class="grk" title="kynê">κυνῆ</span>) or a broad-brimmed hat (<span class="grk" title="petasos">πέτασος</span>), +and winged boots. Sometimes he was represented in his pastoral +character, as when he bears a sheep on his shoulders; at other +times he appears as the messenger or herald of the gods with the +<span class="grk" title="kêrykeion">κηρυκεῖον</span>, or herald’s staff, which is his most frequent attribute. +From the latter part of the 5th century his art-type was changed +in conformity with the general development of Greek sculpture. +He now became a nude and beardless youth, the type of the +young athlete. In the 4th century this type was probably fixed +by Praxiteles in his statue of Hermes at Olympia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—F. G. Welcker, <i>Griech. Götterl.</i> i. 342 f. (Göttingen, +1857-1863); L. Preller, ed. C. Robert, <i>Griech. Mythologie</i>, ii. 385 seq. +(Berlin, 1894); W. H. Roscher, <i>Lex. der griech. u. röm. Mythologie</i>, +s.v. (Leipzig, 1884-1886); A. Lang, <i>Myth, Ritual and Religion</i>, +ii. 225 seq. (London, 1887); C. Daremberg and E. Saglio, <i>Dict. des +ant. grecques et rom.</i>; Farnell, <i>Cults</i> v. (1909); O. Gruppe, <i>Griech. +Mythologie u. Religionsgesch.</i> p. 1318 seq. (Munich, 1906). In the +article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>, figs. 43 and 82 (Plate VI.) represent the Hermes +of Praxiteles; fig. 57 (Plate II.), a professed copy of the Hermes of +Alcamenes.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. E. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> We only hear of a Hermes <span class="grk" title="dolios">δόλιος</span> at Pellene (Paus. vii. 27. 1) +and of the custom of allowing promiscuous thieving during the +festival of Hermes at Samos (Plut. <i>Quaest. Graec.</i> 55).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMES, GEORG<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1775-1831), German Roman Catholic +theologian, was born on the 22nd of April 1775, at Dreyerwalde, +in Westphalia, and was educated at the gymnasium and university +of Münster, in both of which institutions he afterwards +taught. In 1820 he was appointed professor of theology at +Bonn, where he died on the 26th of May 1831. Hermes had +a devoted band of adherents, of whom the most notable was +Peter Josef Elvenich (1796-1886), who became professor at +Breslau in 1829, and in 1870 threw in his lot with the Old Catholic +movement. His works were <i>Untersuchungen über die innere +Wahrheit des Christenthums</i> (Münster, 1805), and <i>Einleitung in +die christkatholische Theologie</i>, of which the first part, a philosophical +introduction, was published in 1819, the second part, +on positive theology, in 1829. The <i>Einleitung</i> was never completed. +His <i>Christkatholische Dogmatik</i> was published, from +his lectures, after his death by two of his students, Achterfeld +and Braun (3 vols., 1831-1834).</p> + +<p>The <i>Einleitung</i> is a remarkable work, both in itself and in its +effect upon Catholic theology in Germany. Few works of modern +times have excited a more keen and bitter controversy. Hermes +himself was very largely under the influence of the Kantian and +Fichtean ideas, and though in the philosophical portion of his +<i>Einleitung</i> he criticizes both these thinkers severely, rejects +their doctrine of the moral law as the sole guarantee for the +existence of God, and condemns their restricted view of the +possibility and nature of revelation, enough remained of purely +speculative material to render his system obnoxious to his church. +After his death, the contests between his followers and their +opponents grew so bitter that the dispute was referred to the +papal see. The judgment was adverse, and on the 25th of +September 1835 a papal bull condemned both parts of the +<i>Einleitung</i> and the first volume of the <i>Dogmatik</i>. Two months +later the remaining volumes of the <i>Dogmatik</i> were likewise +condemned. The controversy did not cease, and in 1845 a +systematic attempt was made anonymously by F. X. Werner to +examine and refute the Hermesian doctrines, as contrasted with +the orthodox Catholic faith (<i>Der Hermesianismus</i>, 1845). In +1847 the condemnation of 1835 was confirmed by Pius IX.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See K. Werner, <i>Geschichte der katholischen Theologie</i> (1866), +pp. 405 sqq.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMES TRISMEGISTUS<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (“the thrice greatest Hermes”), +an honorific designation of the Egyptian Hermes, <i>i.e.</i> Thoth +(<i>q.v.</i>), the god of wisdom. In late hieroglyphic the name of +Thoth often has the epithet “the twice very great,” sometimes +“the thrice very great”; in the popular language (demotic) +the corresponding epithet is “the five times very great,” found +as early as the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Greek translations give <span class="grk" title="ho megas +kai megas">ὁ μέγας καὶ μέγας</span> and <span class="grk" title="megistos: trismegas">μέγιστος: τρίσμεγας</span> occurs in a late magical +text. <span class="grk" title="ho trismegistos">ὁ τρισμέγιστος</span> has not yet been found earlier than the +2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, but there can now be no doubt of its origin in +the above Egyptian epithets.</p> + +<p>Thoth was “the scribe of the gods,” “Lord of divine words,” +and to Hermes was attributed the authorship of all the strictly +sacred books generally called by Greek authors Hermetic. +These, according to Clemens Alexandrinus, our sole ancient +authority (<i>Strom.</i> vi. p. 268 et seq.), were forty-two in number, +and were subdivided into six divisions, of which the first, containing +ten books, was in charge of the “prophet” and dealt +with laws, deities and the education of priests; the second, +consisting of the ten books of the <i>stolistes</i>, the official whose +duty it was to dress and ornament the statues of the gods, +treated of sacrifices and offerings, prayers, hymns, festive +processions; the third, of the “hierogrammatist,” also in ten +books, was called “hieroglyphics,” and was a repertory of +cosmographical, geographical and topographical information; +the four books of the “horoscopus” were devoted to astronomy +and astrology; the two books of the “chanter” contained +respectively a collection of songs in honour of the gods and a +description of the royal life and its duties; while the sixth and +last division, consisting of the six books of the “pastophorus,” +was medical. Clemens’s statement cannot be contradicted. +Works are extant in papyri and on temple walls, treating of +geography, astronomy, ritual, myths, medicine, &c. It is +probable that the native priests would have been ready to +ascribe the authorship or inspiration, as well as the care and +protection of all their books of sacred lore to Thoth, although +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page371" id="page371"></a>371</span> +there were a goddess of writing (Seshit), and the ancient deified +scribes Imuthes and Amenophis, and later inspired doctors +Petosiris, Nechepso, &c., to be reckoned with; there are indeed +some definite traces of such an attribution extant in individual +cases. Whether a canon of such books was ever established, +even in the latest times, may be seriously doubted. We know, +however, that the vizier of Upper Egypt (at Thebes) in the +eighteenth dynasty, had 40 (not 42) parchment rolls laid before +him as he sat in the hall of audience. Unfortunately we have +no hint of their contents. Forty-two was the number of divine +assessors at the judgment of the dead before Osiris, and was +the standard number of the nomes or counties in Egypt.</p> + +<p>The name of Hermes seems during the 3rd and following +centuries to have been regarded as a convenient pseudonym +to place at the head of the numerous syncretistic writings in +which it was sought to combine Neo-Platonic philosophy, +Philonic Judaism and cabalistic theosophy, and so provide the +world with some acceptable substitute for the Christianity +which had even at that time begun to give indications of the +ascendancy it was destined afterwards to attain. Of these +pseudepigraphic Hermetic writings some have come down to +us in the original Greek; others survive in Latin or Arabic +translations; but the majority appear to have perished. That +which is best known and has been most frequently edited is the +<span class="grk" title="Poimandrês">Ποιμάνδρης</span> <i>sive De potestate et sapientia divina</i> (<span class="grk" title="Poimandrês">Ποιμάνδρης</span> +being the Divine Intelligence, <span class="grk" title="poimên andrôn">ποιμὴν ἀνδρῶν</span>), which consists +of fifteen chapters treating of such subjects as the nature of God, +the origin of the world, the creation and fall of man, and the +divine illumination which is the sole means of his deliverance. +The <i>editio princeps</i> appeared in Paris in 1554; there is also +an edition by G. Parthey (1854); the work has also been translated +into German by D. Tiedemann (1781). Other Hermetic +writings which have been preserved, and which have been +for the most part collected by Patricius in the <i>Nova de universis +philosophia</i> (1593), are (in Greek) <span class="grk" title="Iatromathêmatika pros +Ammôna Aiguption, Peri katakliseôs nosountôn perignôstika, +Ek tês mathêmatikês epistêmês pros Ammôna">Ἰατρομαθηματικά πρὸς +Ἄμμωνα Αἰγύπτιον, Περὶ κατακλίσεως νοσούντων περιγνωστικά, +Ἐκ τῆς μαθηματικῆς ἐπιστήμης πρὸς Ἄμμωνα</span>: (in Latin) <i>Aphorismi +sive Centiloquium, Cyranides</i>; (in Arabic, but doubtless from a +Greek original) an address to the human soul, which has been +translated by H. L. Fleischer (<i>An die menschliche Seele</i>, 1870).</p> + +<p>The connexion of the name of Hermes with alchemy will +explain what is meant by hermetic sealing, and will account for +the use of the phrase “hermetic medicine” by Paracelsus, as +also for the so-called “hermetic freemasonry” of the middle ages.</p> + +<p>Besides Thoth, Anubis (<i>q.v.</i>) was constantly identified with +Hermes; see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horus</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Ursinus, <i>De Zoroastre, Hermete</i>, &c. (Nuremberg, 1661); +Nicolas Lenglet-Dufresnoy, <i>L’Histoire de la philosophie hermétique</i> +(Paris, 1742); Baumgarten-Crusius, <i>De librorum hermeticorum +origine atque indole</i> (Jena, 1827); B. J. Hilgers, <i>De Hermetis Trismegisti +Poëmandro</i> (1855); R. Ménard, <i>Hermès Trismégiste, traduction +complète, précédée d’une étude sur l’origine des livres hermétiques</i> (1866); +R. Pietschmann, <i>Hermes Trismegistus, nach ägyptischen, griechischen, +und orientalischen Überlieferungen</i> (1875); R. Reitzenstein, +<i>Poimandres, Studien zur griechisch-ägyptischen und frühchristlichen +Literatur</i> (Leipzig, 1904); G. R. S. Mead, <i>Thrice Greatest +Hermes</i> (1907), introduction and translation.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. Ll. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMESIANAX,<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> of Colophon, elegiac poet of the Alexandrian +school, flourished about 330 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> His chief work was a poem +in three books, dedicated to his mistress Leontion. Of this +poem a fragment of about one hundred lines has been preserved +by Athenaeus (xiii. 597). Plaintive in tone, it enumerates +instances, mythological and historical, of the irresistible power +of love. Hermesianax, whose style is characterized by alternate +force and tenderness, was exceedingly popular in his own times, +and was highly esteemed even in the Augustan period.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Many separate editions have been published of the fragment, +the text of which is in a very unsatisfactory condition: by F. W. +Schneidewin (1838), J. Bailey (1839, with notes, glossary, and +Latin and English versions), and others; R. Schulze’s <i>Quaestiones +Hermesianacteae</i> (1858), contains an account of the life and writings +of the poet and a section on the identity of Leontion.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMIAS.<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (1) A Greek philosopher of the Alexandrian +school. A disciple of Proclus, he was known best for the lucidity +of his method rather than for any original ideas. His chief works +were a study of the <i>Isagoge</i> of Porphyry and a commentary on +Plato’s <i>Phaedrus</i>. Unlike the majority of logicians of the time, he +admitted the absolute validity of the second and third figures of +the syllogism.</p> + +<p>(2) A Christian apologist and philosopher who flourished +probably in the 4th and 5th centuries. Nothing is known about +his life, but there has been preserved of his writings a small thesis +entitled <span class="grk" title="Diasyrmos tôn exôphilosophôn">Διασυρμὸς τῶν ἔξω φιλοσόφων</span>. In this work he attacked +pagan philosophy for its lack of logic in dealing with the root +problems of life, the soul, the cosmos and the first cause or vital +principle. There is an edition by von Otto published in the +<i>Corpus apologetarum</i> (Jena, 1872). It is interesting, but without +any claim to profundity of reasoning.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Two minor philosophers of the same name are known. Of these, +one was a disciple of Plato and a friend of Aristotle; he became +tyrant of Atarneus and invited Aristotle to his court. Aristotle +subsequently married Pythias, who was either niece or sister of +Hermias. Another Hermias was a Phoenician philosopher of the +Alexandrian school; when Justinian closed the school of Athens, +he was one of the five representatives of the school who took refuge +at the Persian court.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMIPPUS,<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> “the one-eyed,” Athenian writer of the Old +Comedy, flourished during the Peloponnesian War. He is said +to have written 40 plays, of which the titles and fragments +of nine are preserved. He was a bitter opponent of Pericles, +whom he accused (probably in the <span class="grk" title="Moirai">Μοῖραι</span>) of being a bully and a +coward, and of carousing with his boon companions while the +Lacedaemonians were invading Attica. He also accused Aspasia +of impiety and offences against morality, and her acquittal was +only secured by the tears of Pericles (Plutarch, <i>Pericles</i>, 32). In +the <span class="grk" title="Artopôlides">Ἀρτοπωλίδες</span> (“Bakeresses”) he attacked the demagogue +Hyperbolus. The <span class="grk" title="Phormophoroi">Φορμοφόροι</span> (Mat-carriers) contains many +parodies of Homer. Hermippus also appears to have written +scurrilous iambic poems after the manner of Archilochus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fragments in T. Kock, <i>Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta</i>, i. (1880), +and A. Meineke, <i>Poëtarum Graecorum comicorum fragmenta</i> (1855).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMIT,<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> a solitary, one who withdraws from all intercourse +with other human beings in order to live a life of religious contemplation, +and so marked off from a “coenobite” (Gr. <span class="grk" title="koinos">κοινός</span>, +common, and <span class="grk" title="bios">βίος</span>, life), one who shares this life of withdrawal +with others in a community (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Asceticism</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monasticism</a></span>). +The word “hermit” is an adaptation through the O. Fr. <i>ermite</i> +or <i>hermite</i>, from the Lat. form, <i>eremite</i>, of the Gr. <span class="grk" title="eremitês">ἐρεμίτης</span>, a +solitary, from <span class="grk" title="erêmia">ἐρημία</span>, a desert. The English form “eremite,” +which was used, according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, quite +indiscriminately with “hermit” till the middle of the 17th +century, is now chiefly used in poetry or rhetorically, except with +reference to the early hermits of the Libyan desert, or sometimes +to such particular orders as the eremites of St Augustine (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Augustinian Hermits</a></span>). Another synonym is “anchoret” or +“anchorite.” This comes through the French and Latin forms +from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="anachôrêtês">ἀναχωρητής</span>, from <span class="grk" title="anachôrein">ἀναχωρεῖν</span>, to withdraw. A +form nearer to the Greek original, “anachoret,” is sometimes +used of the early Christian recluses in the East.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMOGENES,<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> of Tarsus, Greek rhetorician, surnamed <span class="grk" title="Xustêr">Ξυστήρ</span> +(the polisher), flourished in the reign of Marcus Aurelius (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> +161-180). His precocious ability secured him a public appointment +as teacher of his art while as yet he was only a boy; but +at the age of twenty-five his faculties gave way, and he spent the +remainder of his long life in a state of intellectual impotence. +During his early years, however, he had composed a series of +rhetorical treatises, which became popular text-books, and the +subject of subsequent commentaries. Of his <span class="grk" title="Technê rhêtorikê">Τέχνη ῥητορική</span> we +still possess the sections <span class="grk" title="Peri tôn staseôn">Περὶ τῶν στάσεων</span> (on legal issues), +<span class="grk" title="Peri heureseôs">Περὶ εὑρέσεως</span> (on the invention of arguments), <span class="grk" title="Peri ideôn">Περὶ ἰδεῶν</span> (on the +various kinds of style), <span class="grk" title="Peri methodou deinotêtos">Περὶ μεθόδου δεινότητος</span> (on the method of +speaking effectively), and <span class="grk" title="Progymnasmata">Προγυμνάσματα</span> (rhetorical exercises).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editions by C. Walz (1832), and by L. Spengel (1854), in their +<i>Rhetores Graeci</i>; bibliographical note on the commentaries in +W. Christ, <i>Geschichte der griechischen Literatur</i> (1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMON,<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> the highest mountain in Syria (estimated at 9050 +to 9200 ft.), an outlier of the Anti-Lebanon. As the Hebrew name +(<span title="Hermon">חרמון</span>, “belonging to a sanctuary,” “separate”) shows, it was +always a sacred mountain. The Sidonians called it <i>Sirion</i>, and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page372" id="page372"></a>372</span> +Amorites <i>Shenir</i> (Deut. iii. 9). According to one theory it is the +“high mountain” near Caesarea Philippi, which was the scene of +the Transfiguration (Mark ix. 2). A curious reference in Enoch +vi. 6, says that in the days of Jared the wicked angels descended +on the summit of the mountain and named it Hermon. The +modern name is <i>Jebel es-Sheikh</i>, or “mountain of the chief or +elder.” It is also called <i>Jebel eth-Thelj</i>, “snowy mountain.” +The ridge of Hermon, rising into a dome-shaped summit, is 20 m. +long, extending north-east and south-west. The formation of the +lower part is Nubian sandstone, that of the upper part is a hard +dark-grey crystalline limestone belonging to the Neocomian +period, and full of fossils. The spurs consist in some cases of +white chalk covering the limestone, and on the south there are +several basaltic outbreaks. The view from Hermon is very extensive, +embracing all Lebanon and the plains east of Damascus, +with Palestine as far as Carmel and Tabor. On a clear day Jaffa +also may be seen. The mountain in spring is covered with snow, +but in autumn there is occasionally none left, even in the ravines. +To the height of 500 ft. it is clothed with oaks, poplars and +brush, while luxuriant vineyards abound. Foxes, wolves and +Syrian bears are not infrequently met with, and there is a heavy +dew or night mist. Above the snow-limit the mountain is bare +and covered with fine limestone shingle. The summit is a +plateau from which three rocky knolls rise up, that on the west +being the lowest, that on the south-east the highest. On the +south slope of the latter are remains of a small temple or <i>sacellum</i> +described by St Jerome. A semicircular dwarf wall of good +masonry runs round this peak, and a trench excavated in the +rock may perhaps indicate the site of an altar. On the plateau +is a cave about 25 ft. sq. with the entrance on the east. A rock +column supports the roof, and a building (possibly a Mithraeum) +once stood above. Other small temples are found on the sides of +Hermon, of which twelve in all have been explored. They face +the east and are dated by architects about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 200. The most +remarkable are those of Deir el ‘Ashaiyir, Hibbariyeh, Hosn +Niha and Tell Thatha. At the ruined town called Rukleh on the +northern slopes are remains of a temple, the stones of which have +been built into a church. A large medallion, 5 ft. in diameter, +with a head supposed to represent the sun-god, is built into the +wall. Several Greek inscriptions occur among these ruins. In +the 12th century Psalm lxxxix. 12 was supposed to indicate the +proximity of Hermon to Tabor. The conical hill immediately +south of Tabor was thus named Little Hermon, and is still so +called by some of the inhabitants of the district.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERMSDORF,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> a village of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Silesia. Pop. (1900) 10,975. There are coal and iron mines +and lime quarries in the vicinity, and in the town there are large +iron-works. Hermsdorf is known as Niederhermsdorf to distinguish +it from other places of the same name. Perhaps the +most noteworthy of these is a village in Silesia at the foot of the +Riesengebirge, chiefly famous for the ruins of the castle of Kynast. +This castle, formerly the seat of the Schaffgotsch family, was +destroyed by lightning in 1675. A third Hermsdorf is a village +in Saxe-Altenburg, where porcelain is made.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERNE, JAMES A.<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> [originally <span class="sc">Aherne</span>] (1840-1901), American +actor and playwright, was born in Troy, New York, and after +theatrical experiences in various companies produced his own +first play, <i>Hearts of Oak</i>, in 1878, and his great success <i>Shore +Acres</i> in 1882. It was in rural drama that his humour and pathos +found their proper setting, and <i>Shore Acres</i> was seen throughout +the United States almost continuously for six seasons, being +followed by the less successful <i>Sag Harbor</i>, 1900.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERNE,<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Westphalia, 15 m. by rail N.W. of Dortmund. Pop. (1905) +33,258. It has coal mines, boiler-works, gunpowder mills, &c. +Herne was made a town in 1897.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERNE BAY,<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> a seaside resort in the St Augustine’s parliamentary +division of Kent, England, 8 m. N. by E. of Canterbury, +on the South Eastern and Chatham railway. Pop. of urban +district (1901) 6726. It has grown up since 1830, above a +sandy and pebbly shore, and has a pier ¾ m. long. The +church of St Martin in the village of Herne, 1½ m. inland, +is Early English and later; the living was held by Nicholas +Ridley (1538), afterwards Bishop of London. At Reculver, +3 m. E. of Herne Bay on the coast, is the site of the Roman +station of <i>Regulbium</i>. The fortress occupied about 8 acres, but +only traces of the south and east walls remain. In Saxon times +it was converted into a palace by King Ethelbert, and in 669 a +monastery was founded here by Egbert. The Early English +church was taken down early in the 19th century owing to the +encroachment of the sea, and parts of its fabric were preserved +in the modern church of St Mary. But its twin towers, known +as the Sisters from the tradition that they were built by a +Benedictine abbess of Faversham in memory of her sister, were +preserved by Trinity House as a conspicuous landmark.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERNE THE HUNTER,<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> a legendary huntsman who was alleged +to haunt Windsor Great Park at night, especially around an +aged tree, long known as Herne’s oak, said to be nearly 700 +years old. This was blown down in 1863, and a young oak was +planted by Queen Victoria on the spot. Herne has his French +counterpart in the <i>Grand Veneur</i> of Fontainebleau. Mention +is made of Herne in <i>The Merry Wives of Windsor</i> and in Harrison +Ainsworth’s <i>Windsor Castle</i>. Nothing definite is known of the +Herne legend. It is suggested that it originated in the life-story +of some keeper of the forest; but more probably it is only +a variant of the “Wild Huntsman” myth common to folk-lore, +which (E. B. Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>, 4th ed. pp. 361-362) is +almost certainly the modern form of a prehistoric storm-myth.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERNIA<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (Lat. <i>hernia</i>, perhaps from Gr. <span class="grk" title="ernos">ἔρνος</span>, a sprout), in +surgery, the protrusion of a viscus, or part of a viscus, from its +normal cavity; thus, <i>hernia cerebri</i> is a protrusion of brain-substance, +<i>hernia pulmonum</i>, a protrusion of a portion of lung, +and <i>hernia iridis</i>, a protrusion of some of the iris through an +aperture in the cornea. But, used by itself, hernia implies a +protrusion from the abdominal cavity, or, in common language, +a “rupture.” A rupture may occur at any weak point in the +abdominal wall. The common situations are the groin (<i>inguinal +hernia</i>), the upper part of the thigh (<i>femoral hernia</i>), and the +navel (<i>umbilical hernia</i>). The more movable the viscus the +greater the liability to protrusion, and therefore one commonly +finds some of the small intestine, or of the fatty apron (omentum), +in the hernia. The tumour may contain intestine alone (enterocele), +omentum alone (epiplocele), or both intestine and omentum +(entero-epiplocele). The predisposing cause of rupture is +abnormal length of the suspensory membrane of the bowel +(the mesentery), or of the omentum, in conjunction with some +weak spot in the abdominal wall, as in an inguinal hernia, which +descends along the canal in which the spermatic cord lies in the +male and the round ligament of the womb in the female. A +femoral hernia comes through a weak spot in the abdomen to +the inner side of the great femoral vessels; a ventral hernia takes +place by the yielding of the scar tissue left after an operation +for appendicitis or ovarian disease. The exciting cause of +hernia is generally some over-exertion, as in lifting a heavy +weight, jumping off a high wall, straining (as in difficult micturition), +constipation or excessive coughing. The pressure of the +diaphragm above and the abdominal wall in front acting on the +abdominal viscera causes a protrusion at the weakest point.</p> + +<p>Rupture is either congenital or acquired. A child may be +born with a hernia in the inguinal or umbilical region, the result +of an arrest of development in these parts; or the rupture may +be acquired, first appearing, perhaps, in adult life as the result +of a strain or hurt. Men suffer more frequently than women, +because of their physical labours, because they are more liable +to accidents, and because of the passage for the spermatic cord +out of the abdomen being more spacious than that for the round +ligament of the womb.</p> + +<p>At first the rupture is small, and it gradually increases in bulk. +It varies from the size of a marble to a child’s head. The swelling +consists of three parts—the coverings, sac and contents. The +“coverings” are the structures which form the abdominal wall +at the part where the rupture occurs. In femoral hernia the +coverings are the structures at the upper part of the thigh which +are stretched, thinned and matted together as the result of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page373" id="page373"></a>373</span> +pressure; in other cases there is an increase in their thickness, +the result of repeated attacks of inflammation. The “sac” is +composed of the peritoneum or membrane lining the abdominal +cavity; in some rare cases the sac is wanting. The neck of the +sac is the narrowed portion where the peritoneum forming the +sac becomes continuous with the general peritoneal cavity. +The neck of the sac is often thickened, indurated and adherent +to surrounding parts, the result of chronic inflammation. The +“contents” are bowel, omental fat, or, in children, an ovary.</p> + +<p>The hernia may be reducible, irreducible or strangulated. +A “reducible” hernia is one in which the contents can be +pushed back into the abdomen. In some cases this reduction is +effected with ease, in others it is a matter of great difficulty. +At any moment a reducible hernia may become “irreducible,” +that is to say, it cannot be pushed back into the abdominal +cavity, perhaps because of inflammatory adhesions in and +around the fatty contents, or because of extra fullness of the +bowel in the sac. A “strangulated” hernia is one in which the +circulation of the blood through the hernial contents is interfered +with, by the pinching at the narrowest part of the passage. +The interference is at first slight, but it quickly becomes more +pronounced; the pinched bowel in the hernial sac swells as a +finger does when a string is tightly wound round its base. At first +there is congestion, and this may go on to inflammation, to +infection by micro-organisms and to mortification. The rapidity +with which the change from simple congestion to mortification +takes place depends on the tightness of the constriction, and on +the virulence of the bacterial infection from the bowel. As a +rule, the more rapidly a hernia forms the greater the rapidity +of serious change in the conditions of the bowel or omentum, +and the more urgent are the symptoms. The constricting band +may be one of the structures which form the boundaries of the +openings through which the hernia has travelled, or it may be +the neck of the sac, which has become thickened in consequence +of inflammation—especially is this the case in an inguinal hernia.</p> + +<p><i>Reducible Hernia.</i>—With a reducible hernia there is a soft +compressible tumour (elastic when it contains intestine, doughy +when it contains omentum), its size increasing in the erect, and +diminishing in the horizontal posture. As a rule, it causes no +trouble during the night. It gives an impulse on coughing, and +when the intestinal contents are pushed back into the abdomen +a gurgling sensation is perceptible by the fingers. Such a tumour +may be met with in any part of the abdominal wall, but the chief +situations are as follows. The inguinal region, in which the neck +of the tumour lies immediately above Poupart’s ligament (a +cord-like ligamentous structure which can be felt stretching +from the front of the hip-bone to a ridge of bone immediately +above the genital organs); the femoral region, in the upper part +of the thigh, in which the neck of the sac lies immediately below +the inner end of Poupart’s ligament; the umbilical region, +in which the tumour appears at or near the navel. As the +inguinal hernia increases in size it passes into the scrotum in the +male, into the labium in the female; while the femoral hernia +gradually pushes upwards to the abdomen.</p> + +<p>The palliative treatment of a reducible hernia consists in +pushing back the contents of the tumour into the abdomen +and applying a truss or elastic bandage to prevent their again +escaping. The younger the patient the more chance there is +of the truss acting as a curative agent. The truss may generally +be left off at night, but it should be put on in the morning +before the patient leaves his bed. If, after the hernia has been +once returned, it is not allowed again to come down, there is a +probability of an actual cure taking place; but if it is allowed +to come down occasionally, as it may do, even during the night, +in consequence of a cough, or from the patient turning suddenly +in bed, the weak spot is again opened out, and the improvement +which might have been going on for weeks is undone. It is +sometimes found impossible to keep up a hernia by means of a +truss, and an operation becomes necessary. The operation is +spoken of as “the radical treatment of hernia,” in contra-distinction +to the so-called “palliative treatment” by means +of a truss. It should not be spoken of as the radical cure, for +skilfully as the operation may have been performed it is not +always a cure. The principles involved in the operation are the +emptying of the sac and its entire removal, and the closure of the +opening into the abdomen by strong sutures; and, in this way, +great advance has been made by modern surgery. Without +tiresome delay, and the tedious and sometimes disappointing +application of trusses, the weak spot in the abdominal wall is +exposed, the sac of the hernia is tied and removed, and the canal +by which the rupture descended is blockaded by buried sutures, +and with no material risk to life. Thus the patient’s worries +become a thing of the past, and he is rendered a fit and normal +member of society. Experience has shown that very few ruptures +are unsuited for successful treatment by operation. No boy +should now be sent to school compelled to wear a truss, and so +hindered in his games and rendered an object of remark.</p> + +<p><i>Irreducible Hernia.</i>—The main symptom is a tumour in one +of the situations already referred to, of long standing and +perhaps of large size, in which the contents of the tumour, in +whole or in part, cannot be pushed back into the abdomen. +The irreducibility is due either to its large size or to changes +which have taken place by indurations or adhesions. Such a +tumour is a constant source of danger: its contents are liable, +from their exposed situation, to injury from external violence; +it has a constant risk of increase; it may at any time become +strangulated, or the contents may inflame, and strangulation +may occur secondarily to the inflammation. It gives rise to +dragging sensations (referred to the abdomen), colic, dyspepsia +and constipation, which may lead to obstruction, that is to say, a +stoppage may occur of the passage of the contents of that portion +of the intestinal canal which lies in the hernia. When an irreducible +hernia becomes painful and tender, a local peritonitis +has occurred, which resembles in many of its symptoms a case +of strangulation, and must be regarded with suspicion and +anxiety. Indeed, the only safe treatment is by operation.</p> + +<p>The treatment of irreducible hernia may be palliative; a +“bag truss” may be worn in the hope of preventing the hernia +getting larger; the bowels must be kept open, and all irregularities +of diet avoided. A person with such a hernia is in constant +danger, and if his general condition does not contra-indicate it +he should be submitted to operative treatment. That is to say, +the surgeon should cut down on the hernia, open the sac, divide +any omental adhesions, tie and cut away indurated omentum, +return the bowel, and complete the radical operation by closing +the aperture by strong sutures.</p> + +<p>In <i>Strangulated Hernia</i> the bowel or omentum is being nipped +at the neck of the sac, and the flow of blood into and from the +delicate tissues is stopped. The symptoms are—nausea, vomiting +of bilious matter, and after a time of faecal-smelling matter; +a twisting, burning pain generally referred to the region of the +navel, intestinal obstruction; a quick, wiry pulse and pain on +pressure over the tumour; the expression grows anxious, the +abdomen becomes tense and drum-like, and there is no impulse +in the tumour on coughing, because its contents are practically +pinched off from the general abdominal cavity. Sometimes there +is complete absence of pain and tenderness in the hernia itself, +and in an aged person all the symptoms may be very slight. +Sooner or later, from eight hours to eight days, if the strangulation +is unrelieved, the tumour becomes livid, crackling with gas, +mortification of the bowel at the neck of the sac takes place, +followed by extravasation of the intestinal contents into the +abdominal cavity; the patient has hiccough; he becomes +collapsed; and dies comatose from blood-poisoning.</p> + +<p>The treatment of a strangulated hernia admits of no delay; +if the hernia does not “go back” on the surgeon trying to reduce +it, it must be operated on at once, the constriction being relieved, +the bowel returned and the opening closed. There should be +no treatment by hot-bath or ice-bag: operation is urgently +needed. An anaesthetic should be administered, and perhaps +one gentle attempt to return the contents by pressure (termed +“taxis”) may be made, but no prolonged attempts are justifiable, +because the condition of the hernial contents may be +such that they cannot bear the pressure of the fingers. “Think +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page374" id="page374"></a>374</span> +well of the hernia,” says the aphorism, “which has been little +handled.”</p> + +<p>The taxis to be successful should be made in a direction +opposite to the one in which the hernia has come down. The +inguinal hernia should be pressed upwards, outwards and +backwards, the femoral hernia downwards, backwards and +upwards. The larger the hernia the greater is the chance of +success by taxis, and the smaller the hernia the greater the risk +of its being injured by manipulation and delay. In every case +the handling must be absolutely gentle. If taxis does not succeed +the surgeon must at once cut down on the tumour, carefully +dividing the different coverings until he reaches the sac. The +sac is then opened, the constriction divided, care being taken +not to injure the bowel. The bowel must be examined before it +is returned into the abdomen, and if its lustreless appearance, +its dusky colour, or its smell, suggests that it is mortified, or is +on the point of mortifying, it must not be put back or perforation +would give rise to septic peritonitis which would probably have +a fatal ending. In such a case the damaged piece of bowel must +be resected and the healthy ends of the bowel joined together +by fine suturing. Matted or diseased omentum must be tied off +and removed. Should peritonitis supervene after the operation +on account of bacillary infection, the bowels should be quickly +made to act by repeated doses of Epsom salts in hot water.</p> + +<p>A person who is the subject of a reducible hernia should take +great care to obtain an accurately fitting truss, and should +remember that whenever symptoms resembling in any degree +those of strangulation occur, delay in treatment may prove +fatal. A surgeon should at once be communicated with, and he +should come prepared to operate.</p> +<div class="author">(E. O.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERNICI,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> an ancient people of Italy, whose territory was +in Latium between the Fucine Lake and the Trerus, bounded +by the Volscian on the S., and by the Aequian and the Marsian +on the N. They long maintained their independence, and in +486 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> were still strong enough to conclude an equal treaty +with the Latins (Dion. Hal. viii. 64 and 68). They broke away +from Rome in 362 (Livy vii. 6 ff.) and in 306 (Livy ix. 42), when +their chief town Anagnia (<i>q.v.</i>) was taken and reduced to a +praefecture, but Ferentinum, Aletrium and Verulae were +rewarded for their fidelity by being allowed to remain free +<i>municipia</i>, a position which at that date they preferred to the +<i>civitas</i>. The name of the Hernici, like that of the Volsci, is +missing from the list of Italian peoples whom Polybius (ii. 24) +describes as able to furnish troops in 225 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; by that date, +therefore, their territory cannot have been distinguished from +Latium generally, and it seems probable (Beloch, <i>Ital. Bund</i>, +p. 123) that they had then received the full Roman citizenship. +The oldest Latin inscriptions of the district (from Ferentinum, +<i>C.I.L.</i> x. 5837-5840) are earlier than the Social War, and present +no local characteristic.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further details of their history see <i>C.I.L.</i> x. 572.</p> +</div> + +<p>There is no evidence to show that the Hernici ever spoke a +really different dialect from the Latins; but one or two glosses +indicate that they had certain peculiarities of vocabulary, such +as might be expected among folk who clung to their local customs. +Their name, however, with its <i>Co</i>-termination, classes them +along with the <i>Co</i>-tribes, like the Volsci, who would seem to have +been earlier inhabitants of the west coast of Italy, rather than +with the tribes whose names were formed with the <i>No</i>-suffix. +On this question see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Volsci</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sabini</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Conway’s <i>Italic Dialects</i> (Camb. Univ. Press, 1897), p. 306 ff., +where the glosses and the local and personal names of the district +will be found.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. S. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HERNÖSAND,<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district +(<i>län</i>) of Vesternorrland on the Gulf of Bothnia. Pop. (1900) +7890. It stands on the island of Hernö (which is connected +with the mainland by bridges) near the mouth of the Ångerman +river, 423 m. N. of Stockholm by rail. It is the seat of a bishop +and possesses a fine cathedral. There are engine-works, timber-yards +and saw-mills. The harbour is good, but generally ice-bound +from December to May. Timber, iron and wood-pulp are +exported. There are a school of navigation and an institute for +pisciculture. Hernösand was founded in 1584, and received its +first town-privileges from John III. in 1587. It was the first +town in Europe to be lighted by electricity (1885). The poet +Franzen (<i>q.v.</i>), Bishop of Hernösand, is buried here.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 13, Slice 3, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13, SLICE 3 *** + +***** This file should be named 39435-h.htm or 39435-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/4/3/39435/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> + |