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diff --git a/39435.txt b/39435.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c8f6614 --- /dev/null +++ b/39435.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18389 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 13, Slice 3, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 3 + "Helmont, Jean" to "Hernosand" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 12, 2012 [EBook #39435] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SLICE 3 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE HEMIMORPHITE: "Hemimorphite occurs with other ores of zinc + (calamine and blende), forming veins and beds in sedimentary + limestones." 'sedimentary' amended from 'sedimentry'. + + ARTICLE HEMP: "But typically the drug is an intoxicant, resembling + alcohol in many features of its action, but differing in others." + 'is' amended from 'in'. + + ARTICLE HENLEY, WILLIAM ERNEST: "In 1890 Henley published Views and + Reviews, a volume of notable criticisms, described by himself as + 'less a book than a mosaic of scraps and shreds recovered from the + shot rubbish of some fourteen years of journalism.'" 'mosaic' + amended from 'mosiac'. + + ARTICLE HENRY VIII.: "... and the Councils of Wales and of the + North were given summary powers derived from the Roman civil law + similar to those exercised by the Star Chamber at Westminster and + the court of Castle Chamber at Dublin." 'similar' amended from + 'similiar'. + + ARTICLE HERBARIUM: "... some species being almost always found + parasitical on particular plants." Duplicated 'found'. + + ARTICLE HERCULES: "Hera sent two serpents to destroy the new-born + Hercules, but he strangled them." 'destroy' amended from 'destory'. + + ARTICLE HEREDITAMENT: "An example of a corporeal hereditament is + land held in freehold, of incorporeal hereditaments, tithes, + advowsons, pensions, annuities, rents, franchises, &c." + 'hereditaments' amended from 'herditaments'. + + ARTICLE HEREFORDSHIRE: "Herefordshire probably originated as a + shire in the time of Aethelstan, and is mentioned in the Saxon + Chronicle in 1051." 'Chronicle' amended from 'Chroncile'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XIII, SLICE III + + HELMONT, JEAN to HERNOSAND + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + HELMONT, JEAN BAPTISTE VAN HENRY, ROBERT + HELMSTEDT HENRY, VICTOR + HELMUND HENRY, WILLIAM + HELM WIND HENRYSON, ROBERT + HELOTS HENSCHEL, GEORGE + HELPS, SIR ARTHUR HENSELT, ADOLF VON + HELSINGBORG HENSLOW, JOHN STEVENS + HELSINGFORS HENSLOWE, PHILIP + HELST, BARTHOLOMAEUS VAN DER HENTY, GEORGE ALFRED + HELSTON HENWOOD, WILLIAM JORY + HELVETIC CONFESSIONS HENZADA + HELVETII HEPBURN, SIR JOHN + HELVETIUS, CLAUDE ADRIEN HEPHAESTION (Macedonian general) + HELVIDIUS PRISCUS HEPHAESTION (Alexandrian grammarian) + HELY-HUTCHINSON, JOHN HEPHAESTUS + HELYOT, PIERRE HEPPENHEIM + HEMANS, FELICIA DOROTHEA HEPPLEWHITE, GEORGE + HEMEL HEMPSTEAD HEPTARCHY + HEMEROBAPTISTS HERA + HEMICHORDA HERACLEA + HEMICYCLE HERACLEON + HEMIMERUS HERACLEONAS + HEMIMORPHITE HERACLIDAE + HEMINGBURGH, WALTER OF HERACLIDES PONTICUS + HEMIPTERA HERACLITUS + HEMLOCK HERACLIUS + HEMP HERALD + HEMSTERHUIS, FRANCOIS HERALDRY + HEMSTERHUIS, TIBERIUS HERAT + HEMY, CHARLES NAPIER HERAULT + HEN HERAULT DE SECHELLES, MARIE JEAN + HENAULT, CHARLES JEAN FRANCOIS HERB + HENBANE HERBARIUM + HENCHMAN HERBART, JOHANN FRIEDRICH + HENDERSON, ALEXANDER HERBELOT DE MOLAINVILLE, BARTHELEMY D' + HENDERSON, EBENEZER HERBERAY DES ESSARTS, NICOLAS DE + HENDERSON, GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT HERBERT (Family) + HENDERSON, JOHN HERBERT, GEORGE + HENDERSON (Kentucky, U.S.A.) HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM + HENDIADYS HERBERT, SIR THOMAS + HENDON HERBERT OF CHERBURY, EDWARD HERBERT + HENDRICKS, THOMAS ANDREWS HERBERT OF LEA, SIDNEY HERBERT + HENGELO HERBERTON + HENGEST and HORSA HERCULANEUM + HENGSTENBERG, ERNST WILHELM HERCULANO DE CARVALHO, ALEXANDRE + HENKE, HEINRICH PHILIPP KONRAD HERCULES (hero of Hellas) + HENLE, FRIEDRICH GUSTAV JAKOB HERCULES (constellation) + HENLEY, JOHN HERD + HENLEY, WILLIAM ERNEST HERDER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED VON + HENLEY-ON-THAMES HEREDIA, JOSE MARIA DE + HENNA HEREDIA Y CAMPUZANO, JOSE MARIA + HENNEBONT HEREDITAMENT + HENNEQUIN, PHILIPPE AUGUSTE HEREDITY + HENNER, JEAN JACQUES HEREFORD + HENRIETTA MARIA HEREFORDSHIRE + HENRY (name origin) HERERO + HENRY I. (German king) HERESY + HENRY II. (Roman emperor) HEREWARD + HENRY III. (Roman emperor) HERFORD + HENRY IV. (Roman emperor) HERGENROTHER, JOSEPH VON + HENRY V. (Roman emperor) HERINGSDORF + HENRY VI. (Roman emperor) HERIOT, GEORGE + HENRY VII. (Roman emperor) HERIOT + HENRY VII. (German king) HERISAU + HENRY RASPE HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS + HENRY (emperor of Romania) HERKIMER + HENRY I. (king of England) HERKOMER, SIR HUBERT VON + HENRY II. (king of England) HERLEN, FRITZ + HENRY III. (king of England) HERMAE + HENRY IV. (king of England) HERMAGORAS + HENRY V. (king of England) HERMANDAD + HENRY VI. (king of England) HERMAN DE VALENCIENNES + HENRY VII. (king of England) HERMANN I. + HENRY VIII. (king of England) HERMANN OF REICHENAU + HENRY I. (king of Castile) HERMANN OF WIED + HENRY I. (king of France) HERMANN, FRIEDRICH WILHELM VON + HENRY II. (king of France) HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB + HENRY III. (king of France) HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH + HENRY IV. (king of France) HERMAPHRODITUS + HENRY I. (king of Navarre) HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF + HENRY II. (king of Navarre) HERMENEUTICS + HENRY I. (king of Portugal) HERMES (Greek god) + HENRY II. (duke of Brunswick-W.) HERMES, GEORG + HENRY (the Proud, duke of Saxony) HERMES TRISMEGISTUS + HENRY (the Lion, duke of Saxony) HERMESIANAX + HENRY (Prince of Battenberg) HERMIAS + HENRY FITZ HENRY HERMIPPUS + HENRY (Cardinal York) HERMIT + HENRY OF PORTUGAL HERMOGENES + HENRY OF ALMAIN HERMON + HENRY OF BLOIS HERMSDORF + HENRY OF GHENT HERNE, JAMES A. + HENRY OF HUNTINGDON HERNE (town of Germany) + HENRY OF LAUSANNE HERNE BAY + HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON HERNE THE HUNTER + HENRY, JAMES HERNIA + HENRY, JOSEPH HERNICI + HENRY, MATTHEW HERNOSAND + HENRY, PATRICK + + + + +HELMONT, JEAN BAPTISTE VAN (1577-1644), Belgian chemist, physiologist +and physician, a member of a noble family, was born at Brussels in +1577.[1] He was educated at Louvain, and after ranging restlessly from +one science to another and finding satisfaction in none, turned to +medicine, in which he took his doctor's degree in 1599. The next few +years he spent in travelling through Switzerland, Italy, France and +England. Returning to his own country he was at Antwerp at the time of +the great plague in 1605, and having contracted a rich marriage settled +in 1609 at Vilvorde, near Brussels, where he occupied himself with +chemical experiments and medical practice until his death on the 30th of +December 1644. Van Helmont presents curious contradictions. On the one +hand he was a disciple of Paracelsus (though he scornfully repudiates +his errors was well as those of most other contemporary authorities), a +mystic with strong leanings to the supernatural, an alchemist who +believed that with a small piece of the philosopher's stone he had +transmuted 2000 times as much mercury into gold; on the other hand he +was touched with the new learning that was producing men like Harvey, +Galileo and Bacon, a careful observer of nature, and an exact +experimenter who in some cases realized that matter can neither be +created nor destroyed. As a chemist he deserves to be regarded as the +founder of pneumatic chemistry, even though it made no substantial +progress for a century after his time, and he was the first to +understand that there are gases distinct in kind from atmospheric air. +The very word "gas" he claims as his own invention, and he perceived +that his "gas sylvestre" (our carbon dioxide) given off by burning +charcoal is the same as that produced by fermenting must and that which +sometimes renders the air of caves irrespirable. For him air and water +are the two primitive elements of things. Fire he explicitly denies to +be an element, and earth is not one because it can be reduced to water. +That plants, for instance, are composed of water he sought to show by +the ingenious quantitative experiment of planting a willow weighing 5 +lb. in 200 lb. of dry soil and allowing it to grow for five years; at +the end of that time it had become a tree weighing 169 lb., and since it +had received nothing but water and the soil weighed practically the same +as at the beginning, he argued that the increased weight of wood, bark +and roots had been formed from water alone. It was an old idea that the +processes of the living body are fermentative in character, but he +applied it more elaborately than any of his predecessors. For him +digestion, nutrition and even movement are due to ferments, which +convert dead food into living flesh in six stages. But having got so far +with the application of chemical principles to physiological problems, +he introduces a complicated system of supernatural agencies like the +_archei_ of Paracelsus, which preside over and direct the affairs of the +body. A central _archeus_ controls a number of subsidiary _archei_ which +move through the ferments, and just as diseases are primarily caused by +some affection (_exorbitatio_) of the _archeus_, so remedies act by +bringing it back to the normal. At the same time chemical principles +guided him in the choice of medicines--undue acidity of the digestive +juices, for example, was to be corrected by alkalies and _vice versa_; +he was thus a forerunner of the iatrochemical school, and did good +service to the art of medicine by applying chemical methods to the +preparation of drugs. Over and above the _archeus_ he taught that there +is the sensitive soul which is the husk or shell of the immortal mind. +Before the Fall the _archeus_ obeyed the immortal mind and was directly +controlled by it, but at the Fall men received also the sensitive soul +and with it lost immortality, for when it perishes the immortal mind can +no longer remain in the body. In addition to the _archeus_, which he +described as "aura vitalis seminum, vitae directrix," Van Helmont had +other governing agencies resembling the _archeus_ and not always clearly +distinguished from it. From these he invented the term _blas_, defined +as the "vis motus tam alterivi quam localis." Of _blas_ there were +several kinds, e.g. _blas humanum_ and _blas meteoron_; the heavens he +said "constare gas materia et blas efficiente." He was a faithful +Catholic, but incurred the suspicion of the Church by his tract _De +magnetica vulnerum curatione_ (1621), which was thought to derogate from +some of the miracles. His works were collected and published at +Amsterdam as _Ortus medicinae, vel opera et opuscula omnia_ in 1668 by +his son Franz Mercurius (b. 1618 at Vilvorde, d. 1699 at Berlin), in +whose own writings, e.g. _Cabbalah Denudata_ (1677) and _Opuscula +philosophica_ (1690), mystical theosophy and alchemy appear in still +wilder confusion. + + See M. Foster, _Lectures on the History of Physiology_ (1901); also + Chevreul in _Journ. des savants_ (Feb. and March 1850), and Cap in + _Journ. pharm. chim._ (1852). Other authorities are Poultier d'Elmoth, + _Memoire sur J. B. van Helmont_ (1817); Rixner and Sieber, _Beitrage + zur Geschichte der Physiologie_ (1819-1826), vol. ii.; Spiers, + _Helmont's System der Medicin_ (1840); Melsens, _Lecons sur van + Helmont_ (1848); Rommelaere, _Etudes sur J. B. van Helmont_ (1860). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] An alternative date for his birth is 1579 and for his death 1635 + (see _Bull. Roy. Acad. Belg._, 1907, 7, p. 732). + + + + +HELMSTEDT, or more rarely Helmstadt, a town of Germany, in the duchy of +Brunswick, 30 m. N.W. of Magdeburg on the main line of railway to +Brunswick. Pop. (1905) 15,415. The principal buildings are the Juleum, +the former university, built in the Renaissance style towards the close +of the 16th century, and containing a library of 40,000 volumes; the +fine Stephanskirche dating from the 12th century; the Walpurgiskirche +restored in 1893-1894; the Marienberger Kirche, a beautiful church in +the Roman style, and the Roman Catholic church. The Augustinian nunnery +of Marienberg founded in 1176 is now a Lutheran school. The town +contains the ruins of the Benedictine abbey of St Ludger, which was +secularized in 1803. The educational institutions include several +schools. The principal manufactures are furniture, yarn, soap, tobacco, +sugar, vitriol and earthenware. Near the town is Bad Helmstedt, which +has an iron mineral spring, and the Lubbensteine, two blocks of granite +on which sacrifices to Woden are said to have been offered. Near Bad +Helmstedt a monument has been erected to those who fell in the +Franco-German War; in the town there is one to those killed at Waterloo. +Helmstedt originated, according to legend, in connexion with the +monastery founded by Ludger or Liudger (d. 809), the first bishop of +Munster. There appears, however, little doubt that this tradition is +mythical and that Helmstedt was not founded until about 900. It obtained +civic rights in 1099 and, although destroyed by the archbishop of +Magdeburg in 1199, it was soon rebuilt. In 1457 it joined the Hanseatic +League, and in 1490 it came into the possession of Brunswick. In 1576 +Julius, duke of Brunswick, founded a university here, and throughout the +17th century this was one of the chief seats of Protestant learning. It +was closed by Jerome, king of Westphalia, in 1809. + + See Ludewig, _Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Helmstedt_ + (Helmstedt, 1821). + + + + +HELMUND, a river of Afghanistan, in length about 600 m. The Helmund, +which is identical with the ancient Etymander, is the most important +river in Afghanistan, next to the Kabul river, which it exceeds both in +volume and length. It rises in the recesses of the Koh-i-Baba to the +west of Kabul, its infant stream parting the Unai pass from the Irak, +the two chief passes on the well-known road from Kabul to Bamian. For 50 +m. from its source its course is ascertained, but beyond that point for +the next 50 no European has followed it. About the parallel of 33 deg. +N. it enters the Zamindawar province which lies to the N.W. of Kandahar, +and thenceforward it is a well-mapped river to its termination in the +lake of Seistan. Till about 40 m. above Girishk the character of the +Helmund is that of a mountain river, flowing through valleys which in +summer are the resort of pastoral tribes. On leaving the hills it enters +on a flat country, and extends over a gravelly bed. Here also it begins +to be used in irrigation. At Girishk it is crossed by the principal +route from Herat to Kandahar. Forty-five miles below Girishk the Helmund +receives its greatest tributary, the Arghandab, from the high Ghilzai +country beyond Kandahar, and becomes a very considerable river, with a +width of 300 or 400 yds. and an occasional depth of 9 to 12 ft. Even in +the dry season it is never without a plentiful supply of water. The +course of the river is more or less south-west from its source till in +Seistan it crosses meridian 62 deg., when it turns nearly north, and so +flows for 70 or 80 m. till it falls into the Seistan hamuns, or swamps, +by various mouths. In this latter part of its course it forms the +boundary between Afghan and Persian Seistan, and owing to constant +changes in its bed and the swampy nature of its borders it has been a +fertile source of frontier squabbles. Persian Seistan was once highly +cultivated by means of a great system of canal irrigation; but for +centuries, since the country was devastated by Timur, it has been a +barren, treeless waste of flat alluvial plain. In years of exceptional +flood the Seistan lakes spread southwards into an overflow channel +called the Shelag which, running parallel to the northern course of the +Helmund in the opposite direction, finally loses its waters in the +Gaod-i-Zirreh swamp, which thus becomes the final bourne of the river. +Throughout its course from its confluence with the Arghandab to the ford +of Chahar Burjak, where it bends northward, the Helmund valley is a +narrow green belt of fertility sunk in the midst of a wide alluvial +desert, with many thriving villages interspersed amongst the remains of +ancient cities, relics of Kaiani rule. The recent political mission to +Seistan under Sir Henry McMahon (1904-1905) added much information +respecting the ancient and modern channels of the lower Helmund, proving +that river to have been constantly shifting its bed over a vast area, +changing the level of the country by silt deposits, and in conjunction +with the terrific action of Seistan winds actually altering its +configuration. (T. H. H.*) + + + + +HELM WIND, a wind that under certain conditions blows over the +escarpment of the Pennines, near Cross Fell from the eastward, when a +helm (helmet) cloud covers the summit. The helm bar is a roll of cloud +that forms in front of it, to leeward. + + See "Report on the Helm Wind Inquiry," by W. Marriott, _Quart. Journ. + Roy. Met. Soc._ xv. 103. + + + + +HELOTS (Gr. [Greek: heilotes] or [Greek: heilotai]), the serfs of the +ancient Spartans. The word was derived in antiquity from the town of +Helos in Laconia, but is more probably connected with [Greek: helos], a +fen, or with the root of [Greek: helein], to capture. Some scholars +suppose them to have been of Achaean race, but they were more probably +the aborigines of Laconia who had been enslaved by the Achaeans before +the Dorian conquest. After the second Messenian war (see SPARTA) the +conquered Messenians were reduced to the status of helots, from which +Epaminondas liberated them three centuries later after the battle of +Leuctra (371 B.C.). The helots were state slaves bound to the +soil--_adscripti glebae_--and assigned to individual Spartiates to till +their holdings ([Greek: kleroi]); their masters could neither emancipate +them nor sell them off the land, and they were under an oath not to +raise the rent payable yearly in kind by the helots. In time of war they +served as light-armed troops or as rowers in the fleet; from the +Peloponnesian War onwards they were occasionally employed as heavy +infantry ([Greek: hoplitai]), distinguished bravery being rewarded by +emancipation. That the general attitude of the Spartans towards them was +one of distrust and cruelty cannot be doubted. Aristotle says that the +ephors of each year on entering office declared war on the helots so +that they might be put to death at any time without violating religious +scruple (Plutarch, _Lycurgus_ 28), and we have a well-attested record of +2000 helots being freed for service in war and then secretly +assassinated (Thuc. iv. 80). But when we remember the value of the +helots from a military and agricultural point of view we shall not +readily believe that the _crypteia_ was really, as some authors +represent it, an organized system of massacre; we shall see in it "a +good police training, inculcating hardihood and vigour in the young," +while at the same time getting rid of any helots who were found to be +plotting against the state (see further CRYPTEIA). + +Intermediate between Helots and Spartiates were the two classes of +_Neodamodes_ and _Mothones_. The former were emancipated helots, or +possibly their descendants, and were much used in war from the end of +the 5th century; they served especially on foreign campaigns, as those +of Thibron (400-399 B.C.) and Agesilaus (396-394 B.C.) in Asia Minor. +The _mothones_ or _mothakes_ were usually the sons of Spartiates and +helot mothers; they were free men sharing the Spartan training, but were +not full citizens, though they might become such in recognition of +special merit. + + See C. O. Muller, _History and Antiquities of the Doric Race_ (Eng. + trans.), bk. iii. ch. 3.; G. Gilbert, _Greek Constitutional + Antiquities_ (Eng. trans.), pp. 30-35; A. H. J. Greenidge, _Handbook + of Greek Constitutional History_, pp. 83-85; G. Busolt, _Die griech. + Staats- u. Rechtsaltertumer_, S 84; _Griechische Geschichte_, i.[2] + 525-528; G. F. Schomann, _Antiquities of Greece: The State_ (Eng. + trans.) pp. 194 ff. (M. N. T.) + + + + +HELPS, SIR ARTHUR (1813-1875), English writer and clerk of the Privy +Council, youngest son of Thomas Helps, a London merchant, was born near +London on the 10th of July 1813. He was educated at Eton and at Trinity +College, Cambridge, coming out 31st wrangler in the mathematical tripos +in 1835. He was recognized by the ablest of his contemporaries there as +a man of superior gifts, and likely to make his mark in after life. As a +member of the Conversazione Society, better known as the "Apostles," a +society established in 1820 for the purposes of discussion on social and +literary questions by a few young men attracted to each other by a +common taste for literature and speculation, he was associated with +Charles Buller, Frederick Maurice, Richard Chenevix Trench, Monckton +Milnes, Arthur Hallam and Alfred Tennyson. His first literary effort, +_Thoughts in the Cloister and the Crowd_ (1835), was a series of +aphorisms upon life, character, politics and manners. Soon after leaving +the university Arthur Helps became private secretary to Spring Rice +(afterwards Lord Monteagle), then chancellor of the exchequer. This +appointment he filled till 1839, when he went to Ireland as private +secretary to Lord Morpeth (afterwards earl of Carlisle), chief secretary +for Ireland. In the meanwhile (28th October 1836) Helps had married +Bessy, daughter of Captain Edward Fuller. He was one of the +commissioners for the settlement of certain Danish claims which dated so +far back as the siege of Copenhagen; but with the fall of the Melbourne +administration (1841) his official experience closed for a period of +nearly twenty years. He was not, however, forgotten by his political +friends. He possessed admirable tact and sagacity; his fitness for +official life was unmistakable, and in 1860 he was appointed clerk of +the Privy Council, on the recommendation of Lord Granville. + +His _Essays written in the Intervals of Business_ had appeared in 1841, +and his _Claims of Labour, an Essay on the Duties of the Employers to +the Employed_, in 1844. Two plays, _King Henry the Second, an Historical +Drama_, and _Catherine Douglas, a Tragedy_, published in 1843, have no +particular merit. Neither in these, nor in his only other dramatic +effort, _Oulita the Serf_ (1858) did he show any real qualifications as +a playwright. + +Helps possessed, however, enough dramatic power to give life and +individuality to the dialogues with which he enlivened many of his other +books. In his _Friends in Council, a Series of Readings and Discourse +thereon_ (1847-1859), Helps varied his presentment of social and moral +problems by dialogues between imaginary personages, who, under the names +of Milverton, Ellesmere and Dunsford, grew to be almost as real to +Helps's readers as they certainly became to himself. The book was very +popular, and the same expedient was resorted to in _Conversations on War +and General Culture_, published in 1871. The familiar speakers, with +others added, also appeared in his _Realmah_ (1868) and in the best of +its author's later works, _Talk about Animals and their Masters_ (1873). + +A long essay on slavery in the first series of _Friends in Council_ was +subsequently elaborated into a work in two volumes published in 1848 and +1852, called _The Conquerors of the New World and their Bondsmen_. Helps +went to Spain in 1847 to examine the numerous MSS. bearing upon his +subject at Madrid. The fruits of these researches were embodied in an +historical work based upon his _Conquerors of the New World_, and called +_The Spanish Conquest in America, and its Relation to the History of +Slavery and the Government of Colonies_ (4 vols., 1855-1857-1861). But +in spite of his scrupulous efforts after accuracy, the success of the +book was marred by its obtrusively moral purpose and its discursive +character. + +_The Life of Las Casas, the Apostle of the Indians_ (1868), _The Life of +Columbus_ (1869), _The Life of Pizarro_ (1869), and _The Life of +Hernando Cortes_ (1871), when extracted from the work and published +separately, proved successful. Besides the books which have been already +mentioned he wrote: _Organization in Daily Life, an Essay_ (1862), +_Casimir Maremma_ (1870), _Brevia_, _Short Essays and Aphorisms_ (1871), +_Thoughts upon Government_ (1872), _Life and Labours of Mr Thomas +Brassey_ (1872), _Ivan de Biron_ (1874), _Social Pressure_ (1875). + +His appointment as clerk of the Council brought him into personal +communication with Queen Victoria and the Prince Consort, both of whom +came to regard him with confidence and respect. After the Prince's +death, the Queen early turned to Helps to prepare an appreciation of her +husband's life and character. In his introduction to the collection +(1862) of the Prince Consort's speeches and addresses Helps adequately +fulfilled his task. Some years afterwards he edited and wrote a preface +to the Queen's _Leaves from a Journal of our Life in the Highlands_ +(1868). In 1864 he received the honorary degree of D.C.L. from the +university of Oxford. He was made a C.B. in 1871 and K.C.B. in the +following year. His later years were troubled by financial +embarrassments, and he died on the 7th of March 1875. + + + + +HELSINGBORG, a seaport of Sweden in the district (_lan_) of Malmohus, 35 +m. N. by E. of Copenhagen by rail and water. Pop. (1900), 24,670. It is +beautifully situated at the narrowest part of Oresund, or the Sound, +here only 3 m. wide, opposite Helsingor (Elsinore) in Denmark. Above the +town the brick tower of a former castle crowns a hill, commanding a fine +view over the Sound. On the outskirts are the Oresund Park, gardens +containing iodide and bromide springs, and frequented sea-baths. On the +coast to the north is the royal _chateau_ of Sofiero; to the south, the +small spa of Ramlosa. A system of electric trams is maintained. North +and east of Helsingborg lies the only coalfield in Sweden, extending +into the lofty Kullen peninsula, which forms the northern part of the +east shore of the Sound. Potter's clay is also found. Helsingborg ranks +among the first manufacturing towns of Sweden, having copper works, +using ore from Sulitelma in Norway, india-rubber works and breweries. +The artificial harbour has a depth of 24 ft., and there are extensive +docks. The chief exports are timber, butter and iron. The town is the +headquarters of the first army division. + +The original site of the town is marked by the tower of the old +fortress, which is first mentioned in 1135. In the 14th century it was +several times besieged. From 1370 along with other towns in the province +of Skane, it was united for fifteen years with the Hanseatic League. The +fortress was destroyed by fire in 1418, and about 1425 Eric XIII. built +another near the sea, and caused the town to be transported thither, +bestowing upon it important privileges. Until 1658 it belonged to +Denmark, and it was again occupied by the Danes in 1676 and 1677. In +1684 its fortifications were dismantled. It was taken by Frederick IV. +of Denmark in November 1709, but on the 28th of February 1710 the Danes +were defeated in the neighbourhood, and the town came finally into the +possession of Sweden, though in 1711 it was again bombarded by the +Danes. A tablet on the quay commemorates the landing of Bernadotte after +his election as successor to the throne in 1810. + + + + +HELSINGFORS (Finnish _Helsinki_), a seaport and the capital of Finland +and of the province of Nyland, centre of the administrative, scientific, +educational and industrial life of Finland. The fine harbour is divided +into two parts by a promontory, and is protected at its entrance by a +group of small islands, on one of which stands the fortress of Sveaborg. +A third harbour is situated on the west side of the promontory, and all +three have granite quays. The city, which in 1810 had only 4065 +inhabitants, Abo the then capital having 10,224, has increased with +great rapidity, having 22,228 inhabitants in 1860, 61,530 in 1890 and +111,654 in 1904. It is the centre of an active shipping trade with the +Baltic ports and with England, and of a railway system connecting it +with all parts of the grand duchy and with St Petersburg. Helsingfors is +handsome and well laid out with wide streets, parks, gardens and +monuments. The principal square contains the cathedral of St Nicholas, +the Senate House and the university, all striking buildings of +considerable architectural distinction. In the centre is the statue of +the Tsar Alexander II., who is looked upon as the protector of the +liberties of Finland, the monument being annually decorated with wreaths +and garlands. The university has a teaching staff of 141 with (1906) +1921 students, of whom 328 were women. The university is well provided +with museums and laboratories and has a library of over 250,000 volumes. +Other public institutions are the Athenaeum, with picture gallery, a +Swedish theatre and opera house, a Finnish theatre, the Archives, the +Senate House, the Nobles' House (_Riddarhuset_) and the House of the +Estates, the German (Lutheran) church and the Russian church. Some of +the scientific societies of Helsingfors have a wide repute, such as the +academy of sciences, the geographical, historical, Finno-Ugrian, +biblical, medical, law, arts and forestry societies, as also societies +for the spread of popular education and of arts and crafts. There are a +polytechnic, ten high schools, navigation and trade schools, institutes +for the blind and the mentally deficient, and numerous elementary +schools. The general standard of education is high, the publication of +books, reviews and newspapers being very active. The language of culture +is Swedish, but owing to recent manufacturing developments the majority +of the population is Finnish-speaking. Helsingfors displays great +manufacturing and commercial activity, the imports being coal, +machinery, sugar, grain and clothing. The manufactures of the city +consist largely of tobacco, beer and spirits, carpets, machinery and +sugar. + + + + +HELST, BARTHOLOMAEUS VAN DER, Dutch painter, was born in Holland at the +opening of the 17th century, and died at Amsterdam in 1670. The date and +place of his birth are uncertain; and it is equally difficult to confirm +or to deny the time-honoured statement that he was born in 1613 at +Amsterdam. It has been urged indeed by competent authority that Van der +Helst was not a native of Amsterdam, because a family of that name lived +as early as 1607 at Haarlem, and pictures are shown as works of Van der +Helst in the Haarlem Museum which might tend to prove that he was in +practice there before he acquired repute at Amsterdam. Unhappily +Bartholomew has not been traced amongst the children of Severijn van der +Helst, who married at Haarlem in 1607, and there is no proof that the +pictures at Haarlem are really his; though if they were so they would +show that he learnt his art from Frans Hals and became a skilled master +as early as 1631. Scheltema, a very competent judge in matters of Dutch +art chronology, supposes that Van der Heist was a resident at Amsterdam +in 1636. His first great picture, representing a gathering of civic +guards at a brewery, is variously assigned to 1639 and 1643, and still +adorns the town-hall of Amsterdam. His noble portraits of the +burgomaster Bicker and Andreas Bicker the younger, in the gallery of +Amsterdam, of the same date no doubt as Bicker's wife lately in the Ruhl +collection at Cologne, were completed in 1642. From that time till his +death there is no difficulty in tracing Van der Helst's career at +Amsterdam. He acquired and kept the position of a distinguished +portrait-painter, producing indeed little or nothing besides portraits +at any time, but founding, in conjunction with Nicolaes de Helt Stokade, +the painters' guild at Amsterdam in 1654. At some unknown date he +married Constance Reynst, of a good patrician family in the Netherlands, +bought himself a house in the Doelenstrasse and ended by earning a +competence. His likeness of Paul Potter at the Hague, executed in 1654, +and his partnership with Backhuysen, who laid in the backgrounds of some +of his pictures in 1668, indicate a constant companionship with the best +artists of the time. Wagen has said that his portrait of Admiral +Kortenaar, in the gallery of Amsterdam, betrays the teaching of Frans +Hals, and the statement need not be gainsaid; yet on the whole Van der +Helst's career as a painter was mainly a protest against the systems of +Hals and Rembrandt. It is needless to dwell on the pictures which +preceded that of 1648, called the Peace of Munster, in the gallery of +Amsterdam. The Peace challenges comparison at once with the so-called +Night Watch by Rembrandt and the less important but not less +characteristic portraits of Hals and his wife in a neighbouring room. +Sir Joshua Reynolds was disappointed by Rembrandt, whilst Van der Helst +surpassed his expectation. But Burger asked whether Reynolds had not +already been struck with blindness when he ventured on this criticism. +The question is still an open one. But certainly Van der Helst attracts +by qualities entirely differing from those of Rembrandt and Frans Hals. +Nothing can be more striking than the contrast between the strong +concentrated light and the deep gloom of Rembrandt and the contempt of +chiaroscuro peculiar to his rival, except the contrast between the +rapid sketchy touch of Hals and the careful finish and rounding of van +der Helst. "The Peace" is a meeting of guards to celebrate the signature +of the treaty of Munster. The members of the Doele of St George meet to +feast and congratulate each other not at a formal banquet but in a spot +laid out for good cheer, where de Wit, the captain of his company, can +shake hands with his lieutenant Waveren, yet hold in solemn state the +great drinking-horn of St George. The rest of the company sit, stand or +busy themselves around--some eating, others drinking, others carving or +serving--an animated scene on a long canvas, with figures large as life. +Well has Burger said, the heads are full of life and the hands +admirable. The dresses and subordinate parts are finished to a nicety +without sacrifice of detail or loss of breadth in touch or impast. But +the eye glides from shape to shape, arrested here by expressive +features, there by a bright stretch of colours, nowhere at perfect rest +because of the lack of a central thought in light and shade, harmonies +or composition. Great as the qualities of van der Helst undoubtedly are, +he remains below the line of demarcation which separates the second from +the first-rate masters of art. + + His pictures are very numerous, and almost uniformly good; but in his + later creations he wants power, and though still amazingly careful, he + becomes grey and woolly in touch. At Amsterdam the four regents in the + Werkhuys (1650), four syndics in the gallery (1656), and four syndics + in the town-hall (1657) are masterpieces, to which may be added a + number of fine single portraits. Rotterdam, notwithstanding the fire + of 1864, still boasts of three of van der Helst's works. The Hague + owns but one. St Petersburg, on the other hand, possesses ten or + eleven, of various shades of excellence. The Louvre has three, Munich + four. Other pieces are in the galleries of Berlin, Brunswick, + Brussels, Carlsruhe, Cassel, Darmstadt, Dresden, Frankfort, Gotha, + Stuttgart and Vienna. + + + + +HELSTON, a market town and municipal borough in the Truro parliamentary +division of Cornwall, England, 11 m. by road W.S.W. of Falmouth, on a +branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3088. It is pleasantly +situated on rising ground above the small river Cober, which, a little +below the town, expands into a picturesque estuary called Looe Pool, the +water being banked up by the formation of Looe Bar at the mouth. +Formerly, when floods resulted from this obstruction, the townsfolk of +Helston acquired the right of clearing a passage through it by +presenting leathern purses containing three halfpence to the lord of the +manor. The mining industry on which the town formerly depended is +extinct, but the district is agricultural and dairy farming is carried +on, while the town has flour mills, tanneries and iron foundries. As +Helston has the nearest railway station to the Lizard, with its +magnificent coast-scenery, there is a considerable tourist traffic in +summer. Some trade passes through the small port of Porthleven, 3 m. +S.W., where the harbour admits vessels of 500 tons. On the 8th of May a +holiday is still observed in Helston and known as Flora or Furry day. It +has been regarded as a survival of the Roman _Floralia_, but its origin +is believed by some to be Celtic. Flowers and branches were gathered, +and dancing took place in the streets and through the houses, all being +thrown open, while a pageant was also given and a special ancient +folk-song chanted. This ceremony, after being almost forgotten, has been +revived in modern times. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 +councillors. Area, 309 acres. + +Helston (Henliston, Haliston, Helleston), the capital of the Meneage +district of Cornwall, was held by Earl Harold in the time of the +Confessor and by King William at the Domesday Survey. At the latter date +besides seventy-three villeins, bordars and serfs there were forty +_cervisarii_, a species of unfree tenants who rendered their custom in +the form of beer. King John (1201) constituted Helleston a free borough, +established a gild merchant, and granted the burgesses freedom from toll +and other similar dues throughout the realm, and the cognizance of all +pleas within the borough except crown pleas. Richard, king of the Romans +(1260), extended the boundaries of the borough and granted permission +for the erection of an additional mill. Edward I. (1304) granted the +pesage of tin, and Edward III. a Saturday market and four fairs. Of +these the Saturday market and a fair on the feast of SS. Simon and Jude +are still held, also five other fairs of uncertain origin. In 1585 +Elizabeth granted a charter of incorporation under the name of the mayor +and commonalty of Helston. This was confirmed in 1641, when it was also +provided that the mayor and recorder should be _ipso facto_ justices of +the peace. From 1294 to 1832 Helston returned two members to parliament. +In 1774 the number of electors (which by usage had been restricted to +the mayor, aldermen and freemen elected by them) had dwindled to six, +and in 1790 to one person only, whose return of two members, however, +was rejected and that of the general body of the freemen accepted. In +1832 Helston lost one of its members, and in 1885 it lost the other and +became merged in the county. + + + + +HELVETIC CONFESSIONS, the name of two documents expressing the common +belief of the reformed churches of Switzerland. The first, known also as +the Second Confession of Basel, was drawn up at that city in 1536 by +Bullinger and Leo Jud of Zurich, Megander of Bern, Oswald Myconius and +Grynaeus of Basel, Bucer and Capito of Strassburg, with other +representatives from Schaffhausen, St Gall, Muhlhausen and Biel. The +first draft was in Latin and the Zurich delegates objected to its +Lutheran phraseology.[1] Leo Jud's German translation was, however, +accepted by all, and after Myconius and Grynaeus had modified the Latin +form, both versions were agreed to and adopted on the 26th of February +1536. + +The Second Helvetic Confession was written by Bullinger in 1562 and +revised in 1564 as a private exercise. It came to the notice of the +elector palatine Friedrich III., who had it translated into German and +published. It gained a favourable hold on the Swiss churches, who had +found the First Confession too short and too Lutheran. It was adopted by +the Reformed Church not only throughout Switzerland but in Scotland +(1566), Hungary (1567), France (1571), Poland (1578), and next to the +Heidelberg Catechism is the most generally recognized Confession of the +Reformed Church. + + See L. Thomas, _La Confession helvetique_ (Geneva, 1853); P. Schaff, + _Creeds of Christendom_, i. 390-420, iii. 234-306; Muller, _Die + Bekenntnisschriften der reformierten Kirche_ (Leipzig, 1903). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Some of the delegates, especially Bucer, were anxious to effect a + union of the Reformed and Lutheran Churches. There was also a desire + to lay the Confession before the council summoned at Mantua by Pope + Paul III. + + + + +HELVETII ([Greek: Helouetioi], [Greek: Helbettioi]), a Celtic people, +whose original home was the country between the Hercynian forest +(probably the Rauhe Alp), the Rhine and the Main (Tacitus, _Germania_, +28). In Caesar's time they appear to have been driven farther west, +since, according to him (_Bell. Gall._ i. 2. 3) their boundaries were on +the W. the Jura, on the S. the Rhone and the Lake of Geneva, on the N. +and E. the Rhine as far as Lake Constance. They thus inhabited the +western part of modern Switzerland. They were divided into four cantons +(_pagi_), common affairs being managed by the cantonal assemblies. They +possessed the elements of a higher civilization (gold coinage, the Greek +alphabet), and, according to Caesar, were the bravest people of Gaul. +The reports of gold and plunder spread by the Cimbri and Teutones on +their way to southern Gaul induced the Helvetii to follow their example. +In 107, under Divico, two of their tribes, the Tougeni and Tigurini, +crossed the Jura and made their way as far as Aginnum (Agen on the +Garonne), where they utterly defeated the Romans under L. Cassius +Longinus, and forced them to pass under the yoke (Livy, _Epit._ 65; +according to a different reading, the battle took place near the Lake of +Geneva). In 102 the Helvetii joined the Cimbri in the invasion of Italy, +but after the defeat of the latter by Marius they returned home. In 58, +hard pressed by the Germans and incited by one of their princes, +Orgetorix, they resolved to found a hew home west of the Jura. Orgetorix +was thrown into prison, being suspected of a design to make himself +king, but the Helvetii themselves persisted in their plan. Joined by the +Rauraci, Tulingi, Latobrigi and some of the Boii--according to their own +reckoning 368,000 in all--they agreed to meet on the 28th of March at +Geneva and to advance through the territory of the Allobroges. They were +overtaken, however, by Caesar at Bibracte, defeated and forced to +submit. Those who survived were sent back home to defend the frontier of +the Rhine against German invaders. During the civil wars and for some +time after the death of Caesar little is heard of the Helvetii. + +Under Augustus Helvetia (not so called till later times, earlier _ager +Helvetiorum_) proper was included under Gallia Belgica. Two Roman +colonies had previously been founded at Noviodunum (Colonia Julia +Equestris, mod. _Nyon_) and at Colonia Rauracorum (afterwards Augusta +Rauracorum, _Augst_ near Basel) to keep watch over the inhabitants, who +were treated with generosity by their conquerors. Under the name of +_foederati_ they retained their original constitution and division into +four cantons. They were under an obligation to furnish a contingent to +the Roman army for foreign service, but were allowed to maintain +garrisons of their own, and their magistrates had the right to call out +a militia. Their religion was not interfered with; they managed their +own local affairs and kept their own language, although Latin was used +officially. Their chief towns were Aventicum (_Avenches_) and Vindonissa +(_Windisch_). Under Tiberius the Helvetii were separated from Gallia +Belgica and made part of Germania Superior. After the death of Galba +(A.D. 69), having refused submission to Vitellius, their land was +devastated by Alienus Caecina, and only the eloquent appeal of one of +their leaders named Claudius Cossus saved them from annihilation. Under +Vespasian they attained the height of their prosperity. He greatly +increased the importance of Aventicum, where his father had carried on +business. Its inhabitants, with those of other towns, probably obtained +the _ius Latinum_, had a senate, a council of _decuriones_, a prefect of +public works and flamens of Augustus. After the extension of the eastern +frontier, the troops were withdrawn from the garrisons and fortresses, +and Helvetia, free from warlike disturbances, gradually became +completely romanized. Aventicum had an amphitheatre, a public gymnasium +and an academy with Roman professors. Roads were made wherever possible, +and commerce rapidly developed. The old Celtic religion was also +supplanted by the Roman. The west of the country, however, was more +susceptible to Roman influence, and hence preserved its independence +against barbarian invaders longer than its eastern portion. During the +reign of Gallienus (260-268) the Alamanni overran the country; and +although Probus, Constantius Chlorus, Julian, Valentinian I. and Gratian +to some extent checked the inroads of the barbarians, it never regained +its former prosperity. In the subdivision of Gaul in the 4th century, +Helvetia, with the territory of the Sequani and Rauraci, formed the +Provincia Maxima Sequanorum, the chief town of which was Vesontio +(_Besancon_). Under Honorius (395-423) it was probably definitely +occupied by the Alamanni, except in the west, where the small portion +remaining to the Romans was ceded in 436 by Aetius to the Burgundians. + + See L. von Haller, _Helvetien unter den Romern_ (Bern, 1811); T. + Mommsen, _Die Schweiz in romischer Zeit_ (Zurich, 1854); J. Brosi, + _Die Kelten und Althelvetier_ (Solothurn, 1851); L. Hug and R. Stead, + "Switzerland" in _Story of the Nations_, xxvi.; C. Dandliker, + _Geschichte der Schweiz_ (1892-1895), and English translation (of a + shorter history by the same) by E. Salisbury (1899); _Die Schweiz + unter den Romern_ (anonymous) published by the Historischer Verein of + St Gall (Scheitlin and Zollikofer, St Gall, 1862); and G. Wyss, "Uber + das romische Helvetien" in _Archiv fur schweizerische Geschichte_, + vii. (1851). For Caesar's campaign against the Helvetii, see T. R. + Holmes, _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_ (1899) and Mommsen, _Hist. of + Rome_ (Eng. trans.), bk. v. ch. 7; ancient authorities in A. Holder, + _Altkeltischer Sprachschatz_ (1896), _s.v._ Elvetii. + + + + +HELVETIUS, CLAUDE ADRIEN (1715-1771), French philosopher and +litterateur, was born in Paris in January 1715. He was descended from a +family of physicians, whose original name was Schweitzer (latinized as +Helvetius). His grandfather introduced the use of ipecacuanha; his +father was first physician to Queen Marie Leczinska of France. Claude +Adrien was trained for a financial career, but he occupied his spare +time with writing verses. At the age of twenty-three, at the queen's +request, he was appointed farmer-general, a post of great responsibility +and dignity worth a 100,000 crowns a year. Thus provided for, he +proceeded to enjoy life to the utmost, with the help of his wealth and +liberality, his literary and artistic tastes. As he grew older, however, +his social successes ceased, and he began to dream of more lasting +distinctions, stimulated by the success of Maupertuis as a +mathematician, of Voltaire as a poet, of Montesquieu as a philosopher. +The mathematical dream seems to have produced nothing; his poetical +ambitions resulted in the poem called _Le Bonheur_ (published +posthumously, with an account of Helvetius's life and works, by C. F. de +Saint-Lambert, 1773), in which he develops the idea that true happiness +is only to be found in making the interest of one that of all; his +philosophical studies ended in the production of his famous book _De +l'esprit_. It was characteristic of the man that, as soon as he thought +his fortune sufficient, he gave up his post of farmer-general, and +retired to an estate in the country, where he employed his large means +in the relief of the poor, the encouragement of agriculture and the +development of industries. _De l'esprit_ (Eng. trans. by W. Mudford, +1807), intended to be the rival of Montesquieu's _L'Esprit des lois_, +appeared in 1758. It attracted immediate attention and aroused the most +formidable opposition, especially from the dauphin, son of Louis XV. The +Sorbonne condemned the book, the priests persuaded the court that if was +full of the most dangerous doctrines, and the author, terrified at the +storm he had raised, wrote three separate retractations; yet, in spite +of his protestations of orthodoxy, he had to give up his office at the +court, and the book was publicly burned by the hangman. The virulence of +the attacks upon the work, as much as its intrinsic merit, caused it to +be widely read; it was translated into almost all the languages of +Europe. Voltaire said that it was full of commonplaces, and that what +was original was false or problematical; Rousseau declared that the very +benevolence of the author gave the lie to his principles; Grimm thought +that all the ideas in the book were borrowed from Diderot; according to +Madame du Deffand, Helvetius had raised such a storm by saying openly +what every one thought in secret; Madame de Graffigny averred that all +the good things in the book had been picked up in her own _salon_. In +1764 Helvetius visited England, and the next year, on the invitation of +Frederick II., he went to Berlin, where the king paid him marked +attention. He then returned to his country estate and passed the +remainder of his life in perfect tranquillity. He died on the 26th of +December 1771. + +His philosophy belongs to the utilitarian school. The four discussions +of which his book consists have been thus summed up: (1) All man's +faculties may be reduced to physical sensation, even memory, comparison, +judgment; our only difference from the lower animals lies in our +external organization. (2) Self-interest, founded on the love of +pleasure and the fear of pain, is the sole spring of judgment, action, +affection; self-sacrifice is prompted by the fact that the sensation of +pleasure outweighs the accompanying pain; it is thus the result of +deliberate calculation; we have no liberty of choice between good and +evil; there is no such thing as absolute right--ideas of justice and +injustice change according to customs. (3) All intellects are equal; +their apparent inequalities do not depend on a more or less perfect +organization, but have their cause in the unequal desire for +instruction, and this desire springs from passions, of which all men +commonly well organized are susceptible to the same degree; and we can, +therefore, all love glory with the same enthusiasm and we owe all to +education. (4) In this discourse the author treats of the ideas which +are attached to such words as _genius_, _imagination_, _talent_, +_taste_, _good sense_, &c. The only original ideas in his system are +those of the natural equality of intelligences and the omnipotence of +education, neither of which, however, is generally accepted, though both +were prominent in the system of J. S. Mill. There is no doubt that his +thinking was unsystematic; but many of his critics have entirely +misrepresented him (e.g. Cairns in his _Unbelief in the Eighteenth +Century_). As J. M. Robertson (_Short History of Free Thought_) points +out, he had great influence upon Bentham, and C. Beccaria states that he +himself was largely inspired by Helvetius in his attempt to modify penal +laws. The keynote of his thought was that public ethics has a +utilitarian basis, and he insisted strongly on the importance of culture +in national development. + + A sort of supplement to the _De l'esprit_, called _De l'homme, de ses + facultes intellectuelles et de son education_ (Eng. trans. by W. + Hooper, 1777), found among his manuscripts, was published after his + death, but created little interest. There is a complete edition of the + works of Helvetius, published at Paris, 1818. For an estimate of his + work and his place among the philosophers of the 18th century see + Victor Cousin's _Philosophie sensualiste_ (1863); P. L. Lezaud, + _Resumes philosophiques_ (1853); F. D. Maurice, in his _Modern + Philosophy_ (1862), pp. 537 seq.; J. Morley, _Diderot and the + Encyclopaedists_ (London, 1878); D. G. Mostratos, _Die Padagogik des + Helvetius_ (Berlin, 1891); A. Guillois, _Le Salon de Madame Helvetius_ + (1894); A. Piazzi, _Le Idee filosofiche specialmente pedagogiche de C. + A. Helvetius_ (Milan, 1889); G. Plekhanov, _Beitrage zur Geschichte + des Materialismus_ (Stuttgart, 1896); L. Limentani, _Le Teorie + psicologiche di C. A. Helvetius_ (Verona, 1902); A. Keim, _Helvetius, + sa vie et son oeuvre_ (1907). + + + + +HELVIDIUS PRISCUS, Stoic philosopher and statesman, lived during the +reigns of Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian. Like his +father-in-law, Thrasea Paetus, he was distinguished for his ardent and +courageous republicanism. Although he repeatedly offended his rulers, he +held several high offices. During Nero's reign he was quaestor of Achaea +and tribune of the plebs (A.D. 56); he restored peace and order in +Armenia, and gained the respect and confidence of the provincials. His +declared sympathy with Brutus and Cassius occasioned his banishment in +66. Having been recalled to Rome by Galba in 68, he at once impeached +Eprius Marcellus, the accuser of Thrasea Paetus, but dropped the charge, +as the condemnation of Marcellus would have involved a number of +senators. As praetor elect he ventured to oppose Vitellius in the senate +(Tacitus, _Hist._ ii. 91), and as praetor (70) he maintained, in +opposition to Vespasian, that the management of the finances ought to be +left to the discretion of the senate; he proposed that the capitol, +which had been destroyed in the Neronian conflagration, should be +restored at the public expense; he saluted Vespasian by his private +name, and did not recognize him as emperor in his praetorian edicts. At +length he was banished a second time, and shortly afterwards was +executed by Vespasian's order. His life, in the form of a warm +panegyric, written at his widow's request by Herennius Senecio, caused +its author's death in the reign of Domitian. + + Tacitus, _Hist._ iv. 5, _Dialogus_, 5; Dio Cassius lxvi. 12, lxvii. + 13; Suetonius, _Vespasian_, 15; Pliny, _Epp._ vii. 19. + + + + +HELY-HUTCHINSON, JOHN (1724-1794), Irish lawyer, statesman, and provost +of Trinity College, Dublin, son of Francis Hely, a gentleman of County +Cork, was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and was called to the +Irish bar in 1748. He took the additional name of Hutchinson on his +marriage in 1751 with Christiana Nixon, heiress of her uncle, Richard +Hutchinson. He was elected member of the Irish House of Commons for the +borough of Lanesborough in 1759, but after 1761 he represented the city +of Cork. He at first attached himself to the "patriotic" party in +opposition to the government, and although he afterwards joined the +administration he never abandoned his advocacy of popular measures. He +was a man of brilliant and versatile ability, whom Lord Townshend, the +lord lieutenant, described as "by far the most powerful man in +parliament." William Gerard Hamilton said of him that "Ireland never +bred a more able, nor any country a more honest man." Hely-Hutchinson +was, however, an inveterate place-hunter, and there was point in Lord +North's witticism that "if you were to give him the whole of Great +Britain and Ireland for an estate, he would ask the Isle of Man for a +potato garden." After a session or two in parliament he was made a privy +councillor and prime serjeant-at-law; and from this time he gave a +general, though by no means invariable, support to the government. In +1767 the ministry contemplated an increase of the army establishment in +Ireland from 12,000 to 15,000 men, but the Augmentation Bill met with +strenuous opposition, not only from Flood, Ponsonby and the habitual +opponents of the government, but from the Undertakers, or proprietors of +boroughs, on whom the government had hitherto relied to secure them a +majority in the House of Commons. It therefore became necessary for +Lord Townshend to turn to other methods for procuring support. Early In +1768 an English act was passed for the increase of the army, and a +message from the king setting forth the necessity for the measure was +laid before the House of Commons in Dublin. An address favourable to the +government policy was, however, rejected; and Hely-Hutchinson, together +with the speaker and the attorney-general, did their utmost both in +public and private to obstruct the bill. Parliament was dissolved in May +1768, and the lord lieutenant set about the task of purchasing or +otherwise securing a majority in the new parliament. Peerages, pensions +and places were bestowed lavishly on those whose support could be thus +secured; Hely-Hutchinson was won over by the concession that the Irish +army should be established by the authority of an Irish act of +parliament instead of an English one. The Augmentation Bill was carried +in the session of 1769 by a large majority. Hely-Hutchinson's support +had been so valuable that he received as reward an addition of L1000 a +year to the salary of his sinecure of Alnagar, a major's commission in a +cavalry regiment, and a promise of the secretaryship of state. He was at +this time one of the most brilliant debaters in the Irish parliament, +and he was enjoying an exceedingly lucrative practice at the bar. This +income, however, together with his well-salaried sinecure, and his place +as prime serjeant, he surrendered in 1774, to become provost of Trinity +College, although the statute requiring the provost to be in holy orders +had to be dispensed with in his favour. + +For this great academic position Hely-Hutchinson was in no way +qualified, and his appointment to it for purely political service to the +government was justly criticized with much asperity. His conduct in +using his position as provost to secure the parliamentary representation +of the university for his eldest son brought him into conflict with +Duigenan, who attacked him in _Lacrymae academicae_, and involved him in +a duel with a Mr Doyle; while a similar attempt on behalf of his second +son in 1790 led to his being accused before a select committee of the +House of Commons of impropriety as returning officer. But although +without scholarship Hely-Hutchinson was an efficient provost, during +whose rule material benefits were conferred on Trinity College. He +continued to occupy a prominent place in parliament, where he advocated +free trade, the relief of the Catholics from penal legislation, and the +reform of parliament. He was one of the very earliest politicians to +recognize the soundness of Adam Smith's views on trade; and he quoted +from the _Wealth of Nations_, adopting some of its principles, in his +_Commercial Restraints of Ireland_, published in 1779, which Lecky +pronounces "one of the best specimens of political literature produced +in Ireland in the latter half of the 18th century." In the same year, +the economic condition of Ireland being the cause of great anxiety, the +government solicited from several leading politicians their opinion on +the state of the country with suggestions for a remedy. +Hely-Hutchinson's response was a remarkably able state paper (MS. in the +Record Office), which also showed clear traces of the influence of Adam +Smith. The _Commercial Restraints_, condemned by the authorities as +seditious, went far to restore Hely-Hutchinson's popularity which had +been damaged by his greed of office. Not less enlightened were his views +on the Catholic question. In a speech in parliament on Catholic +education in 1782 the provost declared that Catholic students were in +fact to be found at Trinity College, but that he desired their presence +there to be legalized on the largest scale. "My opinion," he said, "is +strongly against sending Roman Catholics abroad for education, nor would +I establish Popish colleges at home. The advantage of being admitted +into the university of Dublin will be very great to Catholics; they need +not be obliged to attend the divinity professor, they may have one of +their own; and I would have a part of the public money applied to their +use, to the support of a number of poor lads as sizars, and to provide +premiums for persons of merit, for I would have them go into +examinations and make no distinction between them and the Protestants +but such as merit might claim." And after sketching a scheme for +increasing the number of diocesan schools where Roman Catholics might +receive free education, he went on to urge that "it is certainly a +matter of importance that the education of their priests should be as +perfect as possible, and that if they have any prejudices they should be +prejudices in favour of their own country. The Roman Catholics should +receive the best education in the established university at the public +expense; but by no means should Popish colleges be allowed, for by them +we should again have the press groaning with themes of controversy, and +subjects of religious disputation that have long slept in oblivion would +again awake, and awaken with them all the worst passions of the human +mind."[1] + +In 1777 Hely-Hutchinson became secretary of state. When Grattan in 1782 +moved an address to the king containing a declaration of Irish +legislative independence, Hely-Hutchinson supported the +attorney-general's motion postponing the question; but on the 16th of +April, after the Easter recess, he read a message from the lord +lieutenant, the duke of Portland, giving the king's permission for the +House to take the matter into consideration, and he expressed his +personal sympathy with the popular cause which Grattan on the same day +brought to a triumphant issue (see GRATTAN, HENRY). Hely-Hutchinson +supported the opposition on the regency question in 1788, and one of his +last votes in the House was in favour of parliamentary reform. In 1790 +he exchanged the constituency of Cork for that of Taghmon in County +Wexford, for which borough he remained member till his death at Buxton +on the 4th of September 1794. + +In 1785 his wife had been created Baroness Donoughmore and on her death +in 1788, his eldest son Richard (1756-1825) succeeded to the title. Lord +Donoughmore was an ardent advocate of Catholic emancipation. In 1797 he +was created Viscount Donoughmore,[2] and in 1800 (having voted for the +Union, hoping to secure Catholic emancipation from the united +parliament) he was further created earl of Donoughmore of Knocklofty, +being succeeded first by his brother John Hely-Hutchinson (1757-1832) +and then by his nephew John, 3rd earl (1787-1851), from whom the title +descended. + + See W. E. H. Lecky, _Hist. of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century_ (5 + vols., London, 1892); J. A. Froude, _The English in Ireland in the + Eighteenth Century_ (3 vols., London, 1872-1874); H. Grattan, _Memoirs + of the Life and Times of Henry Grattan_ (8 vols., London, 1839-1846); + _Baratariana_, by various writers (Dublin, 1773). (R. J. M.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Irish Parl. Debates_, i. 309, 310. + + [2] It is generally supposed that the title conferred by this patent + was that of Viscount Suirdale, and such is the courtesy title by + which the heir apparent of the earls of Donoughmore is usually + styled. This, however, appears to be an error. In all the three + creations (barony 1783, viscountcy 1797, earldom 1800) the title is + "Donoughmore of Knocklofty." In 1821 the 1st earl was further created + Viscount Hutchinson of Knocklofty in the peerage of the United + Kingdom. The courtesy title of the earl's eldest son should, + therefore, apparently be either "Viscount Hutchinson" or "Viscount + Knocklofty." See G. E. C. _Complete Peerage_ (London, 1890). + + + + +HELYOT, PIERRE (1660-1716), Franciscan friar and historian, was born at +Paris in January 1660, of supposed English ancestry. After spending his +youth in study, he entered in his twenty-fourth year the convent of the +third order of St Francis, founded at Picpus, near Paris, by his uncle +Jerome Helyot, canon of St Sepulchre. There he took the name of Pere +Hippolyte. Two journeys to Rome on monastic business afforded him the +opportunity of travelling over most of Italy; and after his final return +he saw much of France, while acting as secretary to various provincials +of his order there. Both in Italy and France he was engaged in +collecting materials for his great work, which occupied him about +twenty-five years, _L'Histoire des ordres monastiques, religieux, et +militaires, et des congregations seculieres, de l'un et de l'autre sexe, +qui ont ete etablies jusqu'a present_, published in 8 volumes in +1714-1721. Helyot died on the 5th of January 1716, before the fifth +volume appeared, but his friend Maximilien Bullot completed the edition. +Helyot's only other noteworthy work is _Le Chretien mourant_ (1695). + + The _Histoire_ is a work of first importance, being the great + repertory of information for the general history of the religious + orders up to the end of the 17th century. It is profusely illustrated + by large plates exhibiting the dress of the various orders, and in + the edition of 1792 the plates are coloured. It was translated into + Italian (1737) and into German (1753). The material has been arranged + in dictionary form in Migne's _Encyclopedie theologique_, under the + title "Dictionnaire des orders religieux" (4 vols., 1858). + + + + +HEMANS, FELICIA DOROTHEA (1793-1835), English poet, was born in Duke +Street, Liverpool, on the 25th of September 1793. Her father, George +Browne, of Irish extraction, was a merchant in Liverpool, and her +mother, whose maiden name was Wagner, was the daughter of the Austrian +and Tuscan consul at Liverpool. Felicia, the fifth of seven children, +was scarcely seven years old when her father failed in business, and +retired with his family to Gwrych, near Abergele, Denbighshire; and +there the young poet and her brothers and sisters grew up in a romantic +old house by the sea-shore, and in the very midst of the mountains and +myths of Wales. Felicia's education was desultory. Books of chronicle +and romance, and every kind of poetry, she read with avidity; and she +also studied Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and German. She played both +harp and piano, and cared especially for the simple national melodies of +Wales and Spain. In 1808, when she was only fourteen, a quarto volume of +her _Juvenile Poems_, was published by subscription, and was harshly +criticized in the _Monthly Review_. Two of her brothers were fighting in +Spain under Sir John Moore; and Felicia, fired with military enthusiasm, +wrote _England and Spain, or Valour and Patriotism_, a poem afterwards +translated into Spanish. Her second volume, _The Domestic Affections and +other Poems_, appeared in 1812, on the eve of her marriage to Captain +Alfred Hemans. She lived for some time at Daventry, where her husband +was adjutant of the Northamptonshire militia. About this time her father +went to Quebec on business and died there; and, after the birth of her +first son, she and her husband went to live with her mother at +Bronwylfa, a house near St Asaph. Here during the next six years four +more children--all boys--were born; but in spite of domestic cares arid +failing health she still read and wrote indefatigably. Her poem entitled +_The Restoration of Works of Art to Italy_ was published in 1816, her +_Modern Greece_ in 1817, and in 1818 _Translations from Camoens and +other Poets_. + +In 1818 Captain Hemans went to Rome, leaving his wife, shortly before +the birth of their fifth child, with her mother at Bronwylfa. There +seems to have been a tacit agreement, perhaps on account of their +limited means, that they should separate. Letters were interchanged, and +Captain Hemans was often consulted about his children; but the husband +and wife never met again. Many friends--among them the bishop of St +Asaph and Bishop Heber--gathered round Mrs Hemans and her children. In +1819 she published _Tales and Historic Scenes in Verse_, and gained a +prize of L50 offered for the best poem on _The Meeting of Wallace and +Bruce on the Banks of the Carron_. In 1820 appeared _The Sceptic and +Stanzas to the Memory of the late King_. In June 1821 she won the prize +awarded by the Royal Society of Literature for the best poem on the +subject of _Dartmoor_, and began her play, _The Vespers of Palermo_. She +now applied herself to a course of German reading. Korner was her +favourite German poet, and her lines on the grave of Korner were one of +the first English tributes to the genius of the young soldier-poet. In +the summer of 1823 a volume of her poems was published by Murray, +containing "The Siege of Valencia," "The Last Constantine" and +"Belshazzar's Feast." _The Vespers of Palermo_ was acted at Covent +Garden, December 12, 1823, and Mrs Hemans received L200 for the +copyright; but, though the leading parts were taken by Young and Charles +Kemble, the play was a failure, and was withdrawn after the first +performance. It was acted again in Edinburgh in the following April with +greater success, when an epilogue, written for it by Sir Walter Scott at +Joanna Baillie's request, was spoken by Harriet Siddons. This was the +beginning of a cordial friendship between Mrs Hemans and Scott. In the +same year she wrote _De Chatillon, or the Crusaders_; but the manuscript +was lost, and the poem was published after her death, from a rough copy. +In 1824 she began "The Forest Sanctuary," which appeared a year later +with the "Lays of Many Lands" and miscellaneous pieces collected from +the _New Monthly Magazine_ and other periodicals. + +In the spring of 1825 Mrs Hemans removed from Bronwylfa, which had been +purchased by her brother, to Rhyllon, a house on an opposite height +across the river Clwyd. The contrast between the two houses suggested +her _Dramatic Scene between Bronwylfa and Rhyllon_. The house itself was +bare and unpicturesque, but the beauty of its surroundings has been +celebrated in "The Hour of Romance," "To the River Clwyd in North +Wales," "Our Lady's Well" and "To a Distant Scene." This time seems to +have been the most tranquil in Mrs Hemans's life. But the death of her +mother in January 1827 was a second great breaking-point in her life. +Her heart was affected, and she was from this time an acknowledged +invalid. In the summer of 1828 the _Records of Woman_ was published by +Blackwood, and in the same year the home in Wales was finally broken up +by the marriage of Mrs Hemans's sister and the departure of her two +elder boys to their father in Rome. Mrs Hemans removed to Wavertree, +near Liverpool. But, although she had a few intimate friends +there--among them her two subsequent biographers, Henry F. Chorley and +Mrs Lawrence of Wavertree Hall--she was disappointed in her new home. +She thought the people of Liverpool stupid and provincial; and they, on +the other hand, found her uncommunicative and eccentric. In the +following summer she travelled by sea to Scotland with two of her boys, +to visit the Hamiltons of Chiefswood. + +Here she enjoyed "constant, almost daily, intercourse" with Sir Walter +Scott, with whom she and her boys afterwards stayed some time at +Abbotsford. "There are some whom we meet, and should like ever after to +claim as kith and kin; and you are one of those," was Scott's compliment +to her at parting. One of the results of her Edinburgh visit was an +article, full of praise, judiciously tempered with criticism, by Jeffrey +himself for the _Edinburgh Review_. Mrs Hemans returned to Wavertree to +write her _Songs of the Affections_, which were published early in 1830. +In the following June, however, she again left home, this time to visit +Wordsworth and the Lake country; and in August she paid a second visit +to Scotland. In 1831 she removed to Dublin. Her poetry of this date is +chiefly religious. Early in 1834 her _Hymns for Childhood_, which had +appeared some years before in America, were published in Dublin. At the +same time appeared her collection of _National Lyrics_, and shortly +afterwards _Scenes and Hymns of Life_. She was planning also a series of +German studies, one of which, on Goethe's _Tasso_, was completed and +published in the _New Monthly Magazine_ for January 1834. In intervals +of acute suffering she wrote the lyric _Despondency and Aspiration_, and +dictated a series of sonnets called _Thoughts during Sickness_, the last +of which, "Recovery," was written when she fancied she was getting well. +After three months spent at Redesdale, Archbishop Whately's country +seat, she was again brought into Dublin, where she lingered till spring. +Her last poem, the _Sabbath Sonnet_, was dedicated to her brother on +Sunday April 26th, and she died in Dublin on the 16th of May 1835 at the +age of forty-one. + +Mrs Hemans's poetry is the production of a fine imaginative and +enthusiastic temperament, but not of a commanding intellect or very +complex or subtle nature. It is the outcome of a beautiful but +singularly circumscribed life, a life spent in romantic seclusion, +without much worldly experience, and warped and saddened by domestic +unhappiness and physical suffering. An undue preponderance of the +emotional is its prevailing characteristic. Scott complained that it was +"too poetical," that it contained "too many flowers" and "too little +fruit." Many of her short poems, such as "The Treasures of the Deep," +"The Better Land," "The Homes of England," "Casabianca," "The Palm +Tree," "The Graves of a Household," "The Wreck," "The Dying +Improvisatore," and "The Lost Pleiad," have become standard English +lyrics. It is on the strength of these that her reputation must rest. + + Mrs Hemans's _Poetical Works_ were collected in 1832; her _Memorials_ + &c., by H. F. Chorley (1836). + + + + + +HEMEL HEMPSTEAD, a market-town and municipal borough in the Watford +parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England, 25 m. N.W. from +London, with a station on a branch of the Midland railway from +Harpenden, and near Boxmoor station on the London and North Western main +line. Pop. (1891) 9678; (1901) 11,264. It is pleasantly situated in the +steep-sided valley of the river Gade, immediately above its junction +with the Bulbourne, near the Grand Junction canal. The church of St Mary +is a very fine Norman building with Decorated additions. Industries +include the manufacture of paper, iron founding, brewing and tanning. +Boxmoor, within the parish, is a considerable township of modern growth. +Hemel Hempstead is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. +Area, 7184 acres. + +Settlements in the neighbourhood of Hemel Hempstead (_Hamalamstede_, +_Hemel Hampsted_) date from pre-Roman times, and a Roman villa has been +discovered at Boxmoor. The manor, royal demesne in 1086, was granted by +Edmund Plantagenet in 1285 to the house of Ashridge, and the town +developed under monastic protection. In 1539 a charter incorporated the +bailiff and inhabitants. A mayor, aldermen and councillors received +governing power by a charter of 1898. The town has never had +parliamentary representation. A market on Thursday and a fair on the +feast of Corpus Christi were conferred in 1539. A statute fair, for long +a hiring fair, originated in 1803. + + + + +HEMEROBAPTISTS, an ancient Jewish sect, so named from their observing a +practice of daily ablution as an essential part of religion. Epiphanius +(_Panarion_, i. 17), who mentions their doctrine as the fourth heresy +among the Jews, classes the Hemerobaptists doctrinally with the +Pharisees (q.v.) from whom they differed only in, like the Sadducees, +denying the resurrection of the dead. The name has been sometimes given +to the Mandaeans on account of their frequent ablutions; and in the +_Clementine Homilies_ (ii. 23) St John the Baptist is spoken of as a +Hemerobaptist. Mention of the sect is made by Hegesippus (see Euseb. +_Hist. Eccl._ iv. 22) and by Justin Martyr in the _Dialogue with +Trypho_, S 80. They were probably a division of the Essenes. + + + + +HEMICHORDA, or HEMICHORDATA, a zoological term introduced by W. Bateson +in 1884, without special definition, as equivalent to Enteropneusta, +which then included the single genus _Balanoglossus_, and now generally +employed to cover a group of marine worm-like animals believed by many +zoologists to be related to the lower vertebrates and so to represent +the invertebrate stock from which Vertebrates have been derived. +Vertebrates, or as they are sometimes termed Chordates, are +distinguished from other animals by several important features. The +chief of these is the presence of an elastic rod, the notochord, which +forms the longitudinal axis of the body, and which persists throughout +life in some of the lowest forms, but which appears only in the embryo +of the higher forms, being replaced by the jointed backbone or vertebral +column. A second feature is the development of outgrowths of the pharynx +which unite with the skin of the neck and form a series of perforations +leading to the exterior. These structures are the gill-slits, which in +fishes are lined with vascular tufts, but which in terrestrial breathing +animals appear only in the embryo. The third feature of importance is +the position of structure of the central nervous system, which in all +the Chordates lies dorsally to the alimentary canal and is formed by the +sinking in of a longitudinal media dorsal groove. Of these structures +the Vertebrata or Craniata possess all three in a typical form; the +Cephalochordata (see Amphioxus) also possess them, but the notochord +extends throughout the whole length of the body to the extreme tip of +the snout; the Urochordata (see TUNICATA) possess them in a larval +condition, but the notochord is present only in the tail, whilst in the +adult the notochord disappears and the nervous system becomes profoundly +modified; in the Hemichorda, the respiratory organs very closely +resemble gill-slits, and structures comparable with the notochord and +the tubular dorsal nervous system are present. + +The Hemichorda include three orders, the Phoronidea (q.v.), the +Pterobranchia (q.v.) and the Enteropneusta (see BALANOGLOSSUS), but the +relationship to the Chordata expressed in the designation Hemichordata +cannot be regarded as more than an attractive theory with certain +arguments in its favour. (P. C. M.) + + + + +HEMICYCLE (Gr. [Greek: hemi-], half, and [Greek: kyklos], circle), a +semicircular recess of considerable size which formed one of the most +conspicuous features in the Roman Thermae, where it was always covered +with a hemispherical vault. A small example exists in Pompeii, in the +street of tombs, with a seat round inside, where those who came to pay +their respects to the departed could rest. An immense hemicycle was +designed by Bramante for the Vatican, where it constitutes a fine +architectural effect at the end of the great court. + + + + +HEMIMERUS, an Orthopterous or Dermapterous insect, the sole +representative of the family _Hemimeridae_, which has affinities with +both the _Forficulidae_ (earwigs) and the _Blattidae_ (cockroaches). +Only two species have been discovered, both from West Africa. The better +known of these (_H. hanseni_) lives upon a large rat-like rodent +(_Cricetomys gambianus_) feeding perhaps upon its external parasites, +perhaps upon scurf and other dermal products. Like many epizoic or +parasitic insects, _Hemimerus_ is wingless, eyeless and has relatively +short and strong legs. Correlated also with its mode of life is the +curious fact that it is viviparous, the young being born in an advanced +stage of growth. + + + + +HEMIMORPHITE, a mineral consisting of hydrous zinc silicate, H2Zn2SiO5, +of importance as an ore of the metal, of which it contains 54.4%. It is +interesting crystallographically by reason of the hemimorphic +development of its orthorhombic crystals; these are prismatic in habit +and are differently terminated at the two ends. In the figure, the faces +at the upper end of the crystal are the basal plane k and the domes o, +p, l, m, whilst at the lower end there are only the four faces of the +pyramid P. Connected with this polarity of the crystals is their +pyroelectric character--when a crystal is subjected to changes of +temperature it becomes positively electrified at one end and negatively +at the opposite end. There are perfect cleavages parallel to the prism +faces (d in the figure). Crystals are usually colourless, sometimes +yellowish or greenish, and transparent; they have vitreous lustre. The +hardness is 5, and the specific gravity 3.45. The mineral also occurs as +stalactitic or botryoidal masses with a fibrous structure, or in a +massive, cellular or granular condition intermixed with calamine and +clay. It is decomposed by hydrochloric acid with gelatinization; this +property affords a ready means of distinguishing hemimorphite from +calamine (zinc carbonate), these two minerals being, when not +crystallized, very like each other in appearance. The water contained in +hemimorphite is expelled only at a red heat, and the mineral must +therefore be considered as a basic metasilicate, (ZnOH)2SiO3. + +[Illustration] + +The name hemimorphite was given by G. A. Kenngott in 1853 because of the +typical hemimorphic development of the crystals. The mineral had long +been confused with _calamine_ (q.v.) and even now this name is often +applied to it. On account of its pyroelectric properties, it was called +_electric calamine_ by J. Smithson in 1803. + +Hemimorphite occurs with other ores of zinc (calamine and blende), +forming veins and beds in sedimentary limestones. British localities are +Matlock, Alston, Mendip Hills and Leadhills; at Roughten Gill, Caldbeck +Fells, Cumberland, it occurs as mammillated incrustations of a sky-blue +colour. Well-crystallized specimens have been found in the zinc mines at +Altenberg near Aachen in Rhenish Prussia, Nerchinsk mining district in +Siberia, and Elkhorn in Montana. (L. J. S.) + + + + +HEMINGBURGH, WALTER OF, also commonly, but erroneously, called WALTER +HEMINGFORD, a Latin chronicler of the 14th century, was a canon regular +of the Austin priory of Gisburn in Yorkshire. Hence he is sometimes +known as Walter of Gisburn (Walterus Gisburnensis). Bale seems to have +been the first to give him the name by which he became more commonly +known. His chronicle embraces the period of English history from the +Conquest (1066) to the nineteenth year of Edward III., with the +exception of the years 1316-1326. It ends with the title of a chapter in +which it was proposed to describe the battle of Crecy (1346); but the +chronicler seems to have died before the required information reached +him. There is, however, some controversy as to whether the later +portions which are lacking in some of the MSS. are by him. In compiling +the first part, Hemingburgh apparently used the histories of Eadmer, +Hoveden, Henry of Huntingdon, and William of Newburgh; but the reigns of +the three Edwards are original, composed from personal observation and +information. There are several manuscripts of the history extant--the +best perhaps being that presented to the College of Arms by the earl of +Arundel. The work is correct and judicious, and written in a pleasing +style. One of its special features is the preservation in its pages of +copies of the great charters, and Hemingburgh's versions have more than +once supplied deficiencies and cleared up obscurities in copies from +other sources. + + The first three books were published by Thomas Gale in 1687, in his + _Historiae Anglicanae scriptores quinque_, and the remainder by Thomas + Hearne in 1731. The first portion was again published in 1848 by the + English Historical Society, under the title _Chronicon Walteri de + Hemingburgh, vulgo Hemingford nuncupati, de gestis regum Angliae_, + edited by H. C. Hamilton. + + + + +HEMIPTERA (Gr. [Greek: hemi-], half and [Greek: pteron], a wing), the +name applied in zoological classification to that order of the class +Hexapoda (q.v.) which includes bugs, cicads, aphids and scale-insects. +The name was first used by Linnaeus (1735), who derived it from the +half-coriaceous and half-membranous condition of the forewing in many +members of the order. But the wings vary considerably in different +families, and the most distinctive feature is the structure of the jaws, +which form a beak-like organ with stylets adapted for piercing and +sucking. Hence the name _Rhyngota_ (or _Rhynchota_), proposed by J. C. +Fabricius (1775), is used by many writers in preference to Hemiptera. + +[Illustration: After Marlatt, _Bull._ 14 (N.S.) _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. +Agr._ + +FIG. 1.--Head and Prothorax of Cicad from side. + + I., Frons. + II., Base of mandible. + III., Base of first maxillae. + IV., Second maxillae forming rostrum. + V., Pronotum.] + +_Structure._--The head varies greatly in shape, and the feelers have +usually but few segments--often only four or five. The arrangement of +the jaws is remarkably constant throughout the order, if we exclude from +it the lice (_Anoplura_). Taking as our type the head of a cicad, we +find a jointed rostrum or beak (figs. 1 and 2, IV. b, c) with a deep +groove on its anterior face; this organ is formed by the second pair of +maxillae and corresponds therefore to the labium or "lower lip" of +biting insects. Within the groove of the rostrum two pairs of slender +piercers--often barbed at the tip--work to and fro. One of these pairs +(fig. 2, II. a, b, c) represents the mandibles, the other (fig. 2, III. +a, b, c) the first maxillae. The piercing portions of the +latter--representing their inner lobes or laciniae--lie median to the +mandibular piercers in the natural position of the organs. These +homologies of the hemipterous jaws were determined by J. C. Savigny in +1816, and though disputed by various subsequent writers, they have been +lately confirmed by the embryological researches of R. Heymons (1899). +Vestigial palps have been described in various species of Hemiptera, but +the true nature of these structures is doubtful. In front of the rostrum +and the piercers lies the pointed flexible labrum and within its base a +small hypopharynx (fig. 2, IV. d) consisting of paired conical +processes which lie dorsal to the "syringe" of the salivary glands. This +latter organ injects a secretion into the plant or animal tissue from +which the insect is sucking. The point of the rostrum is pressed against +the surface to be pierced; then the stylets come into play and the fluid +food is believed to pass into the mouth by capillary attraction. + +[Illustration: After Marlatt, _Bull. 14_ (N.S.) _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. +Agr._ + +FIG. 2.--Head and Prothorax of Cicad, parts separated. + + I., a, frons; b, clypeus; c, labrum; d, epipharynx. + I'., Same from behind. + II., Mandible. + III., 1st maxillae, a, base; b, sheath; c, stylet; c', muscle. + IV., 2nd maxillae, a, sub-mentum; b, mentum; c, ligula, forming beak; + d, hypopharynx (shown also from front d', and behind d"). + V., Prothorax, b, haunch; a, trochanter.] + +The prothorax (figs. 1 and 2, V.) in Hemiptera is large and free, and +the mesothoracic scutellum is usually extensive. The number of tarsal +segments is reduced; often three, two or only one may be present instead +of the typical insectan number five. The wings will be described in +connexion with the various sub-orders, but an interesting peculiarity of +the Hemiptera is the occasional presence of winged and wingless races of +the same species. Eleven abdominal segments can be recognized, at least +in the early stages; as the adult condition is reached, the hinder +segments become reduced or modified in connexion with the external +reproductive organs, and show, in some male Hemiptera, a marked +asymmetry. The typical insectan ovipositor with its three pairs of +processes, one pair belonging to the eighth and two pairs to the ninth +abdominal segment, can be distinguished in the female. + +[Illustration: After Marlatt, _Bull. 4_ (N.S.) _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. +Agr._ + +FIG. 3.--a, Cast-off nymphal skin of Bed-bug (_Cimex lectularius_); b, +Second instar after emergence from a; c, The same after a meal.] + +In the nervous system the concentration of the trunk ganglia into a +single nerve-centre situated in the thorax is remarkable. The digestive +system has a slender gullet, a large crop and no gizzard; in some +Hemiptera the hinder region of the mid-gut forms a twisted loop with the +gullet. Usually there are four excretory (Malpighian) tubes; but there +are only two in the _Coccidae_ and none in the _Aphidae_. "Stink +glands," which secrete a nauseous fluid with a defensive function, are +present in many Hemiptera. In the adult there is a pair of such glands +opening ventrally on the hindmost thoracic segment, or at the base of +the abdomen; but in the young insect the glands are situated dorsally +and open to the exterior on a variable number of the abdominal terga. + +_Development._--In most Hemiptera the young insect (fig. 3) resembles +its parents except for the absence of wings, and is active through all +stages of its growth. In all Hemiptera the wing-rudiments develop +externally on the nymphal cuticle, but in some families--the cicads for +example--the young insect (fig. 10) is a larva differing markedly in +form from its parent, and adapted for a different mode of life, while +the nymph before the final moult is sluggish and inactive. In the male +_Coccidae_ (Scale-insects) the nymph (fig. 4) remains passive and takes +no food. The order of the Hemiptera affords, therefore, some interesting +transition stages towards the complete metamorphosis of the higher +insects. + +[Illustration: After Riley and Howard, _Insect Life_, vol. i. (U.S. +Dept. Agr.). + +FIG. 4.--Passive Nymph or "Pupa" of male scale-insect (_Icerya_).] + +_Distribution and Habits._--Hemiptera are widely distributed, and are +plentiful in most quarters of the globe, though they probably have not +penetrated as far into remote and inhospitable regions as have the +Coleoptera, Diptera and Aptera. They feed entirely by suction, and the +majority of the species pierce plant tissues and suck sap. The leaves of +plants are for the most part the objects of attack, but many aphids and +scale-insects pierce stems, and some go underground and feed on roots. +The enormous rate at which aphids multiply under favourable conditions +makes them of the greatest economic importance, since the growth of +immense numbers of the same kind of plant in close proximity--as in +ordinary farm-crops--is especially advantageous to the insects that feed +on them. Several families of bugs are predaceous in habit, attacking +other insects--often members of their own order--and sucking their +juices. Others are scavengers feeding on decaying organic matter; the +pond skaters, for example, live mostly on the juices of dead floating +insects. And some, like the bed-bugs, are parasites of vertebrate +animals, on whose bodies they live temporarily or permanently, and whose +blood they suck. + +The Hemiptera are especially interesting as an order from the variety of +aquatic insects included therein. Some of these--the _Hydrometridae_ or +pond-skaters, for example--move over the surface-film, on which they are +supported by their elongated, slender legs, the body of the insect being +raised clear of the water. They are covered with short hairs which form +a velvet-like pile, so dense that water cannot penetrate. Consequently +when the insect dives, an air-bubble forms around it, a supply of oxygen +is thus secured for breathing and the water is kept away from the +spiracles. In many of these insects, while most individuals of the +species are wingless, winged specimens are now and then met with. The +occasional development of wings is probably of service to the species in +enabling the insects to reach new fresh-water breeding-grounds. This +family of Hemiptera (the _Hydrometridae_) and the _Saldidae_ contain +several insects that are marine, haunting the tidal margin. One genus of +_Hydrometridae_ (_Halobates_) is even oceanic in its habit, the species +being met with skimming over the surface of the sea hundreds of miles +from land. Probably they dive when the surface becomes ruffled. In these +marine genera the abdomen often undergoes excessive reduction (fig. 5). + +Other families of Hemiptera--such as the "Boatmen" (_Notonectidae_) and +the "Water-scorpions" (fig. 6) and their allies (_Nepidae_) dive and +swim through the water. They obtain their supply of air from the +surface. The _Nepidae_ breathe by means of a pair of long, grooved tail +processes (really outgrowths of the abdominal pleura) which when +pressed together form a tube whose point can pierce the surface film and +convey air to the hindmost spiracles which are alone functional in the +adult. The _Notonectidae_ breathe mostly through the thoracic spiracles; +the air is conveyed to these from the tail-end, which is brought to the +surface, along a kind of tunnel formed by overlapping hairs. + +[Illustration: After Carpenter, _Proc. R. Dublin Soc._, vol. viii. + +FIG. 5.--A reef-haunting hemipteron (_Hermatobates haddonii_) with +excessively reduced abdomen. Magnified.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Water-scorpion (_Nepa cinerea_) with raptorial +fore-legs, heteropterous wings, and long siphon for conveying air to +spiracles. Somewhat magnified. sc, scutellum; co, cl, m, corium, clavus +and membrane of forewing.] + +[Illustration: From Marlatt, _Bull._ 14 (N.S.) _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. +Agr._ + +FIG. 7. + + a, Body of male Cicad from below, showing cover-plates of musical + organs; + b, From above showing drums, natural size; + c, Section showing muscles which vibrate drum (magnified); + d, A drum at rest; + e, Thrown into vibration, more highly magnified.] + +_Sound-producing Organs._--The Hemiptera are remarkable for the variety +of their stridulating organs. In many genera of the _Pentatomidae_, +bristle-bearing tubercles on the legs are scraped across a set of fine +striations on the abdominal sterna. In _Halobates_ a comb-like series of +sharp spines on the fore-shin can be drawn across a set of blunt +processes on the shin of the opposite leg. Males of the little +water-bugs of the genus _Corixa_ make a shrill chirping note by drawing +a row of teeth on the flattened fore-foot across a group of spines on +the haunch of the opposite leg. But the loudest and most remarkable +vocal organs of all insects are those of the male cicads, which "sing" +by the rapid vibration of a pair of "drums" or membranes within the +metathorax. These drums are worked by special muscles, and the cavities +in which they lie are protected by conspicuous plates visible beneath +the base of the abdomen (see fig. 7). + +_Fossil History._--The Heteroptera can be traced back farther than any +other winged insects if the fossil _Protocimex silurica_ Moberg, from +the Ordovician slates of Sweden is rightly regarded as the wing of a +bug. But according to the recent researches of A. Handlirsch it is not +insectan at all. Both Heteropterous and Homopterous genera have been +described from the Carboniferous, but the true nature of some of these +is doubtful. _Eugereon_ is a remarkable Permian fossil, with jaws that +are typically hemipterous except that the second maxillae are not fused +and with cockroach-like wings. In the Jurassic period many of the +existing families, such as the _Cicadidae_, _Fulgoridae_, _Aphidae_, +_Nepidae_, _Reduviidae_, _Hydrometridae_, _Lygaeidae_ and _Coreidae_, +had already become differentiated. + + _Classification._--The number of described species of Hemiptera must + now be nearly 20,000. The order is divided into two sub-orders, the + Heteroptera and the Homoptera. The Anoplura or lice should not be + included among the Hemiptera, but it has been thought convenient to + refer briefly to them at the close of this article. + + + HETEROPTERA + + In this sub-order are included the various families of bugs and their + aquatic relations. The front of the head is not in contact with the + haunches of the fore-legs. There is usually a marked difference + between the wings of the two pairs. The fore-wing is generally divided + into a firm coriaceous basal region, occupying most of the area, and a + membranous terminal portion, while the hind-wing is delicate and + entirely membranous (see fig. 6). In the firm portion of the fore-wing + two distinct regions can usually be distinguished; most of the area is + formed by the _corium_ (fig. 6, co), which is separated by a + longitudinal suture from the _clavus_ (fig. 6, cl) on its hinder edge, + and in some families there is also a _cuneus_ (fig. 9 cu) external to + and an _embolium_ in front of the _corium_. + + [Illustration: After Marlatt, _Bull._ 4 (N.S.) _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. + Agr._ + + FIG. 8.--Bed-bug (_Cimex lectularius_, Linn.). + + a, Female from above; + b, From beneath; + c, Vestigial wing; + d, Jaws, very highly magnified (tips of mandibles and 1st maxillae + still more highly magnified).] + + Most Heteroptera are flattened in form, and the wings lie flat, or + nearly so, when closed. The young Heteropteron is hatched from the egg + in a form not markedly different from that of its parent; it is active + and takes food through all the stages of its growth. It is usual to + divide the Heteroptera into two tribes--the Gymnocerata and the + Cryptocerata. + + _Gymnocerata._--This tribe includes some eighteen families of + terrestrial, arboreal and marsh-haunting bugs, as well as those + aquatic Heteroptera that live on the surface-film of water. The + feelers are elongate and conspicuous. The _Pentatomidae_ + (shield-bugs), some of which are metallic or otherwise brightly + coloured, are easily recognized by the great development of the + scutellum, which reaches at least half-way back towards the tip of the + abdomen, and in some genera covers the whole of the hind body, and + also the wings when these are closed. The _Coreidae_ have a smaller + scutellum, and the feelers are inserted high on the head, while in the + _Lygaeidae_ they are inserted lower down. These three families have + the foot with three segments. In the curious little _Tingidae_, whose + integuments exhibit a pattern of network-like ridges, the feet are + two-segmented and the scutellum is hidden by the pronotum. The + _Aradidae_ have two segmented feet, and a large visible scutellum. The + _Hydrometridae_ are a large family including the pond-skaters and + other dwellers on the surface-film of fresh water, as well as the + remarkable oceanic genus _Halobates_ already referred to. The + _Reduviidae_ are a family of predaceous bugs that attack other + insects and suck their juices; the beak is short, and carried under + the head in a hook-like curve, not--as in the preceding + families--lying close against the breast. The _Cimicidae_ have the + feet three-segmented and the forewings greatly reduced; most of the + species are parasites on birds and bats, but one--_Cimex lectidarius_ + (figs. 3, 8)--is the well-known "bed-bug" which abounds in unclean + dwellings and sucks human blood (see BUG). The _Anthocoridae_ are + nearly related to the _Cimicidae_, but the wings are usually well + developed and the forewing possesses cuneus and embolium as well as + corium and clavus. The _Capsidae_ are a large family of rather + soft-skinned bugs mostly elongate in form with the two basal segments + of the feelers stouter than the two terminal. The forewing in this + family has a cuneus (fig. 9 cu), but not an embolium. These insects + are often found in large numbers on plants whose juices they suck. + + [Illustration: After M. V. Slingerland, _Cornell Univ. Ent. Bull._ 58. + + FIG. 9.--Capsid Leaf-bug (_Poecilocapsus lineatus_) N. America. + Magnified--, cu cuneus.] + + [Illustration: From Mariatt, _Bull._ 14 (N. S.), _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. + Agr._ + + FIG. 10.--a, Nymph (4th stage) of Cicad, magnified; c, d, inner and + outer faces of front leg, magnified--; b, teeth on thigh, more highly + magnified.] + + _Cryptocerata._--In this tribe are included five or six families of + aquatic Heteroptera which spend the greater part of their lives + submerged, diving and swimming through the water. The feelers are very + small and are often hidden in cavities beneath the head. The + _Naucoridae_ and _Belostomatidae_ are flattened insects, with + four-segmented feelers and fore-legs inserted at the front of the + prosternum. Two species of the former family inhabit our islands, but + the _Belostomatidae_ are found only in the warmer regions of the + globe; some of them, attaining a length of 4 to 5 in., are giants + among insects. The _Nepidae_ (fig. 6) or water-scorpions (q.v.)--two + British species--are distinguished by their three-segmented feelers, + their raptorial fore-legs (in which the shin and foot, fused together, + work like a sharp knife-blade on the grooved thigh), and their + elongate tail-processes formed of the abdominal pleura and used for + respiration. The _Notonectidae_, or "water-boatmen" (q.v.) have convex + ovoid bodies admirably adapted for aquatic life. By means of the + oar-like hind-legs they swim actively through the water with the + ventral surface upwards; the fore-legs are inserted at the hinder edge + of the prosternum. The _Corixidae_ are small flattened water-bugs, + with very short unjointed beak, the labrum being enclosed within the + second maxillae, and the foot in the fore and intermediate leg having + but a single segment. The hinder abdominal segments in the male show a + curious asymmetrical arrangement, the sixth segment bearing on its + upper side a small stalked plate (_strigil_) of unknown function, + furnished with rows of teeth. On account of the reduction and + modification of the jaws in the _Corixidae_, C. Borner has lately + suggested that they should form a special sub-order of Hemiptera--the + Sandaliorrhyncha. + + + HOMOPTERA + + This sub-order includes the cicads, lantern-flies, frog-hoppers, + aphids and scale-insects. The face has such a marked backward slope + (see fig. 1) as to bring the beak into close contact with the haunches + of the fore-legs. The feelers have one or more thickened basal + segments, while the remaining segments are slender and thread-like. + The fore-wings are sometimes membranous like the hind-wings, usually + they are firmer in texture, but they never show the distinct areas + that characterize the wings of Heteroptera. When at rest the wings of + Homoptera slope roofwise across the back of the insect. In their + life-history the Homoptera are more specialized than the Heteroptera; + the young insect often differs markedly from its parent and does not + live in the same situations; while in some families there is a passive + stage before the last moult. + + [Illustration: After Weed, Riley and Howard, _Insect Life_, vol iii. + + FIG. 11.--Cabbage Aphid (_Aphisbrassicae_). a, Male; c, female + (wingless). Magnified. b and d, Head and feelers of male and female, + more highly magnified.] + + [Illustration: After Howard, _Year Book U.S. Dept. Agr._, 1894. + + FIG. 12.--Apple Scale Insect (_Mytilaspis pomorum_). a, Male; e, + female; c, larva magnified--; b, foot of male; d, feeler of larva, + more highly magnified.] + + The _Cicadidae_ are for the most part large insects with ample wings; + they are distinguished from other Homoptera by the front thighs being + thickened and toothed beneath. The broad head carries, in addition to + the prominent compound eyes, three simple eyes (ocelli) on the crown, + while the feeler consists of a stout basal segment, followed by five + slender segments. The female, by means of her serrated ovipositor, + lays her eggs in slits cut in the twigs of plants. The young have + simple feelers and stout fore-legs (fig. 10) adapted for digging; they + live underground and feed on the roots of plants. In the case of a + North American species it is known that this larval life lasts for + seventeen years. The "song" of the male cicads is notorious and the + structures by which it is produced have already been described (see + also CICADA). There are about 900 known species, but the family is + mostly confined to warm countries; only a single cicad is found in + England, and that is restricted to the south. + + The _Fulgoridae_ and _Membracidae_ are two allied families most of + whose members are also natives of hot regions. The _Fulgoridae_ have + the head with two ocelli and three-segmented feelers; frequently as in + the tropical "lantern-flies" (q.v.) the head is prolonged into a + conspicuous bladder, or trunk-like process. The _Membracidae_ are + remarkable on account of the backward prolongation of the pronotum + into a process or hood-like structure which may extend far behind the + tail-end of the abdomen. Two other allied families, the _Cercopidae_ + and _Jassidae_, are more numerously represented in our islands. The + young of many of these insects are green and soft-skinned, protecting + themselves by the well-known frothy secretion that is called + "cuckoo-spit." + + [Illustration: After Howard, _Year Book U.S. Dept. Agr._, 1894. + + FIG. 13.--Apple Scale Insect (_Mytilaspis pomorum_). a, Scale from + beneath showing female and eggs; b, from above, magnified--; c and e, + female and male scales on twigs, natural size; d, male scale + magnified.] + + [Illustration: From Osborn (after Denny), _Bull._ 5 (N.S.), _Div. Ent. + U.S. Dept. Agr._ + + FIG. 14.--Louse (_Pediculus vestimenti_). Magnified.] + + [Illustration: From Osborn (after Schiodte), _Bull._ 5; (N.S.), _Div. + Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr._ + + FIG. 15.--Proboscis of Pediculus. Highly magnified.] + + In all the above-mentioned families of Homoptera there are three + segments in each foot. The remaining four families have feet with only + two segments. They are of very great zoological interest on account of + the peculiarities of their life-history--parthenogenesis being of + normal occurrence among most of them. The families _Psyllidae_ (or + "jumpers") with eight or ten segments in the feeler and the + _Aleyrodidae_ (or "snowy-flies") distinguished by their white mealy + wings, are of comparatively slight importance. The two families to + which special attention has been paid are the _Aphidae_ or plant-lice + ("green fly") and the _Coccidae_ or scale-insects. The aphids (fig. + 11) have feelers with seven or fewer distinct segments, and the fifth + abdominal segment usually carries a pair of tubular processes through + which a waxy secretion is discharged. The sweet "honey-dew," often + sought as a food by ants, is secreted from the intestines of aphids. + The peculiar life-cycle in which successive generations are produced + through the summer months by virgin females--the egg developing within + the body of the mother--is described at length in the articles APHIDES + and PHYLLOXERA. The _Coccidae_ have only a single claw to the foot; + the males (fig. 12 _a_) have the fore-wings developed and the + hind-wings greatly reduced, while in the female wings are totally + absent and the body undergoes marked degradation (figs. 12, _e_, 13, + _a_, _b_). In the Coccids the formation of a protective waxy + secretion--present in many genera of Homoptera--reaches its most + extreme development. In some coccids--the "mealy-bugs" (_Dactylopius_, + &c.) for example--the secretion forms a white thread-like or + plate-like covering which the insect carries about. But in most + members of the family, the secretion, united with cast cuticles and + excrement, forms a firm "scale," closely attached by its edges to the + surface of the plant on which the insect lives, and serving as a + shield beneath which the female coccid, with her eggs (fig. 13 _a_) + and brood, finds shelter. The male coccid passes through a passive + stage (fig. 4) before attaining the perfect condition. Many + scale-insects are among the most serious of pests, but various species + have been utilized by man for the production of wax (lac) and red dye + (cochineal). See ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY, SCALE-INSECT. + + + ANOPLURA + + The Anoplura or lice (see LOUSE) are wingless parasitic insects (fig. + 14) forming an order distinct from the Hemiptera, their sucking and + piercing mouth-organs being apparently formed on quite a different + plan from those of the Heteroptera and Homoptera. In front of the head + is a short tube armed with strong recurved hooks which can be fixed + into the skin of the host, and from the tube an elongate more slender + sucking-trunk can be protruded (fig. 15). Each foot is provided with a + single strong claw which, opposed to a process on the shin, serves to + grasp a hair of the host, all the lice being parasites on different + mammals. Although G. Enderlein has recently shown that the jaws of the + Hemiptera can be recognized in a reduced condition in connexion with + the louse's proboscis, the modification is so excessive that the group + certainly deserves ordinal separation. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A recent standard work on the morphology of the + Hemiptera by R. Heymons (_Nova Acta Acad. Leop. Carol._ lxxiv. 3, + 1899) contains numerous references to older literature. An excellent + survey of the order is given by D. Sharp (_Cambridge Nat. Hist._ vol. + vi., 1898). For internal structure of Heteroptera see R. Dufour, _Mem. + savans etrangers_ (Paris, iv., 1833); of Homoptera, E. Witlaczil + (_Arb. Zool. Inst. Wien_, iv., 1882, _Zeits. f. wiss. Zool._ xliii., + 1885). The development of Aphids has been dealt with by T. H. Huxley + (_Trans. Linn. Soc._ xxii., 1858) and E. Witlaczil (_Zeits. f. wiss. + Zool._ xl., 1884). Fossil Hemiptera are described by S. H. Scudder in + K. Zittel's _Paleontologie_ (French translation, vol. ii. Paris, 1887, + and English edition, vol. i., London, 1900), and by A. Handlirsch + (_Verh. zool. bot. Gesell. Wien_, lii., 1902). Among general + systematic works on Heteroptera may be mentioned J. C. Schiodte (_Ann. + Mag. Nat. Hist._ (4) vi., 1870); C. Stal's _Enumeratio Hemipterorum_ + (_K. Svensk. Vet. Akad. Handl._ ix.-xiv., 1870-1876); L. Lethierry and + G. Severin's _Catalogue generale des hemipteres_ (Brussels 1893, &c.); + G. C. Champion's volumes in the _Biologia Centrali-Americana_; W. L. + Distant's Oriental Cicadidae (London, 1889-1892), and many other + papers; M. E. Fernald's _Catalogue of the Coccidae_ (Amherst, U.S.A., + 1903). European Hemiptera have been dealt with in numerous papers by + A. Puton. For British species we have E. Saunders's + _Hemiptera-Heteroptera of the British Isles_ (London, 1892); J. + Edwards's Hemiptera-Homoptera of the British Isles (London, 1896); J. + B. Buckton's _British Aphidae_ (London, Ray Society, 1875-1882); and + R. Newstead's _British Coccidae_ (London, Ray Society, 1901-1903). + Aquatic Hemiptera are described by L. C. Miall (_Nat. History Aquatic + Insects_; London, 1895), and by G. W. Kirkaldy in numerous recent + papers (_Entomologist_, &c.). For marine Hemiptera (_Halobates_) see + F. B. White (_Challenger Reports_, vii., 1883); J. J. Walker (_Ent. + Mo. Mag._, 1893); N. Nassonov (Warsaw, 1893), and G. H. Carpenter + (_Knowledge_, 1901, and _Report, Pearl Oyster Fisheries, Royal + Society_, 1906). Sound-producing organs of Heteroptera are described + by A. Handlirsch (_Ann. Hofmus. Wien_, xv. 1900), and G. W. Kirkaldy + (_Journ. Quekett Club_ (2) viii. 1901); of Cicads by G. Carlet (_Ann. + Sci. Nat. Zool._ (6) v. 1877). For the Anoplura see E. Piaget's + _Pediculines_ (Leiden, 1880-1905), and G. Enderlein (_Zool. Anz._ + xxviii., 1904). (G. H. C.) + + + + +HEMLOCK (in O. Eng. _hemlic_ or _hymlice_; no cognate is found in any +other language, and the origin is unknown), the _Conium maculatum_ of +botanists, a biennial umbelliferous plant, found wild in many parts of +Great Britain and Ireland, where it occurs in waste places on +hedge-banks, and by the borders of fields, and also widely spread over +Europe and temperate Asia, and naturalized in the cultivated districts +of North and South America. It is an erect branching plant, growing from +3 to 6 ft. high, and emitting a disagreeable smell, like that of mice. +The stems are hollow, smooth, somewhat glaucous green, spotted with dull +dark purple, as alluded to in the specific name, _maculatum_. The +root-leaves have long furrowed footstalks, sheathing the stem at the +base, and are large, triangular in outline, and repeatedly divided or +compound, the ultimate and very numerous segments being small, ovate, +and deeply incised at the edge. These leaves generally perish after the +growth of the flowering stem, which takes place in the second year, +while the leaves produced on the stem became gradually smaller upwards. +The branches are all terminated by compound many-rayed umbels of small +white flowers, the general involucres consisting of several, the partial +ones of about three short lanceolate bracts, the latter being usually +turned towards the outside of the umbel. The flowers are succeeded by +broadly ovate fruits, the mericarps (half-fruits) having five ribs +which, when mature, are waved or crenated; and when cut across the +albumen is seen to be deeply furrowed on the inner face, so as to +exhibit in section a reniform outline. The fruits when triturated with a +solution of caustic potash evolve a most unpleasant odour. + +Hemlock is a virulent poison, but it varies much in potency according to +the conditions under which it has grown, and the season or stage of +growth at which it is gathered. In the first year the leaves have little +power, nor in the second are their properties developed until the +flowering period, at which time, or later on when the fruits are fully +grown, the plant should be gathered. The wild plant growing in exposed +situations is to be preferred to garden-grown samples, and is more +potent in dry warm summers than in those which are dull and moist. + +The poisonous property of hemlock resides chiefly in the alkaloid +_conine_ or _conia_ which is found in both the fruits and the leaves, +though in exceedingly small proportions in the latter. Conine resembles +nicotine in its deleterious action, but is much less powerful. No +chemical antidote for it is known. The plant also yields a second less +poisonous crystallizable base called _conhydrine_, which may be +converted into conine by the abstraction of the elements of water. When +collected for medicinal purposes, for which both leaves and fruits are +used, the former should be gathered at the time the plant is in full +blossom, while the latter are said to possess the greatest degree of +energy just before they ripen. The fruits are the chief source whence +conine is prepared. The principal forms in which hemlock is employed are +the extract and juice of hemlock, hemlock poultice, and the tincture of +hemlock fruits. Large doses produce vertigo, nausea and paralysis; but +in smaller quantities, administered by skilful hands, it has a sedative +action on the nerves. It has also some reputation as an alterative and +resolvent, and as an anodyne. + +The acrid narcotic properties of the plant render it of some importance +that one should be able to identify it, the more so as some of the +compound-leaved umbellifers, which have a general similarity of +appearance to it, form wholesome food for man and animals. Not only is +this knowledge desirable to prevent the poisonous plant being +detrimentally used in place of the wholesome one; it is equally +important in the opposite case, namely, to prevent the inert being +substituted for the remedial agent. The plant with which hemlock is most +likely to be confounded is _Anthriscus sylvestris_, or cow-parsley, the +leaves of which are freely eaten by cattle and rabbits; this plant, like +the hemlock, has spotted stems but they are hairy, not hairless; it has +much-divided leaves of the same general form, but they are downy and +aromatic, not smooth and nauseous when bruised; and the fruit of +_Anthriscus_ is linear-oblong and not ovate. + + + + +HEMP (in O. Eng. _henep_, cf. Dutch _hennep_, Ger. _Hanf_, cognate with +Gr. [Greek: kannabis], Lat. _cannabis_), an annual herb (_Cannabis +sativa_) having angular rough stems and alternate deeply lobed leaves. +The bast fibres of _Cannabis_ are the hemp of commerce, but, +unfortunately, the products from many totally different plants are often +included under the general name of hemp. In some cases the fibre is +obtained from the stem, while in others it comes from the leaf. Sunn +hemp, Manila hemp, Sisal hemp, and Phormium (New Zealand flax, which is +neither flax nor hemp) are treated separately. All these, however, are +often classed under the above general name, and so are the +following:--Deccan or Ambari hemp, _Hibiscus cannabinus_, an Indian and +East Indian malvaceous plant, the fibre from which is often known as +brown hemp or Bombay hemp; Pite hemp, which is obtained from the +American aloe, _Agave americana_; and Moorva or bowstring-hemp, +_Sansevieria zeylanica_, which is obtained from an aloe-like plant, and +is a native of India and Ceylon. Then there are Canada hemp, _Apocynum +cannabinum_, Kentucky hemp, _Urtica cannabina_, and others. + +The hemp plant, like the hop, which is of the same natural order, +Cannabinaceae, is dioecious, i.e. the male and female flowers are borne +on separate plants. The female plant grows to a greater height than the +male, and its foliage is darker and more luxuriant, but the plant takes +from five to six weeks longer to ripen. When the male plants are ripe +they are pulled, put up into bundles, and steeped in a similar manner to +flax, but the female plants are allowed to remain until the seed is +perfectly ripe. They are then pulled, and after the seed has been +removed are retted in the ordinary way. The seed is also a valuable +product; the finest is kept for sowing, a large quantity is sold for the +food of cage birds, while the remainder is sent to the oil mills to be +crushed. The extracted oil is used in the manufacture of soap, while the +solid remains, known as oil-cake, are valuable as a food for cattle. The +leaves of hemp have five to seven leaflets, the form of which is +lanceolate-acuminate, with a serrate margin. The loose panicles of male +flowers, and the short spikes of female flowers, arise from the axils of +the upper leaves. The height of the plant varies greatly with season, +soil and manuring; in some districts it varies from 3 to 8 ft., but in +the Piedmont province it is not unusual to see them from 8 to 16 ft. in +height, whilst a variety (_Cannabis sativa_, variety gigantea) has +produced specimens over 17 ft. in height. + +All cultivated hemp belongs to the same species, _Cannabis sativa_; the +special varieties such as _Cannabis indica_, _Cannabis chinensis_, &c., +owe their differences to climate and soil, and they lose many of their +peculiarities when cultivated in temperate regions. Rumphius (in the +17th century) had noticed these differences between Indian and European +hemp. + +Wild hemp still grows on the banks of the lower Ural, and the Volga, +near the Caspian Sea. It extends to Persia, the Altai range and northern +and western China. The authors of the _Pharmacographia_ say:--"It is +found in Kashmir and in the Himalaya, growing 10 to 12 ft. high, and +thriving vigorously at an elevation of 6000 to 10,000 ft." Wild hemp is, +however, of very little use as a fibre producer, although a drug is +obtained from it. + +It would appear that the native country of the hemp plant is in some +part of temperate Asia, probably near the Caspian Sea. It spread +westward throughout Europe, and southward through the Indian peninsula. + +The names given to the plant and to its products in different countries +are of interest in connexion with the utilization of the fibre and +resin. In Sans. it is called _goni_, _sana_, _shanapu_, _banga_ and +_ganjika_; in Bengali, _ganga_; Pers. _bang_ and _canna_; Arab. _kinnub_ +or _cannub_; Gr. _kannabis_; Lat. _cannabis_; Ital. _canappa_; Fr. +_chanvre_; Span. _canamo_; Portuguese, _canamo_; Russ. _konopel_; +Lettish and Lithuanian, _kannapes_; Slav. _konopi_; Erse, _canaib_ and +_canab_; A. Sax. _hoenep_; Dutch, _hennep_; Ger. _Hanf_; Eng. _hemp_; +Danish and Norwegian, _hamp_; Icelandic, _hampr_; and in Swed. _hampa_. +The English word _canvas_ sufficiently reveals its derivation from +_cannabis_. + +Very little hemp is now grown in the British Isles, although this +variety was considered to be of very good quality, and to possess great +strength. The chief continental hemp-producing countries are Italy, +Russia and France; it is also grown in several parts of Canada and the +United States and India. The Central Provinces, Bengal and Bombay are +the chief centres of hemp cultivation in India, where the plant is of +most use for narcotics. The satisfactory growth of hemp demands a light, +rich and fertile soil, but, unlike most substances, it may be reared for +a few years in succession. The time of sowing, the quantity of seed per +acre (about three bushels) and the method of gathering and retting are +very similar to those of flax; but, as a rule, it is a hardier plant +than flax, does not possess the same pliability, is much coarser and +more brittle, and does not require the same amount of attention during +the first few weeks of its growth. + +The very finest hemp, that grown in the province of Piedmont, Italy, +is, however, very similar to flax, and in many cases the two fibres are +mixed in the same material. The hemp fibre has always been valuable for +the rope industry, and it was at one time very extensively used in the +production of yarns for the manufacture of sail cloth, sheeting, covers, +bagging, sacking, &c. Much of the finer quality is still made into +cloth, but almost all the coarser quality finds its way into ropes and +similar material. + +A large quantity of hemp cloth is still made for the British navy. The +cloth, when finished, is cut up into lengths, made into bags and tarred. +They are then used as coal sacks. There is also a quantity made into +sacks which are intended to hold very heavy material. Hemp yarns are +also used in certain classes of carpets, for special bags for use in cop +dyeing and for similar special purposes, but for the ordinary bagging +and sacking the employment of hemp yarns has been almost entirely +supplanted by yarns made from the jute fibre. + +Hemp is grown for three products--(1) the fibre of its stem; (2) the +resinous secretion which is developed in hot countries upon its leaves +and flowering heads; (3) its oily seeds. + +Hemp has been employed for its fibre from ancient times. Herodotus (iv. +74) mentions the wild and cultivated hemp of Scythia, and describes the +hempen garments made by the Thracians as equal to linen in fineness. +Hesychius says the Thracian women made sheets of hemp. Moschion (about +200 B.C.) records the use of hempen ropes for rigging the ship +"Syracusia" built for Hiero II. The hemp plant has been cultivated in +northern India from a considerable antiquity, not only as a drug but for +its fibre. The Anglo-Saxons were well acquainted with the mode of +preparing hemp. Hempen cloth became common in central and southern +Europe in the 13th century. + +_Hemp-resin._--Hemp as a drug or intoxicant for smoking and chewing +occurs in the three forms of bhang, ganja and charas. + +1. _Bhang_, the Hindustani _siddhi_ or _sabzi_, consists of the dried +leaves and small stalks of the hemp; a few fruits occur in it. It is of +a dark brownish-green colour, and has a faint peculiar odour and but a +slight taste. It is smoked with or without tobacco; or it is made into a +sweetmeat with honey, sugar and aromatic spices; or it is powdered and +infused in cold water, yielding a turbid drink, _subdschi_. _Hashish_ is +one of the Arabic names given to the Syrian and Turkish preparations of +the resinous hemp leaves. One of the commonest of these preparations is +made by heating the bhang with water and butter, the butter becoming +thus charged with the resinous and active substances of the plant. + +2. _Ganja_, the guaza of the London brokers, consists of the flowering +and fruiting heads of the female plant. It is brownish-green, and +otherwise resembles bhang, as in odour and taste. Some of the more +esteemed kinds of hashish are prepared from this ganja. Ganja is met +with in the Indian bazaars in dense bundles of 24 plants or heads +apiece. The hashish in such extensive use in Central Asia is often seen +in the bazaars of large cities in the form of cakes, 1 to 3 in. thick, 5 +to 10 in. broad and 10 to 15 in. long. + +3. _Charas_, or churrus, is the resin itself collected, as it exudes +naturally from the plant, in different ways. The best sort is gathered +by the hand like opium; sometimes the resinous exudation of the plant is +made to stick first of all to cloths, or to the leather garments of men, +or even to their skin, and is then removed by scraping, and afterwards +consolidated by kneading, pressing and rolling. It contains about +one-third or one-fourth its weight of the resin. But the churrus +prepared by different methods and in different countries differs greatly +in appearance and purity. Sometimes it takes the form of egg-like masses +of greyish-brown colour, having when of high quality a shining resinous +fracture. Often it occurs in the form of irregular friable lumps, like +pieces of impure linseed oil-cake. + +The medicinal and intoxicating properties of hemp have probably been +known in Oriental countries from a very early period. An ancient Chinese +herbal, part of which was written about the 5th century B.C., while the +remainder is of still earlier date, notices the seed and flower-bearing +kinds of hemp. Other early writers refer to hemp as a remedy. The +medicinal and dietetic use of hemp spread through India, Persia and +Arabia in the early middle ages. The use of hemp (bhang) in India was +noticed by Garcia d'Orta in 1563. Berlu in his _Treasury of Drugs_ +(1690) describes it as of "an infatuating quality and pernicious use." +Attention was recalled to this drug, in consequence of Napoleon's +Egyptian expedition, by de Sacy (1809) and Rouger (1810). Its modern +medicinal use is chiefly due to trials by Dr O'Shaughnessy in Calcutta +(1838-1842). The plant is grown partly and often mainly for the sake of +its resin in Persia, northern India and Arabia, in many parts of Africa +and in Brazil. + +_Pharmacology and Therapeutics._--The composition of this drug is still +extremely obscure; partly, perhaps, because it varies so much in +individual specimens. It appears to contain at least two +alkaloids--cannabinine and tetano-cannabine--of which the former is +volatile. The chief active principle may possibly be neither of these, +but the substance cannabinon. There are also resins, a volatile oil and +several other constituents. Cannabis indica--as the drug is termed in +the pharmacopoeias--may be given as an extract (dose (1/4)-1 gr.) or +tincture (dose 5-15 minims). + +The drug has no external action. The effects of its absorption, whether +it be swallowed or smoked, vary within wide limits in different +individuals and races. So great is this variation as to be inexplicable +except on the view that the nature and proportions of the active +principles vary greatly in different specimens. But typically the drug +is an intoxicant, resembling alcohol in many features of its action, but +differing in others. The early symptoms are highly pleasurable, and it +is for these, as in the case of other stimulants, that the drug is so +largely consumed in the East. There is a subjective sensation of mental +brilliance, but, as in other cases, this is not borne out by the +objective results. It has been suggested that the incoordination of +nervous action under the influence of Indian hemp may be due to +independent and non-concerted action on the part of the two halves of +the cerebrum. Following on a decided lowering of the pain and touch +senses, which may even lead to complete loss of cutaneous sensation, +there comes a sleep which is often accompanied by pleasant dreams. There +appears to be no evidence in the case of either the lower animals or the +human subject that the drug is an aphrodisiac. Excessive indulgence in +cannabis indica is very rare, but may lead to general ill-health and +occasionally to insanity. The apparent impossibility of obtaining pure +and trustworthy samples of the drug has led to its entire abandonment in +therapeutics. When a good sample is obtained it is a safe and efficient +hypnotic, at any rate in the case of a European. The tincture should not +be prescribed unless precautions are taken to avoid the precipitation of +the resin which follows its dilution with water. + + See Watt, _Dictionary of the Economic Products of India_. + + + + +HEMSTERHUIS, FRANCOIS (1721-1790), Dutch writer on aesthetics and moral +philosophy, son of Tiberius Hemsterhuis, was born at Franeker in +Holland, on the 27th of December 1721. He was educated at the university +of Leiden, where he studied Plato. Failing to obtain a professorship, he +entered the service of the state, and for many years acted as secretary +to the state council of the United Provinces. He died at the Hague on +the 7th of July 1790. Through his philosophical writings he became +acquainted with many distinguished persons--Goethe, Herder, Princess +Amalia of Gallitzin, and especially Jacobi, with whom he had much in +common. Both were idealists, and their works suffer from a similar lack +of arrangement, although distinguished by elegance of form and refined +sentiment. His most valuable contributions are in the department of +aesthetics or the general analysis of feeling. His philosophy has been +characterized as Socratic in content and Platonic in form. Its +foundation was the desire for self-knowledge and truth, untrammelled by +the rigid bonds of any particular system. + + His most important works, all of which were written in French, are: + _Lettre sur la sculpture_ (1769), in which occurs the well-known + definition of the Beautiful as "that which gives us the greatest + number of ideas in the shortest space of time"; its continuation, + _Lettre sur les desirs_ (1770); _Lettre sur l'homme et ses rapports_ + (1772), in which the "moral organ" and the theory of knowledge are + discussed; _Sopyle_ (1778), a dialogue on the relation between the + soul and the body, and also an attack on materialism; _Aristee_ + (1779), the "theodicy" of Hemsterhuis, discussing the existence of God + and his relation to man; _Simon_ (1787), on the four faculties of the + soul, which are the will, the imagination, the moral principle (which + is both passive and active); _Alexis_ (1787), an attempt to prove that + there are three golden ages, the last being the life beyond the grave; + _Lettre sur l'atheisme_ (1787). + + The best collected edition of his works is by P. S. Meijboom + (1846-1850); see also S. A. Gronemann, _F. Hemsterhuis, de + Nederlandische Wijsgeer_ (Utrecht, 1867); E. Grucker, _Francois + Hemsterhuis, sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (Paris, 1866); E. Meyer, _Der + Philosoph Franz Hemsterhuis_ (Breslau, 1893), with bibliographical + notice. + + + + +HEMSTERHUIS, TIBERIUS (1685-1766), Dutch philologist and critic, was +born on the 9th of January 1685 at Groningen in Holland. His father, a +learned physician, gave him so good an early education that, when he +entered the university of his native town in his fifteenth year, he +speedily proved himself to be the best student of mathematics. After a +year or two at Groningen, he was attracted to the university of Leiden +by the fame of Perizonius; and while there he was entrusted with the +duty of arranging the manuscripts in the library. Though he accepted an +appointment as professor of mathematics and philosophy at Amsterdam in +his twentieth year, he had already directed his attention to the study +of the ancient languages. In 1706 he completed the edition of Pollux's +_Onomasticon_ begun by Lederlin; but the praise he received from his +countrymen was more than counterbalanced by two letters of criticism +from Bentley, which mortified him so keenly that for two months he +refused to open a Greek book. In 1717 Hemsterhuis was appointed +professor of Greek at Franeker, but he did not enter on his duties there +till 1720. In 1738 he became professor of national history also. Two +years afterwards he was called to teach the same subjects at Leiden, +where he died on the 7th of April 1766. Hemsterhuis was the founder of a +laborious and useful Dutch school of criticism, which had famous +disciples in Valckenaer, Lennep and Ruhnken. + + His chief writings are the following: _Luciani colloquia et Timon_ + (1708); _Aristophanis Plutus_ (1744); _Notae, &c., ad Xenophontem + Ephesium in the Miscellanea critica_ of Amsterdam, vols. iii. and iv.; + _Observationes ad Chrysostomi homilias; Orationes_ (1784); a Latin + translation of the _Birds_ of Aristophanes, in Kuster's edition; notes + to Bernard's _Thomas Magister_, to Alberti's _Hesychius_, to Ernesti's + _Callimachus_ and to Burmann's _Propertius_. See _Elogium T. + Hemsterhusii_ (with Bentley's letters) by Ruhnken (1789), and + _Supplementa annotationis ad elogium T. Hemsterhusii, &c._ (Leiden, + 1874); also J. E. Sandys' _Hist. Class. Scholarship_, ii. (1908). + + + + +HEMY, CHARLES NAPIER (1841- ), British painter, born at +Newcastle-on-Tyne, was trained in the Newcastle school of art, in the +Antwerp academy and in the studio of Baron Leys. He has produced some +figure subjects and landscapes, but is best known by his admirable +marine paintings. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in +1898, associate of the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours in +1890 and member in 1897. Two of his paintings, "Pilchards" (1897) and +"London River" (1904), are in the National Gallery of British Art. + + + + +HEN, a female bird, especially the female of the common fowl (q.v.). The +O. Eng. _haen_ is the feminine form of _hana_, the male bird, a +correlation of words which is represented in other Teutonic languages, +cf. Ger. _Hahn_, _Henne_, Dutch _haan_, _hen_, Swed. _hane_, _honne_, +&c. The O. Eng. name for the male bird has disappeared, its place being +taken by "cock," a word probably of onomatopoeic origin, being from a +base _kuk_- or _kik_-, seen also in "chicken." This word also appears in +Fr. _coq_, and medieval Lat. _coccus_. + + + + +HENAULT, CHARLES JEAN FRANCOIS (1685-1770), French historian, was born +in Paris on the 8th of February 1685. His father, a farmer-general of +taxes, was a man of literary tastes, and young Henault obtained a good +education at the Jesuit college. Captivated by the eloquence of +Massillon, in his fifteenth year he entered the Oratory with the view of +becoming a preacher, but after two years' residence he changed his +intention, and, inheriting a position which secured him access to the +most select society of Paris, he achieved distinction at an early period +by his gay, witty and graceful manners. His literary talent, manifested +in the composition of various light poetical pieces, an opera, a tragedy +(_Cornelie vestale_, 1710), &c., obtained his entrance to the Academy +(1723). _Petit-maitre_ as he was, he had also serious capacity, for he +became councillor of the _parlement_ of Paris (1705), and in 1710 he was +chosen president of the court of _enquetes_. After the death of the +count de Rieux (son of the famous financier, Samuel Bernard) he became +(1753) superintendent of the household of Queen Marie Leszczynska, whose +intimate friendship he had previously enjoyed. On his recovery in his +eightieth year from a dangerous malady (1765) he professed to have +undergone religious conversion and retired into private life, devoting +the remainder of his days to study and devotion. His religion was, +however, according to the marquis d'Argenson, "exempt from fanaticism, +persecution, bitterness and intrigue"; and it did not prevent him from +continuing his friendship with Voltaire, to whom it is said he had +formerly rendered the service of saving the manuscript of _La Henriade_, +when its author was about to commit it to the flames. The literary work +on which Henault bestowed his chief attention was the _Abrege +chronologique de l'histoire de France_, first published in 1744 without +the author's name. In the compass of two volumes he comprised the whole +history of France from the earliest times to the death of Louis XIV. The +work has no originality. Henault had kept his note-books of the history +lectures at the Jesuit college, of which the substance was taken from +Mezeray and P. Daniel. He revised them first in 1723, and later put them +in the form of question and answer on the model of P. le Ragois, and by +following Dubos and Boulainvilliers and with the aid of the abbe Boudot +he compiled his _Abrege_. The research is all on the surface and is only +borrowed. But the work had a prodigious success, and was translated into +several languages, even into Chinese. This was due partly to Henault's +popularity and position, partly to the agreeable style which made the +history readable. He inserted, according to the fashion of the period, +moral and political reflections, which are always brief and generally as +fresh and pleasing as they are just. A few masterly strokes reproduced +the leading features of each age and the characters of its illustrious +men; accurate chronological tables set forth the most interesting events +in the history of each sovereign and the names of the great men who +flourished during his reign; and interspersed throughout the work are +occasional chapters on the social and civil state of the country at the +close of each era in its history. Continuations of the work have been +made at separate periods by Fantin des Odoards, by Anguis with notes by +Walckenaer, and by Michaud. He died at Paris on the 24th of November +1770. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Henault's _Memoires_ have come down to us in two + different versions, both claiming to be authentic. One was published + in 1855 by M. du Vigan; the other was owned by the Comte de Coutades, + who permitted Lucien Perey to give long extracts in his work on + President Henault (Paris, 1893). The memoirs are fragmentary and + disconnected, but contain interesting anecdotes and details concerning + persons of note. See the _Correspondance_ of Grimm, of Madame du + Deffand and of Voltaire; the notice by Walckenaer in the edition of + the _Abrege_; Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. xi.; and the + _Origines de l'abrege_ (_Ann. Bulletin de la Societe de l'histoire de + France_, 1901). Also H. Lion, _Le President Henault_ (Paris, 1903). + + + + +HENBANE (Fr. _jusquiaume_, from the Gr. [Greek: hyoskuamos], or +hog's-bean; Ital. _giusquiamo_; Ger. _Schwarzes Bilsenkraut_, +_Huhnertod_, _Saubohne_ and _Zigeuner-Korn_ or "gipsies' corn"), the +common name of the plant _Hyoscyamus niger_, a member of the natural +order Solanaceae, indigenous to Britain, found wild in waste places, on +rubbish about villages and old castles, and cultivated for medicinal use +in various counties in the south and east of England. It occurs also in +central and southern Europe and in western Asia extending to India and +Siberia, and has long been naturalized in the United States. There are +two forms of the plant, an annual and a biennial, which spring +indifferently from the same crop of seed--the one growing on during +summer to a height of from 1 to 2 ft., and flowering and perfecting +seed; the other producing the first season only a tuft of radical +leaves, which disappear in winter, leaving underground a thick fleshy +root, from the crown of which arises in spring a branched flowering +stem, usually much taller and more vigorous than the flowering stems of +the annual plants. The biennial form is that which is considered +officinal. The radical leaves of this biennial plant spread out flat on +all sides from the crown of the root; they are ovate-oblong, acute, +stalked, and more or less incisely-toothed, of a greyish-green colour, +and covered with viscid hairs; these leaves perish at the approach of +winter. The flowering stem pushes up from the root-crown in spring, +ultimately reaching from 3 to 4 ft. in height, and as it grows becoming +branched, and furnished with alternate sessile leaves, which are +stem-clasping, oblong, unequally-lobed, clothed with glandular clammy +hairs, and of a dull grey-green, the whole plant having a powerful +nauseous odour. The flowers are shortly-stalked, the lower ones growing +in the fork of the branches, the upper ones sessile in one-sided leafy +spikes which are rolled back at the top before flowering, the leaves +becoming smaller upwards and taking the place of bracts. The flowers +have an urn-shaped calyx which persists around the fruit and is strongly +veined, with five stiff, broad, almost prickly lobes; these, when the +soft matter is removed by maceration, form very elegant specimens when +associated with leaves prepared in a similar way. The corollas are +obliquely funnel-shaped, of a dirty yellow or buff, marked with a close +reticulation of purple veins. The capsule opens transversely by a convex +lid and contains numerous seeds. Both the leaves and the seeds are +employed in pharmacy. The Mahommedan doctors of India are accustomed to +prescribe the seeds. Henbane yields a poisonous alkaloid, _hyoscyamine_, +which is stated to have properties almost identical with those of +atropine, from which it differs in being more soluble in water. It is +usually obtained in an amorphous, scarcely ever in a crystalline state. +Its properties have been investigated in Germany by T. Husemann, +Schroff, Hohn, &c. Hohn finds its chemical composition expressed by +C18H28N2O3. (Compare Hellmann, _Beitrage zur Kenntnis der physiolog. +Wirkung des Hyoscyamins_, &c., Jena, 1874.) In small and repeated doses +henbane has been found to have a tranquillizing effect upon persons +affected by severe nervous irritability. In poisonous doses it causes +loss of speech, distortion and paralysis. In the form of extract or +tincture it is a valuable remedy in the hands of a medical man, either +as an anodyne, a hypnotic or a sedative. The extract of henbane is rich +in nitrate of potassium and other inorganic salts. The smoking of the +seeds and capsules of henbane is noted in books as a somewhat dangerous +remedy adopted by country people for toothache. Accidental poisoning +from henbane occasionally occurs, owing sometimes to the apparent +edibility and wholesomeness of the root. + + See Bentley and Trumen, _Medicinal Plants_, 194 (1880). + + + + +HENCHMAN, originally, probably, one who attended on a horse, a groom, +and hence, like groom (q.v.), a title of a subordinate official in royal +or noble households. The first part of the word is the O. Eng. +_hengest_, a horse, a word which occurs in many Teutonic languages, cf. +Ger. and Dutch _hengst_. The word appears in the name, Hengest, of the +Saxon chieftain (see HENGEST AND HORSA) and still survives in English in +place and other names beginning with Hingst- or Hinx-. Henchmen, pages +of honour or squires, rode or walked at the side of their master in +processions and the like, and appear in the English royal household from +the 14th century till Elizabeth abolished the royal henchmen, known also +as the "children of honour." The word was obsolete in English from the +middle of the 17th century, and seems to have been revived through Sir +Walter Scott, who took the word and its derivation, according to the +_New English Dictionary_, from Edward Burt's _Letters from a Gentleman +in the North of Scotland_, together with its erroneous derivation from +"haunch." The word is, in this sense, used as synonymous with "gillie," +the faithful personal follower of a Highland chieftain, the man who +stands at his master's "haunch," ready for any emergency. It is this +sense that usually survives in modern usage of the word, where it is +often used of an out-and-out adherent or partisan, ready to do anything. + + + + + +HENDERSON, ALEXANDER (1583-1646), Scottish ecclesiastic, was born in +1583 at Criech, Fifeshire. He graduated at the university of St Andrews +in 1603, and in 1610 was appointed professor of rhetoric and philosophy +and questor of the faculty of arts. Shortly after this he was presented +to the living of Leuchars. As Henderson was forced upon his parish by +Archbishop George Gladstanes, and was known to sympathize with +episcopacy, his settlement was at first extremely unpopular; but he +subsequently changed his views and became a Presbyterian in doctrine and +church government, and one of the most esteemed ministers in Scotland. +He early made his mark as a church leader, and took an active part in +petitioning against the "five acts" and later against the introduction +of a service-book and canons drawn up on the model of the English +prayer-book. On the 1st of March 1638 the public signing of the +"National Covenant" began in Greyfriars Church, Edinburgh. Henderson was +mainly responsible for the final form of this document, which consisted +of (1) the "king's confession" drawn up in 1581 by John Craig, (2) a +recital of the acts of parliament against "superstitious and papistical +rites," and (3) an elaborate oath to maintain the true reformed +religion. Owing to the skill shown on this occasion he seems to have +been applied to when any manifesto of unusual ability was required. In +July of the same year he proceeded to the north to debate on the +"Covenant" with the famous Aberdeen doctors; but he was not well +received by them. "The voyd church was made fast, and the keys keeped by +the magistrate," says Baillie. Henderson's next public opportunity was +in the famous Assembly which met in Glasgow on the 21st of November +1638. He was chosen moderator by acclamation, being, as Baillie says, +"incomparablie the ablest man of us all for all things." James Hamilton, +3rd marquess of Hamilton, was the king's commissioner; and when the +Assembly insisted on proceeding with the trial of the bishops, he +formally dissolved the meeting under pain of treason. Acting on the +constitutional principle that the king's right to convene did not +interfere with the church's independent right to hold assemblies, they +sat till the 20th of December, deposed all the Scottish bishops, +excommunicated a number of them, repealed all acts favouring episcopacy, +and reconstituted the Scottish Kirk on thorough Presbyterian principles. +During the sitting of this Assembly it was carried by a majority of +seventy-five votes that Henderson should be transferred to Edinburgh. He +had been at Leuchars for about twenty-three years, and was extremely +reluctant to leave it. + +While Scotland and England were preparing for the "First Bishops' War," +Henderson drew up two papers, entitled respectively _The Remonstrance of +the Nobility_ and _Instructions for Defensive Arms_. The first of these +documents he published himself; the second was published against his +wish by John Corbet (1603-1641), a deposed minister. The "First Bishops' +War" did not last long. At the Pacification of Birks the king virtually +granted all the demands of the Scots. In the negotiations for peace +Henderson was one of the Scottish commissioners, and made a very +favourable impression on the king. In 1640 Henderson was elected by the +town council rector of Edinburgh University--an office to which he was +annually re-elected till his death. The Pacification of Birks had been +wrung from the king; and the Scots, seeing that he was preparing for the +"Second Bishops' War," took the initiative, and pressed into England so +vigorously that Charles had again to yield everything. The maturing of +the treaty of peace took a considerable time, and Henderson was again +active in the negotiations, first at Ripon (October 1st) and afterwards +in London. While he was in London he had a personal interview with the +king, with the view of obtaining assistance for the Scottish +universities from the money formerly applied to the support of the +bishops. On Henderson's return to Edinburgh in July 1641 the Assembly +was sitting at St Andrews. To suit the convenience of the parliament, +however, it removed to Edinburgh; Henderson was elected moderator of the +Edinburgh meeting. In this Assembly he proposed that "a confession of +faith, a catechism, a directory for all the parts of the public worship, +and a platform of government, wherein possibly England and we might +agree," should be drawn up. This was unanimously approved of, and the +laborious undertaking was left in Henderson's hands; but the "notable +motion" did not lead to any immediate results. During Charles's second +state-visit to Scotland, in the autumn of 1641, Henderson acted as his +chaplain, and managed to get the funds, formerly belonging to the +bishopric of Edinburgh, applied to the metropolitan university. In 1642 +Henderson, whose policy was to keep Scotland neutral in the war which +had now broken out between the king and the parliament, was engaged in +corresponding with England on ecclesiastical topics; and, shortly +afterwards, he was sent to Oxford to mediate between the king and his +parliament; but his mission proved a failure. + +A memorable meeting of the General Assembly was held in August 1643. +Henderson was elected moderator for the third time. He presented a draft +of the famous "Solemn League and Covenant," which was received with +great enthusiasm. Unlike the "National Covenant" of 1638, which applied +to Scotland only, this document was common to the two kingdoms. +Henderson, Baillie, Rutherford and others were sent up to London to +represent Scotland in the Assembly at Westminster. The "Solemn League +and Covenant," which pledged both countries to the extirpation of +prelacy, leaving further decision as to church government to be decided +by the "example of the best reformed churches," after undergoing some +slight alterations, passed the two Houses of Parliament and the +Westminster Assembly, and thus became law for the two kingdoms. By means +of it Henderson has had considerable influence on the history of Great +Britain. As Scottish commissioner to the Westminster Assembly, he was in +England from August 1643 till August 1646; his principal work was the +drafting of the directory for public worship. Early in 1645 Henderson +was sent to Uxbridge to aid the commissioners of the two parliaments in +negotiating with the king; but nothing came of the conference. In 1646 +the king joined the Scottish army; and, after retiring with them to +Newcastle, he sent for Henderson, and discussed with him the two systems +of church government in a number of papers. Meanwhile Henderson was +failing in health. He sailed to Scotland, and eight days after his +arrival died, on the 19th of August 1646. He was buried in Greyfriars +churchyard, Edinburgh; and his death was the occasion of national +mourning in Scotland. On the 7th of August Baillie had written that he +had heard that Henderson was dying "most of heartbreak." A document was +published in London purporting to be a "Declaration of Mr Alexander +Henderson made upon his Death-bed"; and, although this paper was +disowned, denounced and shown to be false in the General Assembly of +August 1648, the document was used by Clarendon as giving the impression +that Henderson had recanted. Its foundation was probably certain +expressions lamenting Scottish interference in English affairs. + +Henderson is one of the greatest men in the history of Scotland and, +next to Knox, is certainly the most famous of Scottish ecclesiastics. He +had great political genius; and his statesmanship was so influential +that "he was," as Masson well observes, "a cabinet minister without +office." He has made a deep mark on the history, not only of Scotland, +but of England; and the existing Presbyterian churches in Scotland are +largely indebted to him for the forms of their dogmas and their +ecclesiastical organization. He is thus justly considered the second +founder of the Reformed Church in Scotland. + + See M'Crie's _Life of Alexander Henderson_ (1846); Aiton's _Life and + Times of Alexander Henderson_ (1836); _The Letters and Journals of + Robert Baillie_ (1841-1842) (an exceedingly valuable work, from an + historical point of view); J. H. Burton's _History of Scotland_; D. + Masson's _Life of Drummond of Hawthornden_; and, above all, Masson's + _Life of Milton_; Andrew Lang, _Hist. of Scotland_ (1907), vol. iii. + Henderson's own works are chiefly contributions to current + controversies, speeches and sermons. (T. Gi.; D. Mn.) + + + + +HENDERSON, EBENEZER (1784-1858), a Scottish divine, was born at the Linn +near Dunfermline on the 17th of November 1784, and died at Mortlake on +the 17th of May 1858. He was the youngest son of an agricultural +labourer, and after three years' schooling spent some time at +watchmaking and as a shoemaker's apprentice. In 1803 he joined Robert +Haldane's theological seminary, and in 1805 was selected to accompany +the Rev. John Paterson to India; but as the East India Company would not +allow British vessels to convey missionaries to India, Henderson and his +colleague went to Denmark to await the chance of a passage to Serampur, +then a Danish port. Being unexpectedly delayed, and having begun to +preach in Copenhagen, they ultimately decided to settle in Denmark, and +in 1806 Henderson became pastor at Elsinore. From this time till about +1817 he was engaged in encouraging the distribution of Bibles in the +Scandinavian countries, and in the course of his labours he visited +Sweden and Lapland (1807-1808), Iceland (1814-1815) and the mainland of +Denmark and part of Germany (1816). During most of this time he was an +agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society. On the 6th of October +1811 he formed the first Congregational church in Sweden. In 1818, after +a visit to England, he travelled in company with Paterson through Russia +as far south as Tiflis, but, instead of settling as was proposed at +Astrakhan, he retraced his steps, having resigned his connexion with the +Bible Society owing to his disapproval of a translation of the +Scriptures which had been made in Turkish. In 1822 he was invited by +Prince Alexander (Galitzin) to assist the Russian Bible Society in +translating the Scriptures into various languages spoken in the Russian +empire. After twenty years of foreign labour Henderson returned to +England, and in 1825 was appointed tutor of the Mission College, +Gosport. In 1830 he succeeded Dr William Harrison as theological +lecturer and professor of Oriental languages in Highbury Congregational +College. In 1850, on the amalgamation of the colleges of Homerton, +Coward and Highbury, he retired on a pension. In 1852-1853 he was pastor +of Sheen Vale chapel at Mortlake. His last work was a translation of the +book of Ezekiel. Henderson was a man of great linguistic attainment. He +made himself more or less acquainted, not only with the ordinary +languages of scholarly accomplishment and the various members of the +Scandinavian group, but also with Hebrew, Syriac, Ethiopic, Russian, +Arabic, Tatar, Persian, Turkish, Armenian, Manchu, Mongolian and Coptic. +He organized the first Bible Society in Denmark (1814), and paved the +way for several others. In 1817 he was nominated by the Scandinavian +Literary Society a corresponding member; and in 1840 he was made D.D. by +the university of Copenhagen. He was honorary secretary for life of the +Religious Tract Society, and one of the first promoters of the British +Society for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Jews. The records of +his travels in Iceland (1818) were valuable contributions to our +knowledge of that island. His other principal works are: _Iceland, or +the Journal of a Residence in that Island_ (2 vols., 1818); _Biblical +Researches and Travels in Russia_ (1826); _Elements of Biblical +Criticism and Interpretation_ (1830); _The Vaudois, a Tour of the +Valleys of Piedmont_ (1845). + + See _Memoirs of Ebenezer Henderson_, by Thulia S. Henderson (his + daughter) (London, 1859); _Congregational Year Book_ (1859). + + + + +HENDERSON, GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT (1854-1903), British soldier and +military writer, was born in Jersey in 1854. Educated at Leeds Grammar +School, of which his father, afterwards Dean of Carlisle, was +headmaster, he was early attracted to the study of history, and obtained +a scholarship at St John's College, Oxford. But he soon left the +University for Sandhurst, whence he obtained his first commission in +1878. One year later, after a few months' service in India, he was +promoted lieutenant and returned to England, and in 1882 he went on +active service with his regiment, the York and Lancaster (65th/84th) to +Egypt. He was present at Tell-el-Mahuta and Kassassin, and at +Tell-el-Kebir was the first man of his regiment to enter the enemy's +works. His conduct attracted the notice of Sir Garnet (afterwards Lord) +Wolseley, and he received the 5th class of the Medjidieh order. His name +was, further, noted for a brevet-majority, which he did not receive till +he became captain in 1886. During these years he had been quietly +studying military art and history at Gibraltar, in Bermuda and in Nova +Scotia, in spite of the difficulties of research, and in 1889 appeared +(anonymously) his first work, _The Campaign of Fredericksburg_. In the +same year he became Instructor in Tactics, Military Law and +Administration at Sandhurst. From this post he proceeded as Professor of +Military Art and History to the Staff College (1892-1899), and there +exercised a profound influence on the younger generation of officers. +His study on _Spicheren_ had been begun some years before, and in 1898 +appeared, as the result of eight years' work, his masterpiece, +_Stonewall Jackson and the American Civil War_. In the South African War +Lieutenant-Colonel Henderson served with distinction on the staff of +Lord Roberts as Director of Intelligence. But overwork and malaria broke +his health, and he had to return home, being eventually selected to +write the official history of the war. But failing health obliged him to +go to Egypt, where he died at Assuan on the 5th of March 1903. He had +completed the portion of the history of the South African War dealing +with the events up to the commencement of hostilities, amounting to +about a volume, but the War Office decided to suppress this, and the +work was begun _de novo_ and carried out by Sir F. Maurice. + + Various lectures and papers by Henderson were collected and published + in 1905 by Captain Malcolm, D.S.O., under the title _The Science of + War_; to this collection a memoir was contributed by Lord Roberts. See + also Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, vol. xlvii. No. + 302. + + + + +HENDERSON, JOHN (1747-1785), English actor, of Scottish descent, was +born in London. He made his first appearance on the stage at Bath on the +6th of October 1772 as Hamlet. His success in this and other +Shakespearian parts led to his being called the "Bath Roscius." He had +great difficulty in getting a London engagement, but finally appeared at +the Haymarket in 1777 as Shylock, and his success was a source of +considerable profit to Colman, the manager. Sheridan then engaged him to +play at Drury Lane, where he remained for two years. When the companies +joined forces he went to Covent Garden, appearing as Richard III. in +1778, and creating original parts in many of the plays of Cumberland, +Shirley, Jephson and others. His last appearance was in 1785 as Horatius +in _The Roman Father_, and he died on the 25th of November of that year +and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Garrick was very jealous of +Henderson, and the latter's power of mimicry separated him also from +Colman, but he was always gratefully remembered by Mrs. Siddons and +others of his profession whom he had encouraged. He was a close friend +of Gainsborough, who painted his portrait, as did also Stewart and +Romney. He was co-author of Sheridan and Henderson's _Practical Method +of Reading and Writing English Poetry_. + + + + +HENDERSON, a city and the county-seat of Henderson county, Kentucky, +U.S.A., on the S. bank of the Ohio river, about 142 m. W.S.W. of +Louisville. Pop. (1890), 8835; (1900), 10,272, of whom 4029 were +negroes; (1910 census) 11,452. It is served by the Illinois Central, the +Louisville & Nashville, and the Louisville, Henderson & St. Louis +railways, and has direct communication by steamboat with Louisville, +Evansville, Cairo, Memphis and New Orleans. Henderson is built on the +high bank of the river, above the flood level; the river is spanned here +by a fine steel bridge, designed by George W. G. Ferris (1859-1896), the +designer of the Ferris Wheel. The city has a public park of 80 acres and +a Carnegie library. It is situated in the midst of a region whose soil +is said to be the best in the world for the raising of dark, +heavy-fibred tobacco, and is well adapted also for the growing of fruit, +wheat and Indian corn. Bituminous coal is obtained from the surrounding +country. Immense quantities of stemmed tobacco are shipped from here, +and the city is an important market for Indian corn. The manufactures of +the city include cotton and woollen goods, hominy, meal, flour, tobacco +and cigars, carriages, baskets, chairs and other furniture, bricks, ice, +whisky and beer; the value of the city's factory products in 1905 was +$1,365,120. The municipality owns and operates its water works, gas +plant and electric-lighting plant. Henderson, named in honour of Richard +Henderson (1734-1785), was settled as early as 1784, was first known as +Red Banks, was laid out as a town by Henderson's company in 1797, was +incorporated as a town in 1810, and was first chartered as a city in +1854. The city boundary lines were extended in 1905 by the annexation of +Audubon and Edgewood. Henderson was for some time the home of John James +Audubon, the ornithologist. + + + + +HENDIADYS, the name adopted from the Gr. [Greek: hen dia duoin] ("one by +means of two") for a rhetorical figure, in which two words connected by +a copulative conjunction are used of a single idea; usually the figure +takes the form of two substantives instead of a substantive and +adjective, as in the classical example _pateris libamus et auro_ +(Virgil, _Georgics_, ii. 192), "we pour libations in cups and gold" for +"cups of gold." + + + + +HENDON, an urban district in the Harrow parliamentary division of +Middlesex, England, on the river Brent, 8 m. N.W. of St Paul's +Cathedral, London, served by the Midland railway. Pop. (1891), 15,843; +(1901), 22,450. The nucleus of the township lies on high ground to the +east of the Edgware road, which crosses the Welsh Harp reservoir of +Regent's Canal, a favourite fishing and skating resort. The church of St +Mary is mainly Perpendicular, and contains a Norman font and monuments +of the 18th century. To the north of the village, which has extended +greatly as a residential suburb of the metropolis, is Mill Hill, with a +Roman Catholic Missionary College, opened in 1871, with branches at +Rosendaal, Holland and Brixen, Austria, and a preparatory school at +Freshfield near Liverpool; and a large grammar school founded by +Nonconformists in 1807. The manor belonged at an early date to the abbot +of Westminster. + + + + +HENDRICKS, THOMAS ANDREWS (1819-1885), American political leader, +vice-president of the United States in 1885, was born near Zanesville, +Ohio, on the 7th of September 1819. He graduated at Hanover College, +Hanover, Indiana, in 1841, and began in 1843 a successful career at the +bar. Identifying himself with the Democratic party, he served in the +state House of Representatives in 1848, and was a prominent member of +the convention for the revision of the state constitution in 1850-1851, +a representative in Congress (1851-1855), commissioner of the United +States General Land Office (1855-1859), a United States senator +(1863-1869), and governor of Indiana (1873-1877). From 1868 until his +death he was put forward for nomination for the presidency at every +national Democratic Convention save in 1872. Both in 1876 and 1884, +after his failure to receive the nomination for the presidency, he was +nominated by the Democratic National Convention for vice-president, his +nomination in each of these conventions being made partly, it seems, +with the hope of gaining "greenback" votes--Hendricks had opposed the +immediate resumption of specie payments. In 1876, with S. J. Tilden, he +lost the disputed election by the decision of the electoral commission, +but he was elected with Grover Cleveland in 1884. He died at +Indianapolis on the 25th of November 1885. + + + + +HENGELO, or HENGELOO, a town in the province of Overyssel, Holland, and +a junction station 5 m. by rail N.W. of Enschede. Pop. (1900), 14,968. +The castle belonging to the ancient territorial lords of Hengelo has +long since disappeared, and the only interest the town now possesses is +as the centre of the flourishing industries of the Twente district. The +manufacture of cotton in all its branches is very actively carried on, +and there are dye-works and breweries, besides the engineering works of +the state railway company. + + + + +HENGEST and HORSA, the brother chieftains who led the first Saxon bands +which settled in England. They were apparently called in by the British +king Vortigern (q.v.) to defend him against the Picts. The place of +their landing is said to have been Ebbsfleet in Kent. Its date is not +certainly known, 450-455 being given by the English authorities, 428 by +the Welsh (see KENT). The settlers of Kent are described by Bede as +Jutes (q.v.), and there are traces in Kentish custom of differences from +the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Hengest and Horsa were at first given +the island of Thanet as a home, but soon quarrelled with their British +allies, and gradually possessed themselves of what became the kingdom of +Kent. In 455 the Saxon Chronicle records a battle between Hengest and +Horsa and Vortigern at a place called Aegaels threp, in which Horsa was +slain. Thenceforward Hengest reigned in Kent, together with his son Aesc +(Oisc). Both the _Saxon Chronicle_ and the _Historia Brittonum_ record +three subsequent battles, though the two authorities disagree as to +their issue. There is no doubt, however, that the net result was the +expulsion of the Britons from Kent. According to the _Chronicle_, which +probably derived its information from a lost list of Kentish kings, +Hengest died in 488, while his son Aesc continued to reign until 512. + + Bede, _Hist. Eccl._ (Plummer, 1896), i. 15, ii. 5; _Saxon Chronicle_ + (Earle and Plummer, 1899), s.a. 449, 455, 457, 465, 473; Nennius, + _Historia Brittonum_ (San Marte, 1844), SS 31, 37, 38, 43-46, 58. + + + + +HENGSTENBERG, ERNST WILHELM (1802-1869), German Lutheran divine and +theologian, was born at Frondenberg, a Westphalian village, on the 20th +of October 1802. He was educated by his father, who was a minister of +the Reformed Church, and head of the Frondenberg convent of canonesses +(Frauleinstift). Entering the university of Bonn in 1819, he attended +the lectures of G. G. Freytag for Oriental languages and of F. K. L. +Gieseler for church history, but his energies were principally devoted +to philosophy and philology, and his earliest publication was an edition +of the Arabic _Moallakat_ of Amru'l-Qais, which gained for him the prize +at his graduation in the philosophical faculty. This was followed in +1824 by a German translation of Aristotle's _Metaphysics_. Finding +himself without the means to complete his theological studies under +Neander and Tholuck in Berlin, he accepted a post at Basel as tutor in +Oriental languages to J. J. Stahelin, who afterwards became professor at +the university. Then it was that he began to direct his attention to a +study of the Bible, which led him to a conviction, never afterwards +shaken, not only of the divine character of evangelical religion, but +also of the unapproachable adequacy of its expression in the Augsburg +Confession. In 1824 he joined the philosophical faculty of Berlin as a +_Privatdozent_, and in 1825 he became a licentiate in theology, his +theses being remarkable for their evangelical fervour and for their +emphatic protest against every form of "rationalism," especially in +questions of Old Testament criticism. In 1826 he became professor +extraordinarius in theology; and in July 1827 appeared, under his +editorship, the _Evangelische Kirchenzeitung_, a strictly orthodox +journal, which in his hands acquired an almost unique reputation as a +controversial organ. It did not, however, attain to great notoriety +until in 1830 an anonymous article (by E. L. von Gerlach) appeared, +which openly charged Wilhelm Gesenius and J. A. L. Wegscheider with +infidelity and profanity, and on the ground of these accusations +advocated the interposition of the civil power, thus giving rise to the +prolonged _Hallische Streit_. In 1828 the first volume of Hengstenberg's +_Christologie des Alten Testaments_ passed through the press; in the +autumn of that year he became professor ordinarius in theology, and in +1829 doctor of theology. He died on the 28th of May 1869. + + The following is a list of his principal works: _Christologie des + Alten Testaments_ (1829-1835; 2nd ed., 1854-1857; Eng. trans. by R. + Keith, 1835-1839, also in Clark's "Foreign Theological Library," by T. + Meyer and J. Martin, 1854-1858), a work of much learning, the estimate + of which varies according to the hermeneutical principles of the + individual critic; _Beitrage zur Einleitung in das Alte Testament_ + (1831-1839); Eng. trans., _Dissertations on the Genuineness of Daniel + and the Integrity of Zechariah_ (Edin., 1848), and _Dissertations on + the Genuineness of the Pentateuch_ (Edin., 1847), in which the + traditional view on each question is strongly upheld, and much capital + is made of the absence of harmony among the negative critics; _Die + Bucher Moses und Agypten_ (1841); _Die Geschichte Bileams u. seiner + Weissagungen_ (1842; translated along with the Dissertations on Daniel + and Zechariah); _Commentar uber die Psalmen_ (1842-1847; 2nd ed., + 1849-1852; Eng. trans. by P. Fairbairn and J. Thomson, Edin., + 1844-1848), which shares the merits and defects of the _Christologie; + Die Offenbarung Johannis erlautert_ (1849-1851; 2nd ed., 1861-1862; + Eng. trans. by P. Fairbairn, also in Clark's "Foreign Theological + Library," 1851-1852); _Das Hohe Lied ausgelegt_ (1853); _Der Prediger + Salomo ausgelegt_ (1859); _Das Evangelium Johannis erlautert_ + (1861-1863; 2nd ed., 1867-1871; Eng. trans., 1865) and _Die + Weissagungen des Propheten Ezechiel erlautert_ (1867-1868). Of minor + importance are _De rebus Tyriorum commentatio academica_ (1832); _Uber + den Tag des Herrn_ (1852); _Das Passa, ein Vortrag_ (1853); and _Die + Opfer der heiligen Schrift_ (1859). Several series of papers also, as, + for example, on "The Retention of the Apocrypha," "Freemasonry" + (1854), "Duelling" (1856) and "The Relation between the Jews and the + Christian Church" (1857; 2nd ed., 1859), which originally appeared in + the _Kirchenzeitung_, were afterwards printed in a separate form. + _Geschichte des Reiches Gottes unter dem Alten Bunde_ (1869-1871), + _Das Buch Hiob erlautert_ (1870-1875) and _Vorlesungen uber die + Leidensgeschichte_ (1875) were published posthumously. + + See J. Bachmann's _Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg_ (1876-1879); also his + article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (1899), and the article in + the _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_. Also F. Lichtenberger, _History + of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century_ (1889), pp. 212-217; + Philip Schaff, _Germany; its Universities, Theology and Religion_ + (1857), pp. 300-319. + + + + +HENKE, HEINRICH PHILIPP KONRAD (1752-1809), German theologian, best known +as a writer on church history, was born at Hehlen, Brunswick, on the 3rd +of July 1752. He was educated at the gymnasium of Brunswick and the +university of Helmstadt, and from 1778 to 1809 he was professor, first of +philosophy, then of theology, in that university. In 1803 he was +appointed principal of the Carolinum in Brunswick as well. He died on the +2nd of May 1809. Henke belonged to the rationalistic school. His +principal work (_Allgemeine Geschichte der christl. Kirche_, 6 vols., +1788-1804; 2nd ed., 1795-1806) is commended by F. C. Baur for fullness, +accuracy and artistic composition. His other works are _Lineamenta +institutionum fidei Christianae historico-criticarum_ (1783), _Opuscula +academica_ (1802) and two volumes of _Predigten_. He was also editor of +the _Magazin fur die Religionsphilosophie, Exegese und Kirchengeschichte_ +(1793-1802) and the _Archiv fur die neueste Kirchengeschichte_ +(1794-1799). + +His son, ERNST LUDWIG THEODOR HENKE (1804-1872), after studying at the +university of Jena, became _professor extraordinarius_ there in 1833, +and professor ordinarius of Marburg in 1839. He is known as the author +of monographs upon _Georg Calixt u. seine Zeit_ (1853-1860), _Papst Pius +VII._ (1860), _Konrad von Marburg_ (1861), _Kaspar Peucer u. Nik. Krell_ +(1865), _Jak. Friedr. Fries_ (1867), _Zur neuern Kirchengeschichte_ +(1867). + + + + +HENLE, FRIEDRICH GUSTAV JAKOB (1809-1885), German pathologist and +anatomist, was born on the 9th of July 1809 at Furth, in Franconia. +After studying medicine at Heidelberg and at Bonn, where he took his +doctor's degree in 1832, he became prosector in anatomy to Johannes +Muller at Berlin. During the six years he spent in that position he +published a large amount of work, including three anatomical monographs +on new species of animals, and papers on the structure of the lacteal +system, the distribution of epithelium in the human body, the structure +and development of the hair, the formation of mucus and pus, &c. In 1840 +he accepted the chair of anatomy at Zurich, and in 1844 he was called to +Heidelberg, where he taught not only anatomy, but physiology and +pathology. About this period he was engaged on his complete system of +general anatomy, which formed the sixth volume of the new edition of S. +T. von Sommerring's treatise, published at Leipzig between 1841 and +1844. While at Heidelberg he published a zoological monograph on the +sharks and rays, in conjunction with his master Muller, and in 1846 his +famous _Manual of Rational Pathology_ began to appear; this marked the +beginning of a new era in pathological study, since in it physiology and +pathology were treated, in Henle's own words, as "branches of one +science," and the facts of disease were systematically considered with +reference to their physiological relations. In 1852 he moved to +Gottingen, whence he issued three years later the first instalment of +his great _Handbook of Systematic Human Anatomy_, the last volume of +which was not published till 1873. This work was perhaps the most +complete and comprehensive of its kind that had so far appeared, and it +was remarkable not only for the fullness and minuteness of the +anatomical descriptions, but also for the number and excellence of the +illustrations with which they were elucidated. During the latter half of +his life Henle's researches were mainly histological in character, his +investigations embracing the minute anatomy of the blood vessels, serous +membranes, kidney, eye, nails, central nervous system, &c. He died at +Gottingen on the 13th of May 1885. + + + + +HENLEY, JOHN (1692-1759), English clergyman, commonly known as "Orator +Henley," was born on the 3rd of August 1692 at Melton-Mowbray, where his +father was vicar. After attending the grammar schools of Melton and +Oakham, he entered St John's College, Cambridge, and while still an +undergraduate he addressed in February 1712, under the pseudonym of +Peter de Quir, a letter to the _Spectator_ displaying no small wit and +humour. After graduating B.A., he became assistant and then headmaster +of the grammar school of his native town, uniting to these duties those +of assistant curate. His abundant energy found still further expression +in a poem entitled _Esther, Queen of Persia_ (1714), and in the +compilation of a grammar of ten languages entitled _The Complete +Linguist_ (2 vols., London, 1719-1721). He then decided to go to London, +where he obtained the appointment of assistant preacher in the chapels +of Ormond Street and Bloomsbury. In 1723 he was presented to the rectory +of Chelmondiston in Suffolk; but residence being insisted on, he +resigned both his appointments, and on the 3rd of July 1726 opened what +he called an "oratory" in Newport Market, which he licensed under the +Toleration Act. In 1729 he transferred the scene of his operations to +Lincoln's Inn Fields. Into his services he introduced many peculiar +alterations: he drew up a "Primitive Liturgy," in which he substituted +for the Nicene and Athanasian creeds two creeds taken from the +Apostolical Constitutions; for his "Primitive Eucharist" he made use of +unleavened bread and mixed wine; he distributed at the price of one +shilling medals of admission to his oratory, with the device of a sun +rising to the meridian, with the motto _Ad summa_, and the words +_Inveniam viam aut faciam_ below. But the most original element in the +services was Henley himself, who is described by Pope in the _Dunciad_ +as + + "Preacher at once and zany of his age." + +He possessed some oratorical ability and adopted a very theatrical style +of elocution, "tuning his voice and balancing his hands"; and his +addresses were a strange medley of solemnity and buffoonery, of clever +wit and the wildest absurdity, of able and original disquisition and the +worst artifices of the oratorical charlatan. His services were much +frequented by the "free-thinkers," and he himself expressed his +determination "to die a rational." Besides his Sunday sermons, he +delivered Wednesday lectures on social and political subjects; and he +also projected a scheme for connecting with the "oratory" a university +on quite a utopian plan. For some time he edited the _Hyp Doctor_, a +weekly paper established in opposition to the _Craftsman_, and for this +service he enjoyed a pension of L100 a year from Sir Robert Walpole. At +first the orations of Henley drew great crowds, but, although he never +discontinued his services, his audience latterly dwindled almost +entirely away. He died on the 13th of October 1759. + + Henley is the subject of several of Hogarth's prints. His life, + professedly written by A. Welstede, but in all probability by himself, + was inserted by him in his _Oratory Transactions_. See J. B. Nichols, + _History of Leicestershire_; I. Disraeli, _Calamities of Authors_. + + + + +HENLEY, WILLIAM ERNEST (1849-1903), British poet, critic and editor, was +born on the 23rd of August 1849 at Gloucester, and was educated at the +Crypt Grammar School in that city. The school was a sort of Cinderella +sister to the Cathedral School, and Henley indicated its shortcomings in +his article (_Pall Mall Magazine_, Nov. 1900) on T. E. Brown the poet, +who was headmaster there for a brief period. Brown's appointment, +uncongenial to himself, was a stroke of luck for Henley, for whom, as he +said, it represented a first acquaintance with a man of genius. "He was +singularly kind to me at a moment when I needed kindness even more than +I needed encouragement." Among other kindnesses Brown did him the +essential service of lending him books. To the end Henley was no +classical scholar, but his knowledge and love of literature were vital. +Afflicted with a physical infirmity, he found himself in 1874, at the +age of twenty-five, an inmate of the hospital at Edinburgh. From there +he sent to the _Cornhill Magazine_ poems in irregular rhythms, +describing with poignant force his experiences in hospital. Leslie +Stephen, then editor, being in Edinburgh, visited his contributor in +hospital and took Robert Louis Stevenson, another recruit of the +_Cornhill_, with him. The meeting between Stevenson and Henley, and the +friendship of which it was the beginning, form one of the best-known +episodes in recent literature (see especially Stevenson's letter to Mrs +Sitwell, Jan. 1875, and Henley's poems "An Apparition" and "Envoy to +Charles Baxter"). In 1877 Henley went to London and began his editorial +career by editing _London_, a journal of a type more usual in Paris than +London, written for the sake of its contributors rather than of the +public. Among other distinctions it first gave to the world _The New +Arabian Nights_ of Stevenson. Henley himself contributed to his journal +a series of verses chiefly in old French forms. He had been writing +poetry since 1872, but (so he told the world in his "advertisement" to +his collected _Poems_, 1898) he "found himself about 1877 so utterly +unmarketable that he had to own himself beaten in art and to addict +himself to journalism for the next ten years." After the decease of +_London_, he edited the _Magazine of Art_ from 1882 to 1886. At the end +of that period he came before the public as a poet. In 1887 Mr Gleeson +White made for the popular series of _Canterbury Poets_ (edited by Mr +William Sharp) a selection of poems in old French forms. In his +selection Mr Gleeson White included a considerable number of pieces from +_London_, and only after he had completed the selection did he discover +that the verses were all by one hand, that of Henley. In the following +year, Mr H. B. Donkin in his volume _Voluntaries_, done for an East End +hospital, included Henley's unrhymed rhythms quintessentializing the +poet's memories of the old Edinburgh Infirmary. Mr Alfred Nutt read +these, and asked for more; and in 1888 his firm published _A Book of +Verse_. Henley was by this time well known in a restricted literary +circle, and the publication of this volume determined for them his fame +as a poet, which rapidly outgrew these limits, two new editions of this +volume being called for within three years. In this same year (1888) Mr +Fitzroy Bell started the _Scots Observer_ in Edinburgh, with Henley as +literary editor, and early in 1889 Mr Bell left the conduct of the paper +to him. It was a weekly review somewhat on the lines of the old +_Saturday Review_, but inspired in every paragraph by the vigorous and +combative personality of the editor. It was transferred soon after to +London as the _National Observer_, and remained under Henley's +editorship until 1893. Though, as Henley confessed, the paper had almost +as many writers as readers, and its fame was mainly confined to the +literary class, it was a lively and not uninfluential feature of the +literary life of its time. Henley had the editor's great gift of +discerning promise, and the "Men of the _Scots Observer_," as Henley +affectionately and characteristically called his band of contributors, +in most instances justified his insight. The paper found utterance for +the growing imperialism of its day, and among other services to +literature gave to the world Mr Kipling's _Barrack-Room Ballads_. In +1890 Henley published _Views and Reviews_, a volume of notable +criticisms, described by himself as "less a book than a mosaic of scraps +and shreds recovered from the shot rubbish of some fourteen years of +journalism." The criticisms, covering a wide range of authors (except +Heine and Tolstoy, all English and French), though wilful and often +one-sided were terse, trenchant and picturesque, and remarkable for +insight and gusto. In 1892 he published a second volume of poetry, named +after the first poem, _The Song of the Sword_, but on the issue of the +second edition (1893) re-christened _London Voluntaries_ after another +section. Stevenson wrote that he had not received the same thrill of +poetry since Mr Meredith's "Joy of Earth" and "Love in the Valley," and +he did not know that that was so intimate and so deep. "I did not guess +you were so great a magician. These are new tunes; this is an undertone +of the true Apollo. These are not verse; they are poetry." In 1892 +Henley published also three plays written with Stevenson--_Beau Austin_, +_Deacon Brodie_ and _Admiral Guinea_. In 1895 followed _Macaire_, +afterwards published in a volume with the other plays. _Deacon Brodie_ +was produced in Edinburgh in 1884 and later in London. Beerbohm Tree +produced _Beau Austin_ at the Haymarket on the 3rd of November 1890 and +_Macaire_ at His Majesty's on the 2nd of May 1901. _Admiral Guinea_ also +achieved stage performance. In the meantime Henley was active in the +magazines and did notable editorial work for the publishers: the _Lyra +Heroica_, 1891; _A Book of English Prose_ (with Mr Charles Whibley), +1894; the centenary Burns (with Mr T. F. Henderson) in 1896-1897, in +which Henley's Essay (published separately 1898) roused considerable +controversy. In 1892 he undertook for Mr Nutt the general editorship of +the _Tudor Translations_; and in 1897 began for Mr Heinemann an edition +of Byron, which did not proceed beyond one volume of letters. In 1898 he +published a collection of his _Poems_ in one volume, with the +autobiographical "advertisement" above quoted; in 1899 _London Types_, +Quatorzains to accompany Mr William Nicolson's designs; and in 1900 +during the Boer War, a patriotic poetical brochure, _For England's +Sake_. In 1901 he published a second volume of collected poetry with the +title _Hawthorn and Lavender_, uniform with the volume of 1898. In 1902 +he collected his various articles on painters and artists and published +them as a companion volume of _Views and Reviews: Art_. These with "A +Song of Speed" printed in May 1903 within two months of his death make +up his tale of work. At the close of his life he was engaged upon his +edition of the Authorized Version of the Bible for his series of _Tudor +Translations_. There remained uncollected some of his scattered articles +in periodicals and reviews, especially the series of literary articles +contributed to the _Pall Mall Magazine_ from 1899 until his death. These +contain the most outspoken utterances of a critic never mealy-mouthed, +and include the splenetic attack on the memory of his dead friend R. L. +Stevenson, which aroused deep regret and resentment. In 1894 Henley lost +his little six-year-old daughter Margaret; he had borne the +"bludgeonings of chance" with "the unconquerable soul" of which he +boasted, not unjustifiably, in a well-known poem; but this blow broke +his heart. With the knowledge of this fact, some of these outbursts may +be better understood; yet we have the evidence of a clear-eyed critic +who knew Henley well, that he found him more generous, more sympathetic +at the close of his life than he had been before. He died on the 11th of +July 1903. In spite of his too boisterous mannerism and prejudices, he +exercised by his originality, independence and fearlessness an inspiring +and inspiriting influence on the higher class of journalism. This +influence he exercised by word of mouth as well as by his pen, for he +was a famous talker, and figures as "Burly" in Stevenson's essay on +_Talk and Talkers_. As critic he was a good hater and a good fighter. +His virtue lay in his vital and vitalizing love of good literature, and +the vivid and pictorial phrases he found to give it expression. But his +fame must rest on his poetry. He excelled alike in his delicate +experiments in complicated metres, and the strong impressionism of +_Hospital Sketches_ and _London Voluntaries_. The influence of Heine may +be discerned in these "unrhymed rhythms"; but he was perhaps a truer and +more successful disciple of Heine in his snatches of passionate song, +the best of which should retain their place in English literature. + + See also references in _Stevenson's Letters_; _Cornhill Magazine_ + (1903) (Sidney Low); _Fortnightly Review_ (August 1892) (Arthur + Symons); and for bibliography, _English Illustrated Magazine_, vol. + xxix. p. 548. (W. P. J.) + + + + +HENLEY-ON-THAMES, a market town and municipal borough in the Henley +parliamentary division of Oxfordshire, England, on the left bank of the +Thames, the terminus of a branch of the Great Western railway, by which +it is 35(3/4) m. W. of London, while it is 57(1/2) m. by river. Pop. +(1901) 5984. It occupies one of the most beautiful situations on the +Thames, at the foot of the finely wooded Chiltern Hills. The river is +crossed by an elegant stone bridge of five arches, constructed in 1786. +The parish church (Decorated and Perpendicular) possesses a lofty tower +of intermingled flint and stone, attributed to Cardinal Wolsey, but more +probably erected by Bishop Longland. The grammar school, founded in +1605, is incorporated with a Blue Coat school. Henley is a favourite +summer resort, and is celebrated for the annual Henley Royal Regatta, +the principal gathering of amateur oarsmen in England, first held in +1839 and usually taking place in July. Henley is governed by a mayor, 4 +aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 549 acres. + +Henley-on-Thames (Hanlegang, Henle, Handley), not mentioned in Domesday, +was a manor or ancient demesne of the crown and was granted (1337) to +John de Molyns, whose family held it for about 250 years. It is said +that members for Henley sat in parliaments of Edward I. and Edward III., +but no writs have been found. Henry VIII. having granted the use of the +titles "mayor" and "burgess," the town was incorporated in 1570-1571 by +the name of the warden, portreeves, burgesses and commonalty. Henley +suffered from both parties in the Civil War. William III. on his march +to London (1688) rested here and received a deputation from the Lords. +The period of prosperity in the 17th and 18th centuries was due to +manufactures of glass and malt, and to trade in corn and wool. The +existing Thursday market was granted by a charter of John and the +existing Corpus Christi fair by a charter of Henry VI. + + See J. S. Burn, _History of Henley-on-Thames_ (London, 1861). + + + + +HENNA, the Persian name for a small shrub found in India, Persia, the +Levant and along the African coasts of the Mediterranean, where it is +frequently cultivated. It is the _Lawsonia alba_ of botanists, and from +the fact that young trees are spineless, while older ones have the +branchlets hardened into spines, it has also received the names of +_Lawsonia inermis_ and _L. spinosa_. It forms a slender shrubby plant of +from 8 to 10 ft. high, with opposite lance-shaped smooth leaves, which +are entire at the margins, and bears small white four-petalled +sweet-scented flowers disposed in panicles. Its Egyptian name is +_Khenna_, its Arabic name _Al Khanna_, its Indian name _Mendee_, while +in England it is called _Egyptian privet_, and in the West Indies, where +it is naturalized, _Jamaica mignonette_. + +Henna or Henne is of ancient repute as a cosmetic. This consists of the +leaves of the _Lawsonia_ powdered and made up into a paste; this is +employed by the Egyptian women, and also by the Mahommedan women in +India, to dye their fingernails and other parts of their hands and feet +of an orange-red colour, which is considered to add to their beauty. The +colour lasts for three or four weeks, when it requires to be renewed. It +is moreover used for dyeing the hair and beard, and even the manes of +horses; and the same material is employed for dyeing skins and +morocco-leather a reddish-yellow, but it contains no tannin. The +practice of dyeing the nails was common amongst the Egyptians, and not +to conform to it would have been considered indecent. It has descended +from very remote ages, as is proved by the evidence afforded by Egyptian +mummies, the nails of which are most commonly stained of a reddish hue. +Henna is also said to have been held in repute amongst the Hebrews, +being considered to be the plant referred to as camphire in the Bible +(Song of Solomon i. 14, iv. 13). "The custom of dyeing the nails and +palms of the hands and soles of the feet of an iron-rust colour with +henna," observes Dr J. Forbes Royle, "exists throughout the East from +the Mediterranean to the Ganges, as well as in northern Africa. In some +parts the practice is not confined to women and children, but is also +followed by men, especially in Persia. In dyeing the beard the hair is +turned to red by this application, which is then changed to black by a +preparation of indigo. In dyeing the hair of children, and the tails and +manes of horses and asses, the process is allowed to stop at the red +colour which the henna produces." Mahomet, it is said, used henna as a +dye for his beard, and the fashion was adopted by the caliphs. "The use +of henna," remarks Lady Callcott in her _Scripture Herbal_, "is scarcely +to be called a caprice in the East. There is a quality in the drug which +gently restrains perspiration in the hands and feet, and produces an +agreeable coolness equally conducive to health and comfort." She further +suggests that if the Jewish women were not in the habit of using this +dye before the time of Solomon, it might probably have been introduced +amongst them by his wife, the daughter of Pharaoh, and traces to this +probability the allusion to "camphire" in the passages in Canticles +above referred to. + +The preparation of henna consists in reducing the leaves and young twigs +to a fine powder, catechu or lucerne leaves in a pulverized state being +sometimes mixed with them. When required for use, the powder is made +into a pasty mass with hot water, and is then spread upon the part to be +dyed, where it is generally allowed to remain for one night. According +to Lady Callcott, the flowers are often used by the Eastern women to +adorn their hair. The distilled water from the flowers is used as a +perfume. + + + + +HENNEBONT, a town of western France, in the department of Morbihan, 6 m. +N.E. of Lorient by road. Pop. (1906) 7250. It is situated about 10 m. +from the mouth of the Blavet, which divides it into two parts--the +_Ville Close_, the medieval military town, and the _Ville Neuve_ on the +left bank and the _Vieille Ville_ on the right bank. The Ville Close, +surrounded by ramparts and entered by a massive gateway flanked by +machicolated towers, consists of narrow quiet streets bordered by houses +of the 16th and 17th centuries. The Ville Neuve, which lies nearer the +river, developed during the 17th century and later than the Ville Close, +while the Vieille Ville is older than either. The only building of +architectural importance is the church of Notre-Dame de Paradis (16th +century) preceded by a tower with an ornamented stone spire. There are +scanty remains of the old fortress. Hennebont has a small but busy +river-port accessible to vessels of 200 to 300 tons. An important +foundry in the environs of the town employs 1400 work-people in the +manufacture of tin-plate for sardine boxes and other purposes. +Boat-building, tanning, distilling and the manufacture of earthenware, +white lead and chemical manures are also carried on. Granite is worked +in the neighbourhood. Hennebont is famed for the resistance which it +made, under the widow of Jean de Montfort, when besieged in 1342 by the +armies of Philip of Valois and Charles of Blois during the War of the +Succession in Brittany (see BRITTANY). + + + + +HENNEQUIN, PHILIPPE AUGUSTE (1763-1833), French painter, was a pupil of +David. He was born at Lyons in 1763, distinguished himself early by +winning the "Grand Prix," and left France for Italy. The disturbances at +Rome, during the course of the Revolution, obliged him to return to +Paris, where he executed the Federation of the 14th of July, and he was +at work on a large design commissioned for the town-hall of Lyons, when +in July 1794 he was accused before the revolutionary tribunal and thrown +into prison. Hennequin escaped, only to be anew accused and imprisoned +in Paris, and after running great danger of death, seems to have devoted +himself thenceforth wholly to his profession. At Paris he finished the +picture ordered for the municipality of Lyons, and in 1801 produced his +chief work, "Orestes pursued by the Furies" (Louvre, engraved by Landon, +_Annales du Musee_, vol. i. p. 105). He was one of the four painters who +competed when in 1802 Gros carried off the official prize for a picture +of the Battle of Nazareth, and in 1808 Napoleon himself ordered +Hennequin to illustrate a series of scenes from his German campaigns, +and commanded that his picture of the "Death of General Salomon" should +be engraved. After 1815 Hennequin retired to Liege, and there, aided by +subventions from the Government, carried out a large historical picture +of the "Death of the Three Hundred in defence of Liege"--a sketch of +which he himself engraved. In 1824 Hennequin settled at Tournay, and +became director of the academy; he exhibited various works at Lille in +the following year, and continued to produce actively up to the day of +his death in May 1833. + + + + +HENNER, JEAN JACQUES (1829-1905), French painter, was born on the 5th of +March 1829 at Dornach (Alsace). At first a pupil of Drolling and of +Picot, he entered the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in 1848, and took the Prix de +Rome with a painting of "Adam and Eve finding the Body of Abel" (1858). +At Rome he was guided by Flandrin, and, among other works, painted four +pictures for the gallery at Colmar. He first exhibited at the Salon in +1863 a "Bather Asleep," and subsequently contributed "Chaste Susanna" +(1865); "Byblis turned into a Spring" (1867); "The Magdalene" (1878); +"Portrait of M. Hayem" (1878); "Christ Entombed" (1879); "Saint Jerome" +(1881); "Herodias" (1887); "A Study" (1891); "Christ in His Shroud," and +a "Portrait of Carolus-Duran" (1896); a "Portrait of Mlle Fouquier" +(1897); "The Levite of the Tribe of Ephraim" (1898), for which a +first-class medal was awarded to him; and "The Dream" (1900). Among +other professional distinctions Henner also took a Grand Prix for +painting at the Paris International Exhibition of 1900. He was made +Knight of the Legion of Honour in 1873, Officer in 1878 and Commander in +1889. In 1889 he succeeded Cabanel in the Institut de France. + + See E. Bricon, _Psychologie d'art_ (Paris, 1900); C. Phillips, _Art + Journal_ (1888); F. Wedmore, _Magazine of Art_ (1888). + + + + +HENRIETTA MARIA (1609-1666), queen of Charles I. of England, born on the +25th of November 1609, was the daughter of Henry IV. of France. When the +first serious overtures for her hand were made on behalf of Charles, +prince of Wales, in the spring of 1624, she was little more than +fourteen years of age. Her brother, Louis XIII., only consented to the +marriage on the condition that the English Roman Catholics were relieved +from the operation of the penal laws. When therefore she set out for her +new home in June 1625, she had already pledged the husband to whom she +had been married by proxy on the 1st of May to a course of action which +was certain to bring unpopularity on him as well as upon herself. + +That husband was now king of England. The early years of the married +life of Charles I. were most unhappy. He soon found an excuse for +breaking his promise to relieve the English Catholics. His young wife +was deeply offended by treatment which she naturally regarded as +unhandsome. The favourite Buckingham stirred the flames of his master's +discontent. Charles in vain strove to reduce her to tame submission. +After the assassination of Buckingham in 1628 the barrier between the +married pair was broken down, and the bond of affection which from that +moment united them was never loosened. The children of the marriage were +Charles II. (b. 1630), Mary, princess of Orange (b. 1631), James II (b. +1633), Elizabeth (b. 1636) Henry, duke of Gloucester (b. 1640), and +Henrietta, duchess at Orleans (b. 1644). + +For some years Henrietta Maria's chief interests lay in her young +family, and in the amusements of a gay and brilliant court. She loved to +be present at dramatic entertainments, and her participation in the +private rehearsals of the _Shepherd's Pastoral_, written by her +favourite Walter Montague, probably drew down upon her the savage attack +of Prynne. With political matters she hardly meddled as yet. Even her +co-religionists found little aid from her till the summer of 1637. She +had then recently opened a diplomatic communication with the see of +Rome. She appointed an agent to reside at Rome, and a papal agent, a +Scotsman named George Conn, accredited to her, was soon engaged in +effecting conversions amongst the English gentry and nobility. Henrietta +Maria was well pleased to become a patroness of so holy a work, +especially as she was not asked to take any personal trouble in the +matter. Protestant England took alarm at the proceedings of a queen who +associated herself so closely with the doings of "the grim wolf with +privy paw." + +When the Scottish troubles broke out, she raised money from her +fellow-Catholics to support the king's army on the borders in 1639. +During the session of the Short Parliament in the spring of 1640, the +queen urged the king to oppose himself to the House of Commons in +defence of the Catholics. When the Long Parliament met, the Catholics +were believed to be the authors and agents of every arbitrary scheme +which was supposed to have entered into the plans of Strafford or Laud. +Before the Long Parliament had sat for two months, the queen was urging +upon the pope the duty of lending money to enable her to restore her +husband's authority. She threw herself heart and soul into the schemes +for rescuing Strafford and coercing the parliament. The army plot, the +scheme for using Scotland against England, and the attempt upon the five +members were the fruits of her political activity. + +In the next year the queen effected her passage to the Continent. In +February 1643 she landed at Burlington Quay, placed herself at the head +of a force of loyalists, and marched through England to join the king +near Oxford. After little more than a year's residence there, on the 3rd +of April 1644, she left her husband, to see his face no more. Henrietta +Maria found a refuge in France. Richelieu was dead, and Anne of Austria +was compassionate. As long as her husband was alive the queen never +ceased to encourage him to resistance. + +During her exile in France she had much to suffer. Her husband's +execution in 1649 was a terrible blow. She brought up her youngest child +Henrietta in her own faith, but her efforts to induce her youngest son, +the duke of Gloucester, to take the same course only produced discomfort +in the exiled family. The story of her marriage with her attached +servant Lord Jermyn needs more confirmation than it has yet received to +be accepted, but all the information which has reached us of her +relations with her children points to the estrangement which had grown +up between them. When after the Restoration she returned to England, she +found that she had no place in the new world. She received from +parliament a grant of L30,000 a year in compensation for the loss of her +dower-lands, and the king added a similar sum as a pension from himself. +In January 1661 she returned to France to be present at the marriage of +her daughter Henrietta to the duke of Orleans. In July 1662 she set out +again for England, and took up her residence once more at Somerset +House. Her health failed her, and on the 24th of June 1665, she departed +in search of the clearer air of her native country. She died on the 31st +of August 1666, at Colombes, not far from Paris. + + See I. A. Taylor, _The Life of Queen Henrietta Maria_ (1905). + + + + +HENRY (Fr. _Henri_; Span. _Enrique_; Ger. _Heinrich_; Mid. H. Ger. +_Heinrich_ and _Heimrich_; O.H.G. _Haimi-_ or _Heimirih_, i.e. "prince, +or chief of the house," from O.H.G. _heim_, the Eng. _home_, and _rih_, +Goth. _reiks_; compare Lat. _rex_ "king"--"rich," therefore "mighty," +and so "a ruler." Compare Sans. _radsh_ "to shine forth, rule, &c." and +mod. _raj_ "rule" and _raja_, "king"), the name of many European +sovereigns, the more important of whom are noticed below in the +following order: (1) emperors and German kings; (2) kings of England; +(3) other kings in the alphabetical order of their states; (4) other +reigning princes in the same order; (5) non-reigning princes; (6) +bishops, nobles, chroniclers, &c. + + + + +HENRY I. (c. 876-936), surnamed the "Fowler," German king, son of Otto +the Illustrious, duke of Saxony, grew to manhood amid the disorders +which witnessed to the decay of the Carolingian empire, and in early +life shared in various campaigns for the defence of Saxony. He married +Hatburg, a daughter of Irwin, count of Merseburg, but as she had taken +the veil on the death of a former husband this union was declared +illegal by the church, and in 909 he married Matilda, daughter of a +Saxon count named Thiederich, and a reputed descendant of the hero +Widukind. On his father's death in 912 he became duke of Saxony, which +he ruled with considerable success, defending it from the attacks of the +Slavs and resisting the claims of the German king Conrad I. (see +SAXONY). He afterwards won the esteem of Conrad to such an extent that +in 918 the king advised the nobles to make the Saxon duke his successor. +After Conrad's death the Franks and the Saxons met at Fritzlar in May +919 and chose Henry as German king, after which the new king refused to +allow his election to be sanctioned by the church. His authority, save +in Saxony, was merely nominal; but by negotiation rather than by warfare +he secured a recognition of his sovereignty from the Bavarians and the +Swabians. A struggle soon took place between Henry and Charles III., the +Simple, king of France, for the possession of Lorraine. In 921 Charles +recognized Henry as king of the East Franks, and when in 923 the French +king was taken prisoner by Herbert, count of Vermandois, Lorraine came +under Henry's authority, and Giselbert, who married his daughter +Gerberga, was recognized as duke. Turning his attention to the east, +Henry reduced various Slavonic tribes to subjection, took Brennibor, the +modern Brandenburg, from the Hevelli, and secured both banks of the Elbe +for Saxony. In 923 he had bought a truce for ten years with the +Hungarians, by a promise of tribute, but on its expiration he gained a +great victory over these formidable foes in March 933. The Danes were +defeated, and territory as far as the Eider secured for Germany; and the +king sought further to extend his influence by entering into relations +with the kings of England, France and Burgundy. He is said to have been +contemplating a journey to Rome, when he died at Memleben on the 2nd of +July 936, and was buried at Quedlinburg. By his first wife, Hatburg, he +left a son, Thankmar, who was excluded from the succession as +illegitimate; and by Matilda he left three sons, the eldest of whom, +Otto (afterwards the emperor Otto the Great), succeeded him, and two +daughters. Henry was a successful ruler, probably because he was careful +to undertake only such enterprises as he was able to carry through. +Laying more stress on his position as duke of Saxony than king of +Germany, he conferred great benefits on his duchy. The founder of her +town life and the creator of her army, he ruled in harmony with her +nobles and secured her frontiers from attack. The story that he received +the surname of "Fowler" because the nobles, sent to inform him of his +election to the throne, found him engaged in laying snares for the +birds, appears to be mythical. + + See Widukind of Corvei, _Res gestae Saxonicae_, edited by G. Waitz in + the _Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores_, Band iii. (Hanover + and Berlin, 1826 seq.); "Die Urkunde des deutschen Konigs Heinrichs + I.," edited by T. von Sickel in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica. + Diplomata_ (Hanover, 1879); W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der + deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Bande i., ii. (Leipzig, 1881); G. Waitz, + _Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter Konig Heinrich I._ (Leipzig, + 1885); and F. Loher, _Die deutsche Politik Konig Heinrich I._ (Munich, + 1857). + + + + +HENRY II. (973-1024), surnamed the "Saint," Roman emperor, son of Henry +II, the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria, and Gisela, daughter of Conrad, +king of Burgundy, or Arles (d. 993), and great-grandson of the German +king Henry I., the Fowler, was born on the 6th of May 973. When his +father was driven from his duchy in 976 it was intended that Henry +should take holy orders, and he received the earlier part of a good +education at Hildesheim. This idea, however, was abandoned when his +father was restored to Bavaria in 985; but young Henry, whose education +was completed at Regensburg, retained a lively interest in +ecclesiastical affairs. He became duke of Bavaria on his father's death +in 995, and appears to have governed his duchy quietly and successfully +for seven years. He showed a special regard for monastic reform and +church government, accompanied his kinsman, the emperor Otto III., on +two occasions to Italy, and about 1001 married Kunigunde (d. 1037), +daughter of Siegfried, count of Luxemburg. When Otto III. died childless +in 1002, Henry sought to secure the German throne, and seizing the +imperial insignia made an arrangement with Otto I., duke of Carinthia. +There was considerable opposition to his claim; but one rival, Ekkard +I., margrave of Meissen, was murdered, and, hurrying to Mainz, Henry was +chosen German king by the Franks and Bavarians on the 7th of June 1002, +and subsequently crowned by Willigis, archbishop of Mainz, who had been +largely instrumental in securing his election. Having ravaged the lands +of another rival, Hermann II., duke of Swabia, Henry purchased the +allegiance of the Thuringians and the Saxons; and when shortly +afterwards the nobles of Lorraine did homage and Hermann of Swabia +submitted, he was generally recognized as king. Danger soon arose from +Boleslaus I., the Great, king of Poland, who had extended his authority +over Meissen and Lusatia, seized Bohemia, and allied himself with some +discontented German nobles, including the king's brother, Bruno, bishop +of Augsburg. Henry easily crushed his domestic foes; but the incipient +war with Boleslaus was abandoned in favour of an expedition into Italy, +where Arduin, margrave of Ivrea, had been elected king. Crossing the +Alps Henry met with no resistance from Arduin, and in May 1004 he was +chosen and crowned king of the Lombards at Pavia; but a tumult caused by +the presence of the Germans soon arose in the city, and having received +the homage of several cities of Lombardy the king returned to Germany. +He then freed Bohemia from the rule of the Poles, led an expedition into +Friesland, and was successful in compelling Boleslaus to sue for peace +in 1005. A struggle with Baldwin IV., count of Flanders, in 1006 and +1007 was followed by trouble with the king's brothers-in-law, Dietrich +and Adalbero of Luxemburg, who had seized respectively the bishopric of +Metz and the archbishopric of Trier (Treves). Henry sought to dislodge +them, but aided by their elder brother Henry, who had been made duke of +Bavaria in 1004, they held their own in a desultory warfare in Lorraine. +In 1009, however, the eldest of the three brothers was deprived of +Bavaria, while Adalbero had in the previous year given up his claim to +Trier, but Dietrich retained the bishopric of Metz. The Polish war had +been renewed in 1007, but it was not until 1010 that the king was able +to take a personal part in these campaigns. Meeting with indifferent +success, he made peace with Boleslaus early in 1013, when the duke +retained Lusatia, but did homage to Henry at Merseburg. + +In 1013 the king made a second journey to Italy where two popes were +contending for the papal chair, and meeting with no opposition was +received with great honour at Rome. Having recognized Benedict VIII. as +the rightful pope, he was crowned emperor on the 14th of February 1014, +and soon returned to Germany laden with treasures from Italian cities. +But the struggle with the Poles now broke out afresh, and in 1015 and +1017 the king, having obtained assistance from the heathen Liutici, led +formidable armies against Boleslaus. During the campaign of 1017 he had +as an ally the grand duke of Russia, but his troops suffered +considerable loss, and on the 30th of January 1018 he made peace at +Bautzen with Boleslaus, who again retained Lusatia. As early as 1006 +Henry had concluded a succession treaty with his uncle Rudolph III., the +childless king of Burgundy, or Arles; but when Rudolph desired to +abdicate in 1016 Henry's efforts to secure possession of the territory +were foiled by the resistance of the nobles. In 1020 the emperor was +visited at Bamberg by Pope Benedict, in response to whose entreaty for +assistance against the Greeks of southern Italy he crossed the Alps in +1021 for the third and last time. With the aid of the Normans he +captured many fortresses and seriously crippled the power of the Greeks, +but was compelled by the ravages of pestilence among his troops to +return to Germany in 1022. It was probably about this time that Henry +gave Benedict the diploma which ratified the gifts made by his +predecessors to the papacy. Spending his concluding years in disputes +over church reform he died on the 13th of July 1024 at Grona near +Gottingen, and was buried at Bamberg, where he had founded and richly +endowed a bishopric. + +Henry was an enthusiast for church reform, and under the influence of +his friend Odilo, abbot of Cluny, sought to further the principles of +the Cluniacs, and seconded the efforts of Benedict VIII. to prevent the +marriage of the clergy and the sale of spiritual dignities. He was +energetic and capable, but except in his relations with the church was +not a strong ruler. But though devoted to the church and a strict +observer of religious rites, he was by no means the slave of the clergy. +He appointed bishops without the formality of an election, and attacked +clerical privileges although he made clerics the representatives of the +imperial power. He held numerous diets and issued frequent ordinances +for peace, but feuds among the nobles were common, and the frontiers of +the empire were insecure. Henry, who was the last emperor of the Saxon +house, was the first to use the title "King of the Romans." He died +childless, and a tradition of the 12th century says he and his wife took +vows of chastity. He was canonized in 1146 by Pope Eugenius III. + + See Adalbold of Utrecht, _Vita Heinrici II._, Thietmar of Merseburg, + _Chronicon_, both in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica, Scriptores_, + Bande iii. and iv. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 seq.); W. von + Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_ (Leipzig, + 1881-1890); S. Hirsch, continued by R. Usinger, H. Pabst and H. + Bresslau, _Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter Kaiser Heinrich II_. + (Leipzig, 1874); A. Cohn, _Kaiser Heinrich II_. (Halle, 1867); H. + Zeissberg, _Die Kriege Kaiser Heinrichs II. mit Boleslaw I. von Polen_ + (Vienna, 1868); and G. Matthaei, _Die Klosterpolitik Kaiser Heinrichs + II_. (Gottingen, 1877). + + + + +HENRY III. (1017-1056), surnamed the "Black," Roman emperor, only son of +the emperor Conrad II., and Gisela, widow of Ernest I., duke of Swabia, +was born on the 28th of October 1017, designated as his father's +successor in 1026, and crowned German king at Aix-la-Chapelle by +Pilgrim, archbishop of Cologne, on the 14th of April 1028. In 1027 he +was appointed duke of Bavaria, and his early years were mainly spent in +this country, where he received an excellent education under the care of +Bruno, bishop of Augsburg and, afterwards, of Egilbert, bishop of +Freising. He soon began to take part in the business of the empire. In +1032 he took part in a campaign in Burgundy; in 1033 led an expedition +against Ulalrich, prince of the Bohemians; and in June 1036 was married +at Nijmwegen to Gunhilda, afterwards called Kunigunde, daughter of +Canute, king of Denmark and England. In 1038 he followed his father to +Italy, and in the same year the emperor formally handed over to him the +kingdom of Burgundy, or Arles, and appointed him duke of Swabia. In +spite of the honours which Conrad heaped upon Henry the relations +between father and son were not uniformly friendly, as Henry disapproved +of the emperor's harsh treatment of some of his allies and adherents. +When Conrad died in June 1039, Henry became sole ruler of the empire, +and his authority was at once recognized in all parts of his dominions. +Three of the duchies were under his direct rule, no rival appeared to +contest his claim, and the outlying parts of the empire, as well as +Germany, were practically free from disorder. This peaceful state of +affairs was, however, soon broken by the ambition of Bretislaus, prince +of the Bohemians, who revived the idea of an independent Slavonic state, +and conquered various Polish towns. Henry took up arms, and having +suffered two defeats in 1040 renewed the struggle with a stronger force +in the following year, when he compelled Bretislaus to sue for peace and +to do homage for Bohemia at Regensburg. In 1042 he received the homage +of the Burgundians and his attention was then turned to the Hungarians, +who had driven out their king Peter, and set up in his stead one Aba +Samuel, or Ovo, who attacked the eastern border of Bavaria. + +In 1043 and the two following years Henry crushed the Hungarians, +restored Peter, and brought Hungary completely under the power of the +German king. In 1038 Queen Kunigunde had died in Italy, and in 1043 the +king was married at Ingelheim to Agnes, daughter of William V., duke of +Guienne, a union which drew him much nearer to the reforming party in +the church. In 1044 Gothelon (Gozelo), duke of Lorraine, died, and some +disturbance arose over Henry's refusal to grant the whole of the duchy +to his son Godfrey, called the Bearded. Godfrey took up arms, but after +a short imprisonment was released and confirmed in the possession of +Upper Lorraine in 1046 which, however, he failed to secure. About this +time Henry was invited to Italy where three popes were contending for +power, and crossing the Alps with a large army he marched to Rome. +Councils held at Sutri and at Rome having declared the popes deposed, +the king secured the election of Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, who took +the name of Clement II., and by this pontiff Henry was crowned as +emperor on the 25th of December 1046. He was immediately recognized by +the Romans as _Patricius_, an office which carried with it at this time +the right to appoint the pope. Supreme in church and state alike, ruler +of Germany, Italy and Burgundy, overlord of Hungary and Bohemia, Henry +occupied a commanding position, and this time may be regarded as marking +the apogee of the power of the Roman empire of the Germans. The emperor +assisted Pope Clement in his efforts to banish simony. He made a +victorious progress in southern Italy, where he restored Pandulph IV. to +the principality of Capua, and asserted his authority over the Normans +in Apulia and Aversa. Returning to Germany in 1047 he appointed two +popes, Damasus II. and Leo IX., in quick succession, and turned to face +a threatening combination in the west of the empire, where Godfrey of +Lorraine was again in revolt, and with the help of Baldwin V., count of +Flanders and Dirk IV., count of Holland, who had previously caused +trouble to Henry, was ravaging the lands of the emperor's +representatives in Lorraine. Assisted by the kings of England and +Denmark, Henry succeeded with some difficulty in bringing the rebels to +submission in 1050. Godfrey was deposed; but Baldwin soon found an +opportunity for a further revolt, which an expedition undertaken by the +emperor in 1054 was unable to crush. + +Meanwhile a reaction against German influence had taken place in +Hungary. King Peter had been driven out in 1046 and his place taken by +Andreas I. Inroads into Bavaria followed, and in 1051 and 1052 Henry led +his forces against the Hungarians, and after the pope had vainly +attempted to mediate, peace was made in 1053. It was quickly broken, +however, and the emperor, occupied elsewhere, soon lost most of his +authority in the east; although in 1054 he made peace between Brestislav +of Bohemia and Casimir I., duke of the Poles. Henry had not lost sight +of affairs in Italy during these years, and had received several visits +from the pope, whose aim was to bring southern Italy under his own +dominion. Henry had sent military assistance to Leo, and had handed over +to him the government of the principality of Benevento in return for the +bishopric of Bamberg. But the pope's defeat by the Normans was followed +by his death. Henry then nominated Gebhard, bishop of Eichstadt, who +took the name of Victor II., to the vacant chair, and promised his +assistance to the reluctant candidate. In 1055 the emperor went a second +time to Italy, where his authority was threatened by Godfrey of +Lorraine, who had married Beatrice, widow of Boniface III., margrave of +Tuscany, and was ruling her vast estates. Godfrey fled, however, on the +appearance of Henry, who only remained a short time in Italy, during +which he granted the duchy of Spoleto to Pope Victor, and negotiated for +an attack upon the Normans. Before the journey to Italy, Henry had found +it necessary to depose Conrad III., duke of Bavaria, and to suppress a +rising in southern Germany. During his absence Conrad formed an alliance +with Welf, duke of Carinthia, and Gebhard III., bishop of Regensburg. A +conspiracy to depose the emperor, support for which was found in +Lorraine, was quickly discovered, and Henry, leaving Victor as his +representative in Italy, returned in 1055 to Germany to receive the +submission of his foes. In 1056, the emperor was visited by the pope; +and on the 5th of October in the same year he died at Bodfeld and was +buried at Spires. Henry was a pious and peace-loving prince, who +favoured church reform, sought earnestly to suppress private warfare, +and alone among the early emperors is said to have been innocent of +simony. Although under his rule Germany enjoyed considerable +tranquillity, and a period of wealth and progress set in for the towns, +yet his secular and ecclesiastical policy showed signs of weakness. +Unable, or unwilling, seriously to curb the increasing power of the +church, he alienated the sympathies of the nobles as a class, and by +allowing the southern duchies to pass into other hands restored a power +which true to its traditions was not always friendly to the royal house. +Henry was a patron of learning, a founder of schools, and built or +completed cathedrals at Spires, Worms and Mainz. + + The chief original authorities for the life and reign of Henry III. + are the _Chronicon_ of Herimann of Reichenau, the _Annales + Sangallenses majores_, the _Annales Hildesheimenses_, all in the + _Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores_ (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 + fol.). The best modern authorities are W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte + der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band ii. (Leipzig, 1888); M. Perlbach, "Die + Kriege Heinrichs III. gegen Bohmen," in the _Forschungen zur deutschen + Geschichte_, Band x. (Gottingen, 1862-1886); E. Steindorff, + _Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich III._ (Leipzig, + 1874-1881); and F. Steinhoff, _Das Konigthum und Kaiserthum Heinrichs + III._ (Gottingen, 1865). + + + + +HENRY IV. (1050-1106), Roman emperor, son of the emperor Henry III. and +Agnes, daughter of William V., duke of Guienne, was born on the 11th of +November 1050, chosen German king at Tribur in 1053, and crowned at +Aix-la-Chapelle on the 17th of July 1054. In 1055 he was appointed duke +of Bavaria, and on his father's death in October 1056 inherited the +kingdoms of Germany, Italy and Burgundy. These territories were governed +in his name by his mother, who was unable to repress the internal +disorder or to take adequate measures for their defence. Some opposition +was soon aroused, and in 1062 Anno, archbishop of Cologne, and others +planned to seize the person of the young king and to deprive Agnes of +power. This plot met with complete success. Henry, who was at +Kaiserwerth, was persuaded to board a boat lying in the Rhine; it was +immediately unmoored and the king sprang into the stream, but was +rescued by one of the conspirators and carried to Cologne. Agnes made no +serious effort to regain her control, and the chief authority was +exercised for a time by Anno; but his rule proved unpopular, and he was +soon compelled to share his power with Adalbert, archbishop of Bremen. +The education and training of Henry were supervised by Anno, who was +called his _magister_, while Adalbert was styled _patronus_; but Anno +was disliked by Henry, and during his absence in Italy the chief power +passed into the hands of Adalbert. Henry's education seems to have been +neglected, and his wilful and headstrong nature was developed by the +conditions under which his early years were passed. In March 1065 he was +declared of age, and in the following year a powerful coalition of +ecclesiastical and lay nobles brought about the banishment of Adalbert +from court and the return of Anno to power. In 1066 Henry was persuaded +to marry Bertha, daughter of Otto, count of Savoy, to whom he had been +betrothed since 1055. For some time he regarded his wife with strong +dislike and sought in vain for a divorce, but after she had borne him a +son in 1071 she gained his affections, and became his most trusted +friend and companion. + +In 1069 the king took the reins of government into his own hands. He +recalled Adalbert to court; led expeditions against the Liutici, and +against Dedo or Dedi II., margrave of a district east of Saxony; and +soon afterwards quarrelled with Rudolph, duke of Swabia, and Berthold, +duke of Carinthia. Much more serious was Henry's struggle with Otto of +Nordheim, duke of Bavaria. This prince, who occupied an influential +position in Germany, was accused in 1070 by a certain Egino of being +privy to a plot to murder the king. It was decided that a trial by +battle should take place at Goslar, but when the demand of Otto for a +safe conduct for himself and his followers, to and from the place of +meeting, was refused, he declined to appear. He was thereupon declared +deposed in Bavaria, and his Saxon estates were plundered. He obtained +sufficient support, however, to carry on a struggle with the king in +Saxony and Thuringia until 1071, when he submitted at Halberstadt. Henry +aroused the hostility of the Thuringians by supporting Siegfried, +archbishop of Mainz, in his efforts to exact tithes from them; but still +more formidable was the enmity of the Saxons, who had several causes of +complaint against the king. He was the son of one enemy, Henry III., and +the friend of another, Adalbert of Bremen. He had ordered a restoration +of all crown lands in Saxony and had built forts among this people, +while the country was ravaged to supply the needs of his courtiers, and +its duke Magnus was a prisoner in his hands. All classes were united +against him, and when the struggle broke out in 1073 the Thuringians +joined the Saxons; and the war, which lasted with slight intermissions +until 1088, exercised a most potent influence upon Henry's fortunes +elsewhere (see SAXONY). + +Henry soon found himself confronted by an abler and more stubborn +antagonist than either Thuringian or Saxon. In 1073 Hildebrand became +pope as Gregory VII. Two years later this great ecclesiastic issued his +memorable prohibition of lay investiture, and the blow then struck at +the secular power by the papacy threatened seriously to undermine the +imperial authority. Spurred on by his advisers, Henry did not refuse the +challenge. Threatened with the papal ban, he summoned a synod of German +bishops which met at Worms in January 1076 and declared Gregory deposed; +and he wrote his famous letter to the pope, in which he referred to him +as "not pope, but false monk." The king was at once excommunicated. His +adherents gradually fell away, the Saxons were again in arms, and Otto +of Nordheim succeeded in uniting the malcontents of north and south +Germany. In October 1076 an important diet met at Tribur, and after +discussing the deposition of the king, decided that he should be judged +by an assembly to be held at Augsburg in the following February under +the presidency of the pope. This union of the temporal and spiritual +forces was too strong for the king, and he decided to submit. + +Crossing the Alps, Henry appeared in January 1077 as a penitent before +the castle of Canossa, where Gregory had taken refuge. The story of +this famous occurrence, which represents the king as standing in the +courtyard of the castle for three days in the snow, clad as a penitent, +and entreating to be admitted to the pope's presence, is now regarded as +mythical in its details; but there is no doubt that the king visited the +castle at intervals, and prayed for admission for three days until the +28th of January, when he was received by Gregory and absolved, after +promising to submit to the pope's authority and to secure for him a safe +journey to Germany. No historical incident has more profoundly impressed +the imagination of the Western world. It marked the highest point +reached by papal authority, and presents a vivid picture of the awe +inspired during the middle ages by the supernatural powers supposed to +be wielded by the church. + +Scorned by his Lombard allies, Henry left Italy to find that in his +absence Rudolph, duke of Swabia, had been chosen German king; and +although Gregory had taken no part in this election, Henry sought to +prevent the pope's journey to Germany, and regaining courage, tried to +recover his former position. Supported by most of the German bishops and +by the Lombards, now reconciled to him, and recognized in Burgundy, +Bavaria and Franconia, Henry (who at this time is referred to by Bruno, +the author of _De bello Saxonico_, as _exrex_) appeared stronger than +his rival Rudolph; but the ensuing war was waged with varying success. +He was beaten at Mellrichstadt in 1078, and at Flarchheim in 1080, but +these defeats were due rather to the fierce hostility of the Saxons, and +the military skill of Otto of Nordheim, than to any general sympathy +with Rudolph. Gregory's attitude remained neutral, in spite of appeals +from both sides, until March 1080, when he again excommunicated Henry, +but without any serious effect on the fortunes of the king. At Henry's +initiative, Gregory was declared deposed on three occasions, and an +anti-pope was elected in the person of Wibert, archbishop of Ravenna, +who took the name of Clement III. + +The death of Rudolph in October 1080, and a consequent lull in the war, +enabled the king to go to Italy early in 1081. He found considerable +support in Lombardy; placed Matilda, marchioness of Tuscany, the +faithful friend of Gregory, under the imperial ban; took the Lombard +crown at Pavia; and secured the recognition of Clement by a council. +Marching to Rome, he undertook the siege of the city, but was soon +compelled to retire to Tuscany, where he granted privileges to various +cities, and obtained monetary assistance from a new ally, the eastern +emperor, Alexius I. A second and equally unsuccessful attack on Rome was +followed by a war of devastation in northern Italy with the adherents of +Matilda; and towards the end of 1082 the king made a third attack on +Rome. After a siege of seven months the Leonine city fell into his +hands. A treaty was concluded with the Romans, who agreed that the +quarrel between king and pope should be decided by a synod, and secretly +bound themselves to induce Gregory to crown Henry as emperor, or to +choose another pope. Gregory, however, shut up in the castle of St +Angelo, would hear of no compromise; the synod was a failure, as Henry +prevented the attendance of many of the pope's supporters; and the king, +in pursuance of his treaty with Alexius, marched against the Normans. +The Romans soon fell away from their allegiance to the pope; and, +recalled to the city, Henry entered Rome in March 1084, after which +Gregory was declared deposed and Clement was recognized by the Romans. +On the 31st of March 1084 Henry was crowned emperor by Clement, and +received the patrician authority. His next step was to attack the +fortresses still in the hands of Gregory. The pope was saved by the +advance of Robert Guiscard, duke of Apulia, with a large force, which +compelled Henry to return to Germany. + +Meanwhile the German rebels had chosen a fresh anti-king, Hermann, count +of Luxemburg, whom Henry's supporters had already driven to his last +line of defence in Saxony. During the campaign of 1086 Henry was +defeated near Wurzburg, but in 1088 Hermann abandoned the struggle and +the emperor was generally recognized in Saxony, to which country he +showed considerable clemency. Although Henry's power was in the +ascendent, a few powerful nobles adhered to the cause of Gregory's +successor, Urban II. Among them was Welf, son of Welf I., the deposed +duke of Bavaria, whose marriage with Matilda of Tuscany rendered him too +formidable to be neglected. The emperor accordingly returned to Italy in +1090, where Mantua and Milan were taken, and Pope Clement was restored +to Rome. Henry's communications with Germany were, however, threatened +by a league of the Lombard cities, and his anxieties were soon augmented +by domestic troubles. + +Henry's first wife had died in 1087, and in 1089 he had married a +Russian princess, Praxedis, afterwards called Adelaide. Her conduct soon +aroused his suspicions, and his own eldest son, Conrad, who had been +crowned German king in 1087, was thought to be a partner in her guilt. +Escaping from prison, Adelaide fled to Henry's enemies and brought grave +charges against her husband; while the papal party induced Conrad to +desert his father and to be crowned king of Italy at Monza in 1093. +Crushed by this blow, Henry remained almost helpless and inactive in +northern Italy for five years, until 1097, when having lost every shred +of authority in that country, he returned to Germany, where his position +was stronger than ever. Welf had submitted, had forsaken the cause of +Matilda and had been restored to Bavaria, and in 1098 the diet assembled +at Mainz declared Conrad deposed, and chose the emperor's second son, +Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry V., as German king. The crusade of +1096 had freed Germany from many turbulent spirits, and the emperor, +meeting with some success in his efforts to restore order, could afford +to ignore his repeated excommunication. A successful campaign in +Flanders was followed in 1103 by a diet at Mainz, where serious efforts +were made to restore peace, and Henry himself promised to go on crusade. +But this plan was shattered by the revolt of the younger Henry in 1104, +who, encouraged by the adherents of the pope, declared he owed no +allegiance to an excommunicated father. Saxony and Thuringia were soon +in arms, the bishops held mainly to the younger Henry, while the emperor +was supported by the towns. A desultory warfare was unfavourable, +however, to the emperor, who, deceived by false promises, became a +prisoner in the hands of his son in 1105. The diet met at Mainz in +December, when he was compelled to abdicate; but contrary to the +conditions, he was detained at Ingelheim and denied his freedom. +Escaping to Cologne, he found considerable support in the lower +Rhineland; he entered into negotiations with England, France and +Denmark, and was engaged in collecting an army when he died at Liege on +the 7th of August 1106. His body was buried by the bishop of Liege with +suitable ceremony, but by command of the papal legate it was unearthed, +taken to Spires, and placed in an unconsecrated chapel. After being +released from the sentence of excommunication the remains were buried in +the cathedral of Spires in August 1111. + +Henry IV. was very licentious and in his early years was careless and +self-willed, but better qualities were developed in his later life. He +displayed much diplomatic ability, and his abasement at Canossa may +fairly be regarded as a move of policy to weaken the pope's position at +the cost of a personal humiliation to himself. He was always regarded as +a friend of the lower orders, was capable of generosity and gratitude, +and showed considerable military skill. Unfortunate in the time in which +he lived, and in the troubles with which he had to contend, he holds an +honourable position in history as a monarch who resisted the excessive +pretensions both of the papacy and of the ambitious feudal lords of +Germany. + + The authorities for the life and reign of Henry are Lambert of + Hersfeld, _Annales_; Bernold of Reichenau, Chronicon; Ekkehard of + Aura, _Chronicon_; and Bruno, _De bello Saxonico_, which gives several + of the more important letters that passed between Henry and Gregory + VII. These are all found in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica. + Scriptores_, Bande v. and vi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). There + is an anonymous _Vita Heinrici IV._, edited by W. Wattenbach (Hanover, + 1876). The best modern authorities are: G. Meyer von Knonau, + _Jahrbucher des deutschen Reiches unter Heinrich IV._ (Leipzig, 1890); + H. Floto, _Kaiser Heinrich IV. und sein Zeitalter_ (Stuttgart, 1855); + E. Kilian, _Itinerar Kaiser Heinrichs IV._ (Karlsruhe, 1886); K. W. + Nitzsch, "Das deutsche Reich und Heinrich IV.," in the _Historische + Zeitschrift_, Band xlv. (Munich, 1859); H. Ulmann, _Zum Verstandniss + der sachsischen Erhebung gegen Heinrich IV._ (Hanover, 1886), W. von + Giesebrecht, _Geschichte_ _der deutschen Kaiserzeit_ (Leipzig, + 1881-1890); B. Gebhardt, _Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte_ (Berlin, + 1901). For a list of other works, especially those on the relations + between Henry and Gregory, see Dahlmann-Waitz, _Quellenkunde der + deutschen Geschichte_ (Gottingen, 1894). (A. W. H.*) + + + + +HENRY V. (1081-1125), Roman emperor, son of the emperor Henry IV., was +born on the 8th of January 1081, and after the revolt and deposition of +his elder brother, the German king Conrad (d. 1101), was chosen as his +successor in 1098. He promised to take no part in the business of the +Empire during his father's lifetime, and was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle +on the 6th of January 1099. In spite of his oath Henry was induced by +his father's enemies to revolt in 1104, and some of the princes did +homage to him at Mainz in January 1106. In August of the same year the +elder Henry died, when his son became sole ruler of the Empire. Order +was soon restored in Germany, the citizens of Cologne were punished by a +fine, and an expedition against Robert II., count of Flanders, brought +this rebel to his knees. In 1107 a campaign, which was only partially +successful, was undertaken to restore Boriwoj II. to the dukedom of +Bohemia, and in the year following the king led his forces into Hungary, +where he failed to take Pressburg. In 1109 he was unable to compel the +Poles to renew their accustomed tribute, but in 1110 he succeeded in +securing the dukedom of Bohemia for Ladislaus I. + +The main interest of Henry's reign centres in the controversy over lay +investiture, which had caused a serious dispute during the previous +reign. The papal party who had supported Henry in his resistance to his +father hoped he would assent to the decrees of the pope, which had been +renewed by Paschal II. at the synod of Guastalla in 1106. The king, +however, continued to invest the bishops, but wished the pope to hold a +council in Germany to settle the question. Paschal after some hesitation +preferred France to Germany, and, after holding a council at Troyes, +renewed his prohibition of lay investiture. The matter slumbered until +1110, when, negotiations between king and pope having failed, Paschal +renewed his decrees and Henry went to Italy with a large army. The +strength of his forces helped him to secure general recognition in +Lombardy, and at Sutri he concluded an arrangement with Paschal by which +he renounced the right of investiture in return for a promise of +coronation, and the restoration to the Empire of all lands given by +kings, or emperors, to the German church since the time of Charlemagne. +It was a treaty impossible to execute, and Henry, whose consent to it is +said to have been conditional on its acceptance by the princes and +bishops of Germany, probably foresaw that it would occasion a breach +between the German clergy and the pope. Having entered Rome and sworn +the usual oaths, the king presented himself at St Peter's on the 12th of +February 1111 for his coronation and the ratification of the treaty. The +words commanding the clergy to restore the fiefs of the crown to Henry +were read amid a tumult of indignation, whereupon the pope refused to +crown the king, who in return declined to hand over his renunciation of +the right of investiture. Paschal was seized by Henry's soldiers and, in +the general disorder into which the city was thrown, an attempt to +liberate the pontiff was thwarted in a struggle during which the king +himself was wounded. Henry then left the city carrying the pope with +him; and Paschal's failure to obtain assistance drew from him a +confirmation of the king's right of investiture and a promise to crown +him emperor. The coronation ceremony accordingly took place on the 13th +of April 1111, after which the emperor returned to Germany, where he +sought to strengthen his power by granting privileges to the inhabitants +of the region of the upper Rhine. + +In 1112 Lothair, duke of Saxony, rose in arms against Henry, but was +easily quelled. In 1113, however, a quarrel over the succession to the +counties of Weimar and Orlamunde gave occasion for a fresh outbreak on +the part of Lothair, whose troops were defeated at Warnstadt, after +which the duke was pardoned. Having been married at Mainz on the 7th of +January 1114 to Matilda, or Maud, daughter of Henry I., king of England, +the emperor was confronted with a further rising, initiated by the +citizens of Cologne, who were soon joined by the Saxons and others. +Henry failed to take Cologne, his forces were defeated at Welfesholz on +the 11th of February 1115, and complications in Italy compelled him to +leave Germany to the care of Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen, duke of +Swabia, and his brother Conrad, afterwards the German king Conrad III. +After the departure of Henry from Rome in 1111 a council had declared +the privilege of lay investiture, which had been extorted from Paschal, +to be invalid, and Guido, archbishop of Vienne, excommunicated the +emperor and called upon the pope to ratify this sentence. Paschal, +however, refused to take so extreme a step; and the quarrel entered upon +a new stage in 1115 when Matilda, daughter and heiress of Boniface, +margrave of Tuscany, died leaving her vast estates to the papacy. +Crossing the Alps in 1116 Henry won the support of town and noble by +privileges to the one and presents to the other, took possession of +Matilda's lands, and was gladly received in Rome. By this time Paschal +had withdrawn his consent to lay investiture and the excommunication had +been published in Rome; but the pope was compelled to fly from the city. +Some of the cardinals withstood the emperor, but by means of bribes he +broke down the opposition, and was crowned a second time by Burdinas, +archbishop of Braga. Meanwhile the defeat at Welfesholz had given heart +to Henry's enemies; many of his supporters, especially among the +bishops, fell away; the excommunication was published at Cologne, and +the pope, with the assistance of the Normans, began to make war. In +January 1118 Paschal died and was succeeded by Gelasius II. The emperor +immediately returned from northern Italy to Rome. But as the new pope +escaped from the city, Henry, despairing of making a treaty, secured the +election of an antipope who took the name of Gregory VIII., and who was +left in possession of Rome when the emperor returned across the Alps in +1118. The opposition in Germany was gradually crushed and a general +peace declared at Tribur, while the desire for a settlement of the +investiture dispute was growing. Negotiations, begun at Wurzburg, were +continued at Worms, where the new pope, Calixtus II., was represented by +Cardinal Lambert, bishop of Ostia. In the concordat of Worms, signed in +September 1122, Henry renounced the right of investiture with ring and +crozier, recognized the freedom of election of the clergy and promised +to restore all church property. The pope agreed to allow elections to +take place in presence of the imperial envoys, and the investiture with +the sceptre to be granted by the emperor as a symbol that the estates of +the church were held under the crown. Henry, who had been solemnly +excommunicated at Reims by Calixtus in October 1119, was received again +into the communion of the church, after he had abandoned his nominee, +Gregory, to defeat and banishment. The emperor's concluding years were +occupied with a campaign in Holland, and with a quarrel over the +succession to the margraviate of Meissen, two disputes in which his +enemies were aided by Lothair of Saxony. In 1124 he led an expedition +against King Louis VI. of France, turned his arms against the citizens +of Worms, and on the 23rd of May 1125 died at Utrecht and was buried at +Spires. Having no children, he left his possessions to his nephew, +Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, and on his death the line +of Franconian, or Salian, emperors became extinct. + +The character of Henry is unattractive. His love of power was +inordinate; he was wanting in generosity, and he did not shrink from +treachery in pursuing his ends. + + The chief authority for the life and reign of Henry V. is Ekkehard of + Aura, _Chronicon_, edited by G. Waitz in the _Monumenta Germaniae + historica. Scriptores_, Band vi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892), See + also W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band + iii. (Leipzig, 1881-1890); L. von Ranke, _Weltgeschichte_, pt. vii. + (Leipzig, 1886); M. Manitius, _Deutsche Geschichte_ (Stuttgart, 1889); + G. Meyer von Knonau, _Jahrbucher des deutschen Reiches unter Heinrich + IV. und Heinrich V._ (Leipzig, 1890); E. Gervais, _Politische + Geschichte Deutschlands unter der Regierung der Kaiser Heinrich V. und + Lothar III._ (Leipzig, 1841-1842); G. Peiser, _Der deutsche + Investiturstreit unter Kaiser Heinrich V._ (Berlin, 1883); C. Stutzer, + "Zur Kritik der Investiturverhandlungen im Jahre 1119," in the + _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, Band xviii. (Gottingen, + 1862-1886); T. von Sickel and H. Bresslau, "Die kaiserliche + Ausfertigung des Wormser Konkordats," in the _Mittheilungen des + Instituts fur osterreichische Geschichtsforschung_ (Innsbruck, 1880); + B. Gebhardt, _Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte_, Band i. (Berlin, + 1901), and E. Bernheim, _Zur Geschichte des Wormser Konkordats_ + (Gottingen, 1878). + + + + +HENRY VI. (1165-1197), Roman emperor, son of the emperor Frederick I. +and Beatrix, daughter of Renaud III., count of upper Burgundy, was born +at Nijmwegen, and educated under the care of Conrad of Querfurt, +afterwards bishop of Hildesheim and Wurzburg. Chosen German king, or +king of the Romans, at Bamberg in June 1169, he was crowned at +Aix-la-Chapelle on the 15th of August 1169, invested with lands in +Germany in 1179, and at Whitsuntide 1184 his knighthood was celebrated +in the most magnificent manner at Mainz. Frederick was anxious to +associate his son with himself in the government of the empire, and when +he left Germany in 1184 Henry remained behind as regent, while his +father sought to procure his coronation from Pope Lucius III. The pope +was hesitating when he heard that the emperor had arranged a marriage +between Henry and Constance, daughter of the late king of Sicily, Roger +I., and aunt and heiress of the reigning king, William II.; and this +step, which threatened to unite Sicily with Germany, decided him to +refuse the proposal. This marriage took place at Milan on the 27th of +January 1186, and soon afterwards Henry was crowned king of Italy. The +claim of Henry and his wife on Sicily was recognized by the barons of +that kingdom; and having been recognized by the pope as Roman emperor +elect, Henry returned to Germany, and was again appointed regent when +Frederick set out on crusade in May 1189. His attempts to bring peace to +Germany were interrupted by the return of Henry the Lion, duke of +Saxony, in October 1189, and a campaign against him was followed by a +peace made at Fulda in July 1190. + +Henry's desire to make this peace was due to the death of William of +Sicily, which was soon followed by that of the emperor Frederick. +Germany and Italy alike seemed to need the king's presence, but for him, +like all the Hohenstaufen, Italy had the greater charm, and having +obtained a promise of his coronation from Pope Clement III. he crossed +the Alps in the winter of 1190. He purchased the support of the cities +of northern Italy, but on reaching Rome he found Clement was dead and +his successor, Celestine III., disinclined to carry out the engagement +of his predecessor. The strength of the German army and a treaty made +between the king and the Romans induced him, however, to crown Henry as +emperor on the 14th of April 1191. The aid of the Romans had been +purchased by the king's promise to place in their possession the city of +Tusculum, which they had attacked in vain for three years. After the +ceremony the emperor fulfilled this contract, when the city was +destroyed and many of the inhabitants massacred. Meanwhile a party in +Sicily had chosen Tancred, an illegitimate son of Roger, son of King +Roger II., as their king, and he had already won considerable authority +and was favoured by the pope. Leaving Rome Henry met with no resistance +until he reached Naples, which he was unable to take, as the ravages of +fever and threatening news from Germany, where his death was reported, +compelled him to raise the siege. In December 1191 he returned to +Germany. Disorder was general and a variety of reasons induced both the +Welfs and their earlier opponents to join in a general league against +the emperor. Vacancies in various bishoprics added to the confusion, and +Henry's enemies gained in numbers and strength when it was suspected +that he was implicated in the murder of Albert, bishop of Liege. Henry +acted energetically in fighting this formidable combination, but his +salvation came from the captivity of Richard I., king of England, and +the skill with which he used this event to make peace with his foes; +and, when Henry the Lion came to terms in March 1194, order was restored +to Germany. + +In the following May, Henry made his second expedition to Italy, where +Pope Celestine had definitely espoused the cause of Tancred. The ransom +received from Richard enabled him to equip a large army, and aided by a +fleet fitted out by Genoa and Pisa he soon secured a complete mastery +over the Italian mainland. When he reached Sicily he found Tancred +dead, and, meeting with very little resistance, he entered Palermo, +where he was crowned king on Christmas day 1194. A stay of a few months' +duration enabled Henry to settle the affairs of the kingdom; and leaving +his wife, Constance, as regent, and appointing many Germans to positions +of influence, he returned to Germany in June 1195. + +Having established his position in Germany and Italy, Henry began to +cherish ideas of universal empire. Richard of England had already owned +his supremacy, and declaring he would compel the king of France to do +the same Henry sought to stir up strife between France and England. Nor +did the Spanish kingdoms escape his notice. Tunis and Tripoli were +claimed, and when the eastern emperor, Isaac Angelus, asked his help, he +demanded in return the cession of the Balkan peninsula. The kings of +Cyprus and Armenia asked for investiture at his hands; and in general +Henry, in the words of a Byzantine chronicler, put forward his demands +as "the lord of all lords, the king of all kings." To complete this +scheme two steps were necessary, a reconciliation with the pope and the +recognition of his young son, Frederick, as his successor in the Empire. +The first was easily accomplished; the second was more difficult. After +attempting to suppress the renewed disorder in Germany, Henry met the +princes at Worms in December 1195 and put his proposal before them. In +spite of promises they disliked the suggestion as tending to draw them +into Sicilian troubles, and avoided the emperor's displeasure by +postponing their answer. By threats or negotiations, however, Henry won +the consent of about fifty princes; but though the diet which met at +Wurzburg in April 1196 agreed to the scheme, the vigorous opposition of +Adolph, archbishop of Cologne, and others rendered it inoperative. In +June 1196 Henry went again to Italy, sought vainly to restore order in +the north, and tried to persuade the pope to crown his son who had been +chosen king of the Romans at Frankfort. Celestine, who had many causes +of complaint against the emperor and his vassals, refused. The emperor +then went to the south, where the oppression of his German officials had +caused an insurrection, which was put down with terrible cruelty. At +Messina on the 28th of September 1197 Henry died from a cold caught +whilst hunting, and was buried at Palermo. He was a man of small frame +and delicate constitution, but possessed considerable mental gifts and +was skilled in knightly exercises. His ambition was immense, and to +attain his ends he often resorted deliberately to cruelty and treachery. +His chief recreation was hunting, and he also found pleasure in the +society of the Minnesingers and in writing poems, which appear in F. H. +von der Hagen's _Minnesinger_ (Leipzig, 1838). He left an only son +Frederick, afterwards the emperor Frederick II. + + The chief authorities for the life and reign of Henry VI. are Otto of + Freising, _Chronicon_, continued by Otto of St Blasius; Godfrey of + Viterbo, _Gesta Friderici I._ and _Gesta Heinrici VI._; Giselbert of + Mons, _Chronicon Hanoniense_, all of which appear in the _Monumenta + Germaniae historica. Scriptores_, Bande xx., xxi., xxii. (Hanover and + Berlin, 1826-1892), and the various annals of the time. + + The best modern authorities are: W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der + deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band iv. (Brunswick, 1877); T. Toeche, _Kaiser + Heinrich VI._ (Leipzig, 1867); H. Bloch, _Forschungen zur Politik + Kaiser Heinrichs VI._ (Berlin, 1892), and K. A. Kneller, _Des Richard + Lowenherz deutsche Gefangenschaft_ (Freiburg, 1893). + + + + +HENRY VII. (c. 1269-1313), Roman emperor, son of Henry III., count of +Luxemburg, was knighted by Philip IV., king of France, and passed his +early days under French influences, while the French language was his +mother-tongue. His father was killed in battle in 1288, and Henry ruled +his tiny inheritance with justice and prudence, but came into collision +with the citizens of Trier over a question of tolls. In 1292 he married +Margaret (d. 1311), daughter of John I., duke of Brabant, and after the +death of the German king, Albert I., he was elected to the vacant throne +on the 27th of November 1308. Recognized at once by the German princes +and by Pope Clement V., the aspirations of the new king turned to Italy, +where he hoped by restoring the imperial authority to prepare the way +for the conquest of the Holy Land. Meanwhile he strove to secure his +position in Germany. The Rhenish archbishops were pacified by the +restoration of the Rhine tolls, negotiations were begun with Philip IV., +king of France, and with Robert, king of Naples, and the Habsburgs were +confirmed in their possessions. At this time Bohemia was ruled by Henry +V., duke of Carinthia, but the terrible disorder which prevailed induced +some of the Bohemians to offer the crown, together with the hand of +Elizabeth, daughter of the late king Wenceslas II., to John, the son of +the German king. Henry accepted the offer, and in August 1310 John was +invested with Bohemia and his marriage was celebrated. Before John's +coronation at Prague, however, in February 1311, Henry had crossed the +Alps. His hopes of reuniting Germany and Italy and of restoring the +empire of the Hohenstaufen were flattered by an appeal from the +Ghibellines to come to their assistance, and by the fact that many +Italians, sharing the sentiments expressed by Dante in his _De +Monarchia_, looked eagerly for a restoration of the imperial authority. +In October 1310 he reached Turin where, on receiving the homage of the +Lombard cities, he declared that he favoured neither Guelphs nor +Ghibellines, but only sought to impose peace. Having entered Milan he +placed the Lombard crown upon his head on the 6th of January 1311. But +trouble soon showed itself. His poverty compelled him to exact money +from the citizens; the peaceful professions of the Guelphs were +insincere, and Robert, king of Naples, watched his progress with +suspicion. Florence was fortified against him, and the mutual hatred of +Guelph and Ghibelline was easily renewed. Risings took place in various +places and, after the capture of Brescia, Henry marched to Rome only to +find the city in the hands of the Guelphs and the troops of King Robert. +Some street fighting ensued, and the king, unable to obtain possession +of St Peter's, was crowned emperor on the 29th of June 1312 in the +church of St John Lateran by some cardinals who declared they only acted +under compulsion. Failing to subdue Florence, the emperor from his +headquarters at Pisa prepared to attack Robert of Naples, for which +purpose he had allied himself with Frederick III., king of Sicily. But +Clement, anxious to protect Robert, threatened Henry with +excommunication. Undeterred by the threat the emperor collected fresh +forces, made an alliance with the Venetians, and set out for Naples. On +the march he was, however, taken ill, and died at Buonconvento near +Siena on the 24th of August 1313, and was buried at Pisa. His death was +attributed, probably without reason, to poison given him by a Dominican +friar in the sacramental wine. Henry is described by his contemporary +Albertino Mussato, in the _Historia Augusta_, as a handsome man, of +well-proportioned figure, with reddish hair and arched eyebrows, but +disfigured by a squint. He adds, among other details, that he was slow +and laconic in his speech, magnanimous and devout, but impatient of any +compacts with his subjects, loathing the mention of the Guelph and +Ghibelline factions, and insisting on the absolute authority of the +Empire over all (_cuncta absoluto complectens Imperio_). He was, +however, a lover of justice, and as a knight both bold and skilful. He +was hailed by Dante as the deliverer of Italy, and in the _Paradiso_ the +poet reserved for him a place marked by a crown. + + The contemporary documents for the life and reign of Henry VII. are + very numerous. Many of them are found in the _Rerum Italicarum + scriptores_, edited by L. A. Muratori (Milan, 1723-1751), others in + _Fontes rerum Germanicarum_, edited by J. F. Bohmer (Stuttgart, + 1843-1868), and in _Die Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit_, + Bande 79 and 80 (Leipzig, 1884). The following modern works may also + be consulted: _Acta Henrici VII. imperatoris Romanorum_, edited by G. + Donniges (Berlin, 1839); F. Bonaini, _Acta Henrici VII. Romanorum + imperatoris_ (Florence, 1877); T. Lindner, _Deutsche Geschichte unter + den Habsburgern und Luxemburgern_ (Stuttgart, 1888-1893); J. + Heidemann, "Die Konigswahl Heinrichs von Luxemburg," in the + _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, Band xi. (Gottingen, + 1862-1886); B. Thomas, _Zur Konigswahl des Grafen Heinrich von + Luxemburg_ (Strassburg, 1875); D. Konig, _Kritische Erorterungen zu + einigen italienischen Quellen fur die Geschichte des Romerzuges Konigs + Heinrich VII._ (Gottingen, 1874); K. Wenck, _Clemens V. und Heinrich + VII._ (Halle, 1882); F. W. Barthold, _Der Romerzug Konig Heinrichs von + Lutzelburg_ (Konigsberg, 1830-1831); R. Pohlmann, _Der Romerzug Konig + Heinrichs VII. und die Politik der Curie_ (Nuremberg, 1875); W. + Donniges, _Kritik der Quellen fur die Geschichte Heinrichs VII. des + Luxemburgers_ (Berlin, 1841), and G. Sommerfeldt, _Die Romfahrt Kaiser + Heinrichs VII._ (Konigsberg, 1888). + + + + +HENRY VII. (1211-1242), German king, son of the emperor Frederick II. +and his first wife Constance, daughter of Alphonso II., king of Aragon, +was crowned king of Sicily in 1212 and made duke of Swabia in 1216. Pope +Innocent III. had favoured his coronation as king of Sicily in the hope +that the union of this island with the Empire would be dissolved, and +had obtained a promise from Frederick to this effect. In spite of this, +however, Henry was chosen king of the Romans, or German king, at +Frankfort in April 1220, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 8th of +May 1222 by his guardian Engelbert, archbishop of Cologne. He appears to +have spent most of his youth in Germany, and on the 18th of November +1225 was married at Nuremberg to Margaret (d. 1267), daughter of Leopold +VI., duke of Austria. Henry's marriage was the occasion of some +difference of opinion, as Engelbert wished him to marry an English +princess, and the name of a Bohemian princess was also mentioned in this +connexion, but Frederick insisted upon the union with Margaret. The +murder of Engelbert in 1225 was followed by an increase of disorder in +Germany in which Henry soon began to participate, and in 1227 he took +part in a quarrel which had arisen on the death of Henry V., the +childless count palatine of the Rhine. About this time the relations +between Frederick and his son began to be somewhat strained. The emperor +had favoured the Austrian marriage because Margaret's brother, Duke +Frederick II., was childless; but Henry took up a hostile attitude +towards his brother-in-law and wished to put away his wife and marry +Agnes, daughter of Wenceslaus I., king of Bohemia. Other causes of +trouble probably existed, for in 1231 Henry not only refused to appear +at the diet at Ravenna, but opposed the privileges granted by Frederick +to the princes at Worms. In 1232, however, he submitted to his father, +promising to adopt the emperor's policy and to obey his commands. He did +not long keep his word and was soon engaged in thwarting Frederick's +wishes in several directions, until in 1233 he took the decisive step of +issuing a manifesto to the princes, and the following year raised the +standard of revolt at Boppard. He obtained very little support in +Germany, however, while the suspicion that he favoured heresy deprived +him of encouragement from the pope. On the other hand, he succeeded in +forming an alliance with the Lombards in December 1234, but his few +supporters fell away when the emperor reached Germany in 1235, and, +after a vain attack on Worms, Henry submitted and was kept for some time +as a prisoner in Germany, though his formal deposition as German king +was not considered necessary, as he had broken the oath taken in 1232. +He was soon removed to San Felice in Apulia, and afterwards to Martirano +in Calabria, where he died, probably by his own hand, on the 12th of +February 1242, and was buried at Cosenza. He left two sons, Frederick +and Henry, both of whom died in Italy about 1251. + + See J. Rohden, _Der Sturz Heinrichs VII._ (Gottingen, 1883); F. W. + Schirrmacher, _Die letzten Hohenstaufen_ (Gottingen, 1871), and E. + Winkelmann, _Kaiser Friedrich II._ (Leipzig, 1889). + + + + +HENRY RASPE (c. 1202-1247), German king and landgrave of Thuringia, was +the second surviving son of Hermann I., landgrave of Thuringia, and +Sophia, daughter of Otto I., duke of Bavaria. When his brother the +landgrave Louis IV. died in Italy in September 1227, Henry seized the +government of Thuringia and expelled his brother's widow, St Elizabeth +of Hungary, and her son Hermann. With some trouble Henry made good his +position, although his nephew Hermann II. was nominally the landgrave, +and was declared of age in 1237. Henry, who governed with a zealous +regard for his own interests, remained loyal to the emperor Frederick +II. during his quarrel with the Lombards and the revolt of his son +Henry. In 1236 he accompanied the emperor on a campaign against +Frederick II., duke of Austria, and took part in the election of his son +Conrad as German king at Vienna in 1237. He appears, however, to have +become somewhat estranged from Frederick after this expedition, for he +did not appear at the diet of Verona in 1238; and it is not improbable +that he disliked the betrothal of his nephew Hermann to the emperor's +daughter Margaret. At all events, when the projected marriage had been +broken off the landgrave publicly showed his loyalty to the emperor in +1239 in opposition to a plan formed by various princes to elect an +anti-king. Henry, whose attitude at this time was very important to +Frederick, was probably kept loyal by the influence which his brother +Conrad, grand-master of the Teutonic Order, exercised over him, for +after the death of this brother in 1241 Henry's loyalty again wavered, +and he was himself mentioned as a possible anti-king. Frederick's visit +to Germany in 1242 was successful in preventing this step for a time, +and in May of that year the landgrave was appointed administrator of +Germany for King Conrad; and by the death of his nephew in this year he +became the nominal, as well as the actual, ruler of Thuringia. Again he +contemplated deserting the cause of Frederick, and in April 1246 Pope +Innocent IV. wrote to the German princes advising them to choose Henry +as their king in place of Frederick who had just been declared deposed. +Acting on these instructions, Henry was elected at Veitshochheim on the +22nd of May 1246, and owing to the part played by the spiritual princes +in this election was called the _Pfaffenkonig_, or parsons' king. +Collecting an army, he defeated King Conrad near Frankfort on the 5th of +August 1246, and then, after holding a diet at Nuremberg, undertook the +siege of Ulm. But he was soon compelled to give up this enterprise, and +returning to Thuringia died at the Wartburg on the 17th of February +1247. Henry married Gertrude, sister of Frederick II., duke of Austria, +but left no children, and on his death the male line of his family +became extinct. + + See F. Reuss, _Die Wahl Heinrich Raspes_ (Ludenscheid, 1878); A. + Rubesamen, _Landgraf Heinrich Raspe von Thuringen_ (Halle, 1885); F. + W. Schirrmacher, _Die letzten Hohenstaufen_ (Gottingen, 1871); E. + Winkelmann, _Kaiser Friedrich II._ (Leipzig, 1889), and T. + Knochenhauer, _Geschichte Thuringens zur Zeit des ersten + Landgrafenhauses_ (Gotha, 1871). + + + + +HENRY (c. 1174-1216), emperor of Romania, or Constantinople, was a +younger son of Baldwin, count of Flanders and Hainaut (d. 1195). Having +joined the Fourth Crusade about 1201, he distinguished himself at the +siege of Constantinople in 1204 and elsewhere, and soon became prominent +among the princes of the new Latin empire of Constantinople. When his +brother, the emperor Baldwin I., was captured at the battle of +Adrianople in April 1205, Henry was chosen regent of the empire, +succeeding to the throne when the news of Baldwin's death arrived. He +was crowned on the 20th of August 1205. Henry was a wise ruler, whose +reign was largely passed in successful struggles with the Bulgarians and +with his rival, Theodore Lascaris I., emperor of Nicaea. Henry appears +to have been brave but not cruel, and tolerant but not weak; possessing +"the superior courage to oppose, in a superstitious age, the pride and +avarice of the clergy." The emperor died, poisoned, it is said, by his +Greek wife, on the 11th of June 1216. + + See Gibbon's _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, vol. vi. (ed. J. + B. Bury, 1898). + + + + +HENRY I. (1068-1135), king of England, nicknamed Beauclerk, the fourth +and youngest son of William I. by his queen Matilda of Flanders, was +born in 1068 on English soil. Of his life before 1086, when he was +solemnly knighted by his father at Westminster, we know little. He was +his mother's favourite, and she bequeathed to him her English estates, +which, however, he was not permitted to hold in his father's lifetime. +Henry received a good education, of which in later life he was proud; he +is credited with the saying that an unlettered king is only a crowned +ass. His attainments included Latin, which he could both read and write; +he knew something of the English laws and language, and it may have been +from an interest in natural history that he collected, during his reign, +the Woodstock menagerie which was the admiration of his subjects. But +from 1087 his life was one of action and vicissitudes which left him +little leisure. Receiving, under the Conqueror's last dispositions, a +legacy of five thousand pounds of silver, but no land, he traded upon +the pecuniary needs of Duke Robert of Normandy, from whom he purchased, +for the small sum of L3000, the district of the Cotentin. He negotiated +with Rufus to obtain the possession of their mother's inheritance, but +only incurred thereby the suspicions of the duke, who threw him into +prison. In 1090 the prince vindicated his loyalty by suppressing, on +Robert's behalf, a revolt of the citizens of Rouen which Rufus had +fomented. But when his elder brothers were reconciled in the next year +they combined to evict Henry from the Cotentin. He dissembled his +resentment for a time, and lived for nearly two years in the French +Vexin in great poverty. He then accepted from the citizens of Domfront +an invitation to defend them against Robert of Belleme; and +subsequently, coming to an agreement with Rufus, assisted the king in +making war on their elder brother Robert. When Robert's departure for +the First Crusade left Normandy in the hands of Rufus (1096) Henry took +service under the latter, and he was in the royal hunting train on the +day of Rufus's death (August 2nd, 1100). Had Robert been in Normandy the +claim of Henry to the English crown might have been effectually opposed. +But Robert only returned to the duchy a month after Henry's coronation. +In the meantime the new king, by issuing his famous charter, by +recalling Anselm, and by choosing the Anglo-Scottish princess +Edith-Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III., king of the Scots, as his +future queen, had cemented that alliance with the church and with the +native English which was the foundation of his greatness. Anselm +preached in his favour, English levies marched under the royal banner +both to repel Robert's invasion (1101) and to crush the revolt of the +Montgomeries headed by Robert of Belleme (1102). The alliance of crown +and church was subsequently imperilled by the question of Investitures +(1103-1106). Henry was sharply criticized for his ingratitude to Anselm +(q.v.), in spite of the marked respect which he showed to the +archbishop. At this juncture a sentence of excommunication would have +been a dangerous blow to Henry's power in England. But the king's +diplomatic skill enabled him to satisfy the church without surrendering +any rights of consequence (1106); and he skilfully threw the blame of +his previous conduct upon his counsellor, Robert of Meulan. Although the +Peterborough Chronicle accuses Henry of oppression in his early years, +the nation soon learned to regard him with respect. William of +Malmesbury, about 1125, already treats Tinchebrai (1106) as an English +victory and the revenge for Hastings. Henry was disliked but feared by +the baronage, towards whom he showed gross bad faith in his disregard of +his coronation promises. In 1110 he banished the more conspicuous +malcontents, and from that date was safe against the plots of his +English feudatories. + +With Normandy he had more trouble, and the military skill which he had +displayed at Tinchebrai was more than once put to the test against +Norman rebels. His Norman, like his English administration, was popular +with the non-feudal classes, but doubtless oppressive towards the +barons. The latter had abandoned the cause of Duke Robert, who remained +a prisoner in England till his death (1134); but they embraced that of +Robert's son William the Clito, whom Henry in a fit of generosity had +allowed to go free after Tinchebrai. The Norman conspiracies of 1112, +1118, and 1123-24 were all formed in the Clito's interest. Both France +and Anjou supported this pretender's cause from time to time; he was +always a thorn in Henry's side till his untimely death at Alost (1128), +but more especially after the catastrophe of the White Ship (1120) +deprived the king of his only lawful son. But Henry emerged from these +complications with enhanced prestige. His campaigns had been uneventful, +his chief victory (Bremule, 1119) was little more than a skirmish. But +he had held his own as a general, and as a diplomatist he had shown +surpassing skill. The chief triumphs of his foreign policy were the +marriage of his daughter Matilda to the emperor Henry V. (1114) which +saved Normandy in 1124; the detachment of the pope, Calixtus II., from +the side of France and the Clito (1119), and the Angevin marriages which +he arranged for his son William Aetheling (1119) and for the widowed +empress Matilda (1129) after her brother's death. This latter match, +though unpopular in England and Normandy, was a fatal blow to the +designs of Louis VI., and prepared the way for the expansion of English +power beyond the Loire. After 1124 the disaffection of Normandy was +crushed. The severity with which Henry treated the last rebels was +regarded as a blot upon his fame; but the only case of merely vindictive +punishment was that of the poet Luke de la Barre, who was sentenced to +lose his eyes for a lampoon upon the king, and only escaped the sentence +by committing suicide. + +Henry's English government was severe and grasping; but he "kept good +peace" and honourably distinguished himself among contemporary statesmen +in an age when administrative reform was in the air. He spent more time +in Normandy than in England. But he showed admirable judgment in his +choice of subordinates; Robert of Meulan, who died in 1118, and Roger of +Salisbury, who survived his master, were statesmen of no common order; +and Henry was free from the mania of attending in person to every +detail, which was the besetting sin of medieval sovereigns. As a +legislator Henry was conservative. He issued few ordinances; the +unofficial compilation known as the _Leges Henrici_ shows that, like the +Conqueror, he made it his ideal to maintain the "law of Edward." His +itinerant justices were not altogether a novelty in England or Normandy. +It is characteristic of the man that the exchequer should be the chief +institution created in his reign. The eulogies of the last _Peterborough +Chronicle_ on his government were written after the anarchy of Stephen's +reign had invested his predecessor's "good peace" with the glamour of a +golden age. Henry was respected and not tyrannous. He showed a lofty +indifference to criticism such as that of Eadmer in the _Historia +novorum_, which was published early in the reign. He showed, on some +occasions, great deference to the opinions of the magnates. But dark +stories, some certainly unfounded, were told of his prison-houses. Men +thought him more cruel and more despotic than he actually was. + +Henry was twice married. After the death of his first wife, Matilda +(1080-1118), he took to wife Adelaide, daughter of Godfrey, count of +Louvain (1121), in the hope of male issue. But the marriage proved +childless, and the empress Matilda was designated as her father's +successor, the English baronage being compelled to do her homage both in +1126, and again, after the Angevin marriage, in 1131. He had many +illegitimate sons and daughters by various mistresses. Of these bastards +the most important is Robert, earl of Gloucester, upon whom fell the +main burden of defending Matilda's title against Stephen. + +Henry died near Gisors on the 1st of December, 1135, in the thirty-sixth +year of his reign, and was buried in the abbey of Reading which he +himself had founded. + + ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES.--_The Peterborough Chronicle_ (ed. Plummer, + Oxford, 1882-1889); _Florence of Worcester_ and his first continuator + (ed. B. Thorpe, 1848-1849); Eadmer, _Historia novorum_ (ed. Rule, + Rolls Series, 1884); William of Malmesbury, _Gesta regum_ and + _Historia novella_ (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series, 1887-1889); Henry of + Huntingdon, _Historia Anglorum_ (ed. Arnold, Rolls Series, 1879); + Simeon of Durham (ed. Arnold, Rolls Series, 1882-1885); Orderic + Vitalis, _Historia ecclesiastica_ (ed. le Prevost, Paris, 1838-1855); + Robert of Torigni, _Chronica_ (ed. Howlett, Rolls Series, 1889), and + _Continuatio Willelmi Gemmeticensis_ (ed. Duchesne, _Hist. Normannorum + scriptores_, pp. 215-317, Paris, 1619). See also the Pipe Roll of 31 + H. I. (ed. Hunter, _Record Commission_, 1833); the documents in W. + Stubbs's _Select Chapters_ (Oxford, 1895); the _Leges Henrici_ in + Liebermann's _Gesetze der Angel-Sachsen_ (Halle, 1898, &c.); and the + same author's monograph, _Leges Henrici_ (Halle, 1901); the treaties, + &c., in the Record Commission edition of Thomas Rymer's _Foedera_, + vol. i. (1816). + + MODERN AUTHORITIES.--E. A. Freeman, _History of the Norman Conquest_, + vol. v.; J. M. Lappenberg, _History of England under the Norman Kings_ + (tr. Thorpe, Oxford, 1857); Kate Norgate, _England under the Angevin + Kings_, vol. i. (1887); Sir James Ramsay, _Foundations of England_, + vol. ii.; W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. i.; H. W. C. + Davis, _England under the Normans and Angevins_; Hunt and Poole, + _Political History of England_, vol. ii. (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +HENRY II. (1133-1189), king of England, son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, +count of Anjou, by Matilda, daughter of Henry I., was born at Le Mans on +the 25th of March 1133. He was brought to England during his mother's +conflict with Stephen (1142), and was placed under the charge of a tutor +at Bristol. He returned to Normandy in 1146. He next appeared on English +soil in 1149[1] when he came to court the help of Scotland and the +English baronage against King Stephen. The second visit was of short +duration. In 1150 he was invested with Normandy by his father, whose +death in the next year made him also count of Anjou. In 1152 by a +marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine, the divorced wife of the French king +Louis VII., he acquired Poitou, Guienne and Gascony; but in doing so +incurred the ill-will of his suzerain from which he suffered not a +little in the future. Lastly in 1153 he was able, through the aid of the +Church and his mother's partisans, to extort from Stephen the +recognition of his claim to the English succession; and this claim was +asserted without opposition immediately after Stephen's death (25th of +October 1154). Matilda retired into seclusion, although she possessed, +until her death (1167), great influence with her son. + +The first years of the reign were largely spent in restoring the public +peace and recovering for the crown the lands and prerogatives which +Stephen had bartered away. Amongst the older partisans of the Angevin +house the most influential were Archbishop Theobald, whose good will +guaranteed to Henry the support of the Church, and Nigel, bishop of Ely, +who presided at the exchequer. But Thomas Becket, archdeacon of +Canterbury, a younger statesman whom Theobald had discovered and +promoted, soon became all-powerful. Becket lent himself entirely to his +master's ambitions, which at this time centred round schemes of +territorial aggrandizement. In 1155 Henry asked and obtained from Adrian +IV. a licence to invade Ireland, which the king contemplated bestowing +upon his brother, William of Anjou. This plan was dropped; but Malcolm +of Scotland was forced to restore the northern counties which had been +ceded to David; North Wales was invaded in 1157; and in 1159 Henry made +an attempt, which was foiled by the intervention of Louis VII., to +assert his wife's claims upon Toulouse. After vainly invoking the aid of +the emperor Frederick I., the young king came to terms with Louis +(1160), whose daughter was betrothed to Henry's namesake and heir. The +peace proved unstable, and there was desultory skirmishing in 1161. The +following year was chiefly spent in reforming the government of the +continental provinces. In 1163 Henry returned to England, and almost +immediately embarked on that quarrel with the Church which is the +keynote to the middle period of the reign. + +Henry had good cause to complain of the ecclesiastical courts, and had +only awaited a convenient season to correct abuses which were admitted +by all reasonable men. But he allowed the question to be complicated by +personal issues. He was bitterly disappointed that Becket, on whom he +bestowed the primacy, left vacant by the death of Theobald (1162), at +once became the champion of clerical privilege; he and the archbishop +were no longer on speaking terms when the Constitutions of Clarendon +came up for debate. The king's demands were not intrinsically +irreconcilable with the canon law, and the papacy would probably have +allowed them to take effect _sub silentio_, if Becket (q.v.) had not +been goaded to extremity by persecution in the forms of law. After +Becket's flight (1164), the king put himself still further in the wrong +by impounding the revenues of Canterbury and banishing at one stroke a +number of the archbishop's friends and connexions. He showed, however, +considerable dexterity in playing off the emperor against Alexander III. +and Louis VII., and contrived for five years, partly by these means, +partly by insincere negotiations with Becket, to stave off a papal +interdict upon his dominions. When, in July 1170, he was forced by +Alexander's threats to make terms with Becket, the king contrived that +not a word should be said of the Constitutions. He undoubtedly hoped +that in this matter he would have his way when Becket should be more in +England and within his grasp. For the murder of Becket (Dec. 29, 1170) +the king cannot be held responsible, though the deed was suggested by +his impatient words. It was a misfortune to the royal cause; and Henry +was compelled to purchase the papal absolution by a complete surrender +on the question of criminous clerks (1172). When he heard of the murder +he was panic-stricken; and his expedition to Ireland (1171), although so +momentous for the future, was originally a mere pretext for placing +himself beyond the reach of Alexander's censures. + +Becket's fate, though it supplied an excuse, was certainly not the real +cause of the troubles with his sons which disturbed the king's later +years (1173-1189). But Henry's misfortunes were largely of his own +making. Queen Eleanor, whom he alienated by his faithlessness, stirred +up her sons to rebellion; and they had grievances enough to be easily +persuaded. Henry was an affectionate but a suspicious and close-handed +father. The titles which he bestowed on them carried little power, and +served chiefly to denote the shares of the paternal inheritance which +were to be theirs after his death. The excessive favour which he showed +to John, his youngest-born, was another cause of heart-burning; and +Louis, the old enemy, did his utmost to foment all discords. It must, +however, be remembered in Henry's favour, that the supporters of the +princes, both in England and in the foreign provinces, were animated by +resentment against the soundest features of the king's administration; +and that, in the rebellion of 1173, he received from the English commons +such hearty support that any further attempt to raise a rebellion in +England was considered hopeless. Henry, like his grandfather, gained in +popularity with every year of his reign. In 1183 the death of Prince +Henry, the heir-apparent, while engaged in a war against his brother +Richard and their father, secured a short interval of peace. But in 1184 +Geoffrey of Brittany and John combined with their father's leave to make +war upon Richard, now the heir-apparent. After Geoffrey's death (1186) +the feud between John and Richard drove the latter into an alliance with +Philip Augustus of France. The ill-success of the old king in this war +aggravated the disease from which he was suffering; and his heart was +broken by the discovery that John, for whose sake he had alienated +Richard, was in secret league with the victorious allies. Henry died at +Chinon on the 6th of July 1189, and was buried at Fontevraud. By Eleanor +of Aquitaine the king had five sons and three daughters. His eldest son, +William, died young; his other sons, Henry, Richard, Geoffrey and John, +are all mentioned above. His daughters were: Matilda (1156-1189), who +became the wife of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony; Eleanor (1162-1214), +who married Alphonso III., king of Castile; and Joanna, who, after the +death of William of Sicily in 1189, became the wife of Raymund VI., +count of Toulouse, having previously accompanied her brother, Richard, +to Palestine. He had also three illegitimate sons: Geoffrey, archbishop +of York; Morgan; and William Longsword, earl of Salisbury. + +Henry's power impressed the imagination of his contemporaries, who +credited him with aiming at the conquest of France and the acquisition +of the imperial title. But his ambitions of conquest were comparatively +moderate in his later years. He attempted to secure Maurienne and Savoy +for John by a marriage-alliance, for which a treaty was signed in 1173. +But the project failed through the death of the intended bride; nor did +the marriage of his third daughter, the princess Joanna (1165-1199), +with William II., king of Sicily (1177) lead to English intervention in +Italian politics. Henry once declined an offer of the Empire, made by +the opponents of Frederick Barbarossa; and he steadily supported the +young Philip Augustus against the intrigues of French feudatories. The +conquest of Ireland was carried out independently of his assistance, and +perhaps against his wishes. He asserted his suzerainty over Scotland by +the treaty of Falaise (1175), but not so stringently as to provoke +Scottish hostility. This moderation was partly due to the embarrassments +produced by the ecclesiastical question and the rebellions of the +princes. But Henry, despite a violent and capricious temper, had a +strong taste for the work of a legislator and administrator. He devoted +infinite pains and thought to the reform of government both in England +and Normandy. The legislation of his reign was probably in great part +of his own contriving. His supervision of the law courts was close and +jealous; he transacted a great amount of judicial business in his own +person, even after he had formed a high court of justice which might sit +without his personal presence. To these activities he devoted his scanty +intervals of leisure. His government was stern; he over-rode the +privileges of the baronage without regard to precedent; he persisted in +keeping large districts under the arbitrary and vexatious jurisdiction +of the forest-courts. But it is the general opinion of historians that +he had a high sense of his responsibilities and a strong love of +justice; despite the looseness of his personal morals, he commanded the +affection and respect of Gilbert Foliot and Hugh of Lincoln, the most +upright of the English bishops. + + ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES.--Henry's laws are printed in W. Stubb's _Select + Charters_ (Oxford, 1895). The chief chroniclers of his reign are + William of Newburgh, Ralph de Diceto, the so-called Benedict of + Peterborough, Roger of Hoveden, Robert de Torigni (or de Monte), + Jordan Fantosme, Giraldus Cambrensis, Gervase of Canterbury; all + printed in the Rolls Series. The biographies and letters contained in + the 7 vols. of _Materials for the History of Thomas Becket_ (ed. J. C. + Robertson, Rolls Series, 1875-1885) are valuable for the early and + middle part of the reign. For Irish affairs the _Song of Dermot_ (ed. + Orpen, Oxford, 1892), for the rebellions of the princes the metrical + _Histoire de Guillaume le Marechal_ (ed. Paul Meyer, 3 vols., Paris, + 1891, &c.) are of importance. Henry's legal and administrative reforms + are illustrated by the _Tractatus de legibus_ attributed to Ranulph + Glanville, his chief justiciar (ed. G. Phillips, Berlin, 1828); by the + _Dialogus de scaccario_ of Richard fitz Nigel (Oxford, 1902); the + _Pipe Rolls_, printed by J. Hunter for the Record Commission (1844) + and by the Pipe-Roll Society (London, 1884, &c.) supply valuable + details. The works of John of Salisbury (ed. Giles, 1848), Peter of + Blois (ed. Migne), Walter Map (Camden Society, 1841, 1850) and the + letters of Gilbert Foliot (ed. J. A. Giles, Oxford, 1845) are useful + for the social and Church history of the reign. + + MODERN AUTHORITIES.--R. W. Eyton, _Itinerary of Henry II._ (London, + 1878); W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. i. (Oxford, 1893), + _Lectures on Medieval and Modern History_ (Oxford, 1886) and _Early + Plantagenets_ (London, 1876); the same author's introduction to the + Rolls editions of "Benedict," Gervase, Diceto, Hoveden; Mrs J. R. + Green, Henry II. (London, 1888); Miss K. Norgate, _England under the + Angevin Kings_ (2 vols., London, 1887); Sir J. H. Ramsay's _The + Angevin Empire_ (London, 1893); H. W. C. Davis's _England under the + Normans and Angevins_ (London, 1905); Sir F. Pollock and F. W. + Maitland, _History of English Law_ (2 vols., Cambridge, 1898); and F. + Hardegen, _Imperialpolitik Konig Heinrichs II. von England_ + (Heidelberg, 1905). (H. W. C. D.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For a supposed visit in 1147, see J. H. Round in _English + Historical Review_, v. 747. + + + + +HENRY III. (1207-1272), king of England, was the eldest son of King John +by Isabella of Angouleme. Born on the 1st of October 1207, the prince +was but nine years old at the time of his father's death. The greater +part of eastern England being in the hands of the French pretender, +Prince Louis, afterwards King Louis VIII., and the rebel barons, Henry +was crowned by his supporters at Gloucester, the western capital. John +had committed his son to the protection of the Holy See; and a share in +the government was accordingly allowed to the papal legates, Gualo and +Pandulf, both during the civil war and for some time afterwards. But the +title of regent was given by the loyal barons to William Marshal, the +aged earl of Pembroke; and Peter des Roches, the Poitevin bishop of +Winchester, received the charge of the king's person. The cause of the +young Henry was fully vindicated by the close of the year 1217. Defeated +both by land and sea, the French prince renounced his pretensions and +evacuated England, leaving the regency to deal with the more difficult +questions raised by the lawless insolence of the royal partisans. Henry +remained a passive spectator of the measures by which William Marshal +(d. 1219), and his successor, the justiciar Hubert de Burgh, asserted +the royal prerogative against native barons and foreign mercenaries. In +1223 Honorius III. declared the king of age, but this was a mere +formality, intended to justify the resumption of the royal castles and +demesnes which had passed into private hands during the commotions of +the civil war. + +The personal rule of Henry III. began in 1227, when he was again +proclaimed of age. Even then he remained for some time under the +influence of Hubert de Burgh, whose chief rival, Peter des Roches, found +it expedient to quit the kingdom for four years. But Henry was ambitions +to recover the continental possessions which his father had lost. +Against the wishes of the justiciar he planned and carried out an +expedition to the west of France (1230); when it failed he laid the +blame upon his minister. Other differences arose soon afterwards. Hubert +was accused, with some reason, of enriching himself at the expense of +the crown, and of encouraging popular riots against the alien clerks for +whom the papacy was providing at the expense of the English Church. He +was disgraced in 1232; and power passed for a time into the hands of +Peter des Roches, who filled the administration with Poitevins. So began +the period of misrule by which Henry III. is chiefly remembered in +history. The Poitevins fell in 1234; they were removed at the demand of +the barons and the primate Edmund Rich, who held them responsible for +the tragic fate of the rebellious Richard Marshal. But the king replaced +them with a new clique of servile and rapacious favourites. Disregarding +the wishes of the Great Council, and excluding all the more important of +the barons and bishops from office, he acted as his own chief minister +and never condescended to justify his policy except when he stood in +need of subsidies. When these were refused, he extorted aids from the +towns, the Jews or the clergy, the three most defenceless interests in +the kingdom. Always in pecuniary straits through his extravagance, he +pursued a foreign policy which would have been expensive under the most +careful management. He hoped not only to regain the French possessions +but to establish members of his own family as sovereigns in Italy and +the Empire. These plans were artfully fostered by the Savoyard kinsmen +of Eleanor, daughter of Raymond Berenger, count of Provence, whom he +married at Canterbury in January 1236, and by his half-brothers, the +sons of Queen Isabella and Hugo, count of la Marche. These favourites, +not content with pushing their fortunes in the English court, encouraged +the king in the wildest designs. In 1242 he led an expedition to Gascony +which terminated disastrously with the defeat of Taillebourg; and +hostilities with France were intermittently continued for seventeen +years. The Savoyards encouraged his natural tendency to support the +Papacy against the Empire; at an early date in the period of misrule he +entered into a close alliance with Rome, which resulted in heavy +taxation of the clergy and gave great umbrage to the barons. A +cardinal-legate was sent to England at Henry's request, and during four +years (1237-1241) administered the English Church in a manner equally +profitable to the king and to the pope. After the recall of the legate +Otho the alliance was less open and less cordial. Still the pope +continued to share the spoils of the English clergy with the king, and +the king to enforce the demands of Roman tax-collectors. + +Circumstances favoured Henry's schemes. Archbishop Edmund Rich was timid +and inexperienced; his successor, Boniface of Savoy, was a kinsman of +the queen; Grosseteste, the most eminent of the bishops, died in 1253, +when he was on the point of becoming a popular hero. Among the lay +barons, the first place naturally belonged to Richard of Cornwall who, +as the king's brother, was unwilling to take any steps which might +impair the royal prerogative; while Simon de Montfort, earl of +Leicester, the ablest man of his order, was regarded with suspicion as a +foreigner, and linked to Henry's cause by his marriage with the princess +Eleanor. Although the Great Council repeatedly protested against the +king's misrule and extravagance, their remonstrances came to nothing for +want of leaders and a clear-cut policy. But between 1248 and 1252 Henry +alienated Montfort from his cause by taking the side of the Gascons, +whom the earl had provoked to rebellion through his rigorous +administration of their duchy. A little later, when Montfort was +committed to opposition, Henry foolishly accepted from Innocent IV. the +crown of Sicily for his second son Edmund Crouchback (1255). Sicily was +to be conquered from the Hohenstaufen at the expense of England; and +Henry pledged his credit to the papacy for enormous subsidies, although +years of comparative inactivity had already overwhelmed him with debts. +On the publication of the ill-considered bargain the baronage at length +took vigorous action. They forced upon the king the Provisions of Oxford +(1258), which placed the government in the hands of a feudal oligarchy; +they reduced expenditure, expelled the alien favourites from the +kingdom, and insisted upon a final renunciation of the French claims. +The king submitted for the moment, but at the first opportunity +endeavoured to cancel his concessions. He obtained a papal absolution +from his promises; and he tricked the opposition into accepting the +arbitration of the French king, Louis IX., whose verdict was a foregone +conclusion. But Henry was incapable of protecting with the strong hand +the rights which he had recovered by his double-dealing. Ignominiously +defeated by Montfort at Lewes (1264) he fell into the position of a +cipher, equally despised by his opponents and supporters. He acquiesced +in the earl's dictatorship; left to his eldest son, Edward, the +difficult task of reorganizing the royal party; marched with the +Montfortians to Evesham; and narrowly escaped sharing the fate of his +gaoler. After Evesham he is hardly mentioned by the chroniclers. The +compromise with the surviving rebels was arranged by his son in concert +with Richard of Cornwall and the legate Ottobuono; the statute of +Marlborough (1267), which purchased a lasting peace by judicious +concessions, was similarly arranged between Edward and the earl of +Gloucester. Edward was king in all but name for some years before the +death of his father, by whom he was alternately suspected and adored. + +Henry had in him some of the elements of a fine character. His mind was +cultivated; he was a discriminating patron of literature, and +Westminster Abbey is an abiding memorial of his artistic taste. His +personal morality was irreproachable, except that he inherited the +Plantagenet taste for crooked courses and dissimulation in political +affairs; even in this respect the king's reputation has suffered unduly +at the hands of Matthew Paris, whose literary skill is only equalled by +his malice. The ambitions which Henry cherished, if extravagant, were +never sordid; his patriotism, though seldom attested by practical +measures, was thoroughly sincere. Some of his worst actions as a +politician were due to a sincere, though exaggerated, gratitude for the +support which the Papacy had given him during his minority. But he had +neither the training nor the temper of a statesman. His dreams of +autocracy at home and far-reaching dominion abroad were anachronisms in +a century of constitutional ideas and national differentiation. Above +all he earned the contempt of Englishmen and foreigners alike by the +instability of his purpose. Matthew Paris said that he had a heart of +wax; Dante relegated him to the limbo of ineffectual souls; and later +generations have endorsed these scathing judgments. + +Henry died at Westminster on the 16th of November 1272; his widow, +Eleanor, took the veil in 1276 and died at Amesbury on the 25th of June +1291. Their children were: the future king Edward I.; Edmund, earl of +Lancaster; Margaret (1240-1275), the wife of Alexander III., king of +Scotland; Beatrice; and Katherine. + + ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES.--Roger of Wendover, _Flores historiarum_ (ed. H. + O. Coxe, 4 vols., 1841-1844); and Matthew of Paris, _Chronica majora_ + (ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 7 vols., 1872-1883) are the chief + narrative sources. See also the _Annales monastici_ (ed. H. R. Luard, + Rolls Series, 5 vols., 1864-1869); the collection of _Royal and other + Historical Letters_ edited by W. Shirley (Rolls Series, 2 vols., + 1862-1866); the Close and Patent Rolls edited for the Record + Commission and the Master of the Rolls; the _Epistolae Roberti + Grosseteste_ (ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 1861); the _Monumenta + Franciscana_, vol. i. (ed. J. S. Brewer, Rolls Series, 1858); the + documents in the new _Foedera_, vol. i. (Record Commission, 1816). + + MODERN WORKS.--G. J. Turner's article on the king's minority in + _Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, New Series_, vol. + xviii.; Dom Gasquet's _Henry III. and the Church_ (1905); the lives of + Simon de Montfort by G. W. Prothero (1871), R. Pauli (Eng. ed., 1876) + and C. Bemont (Paris, 1884); W. Stubbs's _Constitutional History of + England_, vol. ii. (1887); R. Pauli's _Geschichte von England_, vol. + iii. (Hamburg, 1853); T. F. Tout in the _Political History of + England_, vol. iii. (1905), and H. W. C. Davis in _England under the + Normans and Angevins_ (1905). (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +HENRY IV. (1367-1413), king of England, son of John of Gaunt, by +Blanche, daughter of Henry, duke of Lancaster, was born on the 3rd of +April 1367, at Bolingbroke in Lincolnshire. As early as 1377 he is +styled earl of Derby, and in 1380 he married Mary de Bohun (d. 1394) +one of the co-heiresses of the last earl of Hereford. In 1387 he +supported his uncle Thomas, duke of Gloucester, in his armed opposition +to Richard II. and his favourites. Afterwards, probably through his +father's influence, he changed sides. He was already distinguished for +his knightly prowess, and for some years devoted himself to adventure. +He thought of going on the crusade to Barbary; but instead, in July +1390, went to serve with the Teutonic knights in Lithuania. He came home +in the following spring, but next year went again to Prussia, whence he +journeyed by way of Venice to Cyprus and Jerusalem. After his return to +England he sided with his father and the king against Gloucester, and in +1397 was made duke of Hereford. In January 1398 he quarrelled with the +duke of Norfolk, who charged him with treason. The dispute was to have +been decided in the lists at Coventry in September; but at the last +moment Richard intervened and banished them both. + +When John of Gaunt died in February 1399 Richard, contrary to his +promise, confiscated the estates of Lancaster. Henry then felt himself +free, and made friends with the exiled Arundels. Early in July, whilst +Richard was absent in Ireland, he landed at Ravenspur in Yorkshire. He +was at once joined by the Percies; and Richard, abandoned by his +friends, surrendered at Flint on the 19th of August. In the parliament, +which assembled on the 30th of September, Richard was forced to +abdicate. Henry then made his claim as coming by right line of blood +from King Henry III., and through his right to recover the realm which +was in point to be undone for default of governance and good law. +Parliament formally accepted him, and thus Henry became king, "not so +much by title of blood as by popular election" (Capgrave). The new +dynasty had consequently a constitutional basis. With this Henry's own +political sympathies well accorded. But though the revolution of 1399 +was popular in form, its success was due to an oligarchical faction. +From the start Henry was embarrassed by the power and pretensions of the +Percies. Nor was his hereditary title so good as that of the Mortimers. +To domestic troubles was added the complication of disputes with +Scotland and France. The first danger came from the friends of Richard, +who plotted prematurely, and were crushed in January 1400. During the +summer of 1400 Henry made a not over-successful expedition to Scotland. +The French court would not accept his overtures, and it was only in the +summer of 1401 that a truce was patched up by the restoration of +Richard's child-queen, Isabella of Valois. Meantime a more serious +trouble had arisen through the outbreak of the Welsh revolt under Owen +Glendower (q.v.). In 1400 and again in each of the two following autumns +Henry invaded Wales in vain. The success of the Percies over the Scots +at Homildon Hill (Sept. 1402) was no advantage. Henry Percy (Hotspur) +and his father, the earl of Northumberland, thought their services +ill-requited, and finally made common cause with the partisans of +Mortimer and the Welsh. The plot was frustrated by Hotspur's defeat at +Shrewsbury (21st of July 1403); and Northumberland for the time +submitted. Henry had, however, no one on whom he could rely outside his +own family, except Archbishop Arundel. The Welsh were unsubdued; the +French were plundering the southern coast; Northumberland was fomenting +trouble in the north. The crisis came in 1405. A plot to carry off the +young Mortimers was defeated; but Mowbray, the earl marshal, who had +been privy to it, raised a rebellion in the north supported by +Archbishop Scrope of York. Mowbray and Scrope were taken and beheaded; +Northumberland escaped into Scotland. For the execution of the +archbishop Henry was personally responsible, and he could never free +himself from its odium. Popular belief regarded his subsequent illness +as a judgment for his impiety. Apart from ill-health and unpopularity +Henry had succeeded--relations with Scotland were secured by the capture +of James, the heir to the crown; Northumberland was at last crushed at +Bramham Moor (Feb. 1408); and a little later the Welsh revolt was +mastered. + +Henry, stricken with sore disease, was unable to reap the advantage. His +necessities had all along enabled the Commons to extort concessions in +parliament, until in 1406 he was forced to nominate a council and govern +by its advice. However, with Archbishop Arundel as his chancellor, Henry +still controlled the government. But in January 1410 Arundel had to give +way to the king's half-brother, Thomas Beaufort. Beaufort and his +brother Henry, bishop of Winchester, were opposed to Arundel and +supported by the prince of Wales. For two years the real government +rested with the prince and the council. Under the prince's influence the +English intervened in France in 1411 on the side of Burgundy. In this, +and in some matters of home politics, the king disagreed with his +ministers. There is good reason to suppose that the Beauforts had gone +so far as to contemplate a forced abdication on the score of the king's +ill-health. However, in November 1411 Henry showed that he was still +capable of vigorous action by discharging the prince and his supporters. +Arundel again became chancellor, and the king's second son, Thomas, took +his brother's place. The change was further marked by the sending of an +expedition to France in support of Orleans. But Henry's health was +failing steadily. On the 20th of March 1413, whilst praying in +Westminster Abbey he was seized with a fainting fit, and died that same +evening in the Jerusalem Chamber. At the time he was believed to have +been a leper, but as it would appear without sufficient reason. + +As a young man Henry had been chivalrous and adventurous, and in +politics anxious for good government and justice. As king the loss and +failure of friends made him cautious, suspicious and cruel. The +persecution of the Lollards, which began with the burning statute of +1401, may be accounted for by Henry's own orthodoxy, or by the influence +of Archbishop Arundel, his one faithful friend. But that political +Lollardry was strong is shown by the proposal in the parliament of 1410 +for a wholesale confiscation of ecclesiastical property. Henry's faults +may be excused by his difficulties. Throughout he was practical and +steadfast, and he deserved credit for maintaining his principles as a +constitutional ruler. So after all his troubles he founded his dynasty +firmly, and passed on the crown to his son with a better title. He is +buried under a fine tomb at Canterbury. + +By Mary Bohun Henry had four sons: his successor Henry V., Thomas, duke +of Clarence, John, duke of Bedford, and Humphrey, duke of Gloucester; +and two daughters, Blanche, who married Louis III., elector palatine of +the Rhine, and Philippa, who married Eric XIII., king of Sweden. Henry's +second wife was Joan, or Joanna, (c. 1370-1437), daughter of Charles the +Bad, king of Navarre, and widow of John IV. or V., duke of Brittany, who +survived until July 1437. By her he had no children. + + The chief contemporary authorities are the _Annales Henrici Quarti_ + and T. Walsingham's _Historia Anglicana_ (Rolls Series), Adam of Usk's + _Chronicle_ and the various _Chronicles of London_. The life by John + Capgrave (_De illustribus Henricis_) is of little value. Some personal + matter is contained in _Wardrobe Accounts of Henry, Earl of Derby_ + (Camden Soc.). For documents consult T. Rymer's _Foedera_; Sir N. H. + Nicolas, _Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council_; Sir H. + Ellis, _Original Letters illustrative of English History_ (London, + 1825-1846); _Rolls of Parliament_; _Royal and Historical Letters, + Henry IV._ (Rolls Series) and the _Calendars of Patent Rolls_. Of + modern authorities the foremost is J. H. Wylie's minute and learned + _Hist. of England under Henry IV._ (4 vols., London, 1884-1898). See + also W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_; Sir J. Ramsay, _Lancaster + and York_ (2 vols., Oxford, 1892), and C. W. C. Oman, _The Political + History of England_, vol. iv. (C. L. K.) + + + + +HENRY V. (1387-1422), king of England, son of Henry IV. by Mary de +Bohun, was born at Monmouth, in August 1387. On his father's exile in +1398 Richard II. took the boy into his own charge, and treated him +kindly. Next year the Lancastrian revolution forced Henry into +precocious prominence as heir to the throne. From October 1400 the +administration of Wales was conducted in his name; less than three years +later he was in actual command of the English forces and fought against +the Percies at Shrewsbury. The Welsh revolt absorbed his energies till +1408. Then through the king's ill-health he began to take a wider share +in politics. From January 1410, helped by his uncles Henry and Thomas +Beaufort, he had practical control of the government. Both in foreign +and domestic policy he differed from the king, who in November 1411 +discharged the prince from the council. The quarrel of father and son +was political only, though it is probable that the Beauforts had +discussed the abdication of Henry IV., and their opponents certainly +endeavoured to defame the prince. It may be that to political enmity the +tradition of Henry's riotous youth, immortalized by Shakespeare, is +partly due. To that tradition Henry's strenuous life in war and politics +is a sufficient general contradiction. The most famous incident, his +quarrel with the chief-justice, has no contemporary authority and was +first related by Sir Thomas Elyot in 1531. The story of Falstaff +originated partly in Henry's early friendship for Oldcastle (q.v.). That +friendship, and the prince's political opposition to Archbishop Arundel, +perhaps encouraged Lollard hopes. If so, their disappointment may +account for the statements of ecclesiastical writers, like Walsingham, +that Henry on becoming king was changed suddenly into a new man. + +Henry succeeded his father on the 20th of March 1413. With no past to +embarrass him, and with no dangerous rivals, his practical experience +had full scope. He had to deal with three main problems--the restoration +of domestic peace, the healing of schism in the Church and the recovery +of English prestige in Europe. Henry grasped them all together, and +gradually built upon them a yet wider policy. From the first he made it +clear that he would rule England as the head of a united nation, and +that past differences were to be forgotten. Richard II. was honourably +reinterred; the young Mortimer was taken into favour; the heirs of those +who had suffered in the last reign were restored gradually to their +titles and estates. With Oldcastle Henry used his personal influence in +vain, and the gravest domestic danger was Lollard discontent. But the +king's firmness nipped the movement in the bud (Jan. 1414), and made his +own position as ruler secure. Save for the abortive Scrope and Cambridge +plot in favour of Mortimer in July 1415, the rest of his reign was free +from serious trouble at home. Henry could now turn his attention to +foreign affairs. A writer of the next generation was the first to allege +that Henry was encouraged by ecclesiastical statesmen to enter on the +French war as a means of diverting attention from home troubles. For +this story there is no foundation. The restoration of domestic peace was +the king's first care, and until it was assured he could not embark on +any wider enterprise abroad. Nor was that enterprise one of idle +conquest. Old commercial disputes and the support which the French had +lent to Glendower gave a sufficient excuse for war, whilst the +disordered state of France afforded no security for peace. Henry may +have regarded the assertion of his own claims as part of his kingly +duty, but in any case a permanent settlement of the national quarrel was +essential to the success of his world policy. The campaign of 1415, with +its brilliant conclusion at Agincourt (October 25), was only the first +step. Two years of patient preparation followed. The command of the sea +was secured by driving the Genoese allies of the French out of the +Channel. A successful diplomacy detached the emperor Sigismund from +France, and by the Treaty of Canterbury paved the way to end the schism +in the Church. So in 1417 the war was renewed on a larger scale. Lower +Normandy was quickly conquered, Rouen cut off from Paris and besieged. +The French were paralysed by the disputes of Burgundians and Armagnacs. +Henry skilfully played them off one against the other, without relaxing +his warlike energy. In January 1419 Rouen fell. By August the English +were outside the walls of Paris. The intrigues of the French parties +culminated in the assassination of John of Burgundy by the dauphin's +partisans at Montereau (September 10, 1419). Philip, the new duke, and +the French court threw themselves into Henry's arms. After six months' +negotiation Henry was by the Treaty of Troyes recognized as heir and +regent of France, and on the 2nd of June 1420 married Catherine, the +king's daughter. He was now at the height of his power. His eventual +success in France seemed certain. He shared with Sigismund the credit of +having ended the Great Schism by obtaining the election of Pope Martin +V. All the states of western Europe were being brought within the web of +his diplomacy. The headship of Christendom was in his grasp, and +schemes for a new crusade began to take shape. He actually sent an envoy +to collect information in the East; but his plans were cut short by +death. A visit to England in 1421 was interrupted by the defeat of +Clarence at Bauge. The hardships of the longer winter siege of Meaux +broke down his health, and he died at Bois de Vincennes on the 31st of +August 1422. + +Henry's last words were a wish that he might live to rebuild the walls +of Jerusalem. They are significant. His ideal was founded consciously on +the models of Arthur and Godfrey as national king and leader of +Christendom. So he is the typical medieval hero. For that very reason +his schemes were doomed to end in disaster, since the time was come for +a new departure. Yet he was not reactionary. His policy was +constructive: a firm central government supported by parliament; church +reform on conservative lines; commercial development; and the +maintenance of national prestige. His aims in some respects anticipated +those of his Tudor successors, but he would have accomplished them on +medieval lines as a constitutional ruler. His success was due to the +power of his personality. He could train able lieutenants, but at his +death there was no one who could take his place as leader. War, +diplomacy and civil administration were all dependent on his guidance. +His dazzling achievements as a general have obscured his more sober +qualities as a ruler, and even the sound strategy, with which he aimed +to be master of the narrow seas. If he was not the founder of the +English navy he was one of the first to realize its true importance. +Henry had so high a sense of his own rights that he was merciless to +disloyalty. But he was scrupulous of the rights of others, and it was +his eager desire to further the cause of justice that impressed his +French contemporaries. He has been charged with cruelty as a religious +persecutor; but in fact he had as prince opposed the harsh policy of +Archbishop Arundel, and as king sanctioned a more moderate course. +Lollard executions during his reign had more often a political than a +religious reason. To be just with sternness was in his eyes a duty. So +in his warfare, though he kept strict discipline and allowed no wanton +violence, he treated severely all who had in his opinion transgressed. +In his personal conduct he was chaste, temperate and sincerely pious. He +delighted in sport and all manly exercises. At the same time he was +cultured, with a taste for literature, art and music. Henry lies buried +in Westminster Abbey. His tomb was stripped of its splendid adornment +during the Reformation. The shield, helmet and saddle, which formed part +of the original funeral equipment, still hang above it. + + Of original authorities the best on the English side is the _Gesta + Henrici Quinti_ (down to 1416), printed anonymously for the English + Historical Society, but probably written by Thomas Elmham, one of + Henry's chaplains. Two lives edited by Thomas Hearne under the names + of Elmham and Titus Livius Forojuliensis come from a common source; + the longer, which Hearne ascribed incorrectly to Elmham, is perhaps + the original work of Livius, who was an Italian in the service of + Humphrey of Gloucester, and wrote about 1440. Other authorities are + the Chronicles of Walsingham and Otterbourne, the _English Chronicle_ + or _Brut_, and the various _London Chronicles_. On the French side the + most valuable are Chronicles of Monstrelet and St Remy (both + Burgundian) and the _Chronique du religieux de S. Denys_ (the official + view of the French court). For documents and modern authorities see + under HENRY IV. See also Sir N. H. Nicolas, _Hist. of the Battle of + Agincourt and the Expedition of 1415_ (London, 1833); C. L. Kingsford, + _Henry V., the Typical Medieval Hero_ (New York, 1901), where a fuller + bibliography will be found. (C. L. K.) + + + + +HENRY VI. (1421-1471), king of England, son of Henry V. and Catherine of +Valois, was born at Windsor on the 6th of December 1421. He became king +of England on the 1st of September 1422, and a few weeks later, on the +death of his grandfather Charles VI., was proclaimed king of France +also. Henry V. had directed that Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick +(q.v.), should be his son's preceptor; Warwick took up his charge in +1428; he trained his pupil to be a good man and refined gentleman, but +he could not teach him kingship. As early as 1423 the baby king was made +to appear at public functions and take his place in parliament. He was +knighted by his uncle Bedford at Leicester in May 1426, and on the 6th +of November 1429 was crowned at Westminster. Early in the next year he +was taken over to France, and after long delay crowned in Paris on the +16th of December 1431. His return to London on the 14th of February 1432 +was celebrated with a great pageant devised by Lydgate. + +During these early years Bedford ruled France wisely and at first with +success, but he could not prevent the mischief which Humphrey of +Gloucester (q.v.) caused both at home and abroad. Even in France the +English lost ground steadily after the victory of Joan of Arc before +Orleans in 1429. The climax came with the death of Bedford, and +defection of Philip of Burgundy in 1435. This closed the first phase of +Henry's reign. There followed fifteen years of vain struggle in France, +and growing disorder at home. The determining factor in politics was the +conduct of the war. Cardinal Beaufort, and after him Suffolk, sought by +working for peace to secure at least Guienne and Normandy. Gloucester +courted popularity by opposing them throughout; with him was Richard of +York, who stood next in succession to the crown. Beaufort controlled the +council, and it was under his guidance that the king began to take part +in the government. Thus it was natural that as Henry grew to manhood he +seconded heartily the peace policy. That policy was wise, but national +pride made it unpopular and difficult. Henry himself had not the +strength or knowledge to direct it, and was unfortunate in his advisers. +The cardinal was old, his nephews John and Edmund Beaufort were +incompetent, Suffolk, though a man of noble character, was tactless. +Suffolk, however, achieved a great success by negotiating the marriage +of Henry to Margaret of Anjou (q.v.) in 1445. Humphrey of Gloucester and +Cardinal Beaufort both died early in 1447. Suffolk was now all-powerful +in the favour of the king and queen. But his home administration was +unpopular, whilst the incapacity of Edmund Beaufort ended in the loss of +all Normandy and Guienne. Suffolk's fall in 1450 left Richard of York +the foremost man in England. Henry's reign then entered on its last +phase of dynastic struggle. Cade's rebellion suggested first that +popular discontent might result in a change of rulers. But York, as heir +to the throne, could abide his time. The situation was altered by the +mental derangement of the king, and the birth of his son in 1453. York +after a struggle secured the protectorship, and for the next year ruled +England. Then Henry was restored to sanity, and the queen and Edmund +Beaufort, now Duke of Somerset, to power. Open war followed, with the +defeat and death of Somerset at St Albans on the 22nd of May 1455. +Nevertheless a hollow peace was patched up, which continued during four +years with lack of all governance. In 1459 war broke out again. On the +10th of July 1460 Henry was taken prisoner at Northampton, and forced to +acknowledge York as heir, to the exclusion of his own son. Richard of +York's death at Wakefield (Dec. 29, 1460), and the queen's victory at St +Albans (Feb. 17, 1461), brought Henry his freedom and no more. Edward of +York had himself proclaimed king, and by his decisive victory at Towton +on the 29th of March, put an end to Henry's reign. For over three years +Henry was a fugitive in Scotland. He returned to take part in an +abortive rising in 1464. A year later he was captured in the north, and +brought a prisoner to the Tower. For six months in 1470-1471 he emerged +to hold a shadowy kingship as Warwick's puppet. Edward's final victory +at Tewkesbury was followed by Henry's death on the 21st of May 1471, +certainly by violence, perhaps at the hands of Richard of Gloucester. + +Henry was the most hapless of monarchs. He was so honest and +well-meaning that he might have made a good ruler in quiet times. But he +was crushed by the burden of his inheritance. He had not the genius to +find a way out of the French entanglement or the skill to steer a +constitutional monarchy between rival factions. So the system and policy +which were the creations of Henry IV. and Henry V. led under Henry VI. +to the ruin of their dynasty. Henry's very virtues added to his +difficulties. He was so trusting that any one could influence him, so +faithful that he would not give up a minister who had become impossible. +Thus even in the middle period he had no real control of the government. +In his latter years he was mentally too weak for independent action. At +his best he was a "good and gentle creature," but too kindly and +generous to rule others. Religious observances and study were his chief +occupations. His piety was genuine; simple and pure, he was shocked at +any suggestion of impropriety, but his rebuke was only "Fie, for shame! +forsooth ye are to blame." For education he was really zealous. Even as +a boy he was concerned for the upbringing of his half-brothers, his +mother's children by Owen Tudor. Later, the planning of his great +foundations at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, was the one thing +which absorbed his interest. To both he was more than a royal founder, +and the credit of the whole scheme belongs to him. The charter for Eton +was granted on the 11th of October 1440, and that for King's College in +the following February. Henry himself laid the foundation-stones of both +buildings. He frequently visited Cambridge to superintend the progress +of the work. When at Windsor he loved to send for the boys from his +school and give them good advice. + +Henry's only son was Edward, prince of Wales (1453-1471), who, having +shared the many journeys and varying fortunes of his mother, Margaret, +was killed after the battle of Tewkesbury (May 4, 1471) by some noblemen +in attendance on Edward IV. + + There is a life of Henry by his chaplain John Blakman (printed at the + end of Hearne's edition of Otterbourne); but it is concerned only with + his piety and patience in adversity. English chronicles for the reign + are scanty; the best are the _Chronicles of London_ (ed. C. L. + Kingsford), with the analogous _Gregory's Chronicle_ (ed. J. Gairdner + for Camden Soc.) and _Chronicle of London_ (ed. Sir H. N. Nicolas). + _The Paston Letters_, with James Gairdner's valuable Introductions, + are indispensable. Other useful authorities are Joseph Stevenson's + _Letters and Papers illustrative of the Wars of the English in France + during the Reign of Henry VI._; and _Correspondence of T. Bekynton_ + (both in "Rolls" series). For the French war the chief sources are the + _Chronicles_ of Monstrelet, D'Escouchy and T. Basin. For other + documents and modern authorities see under HENRY IV. For Henry's + foundations see Sir H. C. Maxwell-Lyte, _History of Eton College_ + (London, 1899), and J. B. Mullinger, _History of the University of + Cambridge_ (London, 1888). (C. L. K.) + + + + +HENRY VII. (1457-1509), king of England, was the first of the Tudor +dynasty. His claim to the throne was through his mother from John of +Gaunt and Catherine Swynford, whose issue born before their marriage had +been legitimated by parliament. This, of course, was only a Lancastrian +claim, never valid, even as such, till the direct male line of John of +Gaunt had become extinct. By his father the genealogists traced his +pedigree to Cadwallader, but this only endeared him to the Welsh when he +had actually become king. His grandfather, Owen Tudor, however, had +married Catherine, the widow of Henry V. and daughter to Charles VI. of +France. Their son Edmund, being half brother of Henry VI., was created +by that king earl of Richmond, and having married Margaret Beaufort, +only daughter of John, duke of Somerset, died more than two months +before their only child, Henry, was born in Pembroke Castle in January +1457. The fatherless child had sore trials. Edward IV. won the crown +when he was four years old, and while Wales partly held out against the +conqueror, he was carried for safety from one castle to another. Then +for a time he was made a prisoner; but ultimately he was taken abroad by +his uncle Jasper, who found refuge in Brittany. At one time the duke of +Brittany was nearly induced to surrender him to Edward IV.; but he +remained safe in the duchy till the cruelties of Richard III. drove more +and more Englishmen abroad to join him. An invasion of England was +planned in 1483 in concert with the duke of Buckingham's rising; but +stormy weather at sea and an inundation in the Severn defeated the two +movements. A second expedition, two years later, aided this time by +France, was more successful. Henry landed at Milford Haven among his +Welsh allies and defeated Richard at the battle of Bosworth (August 22, +1485). He was crowned at Westminster on the 30th of October following. +Then, in fulfilment of pledges by which he had procured the adhesion of +many Yorkist supporters, he was married at Westminster to Elizabeth +(1465-1503), eldest daughter and heiress of Edward IV. (Jan. 18, 1486), +whose two brothers had both been murdered by Richard III. Thus the Red +and White Roses were united and the pretexts for civil war done away +with. + +Nevertheless, Henry's reign was much disturbed by a succession of +Yorkist conspiracies and pretenders. Of the two most notable impostors, +the first, Lambert Simnel, personated the earl of Warwick, son of the +duke of Clarence, a youth of seventeen whom Henry had at his accession +taken care to imprison in the Tower. Simnel, who was but a boy, was +taken over to Ireland to perform his part, and the farce was wonderfully +successful. He was crowned as Edward VI. in Christchurch Cathedral, +Dublin, and received the allegiance of every one--bishops, nobles and +judges, alike with others. From Ireland, accompanied by some bands of +German mercenaries procured for him in the Low Countries, he invaded +England; but the rising was put down at Stoke near Newark in +Nottinghamshire, and, Simnel being captured, the king made him a menial +of his kitchen. + +This movement had been greatly assisted by Margaret, duchess dowager of +Burgundy, sister of Edward IV., who could not endure to see the House of +York supplanted by that of Tudor. The second pretender, Perkin Warbeck, +was also much indebted to her support; but he seems to have entered on +his career at first without it. And his story, which was more prolonged, +had to do with the attitude of many countries towards England. Anxious +as Henry was to avoid being involved in foreign wars, it was not many +years before he was committed to a war with France, partly by his desire +of an alliance with Spain, and partly by the indignation of his own +subjects at the way in which the French were undermining the +independence of Brittany. Henry gave Brittany defensive aid; but after +the duchess Anne had married Charles VIII. of France, he felt bound to +fulfil his obligations to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and also to +the German king Maximilian, by an invasion of France in 1492. His +allies, however, were not equally scrupulous or equally able to fulfil +their obligations to him; and after besieging Boulogne for some little +time, he received very advantageous offers from the French king and made +peace with him. + +Now Perkin Warbeck had first appeared in Ireland in 1491, and had +somehow been persuaded there to personate Richard, duke of York, the +younger of the two princes murdered in the Tower, pretending that he had +escaped, though his brother had been killed. Charles VIII., then +expecting war with England, called him to France, recognized his +pretensions and gave him a retinue; but after the peace he dismissed +him. Then Margaret of Burgundy received him as her nephew, and +Maximilian, now estranged from Henry, recognized him as king of England. +With a fleet given him by Maximilian he attempted to land at Deal, but +sailed away to Ireland and, not succeeding very well there either, +sailed farther to Scotland, where James IV. received him with open arms, +married him to an earl's daughter and made a brief and futile invasion +of England along with him. But in 1497 he thought best to dismiss him, +and Perkin, after attempting something again in Ireland, landed in +Cornwall with a small body of men. + +Already Cornwall had risen in insurrection that year, not liking the +taxation imposed for the purpose of repelling the Scotch invasion. A +host of the country people, led first by a blacksmith, but afterwards by +a nobleman, marched up towards London and were only defeated at +Blackheath. But the Cornishmen were quite ready for another revolt, and +indeed had invited Perkin to their shores. He had little fight in him, +however, and after a futile siege of Exeter and an advance to Taunton he +stole away and took sanctuary at Beaulieu in Hampshire. But, being +assured of his life, he surrendered, was brought to London, and was only +executed two years later, when, being imprisoned near the earl of +Warwick in the Tower, he inveigled that simple-minded youth into a +project of escape. For this Warwick, too, was tried, condemned and +executed--no doubt to deliver Henry from repeated conspiracies in his +favour. + +Henry had by this time several children, of whom the eldest, Arthur, had +been proposed in infancy for a bridegroom to Catherine, daughter of +Ferdinand of Aragon. The match had always been kept in view, but its +completion depended greatly on the assurance Ferdinand and Isabella +could feel of Henry's secure position upon the throne. At last Catherine +was brought to England and was married to Prince Arthur at St Paul's on +the 14th of November 1501. The lad was just over fifteen and the +co-habitation of the couple was wisely delayed; but he died on the 2nd +of April following. Another match was presently proposed for Catherine +with the king's second son, Henry, which only took effect when the +latter had become king himself. Meanwhile Henry's eldest daughter +Margaret was married to James IV. of Scotland--a match distinctly +intended to promote international peace, and make possible that ultimate +union which actually resulted from it. The espousals had taken place at +Richmond in 1502, and the marriage was celebrated in Scotland the year +after. In the interval between these two events Henry lost his queen, +who died on the 11th of February 1503, and during the remainder of his +reign he made proposals in various quarters for a second +marriage--proposals in which political objects were always the chief +consideration; but none of them led to any result. In his latter years +he became unpopular from the extortions practised by his two +instruments, Empson and Dudley, under the authority of antiquated +statutes. From the beginning of his reign he had been accumulating +money, mainly for his own security against intrigues and conspiracies, +and avarice had grown upon him with success. He died in April 1509, +undoubtedly the richest prince in Christendom. He was not a niggard, +however, in his expenditure. Before his death he had finished the +hospital of the Savoy and made provision for the magnificent chapel at +Westminster which bears his name. His money-getting was but part of his +statesmanship, and for his statesmanship his country owes him not a +little gratitude. He not only terminated a disastrous civil war and +brought under control the spirit of ancient feudalism, but with a clear +survey of the conditions of foreign powers he secured England in almost +uninterrupted peace while he developed her commerce, strengthened her +slender navy and built, apparently for the first time, a naval dock at +Portsmouth. + +In addition to his sons Arthur and Henry, Henry VII. had several +daughters, one of whom, Margaret, married James IV., king of Scotland, +and another, Mary, became the wife of Louis XII. of France, and +afterwards of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk. + + The popular view of Henry VII.'s reign has always been derived from + Bacon's _History_ of that king. This has been edited by J. R. Lumby + (Cambridge, 1881). But during the last half century large accessions + to our knowledge have been made from foreign and domestic archives, + and the sources of Bacon's work have been more critically examined. + For a complete account of those sources the reader may be referred to + W. Busch's _England under the Tudors_, published in German in 1892 and + in an English translation in 1895. Some further information of a + special kind will be found in M. Oppenheim's _Naval Accounts and + Inventories_, published by the Navy Records Society in 1896. See also + J. Gairdner's _Henry VII._ (1889). (J. Ga.) + + + + +HENRY VIII. (1491-1547), king of England and Ireland, the third child +and second son of Henry VII. and Elizabeth of York, was born on the 28th +of June 1491 and, like all the Tudor sovereigns except Henry VII., at +Greenwich. His two brothers, Prince Arthur and Edmund, duke of Somerset, +and two of his sisters predeceased their father; Henry was the only son, +and Margaret, afterwards queen of Scotland, and Mary, afterwards queen +of France and duchess of Suffolk, were the only daughters who survived. +Henry is said, on authority which has not been traced farther back than +Paolo Sarpi, to have been destined for the church; but the story is +probably a mere surmise from his theological accomplishments, and from +his earliest years high secular posts such as the viceroyalty of Ireland +were conferred upon the child. He was the first English monarch to be +educated under the influence of the Renaissance, and his tutors included +the poet Skelton; he became an accomplished scholar, linguist, musician +and athlete, and when by the death of his brother Arthur in 1502 and of +his father on the 22nd of April 1509 Henry VIII. succeeded to the +throne, his accession was hailed with universal acclamation. + +He had been betrothed to his brother's widow Catherine of Aragon, and in +spite of the protest which he had been made to register against the +marriage, and of the doubts expressed by Julius II. and Archbishop +Warham as to its validity, it was completed in the first few months of +his reign. This step was largely due to the pressure brought to bear by +Catherine's father Ferdinand upon Henry's council; he regarded England +as a tool in his hands and Catherine as his resident ambassador. The +young king himself at first took little interest in politics, and for +two years affairs were managed by the pacific Richard Fox (q.v.) and +Warham. Then Wolsey became supreme, while Henry was immersed in the +pursuit of sport and other amusements. He took, however, the keenest +interest from the first in learning and in the navy, and his inborn +pride easily led him to support Wolsey's and Ferdinand's warlike designs +on France. He followed an English army across the Channel in 1513, and +personally took part in the successful sieges of Therouanne and Tournay +and the battle of Guinegate which led to the peace of 1514. Ferdinand, +however, deserted the English alliance, and amid the consequent +irritation against everything Spanish, there was talk of a divorce +between Henry and Catherine (1514), whose issue had hitherto been +attended with fatal misfortune. But the renewed antagonism between +England and France which followed the accession of Francis I. (1515) led +to a rapprochement with Ferdinand; the birth of the lady Mary (1516) +held out hopes of the male issue which Henry so much desired; and the +question of a divorce was postponed. Ferdinand died in that year (1516) +and the emperor Maximilian in 1519. Their grandson Charles V. succeeded +them both in all their realms and dignities in spite of Henry's hardly +serious candidature for the empire; and a lifelong rivalry broke out +between him and Francis I. Wolsey used this antagonism to make England +arbiter between them; and both monarchs sought England's favour in 1520, +Francis at the Field of Cloth of Gold and Charles V. more quietly in +Kent. At the conference of Calais in 1521 English influence reached its +zenith; but the alliance with Charles destroyed the balance on which +that influence depended. Francis was overweighted, and his defeat at +Pavia in 1525 made the emperor supreme. Feeble efforts to challenge his +power in Italy provoked the sack of Rome in 1527; and the peace of +Cambrai in 1529 was made without any reference to Wolsey or England's +interests. + +Meanwhile Henry had been developing a serious interest in politics, and +he could brook no superior in whatever sphere he wished to shine. He +began to adopt a more critical attitude towards Wolsey's policy, foreign +and domestic; and to give ear to the murmurs against the cardinal and +his ecclesiastical rule. Parliament had been kept at arm's length since +1515 lest it should attack the church; but Wolsey's expensive foreign +policy rendered recourse to parliamentary subsidies indispensable. When +it met in 1523 it refused Wolsey's demands, and forced loans were the +result which increased the cardinal's unpopularity. Nor did success +abroad now blunt the edge of domestic discontent. His fate, however, was +sealed by his failure to obtain a divorce for Henry from the papal +court. The king's hopes of male issue had been disappointed, and by 1526 +it was fairly certain that Henry could have no male heir to the throne +while Catherine remained his wife. There was Mary, but no queen regnant +had yet ruled in England; Margaret Beaufort had been passed over in +favour of her son in 1485, and there was a popular impression that women +were excluded from the throne. No candidate living could have secured +the succession without a recurrence of civil war. Moreover the +unexampled fatality which had attended Henry's issue revived the +theological scruples which had always existed about the marriage; and +the breach with Charles V. in 1527 provoked a renewal of the design of +1514. All these considerations were magnified by Henry's passion for +Anne Boleyn, though she certainly was not the sole or the main cause of +the divorce. That the succession was the main point is proved by the +fact that Henry's efforts were all directed to securing a wife and not a +mistress. Wolsey persuaded him that the necessary divorce could be +obtained from Rome, as it had been in the case of Louis XII. of France +and Margaret of Scotland. For a time Clement VII. was inclined to +concede the demand, and Campeggio in 1528 was given ample powers. But +the prospect of French success in Italy which had encouraged the pope +proved delusive, and in 1529 he had to submit to the yoke of Charles V. +This involved a rejection of Henry's suit, not because Charles cared +anything for his aunt, but because a divorce would mean disinheriting +Charles's cousin Mary, and perhaps the eventual succession of the son of +a French princess to the English throne. + +Wolsey fell when Campeggio was recalled, and his fall involved the +triumph of the anti-ecclesiastical party in England. Laymen who had +resented their exclusion from power were now promoted to offices such as +those of lord chancellor and lord privy seal which they had rarely held +before; and parliament was encouraged to propound lay grievances against +the church. On the support of the laity Henry relied to abolish papal +jurisdiction and reduce clerical privilege and property in England; and +by a close alliance with Francis I. he insured himself against the +enmity of Charles V. But it was only gradually that the breach was +completed with Rome. Henry had defended the papacy against Luther in +1521 and had received in return the title "defender of the faith." He +never liked Protestantism, and he was prepared for peace with Rome on +his own terms. Those terms were impossible of acceptance by a pope in +Clement VII.'s position; but before Clement had made up his mind to +reject them, Henry had discovered that the papacy was hardly worth +conciliating. His eyes were opened to the extent of his own power as the +exponent of national antipathy to papal jurisdiction and ecclesiastical +privilege; and his appetite for power grew. With Cromwell's help he +secured parliamentary support, and its usefulness led him to extend +parliamentary representation to Wales and Calais, to defend the +privileges of Parliament, and to yield rather than forfeit its +confidence. He had little difficulty in securing the Acts of Annates, +Appeals and Supremacy which completed the separation from Rome, or the +dissolution of the monasteries which, by transferring enormous wealth +from the church to the crown, really, in Cecil's opinion, ensured the +reformation. + +The abolition of the papal jurisdiction removed all obstacles to the +divorce from Catherine and to the legalization of Henry's marriage with +Anne Boleyn (1533). But the recognition of the royal supremacy could +only be enforced at the cost of the heads of Sir Thomas More, Bishop +Fisher and a number of monks and others among whom the Carthusians +signalized themselves by their devotion (1535-1536). Anne Boleyn fared +no better than the Catholic martyrs; she failed to produce a male heir +to the throne, and her conduct afforded a jury of peers, over which her +uncle, the duke of Norfolk, presided, sufficient excuse for condemning +her to death on a charge of adultery (1536). Henry then married Jane +Seymour, who was obnoxious to no one, gave birth to Edward VI., and then +died (1537). The dissolution of the monasteries had meanwhile evoked a +popular protest in the north, and it was only by skilful and +unscrupulous diplomacy that Henry was enabled to suppress so easily the +Pilgrimage of Grace. Foreign intervention was avoided through the +renewal of war between Francis and Charles; and the insurgents were +hampered by having no rival candidate for the throne and no means of +securing the execution of their programme. + +Nevertheless their rising warned Henry against further doctrinal change. +He had authorized the English Bible and some approach towards Protestant +doctrine in the Ten Articles. He also considered the possibility of a +political and theological alliance with the Lutheran princes of Germany. +But in 1538 he definitely rejected their theological terms, while in +1539-1540 they rejected his political proposals. By the statute of Six +Articles (1539) he took his stand on Catholic doctrine; and when the +Lutherans had rejected his alliance, and Cromwell's nominee, Anne of +Cleves, had proved both distasteful on personal grounds and unnecessary +because Charles and Francis were not really projecting a Catholic +crusade against England, Anne was divorced and Cromwell beheaded. The +new queen Catherine Howard represented the triumph of the reactionary +party under Gardiner and Norfolk; but there was no idea of returning to +the papal obedience, and even Catholic orthodoxy as represented by the +Six Articles was only enforced by spasmodic outbursts of persecution and +vain attempts to get rid of Cranmer. + +The secular importance of Henry's activity has been somewhat obscured by +his achievements in the sphere of ecclesiastical politics; but no small +part of his energies was devoted to the task of expanding the royal +authority at the expense of temporal competitors. Feudalism was not yet +dead, and in the north and west there were medieval franchises in which +the royal writ and common law hardly ran at all. Wales and its marches +were brought into legal union with the rest of England by the statutes +of Wales (1534-1536); and after the Pilgrimage of Grace the Council of +the North was set up to bring into subjection the extensive +jurisdictions of the northern earls. Neither they nor the lesser chiefs +who flourished on the lack of common law and order could be reduced by +ordinary methods, and the Councils of Wales and of the North were given +summary powers derived from the Roman civil law similar to those +exercised by the Star Chamber at Westminster and the court of Castle +Chamber at Dublin. Ireland had been left by Wolsey to wallow in its own +disorder; but disorder was anathema to Henry's mind, and in 1535 Sir +William Skeffington was sent to apply English methods and artillery to +the government of Ireland. Sir Anthony St Leger continued his policy +from 1540; Henry, instead of being merely lord of Ireland dependent on +the pope, was made by an Irish act of parliament king, and supreme head +of the Irish church. Conciliation was also tried with some success; +plantation schemes were rejected in favour of an attempt to Anglicize +the Irish; their chieftains were created earls and endowed with monastic +lands; and so peaceful was Ireland in 1542 that the lord-deputy could +send Irish kernes and gallowglasses to fight against the Scots. + +Henry, however, seems to have believed as much in the coercion of +Scotland as in the conciliation of Ireland. Margaret Tudor's marriage +had not reconciled the realms; and as soon as James V. became a possible +pawn in the hands of Charles V., Henry bethought himself of his old +claims to suzerainty over Scotland. At first he was willing to +subordinate them to an attempt to win over Scotland to his anti-papal +policy, and he made various efforts to bring about an interview with his +nephew. But James V. was held aloof by Beaton and two French marriages; +and France was alarmed by Henry's growing friendliness with Charles V., +who was mollified by his cousin Mary's restoration to her place in the +succession to the throne. In 1542 James madly sent a Scottish army to +ruin at Solway Moss; his death a few weeks later left the Scottish +throne to his infant daughter Mary Stuart, and Henry set to work to +secure her hand for his son Edward and the recognition of his own +suzerainty. A treaty was signed with the Scottish estates; but it was +torn up a few months later under the influence of Beaton and the +queen-dowager Mary of Guise, and Hertford was sent in 1544 to punish +this breach of promise by sacking Edinburgh. + +Perhaps to prevent French intervention in Scotland Henry joined Charles +V. in invading France, and captured Boulogne (Sept. 1544). But Charles +left his ally in the lurch and concluded the peace of Crepy that same +month; and in 1545 Henry had to face alone a French invasion of the Isle +of Wight. This attack proved abortive, and peace between England and +France was made in 1546. Charles V.'s desertion inclined Henry to listen +to the proposals of the threatened Lutheran princes, and the last two +years of his reign were marked by a renewed tendency to advance in a +Protestant direction. Catherine Howard had been brought to the block +(1542) on charges in which there was probably a good deal of truth, and +her successor, Catherine Parr, was a patroness of the new learning. An +act of 1545 dissolved chantries, colleges and other religious +foundations; and in the autumn of 1546 the Spanish ambassador was +anticipating further anti-ecclesiastical measures. Gardiner had almost +been sent to the Tower, and Norfolk and Surrey were condemned to death, +while Cranmer asserted that it was Henry's intention to convert the mass +into a communion service. An opportunist to the last, he would readily +have sacrificed any theological convictions he may have had in the +interests of national uniformity. He died on the 28th of January 1547, +and was buried in St George's Chapel, Windsor. + +The atrocity of many of Henry's acts, the novelty and success of his +religious policy, the apparent despotism of his methods, or all +combined, have made it difficult to estimate calmly the importance of +Henry's work or the conditions which made it possible. Henry's egotism +was profound, and personal motives underlay his public action. While +political and ecclesiastical conditions made the breach with Rome +possible--and in the view of most Englishmen desirable--Henry VIII. was +led to adopt the policy by private considerations. He worked for the +good of the state because he thought his interests were bound up with +those of the nation; and it was the real coincidence of this private and +public point of view that made it possible for so selfish a man to +achieve so much for his country. The royal supremacy over the church and +the means by which it was enforced were harsh and violent expedients; +but it was of the highest importance that England should be saved from +religious civil war, and it could only be saved by a despotic +government. It was necessary for the future development of England that +its governmental system should be centralized and unified, that the +authority of the monarchy should be more firmly extended over Wales and +the western and northern borders, and that the still existing feudal +franchises should be crushed; and these objects were worth the price +paid in the methods of the Star Chamber and of the Councils of the North +and of Wales. Henry's work on the navy requires no apology; without it +Elizabeth's victory over the Spanish Armada, the liberation of the +Netherlands and the development of English colonies would have been +impossible; and "of all others the year 1545 best marks the birth of the +English naval power" (Corbett, _Drake_, i. 59). His judgment was more at +fault when he conquered Boulogne and sought by violence to bring +Scotland into union with England. But at least Henry appreciated the +necessity of union within the British Isles; and his work in Ireland +relaid the foundations of English rule. No less important was his +development of the parliamentary system. Representation was extended to +Wales, Cheshire, Berwick and Calais; and parliamentary authority was +enhanced, largely that it might deal with the church, until men began to +complain of this new parliamentary infallibility. The privileges of the +two Houses were encouraged and expanded, and parliament was led to +exercise ever wider powers. This policy was not due to any belief on +Henry's part in parliamentary government, but to opportunism, to the +circumstance that parliament was willing to do most of the things which +Henry desired, while competing authorities, the church and the old +nobility, were not. Nevertheless, to the encouragement given by Henry +VIII. parliament owed not a little of its future growth, and to the aid +rendered by parliament Henry owed his success. + +He has been described as a "despot under the forms of law"; and it is +apparently true that he committed no illegal act. His despotism consists +not in any attempt to rule unconstitutionally, but in the extraordinary +degree to which he was able to use constitutional means in the +furtherance of his own personal ends. His industry, his remarkable +political insight, his lack of scruple, and his combined strength of +will and subtlety of intellect enabled him to utilize all the forces +which tended at that time towards strong government throughout western +Europe. In Michelet's words, "le nouveau Messie est le roi"; and the +monarchy alone seemed capable of guiding the state through the social +and political anarchy which threatened all nations in their transition +from medieval to modern organization. The king was the emblem, the focus +and the bond of national unity; and to preserve it men were ready to put +up with vagaries which to other ages seem intolerable. Henry could thus +behead ministers and divorce wives with comparative impunity, because +the individual appeared to be of little importance compared with the +state. This impunity provoked a licence which is responsible for the +unlovely features of Henry's reign and character. The elevation and the +isolation of his position fostered a detachment from ordinary virtues +and compassion, and he was a remorseless incarnation of Machiavelli's +_Prince_. He had an elastic conscience which was always at the beck and +call of his desire, and he cared little for principle. But he had a +passion for efficiency, and for the greatness of England and himself. +His mind, in spite of its clinging to the outward forms of the old +faith, was intensely secular; and he was as devoid of a moral sense as +he was of a genuine religious temperament. His greatness consists in his +practical aptitude, in his political perception, and in the +self-restraint which enabled him to confine within limits tolerable to +his people an insatiable appetite for power. + + The original materials for Henry VIII.'s biography are practically all + incorporated in the monumental _Letters and Papers of the Reign of + Henry VIII._ (21 vols.), edited by Brewer and Gairdner and completed + after fifty years' labour in 1910. A few further details may be + gleaned from such contemporary sources as Hall's _Chronicle_, + Cavendish's _Life of Wolsey_, W. Thomas's _The Pilgrim_ and others; + and some additions have been made to the documentary sources contained + in the _Letters and Papers_ by recent works, such as Ehses' _Romische + Dokumente_, and Merriman's _Life and Letters of Thomas Cromwell_. Lord + Herbert of Cherbury's _Life and Reign of Henry VIII._ (1649), while + good for its time, is based upon a very partial knowledge of the + sources and somewhat antiquated principles of historical scholarship. + Froude's famous portraiture of Henry is coloured by the ideas of + hero-worship and history which the author imbibed from Carlyle, and + the rival portraits in Lingard, R. W. Dixon's _Church History_ and + Gasquet's _Henry VIII. and the Monasteries_ by strong religious + feeling. A more discriminating estimate is attempted by H. A. L. + Fisher in Messrs Longmans' _Political History of England_, vol. v. + (1906). Of the numerous paintings of Henry none is by Holbein, who, + however, executed the striking chalk-drawing of Henry's head, now at + Munich, and the famous but decaying cartoon at Devonshire House. The + well-known three-quarter length at Windsor, usually attributed to + Holbein, is by an inferior artist. The best collection of Henry's + portraits was exhibited at the Burlington Fine Arts Club in 1909, and + the catalogue of that exhibition contains the best description of + them; several are reproduced in Pollard's _Henry VIII._ (Goupil) + (1902), the letterpress of which was published by Longmans in a + cheaper edition (1905). Henry composed numerous state papers still + extant; his only book was his _Assertio septem sacramentorum contra M. + Lutherum_ (1521), a copy of which, signed by Henry himself, is at + Windsor. Several anthems composed by him are extant; and one at least, + _O Lord, the Maker of all Things_, is still occasionally rendered in + English cathedrals. (A. F. P.) + + + + +HENRY I. (1214-1217), king of Castile, son of Alphonso VIII. of Castile, +and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine, daughter of Henry II. of England, +after whom he was named, was born about 1207. He was killed, while still +a boy, by the fall of a tile from a roof. + +HENRY II. of Trastamara (1369-1379), king of Castile, founder of the +dynasty known as "the new kings," was the eldest son of Alphonso XI. and +of his mistress Leonora de Guzman. He was born in 1333. His father +endowed him with great lordships in northern Spain, and made him count +of Trastamara. After the death of Alphonso XI. in 1350, Leonora was +murdered to satisfy the revenge of the king's neglected wife. Several of +the numerous children she had borne to Alphonso were slain at different +times by Peter the Cruel, the king's legitimate son and successor. Henry +preserved his life by submissions and by keeping out of the king's way. +At last, after taking part in several internal commotions, he fled to +France in 1356. In 1366 he persuaded the mercenary soldiers paid off by +the kings of England and France to accompany him on an expedition to +upset Peter, who was driven out. The Black Prince having intervened on +behalf of Peter, Henry was defeated at Najera (3rd of April 1367) and +had again to flee to Aragon. When the Black Prince was told that "the +Bastard" had neither been slain nor taken, he said that nothing had been +done. And so it turned out; for, when the Black Prince had left Spain, +Henry came back with a body of French soldiers of fortune under du +Guesclin, and drove his brother into the castle of Montiel in La Mancha. +Peter was tempted out by du Guesclin, and the half brothers met in the +Frenchman's tent. They rushed at one another, and Peter, the stronger +man, threw Henry down, and fell on him. One of Henry's pages seized the +king by the leg and threw him on his back. Henry then pulled up Peter's +hauberk and stabbed him mortally in the stomach, on the 23rd of March +1369. He reigned for ten years, with some success both in pacifying the +kingdom and in war with Portugal. But as his title was disputed he was +compelled to purchase support by vast grants to the nobles and +concessions to the cities, by which he gained the title of _El de las +Mercedes_--he of the largesse. Henry was a strong ally of the French +king in his wars with the English, who supported the claims of Peter's +natural daughters. He died on the 30th of May 1379. + +HENRY III. (1390-1406) king of Castile, called _El Doliente_, the +Sufferer, was the son of John I. of Castile and Leon, and of his wife +Beatrice, daughter of Ferdinand of Portugal. He was born in 1379. The +period of minority was exceptionally anarchical, even for Castile, but +as the cities, always the best supporters of the royal authority, were +growing in strength, Henry was able to reduce his kingdom to obedience, +and, when he took the government into his own hands after 1393, to +compel his nobles with comparative ease to surrender the crown lands +they had seized. The meeting of the Cortes summoned by him at Madrid in +1394 marked a great epoch in the establishment of a practically despotic +royal authority, based on the consent of the commons, who looked to the +crown to protect them against the excesses of the nobles. Henry +strengthened his position still further by his marriage with Catherine, +daughter of John of Gaunt and of Constance, elder daughter of Peter the +Cruel and Maria de Padilla. This union combined the rival claims of the +descendants of Peter and of Henry of Trastamara. The king's bodily +weakness limited his real capacity, and his early death on the 25th of +December 1406 cut short the promise of his reign. + +HENRY IV. (1453-1474), king of Castile, surnamed the Impotent, or the +Spendthrift, was the son of John II. of Castile and Leon, and of his +wife, Mary, daughter of Ferdinand I. of Aragon and Sicily. He was born +at Valladolid on the 6th of January 1425. The surnames given to this +king by his subjects are of much more than usual accuracy. His personal +character was one of mere weakness, bodily and mental. Henry was an +undutiful son, and his reign was one long period of confusion, marked by +incidents of the most ignominious kind. He divorced his first wife +Blanche of Navarre in 1453 on the ground of "mutual impotence." Yet in +1468 he married Joan of Portugal, and when she bore a daughter, first +repudiated her as adulterine, and then claimed her for his own. In 1468 +he was solemnly deposed in favour of his brother Alphonso, on whose +death in the same year his authority was again recognized. The last +years of his life were spent in vain endeavours, first to force his +half-sister Isabella, afterwards queen, to marry his favourite, the +Master of Santiago, and then to exclude her from the throne. Henry died +at Madrid on the 12th of December 1474. + + + + +HENRY I. (1008-1060), king of France, son of King Robert and his queen, +Constance of Aquitaine, and grandson of Hugh Capet, came to the throne +upon the death of his father in 1031, although in 1027 he had been +anointed king at Reims and associated in the government with his father. +His mother, who favoured her younger son Robert, and had retired from +court upon Henry's coronation, formed a powerful league against him, and +he was forced to take refuge with Robert II., duke of Normandy. In the +civil war which resulted, Henry was able to break up the league of his +opponents in 1032. Constance died in 1034, and the rebel brother Robert +was given the duchy of Burgundy, thus founding that great collateral +line which was to rival the kings of France for three centuries. Henry +atoned for this by a reign marked by unceasing struggle against the +great barons. From 1033 to 1043 he was involved in a life and death +contest with those nobles whose territory adjoined the royal domains, +especially with the great house of Blois, whose count, Odo II., had been +the centre of the league of Constance, and with the counts of Champagne. +Henry's success in these wars was largely due to the help given him by +Robert of Normandy, but upon the accession of Robert's son William (the +Conqueror), Normandy itself became the chief danger. From 1047 to the +year of his death, Henry was almost constantly at war with William, who +held his own against the king's formidable leagues and beat back two +royal invasions, in 1055 and 1058. Henry's reign marks the height of +feudalism. The Normans were independent of him, with their frontier +barely 25 m. west of Paris; to the south his authority was really +bounded by the Loire; in the east the count of Champagne was little more +than nominally his subject, and the duchy of Burgundy was almost +entirely cut off from the king. Yet Henry maintained the independence of +the clergy against the pope Leo IX., and claimed Lorraine from the +emperor Henry III. In an interview at Ivois, he reproached the emperor +with the violation of promises, and Henry III. challenged him to a +single combat. According to the German chronicle--which French +historians doubt--the king of France declined the combat and fled from +Ivois during the night. In 1059 he had his eldest son Philip crowned as +joint king, and died the following year. Henry's first wife was Maud, +niece of the emperor Henry III., whom he married in 1043. She died +childless in 1044. Historians have sometimes confused her with Maud (or +Matilda), the emperor Conrad II.'s daughter, to whom Henry was affianced +in 1033, but who died before the marriage. In 1051 Henry married the +Russian princess Anne, daughter of Yaroslav I., grand duke of Kiev. She +bore him two sons, Philip, his successor, and Hugh the great, count of +Vermandois. + + See the _Historiae_ of Rudolph Glaber, edited by M. Prou (Paris, + 1886); F. Sochnee, _Catalogue des actes d'Henri I^er_ (1907); de Caiz + de Saint Aymour, _Anne de Russie, reine de France_ (1896); E. Lavisse, + _Histoire de France_, tome ii. (1901), and the article on Henry I. in + _La Grande Encyclopedie_ by M. Prou. + + + + +HENRY II. (1519-1559), king of France, the second son of Francis I. and +Claude, succeeded to the throne in 1547. When only seven years old he +was sent by his father, with his brother the dauphin Francis, as a +hostage to Spain in 1526, whence they returned after the conclusion of +the peace of Cambrai in 1530. Henry was too young to have carried away +any abiding impressions, yet throughout his life his character, dress +and bearing were far more Spanish than French. In 1533 his father +married him to Catherine de' Medici, from which match, as he said, +Francis hoped to gain great advantage, even though it might be somewhat +of a misalliance. In 1536 Henry, hitherto duke of Orleans, became +dauphin by the death of his elder brother Francis. From that time he was +under the influence of two personages, who dominated him completely for +the remainder of his life--Diane de Poitiers, his mistress, and Anne de +Montmorency, his mentor. Moreover, his younger brother, Charles of +Orleans, who was of a more sprightly temperament, was his father's +favourite; and the rivalry of Diane and the duchesse d'Etampes helped to +make still wider the breach between the king and the dauphin. Henry +supported the constable Montmorency when he was disgraced in 1541; +protested against the treaty of Crepy in 1544; and at the end of the +reign held himself completely aloof. His accession in 1547 gave rise to +a veritable revolution at the court. Diane, Montmorency and the Guises +were all-powerful, and dismissed Cardinal de Tournon, de Longueval, the +duchesse d'Etampes and all the late king's friends and officials. At +that time Henry was twenty-eight years old. He was a robust man, and +inherited his father's love of violent exercise; but his character was +weak and his intelligence mediocre, and he had none of the superficial +and brilliant gifts of Francis I. He was cold, haughty, melancholy and +dull. He was a bigoted Catholic, and showed to the Protestants even less +mercy than his father. During his reign the royal authority became more +severe and more absolute than ever. Resistance to the financial +extortions of the government was cruelly chastised, and the "Chambre +Ardente" was instituted against the Reformers. Abroad, the struggle was +continued against Charles V. and Philip II., which ended in the +much-discussed treaty of Cateau-Cambresis. Some weeks afterwards high +feast was held on the occasion of the double marriage of the king's +daughter Elizabeth with the king of Spain, and of his sister Margaret +with the duke of Savoy. On the 30th of June 1559, when tilting with the +count of Montgomery, Henry was wounded in the temple by a lance. In +spite of the attentions of Ambroise Pare he died on the 10th of July. By +his wife Catherine de' Medici he had seven children living: Elizabeth, +queen of Spain; Claude, duchess of Lorraine; Francis (II), Charles +(IX.) and Henry (III.), all of whom came to the throne; Marguerite, who +became queen of Navarre in 1572; and Francis, duke of Alencon and +afterwards of Anjou, who died in 1584. + + The bulk of the documents for the reign of Henry II. are unpublished, + and are in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. Of the published + documents, see especially the correspondence of Catherine de' Medici + (ed. by de la Ferriere, Paris, 1880), of Diane de Poitiers (ed. by + Guiffrey, Paris, 1866), of Antoine de Bourbon and Jeanne d'Albret (ed. + by Rochambeau, Paris, 1877), of Odet de Selve, ambassador to England + (ed. by Lefevre-Pontalis, Paris, 1888) and of Dominique du Gabre, + ambassador to Venice (ed. by Vitalis, Paris, 1903); Ribier, _Lettres + et memoires d'estat_ (Paris, 1666); _Relations des ambassadeurs + venitiens_, &c. Of the contemporary memoirs and histories, see + Brantome (ed. by Lalanne, Paris, 1864-1882), Francois de Lorraine (ed. + by Michaud and Poujoulat, Paris, 1839), Montluc (ed. by de Ruble, + Paris, 1864), F. de Boyvin du Villars (Michaud and Poujoulat), F. de + Rabutin (_Pantheon litteraire_, Paris, 1836). See also de Thou, + _Historia sui temporis_ ... (London, 1733); Decrue, _Anne de + Montmorency_ (Paris, 1889); H. Forneron, _Les Ducs de Guise et leur + epoque_, vol. i. (Paris, 1877); and H. Lemonnier, "La France sous + Henri II" (Paris, 1904), in the _Histoire de France_, by E. Lavisse, + which contains a fuller bibliography of the subject. + + + + +HENRY III. (1551-1589), king of France, third son of Henry II. and +Catherine de' Medici, was born at Fontainebleau on the 19th of September +1551, and succeeded to the throne of France on the death of his brother +Charles IX. in 1574. In his youth, as duke of Anjou, he was warmly +attached to the Huguenot opinions, as we learn from his sister +Marguerite de Valois; but his unstable character soon gave way before +his mother's will, and both Henry and Marguerite remained choice +ornaments of the Catholic Church. Henry won, under the direction of +Marshal de Tavannes, two brilliant victories at Jarnac and Moncontour +(1569). He was the favourite son of his mother, and took part with her +in organizing the massacre of St Bartholomew. In 1573 Catherine procured +his election to the throne of Poland. Passionately enamoured of the +princess of Conde, he set out reluctantly to Warsaw, but, on the death +of his brother Charles IX. in 1574, he escaped from his Polish subjects, +who endeavoured to retain him by force, came back to France and assumed +the crown. He returned to a wretched kingdom, torn with civil war. In +spite of his good intentions, he was incapable of governing, and +abandoned the power to his mother and his favourites. Yet he was no +dullard. He was a man of keen intelligence and cultivated mind, and +deserves as much as Francis I. the title of patron of letters and art. +But his incurable indolence and love of pleasure prevented him from +taking any active part in affairs. Surrounded by his _mignons_, he +scandalized the people by his effeminate manners. He dressed himself in +women's clothes, made a collection of little dogs and hid in the cellars +when it thundered. The disgust aroused by the vices and effeminacy of +the king increased the popularity of Henry of Guise. After the "day of +the barricades" (the 12th of May 1588), the king, perceiving that his +influence was lost, resolved to rid himself of Guise by assassination; +and on the 23rd of December 1588 his faithful bodyguard, the +"forty-five," carried out his design at the chateau of Blois. But the +fanatical preachers of the League clamoured furiously for vengeance, and +on the 1st of August 1589, while Henry III. was investing Paris with +Henry of Navarre, Jacques Clement, a Dominican friar, was introduced +into his presence on false letters of recommendation, and plunged a +knife into the lower part of his body. He died a few hours afterwards +with great fortitude. By his wife Louise of Lorraine, daughter of the +count of Vaudemont, he had no children, and on his deathbed he +recognized Henry of Navarre as his successor. + + See the memoirs and chronicles of l'Estoile, Villeroy, Ph. Hurault de + Cheverny, Brantome, Marguerite de Valois, la Huguerye, du + Plessis-Mornay, &c.; _Archives curieuses_ of Cimber and Danjou, vols. + x. and xi.; _Memoires de la Ligue_ (new ed., Amsterdam, 1758); the + histories of T. A. d'Aubigne and J. A. de Thou; Correspondence of + Catherine de' Medici and of Henry IV. (in the _Collection de documents + inedits_), and of the Venetian ambassadors, &c.; P. Matthieu, + _Histoire de France_, vol. i. (1631); Scipion Dupleix, _Histoire de + Henri III_ (1633); Robiquet, _Paris et la Ligue_ (1886); and J. H. + Mariejol, "La Reforme et la Ligue," in the _Histoire de France_, by E. + Lavisse (Paris, 1904), which contains a more complete bibliography. + + + + +HENRY IV. (1553-1610), king of France, the son of Antoine de Bourbon, +duke of Vendome, head of the younger branch of the Bourbons, descendant +of Robert of Clermont, sixth son of St Louis and of Jeanne d'Albret, +queen of Navarre, was born at Pau (Basses Pyrenees) on the 14th of +December 1553. He was educated as a Protestant, and in 1557 was sent to +the court at Amiens. In 1561 he entered the College de Navarre at Paris, +returning in 1565 to Bearn. During the third war of religion in France +(1568-1570) he was taken by his mother to Gaspard de Coligny, leader of +the Protestant forces since the death of Louis I., prince of Conde, at +Jarnac, and distinguished himself at the battle of Arnay-le-Duc in +Burgundy in 1569. On the 9th of June 1572, Jeanne d'Albret died and +Henry became king of Navarre, marrying Margaret of Valois, sister of +Charles IX. of France, on the 18th of August of that year. He escaped +the massacre of St Bartholomew on the 24th of August by a feigned +abjuration. On the 2nd of February 1576, after several vain attempts, he +escaped from the court, joined the combined forces of Protestants and of +opponents of the king, and obtained by the treaty of Beaulieu (1576) the +government of Guienne. In 1577 he secured the treaty of Bergerac, which +foreshadowed the edict of Nantes. As a result of quarrels with his +unworthy wife, and the unwelcome intervention of Henry III., he +undertook the seventh war of religion, known as the "war of the lovers" +(_des amoureux_), seized Cahors on the 5th of May 1580, and signed the +treaty of Fleix on the 26th of November 1580. On the 10th of June 1584 +the death of Monsieur, the duke of Anjou, brother of King Henry III., +made Henry of Navarre heir presumptive to the throne of France. Excluded +from it by the treaty of Nemours (1585) he began the "war of the three +Henrys" by a campaign in Guienne (1586) and defeated Anne, duc de +Joyeuse, at Coutras on the 20th of October 1587. Then Henry III., driven +from Paris by the League on account of his murder of the duke of Guise +at Blois (1588), sought the aid of the king of Navarre to win back his +capital, recognizing him as his heir. The assassination of Henry III. on +the 1st of August 1589 left Henry king of France; but he had to struggle +for ten more years against the League and against Spain before he won +his kingdom. The main events in that long struggle were the victory of +Arques over Charles, duke of Mayenne, on the 28th of September 1589; of +Ivry, on the 14th of March 1590; the siege of Paris (1590); of Rouen +(1592); the meeting of the Estates of the League (1593), which the +_Satire Menippee_ turned to ridicule; and finally the conversion of +Henry IV. to Catholicism in July 1593--an act of political wisdom, since +it brought about the collapse of all opposition. Paris gave in to him on +the 22nd of March 1594 and province by province yielded to arms or +negotiations; while the victory of Fontaine-Francaise (1595) and the +capture of Amiens forced Philip II. of Spain to sign the peace of +Vervins on the 2nd of May 1598. On the 13th of April of that year Henry +IV. had promulgated the Edict of Nantes. + +Then Henry set to work to pacify and restore prosperity to his kingdom. +Convinced by the experience of the wars that France needed an energetic +central power, he pushed at times his royal prerogatives to excess, +raising taxes in spite of the Estates, interfering in the administration +of the towns, reforming their constitutions, and holding himself free to +reject the advice of the notables if he consulted them. Aided by his +faithful friend Maximilien de Bethune, baron de Rosny and duc de Sully +(q.v.), he reformed the finances, repressed abuses, suppressed useless +offices, extinguished the formidable debt and realized a reserve of +eighteen millions. To alleviate the distress of the people, he undertook +to develop both agriculture and industry: planting colonies of Dutch and +Flemish settlers to drain the marshes of Saintonge, issuing prohibitive +measures against the importation of foreign goods (1597), introducing +the silk industry, encouraging the manufacture of cloth, of glass-ware, +of tapestries (Gobelins), and under the direction of Sully--named +_grand-voyer de France_--improving and increasing the routes for +commerce. A complete system of canals was planned, that of Briare partly +dug. New capitulations were concluded with the sultan Ahmed I. (1604) +and treaties of commerce with England (1606), with Spain and Holland. +Attempts were made in 1604 and 1608 to colonize Canada (see CHAMPLAIN, +SAMUEL DE). The army was reorganized, its pay raised and assured, a +school of cadets formed to supply it with officers, artillery +constituted and strongholds on the frontier fortified. While lacking the +artistic tastes of the Valois, Henry beautified Paris, building the +great gallery of the Louvre, finishing the Tuileries, building the Pont +Neuf, the Hotel-de-Ville and the Place Royale. + +The foreign policy of Henry IV. was directed against the Habsburgs. +Without declaring war, he did all possible harm to them by alliances and +diplomacy. In Italy he gained the grand duke of Tuscany--marrying his +niece Marie de' Medici in 1600--the duke of Mantua, the republic of +Venice and Pope Paul V. The duke of Savoy, who had held back from the +treaty of Vervins in 1598, signed the treaty of Lyons in 1601; in +exchange for the marquisate of Saluzzo, France acquired Bresse, Bugey, +Valromey and the bailliage of Gex. In the Low Countries, Henry sent +subsidies to the Dutch in their struggle against Spain. He concluded +alliances with the Protestant princes in Germany, with the duke of +Lorraine, the Swiss cantons (treaty of Soleure, 1602) and with Sweden. + +The opening on the 25th of March 1609 of the question of the succession +of John William the Good, duke of Cleves, of Julich and of Berg, led +Henry, in spite of his own hesitations and those of his German allies, +to declare war on the emperor Rudolph II. But he was assassinated by +Ravaillac (q.v.) on the 14th of May 1610, upon the eve of his great +enterprise, leaving his policy to be followed up later by Richelieu. +Sully in his _Economies royales_ attributes to his master the "great +design" of constituting, after having defeated Austria, a vast European +confederation of fifteen states--a "Christian Republic"--directed by a +general council of sixty deputies reappointed every three years. But +this "design" has been attributed rather to the imagination of Sully +himself than to the more practical policy of the king. + +No figure in France has been more popular than that of "Henry the +Great." He was affable to the point of familiarity, quick-witted like a +true Gascon, good-hearted, indulgent, yet skilled in reading the +character of those around him, and he could at times show himself severe +and unyielding. His courage amounted almost to recklessness. He was a +better soldier than strategist. Although at bottom authoritative he +surrounded himself with admirable advisers (Sully, Sillery, Villeroy, +Jeannin) and profited from their co-operation. His love affairs, +undoubtedly too numerous (notably with Gabrielle d'Estrees and Henriette +d'Entragues), if they injure his personal reputation, had no bad effect +on his policy as king, in which he was guided only by an exalted ideal +of his royal office, and by a sympathy for the common people, his +reputation for which has perhaps been exaggerated somewhat in popular +tradition by the circumstances of his reign. + +Henry IV. had no children by his first wife, Margaret of Valois. By +Marie de' Medici he had Louis, later Louis XIII.; Gaston, duke of +Orleans; Elizabeth, who married Philip IV. of Spain; Christine, duchess +of Savoy; and Henrietta, wife of Charles I. of England. Among his +bastards the most famous were the children of Gabrielle +d'Estrees--Caesar, duke of Vendome, Alexander of Vendome, and Catherine +Henriette, duchess of Elbeuf. + +Several portraits of Henry are preserved at Paris, in the Bibliotheque +Nationale (cf. Bouchot, _Portraits au crayon_, p. 189), at the Louvre +(by Probus, bust by Barthelemy Prieur) at Versailles, Geneva (Henry at +the age of fifteen), at Hampton Court, at Munich and at Florence. + + The works dealing with Henry IV. and his reign are too numerous to be + enumerated here. For sources, see the _Recueil des lettres missives de + Henri IV_, published from 1839 to 1853 by B. de Xivrey, in the + _Collection de documents inedits relatifs a l'histoire de France_, and + the various researches of Galitzin, Bautiot, Halphen, Dussieux and + others. Besides their historic interest, the letters written + personally by Henry, whether love notes or letters of state, reveal a + charming writer. Mention should be made of Auguste Poirson's _Histoire + du regne de Henri IV_ (2nd ed., 4 vols., Paris, 1862-1867) and of J. + H. Mariejol's volume (vi.) in the _Histoire de France_, edited by + Ernest Lavisse (Paris, 1905), where main sources and literature are + given with each chapter. A _Revue Henri IV_ has been founded at Paris + (1905). Finally, a complete survey of the sources for the period + 1494-1610 is given by Henri Hauser in vol. vii. of _Sources de + l'histoire de France_ (Paris, 1906) in continuation of A. Molinier's + collection of the sources for French history during the middle ages. + + + + +HENRY I. (c. 1210-1274), surnamed _le Gros_, king of Navarre and count +of Champagne, was the youngest son of Theobald I. king of Navarre by +Margaret of Foix, and succeeded his eldest brother Theobald III. as king +of Navarre and count of Champagne in December 1270. His proclamation at +Pamplona, however, did not take place till March of the following year, +and his coronation was delayed until May 1273. After a brief reign, +characterized, it is said, by dignity and talent, he died in July 1274, +suffocated, according to the generally received accounts, by his own +fat. In him the male line of the counts of Champagne and kings of +Navarre, became extinct. He married in 1269 Blanche, daughter of Robert, +count of Artois, and niece of King Louis IX. and was succeeded by his +only legitimate child, Jeanne or Joanna, by whose marriage to Philip IV. +afterwards king of France in 1284, the crown of Navarre became united to +that of France. + + + + +HENRY II. (1503-1555), titular king of Navarre, was the eldest son of +Jean d'Albret (d. 1516) by his wife Catherine de Foix, sister and +heiress of Francis Phoebus, king of Navarre, and was born at Sanquesa in +April 1503. When Catherine died in exile in 1517 Henry succeeded her in +her claim on Navarre, which was disputed by Ferdinand I. king of Spain; +and under the protection of Francis I. of France he assumed the title of +king. After ineffectual conferences at Noyon in 1516 and at Montpellier +in 1518, an active effort was made in 1521 to establish him in the _de +facto_ sovereignty; but the French troops which had seized the country +were ultimately expelled by the Spaniards. In 1525 Henry was taken +prisoner at the battle of Pavia, but he contrived to escape, and in 1526 +married Margaret, the sister of Francis I. and widow of Charles, duke of +Alencon. By her he was the father of Jeanne d'Albret (d. 1572), and was +consequently the grandfather of Henry IV. of France. Henry, who had some +sympathy with the Huguenots, died at Pau on the 25th of May 1555. + + + + +HENRY I. (1512-1580), king of Portugal, third son of Emanuel the +Fortunate, was born in Lisbon, on the 31st of January 1512. He was +destined for the church, and in 1532 was raised to the archiepiscopal +see of Braga. In 1542 he received the cardinal's hat, and in 1578 when +he was called to succeed his grandnephew Sebastian on the throne, he +held the archbishoprics of Lisbon and Coimbra as well as that of Braga, +in addition to the wealthy abbacy of Alcobazar. As an ecclesiastic he +was pious, pure, simple in his mode of life, charitable, and a learned +and liberal patron of letters; but as a sovereign he proved weak, timid +and incapable. On his death in 1580, after a brief reign of seventeen +months, the male line of the royal family which traced its descent from +Henry, first count of Portugal (c. 1100), came to an end; and all +attempts to fix the succession during his lifetime having ignominiously +failed, Portugal became an easy prey to Philip II. of Spain. + + + + +HENRY II. (1489-1568), duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, was a son of Duke +Henry I., and was born on the 10th of November 1489. He began to reign in +1514, but his brother William objected to the indivisibility of the duchy +which had been decreed by the elder Henry, and it was only in 1535, after +an imprisonment of eleven years, that William recognized his brother's +title. Sharing in an attack on John, bishop of Hildesheim, Henry was +defeated at the battle of Soltau in June 1519, but afterwards he was more +successful, and when peace was made received some lands from the bishop. +In 1525 he assisted Philip, landgrave of Hesse, to crush the rising of +the peasants in north Germany, and in 1528 took help to Charles V. in +Italy, where he narrowly escaped capture. As a pronounced opponent of the +reformed doctrines, he joined the Catholic princes in concerting measures +for defence at Dessau and elsewhere, but on the other hand promised +Philip of Hesse to aid him in restoring his own brother-in-law Ulrich, +duke of Wurttemberg, to his duchy. However he gave no assistance when +this enterprise was undertaken in 1534, and subsequently the hostility +between Philip and himself was very marked. Henry was attacked by Luther +with unmeasured violence in a writing _Wider Hans Worst_; but more +serious was his isolation in north Germany. The duke soon came into +collision with the Protestant towns of Goslar and Brunswick, against the +former of which a sentence of restitution had been pronounced by the +imperial court of justice (_Reichskammergericht_). To conciliate the +Protestants Charles V. had suspended the execution of this sentence, a +proceeding which Henry declared was _ultra vires_. The league of +Schmalkalden, led by Philip of Hesse and John Frederick, elector of +Saxony, then took up arms to defend the towns; and in 1542 Brunswick was +overrun and the duke forced to flee. In September 1545 he made an attempt +to regain his duchy, but was taken prisoner by Philip, and only released +after the victory of Charles V. at Muhlberg in April 1547. Returning to +Brunswick, where he was very unpopular, he soon quarrelled with his +subjects both on political and religious questions, while his duchy was +ravaged by Albert Alcibiades, prince of Bayreuth. Henry was among the +princes who banded themselves together to crush Albert, and after the +death of Maurice, elector of Saxony, at Sievershausen in July 1553, he +took command of the allied troops and defeated Albert in two engagements. +In his later years he became more tolerant, and was reconciled with his +Protestant subjects. He died at Wolfenbuttel on the 11th of June 1568. +The duke was twice married, firstly in 1515 to Maria (d. 1541), sister of +Ulrich of Wurttemberg, and secondly in 1556 to Sophia (d. 1575) daughter +of Sigismund I., king of Poland. He attained some notoriety through his +romantic attachment to Eva von Trott, whom he represented as dead and +afterwards kept concealed at Staufenburg. Henry was succeeded by his only +surviving son, Julius (1528-1589). + + See F. Koldewey, _Heinz von Wolfenbuttel_ (Halle, 1883); and F. Bruns, + _Die Vertreibung Herzog Heinrichs von Braunschweig durch den + Schmalkaldischen Bund_ (Marburg, 1889). + + + + +HENRY (c. 1108-1139), surnamed the "Proud," duke of Saxony and Bavaria, +second son of Henry the Black, duke of Bavaria, and Wulfhild, daughter +of Magnus Billung, duke of Saxony, was a member of the Welf family. His +father and mother both died in 1126, and as his elder brother Conrad had +entered the church, Henry became duke of Bavaria and shared the family +possessions in Saxony, Bavaria and Swabia with his younger brother, +Welf. At Whitsuntide 1127 he was married to Gertrude, the only child of +the German king, Lothair the Saxon, and at once took part in the warfare +between the king and the Hohenstaufen brothers, Frederick II., duke of +Swabia, and Conrad, afterwards the German king Conrad III. While engaged +in this struggle Henry was also occupied in suppressing a rising in +Bavaria, led by Frederick, count of Bogen, during which both duke and +count sought to establish their own candidates in the bishopric of +Regensburg. After a war of devastation, Frederick submitted in 1133, and +two years later the Hohenstaufen brothers made their peace with Lothair. +In 1136 Henry accompanied his father-in-law to Italy, and taking command +of one division of the German army marched into southern Italy, +devastating the land as he went. It was probably about this time that he +was invested with the margraviate of Tuscany and the lands of Matilda, +the late margravine. Having distinguished himself by his military genius +during this campaign Henry left Italy with the German troops, and was +appointed by the emperor as his successor in the dukedom of Saxony. When +Lothair died in December 1137 Henry's wealth and position made him a +formidable candidate for the German throne; but the same qualities which +earned for him the surname of "Proud," aroused the jealousy of the +princes, and so prevented his election. The new king, Conrad III., +demanded the imperial _insignia_ which were in Henry's possession, and +the duke in return asked for his investiture with the Saxon duchy. But +Conrad, who feared his power, refused to assent to this on the pretext +that it was unlawful for two duchies to be in one hand. Attempts at a +settlement failed, and in July 1138 the duke was placed under the ban, +and Saxony was given to Albert the Bear, afterwards margrave of +Brandenburg. War broke out in Saxony and Bavaria, but was cut short by +Henry's sudden death at Quedlinburg on the 20th of October 1139. He was +buried at Konigslutter. Henry was a man of great ability, and his early +death alone prevented him from playing an important part in German +history. Conrad the Priest, the author of the _Rolandslied_, was in +Henry's service, and probably wrote this poem at the request of the +duchess, Gertrude. + + See S. Riezler, _Geschichte Bayerns_, Band i. (Gotha, 1878); W. + Bernhardi, _Lothar von Supplinburg_ (Leipzig, 1879); W. von + Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band iv. + (Brunswick, 1877). + + + + +HENRY (1129-1195), surnamed the "Lion," duke of Saxony and Bavaria, only +son of Henry the Proud, duke of Saxony and Bavaria, and Gertrude, +daughter of the emperor Lothair the Saxon, was born at Ravensburg, and +was a member of the family of Welf. In 1138 the German king Conrad III. +had sought to deprive Henry the Proud of his duchies, and when the duke +died in the following year the interests of his young son were +maintained in Saxony by his mother, and his grandmother Richenza, widow +of Lothair, and in Bavaria by his uncle, Count Welf VI. This struggle +ended in May 1142 when Henry was invested as duke of Saxony at +Frankfort, and Bavaria was given to Henry II., Jasomirgott, margrave of +Austria, who married his mother Gertrude. In 1147 he married Clementia, +daughter of Conrad, duke of Zahringen (d. 1152), and began to take an +active part in administering his dukedom and extending its area. He +engaged in a successful expedition against the Abotrites, or Obotrites, +in 1147, and won a considerable tract of land beyond the Elbe, in which +were re-established the bishoprics of Mecklenburg,[1] Oldenburg[2] and +Ratzeburg. Hartwig, archbishop of Bremen, wished these sees to be under +his authority, but Henry contested this claim, and won the right to +invest these bishops himself, a privilege afterwards confirmed by the +emperor Frederick I. Henry, meanwhile, had not forgotten Bavaria. In +1147 he made a formal claim on this duchy, and in 1151 sought to take +possession, but failing to obtain the aid of his uncle Welf, did not +effect his purpose. The situation was changed in his favour when +Frederick I., who was anxious to count the duke among his supporters, +succeeded Conrad as German king in February 1152. Frederick was unable +at first to persuade Henry Jasomirgott to abandon Bavaria, but in June +1154 he recognized the claim of Henry the Lion, who accompanied him on +his first Italian campaign and distinguished himself in suppressing a +rising at Rome, Henry's formal investiture as duke of Bavaria taking +place in September 1156 on the emperor's return to Germany. Henry soon +returned to Saxony, where he found full scope for his untiring energy. +Adolph II., count of Holstein, was compelled to cede Lubeck to him in +1158; campaigns in 1163 and 1164 beat down further resistance of the +Abotrites; and Saxon garrisons were established in the conquered lands. +The duke was aided in this work by the alliance of Valdemar I., king of +Denmark, and, it is said, by engines of war brought from Italy. During +these years he had also helped Frederick I. in his expedition of 1157 +against the Poles, and in July 1159 had gone to his assistance in Italy, +where he remained for about two years. + +The vigorous measures taken by Henry to increase his power aroused +considerable opposition. In 1166 a coalition was formed against him at +Merseburg under the leadership of Albert the Bear, margrave of +Brandenburg, and Archbishop Hartwig. Neither side met with much success +in the desultory warfare that ensued, and Frederick made peace between +the combatants at Wurzburg in June 1168. Having obtained a divorce from +his first wife in 1162, Henry was married at Minden in February 1168 to +Matilda (1156-1189), daughter of Henry II., king of England, and was +soon afterwards sent by the emperor Frederick I. on an embassy to the +kings of England and France. A war with Valdemar of Denmark, caused by a +quarrel over the booty obtained from the conquest of Rugen, engaged +Henry's activity until June 1171, when, in pursuance of a treaty which +restored peace, Henry's daughter, Gertrude, married the Danish prince, +Canute. Henry, whose position was now very strong, made a pilgrimage to +Jerusalem in 1172, was received with great respect by the eastern +emperor Manuel Comnenus at Constantinople, and returned to Saxony in +1173. + +A variety of reasons were leading to a rupture in the harmonious +relations between Frederick and Henry, whose increasing power could not +escape the emperor's notice, and who showed little inclination to +sacrifice his interests in Germany in order to help the imperial cause +in Italy. He was not pleased when he heard that his uncle, Welf, had +bequeathed his Italian and Swabian lands to the emperor, and the crisis +came after Frederick's check before Alessandria in 1175. The emperor +appealed personally to Henry for help in February, or March 1176, but +Henry made no move in response, and his defection contributed in some +measure to the emperor's defeat at Legnano. The peace of Venice provided +for the restoration of Ulalrich to his see of Halberstadt. Henry, +however, refused to give up the lands which he had seized belonging to +the bishopric, and this conduct provoked a war in which Ulalrich was +soon joined by Philip, archbishop of Cologne. No attack on Henry appears +to have been contemplated by Frederick to whom both parties carried +their complaints, and a day was fixed for the settlement of the dispute +at Worms. But neither then, nor on two further occasions, did Henry +appear to answer the charges preferred against him; accordingly in +January 1180 he was placed under the imperial ban at Wurzburg, and was +declared deprived of all his lands. + +Meanwhile the war with Ulalrich continued, but after his victory at +Weissensee Henry's allies began to fall away, and his cause to decline. +When Frederick took the field in June 1181 the struggle was soon over. +Henry sought for peace, and the conditions were settled at Erfurt in +November 1181, when he was granted the counties of Luneburg and +Brunswick, but was banished under oath not to return without the +emperor's permission. In July 1182 he went to his father-in-law's court +in Normandy, and afterwards to England, returning to Germany with +Frederick's permission in 1185. He was soon regarded once more as a +menace to the peace of Germany, and of the three alternatives presented +to him by the emperor in 1188 he rejected the idea of making a formal +renunciation of his claim, or of participating in the crusade, and chose +exile, going again to England in 1189. In October of the same year, +however, he returned to Saxony, excusing himself by asserting that his +lands had not been defended according to the emperor's promise. He found +many allies, took Lubeck, and soon almost the whole of Saxony was in his +power. King Henry VI. was obliged to take the field against him, after +which the duke's cause declined, and in July 1190 a peace was arranged +at Fulda, by which he retained Brunswick and Luneburg, received half the +revenues of Lubeck, and gave two of his sons as hostages. Still hoping +to regain his former position, he took advantage of a league against +Henry VI. in 1193 to engage in a further revolt; but the captivity of +his brother-in-law Richard I., king of England, led to a reconciliation. +Henry passed his later years mainly at his castle of Brunswick, where he +died on the 6th of August 1195, and was buried in the church of St +Blasius which he had founded in the town. He had by his first wife a son +and a daughter, and by his second wife five sons and a daughter. One of +his sons was Otto, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., and another was +Henry (d. 1227) count palatine of the Rhine. + +Henry was a man of great ambition, and won his surname of "Lion" by his +personal bravery. His influence on the fortunes of Saxony and northern +Germany was very considerable. He planted Flemish and Dutch settlers in +the land between the Elbe and the Oder, fostered the growth and trade of +Lubeck, and in other ways encouraged trade and agriculture. He sought to +spread Christianity by introducing the Cistercians, founding bishoprics, +and building churches and monasteries. In 1874 a colossal statue was +erected to his memory at Brunswick. + + The authorities for the life of Henry the Lion are those dealing with + the reign of the emperor Frederick I., and the early years of his son + King Henry VI. The chief modern works are H. Prutz, _Heinrich der + Lowe_ (Leipzig, 1865); M. Philippson, _Geschichte Heinrichs des Lowen_ + (Leipzig, 1867); and L. Weiland, _Das sachsische Herzogthum unter + Lothar und Heinrich dem Lowen_ (Greifswald, 1866). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The see was transferred to Schwerin by Henry in 1167. + + [2] Transferred to Lubeck in 1163. + + + + +HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896), was the third son of Prince +Alexander of Hesse and his morganatic wife, the beautiful Countess Julia +von Hauke, to whom was granted in 1858 the title of princess of +Battenberg, which her children inherited. He was born at Milan on the +5th of October 1858, was educated with a special view to military +service, and in due time became a lieutenant in the first regiment of +Rhenish hussars. By their relationship to the grand dukes of Hesse the +princes of Battenberg were brought into close contact with the English +court, and Prince Henry paid several visits to England, where he soon +became popular both in public and in private circles. It therefore +created but little surprise when, towards the close of 1884, it was +announced that Queen Victoria had sanctioned his engagement to the +Princess Beatrice. The wedding took place at Whippingham on the 23rd of +July 1885, and after the honeymoon the prince and princess settled down +to a quiet home life with the queen, being seldom absent from the court, +and accompanying her majesty in her annual visits to the continent. +Three sons and a daughter were the issue of the marriage. On the 31st of +July 1885 a bill to naturalize Prince Henry was passed by the House of +Lords, and he received the title of royal highness. He was made a Knight +of the Garter and a member of the Privy Council, and also appointed a +colonel in the army, and afterwards captain-general and governor of the +Isle of Wight and governor of Carisbrooke Castle. He adapted himself +very readily to English country life, for he was an excellent shot and +an enthusiastic yachtsman. Coming of a martial race, the prince would +gladly have embraced an active military career, and when the Ashanti +expedition was organized in November 1895 he volunteered to join it. But +when the expedition reached Prahsu, about 30 m. from Kumasi, he was +struck down by fever, and being promptly conveyed back to the coast, was +placed on board H.M.S. "Blonde." On the 17th of January he seemed to +recover slightly, but a relapse occurred on the 19th, and he died on the +evening of the 20th off the coast of Sierra Leone. + + + + +HENRY FITZ HENRY (1155-1183), second son of Henry II., king of England, +by Eleanor of Aquitaine, became heir to the throne on the death of his +brother William (1156), and at the age of five was married to +Marguerite, the infant daughter of Louis VII. In 1170 he was crowned at +Westminster by Roger of York. The protests of Becket against this +usurpation of the rights of Canterbury were the ultimate cause of the +primate's murder. The young king soon quarrelled with his father, who +allowed him no power and a wholly inadequate revenue, and headed the +great baronial revolt of 1173. He was assisted by his father-in-law, to +whose court he had repaired; but, failing to shake the old king's power +either in Normandy or England, made peace in 1174. Despite the generous +terms which he received, he continued to intrigue with Louis VII., and +was in consequence jealously watched by his father. In 1182 he and his +younger brother Geoffrey took up arms, on the side of the Poitevin +rebels, against Richard Coeur de Lion; apparently from resentment at the +favour which Henry II. had shown to Richard in giving him the government +of Poitou while they were virtually landless. Henry II. took the field +in aid of Richard; but the young king and Geoffrey had no scruples about +withstanding their father, and continued to aid the Aquitanian rising +until the young king fell ill of a fever which proved fatal to him (June +11, 1183). His death was bitterly regretted by his father and by all who +had known him. Though of a fickle and treacherous nature, he had all the +personal fascination of his family, and is extolled by his +contemporaries as a mirror of chivalry. His train was full of knights +who served him without pay for the honour of being associated with his +exploits in the tilting-lists and in war. + + The original authorities for Henry's life are Robert de Torigni, + _Chronica_; Giraldus Cambrensis, _De instructione principum, Guillaume + le Marechal_ (ed. P. Meyer, Paris, 1891, &c.); Benedict, _Gesta + Henrici_, William of Newburgh. See also Kate Norgate, _England under + the Angevin Kings_ (1887); Sir James Ramsay, _Angevin Empire_ (1903); + and C. E. Hodgson, _Jung Heinrich, Konig von England_ (Jena, 1906). + + + + +HENRY, or in full, HENRY BENEDICT MARIA CLEMENT STUART (1725-1807), +usually known as Cardinal York, the last prince of the royal house of +Stuart, was the younger son of James Stuart, and was born in the Palazzo +Muti at Rome on the 6th of March 1725. He was created duke of York by +his father soon after his birth, and by this title he was always alluded +to by Jacobite adherents of his house. British visitors to Rome speak of +him as a merry high-spirited boy with martial instincts; nevertheless, +he grew up studious, peace-loving and serious. In order to be of +assistance to his brother Charles, who was then campaigning in Scotland, +Henry was despatched in the summer of 1745 to France, where he was +placed in nominal command of French troops at Dunkirk, with which the +marquis d'Argenson had some vague idea of invading England. Seven months +after Charles's return from Scotland Henry secretly departed to Rome +and, with the full approval of his father, but to the intense disgust of +his brother, was created a cardinal deacon under the title of the +cardinal of York by Pope Benedict XIV. on the 3rd of July 1747. In the +following year he was ordained priest, and nominated arch-priest of the +Vatican Basilica. In 1759 he was consecrated archbishop of Corinth _in +partibus_, and in 1761 bishop of Frascati (the ancient Tusculum) in the +Alban Hills near Rome. Six years later he was appointed vice-chancellor +of the Holy See. Henry Stuart likewise held sinecure benefices in +France, Spain and Spanish America, so that he became one of the +wealthiest churchmen of the period, his annual revenue being said to +amount to L30,000 sterling. On the death of his father, James Stuart +(whose affairs he had managed during the last five years of his life), +Henry made persistent attempts to induce Pope Clement XIII. to +acknowledge his brother Charles as legitimate king of Great Britain, but +his efforts were defeated, chiefly through the adverse influence of +Cardinal Alessandro Albani, who was bitterly opposed to the Stuart +cause. On Charles's death in 1788 Henry issued a manifesto asserting his +hereditary right to the British crown, and likewise struck a medal, +commemorative of the event, with the legend "Hen. IX. Mag. Brit. Fr. et +Hib. Rex. Fid. Def. Card. Ep. Tusc:" (Henry the Ninth of Great Britain, +France and Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith, Cardinal, Bishop of +Frascati). In February 1798, at the approach of the invading French +forces, Henry was forced to fly from Frascati to Naples, whence at the +close of the same year he sailed to Messina. From Messina he proceeded +by sea in order to be present at the expected conclave at Venice, where +he arrived in the spring of 1799, aged, ill and almost penniless. His +sad plight was now made known by Cardinal Stefano Borgia to Sir John +Coxe Hippisley (d. 1825), who had formerly acted semi-officially on +behalf of the British government at the court of Pius VI. Sir John +Hippisley appealed to George III., who on the warm recommendation of +Prince Augustus Frederick, duke of Sussex, gave orders for the annual +payment of a pension of L4000 to the last of the Royal Stuarts. Henry +received the proffered assistance gratefully, and in return for the +king's kindness subsequently left by his will certain British crown +jewels in his possession to the prince regent. In 1800 Henry was able to +return to Rome, and in 1803, being now senior cardinal bishop, he became +_ipso facto_ dean of the Sacred College and bishop of Ostia and +Velletri. He died at Frascati on the 13th of July 1807, and was buried +in the _Grotte Vaticane_ of St Peter's in an urn bearing the title of +"Henry IX."; he is also commemorated in Canova's well-known monument to +the Royal Stuarts (see JAMES). The Stuart archives, once the property of +Cardinal York, were subsequently presented by Pope Pius VII. to the +prince regent, who placed them in the royal library at Windsor Castle. + + See B. W. Kelly, _Life of Cardinal York_; H. M. Vaughan, _Last of the + Royal Stuarts_; and A. Shield, _Henry Stuart, Cardinal of York, and + his Times_ (1908). (H. M. V.) + + + + +HENRY OF PORTUGAL, surnamed the "Navigator" (1394-1460), duke of Viseu, +governor of the Algarve, was born at Oporto on the 4th of March 1394. He +was the third (or, counting children who died in infancy, the fifth) son +of John (Joao) I., the founder of the Aviz dynasty, under whom Portugal, +victorious against Castile and against the Moors of Morocco, began to +take a prominent place among European nations; his mother was Philippa, +daughter of John of Gaunt. When Ceuta, the "African Gibraltar," was +taken in 1415, Prince Henry performed the most distinguished service of +any Portuguese leader, and received knighthood; he was now created duke +of Viseu and lord of Covilham, and about the same time began his +explorations, which, however, limited in their original conception, +certainly developed into a search for a better knowledge of the western +ocean and for a sea-way along the unknown coast of Africa to the +supposed western Nile (our Senegal), to the rich negro lands beyond the +Sahara desert, to the half-true, half-fabled realm of Prester John, and +so ultimately to the Indies. + +Disregarding the traditions which assign 1412 or even 1410 as the +commencement of these explorations, it appears that in 1415, the year of +Ceuta, the prince sent out one John de Trasto on a voyage which brought +the Portuguese to Grand Canary. There was no discovery here, for the +whole Canarian archipelago was now pretty well known to French and +Spanish mariners, especially since the conquest of 1402-06 by French +adventurers under Castillan overlordship; but in 1418 Henry's captain, +Joao Goncalvez Zarco rediscovered Porto Santo, and in 1420 Madeira, the +chief members of an island group which had originally been discovered +(probably by Genoese pioneers) before 1351 or perhaps even before 1339, +but had rather faded from Christian knowledge since. The story of the +rediscovery of Madeira by the Englishman Robert Machim or Machin, +eloping from Bristol with his lady-love, Anne d'Arfet, in the reign of +Edward III. (about 1370), has been the subject of much controversy; in +any case it does not affect the original Italian discovery, nor the +first sighting of Porto Santo by Zarco, who, while exploring the west +African mainland coast, was driven by storms to this island. In +1424-1425 Prince Henry attempted to purchase the Canaries, and began the +colonization of the Madeira group, both in Madeira itself and in Porto +Santo; to aid this latter movement he procured the famous charters of +1430 and 1433 from the Portuguese crown. In 1427, again, with the +co-operation of his father King John, he seems to have sent out the +royal pilot Diogo de Sevill, followed in 1431 by Goncalo Velho Cabral, +to explore the Azores, first mentioned and depicted in a Spanish +treatise of 1345 (the _Conoscimiento de todos los Reynos_) and in an +Italian map of 1351 (the _Laurentian Portolano_, also the first +cartographical work to give us the Madeiras with modern names), but +probably almost unvisited from that time to the advent of Sevill. This +rediscovery of the far western archipelago, and the expeditions which, +even within Prince Henry's life (as in 1452) pushed still deeper into +the Atlantic, seem to show that the infante was not entirely forgetful +of the possibility of such a western route to Asia as Columbus attempted +in 1492, only to find America across his path. Meantime, in 1418, Henry +had gone in person to relieve Ceuta from an attack of Morocco and +Granada Mussulmans; had accomplished his task, and had planned, though +he did not carry out, a seizure of Gibraltar. About this time, moreover, +it is probable that he had begun to gather information from the Moors +with regard to the coast of "Guinea" and the interior of Africa. In +1419, after his return to Portugal, he was created governor of the +"kingdom" of Algarve, the southernmost province of Portugal; and his +connexion now appears to have begun with what afterwards became known as +the "Infante's Town" (_Villa do Iffante_) at Sagres, close to Cape St +Vincent; where, before 1438, a _Tercena Nabal_ or naval arsenal grew up; +where, from 1438, after the Tangier expedition, the prince certainly +resided for a great part of his later life; and where he died in 1460. + +In 1433 died King John, exhorting his son not to abandon those schemes +which were now, in the long-continued failure to round Cape Bojador, +ridiculed by many as costly absurdities; and in 1434 one of the +prince's ships, commanded by Gil Eannes, at length doubled the cape. In +1435 Affonso Goncalvez Baldaya, the prince's cup-bearer, passed fifty +leagues beyond; and before the close of 1436 the Portuguese had almost +reached Cape Blanco. Plans of further conquest in Morocco, resulting in +1437 in the disastrous attack upon Tangier, and followed in 1438 by the +death of King Edward (Duarte) and the domestic troubles of the earlier +minority of Affonso V., now interrupted Atlantic and African exploration +down to 1441, except only in the Azores. Here rediscovery and +colonization both progressed, as is shown by the royal licence of the +2nd of July 1439, to people "the seven islands" of the group then known. +In 1441 exploration began again in earnest with the venture of Antam +Goncalvez, who brought to Portugal the first slaves and gold-dust from +the Guinea coasts beyond Bojador; while Nuno Tristam in the same year +pushed on to Cape Blanco. These successes produced a great effect; the +cause of discovery, now connected with boundless hopes of profit, became +popular; and many volunteers, especially merchants and seamen from +Lisbon and Lagos, came forward. In 1442 Nuno Tristam reached the Bay or +Bight of Arguim, where the infante erected a fort in 1448, and where for +years the Portuguese carried on vigorous slave-raiding. Meantime the +prince, who had now, in 1443, been created by Henry VI. a knight of the +Garter of England, proceeded with his Sagres buildings, especially the +palace, church and observatory (the first in Portugal) which formed the +nucleus of the "Infante's Town," and which were certainly commenced soon +after the Tangier fiasco (1437), if not earlier. In 1444-1446 there was +an immense burst of maritime and exploring activity; more than 30 ships +sailed with Henry's licence to Guinea; and several of their commanders +achieved notable success. Thus Diniz Diaz, Nuno Tristam, and others +reached the Senegal in 1445; Diaz rounded Cape Verde in the same year; +and in 1446 Alvaro Fernandez pushed on almost to our Sierra Leone, to a +point 110 leagues beyond Cape Verde. This was perhaps the most distant +point reached before 1461. In 1444, moreover, the island of St Michael +in the Azores was sighted (May 8), and in 1445 its colonization was +begun. During this latter year also John Fernandez (q.v.) spent seven +months among the natives of the Arguim coast, and brought back the first +trustworthy first-hand European account of the Sahara hinterland. +Slave-raiding continued ceaselessly; by 1446 the Portuguese had carried +off nearly a thousand captives from the newly surveyed coasts; but +between this time and the voyages of Cadamosto (q.v.) in 1455-1456, the +prince altered his policy, forbade the kidnapping of the natives (which +had brought about fierce reprisals, causing the death of Nuno Tristam in +1446, and of other pioneers in 1445, 1448, &c.), and endeavoured to +promote their peaceful intercourse with his men. In 1445-1446, again, +Dom Henry renewed his earlier attempts (which had failed in 1424-1425) +to purchase or seize the Canaries for Portugal; by these he brought his +country to the verge of war with Castile; but the home government +refused to support him, and the project was again abandoned. After 1446 +our most voluminous authority, Azurara, records but little; his +narrative ceases altogether in 1448; one of the latest expeditions +noticed by him is that of a foreigner in the prince's service, "Vallarte +the Dane," which ended in utter destruction near the Gambia, after +passing Cape Verde in 1448. After this the chief matters worth notice in +Dom Henry's life are, first, the progress of discovery and colonization +in the Azores--where Terceira was discovered before 1450, perhaps in +1445, and apparently by a Fleming, called "Jacques de Bruges" in the +prince's charter of the 2nd of March 1450 (by this charter Jacques +receives the captaincy of this isle as its intending colonizer); +secondly, the rapid progress of civilization in Madeira, evidenced by +its timber trade to Portugal, by its sugar, corn and honey, and above +all by its wine, produced from the Malvoisie or Malmsey grape, +introduced from Crete; and thirdly, the explorations of Cadamosto and +Diogo Gomez (q.v.). Of these the former, in his two voyages of 1455 and +1456, explored part of the courses of the Senegal and the Gambia, +discovered the Cape Verde Islands (1456), named and mapped more +carefully than before a considerable section of the African littoral +beyond Cape Verde, and gave much new information on the trade-routes of +north-west Africa and on the native races; while Gomez, in his first +important venture (after 1448 and before 1458), though not accomplishing +the full Indian purpose of his voyage (he took a native interpreter with +him for use "in the event of reaching India"), explored and observed in +the Gambia valley and along the adjacent coasts with fully as much care +and profit. As a result of these expeditions the infante seems to have +sent out in 1458 a mission to convert the Gambia negroes. Gomez' second +voyage, resulting in another "discovery" of the Cape Verde Islands, was +probably in 1462, after the death of Prince Henry; it is likely that +among the infante's last occupations were the necessary measures for the +equipment and despatch of this venture, as well as of Pedro de Sintra's +important expedition of 1461. + +The infante's share in home politics was considerable, especially in the +years of Affonso V.'s minority (1438, &c.) when he helped to make his +elder brother Pedro regent, reconciled him with the queen-mother, and +worked together with them both in a council of regency. But when Dom +Pedro rose in revolt (1447), Henry stood by the king and allowed his +brother to be crushed. In the Morocco campaigns of his last years, +especially at the capture of Alcazar the Little (1458), he restored the +military fame which he had founded at Ceuta and compromised at Tangier, +and which brought him invitations from the pope, the emperor and the +kings of Castile and England, to take command of their armies. The +prince was also grand master of the Order of Christ, the successor of +the Templars in Portugal; and most of his Atlantic and African +expeditions sailed under the flag of his order, whose revenues were at +the service of his explorations, in whose name he asked and obtained the +official recognition of Pope Eugenius IV. for his work, and on which he +bestowed many privileges in the new-won lands--the tithes of St Michael +in the Azores and one-half of its sugar revenues, the tithe of all +merchandise from Guinea, the ecclesiastical dues of Madeira, &c. As +"protector of Portuguese studies," Dom Henry is credited with having +founded a professorship of theology, and perhaps also chairs of +mathematics and medicine, in Lisbon--where also, in 1431, he is said to +have provided house-room for the university teachers and students. To +instruct his captains, pilots and other pioneers more fully in the art +of navigation and the making of maps and instruments he procured, says +Barros, the aid of one Master Jacome from Majorca, together with that of +certain Arab and Jewish mathematicians. We hear also of one Master +Peter, who inscribed and illuminated maps for the infante; the +mathematician Pedro Nunes declares that the prince's mariners were well +taught and provided with instruments and rules of astronomy and geometry +"which all map-makers should know"; Cadamosto tells us that the +Portuguese caravels in his day were the best sailing ships afloat; +while, from several matters recorded by Henry's biographers, it is clear +that he devoted great attention to the study of earlier charts and of +any available information he could gain upon the trade-routes of +north-west Africa. Thus we find an Oran merchant corresponding with him +about events happening in the negro-world of the Gambia basin in 1458. +Even if there were never a formal "geographical school" at Sagres, or +elsewhere in Portugal, founded by Prince Henry, it appears certain that +his court was the centre of active and useful geographical study, as +well as the source of the best practical exploration of the time. + +The prince died on the 13th of November 1460, in his town near Cape St +Vincent, and was buried in the church of St Mary in Lagos, but a year +later his body was removed to the superb monastery of Batalha. His +great-nephew, King Dom Manuel, had a statue of him placed over the +centre column of the side gate of the church of Belem. On the 24th of +July 1840, a monument was erected to him at Sagres at the instance of +the marquis de Sa da Bandeira. + +The glory attaching to the name of Prince Henry does not rest merely on +the achievements effected during his own lifetime, but on the subsequent +results to which his genius and perseverance had lent the primary +inspiration. To him the human race is indebted, in large measure, for +the maritime exploration, within one century (1420-1522), of more than +half the globe, and especially of the great waterways from Europe to +Asia both by east and by west. His own life only sufficed for the +accomplishment of a small portion of his task. The complete opening out +of the African or south-east route to the Indies needed nearly forty +years of somewhat intermittent labour after his death (1460-1498), and +the prince's share has often been forgotten in that of pioneers who were +really his executors--Diogo Cam, Bartholomew Diaz or Vasco da Gama. Less +directly, other sides of his activity may be considered as fulfilled by +the Portuguese penetration of inland Africa, especially of Abyssinia, +the land of the "Prester John" for whom Dom Henry sought, and even by +the finding of a western route to Asia through the discoveries of +Columbus, Balboa and Magellan. + + See _Alguns documentos do archivo nacional da Torre do Tombo acerca + das navegacoes ... portuguezas_ (Lisbon, 1892); Alves, _Dom Henrique o + Infante_ (Oporto, 1894); _Archivo dos Acores_ (Ponta Delgada, + 1878-1894); Gomes Eannes de Azurara, _Chronica do descobrimento e + conquista de Guine_, ed. Carreira and Santarem (Paris, 1841; Eng. + trans. by Raymond Beazley and Edgar Prestage, Hakluyt Society, London, + 1896-1899); Joao de Barros, _Decadas da Asia_ (Lisbon, 1652); Raymond + Beazley, _Prince Henry the Navigator_ (London, 1895), and introduction + to Azurara, vol. ii., in Hakluyt Soc. trans. (see above); Antonio + Cordeiro, _Historia Insultana_ (Lisbon, 1717); Freire (Candido + Lusitano), _Vida do Infante D. Henrique_ (Lisbon, 1858); "Diogo + Gomez," in Dr Schmeller's _Uber Valentim Fernandez Alemao_, vol. iv. + pt. iii., in the publications of the 1st class of the Royal Bavarian + Academy of Sciences (Munich, 1845); R. H. Major, _The Life of Henry of + Portugal, surnamed the Navigator_ (London, 1868); Jules Mees, _Henri + le Navigateur et l'academie ... de Sagres_ (Brussels, 1901), and + _Histoire de la decouverte des iles Acores_ (Ghent, 1901); Duarte + Pacheco Pereira, _Esmeraldo de situ orbis_ (Lisbon, 1892); Sophus + Ruge, "Prinz Heinrich der Seefahrer," in vol. 65 of _Globus_, p. 153 + (Brunswick, 1894); Gustav de Veer, _Prinz Heinrich der Seefahrer_ + (Danzig, 1863); H. E. Wauwerman, _Henri le Navigateur et l'academie + portugaise de Sagres_ (Antwerp and Brussels, 1890). (C. R. B.) + + + + +HENRY OF ALMAIN (1235-1271), so called from his father's German +connexions, was the son of Richard, earl of Cornwall and king of the +Romans. As a nephew of both Henry III. and Simon de Montfort he wavered +between the two at the beginning of the Barons' War, but finally took +the royalist side and was among the prisoners taken by Montfort at Lewes +(1264). In 1268 he took the cross with his cousin Edward, who, however, +sent him back from Sicily to pacify the unruly province of Gascony. +Henry took the land route with the kings of France and Sicily. While +attending mass at Viterbo (13 March 1271) he was attacked by Guy and +Simon de Montfort, sons of Earl Simon, and foully murdered. This revenge +was the more outrageous since Henry had personally exerted himself on +behalf of the Montforts after Evesham. The deed is mentioned by Dante, +who put Guy de Montfort in the seventh circle of hell. + + See W. H. Blaauw's _The Barons' War_ (ed. 1871); Ch. Bemont's _Simon + de Montfort_ (1884). + + + + +HENRY OF BLOIS, bishop of Winchester (1101-1171), was the son of +Stephen, count of Blois, by Adela, daughter of William I., and brother +of King Stephen. He was educated at Cluny, and consistently exerted +himself for the principles of Cluniac reform. If these involved high +claims of independence and power for the Church, they also asserted a +high standard of devotion and discipline. Henry was brought to England +by Henry I. and made abbot of Glastonbury. In 1129 he was given the +bishopric of Winchester and allowed to hold his abbey in conjunction +with it. His hopes of the see of Canterbury were disappointed, but he +obtained in 1139 a legatine commission which gave him a higher rank than +the primate. In fact as well as in theory he became the master of the +Church in England. He even contemplated the erection of a new province, +with Winchester as its centre, which was to be independent of +Canterbury. Owing both to local and to general causes the power of the +Church in England has never been higher than in the reign of Stephen +(1135-1154), Henry as its leader and a legate of the pope was the real +"lord of England," as the chronicles call him. Indeed, one of the +ecclesiastical councils over which he presided formally declared that +the election of the king in England was the special privilege of the +clergy. Stephen owed his crown to Henry (1135), but they quarrelled +when Stephen refused to give Henry the primacy; and the bishop took up +the cause of Roger of Salisbury (1139). After the battle of Lincoln +(1141) Henry declared for Matilda; but finding his advice treated with +contempt, rejoined his brother's side, and his successful defence of +Winchester against the empress (Aug.-Sept. 1141) was the turning-point +of the civil war. The expiration of his legatine commission of 1144 +deprived him of much of his power. He spent the rest of Stephen's reign +in trying to procure its renewal. But his efforts were unsuccessful, +though he made a personal visit to Rome. At the accession of Henry II. +(1154) he retired from the world and spent the rest of his life in works +of charity and penitence. He died in 1171. Henry seems to have been a +man of high character, great courage, resolution and ability. Like most +great bishops of his age he had a passion for architecture. He built, +among other castles, that of Farnham; and he began the hospital of St +Cross at Winchester. + + AUTHORITIES.--Original: William of Malmesbury, _De gestis regum_; the + _Gesta Stephani_. Modern: Sir James Ramsay, _Foundations of England_, + vol. ii.; Kate Norgate's _Angevin Kings_; Kitchin's _Winchester_. + + + + +HENRY OF GHENT [Henricus a Gandavo] (c. 1217-1293), scholastic +philosopher, known as "Doctor Solennis," was born in the district of +Mude, near Ghent, and died at Tournai (or Paris). He is said to have +belonged to an Italian family named Bonicolli, in Flemish Goethals, but +the question of his name has been much discussed (see authorities +below). He studied at Ghent and then at Cologne under Albertus Magnus. +After obtaining the degree of doctor he returned to Ghent, and is said +to have been the first to lecture there publicly on philosophy and +theology. Attracted to Paris by the fame of the university, he took part +in the many disputes between the orders and the secular priests, and +warmly defended the latter. A contemporary of Aquinas, he opposed +several of the dominant theories of the time, and united with the +current Aristotelian doctrines a strong infusion of Platonism. He +distinguished between knowledge of actual objects and the divine +inspiration by which we cognize the being and existence of God. The +first throws no light upon the second. Individuals are constituted not +by the material element but by their independent existence, i.e. +ultimately by the fact that they are created as separate entities. +Universals must be distinguished according as they have reference to our +minds or to the divine mind. In the divine intelligence exist exemplars +or types of the genera and species of natural objects. On this subject +Henry is far from clear; but he defends Plato against the current +Aristotelian criticism, and endeavours to show that the two views are in +harmony. In psychology, his view of the intimate union of soul and body +is remarkable. The body he regards as forming part of the substance of +the soul, which through this union is more perfect and complete. + + WORKS.--_Quodlibeta theologica_ (Paris, 1518; Venice, 1608 and 1613); + _Summa theologiae_ (Paris, 1520; Ferrara, 1646); _De scriptoribus + ecclesiasticis_ (Cologne, 1580). + + AUTHORITIES.--F. Huet's _Recherches hist. et crit. ... de H. de G._ + (Paris, 1838) has been superseded by F. Ehrle's monograph in _Archiv + fur Lit. u. Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters_, i. (1885); see also + A. Wauters and N. de Pauw in the _Bull. de la Com. royale d'histoire + de Belgique_ (4th series, xiv., xv., xvi., 1887-1889); H. Delehaye, + _Nouvelles Recherches sur Henri de Gand_ (1886); C. Werner, _Heinrich + von Gent als Reprasentant des christlichen Platonismus im 13ten + Jahrh._ (Vienna, 1878); A. Stockl, _Phil. d. Mittelalters_, ii. + 738-758; C. Brechillet Jourdain, _La Philosophie de St Thomas d'Aquin_ + (1858), ii. 29-46; Alphonse le Roy in _Biographie nationale de + Belgique_, vii. (Brussels, 1880); and article SCHOLASTICISM. + + + + +HENRY OF HUNTINGDON, English chronicler of the 12th century, was born, +apparently, between the years 1080 and 1090. His father, by name +Nicholas, was a clerk, who became archdeacon of Cambridge, Hertford and +Huntingdon, in the time of Remigius, bishop of Lincoln (d. 1092). The +celibacy of the clergy was not strictly enforced in England before 1102. +Hence the chronicler makes no secret of his antecedents, nor did they +interfere with his career. At an early age Henry entered the household +of Bishop Robert Bloet, who appointed him, immediately after the death +of Nicholas (1110), archdeacon of Hertford and Huntingdon. Henry was on +familiar terms with his patron; and also, it would seem, with Bloet's +successor, by whom he was encouraged to undertake the writing of an +English history from the time of Julius Caesar. This work, undertaken +before 1130, was first published in that year; the author subsequently +published in succession four more editions, of which the last ends in +1154 with the accession of Henry II. The only recorded fact of the +chronicler's later life is that he went with Archbishop Theobald to Rome +in 1139. On the way Henry halted at Bec, and there made the acquaintance +of Robert de Torigni, who mentions their encounter in the preface to his +Chronicle. + + The _Historia Anglorum_ was first printed in Savile, _Rerum Anglicarum + scriptores post Bedam_ (London, 1596). The first six books excepting + the third, which is almost entirely taken from Bede, are given in + _Monumenta historica Britannica_, vol. i. (ed. H. Petrie and J. + Sharpe, London, 1848). The standard edition is that of T. Arnold in + the Rolls Series (London, 1879). There is a translation by T. Forester + in Bohn's _Antiquarian Library_ (London, 1853). The Historia is of + little independent value before 1126. Up to that point the author + compiles from Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, Nennius, Bede and the + English chronicles, particularly that of Peterborough; in some cases + he professes to supplement these sources from oral tradition; but most + of his amplifications are pure rhetoric (see F. Liebermann in + _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_ for 1878, pp. 265 seq.). Arnold + prints, in an appendix, a minor work from Henry's pen, the _Epistola + ad Walterum de contemptu mundi_, which was written in 1135. It is a + moralizing tract, but contains some interesting anecdotes about + contemporaries. Henry also wrote epistles to Henry I. (on the + succession of kings and emperors in the great monarchies of the world) + and to "Warinus, a Briton" (on the early British kings, after Geoffrey + of Monmouth). A book, _De miraculis_, composed of extracts from Bede, + was appended along with these three epistles to the later recensions + of the _Historia_. Henry composed eight books of Latin epigrams; two + books survive in the Lambeth MS., No. 118. His value as a historian, + formerly much overrated, is discussed at length by Liebermann and in + T. Arnold's introduction to the Rolls edition of the _Historia_. + (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +HENRY OF LAUSANNE (variously known as of Bruys, of Cluny, of Toulouse, +and as the Deacon), French heresiarch of the first half of the 12th +century. Practically nothing is known of his origin or early life. He +may have been one of those hermits who at that time swarmed in the +forests of western Europe, and particularly in France, always surrounded +by popular veneration, and sometimes the founders of monasteries or +religious orders, such as those of Premontre or Fontevrault. If St +Bernard's reproach (_Ep._ 241) be well founded, Henry was an apostate +monk--a "black monk" (Benedictine) according to the chronicler Alberic +de Trois Fontaines. The information we possess as to his degree of +instruction is scarcely more precise or less conflicting. When he +arrived at Le Mans in 1101, his _terminus a quo_ was probably Lausanne. +At that moment Hildebert, the bishop of Le Mans, was absent from his +episcopal town, and this is one of the reasons why Henry was granted +permission to preach (March to July 1101), a function jealously guarded +by the regular clergy. Whether by his prestige as a hermit and ascetic +or by his personal charm, he soon acquired enormous influence over the +people. His doctrine at that date appears to have been very vague; he +seemingly rejected the invocation of saints and also second marriages, +and preached penitence. Women, inflamed by his words, gave up their +jewels and luxurious apparel, and young men married courtesans in the +hope of reclaiming them. Henry was peculiarly fitted for a popular +preacher. In person he was tall and had a long beard; his voice was +sonorous, and his eyes flashed fire. He went bare-footed, preceded by a +man carrying a staff surmounted with an iron cross; he slept on the bare +ground, and lived by alms. At his instigation the inhabitants of Le Mans +soon began to slight the clergy of their town and to reject all +ecclesiastical authority. On his return from Rome, Hildebert had a +public disputation with Henry, in which, according to the bishop's _Acta +episcoporum Cenomannensium_, Henry was shown to be less guilty of heresy +than of ignorance. He, however, was forced to leave Le Mans, and went +probably to Poitiers and afterwards to Bordeaux. Later we find him in +the diocese of Arles, where the archbishop arrested him and had his case +referred to the tribunal of the pope. In 1134 Henry appeared before Pope +Innocent III. at the council of Pisa, where he was compelled to abjure +his errors and was sentenced to imprisonment. It appears that St Bernard +offered him an asylum at Clairvaux; but it is not known if he reached +Clairvaux, nor do we know when or in what circumstances he resumed his +activities. Towards 1139, however, Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny, +wrote a treatise called _Epistola seu tractatus adversus Petrobrusianos_ +(Migne, _Patr. Lat._ clxxxix.) against the disciples of Peter of Bruys +and Henry of Lausanne, whom he calls Henry of Bruys, and whom, at the +moment of writing, he accuses of preaching, in all the dioceses in the +south of France, errors which he had inherited from Peter of Bruys. +According to Peter the Venerable, Henry's teaching is summed up as +follows: rejection of the doctrinal and disciplinary authority of the +church; recognition of the Gospel freely interpreted as the sole rule of +faith; condemnation of the baptism of infants, of the eucharist, of the +sacrifice of the mass, of the communion of saints, and of prayers for +the dead; and refusal to recognize any form of worship or liturgy. The +success of this teaching spread very rapidly in the south of France. +Speaking of this region, St Bernard (_Ep._ 241) says: "The churches are +without flocks, the flocks without priests, the priests without honour; +in a word, nothing remains save Christians without Christ." On several +occasions St Bernard was begged to fight the innovator on the scene of +his exploits, and in 1145, at the instance of the legate Alberic, +cardinal bishop of Ostia, he set out, passing through the diocese of +Angouleme and Limoges, sojourning for some time at Bordeaux, and finally +reaching the heretical towns of Bergerac, Perigueux, Sarlat, Cahors and +Toulouse. At Bernard's approach Henry quitted Toulouse, leaving there +many adherents, both of noble and humble birth, and especially among the +weavers. But Bernard's eloquence and miracles made many converts, and +Toulouse and Albi were quickly restored to orthodoxy. After inviting +Henry to a disputation, which he refused to attend, St Bernard returned +to Clairvaux. Soon afterwards the heresiarch was arrested, brought +before the bishop of Toulouse, and probably imprisoned for life. In a +letter to the people of Toulouse, undoubtedly written at the end of +1146, St Bernard calls upon them to extirpate the last remnants of the +heresy. In 1151, however, some Henricians still remained in Languedoc, +for Matthew Paris relates (_Chron. maj._, at date 1151) that a young +girl, who gave herself out to be miraculously inspired by the Virgin +Mary, was reputed to have converted a great number of the disciples of +Henry of Lausanne. It is impossible to designate definitely as +Henricians one of the two sects discovered at Cologne and described by +Everwin, provost of Steinfeld, in his letter to St Bernard (Migne, +_Patr. Lat._, clxxxii. 676-680), or the heretics of Perigord mentioned +by a certain monk Heribert (Martin Bouquet, _Recueil des historiens des +Gaules et de la France_, xii. 550-551). + + See "Les Origines de l'heresie albigeoise," by Vacandard in the _Revue + des questions historiques_ (Paris, 1894, pp. 67-83). (P. A.) + + + + +HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841- ), American genre painter, was born in +Charleston, South Carolina, on the 12th of January 1841. He was a pupil +of the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia, +and of Gleyre and Courbet in Paris, and in 1870 was elected to the +National Academy of Design, New York. As a painter of colonial and early +American themes and incidents of rural life, he displays a quaint humour +and a profound knowledge of human nature. Among his best-known +compositions are some of early railroad travel, incidents of stage coach +and canal boat journeys, rendered with much detail on a minute scale. + + + + +HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876), Irish classical scholar, was born in Dublin on +the 13th of December 1798. He was educated at Trinity College, and until +1845 practised as a physician in the city. In spite of his +unconventionally and unorthodox views on religion and his own +profession, he was very successful. His accession to a large fortune +enabled him to devote himself entirely to the absorbing occupation of +his life--the study of Virgil. Accompanied by his wife and daughter, he +visited all those parts of Europe where he was likely to find rare +editions or MSS. of the poet. He died near Dublin on the 14th of July +1876. As a commentator on Virgil Henry will always deserve to be +remembered, notwithstanding the occasional eccentricity of his notes and +remarks. The first fruits of his researches were published at Dresden in +1853 under the quaint title _Notes of a Twelve Years' Voyage of +Discovery in the first six Books of the Eneis_. These were embodied, +with alterations and additions, in the _Aeneidea, or Critical, +Exegetical and Aesthetical Remarks on the Aeneis_ (1873-1892), of which +only the notes on the first book were published during the author's +lifetime. As a textual critic Henry was exceedingly conservative. His +notes, written in a racy and interesting style, are especially valuable +for their wealth of illustration and references to the less-known +classical authors. Henry was also the author of several poems, some of +them descriptive accounts of his travels, and of various pamphlets of a +satirical nature. + + See obituary notice by J. P. Mahaffy in the _Academy_ of the 12th of + August 1876, where a list of his works, nearly all of which were + privately printed, is given. + + + + +HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878), American physicist, was born in Albany, N.Y., +on the 17th of December 1797. He received his education at an ordinary +school, and afterwards at the Albany Academy, which enjoyed considerable +reputation for the thoroughness of its classical and mathematical +courses. On finishing his academic studies he contemplated adopting the +medical profession, and prosecuted his studies in chemistry, anatomy and +physiology with that view. He occasionally contributed papers to the +Albany Institute, in the years 1824 and 1825, on chemical and mechanical +subjects; and in the latter year, having been unexpectedly appointed +assistant engineer on the survey of a route for a state road from the +Hudson river to Lake Erie, a distance somewhat over 300 m., he at once +embarked with zeal and success in the new enterprise. This diversion +from his original bent gave him an inclination to the career of civil +and mechanical engineering; and in the spring of 1826 he was elected by +the trustees of the Albany Academy to the chair of mathematics and +natural philosophy in that institution. In the latter part of 1827 he +read before the Albany Institute his first important contribution, "On +Some Modifications of the Electro-Magnetic Apparatus." Struck with the +great improvements then recently introduced into such apparatus by +William Sturgeon of Woolwich, he had still further extended their +efficiency, with considerable reduction of battery-power, by adopting in +all the experimental circuits (where applicable) the principle of J. S. +C. Schweigger's "multiplier," that is, by substituting for single wire +circuits, voluminous coils (_Trans. Albany Institute_, 1827, 1, p. 22). +In June 1828 and in March 1829 he exhibited before the institute small +electro-magnets closely and repeatedly wound with silk-covered wire, +which had a far greater lifting power than any then known. Henry appears +to have been the first to adopt insulated or silk-covered wire for the +magnetic coil; and also the first to employ what may be called the +"spool" winding for the limbs of the magnet. He was also the first to +demonstrate experimentally the difference of action between what he +called a "quantity" magnet excited by a "quantity" battery of a single +pair, and an "intensity" magnet with long fine wire coil excited by an +"intensity" battery of many elements, having their resistances suitably +proportioned. He pointed out that the latter form alone was applicable +to telegraphic purposes. A detailed account of these experiments and +exhibitions was not, however, published till 1831 (_Sill. Journ._, 19, +p. 400). Henry's "quantity" magnets acquired considerable celebrity at +the time, from their unprecedented attractive power--one (August 1830) +lifting 750 lb., another (March 1831) 2300, and a third (1834) 3500. + +Early in 1831 he arranged a small office-bell to be tapped by the +polarized armature of an "intensity" magnet, whose coil was in +continuation of a mile of insulated copper wire, suspended about one of +the rooms of his academy. This was the first instance of magnetizing +iron at a distance, or of a suitable combination of magnet and battery +being so arranged as to be capable of such action. It was, therefore, +the earliest example of a true "magnetic" telegraph, all preceding +experiments to this end having been on the galvanometer or needle +principle. About the same time he devised and constructed the first +electromagnetic engine with automatic polechanger (_Sill. Journ._, 1831, +20, p. 340; and Sturgeon's _Annals Electr._, 1839, 3, p. 554). Early in +1832 he discovered the induction of a current on itself, in a long +helical wire, giving greatly increased intensity of discharge (_Sill. +Journ._, 1832, 22, p. 408). In 1832 he was elected to the chair of +natural philosophy in the New Jersey college at Princeton. In 1834 he +continued and extended his researches "On the Influence of a Spiral +Conductor in increasing the Intensity of Electricity from a Galvanic +Arrangement of a Single Pair," a memoir of which was read before the +American Philosophical Society on the 5th of February 1835. In 1835 he +combined the short circuit of his monster magnet (of 1834) with the +small "intensity" magnet of an experimental telegraph wire, thereby +establishing the fact that very powerful mechanical effects could be +produced at a great distance by the agency of a very feeble magnet used +as a circuit maker and breaker, or as a "trigger"--the precursor of +later forms of relay and receiving magnets. In 1837 he paid his first +visit to England and Europe. In 1838 he made important investigations in +regard to the conditions and range of induction from electrical +currents--showing that induced currents, although merely momentary, +produce still other or tertiary currents, and thus on through successive +orders of induction, with alternating signs, and with reversed initial +and terminal signs. He also discovered similar successive orders of +induction in the case of the passage of frictional electricity (_Trans. +Am. Phil. Soc._, 6, pp. 303-337). Among many minor observations, he +discovered in 1842 the oscillatory nature of the electrical discharge, +magnetizing about a thousand needles in the course of his experiments +(_Proc. Am. Phil. Soc._, 1, p. 301). He traced the influence of +induction to surprising distances, magnetizing needles in the lower +story of a house through several intervening floors by means of +electrical discharges in the upper story, and also by the secondary +current in a wire 220 ft. distant from the wire of the primary circuit. +The five numbers of his _Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism_ +(1835-1842) were separately republished from the _Transactions_. In 1843 +he made some interesting original observations on "Phosphorescence" +(_Proc. Am. Phil. Soc._, 3, pp. 38-44). In 1844, by experiments on the +tenacity of soap-bubbles, he showed that the molecular cohesion of water +is equal (if not superior) to that of ice, and hence, generally, that +solids and their liquids have practically the same amount of cohesion +(_Proc. Am. Phil. Soc._, 4, pp. 56 and 84). In 1845 he showed, by means +of a thermo-galvanometer, that the solar spots radiate less heat than +the general solar surface (_Proc. Am. Phil. Soc._, 4, pp. 173-176). + +In December 1846 Henry was elected secretary and director of the +Smithsonian Institution, then just established. While closely occupied +with the exacting duties of that office, he still found time to +prosecute many original inquiries--as into the application of acoustics +to public buildings, and the best construction and arrangement of +lecture-rooms, into the strength of various building materials, &c. +Having early devoted much attention to meteorology, both in observing +and in reducing and discussing observations, he (among his first +administrative acts) organized a large and widespread corps of +observers, and made arrangements for simultaneous reports by means of +the electric telegraph, which was yet in its infancy (_Smithson. Report_ +for 1847, pp. 146, 147). He was the first to apply the telegraph to +meteorological research, to have the atmospheric conditions daily +indicated on a large map, to utilize the generalizations made in weather +forecasts, and to embrace a continent under a single system--British +America and Mexico being included in the field of observation. In 1852, +on the reorganization of the American lighthouse system, he was +appointed a member of the new board; and in 1871 he became the presiding +officer of the establishment--a position he continued to hold during the +rest of his life. His diligent investigations into the efficiency of +various illuminants in differing circumstances, and into the best +conditions for developing their several maximum powers of brilliancy, +while greatly improving the usefulness of the line of beacons along the +extensive coast of the United States, effected at the same time a great +economy of administration. His equally careful experiments on various +acoustic instruments also resulted in giving to his country the most +serviceable system of fog-signals known to maritime powers. In the +course of these varied and prolonged researches from 1865 to 1877, he +also made important contributions to the science of acoustics; and he +established by several series of laborious observations, extending over +many years and along a wide coast range, the correctness of G. G. +Stokes's hypothesis (_Report Brit. Assoc._, 1857, part ii. 27) that the +wind exerts a very marked influence in refracting sound-beams. From 1868 +Henry continued to be annually chosen as president of the National +Academy of Sciences; and he was also president of the Philosophical +Society of Washington from the date of its organization in 1871. + +Henry was by general concession the foremost of American physicists. He +was a man of varied culture, of large breadth and liberality of views, +of generous impulses, of great gentleness and courtesy of manner, +combined with equal firmness of purpose and energy of action. He died at +Washington on the 13th of May 1878. (S. F. B.) + + + + +HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714), English nonconformist divine, was born at +Broad Oak, a farm-house on the confines of Flintshire and Shropshire, on +the 18th of October 1662. He was the son of Philip Henry, who had, two +months earlier, been ejected by the Act of Uniformity. Unlike most of +his fellow-sufferers, Philip Henry possessed some private means, and was +thus enabled to give a good education to his son, who went first to a +school at Islington, and then to Gray's Inn. He soon relinquished his +legal studies for theology, and in 1687 became minister of a +Presbyterian congregation at Chester, removing in 1712 to Mare Street, +Hackney. Two years later (22nd of June 1714), he died suddenly of +apoplexy at Nantwich while on a journey from Chester to London. Henry's +well-known _Exposition of the Old and New Testaments_ (1708-1710) is a +commentary of a practical and devotional rather than of a critical kind, +covering the whole of the Old Testament, and the Gospels and Acts in the +New. Here it was broken off by the author's death, but the work was +finished by a number of ministers, and edited by G. Burder and John +Hughes in 1811. Of no value as criticism, its unfailing good sense, its +discriminating thought, its high moral tone, its simple piety and its +singular felicity of practical application, combine with the +well-sustained flow of its racy English style to secure for it the +foremost place among works of its class. + +His _Miscellaneous Writings_, including a _Life of Mr Philip Henry_, +_The Communicant's Companion_, _Directions for Daily Communion with +God_, _A Method for Prayer_, _A Scriptural Catechism_, and numerous +sermons, were edited in 1809 and in 1830. See biographies by W. Tong +(1816), C. Chapman (1859), J. B. Williams (1828, new ed. 1865); and M. +H. Lee's _Diaries and Letters of Philip Henry_ (1883). + + + + +HENRY, PATRICK (1736-1799), American statesman and orator, was born at +Studley, Hanover county, Virginia, on the 29th of May 1736. He was the +son of John Henry, a well-educated Scotsman, among whose relatives was +the historian William Robertson, and who served in Virginia as county +surveyor, colonel and judge of a county court. His mother was one of a +family named Winston, of Welsh descent, noted for conversational and +musical talent. At the age of ten Patrick was making slow progress in +the study of reading, writing and arithmetic at a small country school, +when his father became his tutor and taught him Latin, Greek and +mathematics for five years, but with limited success. His school days +being then terminated, he was employed as a store-clerk for one year. +Within the seven years next following he failed twice as a storekeeper +and once as a farmer; but in the meantime acquired a taste for reading, +of history especially, and read and re-read the history of Greece and +Rome, of England, and of her American colonies. Then, poor but not +discouraged, he resolved to be a lawyer, and after reading _Coke upon +Littleton_ and the Virginia laws for a few weeks only, he strongly +impressed one of his examiners, and was admitted to the bar at the age +of twenty-four, on condition that he spend more time in study before +beginning to practise. He rapidly acquired a considerable practice, his +fee books shewing that for the first three years he charged fees in 1185 +cases. Then in 1763 was delivered his speech in "The Parson's Cause"--a +suit brought by a clergyman, Rev. James Maury, in the Hanover County +Court, to secure restitution for money considered by him to be due on +account of his salary (16,000 pounds of tobacco by law) having been paid +in money calculated at a rate less than the current market price of +tobacco. This speech, which, according to reports, was extremely radical +and denied the right of the king to disallow acts of the colonial +legislature, made Henry the idol of the common people of Virginia and +procured for him an enormous practice. In 1765 he was elected a member +of the Virginia legislature, where he became in the same year the author +of the "Virginia Resolutions," which were no less than a declaration of +resistance to the Stamp Act and an assertion of the right of the +colonies to legislate for themselves independently of the control of the +British parliament, and gave a most powerful impetus to the movement +resulting in the War of Independence. In a speech urging their adoption +appear the often-quoted words: "Tarquin and Caesar had each his Brutus, +Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third [here he was +interrupted by cries of "Treason"] and George the Third may profit by +their example! If _this_ be treason, make the most of it." Until 1775 he +continued to sit in the House of Burgesses, as a leader during all that +eventful period. He was prominent as a radical in all measures in +opposition to the British government, and was a member of the first +Virginia committee of correspondence. In 1774 and 1775 he was a delegate +to the Continental Congress and served on three of its most important +committees: that on colonial trade and manufactures, that for drawing up +an address to the king, and that for stating the rights of the colonies. +In 1775, in the second revolutionary convention of Virginia, Henry, +regarding war as inevitable, presented resolutions for arming the +Virginia militia. The more conservative members strongly opposed them as +premature, whereupon Henry supported them in a speech familiar to the +American school-boy for several generations following, closing with the +words, "Is life so dear or peace so sweet as to be purchased at the +price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what +course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me +death!" The resolutions were passed and their author was made chairman +of the committee for which they provided. The chief command of the newly +organized army was also given to him, but previously, at the head of a +body of militia, he had demanded satisfaction for powder removed from +the public store by order of Lord Dunmore, the royal governor, with the +result that L330 was paid in compensation. But his military appointment +required obedience to the Committee of Public Safety, and this body, +largely dominated by Edmund Pendleton, so restrained him from active +service that he resigned on the 28th of February 1776. In the Virginia +convention of 1776 he favoured the postponement of a declaration of +independence, until a firm union of the colonies and the friendship of +France and Spain had been secured. In the same convention he served on +the committee which drafted the first constitution for Virginia, and was +elected governor of the State--to which office he was re-elected in 1777 +and 1778, thus serving as long as the new constitution allowed any man +to serve continuously. As governor he gave Washington able support and +sent out the expedition under George Rogers Clark (q.v.) into the +Illinois country. In 1778 he was chosen a delegate to Congress, but +declined to serve. From 1780 to 1784 and from 1787 to 1790 he was again +a member of his State legislature; and from 1784 to 1786 was again +governor. Until 1786 he was a leading advocate of a stronger central +government but when chosen a delegate to the Philadelphia constitutional +convention of 1787, he had become cold in the cause and declined to +serve. Moreover, in the state convention called to decide whether +Virginia should ratify the Federal Constitution he led the opposition, +contending that the proposed Constitution, because of its centralizing +character, was dangerous to the liberties of the country. This change of +attitude is thought to have been due chiefly to his suspicion of the +North aroused by John Jay's proposal to surrender to Spain for +twenty-five or thirty years the navigation of the Mississippi. From 1794 +until his death he declined in succession the following offices: United +States senator (1794), secretary of state in Washington's cabinet +(1795), chief justice of the United States Supreme Court (1795), +governor of Virginia (1796), to which office he had been elected by the +Assembly, and envoy to France (1799). In 1799, however, he consented to +serve again in his State legislature, where he wished to combat the +Virginia Resolutions; he never took his seat, since he died, on his Red +Hill estate in Charlotte county, Virginia, on the 6th of June of that +year. Henry was twice married, first to Sarah Skelton, and second to +Dorothea Spotswood Dandridge, a grand-daughter of Governor Alexander +Spotswocd. + + See Moses Coit Tyler, _Patrick Henry_ (Boston, 1887; new ed., 1899), + and William Wirt Henry (Patrick Henry's grandson), _Patrick Henry: + Life, Correspondence and Speeches_ (New York, 1890-1891); these + supersede the very unsatisfactory biography by William Wirt, _Sketches + of the Life and Character of Patrick Henry_ (Philadelphia, 1817). See + also George Morgan, _The True Patrick Henry_ (Philadelphia, 1907). + (N. D. M.) + + + + +HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790), British historian, was the son of James +Henry, a farmer of Muirton, near Stirling. Born on the 18th of February +1718 he was educated at the parish school of St Ninians, and at the +grammar school of Stirling, and, after completing his course at +Edinburgh University, became master of the grammar school at Annan. In +1746 he was licensed to preach, and in 1748 was chosen minister of a +Presbyterian congregation at Carlisle, where he remained until 1760, +when he removed to a similar charge at Berwick-on-Tweed. In 1768 he +became minister of the New Greyfriars' Church, Edinburgh, and having +received the degree of D.D. from Edinburgh University in 1771, and +served as moderator of the general assembly of the church of Scotland in +1774, he was appointed one of the ministers of the Old Greyfriars' +Church, Edinburgh, in 1776, remaining in this charge until his death on +the 24th of November 1790. During his residence in Berwick, Henry +commenced his _History of Great Britain, written on a new plan_; but, +owing to the difficulty of consulting the original authorities, he did +not make much progress with the work until his removal to Edinburgh in +1768. The first five volumes appeared between 1771 and 1785, and the +sixth, edited and completed by Malcolm Laing, was published three years +after the author's death. A life of Henry was prefixed to this volume. +The _History_ covers the years between the Roman invasion and the death +of Henry VIII., and the "new plan" is the combination of an account of +the domestic life and commercial and social progress of the people with +the narrative of the political events of each period. The work was +virulently assailed by Dr Gilbert Stuart (1742-1786), who appeared +anxious to damage the sale of the book; but the injury thus effected was +only slight, as Henry received L3300 for the volumes published during +his lifetime. In 1781, through the influence of the earl of Mansfield, +he obtained a pension of L100 a year from the British government. + + The _History of Great Britain_ has been translated into French, and + has passed into several English editions. An account of Stuart's + attack on Henry is given in Isaac D'Israeli's _Calamities of Authors_. + + + + +HENRY, VICTOR (1850- ), French philologist, was born at Colmar in +Alsace. Having held appointments at Douai and Lille, he was appointed +professor of Sanskrit and comparative grammar in the university of +Paris. A prolific and versatile writer, he is probably best known by the +English translations of his _Precis de Grammaire comparee de l'anglais +et de l'allemand_ and _Precis ... du Grec et du Latin_. Important works +by him on India and Indian languages are: _Manuel pour etudier le +Sanscrit vedique_ (with A. Bergaigne, 1890); _Elements de Sanscrit +classique_ (1902); _Precis de grammaire Palie_ (1904); _Les Litteratures +de l'Inde: Sanscrit, Pali, Pracrit_ (1904); _La Magie dans l'Inde +antique_ (1904); _Le Parsisme_ (1905); _L'Agnistoma_ (1906). Obscure +languages (such as Innok, Quichua, Greenland) and local dialects +(_Lexique etymologique du Breton moderne; Le Dialecte Alaman de Colmar_) +also claimed his attention. _Le Langage Martien_ is a curious book. It +contains a discussion of some 40 phrases (amounting to about 300 words), +which a certain Mademoiselle Helene Smith (a well-known spiritualist +medium of Geneva), while on a hypnotic visit to the planet Mars, learnt +and repeated and even wrote down during her trance as specimens of a +language spoken there, explained to her by a disembodied interpreter. + + + + +HENRY, WILLIAM (1775-1836), English chemist, son of Thomas Henry +(1734-1816), an apothecary and writer on chemistry, was born at +Manchester on the 12th of December 1775. He began to study medicine at +Edinburgh in 1795, taking his doctor's degree in 1807, but ill-health +interrupted his practice as a physician, and he devoted his time mainly +to chemical research, especially in regard to gases. One of his +best-known papers (_Phil. Trans._, 1803) describes experiments on the +quantity of gases absorbed by water at different temperatures and under +different pressures, the conclusion he reached ("Henry's law") being +that "water takes up of gas condensed by one, two or more additional +atmospheres, a quantity which, ordinarily compressed, would be equal to +twice, thrice, &c. the volume absorbed under the common pressure of the +atmosphere." Others of his papers deal with gas-analysis, fire-damp, +illuminating gas, the composition of hydrochloric acid and of ammonia, +urinary and other morbid concretions, and the disinfecting powers of +heat. His _Elements of Experimental Chemistry_ (1799) enjoyed +considerable vogue in its day, going through 11 editions in 30 years. He +died at Pendlebury, near Manchester, on the 2nd of September 1836. + + + + +HENRYSON, ROBERT (c. 1425-c. 1500), Scottish poet, was born about 1425. +It has been surmised that he was connected with the family of Henderson +of Fordell, but of this there is no evidence. He is described, on the +title-page of the 1570 edition of his _Fables_, as "scholemaister of +Dunfermeling," probably of the grammar-school of the Benedictine Abbey +there. There is no record of his having studied at St Andrews, the only +Scottish university at this time; but in 1462 a "Master Robert Henryson" +is named among those incorporated in the recently founded university of +Glasgow. It is therefore likely that his first studies were completed +abroad, at Paris or Louvain. He would appear to have been in lower +orders, if, in addition to being master of the grammar-school, he is the +notary Robert Henryson who subscribes certain deeds in 1478. As Dunbar +(q.v.) refers to him as deceased in his _Lament for the Makaris_, his +death may be dated about 1500. + +Efforts have been made to draw up a chronology of his poems; but every +scheme of this kind, is, in a stronger sense than in the case of Dunbar, +mere guess-work. There are no biographical or bibliographical facts to +guide us, and the "internal evidence" is inconclusive. + +Henryson's longest, and in many respects his most original and effective +work, is his _Morall Fabillis of Esope_, a collection of thirteen +fables, chiefly based on the versions of Anonymus, Lydgate and Caxton. +The outstanding merit of the work is its freshness of treatment. The old +themes are retold with such vivacity, such fresh lights on human +character, and with so much local "atmosphere," that they deserve the +credit of original productions. They are certainly unrivalled in English +fabulistic literature. The earliest available texts are the Charteris +text printed by Lekpreuik in Edinburgh in 1570 and the Harleian MS. No. +3865 in the British Museum. + +In the _Testament of Cresseid_ Henryson supplements Chaucer's tale of +Troilus with the story of the tragedy of Cresseid. Here again his +literary craftsmanship saves him from the disaster which must have +overcome another poet in undertaking to continue the part of the story +which Chaucer had intentionally left untold. The description of +Cresseid's leprosy, of her meeting with Troilus, of his sorrow and +charity, and of her death, give the poem a high place in writings of +this _genre_. + +The poem entitled _Orpheus and Eurydice_, which is drawn from Boethius, +contains some good passages, especially the lyrical lament of Orpheus, +with the refrains "Quhar art thow gane, my luf Erudices?" and "My lady +quene and luf, Erudices." It is followed by a long _moralitas_, in the +manner of the _Fables_. + +Thirteen shorter poems have been ascribed to Henryson. Of these the +pastoral dialogue "Robene and Makyne," perhaps the best known of his +work, is the most successful. Its model may perhaps be found in the +_pastourelles_, but it stands safely on its own merits. Unlike most of +the minor poems it is independent of Chaucerian tradition. The other +pieces deal with the conventional 15th-century topics: Age, Death, Hasty +Credence, Want of Wise Men and the like. The verses entitled "Sum +Practysis of Medecyne," in which some have failed to see Henryson's +hand, is an example of that boisterous alliterative burlesque which is +represented by a single specimen in the work of the greatest makers, +Dunbar, Douglas and Lyndsay. For this reason, if not for others, the +difference of its manner is no argument against its authenticity. + + The MS. authorities for the text are the Asloan, Bannatyne, Maitland + Folio, Makculloch, Gray and Riddell. Chepman and Myllar's Prints + (1508) have preserved two of the minor poems and a fragment of + _Orpheus and Eurydice_. The first complete edition was prepared by + David Laing (1 vol., Edinburgh, 1865). A more exhaustive edition in + three volumes, containing all the texts, was undertaken by the + Scottish Text Society (ed. G. Gregory Smith), the first volume of the + text (vol. ii. of the work) appearing in 1907. For a critical account + of Henryson, see Irving's _History of Scottish Poetry_, Henderson's + _Vernacular Scottish Literature_, Gregory Smith's _Transition Period_, + J. H. Millar's _Literary History of Scotland_, and the second volume + of the _Cambridge History of English Literature_ (1908). (G. G. S.) + + + + +HENSCHEL, GEORGE [ISIDOR GEORG] (1850- ), English musician (naturalized +1890), of German family, was born at Breslau, and educated as a pianist, +making his first public appearance in Berlin in 1862. He subsequently, +however, took up singing, having developed a fine baritone voice; and in +1868 he sang the part of Hans Sachs in _Meistersinger_ at Munich. In +1877 he began a successful career in England, singing at the principal +concerts; and in 1881 he married the American soprano, Lilian Bailey (d. +1901), who was associated with him in a number of vocal recitals. He was +also prominent as a conductor, starting the London symphony concerts in +1886, and both in England and America (where he was the first conductor +of the Boston symphony concerts, 1881) he took a leading part in +advancing his art. He composed a number of instrumental works, a fine +_Stabat Mater_ (Birmingham festival, 1894), &c., and an opera, _Nubia_ +(Dresden, 1899). + + + + +HENSELT, ADOLF VON (1814-1889), German composer, was born at Schwabach, +in Bavaria, on the 12th of May 1814. At three years old he began to +learn the violin, and at five the pianoforte under Frau v. Fladt. On +obtaining financial help from King Louis I. he went to study under +Hummel in Weimar, and thence in 1832 to Vienna, where, besides studying +composition under Simon Sechter, he made a great success as a concert +pianist. In order to recruit his health he made a prolonged tour in 1836 +through the chief German towns. In 1837 he settled at Breslau, where he +had married, but in the following year he migrated to St Petersburg, +where previous visits had made him _persona grata_ at Court. He then +became court pianist and inspector of musical studies in the Imperial +Institute of Female Education, and was ennobled. In 1852 and again in +1867 he visited England, though in the latter year he made no public +appearance. St Petersburg was his home practically until his death, +which took place at Warmbrunn on the 10th of October 1889. The +characteristic of Henselt's playing was a combination of Liszt's +sonority with Hummel's smoothness. It was full of poetry, remarkable for +the great use he made of extended chords, and for his perfect technique. +He excelled in his own works and in those of Weber and Chopin. His +concerto in F minor is frequently played on the continent; and of his +many valuable studies, _Si oiseau j'etais_ is very familiar. His A minor +trio deserves to be better known. At one time Henselt was second to +Rubinstein in the direction of the St Petersburg Conservatorium. + + + + +HENSLOW, JOHN STEVENS (1796-1861), English botanist and geologist, was +born at Rochester on the 6th of February 1796. From his father, who was +a solicitor in that city, he imbibed a love of natural history which +largely influenced his career. He was educated at St John's College, +Cambridge, where he graduated as sixteenth wrangler in 1818, the year in +which Sedgwick became Woodwardian professor of geology. He accompanied +Sedgwick in 1819 during a tour in the Isle of Wight, and there he +learned his first lessons in geology. He also studied chemistry under +Professor James Cumming and mineralogy under E. D. Clarke. In the autumn +of 1819 he made some valuable observations on the geology of the Isle of +Man (_Trans. Geol. Soc._, 1821), and in 1821 he investigated the geology +of parts of Anglesey, the results being printed in the first volume of +the _Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society_ (1821), the +foundation of which society was originated by Sedgwick and Henslow. +Meanwhile, Henslow had studied mineralogy with considerable zeal, so +that on the death of Clarke he was in 1822 appointed professor of +mineralogy in the university at Cambridge. Two years later he took holy +orders. Botany, however, had claimed much of his attention, and to this +science he became more and more attached, so that he gladly resigned the +chair of mineralogy in 1825, to succeed to that of botany. As a teacher +both in the class-room and in the field he was eminently successful. To +him Darwin largely owed his attachment to natural history, and also his +introduction to Captain Fitzroy of H.M.S. "Beagle." In 1832 Henslow was +appointed vicar of Cholsey-cum-Moulsford in Berkshire, and in 1837 +rector of Hitcham in Suffolk, and at this latter parish he lived and +laboured, endeared to all who knew him, until the close of his life. His +energies were devoted to the improvement of his parishioners, but his +influence was felt far and wide. In 1843 he discovered nodules of +coprolitic origin in the Red Crag at Felixstowe in Suffolk, and two +years later he called attention to those also in the Cambridge Greensand +and remarked that they might be of use in agriculture. Although Henslow +derived no benefit, these discoveries led to the establishment of the +phosphate industry in Suffolk and Cambridgeshire; and the works proved +lucrative until the introduction of foreign phosphates. The museum at +Ipswich, which was established in 1847, owed much to Henslow, who was +elected president in 1850, and then superintended the arrangement of the +collections. He died at Hitcham on the 16th of May 1861. His +publications included _A Catalogue of British Plants_ (1829; ed. 2, +1835); _Principles of Descriptive and Physiological Botany_ (1835); +_Flora of Suffolk_ (with E. Skepper) (1860). + + _Memoir_, by the Rev. Leonard Jenyns (1862). + + + + +HENSLOWE, PHILIP (d. 1616), English theatrical manager, was the son of +Edmund Henslowe of Lindfield, Sussex, master of the game in Ashdown +Forest and Broil Park. He was originally a servant in the employment of +the bailiff to Viscount Montague, whose property included Montague House +in Southwark, and his duties led him to settle there before 1577. He +subsequently married the bailiff's widow, and, with the fortune he got +with her, he developed into a clever business man and became a +considerable owner of Southwark property. He started his connexion with +the stage when, on the 24th of March 1584, he bought land near what is +now the southern end of Southwark Bridge, on which stood the Little Rose +playhouse, afterwards rebuilt as the Rose. Successive companies played +in it under Henslowe's financial management between 1592 and 1603. The +theatre at Newington Butts was also under him in 1594. A share of the +control in the Swan theatre, which like the Rose was on the Bankside, +fell to Henslowe before the close of the 16th century. With the actor +Edward Alleyn, who married his step-daughter Joan Woodward, he built in +Golden Lane, Cripplegate Without, the Fortune Playhouse, opened in +November 1600. In December of 1594, they had secured the Paris Garden, a +place for bear-baiting, on the Bankside, and in 1604 they bought the +office of master of the royal game of bears, bulls and mastiffs from the +holder, and obtained a patent. Alleyn sold his share to Henslowe in +February 1610, and three years later Henslowe formed a new partnership +with Jacob Meade and built the Hope playhouse, designed for stage +performances as well as bull and bear-baiting, and managed by Meade. + +In Henslowe's theatres were first produced many plays by the famous +Elizabethan dramatists. What is known as "Henslowe's Diary" contains +some accounts referring to Ashdown Forest between 1576 and 1581, entered +by John Henslowe, while the later entries by Philip Henslowe from 1592 +to 1609 are those which throw light on the theatrical matters of the +time, and which have been subjected to much controversial criticism as a +result of injuries done to the manuscript. "Henslowe's Diary" passed +into the hands of Edward Alleyn, and thence into the Library of Dulwich +College, where the manuscript remained intact for more than a hundred +and fifty years. In 1780 Malone tried to borrow it, but it had been +mislaid; in 1790 it was discovered and given into his charge. He was +then at work on his _Variorum Shakespeare_. Malone had a transcript made +of certain portions, and collated it with the original; and this +transcript, with various notes and corrections by Malone, is now in the +Dulwich Library. An abstract of this transcript he also published with +his _Variorum Shakespeare_. The MS. of the diary was eventually returned +to the library in 1812 by Malone's executor. In 1840 it was lent to J. +P. Collier, who in 1845 printed for the Shakespeare Society what +purported to be a full edition, but it was afterwards shown by G. F. +Warner (_Catalogue_ of the Dulwich Library, 1881) that a number of +forged interpolations have been made, the responsibility for which rests +on Collier. + + The complicated history of the forgeries and their detection has been + exhaustively treated in Walter W. Greg's edition of _Henslowe's Diary_ + (London, 1904; enlarged 1908). + + + + +HENTY, GEORGE ALFRED (1832-1902), English war-correspondent and author, +was born at Trumpington, near Cambridge, in December 1832, and educated +at Westminster School and Caius College, Cambridge. He served in the +Crimea in the Purveyor's department, and after the peace filled various +posts in the department in England and Ireland, but he found the routine +little to his taste, and drifted into journalism for the London +_Standard_. He volunteered as Special Correspondent for the +Austro-Italian War of 1866, accompanied Garibaldi in his Tirolese +Campaign, followed Lord Napier through the mountain gorges to Magdala, +and Lord Wolseley across bush and swamp to Kumassi. Next he reported the +Franco-German War, starved in Paris through the siege of the Commune, +and then turned south to rough it in the Pyrenees during the Carlist +insurrection. He was in Asiatic Russia at the time of the Khiva +expedition, and later saw the desperate hand-to-hand fighting of the +Turks in the Servian War. He found his real vocation in middle life. +Invited to edit a magazine for boys called the _Union Jack_, he became +the mainstay of the new periodical, to which he contributed several +serials in succession. The stories pleased their public, and had ever +increasing circulation in book form, until Henty became a name to +conjure with in juvenile circles. Altogether he wrote about eighty of +these books. Henty was an enthusiastic yachtsman, having spent at least +six months afloat each year, and he died on board his yacht in Weymouth +Harbour on the 16th of November 1902. + + + + +HENWOOD, WILLIAM JORY (1805-1875), English mining geologist, was born at +Perron Wharf, Cornwall, on the 16th of January 1805. In 1822 he +commenced work as a clerk in a mining office, and soon took an active +interest in the working of mines and in the metalliferous deposits. In +1832 he was appointed to the office of assay-master and supervisor of +tin in the duchy of Cornwall, a post from which he retired in 1838. +Meanwhile he had commenced in 1826 to communicate papers on mining +subjects to the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and the Geological +Society of London, and in 1840 he was elected F.R.S. In 1843 he went to +take charge of the Gongo-Soco mines in Brazil; afterwards he proceeded +to India to report on certain metalliferous deposits for the Indian +government; and in 1858, impaired in health, he retired and settled at +Penzance. His most important memoirs on the metalliferous deposits of +Cornwall and Devon were published in 1843 by the Royal Geological +Society of Cornwall. At a much later date he communicated with enlarged +experience a second series of _Observations on Metalliferous Deposits, +and on Subterranean Temperature_ (reprinted from _Trans. R. Geol. Soc. +Cornwall_, 2 vols., 1871). In 1874 he contributed a paper on the +_Detrital Tin-ore of Cornwall_ (_Journ. R. Inst. Cornwall_). The +Murchison medal of the Geological Society was awarded to him in 1875, +and the mineral Henwoodite was named after him. He died at Penzance on +the 5th of August 1875. + + + + +HENZADA, a district of Lower Burma, formerly in the Pegu, but now in the +Irrawaddy division. Area, 2870 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 484,558. It stretches +from north to south in one vast plain, forming the valley of the +Irrawaddy, and is divided by that river into two nearly equal portions. +This country is protected from inundation by immense embankments, so +that almost the whole area is suitable for rice cultivation. The chief +mountains are the Arakan and Pegu Yoma ranges. The greatest elevation of +the Arakan Yomas in Henzada, attained in the latitude of Myan-aung, is +4003 ft. above sea-level. Numerous torrents pour down from the two +boundary ranges, and unite in the plains to form large streams, which +fall into the chief streams of the district, which are the Irrawaddy, +Hlaing and Bassein, all of them branches of the Irrawaddy. The forests +comprise almost every variety of timber found in Burma. The bulk of the +cultivation is rice, but a number of acres are under tobacco. The chief +town of the district is HENZADA, which had in 1901 a population of +24,756. It is a municipal town, with ten elective and three _ex-officio_ +members. Other municipal towns in the district are Zalun, with a +population of 6642; Myan-aung, with a population of 6351; and Kyangin, +with a population of 7183, according to the 1901 census. The town of +Lemyethna had a population of 5831. The steamers of the Irrawaddy +Flotilla Company call at Henzada and Myan-aung. + +The district was once a portion of the Talaing kingdom of Pegu, +afterwards annexed to the Burmese empire in 1753, and has no history of +its own. During the second Burmese war, after Prome had been seized, the +Burmese on the right bank of the Irrawaddy crossed the river and offered +resistance to the British, but were completely routed. Meanwhile, in +Tharawaddy, or the country east of the Irrawaddy, and in the south of +Henzada, much disorder was caused by a revolt, the leaders of which +were, however, defeated by the British and their gangs dispersed. + + + + +HEPBURN, SIR JOHN (c. 1598-1636), Scottish soldier in the Thirty Years' +War, was a son of George Hepburn of Athelstaneford near Haddington. In +1620 and in the following years he served in Bohemia, on the lower Rhine +and in the Netherlands, and in 1623 he entered the service of Gustavus +Adolphus, who, two years later, appointed him colonel of a Scottish +regiment of his army. He took part with his regiment in Gustavus's +Polish wars, and in 1631, a few months before the battle of Breitenfeld +he was placed in command of the "Scots" or "Green" brigade of the +Swedish army. At Breitenfeld it was Hepburn's brigade which delivered +the decisive stroke, and after this he remained with the king, who +placed the fullest reliance on his skill and courage, until the battle +of the Alte Veste near Nuremberg. He then entered the French service, +and raised two thousand men in Scotland for the French army, to which +force was added in France the historic Scottish archer bodyguard of the +French kings. The existing Royal Scots (Lothian) regiment (late 1st +Foot) represents in the British army of to-day Hepburn's French +regiment, and indirectly, through the amalgamation referred to, the +Scottish contingent of the Hundred Years' War. Hepburn's claim to the +right of the line of battle was bitterly resented by the senior French +regiments. Shortly after this, in 1633, Hepburn was under a _marechal de +camp_, and he took part in the campaigns in Alsace and Lorraine +(1634-36). In 1635 Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, on entering the French +service, brought with him Hepburn's former Swedish regiment, which was +at once amalgamated with the French "regiment d'Hebron," the latter thus +attaining the unusual strength of 8300 men. Sir John Hepburn was killed +shortly afterwards during the siege of Saverne (Zabern) on the 8th of +July 1636. He was buried in Toul cathedral. With his friend Sir Robert +Monro, Hepburn was the foremost of the Scottish soldiers of fortune who +bore so conspicuous a part in the Thirty Years' War. He was a sincere +Roman Catholic. It is stated that he left Gustavus owing to a jest about +his religion, and at any rate he found in the French service, in which +he ended his days, the opportunity of reconciling his beliefs with the +desire of military glory which had led him into the Swedish army, and +with the patriotic feeling which had first brought him out to the wars +to fight for the Stuart princess, Queen Elizabeth of Bohemia. + + See James Grant, _Memoirs of Sir John Hepburn_. + + + + +HEPHAESTION, a Macedonian general, celebrated as the friend of Alexander +the Great, who, comparing himself with Achilles, called Hephaestion his +Patroclus. In the later campaigns in Bactria and India, he was entrusted +with the task of founding cities and colonies, and built the fleet +intended to sail down the Indus. He was rewarded with a golden crown and +the hand of Drypetis, the sister of Alexander's wife Stateira (324). In +the same year he died suddenly at Ecbatana. A general mourning was +ordered throughout Asia; at Babylon a funeral pile was erected at +enormous cost, and temples were built in his honour (see ALEXANDER THE +GREAT). + + + + +HEPHAESTION, a grammarian of Alexandria, who flourished in the age of +the Antonines. He was the author of a manual (abridged from a larger +work in 48 books) of Greek metres ([Greek: Hegcheiridion peri metron]), +which is most valuable as the only complete treatise on the subject that +has been preserved. The concluding chapter ([Greek: Peri poiematos]) +discusses the various kinds of poetical composition. It is written in a +clear and simple style, and was much used as a school-book. + + Editions by T. Gaisford (1855, with the valuable scholia); R. Westphal + (1886, in _Scriptores metrici Graeci_) and M. Consbruch (1906); + translation by T. F. Barham (1843); see also W. Christ, _Gesch. der + griech. Litt._ (1898); M. Consbruch, _De veterum_ [Greek: Peri + poiematos] _doctrina_ (1890); J. E. Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ i. + (1906). + + + + +HEPHAESTUS, in Greek mythology, the god of fire, analogous to, and by +the ancients often confused with, the Roman god Vulcan (q.v.); the +derivation of the name is uncertain, but it may well be of Greek origin. +The elemental character of Hephaestus is far more apparent than is the +case with the majority of the Olympian gods; the word Hephaestus was +used as a synonym for fire not only in poetry (Homer, _Il._ ii. 426 and +later), but also in common speech (Diod. v. 74). It is doubtful whether +the origin of the god can be traced to any specific form of fire. As all +earthly fire was thought to have come from heaven, Hephaestus has been +identified with the lightning. This is supported by the myth of his fall +from heaven, and by the fact that, according to the Homeric tradition, +his father was Zeus, the heaven-god. On the other hand, the lightning is +not associated with him in literature or cult, and his connexion with +volcanic fires is so close as to suggest that he was originally a +volcano-god. The connexion, however, though it may be early, is probably +not primitive, and it seems reasonable to conclude that Hephaestus was a +general fire-god, though some of his characteristics were due to +particular manifestations of the element. + +In Homer the fire-god was the son of Zeus and Hera, and found a place in +the Olympian system as the divine smith. The _Iliad_ contains two +versions of his fall from heaven. In one account (i. 590) he was cast +out by Zeus and fell on Lemnos; in the other, Hera threw him down +immediately after his birth in disgust at his lameness, and he was +received by the sea-goddesses Eurynome and Thetis. The Lemnian version +is due to the prominence of his cult at Lemnos in very early times; and +his fall into the sea may have been suggested by volcanic activity in +Mediterranean islands, as at Lipara and Thera. The subsequent return of +Hephaestus to Olympus is a favourite theme in early art. His wife was +Charis, one of the Graces (in the _Iliad_) or Aphrodite (in the +_Odyssey_). The connexion of the rough Hephaestus with these goddesses +is curious; it may be due to the beautiful works of the smith-god +([Greek: charienta erga]), but it is possibly derived from the supposed +fertilizing and productive power of fire, in which case Hephaestus is a +natural mate of Charis, a goddess of spring, and Aphrodite the goddess +of love. In Homer, the skill of Hephaestus in metallurgy is often +mentioned; his forge was on Olympus, where he was served by images of +golden handmaids which he had animated. Similar myths are found in +relation to the Finnish smith-god Ilmarinen, who made a golden woman, +and the Teutonic Wieland; a belief in the magical power of metal-workers +is a common survival from an age in which their art was new and +mysterious. In epic poetry Hephaestus is rather a comic figure, and his +limping gait provokes "Homeric laughter" among the gods. In Vedic poetry +Agni, the fire-god, is footless; and the ancients themselves attributed +this lameness to the crooked appearance of flame (Servius on _Aen._ +viii. 814), and possibly no better explanation can be found, though it +has been suggested that in an early stage of society the trade of a +smith would be suitable for the lame; Hephaestus and the lame Wieland +would thus conform to the type of their human counterparts. + +Except in Lemnos and Attica, there are few indications of any cult of +Hephaestus. His association with Lemnos can be traced from Homer to the +Roman age. A town in the island was called Hephaestia, and the functions +of the god must have been wide, as we are told that his Lemnian priests +could cure snake-bites. Once a year every fire was extinguished on the +island for nine days, during which period sacrifice was offered to the +gods of the underworld and the dead. After the nine days were passed, +new fire was brought from the sacred hearth at Delos. The significance +of this and similar customs is examined by J. G. Frazer, _Golden Bough_, +iii. ch. 4. The close connexion of Hephaestus with Lemnos and especially +with its mountain Mosychlus has been explained by the supposed existence +of a volcano; but no crater or other sign of volcanic agency is now +apparent, and the "Lemnian fire"--a phenomenon attributed to +Hephaestus--may have been due to natural gas (see LEMNOS). In Sicily, +however, the volcanic nature of the god is prominent in his cult at +Etna, as well as in the neighbouring Liparaean isles. The Olympian forge +had been transferred to Etna or some other volcano, and Hephaestus had +become a subterranean rather than a celestial power. + +The divine smith naturally became a "culture-god"; in Crete the +invention of forging in iron was attributed to him, and he was honoured +by all metal-workers. But we have little record of his cult in this +aspect, except at Athens, where his worship was of real importance, +belonging to the oldest stratum of Attic religion. A tribe was called +after his name, and Erichthonius, the mythical father of the Attic +people, was the son of Hephaestus. Terra-cotta statuettes of the god +seem to have been placed before the hearths of Athenian houses. This +temple has been identified, not improbably, with the so-called +"Theseum"; it contained a statue of Athena, and the two deities are +often associated, in literature and cult, as the joint givers of +civilization to the Athenians. The class of artisans was under their +special protection; and the joint festival of the two divinities--the +Chalceia--commemorated the invention of bronze-working by Hephaestus. In +the Hephaesteia (the particular festival of the god) there was a torch +race, a ceremonial not indeed confined to fire-gods like Hephaestus and +Prometheus, but probably in its origin connected with them, whether its +object was to purify and quicken the land, or (according to another +theory) to transmit a new fire with all possible speed to places where +the fire was polluted. If the latter view is correct, the torch race +would be closely akin to the Lemnian fire-ritual which has been +mentioned. The relation between Hephaestus and Prometheus is in some +respects close, though the distinction between these gods is clearly +marked. The fire, as an element, belongs to the Olympian Hephaestus; the +Titan Prometheus, a more human character, steals it for the use of man. +Prometheus resembles the Polynesian Maui, who went down to fetch fire +from the volcano of Mahuika, the fire-god. Hephaestus is a culture-god +mainly in his secondary aspect as the craftsman, whereas Prometheus +originates all civilization with the gift of fire. But the importance of +Prometheus is mainly mythological; the Titan belonged to a fallen +dynasty, and in actual cult was largely superseded by Hephaestus. + +In archaic art Hephaestus is generally represented as bearded, though +occasionally a younger beardless type is found, as on a vase (in the +British Museum), on which he appears as a young man assisting Athena in +the creation of Pandora. At a later time the bearded type prevails. The +god is usually clothed in a short sleeveless tunic, and wears a round +close-fitting cap. His face is that of a middle-aged man, with unkempt +hair. He is in fact represented as an idealized Greek craftsman, with +the hammer, and sometimes the pincers. Some mythologists have compared +the hammer of Hephaestus with that of Thor, and have explained it as the +emblem of a thunder-god; but it is Zeus, not Hephaestus, who causes the +thunder, and the emblems of the latter god are merely the signs of his +occupation as a smith. In art no attempt was made, as a rule, to +indicate the lameness of Hephaestus; but one sculptor (Alcamenes) is +said to have suggested the deformity without spoiling the statue. + + AUTHORITIES.--L. Preller (ed. C. Robert), _Griech. Mythologie_, i. 174 + f. (Berlin, 1894); W. H. Roscher, _Lex. der griech. u. rom. + Mythologie_, s.v. "Hephaistos" (Leipzig, 1884-1886); Harrison, _Myth. + and Mon. of Ancient Athens_, p. 119 f. (London, 1890); O. Gruppe, + _Griech. Mythologie u. Religionsgesch._ p. 1304 f. (Munich, 1906); O. + Schrader and F. B. Jevons, _Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan + People_, p. 161, &c. (London, 1890); L. R. Farnell, _Cults of the + Greek States_, v. (1909). (E. E. S.) + + + + +HEPPENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on +the Bergstrasse, between Darmstadt and Heidelberg, 21 m. N. of the +latter by rail. Pop. (1905), 6364. It possesses a parish church, +occupying the site of one reputed to have been built by Charlemagne +about 805, an interesting town hall and several schools. On an isolated +hill close by stand the extensive ruins of the castle of Starkenburg, +built by the abbot, Ulrich von Lorsch, about 1064 and destroyed during +the Seven Years' War, and another hill, the Landberg, was a place of +assembly in the middle ages. Heppenheim, at first the property of the +abbey of Lorsch, became a town in 1318. After belonging to the Rhenish +Palatinate, it came into the possession of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1803. +Hops, wine and tobacco are grown, and there are large stone quarries, +and several small industries in the town. + + + + +HEPPLEWHITE, GEORGE (d. 1786), one of the most famous English +cabinet-makers of the 18th century. There is practically no biographical +material relating to Hepplewhite. The only facts that are known with +certainty are that he was apprenticed to Gillow at Lancaster, that he +carried on business in the parish of Saint Giles, Cripplegate, and that +administration of his estate was granted to his widow Alice on the 27th +of June 1786. The administrator's accounts, which were filed in the +Prerogative Court of Canterbury a year later, indicate that his property +was of considerable value. After his death the business was continued by +his widow under the style of A. Hepplewhite & Co. Our only approximate +means of identifying his work are _The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer's +Guide_, which was first published in 1788, two years after his death, +and ten designs in _The Cabinet-maker's London Book of Prices_ (1788), +issued by the London Society of Cabinet-Makers. It is, however, +exceedingly difficult to earmark any given piece of furniture as being +the actual work or design of Hepplewhite, since it is generally +recognized that to a very large extent the name represents rather a +fashion than a man. Lightness, delicacy and grace are the distinguishing +characteristics of Hepplewhite work. The massiveness of Chippendale had +given place to conceptions that, especially in regard to chairs--which +had become smaller as hoops went out of fashion--depended for their +effect more upon inlay than upon carving. In one respect at least the +Hepplewhite style was akin to that of Chippendale--in both cases the +utmost ingenuity was lavished upon the chair, and if Hepplewhite was not +the originator he appears to have been the most constant and successful +user of the shield back. This elegant form was employed by the school in +a great variety of designs, and nearly always in a way artistically +satisfying. Where Chippendale, his contemporaries and his immediate +successors had used the cabriole and the square leg with a good deal of +carving, the Hepplewhite manner preferred a slighter leg, plain, fluted +or reeded, tapering to a spade foot which often became the "spider leg" +that characterized much of the late 18th-century furniture; this form of +leg was indeed not confined to chairs but was used also for tables and +sideboards. Of the dainty drawing-room grace of the style there can be +no question. The great majority of modern chairs are of Hepplewhite +inspiration, while he, or those who worked with him, appears to have a +clear claim to have originated, or at all events popularized, the winged +easy-chair, in which the sides are continued to the same height as the +back. This is probably the most comfortable type of chair that has ever +been made. The backs of Hepplewhite chairs were often adorned with +galleries and festoons of wheat-ears or pointed fern leaves, and not +infrequently with the prince of Wales's feathers in some more or less +decorative form. The frequency with which this badge was used has led to +the suggestion either that A. Hepplewhite & Co. were employed by George +IV. when prince of Wales, or that the feathers were used as a political +emblem. The former suggestion is obviously the more feasible, but there +is little doubt that the feathers were used by other makers working in +the same style. It has been objected as an artistic flaw in +Hepplewhite's chairs that they have the appearance of fragility. They +are, however, constructionally sound as a rule. The painted and japanned +work has been criticized on safer grounds. This delicate type of +furniture, often made of satinwood, and painted with wreaths and +festoons, with amorini and musical instruments or floral motives, is the +most elegant and pleasing that can be imagined. It has, however, no +elements of decorative permanence. With comparatively little use the +paintings wear off and have to be renewed. A piece of untouched painted +satinwood is almost unknown, and one of the essential charms of old +furniture as of all other antiques is that it should retain the patina +of time. A large proportion of Hepplewhite furniture is inlaid with the +exotic woods which had come into high favour by the third quarter of the +18th century. While the decorative use upon furniture of so evanescent a +medium as paint is always open to criticism, any form of marquetry is +obviously legitimate, and, if inlaid furniture be less ravishing to the +eye, its beauty is but enhanced by time. It was not in chairs alone that +the Hepplewhite manner excelled. It acquired, for instance, a speciality +of seats for the tall, narrow Georgian sash windows, which in the +Hepplewhite period had almost entirely superseded the more picturesque +forms of an earlier time. These window-seats had ends rolling over +outwards, and no backs, and despite their skimpiness their elegant +simplicity is decidedly pleasing. Elegance, in fact, was the note of a +style which on the whole was more distinctly English than that which +preceded or immediately followed it. The smaller Hepplewhite pieces are +much prized by collectors. Among these may be included urn-shaped +knife-boxes in mahogany and satinwood, charming in form and decorative +in the extreme; inlaid tea-caddies, varying greatly in shape and +material, but always appropriate and _coquet_; delicate little +fire-screens with shaped poles; painted work-tables, and inlaid stands. +Hepplewhite's bedsteads with carved and fluted pillars were very +handsome and attractive. The evolution of the dining-room sideboard made +rapid progress towards the end of the 18th century, but neither +Hepplewhite nor those who worked in his style did much to advance it. +Indeed they somewhat retarded its development by causing it to revert to +little more than that side-table which had been its original form. It +was, however, a very delightful table with its undulating front, its +many elegant spade-footed legs and its delicate carving. If we were +dealing with a less elusive personality it would be just to say that +Hepplewhite's work varies from the extreme of elegance and the most +delicious simplicity to an unimaginative commonplace, and sometimes to +actual ugliness. As it is, this summary may well be applied to the style +as a whole--a style which was assuredly not the creation of any one man, +but owed much alike of excellence and of defect to a school of +cabinet-makers who were under the influence of conflicting tastes and +changing ideals. At its best the taste was so fine and so full of +distinction, so simple, modest and sufficient, that it amounted to +genius. On its lower planes it was clearly influenced by commercialism +and the desire to make what tasteless people preferred. Yet this is no +more than to say that the Hepplewhite style succumbed sometimes, perhaps +very often, to the eternal enemy of all art--the uninspired banality of +the average man. (J. P.-B.) + + + + +HEPTARCHY (Gr. [Greek: hepta], seven, and [Greek: arche], rule), a word +which is frequently used to designate the period of English history +between the coming of the Anglo-Saxons in 449 and the union of the +kingdoms under Ecgbert in 828. It was first used during the 16th century +because of the belief held by Camden and other older historians, that +during this period there were exactly seven kingdoms in England, these +being Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex and Wessex. +This belief is erroneous, as the number of kingdoms varied considerably +from time to time; nevertheless the word still serves a useful purpose +to denote the period. + + + + +HERA, in Greek mythology, the sister and wife of Zeus and queen of the +Olympian gods; she was identified by the Romans with Juno. The +derivation of the name is obscure, but there is no reason to doubt that +she was a genuine Greek deity. There are no signs of Oriental influence +in her cults, except at Corinth, where she seems to have been identified +with Astarte. It is probable that she was originally a personification +of some department of nature; but the traces of her primitive +significance are vague, and have been interpreted to suit various +theories. Some of the ancients connected her with the earth; Plato, +followed by the Stoics, derived her name from [Greek: aer], the air. +Both theories have been revived in modern times, the former notably by +F. G. Welcker, the latter by L. Preller. A third view, that Hera is the +moon, is held by W. H. Roscher and others. Of these explanations, that +advanced by Preller has little to commend it, even if, with O. Gruppe, +we understand the air-goddess as a storm deity; some of the arguments in +support of the two other theories will be examined in this article. + +Whatever may have been the origin of Hera, to the historic Greeks +(except a few poets or philosophers) she was a purely anthropomorphic +goddess, and had no close relation to any province of nature. In +literature, from the times of Homer and Hesiod, she played an important +part, appearing most frequently as the jealous and resentful wife of +Zeus. In this character she pursues with vindictive hatred the heroines, +such as Alcmene, Leto and Semele, who were beloved by Zeus. She visits +his sins upon the children born of his intrigues, and is thus the +constant enemy of Heracles and Dionysus. This character of the offended +wife was borrowed by later poets from the Greek epic; but it belongs to +literature rather than to cult, in which the dignity and power of the +goddess is naturally more emphasized. + +The worship of Hera is found, in different degrees of prominence, +throughout the Greek world. It was especially important in the ancient +Achaean centres, Argos, Mycenae and Sparta, which she claims in the +_Iliad_ (iv. 51) as her three dearest cities. Whether Hera was also +worshipped by the early Dorians is uncertain; after the Dorian invasion +she remained the chief deity of Argos, but her cult at Sparta was not so +conspicuous. She received honour, however, in other parts of the +Peloponnese, particularly in Olympia, where her temple was the oldest, +and in Arcadia. In several Boeotian cities she seems to have been one of +the principal objects of worship, while the neighbouring island of +Euboea probably derived its name from a title of Hera, who was "rich in +cows" ([Greek: Euboia]). Among the islands of the Aegean, Samos was +celebrated for the cult of Hera; according to the local tradition, she +was born in the island. As Hera Lacinia (from her Lacinian temple near +Croton) she was extensively worshipped in Magna Graecia. + +The connexion of Zeus and Hera was probably not primitive, since Dione +seems to have preceded Hera as the wife of Zeus at Dodona. The origin of +the connexion may possibly be due to the fusion of two "Pelasgic" +tribes, worshipping Zeus and Hera respectively; but speculation on the +earliest cult of the goddess, before she became the wife of Zeus, must +be largely conjectural. The close relation of the two deities appears in +a frequent community of altars and sacrifices, and also in the [Greek: +hieros gamos], a dramatic representation of their sacred marriage. The +festival, which was certainly ancient, was held not only in Argos, +Samos, Euboea and other centres of Hera-worship, but also in Athens, +where the goddess was obscured by the predominance of Athena. The +details of the [Greek: hieros gamos] may have varied locally, but the +main idea of the ritual was the same. In the Daedala, as the festival +was called at Plataea, an effigy was made from an oak-tree, dressed in +bridal attire, and carried in a cart with a woman who acted as +bridesmaid. The image was called Daedale, and the ritual was explained +by a myth: Hera had left Zeus in her anger; in order to win her back, +Zeus announced that he was about to marry, and dressed up a puppet to +imitate a bride; Hera met the procession, tore the veil from the false +bride, and, on discovering the ruse, became reconciled to her husband. +The image was put away after each occasion; every sixty years a large +number of such images, which had served in previous celebrations, were +carried in procession to the top of Mount Cithaeron, and were burned on +an altar together with animals and the altar itself. As Frazer notes +(_Golden Bough_,^2 i. 227), this festival appears to belong to the large +class of mimetic charms designed to quicken the growth of vegetation; +the marriage of Zeus and Hera would in this case represent the union of +the king and queen of May. But it by no means follows that Hera was +therefore originally a goddess of the earth or of vegetation. When the +real nature of the ritual had become lost or obscured, it was natural to +explain it by the help of an aetiological myth; in European folklore, +images, corresponding to those burnt at the Daedala, were sometimes +called Judas Iscariot or Luther (_Golden Bough_,^2 iii. 315). At Samos +the [Greek: hieros gamos] was celebrated annually; the image of Hera was +concealed on the sea-shore and solemnly discovered. This rite seems to +reflect an actual custom of abduction; or it may rather refer to the +practice of intercourse between the betrothed before marriage. Such +intercourse was sanctioned by the Samians, who excused it by the example +of Zeus and Hera (schol. on _Il._ xiv. 296). There is nothing in the +Samian [Greek: hieros gamos] to suggest a marriage of heaven and earth, +or of two vegetation-spirits; as Dr Farnell points out, the ritual +appears to explain the custom of human nuptials. The sacred marriage, +therefore, though connected with vegetation at the Daedala, was not +necessarily a vegetation-charm in its origin; consequently, it does not +prove that Hera was an earth-goddess or tree-spirit. It is at least +remarkable that, except at Argos, Hera had little to do with +agriculture, and was not closely associated with such deities as Cybele, +Demeter, Persephone and Dionysus, whose connexion with the earth, or +with its fruits, is beyond doubt. + +In her general cult Hera was worshipped in two main capacities: (1) as +the consort of Zeus and queen of heaven; (2) as the goddess who presided +over marriage, and, in a wider sense, over the various phases of a +woman's life. Dionysius of Halicarnassus (_Ars rhet._ ii. 2) calls Zeus +and Hera the first wedded pair, and a sacrifice to Zeus [Greek: teleios] +and Hera [Greek: teleia] was a regular feature of the Greek wedding. +Girls offered their hair or veils to Hera before marriage. In +Aristophanes (_Thesm._ 973) she "keeps the keys of wedlock." The +marriage-goddess naturally became the protector of women in childbed, +and bore the title of the birth-goddess (Eileithyia), at Argos and +Athens. In Homer (_Il._ xi. 270) and Hesiod (_Theog._ 922) she is the +mother of the Eileithyiae, or the single Eileithyia. Her cult-titles +[Greek: parthenos] (or [Greek: pais]), [Greek: teleia] and [Greek: +chera] the "maiden," "wife," and "widow" (or "divorced") have been +interpreted as symbolical of the earth in spring, summer, and winter; +but they may well express the different conditions in the lives of her +human worshippers. The Argives believed that Hera recovered her +virginity every year by bathing in a certain spring (Paus. viii. 22, 2), +a belief which probably reflects the custom of ceremonial purification +after marriage (see Frazer, _Adonis_, p. 176). Although Hera was not the +bestower of feminine charm to the same extent as Aphrodite, she was the +patron of a contest for beauty in a Lesbian festival ([Greek: +kallisteia]). This intimate relation with women has been held a proof +that Hera was originally a moon-goddess, as the moon is often thought to +influence childbirth and other aspects of feminine life. But Hera's +patronage of women, though undoubtedly ancient, is not necessarily +primitive. Further, the Greeks themselves, who were always ready to +identify Artemis with the moon, do not seem to have recognized any lunar +connexion in Hera. + +Among her particular worshippers, at Argos and Samos, Hera was much more +than the queen of heaven and the marriage-goddess. As the patron of +these cities ([Greek: poliouchos]) she held a place corresponding to +that of Athena in Athens. The Argives are called "the people of Hera" by +Pindar; the Heraeum, situated under a mountain significantly called Mt. +Euboea, was the most important temple in Argolis. Here the agricultural +character of her ritual is well marked; the first oxen used in ploughing +were, according to an Argive myth, dedicated to her as [Greek: +zeuxidia]; and the sprouting ears of corn were called "the flowers of +Hera." She was worshipped as the goddess of flowers ([Greek: antheia]); +girls served in her temple under the name of "flower-bearers," and a +flower festival ([Greek: Herosantheia, Heroanthia]) was celebrated by +Peloponnesian women in spring. These rites recall our May day +observance, and give colour to the earth-goddess theory. On the other +hand it must be remembered that the patron deity of a Greek state had +very wide functions; and it is not surprising to find that Hera +(whatever her origin may have been) assumed an agricultural character +among her own people whose occupations were largely agricultural. So, +although the warlike character of Hera was not elsewhere prominent, she +assumed a militant aspect in her two chief cities; a festival called the +Shield ([Greek: aspis], in Pindar [Greek: agon chalkeos]) was part of +the Argive cult, and there was an armed procession in her honour at +Samos. The city-goddess, whether Hera or Athena, must be chief alike in +peace and war. + +The cow was the animal specially sacred to Hera both in ritual and in +mythology. The story of Io, metamorphosed into a cow, is familiar; she +was priestess of Hera, and was originally, no doubt, a form of the +goddess herself. The Homeric epithet [Greek: boopis] may have meant +"cow-faced" to the earliest worshippers of Hera, though by Homer and the +later Greeks it was understood as "large-eyed," like the cow. A car +drawn by oxen seems to have been widely used in the processions of Hera, +and the cow was her most frequent sacrifice. The origin of Hera's +association with the cow is uncertain, but there is no need to see in +it, with Roscher, a symbol of the moon. The cuckoo was also sacred to +Hera, who, according to the Argive legend, was wooed by Zeus in the form +of the bird. In later times the peacock, which was still unfamiliar to +the Greeks in the 5th century, was her favourite, especially at Samos. + +The earliest recorded images of Hera preceded the rise of Greek +sculpture; a log at Thespiae, a plank at Samos, a pillar at Argos served +to represent the goddess. In the archaic period of sculpture the [Greek: +xoanon] or wooden statue of the Samian Hera by Smilis was famous. In the +first half of the 5th century the sacred marriage was represented on an +extant metope from a temple at Selinus. The most celebrated statue of +Hera was the chryselephantine work of Polyclitus, made for the Heraeum +at Argos soon after 423 B.C. It is fully described by Pausanias, who +says that Hera was seated on a throne, wearing a crown ([Greek: +stephanos]), and carrying a sceptre in one hand and a pomegranate in the +other. Various ancient writers testify to the beauty and dignity of the +statue, which was considered equal to the Zeus of Pheidias. Polyclitus +seems to have fixed the type of Hera as a youthful matron, but +unfortunately the exact character of her head cannot be determined. A +majestic and rather severe beauty marks the conception of Hera in later +art, of which the Farnese bust at Naples and the Ludovisi Hera are the +most conspicuous examples. + + AUTHORITIES.--F. G. Welcker, _Griech. Gotterl._ i. 362 f. (Gottingen, + 1857-1863); L. Preller (ed. C. Robert), _Griech. Mythologie_, i. 160 + f. (Berlin, 1894); W. H. Roscher, _Lex. der griech. u. rom. + Mythologie_, s.v. (Leipzig, 1884); C. Daremberg and E. Saglio, _Dict. + des ant. grecques et rom._ s.v. "Juno" (Paris, 1877); L. R. Farnell, + _Cults of the Greek States_, i. 179 f. (Oxford, 1896); A. B. Cook in + _Class. Rev._ xx. 365 f. 416 f.; O. Gruppe, _Griech. Mythologie u. + Religionsgesch._ p. 1121 f. (Munich, 1903). In the article GREEK ART, + fig. 24, will be found a roughly executed head of Hera, from the + pediment of the treasury of the Megarians. (E. E. S.) + + + + +HERACLEA, the name of a large number of ancient cities founded by the +Greeks. + +1. HERACLEA (Gr. [Greek: Herakleia]), an ancient city of Lucania, +situated near the modern Policoro, 3 m. from the coast of the gulf of +Tarentum, between the rivers Aciris (Agri) and Siris (Sinni) about 13 m. +S.S.W. of Metapontum. It was a Greek colony founded by the Tarentines +and Thurians in 432 B.C., the former being predominant. It was chosen as +the meeting-place of the general assembly of the Italiot Greeks, which +Alexander of Epirus, after his alienation from Tarentum, tried to +transfer to Thurii. Here Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, defeated the consul +Laevinus in 280 B.C., after he had crossed the river Siris. In 278 B.C., +or possibly in 282 B.C., probably in order to detach it from Tarentum, +the Romans made a special treaty with Heraclea, on such favourable terms +that in 89 B.C. the Roman citizenship given to the inhabitants by the +Lex Plautia Papiria was only accepted after considerable hesitation. We +hear that Heraclea surrendered under compulsion to Hannibal in 212 B.C. +and that in the Social war the public records were destroyed by fire. +Cicero in his defence of the poet Archias, an adopted citizen of +Heraclea, speaks of it as a flourishing town. As a consequence of its +having accepted Roman citizenship, it became a _municipium_; part of a +copy of the Lex Iulia Municipalis of 46 B.C. (engraved on the back of +two bronze tablets, on the front of which is a Greek inscription of the +3rd century B.C. defining the boundaries of lands belonging to various +temples), which was found between Heraclea and Metapontum, is of the +highest importance for our knowledge of that law. It was still a place +of some importance under the empire; a branch road from Venusia joined +the coast road here. The circumstances of its destruction and +abandonment was unknown; the site is now marked by a few heaps of ruins. +Its medieval representative was Anglona, once a bishopric, but now +itself a heap of ruins, among which are those of an 11th-century church. + +2. HERACLEA MINOA, an ancient town on the south coast of Sicily, at the +mouth of the river Halycus, near the modern Montallegro, some 20 m. N.W. +of Girgenti. It was at first an outpost of Selinus (Herod. v. 46), then +overthrown by Carthage, later a border town of Agrigentum. It passed +into Carthaginian hands by the treaty of 405 B.C., was won back by +Dionysius in his first Punic war, but recovered by Carthage in 383. From +this date onwards coins bearing its Semitic name, _Ras Melkart_, become +common, and it was obviously an important border fortress. It was here +that Dion landed in 357 B.C., when he attacked Syracuse. The +Agrigentines won it back in 309, but it soon fell under the power of +Agathocles. It was temporarily recovered for Greece by Pyrrhus. + (T. As.) + +3. HERACLEA PONTICA (mod. _Bender Eregli_), an ancient city on the coast +of Bithynia in Asia Minor, at the mouth of the Kilijsu. It was founded +by a Megarian colony, which soon subjugated the native Mariandynians and +extended its power over a considerable territory. The prosperity of the +city, rudely shaken by the Galatians and the Bithynians, was utterly +destroyed in the Mithradatic war. It was the birthplace of Heraclides +Ponticus. The modern town is best known for its lignite coal-mines, from +which Constantinople receives a good part of its supply. + +4. HERACLEA SINTICA, a town in Thracian Macedonia, to the south of the +Strymon, the site of which is marked by the village of Zervokhori, and +identified by the discovery of local coins. + +5. HERACLEA, a town on the borders of Caria and Ionia, near the foot of +Mount Latmus. In its neighbourhood was the burial cave of Endymion. + +6. HERACLEA-CYBISTRA (mod. _Eregli_ in the vilayet of Konia), under the +name Cybistra, had some importance in Hellenistic times owing to its +position near the point where the road to the Cilician Gates enters the +hills. It lay in the way of armies and was more than once sacked by the +Arab invaders of Asia Minor (A.D. 805 and 832). It became Turkish +(Seljuk) in the 11th century. Modern Eregli had grown from a large +village to a town since the railway reached it from Konia and Karaman in +1904; and it has now an hotel and good shops. Three hours' ride S. is +the famous "Hittite" rock-relief of Ivriz, representing a king (probably +of neighbouring Tyana) adoring a god (see HITTITES). This was the first +"Hittite" monument discovered in modern times (early 18th century, by +the Swede Otter, an emissary of Louis XIV.). + + For Heraclea Trachinia see TRACHIS, and for Heraclea Perinthus see + PERINTHUS. + +HERACLEA was also the name of one of the Sporades, between Naxos and +Ios, which is still called Raklia, and bears traces of a Greek township +with temples to Tyche and Zeus Lophites. (D. G. H.) + + + + +HERACLEON, a Gnostic who flourished about A.D. 125, probably in the +south of Italy or in Sicily, and is generally classed by the early +heresiologists with the Valentinian school of heresy. In his system he +appears to have regarded the divine nature as a vast abyss in whose +_pleroma_ were aeons of different orders and degrees,--emanations from +the source of being. Midway between the supreme God and the material +world was the Demiurgus, who created the latter, and under whose +jurisdiction the lower, animal soul of man proceeded after death, while +his higher, celestial soul returned to the pleroma whence at first it +issued. Though conspicuously uniting faith in Christ with spiritual +maturity, there are evidences that, like other Valentinians, Heracleon +did not sufficiently emphasize abstinence from the moral laxity and +worldliness into which his followers fell. He seems to have received the +ordinary Christian scriptures; and Origen, who treats him as a notable +exegete, has preserved fragments of a commentary by him on the fourth +gospel (brought together by Grabe in the second volume of his +_Spicilegium_), while Clement of Alexandria quotes from him what appears +to be a passage from a commentary on Luke. These writings are remarkable +for their intensely mystical and allegorical interpretations of the +text. + + + + +HERACLEONAS, east-Roman emperor (Feb.-Sept. 641), was the son of +Heraclius (q.v.) and Martina. At the end of Heraclius' reign he obtained +through his mother's influence the title of Augustus (638), and after +his father's death was proclaimed joint emperor with his half-brother +Constantine III. The premature death of Constantine, in May 641, left +Heracleonas sole ruler. But a suspicion that he and Martina had murdered +Constantine led soon after to a revolt, and to the mutilation and +banishment of the supposed offenders. Nothing further is known about +Heracleonas subsequent to 641. + + + + +HERACLIDAE, the general name for the numerous descendants of Heracles +(Hercules), and specially applied in a narrower sense to the descendants +of Hyllus, the eldest of his four sons by Deianeirathe, conquerors of +Peloponnesus. Heracles, whom Zeus had originally intended to be ruler of +Argos, Lacedaemon and Messenian Pylos, had been supplanted by the +cunning of Hera, and his intended possessions had fallen into the hands +of Eurystheus, king of Mycenae. After the death of Heracles, his +children, after many wanderings, found refuge from Eurystheus at Athens. +Eurystheus, on his demand for their surrender being refused, attacked +Athens, but was defeated and slain. Hyllus and his brothers then invaded +Peloponnesus, but after a year's stay were forced by a pestilence to +quit. They withdrew to Thessaly, where Aegimius, the mythical ancestor +of the Dorians, whom Heracles had assisted in war against the Lapithae, +adopted Hyllus and made over to him a third part of his territory. After +the death of Aegimius, his two sons, Pamphilus and Dymas, voluntarily +submitted to Hyllus (who was, according to the Dorian tradition in +Herodotus v. 72, really an Achaean), who thus became ruler of the +Dorians, the three branches of that race being named after these three +heroes. Being desirous of reconquering his paternal inheritance, Hyllus +consulted the Delphic oracle, which told him to wait for "the third +fruit," and then enter Peloponnesus by "a narrow passage by sea." +Accordingly, after three years, Hyllus marched across the isthmus of +Corinth to attack Atreus, the successor of Eurystheus, but was slain in +single combat by Echemus, king of Tegea. This second attempt was +followed by a third under Cleodaeus and a fourth under Aristomachus, +both of which were equally unsuccessful. At last, Temenus, Cresphontes +and Aristodemus, the sons of Aristomachus, complained to the oracle that +its instructions had proved fatal to those who had followed them. They +received the answer that by the "third fruit" the "third generation" was +meant, and that the "narrow passage" was not the isthmus of Corinth, but +the straits of Rhium. They accordingly built a fleet at Naupactus, but +before they set sail, Aristodemus was struck by lightning (or shot by +Apollo) and the fleet destroyed, because one of the Heraclidae had slain +an Acarnanian soothsayer. The oracle, being again consulted by Temenus, +bade him offer an expiatory sacrifice and banish the murderer for ten +years, and look out for a man with three eyes to act as guide. On his +way back to Naupactus, Temenus fell in with Oxylus, an Aetolian, who had +lost one eye, riding on a horse (thus making up the three eyes) and +immediately pressed him into his service. According to another account, +a mule on which Oxylus rode had lost an eye. The Heraclidae repaired +their ships, sailed from Naupactus to Antirrhium, and thence to Rhium in +Peloponnesus. A decisive battle was fought with Tisamenus, son of +Orestes, the chief ruler in the peninsula, who was defeated and slain. +The Heraclidae, who thus became practically masters of Peloponnesus, +proceeded to distribute its territory among themselves by lot. Argos +fell to Temenus, Lacedaemon to Procles and Eurysthenes, the twin sons of +Aristodemus; and Messene to Cresphontes. The fertile district of Elis +had been reserved by agreement for Oxylus. The Heraclidae ruled in +Lacedaemon till 221 B.C., but disappeared much earlier in the other +countries. This conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, commonly called +the "Return of the Heraclidae," is represented as the recovery by the +descendants of Heracles of the rightful inheritance of their hero +ancestor and his sons. The Dorians followed the custom of other Greek +tribes in claiming as ancestor for their ruling families one of the +legendary heroes, but the traditions must not on that account be +regarded as entirely mythical. They represent a joint invasion of +Peloponnesus by Aetolians and Dorians, the latter having been driven +southward from their original northern home under pressure from the +Thessalians. It is noticeable that there is no mention of these +Heraclidae or their invasion in Homer or Hesiod. Herodotus (vi. 52) +speaks of poets who had celebrated their deeds, but these were limited +to events immediately succeeding the death of Heracles. The story was +first amplified by the Greek tragedians, who probably drew their +inspiration from local legends, which glorified the services rendered by +Athens to the rulers of Peloponnesus. + + Apollodorus ii. 8; Diod. Sic. iv. 57, 58; Pausanias i. 32, 41, ii. 13, + 18, iii. 1, iv. 3, v. 3; Euripides, _Heraclidae_; Pindar, _Pythia_, + ix. 137; Herodotus ix. 27. See Muller's _Dorians_, i. ch. 3; + Thirlwall, _History of Greece_, ch. vii.; Grote, _Hist. of Greece_, + pt. i. ch. xviii.; Busolt, _Griechische Geschichte_, i. ch. ii. sec. + 7, where a list of modern authorities is given. + + + + +HERACLIDES PONTICUS, Greek philosopher and miscellaneous writer, born at +Heraclea in Pontus, flourished in the 4th century B.C. He studied +philosophy at Athens under Speusippus, Plato and Aristotle. According to +Suidas, Plato, on his departure for Sicily, left his pupils in charge of +Heraclides. The latter part of his life was spent at Heraclea. He is +said to have been vain and fat, and to have been so fond of display that +he was nicknamed Pompicus, or the Showy (unless the epithet refers to +his literary style). Various idle stories are related about him. On one +occasion, for instance, Heraclea was afflicted with famine, and the +Pythian priestess at Delphi, bribed by Heraclides, assured his inquiring +townsmen that the dearth would be stayed if they granted a golden crown +to that philosopher. This was done; but just as Heraclides was receiving +his honour in a crowded assembly, he was seized with apoplexy, while the +dishonest priestess perished at the same moment from the bite of a +serpent. On his death-bed he is said to have requested a friend to hide +his body as soon as life was extinct, and, by putting a serpent in its +place, induce his townsmen to suppose that he had been carried up to +heaven. The trick was discovered, and Heraclides received only ridicule +instead of divine honours (Diogenes Laertius v. 6). Whatever may be the +truth about these stories, Heraclides seems to have been a versatile and +prolific writer on philosophy, mathematics, music, grammar, physics, +history and rhetoric. Many of the works attributed to him, however, are +probably by one or more persons of the same name. + + The extant fragment of a treatise _On Constitutions_ (C. W. Muller, + _F.H.G._ ii. 197-207) is probably a compilation from the _Politics_ of + Aristotle by Heraclides Lembos, who lived in the time of Ptolemy VI. + Philometor (181-146). See Otto Voss, _De Heraclidis Pontici vita et + scriptis_ (1896). + + + + +HERACLITUS ([Greek: Herakleitos]; c. 540-475 B.C.), Greek philosopher, +was born at Ephesus of distinguished parentage. Of his early life and +education we know nothing; from the contempt with which he spoke of all +his fellow-philosophers and of his fellow-citizens as a whole we may +gather that he regarded himself as self-taught and a pioneer of wisdom. +So intensely aristocratic (hence his nickname [Greek: ochloloidoros], +"he who rails at the people") was his temperament that he declined to +exercise the regal-hieratic office of [Greek: Basileus] which was +hereditary in his family, and presented it to his brother. It is +probable, however, that he did occasionally intervene in the affairs of +the city at the period when the rule of Persia had given place to +autonomy; it is said that he compelled the usurper Melancomas to +abdicate. From the lonely life he led, and still more from the extreme +profundity of his philosophy and his contempt for mankind in general, he +was called the "Dark Philosopher" ([Greek: ho skoteinos]), or the +"Weeping Philosopher," in contrast to Democritus, the "Laughing +Philosopher." + +Heraclitus is in a real sense the founder of metaphysics. Starting from +the physical standpoint of the Ionian physicists, he accepted their +general idea of the unity of nature, but entirely denied their theory of +being. The fundamental uniform fact in nature is constant change +([Greek: panta chorei kai ouden menei]); everything both is and is not +at the same time. He thus arrives at the principle of Relativity; +harmony and unity consist in diversity and multiplicity. The senses are +"bad witnesses" ([Greek: kakoi martyres]); only the wise man can obtain +knowledge. + +To appreciate the significance of the doctrines of Heraclitus, it must +be borne in mind that to Greek philosophy the sharp distinction between +subject and object which pervades modern thought was foreign, a +consideration which suggests the conclusion that, while it is a great +mistake to reckon Heraclitus with the materialistic cosmologists of the +Ionic schools, it is, on the other hand, going too far to treat his +theory, with Hegel and Lassalle, as one of pure Panlogism. Accordingly, +when he denies the reality of Being, and declares Becoming, or eternal +flux and change, to be the sole actuality, Heraclitus must be understood +to enunciate not only the unreality of the abstract notion of being, +except as the correlative of that of not-being, but also the physical +doctrine that all phenomena are in a state of continuous transition from +non-existence to existence, and vice versa, without either +distinguishing these propositions or qualifying them by any reference to +the relation of thought to experience. "Every thing is and is not"; all +things are, and nothing remains. So far he is in general agreement with +Anaximander (q.v.), but he differs from him in the solution of the +problem, disliking, as a poet and a mystic, the primary matter which +satisfied the patient researcher, and demanding a more vivid and +picturesque element. Naturally he selects fire, according to him the +most complete embodiment of the process of Becoming, as the principle of +empirical existence, out of which all things, including even the soul, +grow by way of a _quasi_ condensation, and into which all things must in +course of time be again resolved. But this primordial fire is in itself +that divine rational process, the harmony of which constitutes the law +of the universe (see LOGOS). Real knowledge consists in comprehending +this all-pervading harmony as embodied in the manifold of perception, +and the senses are "bad-witnesses," because they apprehend phenomena, +not as its manifestation, but as "stiff and dead." In like manner real +virtue consists in the subordination of the individual to the laws of +this harmony as the universal reason wherein alone true freedom is to be +found. "The law of things is a law of Reason Universal ([Greek: logos]), +but most men live as though they had a wisdom of their own." Ethics here +stands to sociology in a close relation, similar, in many respects, to +that which we find in Hegel and in Comte. For Heraclitus the soul +approaches most nearly to perfection when it is most akin to the fiery +vapour out of which it was originally created, and as this is most so in +death, "while we live our souls are dead in us, but when we die our +souls are restored to life." The doctrine of immortality comes +prominently forward in his ethics, but whether this must not be reckoned +with the figurative accommodation to the popular theology of Greece +which pervades his ethical teaching, is very doubtful. + +The school of disciples founded by Heraclitus flourished for long after +his death, the chief exponent of his teaching being Cratylus. A good +deal of the information in regard to his doctrines has been gathered +from the later Greek philosophy, which was deeply influenced by it. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The only authentic extant work of Heraclitus is the + [Greek: peri physeos]. The best edition (containing also the probably + spurious [Greek: Epistolai]) is that of I. Bywater, _Heracliti Ephesii + reliquiae_ (Oxford, 1877); of the epistles alone by A. Westermann + (Leipzig, 1857). See also in A. H. Ritter and L. Preller's _Historia + philosophiae Graecae_ (8th ed. by E. Wellmann, 1898); F. W. A. + Mullach, _Fragm. philos. Graec._ (Paris, 1860); A. Fairbanks, _The + First Philosophers of Greece_ (1898); H. Diels, _Heraklit von Ephesus_ + (2nd ed., 1909), Greek and German. English translation of Bywater's + edition with introduction by G. T. W. Patrick (Baltimore, 1889). For + criticism see, in addition to the histories of philosophy, F. + Lassalle, _Die Philosophie Herakleitos' des Dunklen_ (Berlin, 1858; + 2nd ed., 1892), which, however, is too strongly dominated by modern + Hegelianism; Paul Schuster, _Heraklit von Ephesus_ (Leipzig, 1873); J. + Bernays, _Die heraklitischen Briefe_ (Berlin, 1869); T. Gomperz, _Zu + Heraclits Lehre und den Uberresten seines Werkes_ (Vienna, 1887), and + in his _Greek Thinkers_ (English translation, L. Magnus, vol. i. + 1901); J. Burnet, _Early Greek Philosophy_ (1892); A. Patin, + _Heraklits Einheitslehre_ (Leipzig, 1886); E. Pfleiderer, _Die + Philosophie des Heraklitus von Ephesus im Lichte der Mysterienidee_ + (Berlin, 1886); G. T. Schafer, _Die Philosophie des Heraklit von + Ephesus und die moderne Heraklitforschung_ (Leipzig, 1902); Wolfgang + Schultz, _Studien zur antiken Kultur_, i.; _Pythagoras und Heraklit_ + (Leipzig, 1905); O. Spengler, _Heraklit. Eine Studie uber den + energetischen Grundgedanken seiner Philosophie_ (Halle, 1904); A. + Brieger, "Die Grundzuge der heraklitischen Physik" in _Hermes_, xxxix. + (1904), 182-223, and "Heraklit der Dunkle" in _Neue Jahrb. f. das + klass. Altertum_ (1904), p. 687. For his place in the development of + early philosophy see also articles IONIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY and + LOGOS. Ancient authorities: Diog. Laert. ix.; Sext. Empiric., _Adv. + mathem._ vii. 126, 127, 133; Plato, _Cratylus_, 402 A and + _Theaetetus_, 152 E; Plutarch, _Isis and Osiris_, 45, 48; Arist. _Nic. + Eth._ vii. 3, 4; Clement of Alexandria, _Stromata_, v. 599, 603 (ed. + Paris). (J. M. M.) + + + + +HERACLIUS ([Greek: Herakleios]) (c. 575-642), East Roman emperor, was +born in Cappadocia. His father held high military command under the +emperor Maurice, and as governor of Africa maintained his independence +against the usurper Phocas (q.v.). When invited to head a rebellion +against the latter, he sent his son with a fleet which reached +Constantinople unopposed, and precipitated the dethronement of Phocas. +Proclaimed emperor, Heraclius set himself to reorganize the utterly +disordered administration. At first he found himself helpless before the +Persian armies (see PERSIA: _Ancient History_; and CHOSROES II.) of +Chosroes II., which conquered Syria and Egypt and since 616 had encamped +opposite Constantinople; in 618 he even proposed in despair to abandon +his capital and seek a refuge in Carthage, but at the entreaty of the +patriarch he took courage. By securing a loan from the Church and +suspending the corn-distribution at Constantinople, he raised sufficient +funds for war, and after making a treaty with the Avars, who had nearly +surprised the capital during an incursion in 619, he was at last able to +take the field against Persia. During his first expedition (622) he +failed to secure a footing in Armenia, whence he had hoped to take the +Persians in flank, but by his unwearied energy he restored the +discipline and efficiency of the army. In his second campaign (624-26) +he penetrated into Armenia and Albania, and beat the enemy in the open +field. After a short stay at Constantinople, which his son Constantine +had successfully defended against renewed incursions by the Avars, +Heraclius resumed his attacks upon the Persians (627). Though deserted +by the Khazars, with whom he had made an alliance upon entering into +Pontus, he gained a decisive advantage by a brilliant march across the +Armenian highlands into the Tigris plain, and a hard-fought victory over +Chosroes' general, Shahrbaraz, in which Heraclius distinguished himself +by his personal bravery. A subsequent revolution at the Persian court +led to the dethronement of Chosroes in favour of his son Kavadh II. +(q.v.); the new king promptly made peace with the emperor, whose troops +were already advancing upon the Persian capital Ctesiphon (628). Having +thus secured his eastern frontier, Heraclius returned to Constantinople +with ample spoils, including the true cross, which in 629 he brought +back in person to Jerusalem. On the northern frontier of the empire he +kept the Avars in check by inducing the Serbs to migrate from the +Carpathians to the Balkan lands so as to divert the attention of the +Avars. + +The triumphs which Heraclius had won through his own energy and skill +did not bring him lasting popularity. In his civil administration he +followed out his own ideas without deferring to the nobles or the +Church, and the opposition which he encountered from these quarters went +far to paralyse his attempts at reform. Worn out by continuous fighting +and weakened by dropsy, Heraclius failed to show sufficient energy +against the new peril that menaced his eastern provinces towards the end +of his reign. In 629 the Saracens made their first incursion into Syria +(see CALIPHATE, section A, S 1); in 636 they won a notable victory on +the Yermuk (Hieromax), and in the following years conquered all Syria, +Palestine and Egypt. Heraclius made no attempt to retrieve the +misfortunes of his generals, but evacuated his possessions in sullen +despair. The remaining years of his life he devoted to theological +speculation and ecclesiastical reforms. His religious enthusiasm led him +to oppress his Jewish subjects; on the other hand he sought to reconcile +the Christian sects, and to this effect propounded in his _Ecthesis_ a +conciliatory doctrine of monothelism. Heraclius died of his disease in +642. He had been twice married; his second union, with his niece +Martina, was frequently made a matter of reproach to him. In spite of +his partial failures, Heraclius must be regarded as one of the greatest +of Byzantine emperors, and his early campaigns were the means of saving +the realm from almost certain destruction. + + AUTHORITIES.--G. Finlay, _History of Greece_ (Oxford, 1877) i. + 311-358; J. B. Bury, _The Later Roman Empire_ (London, 1889), ii. + 207-273; T. E. Evangelides, [Greek: Herakleios ho autokrator tou + Byzantiou] (Odessa, 1903); A. Pernice, _L'Imperatore Eraclio_ + (Florence, 1905). On the Persian campaigns: the epic of George Pisides + (ed. 1836, Bonn); F. Macler, _Histoire d'Heraclius par l'eveque + Sebeos_ (Paris, 1904); E. Gerland in _Byzantinische Zeitschrift_, iii. + (1894) 330-337; N. H. Baynes in the _English Historical Review_ + (1904), pp. 694-702. (M. O. B. C.) + + + + +HERALD (O. Fr. _heraut_, _herault_; the origin is uncertain, but O.H.G. +_heren_, to call, or _hariwald_, leader of an army, have been proposed; +the Gr. equivalent is [Greek: keryx]: Lat. _praeco_, _caduceator_, +_fetialis_), in Greek and Roman antiquities, the term for the officials +described below; in modern usage, while the word "herald" is often used +generally in a sense analogous to that of the ancients, it is more +specially restricted to that dealt with in the article HERALDRY. + +The Greek heralds, who claimed descent from Hermes, the messenger of the +gods, through his son Keryx, were public functionaries of high +importance in early times. Like Hermes, they carried a staff of olive or +laurel wood surrounded by two snakes (or with wool as messengers of +peace); their persons were inviolable; and they formed a kind of +priesthood or corporation. In the Homeric age, they summoned the +assemblies of the people, at which they preserved order and silence; +proclaimed war; arranged the cessation of hostilities and the conclusion +of peace; and assisted at public sacrifices and banquets. They also +performed certain menial offices for the kings (mixing and pouring out +the wine for the guests), by whom they were treated as confidential +servants. In later times, their position was a less honourable one; +they were recruited from the poorer classes, and were mostly paid +servants of the various officials. Pollux in his _Onomasticon_ +distinguishes four classes of heralds: (1) the sacred heralds at the +Eleusinian mysteries;[1] (2) the heralds at the public games, who +announced the names of the competitors and victors; (3) those who +superintended the arrangements of festal processions; (4) those who +proclaimed goods for sale in the market (for which purpose they mounted +a stone), and gave notice of lost children and runaway slaves. To these +should be added (5) the heralds of the boule and demos, who summoned the +members of the council and ecclesia, recited the solemn formula of +prayer before the opening of the meeting, called upon the orators to +speak, counted the votes and announced the results; (6) the heralds of +the law courts, who gave notice of the time of trials and summoned the +parties. The heralds received payment from the state and free meals +together with the officials to whom they were attached. Their +appointment was subject to some kind of examination, probably of the +quality of their voice. Like the earlier heralds, they were also +employed in negotiations connected with war and peace. + +Among the Romans the _praecones_ or "criers" exercised their profession +both in private and official business. As private criers they were +especially concerned with auctions; they advertized the time, place and +conditions of sale, called out the various bids, and like the modern +auctioneer varied the proceedings with jokes. They gave notice in the +streets of things that had been lost, and took over various commissions, +such as funeral arrangements. Although the calling was held in little +estimation, some of these criers amassed great wealth. The state criers, +who were mostly freedmen and well paid, formed the lowest class of +_apparitores_ (attendants on various magistrates). On the whole, their +functions resembled those of the Greek heralds. They called the popular +assemblies together, proclaimed silence and made known the result of the +voting; in judicial cases, they summoned the plaintiff, defendant, +advocates and witnesses; in criminal executions they gave out the +reasons for the punishment and called on the executioner to perform his +duty; they invited the people to the games and announced the names of +the victors. Public criers were also employed at state auctions in the +municipia and colonies, but, according to the lex Julia municipalis of +Caesar, they were prohibited from holding office. + +Amongst the Romans the settlement of matters relating to war and peace +was entrusted to a special class of heralds called _Fetiales_ (not +_Feciales_), a word of uncertain etymology, possibly connected with +_fateor_, _fari_, and meaning "the speakers." They formed a priestly +college of 20 (or 15) members, the institution of which was ascribed to +one of the kings. They were chosen from the most distinguished families, +held office for life, and filled up vacancies in their number by +co-optation. Their duties were to demand redress for insult or injury to +the state, to declare war unless satisfaction was obtained within a +certain number of days and to conclude treaties of peace. A deputation +of four (or two), one of whom was called _pater patratus_, wearing +priestly garments, with sacred herbs plucked from the Capitoline hill +borne in front, proceeded to the frontier of the enemy's territory and +demanded the surrender of the guilty party. This demand was called +_clarigatio_ (perhaps from its being made in a loud, clear voice). If no +satisfactory answer was given within 30 days, the deputation returned to +Rome and made a report. If war was decided upon, the deputation again +repaired to the frontier, pronounced a solemn formula, and hurled a +charred and blood-stained javelin across the frontier, in the presence +of three witnesses, which was tantamount to a declaration of war (Livy +i. 24, 32). With the extension of the Roman empire, it became +impossible to carry out this ceremonial, for which was substituted the +hurling of a javelin over a column near the temple of Bellona in the +direction of the enemy's territory. When the termination of a war was +decided upon, the fetiales either made an arrangement for the suspension +of hostilities for a definite term of years, after which the war +recommenced automatically or they concluded a solemn treaty with the +enemy. Conditions of peace or alliance proposed by the general on his +own responsibility (_sponsio_) were not binding upon the people, and in +case of rejection the general, with hands bound, was delivered by the +fetiales to the enemy (Livy ix. 10). But if the terms were agreed to, a +deputation carrying the sacred herbs and the flint stones, kept in the +temple of Jupiter Feretrius for sacrificial purposes, met a deputation +of fetiales from the other side. After the conditions of the treaty had +been read, the sacrificial formula was pronounced and the victims slain +by a blow from a stone (hence the expression _foedus ferire_). The +treaty was then signed and handed over to the keeping of the fetial +college. These ceremonies usually took place in Rome, but in 201 a +deputation of fetiales went to Africa to ratify the conclusion of peace +with Carthage. From that time little is heard of the fetiales, although +they appear to have existed till the end of the 4th century A.D. The +_caduceator_ (from _caduceus_, the latinized form of [Greek: kerykeion]) +was the name of a person who was sent to treat for peace. His person was +considered sacred; and like the fetiales he carried the sacred herbs, +instead of the caduceus, which was not in use amongst the Romans. + + For the Greek heralds, see Ch. Ostermann, _De praeconibus Graecorum_ + (1845); for the Roman Praecones, Mommsen, _Romisches Staatsrecht_, i. + 363 (3rd ed., 1887); also article PRAECONES in Pauly's + _Realencyclopadie_ (1852 edition); for the Fetiales, monographs by F. + C. Conradi (1734, containing all the necessary material), and G. + Fusinato (1884, from _Atti della R. Accad. dei Lincei_, series iii. + vol. 13); also Marquardt, _Romische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. 415 (3rd + ed., 1885), and A. Weiss in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des + antiquites_. (J. H. F.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] These heralds are regarded by some as a branch of the Eumolpidae, + by others as of Athenian origin. They enjoyed great prestige and + formed a hieratic caste like the Eumolpidae, with whom they shared + the most important liturgical functions. From them were selected the + [Greek: dadouchos] or torch-bearer, the [Greek: hierokeryx], whose + chief duty was to proclaim silence, and [Greek: ho epi bomo], an + official connected with the service at the altar (see L. R. Farnell, + Cults of the Greek States, iii. 161; J. Topffer, _Attische + Genealogie_ (1889); Dittenberger in _Hermes_, xx.; P. Foucart, "Les + Grands Mysteres d'Eleusis" in _Mem. de l'Institut National de + France_, xxxvii. (1904). + + + + +HERALDRY. Although the word Heraldry properly belongs to all the +business of the herald (q.v.), it has long attached itself to that which +in earlier times was known as armory, the science of armorial bearings. + +_History of Armorial Bearings._--In all ages and in all quarters of the +world distinguishing symbols have been adopted by tribes or nations, by +families or by chieftains. Greek and Roman poets describe the devices +borne on the shields of heroes, and many such painted shields are +pictured on antique vases. Rabbinical writers have supported the fancy +that the standards of the tribes set up in their camps bore figures +devised from the prophecy of Jacob, the ravening wolf for Benjamin, the +lion's whelp for Judah and the ship of Zebulon. In the East we have such +ancient symbols as the five-clawed dragon of the Chinese empire and the +chrysanthemum of the emperor of Japan. In Japan, indeed, the +systematized badges borne by the noble clans may be regarded as akin to +the heraldry of the West, and the circle with the three asarum leaves of +the Tokugawa shoguns has been made as familiar to us by Japanese lacquer +and porcelain as the red pellets of the Medici by old Italian fabrics. +Before the landing of the Spaniards in Mexico the Aztec chiefs carried +shields and banners, some of whose devices showed after the fashion of a +phonetic writing the names of their bearers; and the eagle on the new +banner of Mexico may be traced to the eagle that was once carved over +the palace of Montezuma. That mysterious business of totemism, which +students of folk-lore have discovered among most primitive peoples, must +be regarded as another of the forerunners of true heraldry, the totem of +a tribe supplying a badge which was sometimes displayed on the body of +the tribesman in paint, scars or tattooing. Totemism so far touches our +heraldry that some would trace to its symbols the white horse of +Westphalia, the bull's head of the Mecklenburgers and many other ancient +armories. + +When true heraldry begins in Western Europe nothing is more remarkable +than the suddenness of its development, once the idea of hereditary +armorial symbols was taken by the nobles and knights. Its earliest +examples are probably still to be discovered by research, but certain +notes may be made which narrow the dates between which we must seek its +origin. The older writers on heraldry, lacking exact archaeology, were +wont to carry back the beginnings to the dark ages, even if they lacked +the assurance of those who distributed blazons among the angelic host +before the Creation. Even in our own times old misconceptions give +ground slowly. Georg Ruexner's _Thurnier Buch_ of 1522 is still cited +for its evidence of the tournament laws of Henry the Fowler, by which +those who would contend in tournaments were forced to show four +generations of arms-bearing ancestors. Yet modern criticism has +shattered the elaborated fiction of Ruexner. In England many legends +survive of arms borne by the Conqueror and his companions. But nothing +is more certain than that neither armorial banners nor shields of arms +were borne on either side at Hastings. The famous record of the Bayeux +tapestry shows shields which in some cases suggest rudely devised +armorial bearings, but in no case can a shield be identified as one +which is recognized in the generations after the Conquest. So far is the +idea of personal arms from the artist, that the same warrior, seen in +different parts of the tapestry's history, has his shield with differing +devices. A generation later, Anna Comnena, the daughter of the Byzantine +emperor, describing the shields of the French knights who came to +Constantinople, tells us that their polished faces were plain. + +Of all men, kings and princes might be the first to be found bearing +arms. Yet the first English sovereign who appears on his great seal with +arms on his shield is Richard I. His seal of 1189 shows his shield +charged with a lion ramping towards the sinister side. Since one half +only is seen of the rounded face of the shield, English antiquaries have +perhaps too hastily suggested that the whole bearing was two lions face +to face. But the mounted figure of Philip of Alsace, count of Flanders, +on his seal of 1164 bears a like shield charged with a like lion, and in +this case another shield on the counterseal makes it clear that this is +the single lion of Flanders. Therefore we may take it that, in 1189, +King Richard bore arms of a lion rampant, while, nine years later, +another seal shows him with a shield of the familiar bearings which have +been borne as the arms of England by each one of his successors. + +That seal of Philip of Alsace is the earliest known example of the arms +of the great counts of Flanders. The ancient arms of the kings of +France, the blue shield powdered with golden fleurs-de-lys, appear even +later. Louis le Jeune, on the crowning of his son Philip Augustus, +ordered that the young prince should be clad in a blue dalmatic and blue +shoes, sewn with golden fleurs-de-lys, a flower whose name, as "Fleur de +Loys," played upon that of his own, and possibly upon his epithet name +of Florus. A seal of the same king has the device of a single lily. But +the first French royal seal with the shield of the lilies is that of +Louis VIII. (1223-1226). The eagle of the emperors may well be as +ancient a bearing as any in Europe, seeing that Charlemagne is said, as +the successor of the Caesars, to have used the eagle as his badge. The +emperor Henry III. (1039-1056) has the sceptre on his seal surmounted by +an eagle; in the 12th century the eagle was embroidered upon the +imperial gloves. At Molsen in 1080 the emperor's banner is said by +William of Tyre to have borne the eagle, and with the beginning of +regular heraldry this imperial badge would soon be displayed on a +shield. The double-headed eagle is not seen on an imperial seal until +after 1414, when the bird with one neck becomes the recognized arms of +the king of the Romans. + +There are, however, earlier examples of shields of arms than any of +these. A document of the first importance is the description by John of +Marmoustier of the marriage of Geoffrey of Anjou with Maude the empress, +daughter of Henry I., when the king is said to have hung round the neck +of his son-in-law a shield with golden "lioncels." Afterwards the monk +speaks of Geoffrey in fight, "pictos leones preferens in clypeo." Two +notes may be added to this account. The first is that the enamelled +plate now in the museum at Le Mans, which is said to have been placed +over the tomb of Geoffrey after his death in 1151, shows him bearing a +long shield of azure with six golden lioncels, thus confirming the +monk's story. The second is the well-known fact that Geoffrey's bastard +grandson, William with the Long Sword, undoubtedly bore these same arms +of the six lions of gold in a blue field, even as they are still to be +seen upon his tomb at Salisbury. Some ten years before Richard I. seals +with the three leopards, his brother John, count of Mortain, is found +using a seal upon which he bears two leopards, arms which later +tradition assigns to the ancient dukes of Normandy and to their +descendants the kings of England before Henry II., who is said to have +added the third leopard in right of his wife, a legend of no value. Mr +Round has pointed out that Gilbert of Clare, earl of Hertford, who died +in 1152, bears on his seal to a document sealed after 1138 and not later +than 1146, the three cheverons afterwards so well known in England as +the bearings of his successors. An old drawing of the seal of his uncle +Gilbert, earl of Pembroke (_Lansdowne MS._ 203), shows a cheveronny +shield used between 1138 and 1148. At some date between 1144 and 1150, +Waleran, count of Meulan, shows on his seal a pennon and saddle-cloth +with a checkered pattern: the house of Warenne, sprung from his mother's +son, bore shields checky of gold and azure. If we may trust the +inventory of Norman seals made by M. Demay, a careful antiquary, there +is among the archives of the Manche a grant by Eudes, seigneur du Pont, +sealed with a seal and counterseal of arms, to which M. Demay gives a +date as early as 1128. The writer has not examined this seal, the +earliest armorial evidence of which he has any knowledge, but it may be +remarked that the arms are described as varying on the seal and +counterseal, a significant touch of primitive armory. Another type of +seal common in this 12th century shows the personal device which had not +yet developed into an armorial charge. A good example is that of +Enguerrand de Candavene, count of St Pol, where, although the shield of +the horseman is uncharged, sheaves of oats, playing on his name, are +strewn at the foot of the seal. Five of these sheaves were the arms of +Candavene when the house came to display arms. In the same fashion three +different members of the family of Armenteres in England show one, two +or three swords upon their seals, but here the writer has no evidence of +a coat of arms derived from these devices. + +From the beginning of the 13th century arms upon shields increase in +number. Soon the most of the great houses of the west display them with +pride. Leaders in the field, whether of a royal army or of a dozen +spears, saw the military advantage of a custom which made shield and +banner things that might be recognized in the press. Although it is +probable that armorial bearings have their first place upon the shield, +the charges of the shield are found displayed on the knight's long +surcoat, his "coat of arms," on his banner or pennon, on the trappers of +his horse and even upon the peaks of his saddle. An attempt has been +made to connect the rise of armory with the adoption of the +barrel-shaped close helm; but even when wearing the earlier Norman +helmet with its long nasal the knight's face was not to be recognized. +The Conqueror, as we know, had to bare his head before he could persuade +his men at Hastings that he still lived. Armory satisfied a need which +had long been felt. When fully armed, one galloping knight was like +another; but friend and foe soon learned that the gold and blue checkers +meant that Warenne was in the field and that the gold and red vair was +for Ferrers. Earl Simon at Evesham sent up his barber to a spying place +and, as the barber named in turn the banners which had come up against +him, he knew that his last fight was at hand. In spite of these things +the growth of the custom of sealing deeds and charters had at least as +much influence in the development of armory as any military need. By +this way, women and clerks, citizens and men of peace, corporations and +colleges, came to share with the fighting man in the use of armorial +bearings. Arms in stone, wood and brass decorated the tombs of the dead +and the houses of the living; they were broidered in bed-curtains, +coverlets and copes, painted on the sails of ships and enamelled upon +all manner of goldsmiths' and silversmiths' work. And, even by warriors, +the full splendour of armory was at all times displayed more fully in +the fantastic magnificence of the tournament than in the rougher +business of war. + +[Illustration: PLATE I. + +PART OF A ROLL OF ARMS PAINTED IN ENGLAND AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 14TH +CENTURY. THE NAMES HAVE BEEN ADDED BY A SOMEWHAT LATER HAND, AND ARE IN +MANY CASES MISTAKEN AND MIS-SPELLED. + +_Drawn by William Gibb for the_ ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.] + +There can be little doubt that ancient armorial bearings were chosen at +will by the man who bore them, many reasons guiding his choice. Crosses +in plenty were taken. Old writers have asserted that these crosses +commemorate the badge of the crusaders, yet the fact that the cross was +the symbol of the faith was reason enough. No symbolism can be found in +such charges as bends and fesses; they are on the shield because a broad +band, aslant or athwart, is a charge easily recognized. Medieval wisdom +gave every noble and magnanimous quality to the lion, and therefore this +beast is chosen by hundreds of knights as their bearing. We have already +seen how the arms of a Candavene play upon his name. Such an example was +imitated on all sides. Salle of Bedfordshire has two _sal_amanders +_sal_tirewise; Belet has his namesake the weasel. In ancient shields +almost all beasts and birds other than the lion and the eagle play upon +the bearer's name. No object is so humble that it is unwelcome to the +knight seeking a pun for his shield. Trivet has a three-legged trivet; +Trumpington two trumps; and Montbocher three pots. The legends which +assert that certain arms were "won in the Holy Land" or granted by +ancient kings for heroic deeds in the field are for the most part +worthless fancies. + +Tenants or neighbours of the great feudal lords were wont to make their +arms by differencing the lord's shield or by bringing some charge of it +into their own bearings. Thus a group of Kentish shields borrow lions +from that of Leyborne, which is azure with six lions of silver. Shirland +of Minster bore the same arms differenced with an ermine quarter. +Detling had the silver lions in a sable field. Rokesle's lions are azure +in a golden field with a fesse of gules between them; while Wateringbury +has six sable lions in a field of silver, and Tilmanstone six ermine +lions in a field of azure. The Vipont ring or annelet is in several +shields of Westmorland knights, and the cheverons of Clare, the +cinquefoil badge of Beaumont and the sheaves of Chester can be traced in +the coats of many of the followers of those houses. Sometimes the lord +himself set forth such arms in a formal grant, as when the baron of +Greystock grants to Adam of Blencowe a shield in which his own three +chaplets are charges. The Whitgreave family of Staffordshire still show +a shield granted to their ancestor in 1442 by the earl of Stafford, in +which the Stafford red cheveron on a golden field is four times +repeated. + +_Differences._--By the custom of the middle ages the "whole coat," which +is the undifferenced arms, belonged to one man only and was inherited +whole only by his heirs. Younger branches differenced in many ways, +following no rule. In modern armory the label is reckoned a difference +proper only to an eldest son. But in older times, although the label was +very commonly used by the son and heir apparent, he often chose another +distinction during his father's lifetime, while the label is sometimes +found upon the shields of younger sons. Changing the colours or varying +the number of charges, drawing a bend or baston over the shield or +adding a border are common differences of cadet lines. Beauchamp, earl +of Warwick, bore "Gules with a fesse and six crosslets gold." His +cousins are seen changing the crosslets for martlets or for billets. +Bastards difference their father's arms, as a rule, in no more striking +manner than the legitimate cadets. Towards the end of the 14th century +we have the beginning of the custom whereby certain bastards of princely +houses differenced the paternal arms by charging them upon a bend, a +fesse or a chief, a cheveron or a quarter. Before his legitimation the +eldest son of John of Gaunt by Katharine Swinford is said to have borne +a shield party silver and azure with the arms of Lancaster on a bend. +After his legitimation in 1397 he changed his bearings to the royal arms +of France and England within a border gobony of silver and azure. Warren +of Poynton, descended from the last earl Warenne and his concubine, +Maude of Neirford, bore the checkered shield of Warenne with a quarter +charged with the ermine lion of Neirford. By the end of the middle ages +the baston under continental influence tended to become a bastard's +difference in England and the jingle of the two words may have helped +to support the custom. About the same time the border gobony began to +acquire a like character. The "bar sinister" of the novelists is +probably the baston sinister, with the ends couped, which has since the +time of Charles II. been familiar on the arms of certain descendants of +the royal house. But it has rarely been seen in England over other +shields; and, although the border gobony surrounds the arms granted to a +peer of Victorian creation, the modern heralds have fallen into the +habit of assigning, in nineteen cases out of twenty, a wavy border as +the standard difference for illegitimacy. + +Although no general register of arms was maintained it is remarkable +that there was little conflict between persons who had chanced to assume +the same arms. The famous suit in which Scrope, Grosvenor and Carminow +all claimed the blue shield with the golden bend is well known, and +there are a few cases in the 14th century of like disputes which were +never carried to the courts. But the men of the middle ages would seem +to have had marvellous memories for blazonry; and we know that rolls of +arms for reference, some of them the records of tournaments, existed in +great numbers. A few examples of these remain to us, with painted +shields or descriptions in French blazon, some of them containing many +hundreds of names and arms. + +[Illustration: Shield from seal of Robert de Pinkeny, an early example +of parted arms.] + +[Illustration: Shield of Joan atte Pole, widow of Robert of Hemenhale, +from her seal (1403), showing parted arms.] + +To women were assigned, as a rule, the undifferenced arms of their +fathers. In the early days of armory married women--well-born spinsters +of full age were all but unknown outside the walls of religious +houses--have seals on which appear the shield of the husband or the +father or both shields side by side. But we have some instances of the +shield in which two coats of arms are parted or, to use the modern +phrase, "impaled." Early in the reign of King John, Robert de Pinkeny +seals with a parted shield. On the right or dexter side--the right hand +of a shield is at the right hand of the person covered by it--are two +fusils of an indented fesse: on the left or sinister side are three +waves. The arms of Pinkeny being an indented fesse, we may see in this +shield the parted arms of husband and wife--the latter being probably a +Basset. In many of the earliest examples, as in this, the dexter half of +the husband's shield was united with the sinister half of that of the +wife, both coats being, as modern antiquaries have it, dimidiated. This +"dimidiation," however, had its inconvenience. With some coats it was +impossible. If the wife bore arms with a quarter for the only charge, +her half of the shield would be blank. Therefore the practice was early +abandoned by the majority of bearers of parted shields although there is +a survival of it in the fact that borders and tressures continue to be +"dimidiated" in order that the charges within them shall not be cramped. +Parted shields came into common use from the reign of Edward II., and +the rule is established that the husband's arms should take the dexter +side. There are, however, several instances of the contrary practice. On +the seal (1310) of Maude, wife of John Boutetort of Halstead, the +engrailed saltire of the Boutetorts takes the sinister place. A +twice-married woman would sometimes show a shield charged with her +paternal arms between those of both of her husbands, as did Beatrice +Stafford in 1404, while in 1412 Elizabeth, Lady of Clinton, seals with a +shield paled with five coats--her arms of la Plaunche between those of +four husbands. In most cases the parted shield is found on the wife's +seal alone. Even in our own time it is recognized that the wife's arms +should not appear upon the husband's official seal, upon his banner or +surcoat or upon his shield when it is surrounded by the collar of an +order. Parted arms, it may be noted, do not always represent a husband +and wife. Richard II. parted with his quartered arms of France and +England those ascribed to Edward the Confessor, and parting is often +used on the continent where quartering would serve in England. In 1497 +the seal of Giles Daubeney and Reynold Bray, fellow justices in eyre, +shows their arms parted in one shield. English bishops, by a custom +begun late in the 14th century, part the see's arms with their own. By +modern English custom a husband and wife, where the wife is not an heir, +use the parted coat on a shield, a widow bearing the same upon the +lozenge on which, when a spinster, she displayed her father's coat +alone. When the wife is an heir, her arms are now borne in a little +scocheon above those of her husband. If the husband's arms be in an +unquartered shield the central charge is often hidden away by this +scocheon. + +[Illustration: Shield of Beatrice Stafford from her seal (1404), showing +her arms of Stafford between those of her husbands--Thomas, Lord Roos, +and Sir Richard Burley.] + +[Illustration: Shield of John Talbot, first earl of Shrewsbury (d. +1453), showing four coats quartered.] + +The practice of marshalling arms by quartering spread in England by +reason of the example given by Eleanor, wife of Edward I., who displayed +the castle of Castile quartered with the lion of Leon. Isabel of France, +wife of Edward II., seals with a shield in whose four quarters are the +arms of England, France, Navarre and Champagne. Early In the 14th +century Simon de Montagu, an ancestor of the earls of Salisbury, +quartered with his own arms a coat of azure with a golden griffon. In +1340 we have Laurence Hastings, earl of Pembroke, quartering with the +Hastings arms the arms of Valence, as heir of his great-uncle Aymer, +earl of Pembroke. In the preceding year the king had already asserted +his claim to another kingdom by quartering France with England, and +after this quartered shields became common in the great houses whose +sons were carefully matched with heirs female. When the wife was an heir +the husband would quarter her arms with his own, displaying, as a rule, +the more important coat in the first quarter. Marshalling becomes more +elaborate with shields showing both quarterings and partings, as in the +seal (1368) of Sibil Arundel, where Arundel (Fitzalan) is quartered with +Warenne and parted with the arms of Montagu. In all, save one, of these +examples the quartering is in its simplest form, with one coat repeated +in the first and fourth quarters of the shield and another in the second +and third. But to a charter of 1434 Sir Henry Bromflete sets a seal upon +which Bromflete quarters Vesci in the second quarter, Aton in the third +and St John in the fourth, after the fashion of the much earlier seal of +Edward II.'s queen. Another development is that of what armorists style +the "grand quarter," a quarter which is itself quartered, as in the +shield of Reynold Grey of Ruthyn, which bears Grey in the first and +fourth quarters and Hastings quartered with Valence in the third and +fourth. Humphrey Bourchier, Lord Cromwell, in 1469, bears one grand +quarter quartered with another, the first having Bourchier and Lovaine, +the second Tatershall and Cromwell. + +[Illustration: Shield of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, from his +garter stall-plate (after 1423). The arms are Beauchamp quartering +Newburgh, with a scocheon of Clare quartering Despenser.] + +The last detail to be noted in medieval marshalling is the introduction +into the shield of another surmounting shield called by old armorists +the "innerscocheon" and by modern blazoners the "inescutcheon." John the +Fearless, count of Flanders, marshalled his arms in 1409 as a quartered +shield of the new and old coats of Burgundy. Above these coats a little +scocheon, borne over the crossing of the quartering lines, had the black +lion of Flanders, the arms of his mother. Richard Beauchamp, the +adventurous earl of Warwick, who had seen most European courts during +his wanderings, may have had this shield in mind when, over his arms of +Beauchamp quartering Newburgh, he set a scocheon of Clare quartering +Despenser, the arms of his wife Isabel Despenser, co-heir of the earls +of Gloucester. The seal of his son-in-law, the King-Maker, shows four +quarters--Beauchamp quartering Clare, Montagu quartering Monthermer, +Nevill alone, and Newburgh quartering Despenser. An interesting use of +the scocheon _en surtout_ is that made by Richard Wydvile, Lord Rivers, +whose garter stall-plate has a grand quarter of Wydvile and Prouz +quartering Beauchamp of Hache, the whole surmounted by a scocheon with +the arms of Reviers or Rivers, the house from which he took the title of +his barony. On the continent the common use of the scocheon is to bear +the paternal arms of a sovereign or noble, surmounting the quarterings +of his kingdoms, principalities, fiefs or seigniories. Our own prince of +Wales bears the arms of Saxony above those of the United Kingdom +differenced with his silver label. Marshalling takes its most elaborate +form, the most removed from the graceful simplicity of the middle ages, +in such shields as the "Great Arms" of the Austrian empire, wherein are +nine grand quarters each marshalling in various fashions from three to +eleven coats, six of the grand-quarters bearing scocheons _en surtout_, +each scocheon ensigned with a different crown. + +_Crests._--The most important accessory of the arms is the crested helm. +Like the arms it has its pre-heraldic history in the crests of the Greek +helmets, the wings, the wild boar's and bull's heads of Viking +headpieces. A little roundel of the arms of a Japanese house was often +borne as a crest in the Japanese helmet, stepped in a socket above the +middle of the brim. The 12th-century seal of Philip of Alsace, count of +Flanders, shows a demi-lion painted or beaten on the side of the upper +part of his helm, and on his seal of 1198 our own Richard Coeur de +Lion's barrel-helm has a leopard upon the semicircular comb-ridge, the +edge of which is set off with feathers arranged as two wings. Crests, +however, came slowly into use in England, although before 1250 Roger de +Quincy, earl of Winchester, is seen on his seal with a wyver upon his +helm. Of the long roll of earls and barons sealing the famous letter to +the pope in 1301 only five show true crests on their seals. Two of them +are the earl of Lancaster and his brother, each with a wyver crest like +that of Quincy. One, and the most remarkable, is John St John of +Halnaker, whose crest is a leopard standing between two upright palm +branches. Ralph de Monthermer has an eagle crest, while Walter de +Moncy's helm is surmounted by a fox-like beast. In three of these +instances the crest is borne, as was often the case, by the horse as +well as the rider. Others of these seals to the barons' letter have the +fan-shaped crest without any decoration upon it. But as the furniture of +tournaments grew more magnificent the crest gave a new field for +display, and many strange shapes appear in painted and gilded wood, +metal, leather or parchment above the helms of the jousters. The +Berkeleys, great patrons of abbeys, bore a mitre as their crest painted +with their arms, like crests being sometimes seen on the continent where +the wearer was _advocatus_ of a bishopric or abbey. The whole or half +figures or the heads and necks of beasts and birds were employed by +other families. Saracens' heads topped many helms, that of the great +Chandos among them. Astley bore for his crest a silver harpy standing in +marsh-sedge, a golden chain fastened to a crown about her neck. Dymoke +played pleasantly on his name with a long-eared moke's scalp. Stanley +took the eagle's nest in which the eagle is lighting down with a +swaddled babe in his claws. Burnell had a burdock bush, la Vache a cow's +leg, and Lisle's strange fancy was to perch a huge millstone on edge +above his head. Many early helms, as that of Sir John Loterel, painted +in the Loterel psalter, repeat the arms on the sides of a fan-crest. +Howard bore for a crest his arms painted on a pair of wings, while +simple "bushes" or feathers are seen in great plenty. The crest of a +cadet is often differenced like the arms, and thus a wyver or a leopard +will have a label about its neck. The Montagu griffon on the helm of +John, marquess of Montagu, holds in its beak the gimel ring with which +he differenced his father's shield. His brother, the King-Maker, +following a custom commoner abroad than at home, shows two crested helms +on his seal, one for Montagu and one for Beauchamp--none for his +father's house of Nevill. It is often stated that a man, unless by some +special grace or allowance, can have but one crest. This, however, is +contrary to the spirit of medieval armory in which a man, inheriting the +coat of arms of another house than his own, took with it all its +belongings, crest, badge and the like. The heraldry books, with more +reason, deny crests to women and to the clergy, but examples are not +wanting of medieval seals in which even this rule is broken. It is +perhaps unfair to cite the case of the bishops of Durham who ride in +full harness on their palatinate seals; but Henry Despenser, bishop of +Norwich, has a helm on which the winged griffon's head of his house +springs from a mitre, while Alexander Nevill, archbishop of York, seals +with shield, supporters and crowned and crested helm like those of any +lay magnate. Richard Holt, a Northamptonshire clerk in holy orders, +bears on his seal in the reign of Henry V. a shield of arms and a +mantled helm with the crest of a collared greyhound's head. About the +middle of the same century a seal cut for the wife of Thomas Chetwode, a +Cheshire squire, has a shield of her husband's arms parted with her own +and surmounted by a crowned helm with the crest of a demi-lion; and this +is not the only example of such bearings by a woman. + +[Illustration: Ralph de Monthermer (1301), showing shield of arms, helm +with crest and mantle, horse-crest and armorial trappers.] + +Before passing from the crest let us note that in England the juncture +of crest and helm was commonly covered, especially after the beginning +of the 15th century, by a torse or "wreath" of silk, twisted with one, +two or three colours. Coronets or crowns and "hats of estate" often take +the place of the wreath as a base for the crest, and there are other +curious variants. With the wreath may be considered the mantle, a +hanging cloth which, in its earliest form, is seen as two strips of silk +or sendal attached to the top of the helm below the crest and streaming +like pennants as the rider bent his head and charged. Such strips are +often displayed from the conical top of an uncrested helm, and some +ancient examples have the air of the two ends of a stole or of the +_infulae_ of a bishop's mitre. The general opinion of antiquaries has +been that the mantle originated among the crusaders as a protection for +the steel helm from the rays of an Eastern sun; but the fact that +mantles take in England their fuller form after our crusading days were +over seems against this theory. When the fashion for slittering the +edges of clothing came in, the edges of the mantle were slittered like +the edge of the sleeve or skirt, and, flourished out on either side of +the helm, it became the delight of the painter of armories and the seal +engraver. A worthless tale, repeated by popular manuals, makes the +slittered edge represent the shearing work of the enemy's sword, a fancy +which takes no account of the like developments in civil dress. Modern +heraldry in England paints the mantle with the principal colour of the +shield, lining it with the principal metal. This in cases where no old +grant of arms is cited as evidence of another usage. The mantles of the +king and of the prince of Wales are, however, of gold lined with ermine +and those of other members of the royal house of gold lined with silver. +In ancient examples there is great variety and freedom. Where the crest +is the head of a griffon or bird the feathering of the neck will be +carried on to cover the mantle. Other mantles will be powdered with +badges or with charges from the shield, others checkered, barred or +paled. More than thirty of the mantles enamelled on the stall-plates of +the medieval Garter-knights are of red with an ermine lining, tinctures +which in most cases have no reference to the shields below them. + +[Illustration: Shield and crested helm with hat and mantle of Thomas of +Hengrave (1401).] + +_Supporters._--Shields of arms, especially upon seals, are sometimes +figured as hung round the necks of eagles, lions, swans and griffons, as +strapped between the horns of a hart or to the boughs of a tree. Badges +may fill in the blank spaces at the sides between the shield and the +inscription on the rim, but in the later 13th and early 14th centuries +the commonest objects so serving are sprigs of plants, lions, leopards, +or, still more frequently, lithe-necked wyvers. John of Segrave in 1301 +flanks his shields with two of the sheaves of the older coat of Segrave: +William Marshal of Hingham does the like with his two marshal's staves. +Henry of Lancaster at the same time shows on his seal a shield and a +helm crested with a wyver, with two like wyvers ranged on either side of +the shield as "supporters." It is uncertain at what time in the 14th +century these various fashions crystallize into the recognized use of +beasts, birds, reptiles, men or inanimate objects, definitely chosen as +"supporters" of the shield, and not to be taken as the ornaments +suggested by the fancy of the seal engraver. That supporters originate +in the decoration of the seal there can be little doubt. Some writers, +the learned Menetrier among them, will have it that they were first the +fantastically clad fellows who supported and displayed the knight's +shield at the opening of the tournament. If the earliest supporters were +wild men, angels or Saracens, this theory might be defended; but lions, +boars and talbots, dogs and trees are guises into which a man would put +himself with difficulty. By the middle of the 14th century we find what +are clearly recognizable as supporters. These, as in a lesser degree the +crest, are often personal rather than hereditary, being changed +generation by generation. The same person is found using more than one +pair of them. The kings of France have had angels as supporters of the +shield of the fleurs de lys since the 15th century, but the angels have +only taken their place as the sole royal supporters since the time of +Louis XIV. Sovereigns of England from Henry IV. to Elizabeth changed +about between supporters of harts, leopards, antelopes, bulls, +greyhounds, boars and dragons. James I. at his accession to the English +throne brought the Scottish unicorn to face the English leopard rampant +across his shield, and, ever since, the "lion and unicorn" have been the +royal supporters. + +[Illustration: Arms of William, Lord Hastings, from his seal (1477), +showing shield, crowned and crested helm with mantle and supporters.] + +[Illustration: Badge of John of Whethamstede, abbot of St Albans (d. +1465), from his tomb in the abbey church.] + +[Illustration: Rudder badge of Willoughby.] + +An old herald wrote as his opinion that "there is little or nothing in +precedent to direct the use of supporters." Modern custom gives them, as +a rule, only to peers, to knights of the Garter, the Thistle and St +Patrick, and to knights who are "Grand Crosses" or Grand Commanders of +other orders. Royal warrants are sometimes issued for the granting of +supporters to baronets, and, in rare cases, they have been assigned to +untitled persons. But in spite of the jealousy with which official +heraldry hedges about the display of these supporters once assumed so +freely, a few old English families still assert their right by +hereditary prescription to use these ornaments as their forefathers were +wont to use them. + +[Illustration: Badge of Dacre of Gilsland and Dacre of the North.] + +_Badges._--The badge may claim a greater antiquity and a wider use than +armorial bearings. The "Plantagenet" broom is an early example in +England, sprigs of it being figured on the seal of Richard I. In the +14th and 15th centuries every magnate had his badge, which he displayed +on his horse-furniture, on the hangings of his bed, his wall and his +chair of state, besides giving it as a "livery" to his servants and +followers. Such were the knots of Stafford, Bourchier and Wake, the +scabbard-crampet of La Warr, the sickle of Hungerford, the swan of +Toesni, Bohun and Lancaster, the dun-bull of Nevill, the blue boar of +Vere and the bear and ragged staff of Beauchamp, Nevill of Warwick and +Dudley of Northumberland. So well known of all were these symbols that a +political ballad of 1449 sings of the misfortunes of the great lords +without naming one of them, all men understanding what signified the +Falcon, the Water Bowge and the Cresset and the other badges of the +doggerel. More famous still were the White Hart, the Red Rose, the White +Rose, the Sun, the Falcon and Fetterlock, the Portcullis and the many +other badges of the royal house. We still call those wars that blotted +out the old baronage the Wars of the Roses, and the Prince of Wales's +feathers are as well known to-day as the royal arms. The Flint and Steel +of Burgundy make a collar for the order of the Golden Fleece. + +[Illustration: Ostrich feather badge of Beaufort, from a garter +stall-plate of 1440. The silver feather has a quill gobony silver and +azure.] + +_Mottoes._--The motto now accompanies every coat of arms in these +islands. Few of these Latin aphorisms, these bald assertions of virtue, +high courage, patriotism, piety and loyalty have any antiquity. Some +few, however, like the "Esperance" of Percy, were the war-cries of +remote ancestors. "I mak' sicker" of Kirkpatrick recalls pridefully a +bloody deed done on a wounded man, and the "Dieu Ayde," "Agincourt" and +"D'Accomplir Agincourt" of the Irish "Montmorencys" and the English +Wodehouses and Dalisons, glorious traditions based upon untrustworthy +genealogy. The often-quoted punning mottoes may be illustrated by that +of Cust, who says "Qui Cust-odit caveat," a modern example and a fair +one. Ancient mottoes as distinct from the war or gathering cry of a +house are often cryptic sentences whose meaning might be known to the +user and perchance to his mistress. Such are the "Plus est en vous" of +Louis de Bruges, the Flemish earl of Winchester, and the "So have I +cause" and "Till then thus" of two Englishmen. The word motto is of +modern use, our forefathers speaking rather of their "word" or of their +"reason." + +_Coronets of Rank._--Among accessories of the shield may now be counted +the coronets of peers, whose present form is post-medieval. When Edward +III. made dukes of his sons, gold circlets were set upon their heads in +token of their new dignity. In 1385 John de Vere, marquess of Dublin, +was created in the same fashion. Edward VI. extended the honour of the +gold circle to earls. Caps of honour were worn with these circles or +coronets, and viscounts wore the cap by appointment of James I., Vincent +the herald stating that "a verge of pearls on top of the circulet of +gold" was added at the creation of Robert Cecil as Viscount Cranborne. +At the coronation of Charles I. the viscounts walked in procession with +their caps and coronets. A few days before the coronation of Charles II. +the privilege of the cap of honour was given to the lowest rank of the +peerage, and letters patent of January 1661 assign to them both cap and +coronet. The caps of velvet turned up with miniver, which are now always +worn with the peer's coronet, are therefore the ancient caps of honour, +akin to that "cap of maintenance" worn by English sovereigns on their +coronation days when walking to the Abbey Church, and borne before them +on occasions of royal state. + +[Illustration: PLATE II. + +SIXTEEN SHIELDS FROM A ROLL OF ARMS OF ENGLISH KNIGHTS AND BARONS MADE +BY AN ENGLISH PAINTER EARLY IN THE REIGN OF EDWARD III. + + _Drawn by William Gibb._ + _Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._] + +The ancient circles were enriched according to the taste of the bearer, +and, although used at creations as symbols of the rank conferred, were +worn in the 14th and 15th centuries by men and women of rank without the +use signifying a rank in the peerage. Edmund, earl of March, in his will +of 1380, named his _sercle ove roses, emeraudes et rubies d'alisaundre +en les roses_, and bequeathed it to his daughter. Modern coronets are of +silver-gilt, without jewels, set upon caps of crimson velvet turned up +with ermine, with a gold tassel at the top. A duke's coronet has the +circle decorated with eight gold "strawberry leaves"; that of a marquess +has four gold strawberry leaves and four silver balls. The coronet of an +earl has eight silver balls, raised upon points, with gold strawberry +leaves between the points. A viscount's coronet has on the circle +sixteen silver balls, and a baron's coronet six silver balls. On the +continent the modern use of coronets is not ordered in the precise +English fashion, men of gentle birth displaying coronets which afford +but slight indication of the bearer's rank. + +_Lines._--Eleven varieties of lines, other than straight lines, which +divide the shield, or edge our cheverons, pales, bars and the like, are +pictured in the heraldry books and named as engrailed, embattled, +indented, invected, wavy or undy, nebuly, dancetty, raguly, potente, +dovetailed and urdy. + +As in the case of many other such lists of the later armorists these +eleven varieties need some pruning and a new explanation. + +The most commonly found is the line engrailed, which for the student of +medieval armory must be associated with the line indented. In its +earliest form the line which a roll of arms will describe indifferently +as indented or engrailed takes almost invariably the form to which the +name indented is restricted by modern armorists. + +[Illustration: Mohun.] + +The cross may serve as our first example. A cross, engrailed or +indented, the words being used indifferently, is a cross so deeply +notched at the edges that it seems made up of so many lozenge-shaped +wedges or fusils. About the middle of the 14th century begins a +tendency, resisted in practice by many conservative families, to draw +the engrailing lines in the fashion to which modern armorists restrict +the word "engrailed," making shallower indentures in the form of lines +of half circles. Thus the engrailed cross of the Mohuns takes either of +the two forms which we illustrate. Bends follow the same fashion, early +bends engrailed or indented being some four or more fusils joined +bendwise by their blunt sides, bends of less than four fusils being very +rare. Thus also the engrailed or indented saltires, pales or cheverons, +the exact number of the fusils which go to the making of these being +unconsidered. For the fesse there is another law. The fesse indented or +engrailed is made up of fusils as is the engrailed bend. But although +early rolls of arms sometimes neglect this detail in their blazon, the +fusils making a fesse must always be of an ascertained number. Montagu, +earl of Salisbury, bore a fesse engrailed or indented of three fusils +only, very few shields imitating this. Medieval armorists will describe +his arms as a fesse indented of three indentures, as a fesse fusilly of +three pieces, or as a fesse engrailed of three points or pieces, all of +these blazons having the same value. The indented fesse on the red +shield of the Dynhams has four such fusils of ermine. Four, however, is +almost as rare a number as three, the normal form of a fesse indented +being that of five fusils as borne by Percys, Pinkenys, Newmarches and +many other ancient houses. Indeed, accuracy of blazon is served if the +number of fusils in a fesse be named in the cases of threes and fours. +Fesses of six fusils are not to be found. Note that bars indented or +engrailed are, for a reason which will be evident, never subject to this +counting of fusils. Fauconberg, for example, bore "Silver with two bars +engrailed, or indented, sable." Displayed on a shield of the flat-iron +outline, the lower bar would show fewer fusils than the upper, while on +a square banner each bar would have an equal number--usually five or +six. + +[Illustration: Montagu. Dynham. Percy. Fauconberg.] + +While bends, cheverons, crosses, saltires and pales often follow, +especially in the 15th century, the tendency towards the rounded +"engrailing," fesses keep, as a rule, their bold indentures--neither +Percy nor Montagu being ever found with his bearings in aught but their +ancient form. Borders take the newer fashion as leaving more room for +the charges of the field. But indented chiefs do not change their +fashion, although many saw-teeth sometimes take the place of the three +or four strong points of early arms, and parti-coloured shields whose +party line is indented never lose the bold zig-zag. + +[Illustration: West.] + +While bearing in mind that the two words have no distinctive force in +ancient armory, the student and the herald of modern times may +conveniently allow himself to blazon the sharp and saw-toothed line as +"indented" and the scolloped line as "engrailed," especially when +dealing with the debased armory in which the distinction is held to be a +true one and one of the first importance. One error at least he must +avoid, and that is the following of the heraldry-book compilers in their +use of the word "dancetty." A "dancetty" line, we are told, is a line +having fewer and deeper indentures than the line indented. But no +dancetty line could make a bolder dash across the shield than do the +lines which the old armorists recognized as "indented." In old armory we +have fesses dancy--commonly called "dances"--bends dancy, or cheverons +dancy; there are no chiefs dancy nor borders dancy, nor are there +shields blazoned as parted with a dancy line. Waved lines, battled lines +and ragged lines need little explanation that a picture cannot give. The +word invecked or invected is sometimes applied by old-fashioned heraldic +pedants to engrailed lines; later pedants have given it to a line found +in modern grants of arms, an engrailed line reversed. Dove-tailed and +urdy lines are mere modernisms. Of the very rare nebuly or clouded line +we can only say that the ancient form, which imitated the conventional +cloud-bank of the old painters, is now almost forgotten, while the bold +"wavy" lines of early armory have the word "nebuly" misapplied to them. + +_The Ordinary Charges._--The writers upon armory have given the name of +Ordinaries to certain conventional figures commonly charged upon +shields. Also they affect to divide these into Honourable Ordinaries and +Sub-Ordinaries without explaining the reason for the superior honour of +the Saltire or for the subordination of the Quarter. Disregarding such +distinctions, we may begin with the description of the "Ordinaries" most +commonly to be found. + +From the first the Cross was a common bearing on English shields, +"Silver a cross gules" being given early to St George, patron of knights +and of England, for his arms; and under St George's red cross the +English were wont to fight. Our armorial crosses took many shapes, but +the "crosses innumerabill" of the Book of St Albans and its successors +may be left to the heraldic dictionary makers who have devised them. It +is more important to define those forms in use during the middle ages, +and to name them accurately after the custom of those who bore them in +war, a task which the heraldry books have never as yet attempted with +success. + +The cross in its simple form needs no definition, but it will be noted +that it is sometimes borne "voided" and that in a very few cases it +appears as a lesser charge with its ends cut off square, in which case +it must be clearly blazoned as "a plain Cross." + + Andrew Harcla, the march-warden, whom Edward II. made an earl and + executed as a traitor, bore the arms of St George with a martlet sable + in the quarter. + + Crevequer of Kent bore "Gold a voided cross gules." + + Newsom (14th century) bore "Azure a fesse silver with three plain + crosses gules." + +[Illustration: St George. Harcla. Crevequer. Latimer.] + +Next to the plain Cross may be taken the Cross paty, the _croiz patee_ +or _pate_ of old rolls of arms. It has several forms, according to the +taste of the artist and the age. So, in the 13th and early 14th +centuries, its limbs curve out broadly, while at a later date the limbs +become more slender and of even breadth, the ends somewhat resembling +fleurs-de-lys. Each of these forms has been seized by the heraldic +writers as the type of a distinct cross for which a name must be found, +none of them, as a rule, being recognized as a cross paty, a word which +has its misapplication elsewhere. Thus the books have "cross patonce" +for the earlier form, while "cross clechee" and "cross fleurie" serve +for the others. But the true identification of the various crosses is of +the first importance to the antiquary, since without it descriptions of +the arms on early seals or monuments must needs be valueless. Many +instances of this need might be cited from the British Museum catalogue +of seals, where, for example, the cross paty of Latimer is described +twice as a "cross flory," six times as a "cross patonce," but not once +by its own name, although there is no better known example of this +bearing in England. + + Latimer bore "Gules a cross paty gold." + +The cross formy follows the lines of the cross paty save that its +broadening ends are cut off squarely. + + Chetwode bore "Quarterly silver and gules with four crosses formy + countercoloured"--that is to say, the two crosses in the gules are of + silver and the two in the silver of gules. + +The cross flory or flowered cross, the "cross with the ends +flowered"--_od les boutes floretes_ as some of the old rolls have +it--is, like the cross paty, a mark for the misapprehension of writers +on armory, who describe some shapes of the cross paty by its name. +Playing upon discovered or fancied variants of the word, they bid us +mark the distinctions between crosses "fleur-de-lisee," "fleury" and +"fleurettee," although each author has his own version of the value +which must be given these precious words. But the facts of the medieval +practice are clear to those who take their armory from ancient examples +and not from phrases plagiarized from the hundredth plagiarist. The +flowered cross is one whose limbs end in fleur-de-lys, which spring +sometimes from a knop or bud but more frequently issue from the square +ends of a cross of the "formy" type. + + Swynnerton bore "Silver a flowered cross sable." + +[Illustration: Mill-rinds.] + +The mill-rind, which takes its name from the iron of a mill-stone--_fer +de moline_--must be set with the crosses. Some of the old rolls call it +_croiz recercele_, from which armorial writers have leaped to imagine a +distinct type. Also they call the mill-rind itself a "cross moline" +keeping the word mill-rind for a charge having the same origin but of +somewhat differing form. Since this charge became common in Tudor armory +it is perhaps better that the original mill-rind should be called for +distinction a mill-rind cross. + + Willoughby bore "Gules a mill-rind cross silver." + +[Illustration: Chetwode. Swynnerton. Willoughby. Brerelegh.] + +The crosslet, cross botonny or cross crosletted, is a cross whose limbs, +of even breadth, end as trefoils or treble buds. It is rarely found in +medieval examples in the shape--that of a cross with limbs ending in +squarely cut plain crosses--which it took during the 16th-century +decadence. As the sole charge of a shield it is very rare; otherwise it +is one of the commonest of charges. + + Brerelegh bore "Silver a crosslet gules." + +Within these modest limits we have brought the greater part of that +monstrous host of crosses which cumber the dictionaries. A few rare +varieties may be noticed. + + Dukinfield bore "Silver a voided cross with sharpened ends." + + Skirlaw, bishop of Durham (d. 1406), the son of a basket-weaver, bore + "Silver a cross of three upright wattles sable, crossed and interwoven + by three more." + + Drury bore "Silver a chief vert with a St Anthony's cross gold between + two golden molets, pierced gules." + + Brytton bore "Gold a patriarch's cross set upon three degrees or steps + of gules." + + Hurlestone of Cheshire bore "Silver a cross of four ermine tails + sable." + + Melton bore "Silver a Toulouse cross gules." By giving this cross a + name from the counts of Toulouse, its best-known bearers, some + elaborate blazonry is spared. + +[Illustration: Skirlaw. Drury. St Anthony's Cross. Brytton.] + +The crosses paty and formy, and more especially the crosslets, are often +borne fitchy, that is to say, with the lower limb somewhat lengthened +and ending in a point, for which reason the 15th-century writers call +these "crosses fixabill." In the 14th-century rolls the word "potent" is +sometimes used for these crosses fitchy, the long foot suggesting a +potent or staff. From this source modern English armorists derive many +of their "crosses potent," whose four arms have the T heads of +old-fashioned walking staves. + + Howard bore "Silver a bend between six crosslets fitchy gules." + + Scott of Congerhurst in Kent bore "Silver a crosslet fitchy sable." + +[Illustration: Hurlestone. Melton. Howard. Scott.] + +The Saltire is the cross in the form of that on which St Andrew +suffered, whence it is borne on the banner of Scotland, and by the +Andrew family of Northamptonshire. + + Nevile of Raby bore "Gules a saltire silver." + + Nicholas Upton, the 15th-century writer on armory, bore "Silver a + saltire sable with the ends couped and five golden rings thereon." + + Aynho bore "Sable a saltire silver having the ends flowered between + four leopards gold." + + "Mayster Elwett of Yorke chyre" in a 15th-century roll bears "Silver a + saltire of chains sable with a crescent in the chief." + +[Illustration: Nevile. Upton. Aynho. Elwett.] + + Restwolde bore "Party saltirewise of gules and ermine." + +[Illustration: Fenwick.] + +The chief is the upper part of the shield and, marked out by a line of +division, it is taken as one of the Ordinaries. Shields with a plain +chief and no more are rare in England, but Tichborne of Tichborne has +borne since the 13th century "Vair a chief gold." According to the +heraldry books the chief should be marked off as a third part of the +shield, but its depth varies, being broader when charged with devices +and narrower when, itself uncharged, it surmounts a charged field. +Fenwick bore "Silver a chief gules with six martlets countercoloured," +and in this case the chief would be the half of the shield. Clinging to +the belief that the chief must not fill more than a third of the shield, +the heraldry books abandon the word in such cases, blazoning them as +"party per fesse." + + Hastang bore "Azure a chief gules and a lion with a forked tail over + all." + + Walter Kingston seals in the 13th century with a shield of "Two rings + or annelets in the chief." + + Hilton of Westmoreland bore "Sable three rings gold and two saltires + silver in the chief." + +With the chief may be named the Foot, the nether part of the shield +marked off as an Ordinary. So rare is this charge that we can cite but +one example of it, that of the shield of John of Skipton, who in the +14th century bore "Silver with the foot indented purple and a lion +purple." The foot, however, is a recognized bearing in France, whose +heralds gave it the name of _champagne_. + +[Illustration: Restwolde. Hastang. Hilton. Provence.] + +The Pale is a broad stripe running the length of the shield. Of a single +pale and of three pales there are several old examples. Four red pales +in a golden shield were borne by Eleanor of Provence, queen of Henry +III.; but the number did not commend itself to English armorists. When +the field is divided evenly into six pales it is said to be paly; if +into four or eight pales, it is blazoned as paly of that number of +pieces. But paly of more or less than six pieces is rarely found. + + The Yorkshire house of Gascoigne bore "Silver a pale sable with a + golden conger's head thereon, cut off at the shoulder." + + Ferlington bore "Gules three pales vair and a chief gold." + + Strelley bore "Paly silver and azure." + + Rothinge bore "Paly silver and gules of eight pieces." + +When the shield or charge is divided palewise down the middle into two +tinctures it is said to be "party." "Party silver and gules" are the +arms of the Waldegraves. Bermingham bore "Party silver and sable +indented." Caldecote bore "Party silver and azure with a chief gules." +Such partings of the field often cut through charges whose colours +change about on either side of the parting line. Thus Chaucer the poet +bore "Party silver and gules with a bend countercoloured." + +[Illustration: Gascoigne. Ferlington. Strelley. Rothinge.] + +The Fesse is a band athwart the shield, filling, according to the rules +of the heraldic writers, a third part of it. By ancient use, however, as +in the case of the chief and pale, its width varies with the taste of +the painter, narrowing when set in a field full of charges and +broadening when charges are displayed on itself. When two or three +fesses are borne they are commonly called Bars. "Ermine _four_ bars +gules" is given as the shield of Sir John Sully, a 14th-century Garter +knight, on his stall-plate at Windsor: but the plate belongs to a later +generation, and should probably have three bars only. Little bars borne +in couples are styled Gemels (twins). The field divided into an even +number of bars of alternate colours is said to be barry, barry of six +pieces being the normal number. If four or eight divisions be found the +number of pieces must be named; but with ten or more divisions the +number is unreckoned and "burely" is the word. + +[Illustration: Bermingham. Caldecote. Colevile. Fauconberg.] + + Colevile of Bitham bore "Gold a fesse gules." + + West bore "Silver a dance (or fesse dancy) sable." + + Fauconberg bore "Gold a fesse azure with three pales gules in the + chief." + + Cayvile bore "Silver a fesse gules, flowered on both sides." + +[Illustration: Cayvile. Devereux. Chamberlayne. Harcourt.] + + Devereux bore "Gules a fesse silver with three roundels silver in the + chief." + + Chamberlayne of Northamptonshire bore "Gules a fesse and three + scallops gold." + + Harcourt bore "Gules two bars gold." + + Manners bore "Gold two bars azure and a chief gules." + + Wake bore "Gold two bars gules with three roundels gules in the + chief." + + Bussy bore "Silver three bars sable." + + Badlesmere of Kent bore "Silver a fesse between two gemels gules." + + Melsanby bore "Sable two gemels and a chief silver." + +[Illustration: Manners. Wake. Melsanby. Grey.] + + Grey bore "Barry of silver and azure." + + Fitzalan of Bedale bore "Barry of eight pieces gold and gules." + + Stutevile bore "Burely of silver and gules." + +The Bend is a band traversing the shield aslant, arms with one, two or +three bends being common during the middle ages in England. Bendy +shields follow the rule of shields paly and barry, but as many as ten +pieces have been counted in them. The bend is often accompanied by a +narrow bend on either side, these companions being called Cotices. A +single narrow bend, struck over all other charges, is the Baston, which +during the 13th and 14th centuries was a common difference for the +shields of the younger branches of a family, coming in later times to +suggest itself as a difference for bastards. + +[Illustration: Fitzalan of Bedale. Mauley. Harley. Wallop.] + +The Bend Sinister, the bend drawn from right to left beginning at the +"sinister" corner of the shield, is reckoned in the heraldry books as a +separate Ordinary, and has a peculiar significance accorded to it by +novelists. Medieval English seals afford a group of examples of Bends +Sinister and Bastons Sinister, but there seems no reason for taking them +as anything more than cases in which the artist has neglected the common +rule. + + Mauley bore "Gold a bend sable." + + Harley bore "Gold a bend with two cotices sable." + + Wallop bore "Silver a bend wavy sable." + + Ralegh bore "Gules a bend indented, or engrailed, silver." + +[Illustration: Ralegh. Tracy. Bodrugan. St Philibert.] + + Tracy bore "Gold two bends gules with a scallop sable in the chief + between the bends." + + Bodrugan bore "Gules three bends sable." + + St Philibert bore "Bendy of six pieces, silver and azure." + + Bishopsdon bore "Bendy of six pieces, gold and azure, with a quarter + ermine." + + Montfort of Whitchurch bore "Bendy of ten pieces gold and azure." + +[Illustration: Bishopsdon. Montfort. Lancaster. Fraunceys.] + + Henry of Lancaster, second son of Edmund Crouchback, bore the arms of + his cousin, the king of England, with the difference of "a baston + azure." + + Adam Fraunceys (14th century) bore "Party gold and sable bendwise with + a lion countercoloured." The parting line is here commonly shown as + "sinister." + +The Cheveron, a word found In medieval building accounts for the +barge-boards of a gable, is an Ordinary whose form is explained by its +name. Perhaps the very earliest of English armorial charges, and +familiarized by the shield of the great house of Clare, it became +exceedingly popular in England. Like the bend and the chief, its width +varies in different examples. Likewise its angle varies, being sometimes +so acute as to touch the top of the shield, while in post-medieval +armory the point is often blunted beyond the right angle. One, two or +three cheverons occur in numberless shields, and five cheverons have +been found. Also there are some examples of the bearing of cheveronny. + + The earls of Gloucester of the house of Clare bore "Gold three + cheverons gules" and the Staffords derived from them their shield of + "Gold a cheveron gules." + + Chaworth bore "Azure two cheverons gold." + + Peytevyn bore "Cheveronny of ermine and gules." + + St Quintin of Yorkshire bore "Gold two cheverons gules and a chief + vair." + + Sheffield bore "Ermine a cheveron gules between three sheaves gold." + + Cobham of Kent bore "Gules a cheveron gold with three fleurs-de-lys + azure thereon." + + Fitzwalter bore "Gold a fesse between two cheverons gules." + +[Illustration: Chaworth. Peytevyn. Sheffield. Cobham.] + +Shields parted cheveronwise are common in the 15th century, when they +are often blazoned as having chiefs "enty" or grafted. Aston of Cheshire +bore "Party sable and silver cheveronwise" or "Silver a chief enty +sable." + +The Pile or stake (_estache_) is a wedge-shaped figure jutting from the +chief to the foot of the shield, its name allied to the pile of the +bridge-builder. A single pile is found in the notable arms of Chandos, +and the black piles in the ermine shield of Hollis are seen as an +example of the bearing of two piles. Three piles are more easily found, +and when more than one is represented the points are brought together at +the foot. In ancient armory piles in a shield are sometimes reckoned as +a variety of pales, and a Basset with three piles on his shield is seen +with three pales on his square banner. + + Chandos bore "Gold a pile gules." + + Bryene bore "Gold three piles azure." + +The Quarter is the space of the first quarter of the shield divided +crosswise into four parts. As an Ordinary it is an ancient charge and a +common one in medieval England, although it has all but disappeared from +modern heraldry books, the "Canton," an alleged "diminutive," unknown to +early armory, taking its place. Like the other Ordinaries, its size is +found to vary with the scheme of the shield's charges, and this has +persuaded those armorists who must needs call a narrow bend a "bendlet," +to the invention of the "Canton," a word which in the sense of a quarter +or small quarter appears for the first time in the latter part of the +15th century. Writers of the 14th century sometimes give it the name of +the Cantel, but this word is also applied to the void space on the +opposite side of the chief, seen above a bend. + +[Illustration: Aston. Hollis. Bryene. Blencowe.] + + Blencowe bore "Gules a quarter silver." + + Basset of Drayton bore "Gold three piles (or pales) gules with a + quarter ermine." + + Wydvile bore "Silver a fesse and a quarter gules." + + Odingseles bore "Silver a fesse gules with a molet gules in the + quarter." + + Robert Dene of Sussex (14th century) bore "Gules a quarter azure + 'embelif,' or aslant, and thereon a sleeved arm and hand of silver." + +Shields or charges divided crosswise with a downward line and a line +athwart are said to be quarterly. An ancient coat of this fashion is +that of Say who bore (13th century) "Quarterly gold and gules"--the +first and fourth quarters being gold and the second and third red. Ever +or Eure bore the same with the addition of "a bend sable with three +silver scallops thereon." Phelip, Lord Bardolf, bore "Quarterly gules +and silver with an eagle gold in the quarter." + +[Illustration: PLATE III. + +SHIELDS OF ARMS OF "LE ROY DARRABE," "LE ROY DE TARSSE," AND OTHER +SOVEREIGNS. MOSTLY MYTHICAL. TAKEN FROM A ROLL OF ARMS MADE BY AN +ENGLISH PAINTER IN THE TIME OF HENRY VI. + + _Drawn by William Gibb._ + _Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._] + +[Illustration: Basset. Wydvile. Odingseles. Ever.] + +With the 15th century came a fashion of dividing the shield into more +than four squares, six and nine divisions being often found in arms of +that age. The heraldry books, eager to work out problems of blazonry, +decide that a shield divided into six squares should be described as +"Party per fesse with a pale counterchanged," and one divided into nine +squares as bearing "a cross quarter-pierced." It seems a simpler +business to follow a 15th-century fashion and to blazon such shields as +being of six or nine "pieces." Thus John Garther (15th century) bore +"Nine pieces erminees and ermine" and Whitgreave of Staffordshire "Nine +pieces of azure and of Stafford's arms, which are gold with a cheveron +gules." The Tallow Chandlers of London had a grant in 1456 of "Six +pieces azure and silver with three doves in the azure, each with an +olive sprig in her beak." + +Squared into more than nine squares the shield becomes checky or +checkered and the number is not reckoned. Warenne's checker of gold and +azure is one of the most ancient coats in England and checkered fields +and charges follow in great numbers. Even lions have been borne +checkered. + + Warenne bore "Checky gold and azure." + + Clifford bore the like with "a fesse gules." + + Cobham bore "Silver a lion checky gold and sable." + + Arderne bore "Ermine a fesse checky gold and gules." + +[Illustration: Phelip Lord Bardolf. Whitgreave. Tallow Chandlers. +Warenne.] + +Such charges as this fesse of Arderne's and other checkered fesses, +bars, bends, borders and the like, will commonly bear but two rows of +squares, or three at the most. The heraldry writers are ready to note +that when two rows are used "counter-compony" is the word in place of +checky, and "compony-counter-compony" in the case of three rows. It is +needless to say that these words have neither practical value nor +antiquity to commend them. But bends and bastons, labels, borders and +the rest are often coloured with a single row of alternating tinctures. +In this case the pieces are said to be "gobony." Thus John Cromwell +(14th century) bore "Silver a chief gules with a baston gobony of gold +and azure." + +The scocheon or shield used as a charge is found among the earliest +arms. Itself charged with arms, it served to indicate alliance by blood +or by tenure with another house, as in the bearings of St Owen whose +shield of "Gules with a cross silver" has a scocheon of Clare in the +quarter. In the latter half of the 15th century it plays an important +part in the curious marshalling of the arms of great houses and +lordships. + + Erpingham bore "Vert a scocheon silver with an orle (or border) of + silver martlets." + + Davillers bore at the battle of Boroughbridge "Silver three scocheons + gules." + +The scocheon was often borne voided or pierced, its field cut away to a +narrow border. Especially was this the case in the far North, where the +Balliols, who bore such a voided scocheon, were powerful. The voided +scocheon is wrongly named in all the heraldry books as an orle, a term +which belongs to a number of small charges set round a central charge. +Thus the martlets in the shield of Erpingham, already described, may be +called an orle of martlets or a border of martlets. This misnaming of +the voided scocheon has caused a curious misapprehension of its form, +even Dr Woodward, in his _Heraldry, British and Foreign_, describing the +"orle" as "a narrow border detached from the edge of the shield." +Following this definition modern armorial artists will, in the case of +quartered arms, draw the "orle" in a first or second quarter of a +quartered shield as a rectangular figure and in a third or fourth +quarter as a scalene triangle with one arched side. Thereby the original +voided scocheon changes into forms without meaning. + + Balliol bore "Gules a voided scocheon silver." + + Surtees bore "Ermine with a quarter of the arms of Balliol." + +[Illustration: Clifford. Arderne. Cromwell. Erpingham.] + +The _Tressure_ or flowered tressure is a figure which is correctly +described by Woodward's incorrect description of the orle as cited +above, being a narrow inner border of the shield. It is distinguished, +however, by the fleurs-de-lys which decorate it, setting off its edges. +The double tressure which surrounds the lion in the royal shield of +Scotland, and which is borne by many Scottish houses who have served +their kings well or mated with their daughters, is carefully described +by Scottish heralds as "flowered and counter-flowered," a blazon which +is held to mean that the fleurs-de-lys show head and tail in turn from +the outer rim of the outer tressure and from the inner rim of the +innermost. But this seems to have been no essential matter with medieval +armorists and a curious 15th-century enamelled roundel of the arms of +Vampage shows that in this English case the flowering takes the more +convenient form of allowing all the lily heads to sprout from the outer +rim. + + Vampage bore "Azure an eagle silver within a flowered tressure + silver." + + The king of Scots bore "Gold a lion within a double tressure flowered + and counterflowered gules." + + Felton bore "Gules two lions passant within a double tressure flory + silver." + +[Illustration: Davillers. Balliol. Surtees. Vampage.] + +The Border of the shield when marked out in its own tincture is counted +as an Ordinary. Plain or charged, it was commonly used as a difference. +As the principal charge of a shield it is very rare, so rare that in +most cases where it apparently occurs we may, perhaps, be following +medieval custom in blazoning the shield as one charged with a scocheon +and not with a border. Thus Hondescote bore "Ermine a border gules" or +"Gules a scocheon ermine." + + Somerville bore "Burely silver and gules and a border azure with + golden martlets." + + Paynel bore "Silver two bars sable with a border, or orle, of martlets + gules." + +The Flaunches are the flanks of the shield which, cut off by rounded +lines, are borne in pairs as Ordinaries. These charges are found in many +coats devised by 15th-century armorists. "Ermine two flaunches azure +with six golden wheat-ears" was borne by John Greyby of Oxfordshire +(15th century). + +The Label is a narrow fillet across the upper part of the chief, from +which hang three, four, five or more pendants, the pendants being, in +most old examples, broader than the fillet. Reckoned with the +Ordinaries, it was commonly used as a means of differencing a cadet's +shield, and in the heraldry books it has become the accepted difference +for an eldest son, although the cadets often bore it in the middle ages. +John of Hastings bore in 1300 before Carlaverock "Gold a sleeve (or +maunche) gules," while Edmund his brother bore the same arms with a +sable label. In modern armory the pendants are all but invariably +reduced to three, which, in debased examples, are given a dovetailed +form while the ends of the fillet are cut off. + +[Illustration: Scotland. Hondescote. Greyby. Hastings.] + +The Fret, drawn as a voided lozenge interlaced by a slender saltire, is +counted an Ordinary. A charge in such a shape is extremely rare in +medieval armory, its ancient form when the field is covered by it being +a number of bastons--three being the customary number--interlaced by as +many more from the sinister side. Although the whole is described as a +fret in certain English blazons of the 15th century, the adjective +"fretty" is more commonly used. Trussel's fret is remarkable for its +bezants at the joints, which stand, doubtless, for the golden nail-heads +of the "trellis" suggested by his name. Curwen, Wyvile and other +northern houses bearing a fret and a chief have, owing to their fashion +of drawing their frets, often seen them changed by the heraldry books +into "three cheverons braced or interlaced." + + Huddlestone bore "Gules fretty silver." + + Trussel bore "Silver fretty gules, the joints bezanty." + + Hugh Giffard (14th century) bore "Gules with an engrailed fret of + ermine." + + Wyvile bore "Gules fretty vair with a chief gold." + + Boxhull bore "Gold a lion azure fretty silver." + +[Illustration: Trussel. Giffard. Wyvile. Mortimer.] + +Another Ordinary is the Giron or Gyron--a word now commonly +mispronounced with a hard "g." It may be defined as the lower half of a +quarter which has been divided bendwise. No old example of a single +giron can be found to match the figure in the heraldry books. Gironny, +or gyronny, is a manner of dividing the field into sections, by lines +radiating from a centre point, of which many instances may be given. +Most of the earlier examples have some twelve divisions although later +armory gives eight as the normal number, as Campbell bears them. + + Bassingbourne bore "Gironny of gold and azure of twelve pieces." + + William Stoker, who died Lord Mayor of London in 1484, bore "Gironny + of six pieces azure and silver with three popinjays in the silver + pieces." + + A pair of girons on either side of a chief were borne in the strange + shield of Mortimer, commonly blazoned as "Barry azure and gold of six + pieces, the chief azure with two pales and two girons gold, a scocheon + silver over all." An early example shows that this shield began as a + plain field with a gobony border. + +With the Ordinaries we may take the Roundels or Pellets, disks or balls +of various colours. Ancient custom gives the name of a bezant to the +golden roundel, and the folly of the heraldic writers has found names +for all the others, names which may be disregarded together with the +belief that, while bezants and silver roundels, as representing coins, +must be pictured with a flat surface, roundels of other hues must needs +be shaded by the painter to represent rounded balls. Rings or Annelets +were common charges in the North, where Lowthers, Musgraves and many +more, differenced the six rings of Vipont by bearing them in various +colours. + +[Illustration: Campbell. Bassingbourne. Stoker. Burlay.] + + Burlay of Wharfdale bore "Gules a bezant." + + Courtenay, earl of Devon, bore "Gold three roundels gules with a label + azure." + + Caraunt bore "Silver three roundels azure, each with three cheverons + gules." + + Vipont bore "Gold six annelets gules." + + Avenel bore "Silver a fesse and six annelets (_aunels_) gules." + + Hawberk of Stapleford bore "Silver a bend sable charged with three + pieces of a mail hawberk, each of three linked rings of gold." + + Stourton bore "Sable a bend gold between six fountains." The fountain + is a roundel charged with waves of white and blue. + +[Illustration: Courtenay. Caraunt. Vipont. Avenel.] + +The Lozenge is linked in the heraldry book with the Fusil. This Fusil is +described as a lengthened and sharper lozenge. But it will be understood +that the Fusil, other than as part of an engrailed or indented bend, +pale or fesse, is not known to true armory. Also it is one of the +notable achievements of the English writers on heraldry that they should +have allotted to the lozenge, when borne voided, the name of Mascle. +This "mascle" is the word of the oldest armorists for the unvoided +charge, the voided being sometimes described by them as a lozenge, +without further qualifications. Fortunately the difficulty can be solved +by following the late 14th-century custom in distinguishing between +"lozenges" and "voided lozenges" and by abandoning altogether this +misleading word Mascle. + +[Illustration: Hawberk. Stourton. Charles. Fitzwilliam.] + + Thomas of Merstone, a clerk, bore on his seal in 1359 "Ermine a + lozenge with a pierced molet thereon." + + Braybroke bore "Silver seven voided lozenges gules." + + Charles bore "Ermine a chief gules with five golden lozenges. + thereon." + + Fitzwilliam bore "Lozengy silver and gules." + +Billets are oblong figures set upright. Black billets in the arms of +Delves of Cheshire stand for "delves" of earth and the gads of steel in +the arms of the London Ironmongers' Company took a somewhat similar +form. + + Sir Ralph Mounchensy bore in the 14th century "Silver a cheveron + between three billets sable." + + Haggerston bore "Azure a bend with cotices silver and three billets + sable on the bend." + +With the Billet, the Ordinaries, uncertain as they are in number, may be +said to end. But we may here add certain armorial charges which might +well have been counted with them. + +First of these is the Molet, a word corrupted in modern heraldry to +Mullet, a fish-like change with nothing to commend it. This figure is as +a star of five or six points, six points being perhaps the commonest +form in old examples, although the sixth point is, as a rule, lost +during the later period. Medieval armorists are not, it seems, inclined +to make any distinction between molets of five and six points, but some +families, such as the Harpedens and Asshetons, remained constant to the +five-pointed form. It was generally borne pierced with a round hole, and +then represents, as its name implies, the rowel of a spur. In ancient +rolls of arms the word Rowel is often used, and probably indicated the +pierced molet. That the piercing was reckoned an essential difference is +shown by a roll of the time of Edward II., in which Sir John of Pabenham +bears "Barry azure and silver, with a bend gules and three molets gold +thereon," arms which Sir John his son differences by piercing the +molets. Beside these names is that of Sir Walter Baa with "Gules a +cheveron and three rowels silver," rowels which are shown on seals of +this family as pierced molets. Probably an older bearing than the molet, +which would be popularized when the rowelled spur began to take the +place of the prick-spur, is the Star or Estoile, differing from the +molet in that its five or six points are wavy. It is possible that +several star bearings of the 13th century were changed in the 14th for +molets. The star is not pierced in the fashion of the molet; but, like +the molet, it tends to lose its sixth point in armory of the decadence. +Suns, sometimes blazoned in old rolls as Sun-rays--_rays de soleil_--are +pictured as unpierced molets of many points, which in rare cases are +waved. + + Harpeden bore "Silver a pierced molet gules." + + Gentil bore "Gold a chief sable with two molets goles pierced gules." + + Grimston bore "Silver a fesse sable and thereon three molets silver + pierced gules." + + Ingleby of Yorkshire bore "Sable a star silver." + + Sir John de la Haye of Lincolnshire bore "Silver a sun gules." + +[Illustration: Mounchensy. Haggerston. Harpeden. Gentil.] + +The Crescent is a charge which has to answer for many idle tales +concerning the crusading ancestors of families who bear it. It is +commonly borne with both points uppermost, but when representing the +waning or the waxing moon--decrescent or increscent--its horns are +turned to the sinister or dexter side of the shield. + + Peter de Marines (13th century) bore on his seal a shield charged with + a crescent in the chief. + + William Gobioun (14th century) bore "A bend between two waxing moons." + + Longchamp bore "Ermine three crescents gules, pierced silver." + +_Tinctures._--The tinctures or hues of the shield and its charges are +seven in number--gold or yellow, silver or white, red, blue, black, +green and purple. Medieval custom gave, according to a rule often +broken, "gules," "azure" and "sable" as more high-sounding names for the +red, blue and black. Green was often named as "vert," and sometimes as +"synobill," a word which as "sinople" is used to this day by French +armorists. The song of the siege of Carlaverock and other early +documents have red, gules or "vermeil," sable or black, azure or blue, +but gules, azure, sable and vert came to be recognized as armorists' +adjectives, and an early 15th-century romance discards the simple words +deliberately, telling us of its hero that + + "His shield was black and blue, sanz fable, + Barred of azure and of sable." + +But gold and silver served as the armorists' words for yellows and +whites until late in the 16th century, when gold and silver made way for +"or" and "argent," words which those for whom the interest of armory +lies in its liveliest days will not be eager to accept. Likewise the +colours of "sanguine" and "tenne" brought in by the pedants to bring the +tinctures to the mystical number of nine may be disregarded. + +[Illustration: Grimston. Ingilby. Gobioun. Longchamp.] + +A certain armorial chart of the duchy of Brabant, published in 1600, is +the earliest example of the practice whereby later engravers have +indicated colours in uncoloured plates by the use of lines and dots. +Gold is indicated by a powdering of dots; silver is left plain. Azure is +shown by horizontal shading lines; gules by upright lines; sable by +cross-hatching of upright and horizontal lines. Diagonal lines from +sinister to dexter indicate purple; vert is marked with diagonal lines +from dexter to sinister. The practice, in spite of a certain +convenience, has been disastrous in its cramping effects on armorial +art, especially when applied to seals and coins. + +Besides the two "metals" and five "colours," fields and charges are +varied by the use of the furs ermine and vair. Ermine is shown by a +white field flecked with black ermine tails, and vair by a conventional +representation of a fur of small skins sewn in rows, white and blue +skins alternately. In the 15th century there was a popular variant of +ermine, white tails upon a black field. To this fur the books now give +the name of "ermines"--a most unfortunate choice, since ermines is a +name used in old documents for the original ermine. "Erminees," which +has at least a 15th-century authority, will serve for those who are not +content to speak of "sable ermined with silver." Vair, although silver +and blue be its normal form, may be made up of gold, silver or ermine, +with sable or gules or vert, but in these latter cases the colours must +be named in the blazon. To the vairs and ermines of old use the heraldry +books have added "erminois," which is a gold field with black ermine +fails, "pean," which is "erminois" reversed, and "erminites," which is +ermine with a single red hair on either side of each black tail. The +vairs, mainly by misunderstanding of the various patterns found in old +paintings, have been amplified with "countervair," "potent," +"counter-potent" and "vair-en-point," no one of which merits +description. + +No shield of a plain metal or colour has ever been borne by an +Englishman, although the knights at Carlaverock and Falkirk saw Amaneu +d'Albret with his banner all of red having no charge thereon. Plain +ermine was the shield of the duke of Brittany and no Englishman +challenged the bearing. But Beauchamp of Hatch bore simple vair, Ferrers +of Derby "Vairy gold and gules," and Ward "Vairy silver and sable." +Gresley had "Vairy ermine and gules," and Beche "Vairy silver and +gules." + +Only one English example has hitherto been discovered of a field covered +not with a fur but with overlapping feathers. A 15th-century book of +arms gives "Plumetty of gold and purple" for "Mydlam in Coverdale." + +Drops of various colours which variegate certain fields and charges are +often mistaken for ermine tails when ancient seals are deciphered. A +simple example of such spattering is in the shield of Grayndore, who +bore "Party ermine and vert, the vert dropped with gold." Sir Richard +le Brun (14th century) bore "Azure a silver lion dropped with gules." + +[Illustration: Brittany. Beauchamp. Mydlam. Grayndorge.] + +A very common variant of charges and fields is the sowing or "powdering" +them with a small charge repeated many times. Mortimer of Norfolk bore +"gold powdered with fleurs-de-lys sable" and Edward III. quartered for +the old arms of France "Azure powdered with fleurs-de-lys gold," such +fields being often described as flowered or flory. Golden billets were +scattered in Cowdray's red shield, which is blazoned as "Gules billety +gold," and bezants in that of Zouche, which is "Gules bezanty with a +quarter ermine." The disposition of such charges varied with the users. +Zouche as a rule shows ten bezants placed four, three, two and one on +his shield, while the old arms of France in the royal coat allows the +pattern of flowers to run over the edge, the shield border thus showing +halves and tops and stalk ends of the fleurs-de-lys. But the commonest +of these powderings is that with crosslets, as in the arms of John la +Warr "Gules crusily silver with a silver lion." + +[Illustration: Mortimer. Cowdray. Zouche. La Warr. Cheyndut. Applegarth. +Chester. Rye.] + +_Trees, Leaves and Flowers._--Sir Stephen Cheyndut, a 13th-century +knight, bore an oak tree, the _cheyne_ of his first syllable, while for +like reasons a Piriton had a pear tree on his shield. Three pears were +borne (_temp._ Edward III.) by Nicholas Stivecle of Huntingdonshire, and +about the same date is Applegarth's shield of three red apples in a +silver field. Leaves of burdock are in the arms (14th century) of Sir +John de Lisle and mulberry leaves in those of Sir Hugh de Morieus. Three +roots of trees are given to one Richard Rotour in a 14th-century roll. +Malherbe (13th century) bore the "evil herb"--a teazle bush. Pineapples +are borne here and there, and it will be noted that armorists have not +surrendered this, our ancient word for the "fir-cone," to the foreign +_ananas_. Out of the cornfield English armory took the sheaf, three +sheaves being on the shield of an earl of Chester early in the 13th +century and Sheffield bearing sheaves for a play on his name. For a like +reason Peverel's sheaves were sheaves of pepper. Rye bore three ears of +rye on a bend, and Graindorge had barley-ears. Flowers are few in this +field of armory, although lilies with their stalks and leaves are in the +grant of arms to Eton College. Ousethorpe has water flowers, and now and +again we find some such strange charges as those in the 15th-century +shield of Thomas Porthelyne who bore "Sable a cheveron gules between +three 'popyebolles,' or poppy-heads vert." + +The fleur-de-lys, a conventional form from the beginnings of armory, +might well be taken amongst the "ordinaries." In England as in France it +is found in great plenty. + + Aguylon bore "Gules a fleur-de-lys silver." + + Peyferer bore "Silver three fleur-de-lys sable." + +[Illustration: Eton College.] + +Trefoils are very rarely seen until the 15th century, although Hervey +has them, and Gausill, and a Bosville coat seems to have borne them. +They have always their stalk left hanging to them. Vincent, Hattecliffe +and Massingberd all bore the quatrefoil, while the Bardolfs, and the +Quincys, earls of Winchester, had cinqfoils. The old rolls of arms made +much confusion between cinqfoils and sixfoils (_quintefoilles e +sisfoilles_) and the rose. It is still uncertain how far that confusion +extended amongst the families which bore these charges. The cinqfoil and +sixfoil, however, are all but invariably pierced in the middle like the +spur rowel, and the rose's blunt-edged petals give it definite shape +soon after the decorative movement of the Edwardian age began to carve +natural buds and flowers in stone and wood. + +[Illustration: Aguylon. Peyferer. Hervey. Vincent.] + + Hervey bore "Gules a bend silver with three trefoils vert thereon." + + Vincent bore "Azure three quatrefoils silver." + + Quincy bore "Gules a cinqfoil silver." + + Bardolf of Wormegay bore "Gules three cinqfoils silver." + + Cosington bore "Azure three roses gold." + + Hilton bore "Silver three chaplets or garlands of red roses." + +[Illustration: Quincy. Bardolf. Cosington. Hilton.] + +_Beasts and Birds._--The book of natural history as studied in the +middle ages lay open at the chapter of the lion, to which royal beast +all the noble virtues were set down. What is the oldest armorial seal of +a sovereign prince as yet discovered bears the rampant lion of Flanders. +In England we know of no royal shield earlier than that first seal of +Richard I. which has a like device. A long roll of our old earls, barons +and knights wore the lion on their coats--Lacy, Marshal, Fitzalan and +Montfort, Percy, Mowbray and Talbot. By custom the royal beast is shown +as rampant, touching the ground with but one foot and clawing at the air +in noble rage. So far is this the normal attitude of a lion that the +adjective "rampant" was often dropped, and we have leave and good +authority for blazoning the rampant beast simply as "a lion," leave +which a writer on armory may take gladly to the saving of much +repetition. In France and Germany this licence has always been the rule, +and the modern English herald's blazon of "Gules a lion rampant or" for +the arms of Fitzalan, becomes in French _de gueules au lion d'or_ and in +German _in Rot ein goldener Loewe_. Other positions must be named with +care and the prowling "lion passant" distinguished from the rampant +beast, as well as from such rarer shapes as the couchant lion, the lion +sleeping, sitting or leaping. Of these the lion passant is the only one +commonly encountered. The lion standing with his forepaws together is +not a figure for the shield, but for the crest, where he takes this +position for greater stableness upon the helm, and the sitting lion is +also found rather upon helms than in shields. For a couchant lion or a +dormant lion one must search far afield, although there are some +medieval instances. The leaping lion is in so few shields that no maker +of a heraldry book has, it would appear, discovered an example. In the +books this "lion salient" is described as with the hind paws together on +the ground and the fore paws together in the air, somewhat after the +fashion of a diver's first movement. But examples from seals and +monuments of the Felbrigges and the Merks show that the leaping lion +differed only from the rampant in that he leans somewhat forward in his +eager spring. The compiler of the British Museum catalogue of medieval +armorial seals, and others equally unfamiliar with medieval armory, +invariably describe this position as "rampant," seeing no distinction +from other rampings. As rare as the leaping lion is the lion who looks +backward over his shoulder. This position is called "regardant" by +modern armorists. The old French blazon calls it _rere regardant or +turnaunte le visage arere_, "regardant" alone meaning simply "looking," +and therefore we shall describe it more reasonably in plain English as +"looking backward." The two-headed lion occurs in a 15th-century coat of +Mason, and at the same period a monstrous lion of three bodies and one +head is borne, apparently, by a Sharingbury. + +[Illustration: PLATE IV. + +THE BEGINNING OF A ROLL OF THE ARMS OF THOSE JOUSTING IN A TOURNAMENT +HELD ON THE FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD. BESIDES THE ARMS OF THE KINGS OF +FRANCE AND ENGLAND ARE TWO COLUMNS OF "CHEQUES," MARKED WITH THE NAMES +AND SCORING POINTS OF THE JOUSTERS. + + _Drawn by William Gibb._ + _Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._] + +[Illustration: England.] + +The lion's companion is the leopard. What might be the true form of this +beast was a dark thing to the old armorist, yet knowing from the report +of grave travellers that the leopard was begotten in spouse-breach +between the lion and the pard, it was felt that his shape would favour +his sire's. But nice distinctions of outline, even were they +ascertainable, are not to be marked on the tiny seal, or easily +expressed by the broad strokes of the shield painter. The leopard was +indeed lesser than the lion, but in armory, as in the Noah's arks +launched by the old yards, the bear is no bigger than the badger. Then a +happy device came to the armorist. He would paint the leopard like the +lion at all points. But as the lion looks forward the leopard should +look sidelong, showing his whole face. The matter was arranged, and +until the end of the middle ages the distinction held and served. The +disregarded writers on armory, Nicholas Upton, and his fellows, +protested that a lion did not become a leopard by turning his face +sidelong, but none who fought in the field under lion and leopard +banners heeded this pedantry from cathedral closes. The English king's +beasts were leopards in blazon, in ballad and chronicle, and in the +mouths of liegeman and enemy. Henry V.'s herald, named from his master's +coat, was Leopard Herald; and Napoleon's gazettes never fail to speak of +the English leopards. In our own days, those who deal with armory as +antiquaries and students of the past will observe the old custom for +convenience' sake. Those for whom the interest of heraldry lies in the +nonsense-language brewed during post-medieval years may correct the +medieval ignorance at their pleasure. The knight who saw the king's +banner fly at Falkirk or Crecy tells us that it bore "Gules with three +leopards of gold." The modern armorist will shame the uninstructed +warrior with "Gules three lions passant gardant in pale or." + +As the lion rampant is the normal lion, so the normal leopard is the +leopard passant, the adjective being needless. In a few cases only the +leopard rises up to ramp in the lion's fashion, and here he must be +blazoned without fail as a leopard rampant. + +Parts of the lion and the leopard are common charges. Chief of these are +the demi-lion and the demi-leopard, beasts complete above their slender +middles, even to the upper parts of their lashing tails. Rampant or +passant, they follow the customs of the unmaimed brute. Also the heads +of lion and leopard are in many shields, and here the armorist of the +modern handbooks stumbles by reason of his refusal to regard clearly +marked medieval distinctions. The instructed will know a lion's head +because it shows but half the face and a leopard's head because it is +seen full-face. But the handbooks of heraldry, knowing naught of +leopards, must judge by absence or presence of a mane, speaking +uncertainly of leopards' faces and lions' heads and faces. Here again +the old path is the straighter. The head of a lion, or indeed of any +beast, bird or monster, is generally painted as "razed," or torn away +with a ragged edge which is pleasantly conventionalized. Less often it +is found "couped" or cut off with a sheer line. But the leopard's head +is neither razed nor couped, for no neck is shown below it. Likewise the +lion's fore leg or paw--"gamb" is the book word--may be borne, razed or +coupled. Its normal position is raided upright, although Newdegate seems +to have borne "Gules three lions' legs razed silver, the paws downward." +With the strange bearing of the lion's whip-like tail cut off at the +rump, we may end the list of these oddments. + + Fitzalan, earl of Arundel, bore "Gules a lion gold." + + Simon de Montfort bore "Gules a silver lion with a forked tail." + + Segrave bore "Sable a lion silver crowned gold." + + Havering bore "Silver a lion rampant gules with a forked tail, having + a collar azure." + + Felbrigge of Felbrigge bore "Gold a leaping lion gules." + + Esturmy bore "Silver a lion sable (or purple) looking backward." + + Marmion bore "Gules a lion vair." + + Mason bore "Silver a two-headed lion gules." + + Lovetot bore "Silver a lion parted athwart of sable and gules." + + Richard le Jen bore "Vert a lion gold"--the arms of Wakelin of + Arderne--"with a fesse gules on the lion." + + Fiennes bore "Azure three lions gold." + + Leyburne of Kent bore "Azure six lions silver." + +[Illustration: Fitzalan. Felbrigge. Fiennes. Leyburne.] + + Carew bore "Gold three lions passant sable." + + Fotheringhay bore "Silver two lions passant sable, looking backward." + + Richard Norton of Waddeworth (1357) sealed with arms of "A lion + dormant." + + Lisle bore "Gules a leopard silver crowned gold." + + Ludlowe bore "Azure three leopards silver." + + Brocas bore "Sable a leopard rampant gold." + +[Illustration: Carew. Fotheringhay. Brocas. Lisle.] + + John Hardrys of Kent seals in 1372 with arms of "a sitting leopard." + + John Northampton, Lord Mayor of London in 1381, bore "Azure a crowned + leopard gold with two bodies rampant against each other." + + Newenham bore "Azure three demi-lions silver." + + A deed delivered at Lapworth in Warwickshire in 1466 is sealed with + arms of "a molet between three demi-leopards." + + Kenton bore "Gules three lions' heads razed sable." + +[Illustration: Kenton. Pole. Cantelou. Pynchebek.] + + Pole, earl and duke of Suffolk, bore "Azure a fesse between three + leopards' heads gold." + + Cantelou bore "Azure three leopards' heads silver with silver + fleurs-de-lys issuing from them." + + Wederton bore "Gules a cheveron between three lions' legs razed + silver." + + Pynchebek bore "silver three forked tails of lions sable." + +The tiger is rarely named in collections of medieval arms. Deep mystery +wrapped the shape of him, which was never during the middle ages +standardized by artists. A crest upon a 15th-century brass shows him as +a lean wolf-like figure, with a dash of the boar, gazing after his vain +wont into a looking-glass; and the 16th-century heralds gave him the +body of a lion with the head of a wolf, head and body being tufted here +and there with thick tufts of hair. But it is noteworthy that the arms +of Sir John Norwich, a well-known knight of the 14th century, are +blazoned in a roll of that age as "party azure and gules with a tiger +rampant ermine." Now this beast in the arms of Norwich has been commonly +taken for a lion, and the Norwich family seem in later times to have +accepted the lion as their bearing. But a portion of a painted roll of +Sir John's day shows on careful examination that his lion has been given +two moustache-like tufts to the nose. A copy made about 1600 of another +roll gives the same decoration to the Norwich lion, and it is at least +possible we have here evidence that the economy of the medieval armorist +allowed him to make at small cost his lion, his leopard and his tiger +out of a single beast form. + +Take away the lions and the leopards, and the other beasts upon medieval +shields are a little herd. In most cases they are here to play upon the +names of their bearers. Thus Swinburne of Northumberland has the heads +of swine in his coat and Bacon has bacon pigs. Three white bears were +borne by Barlingham, and a bear ramping on his hind legs is for Barnard. +Lovett of Astwell has three running wolves, Videlou three wolves' heads, +Colfox three foxes' heads. + +[Illustration: Lovett. Talbot. Saunders.] + +Three hedgehogs were in the arms of Heriz. Barnewall reminds us of +extinct natives of England by bearing two beavers, and Otter of +Yorkshire had otters. Harewell had hares' heads, Cunliffe conies, +Mitford moles or moldiwarps. A Talbot of Lancashire had three purple +squirrels in a silver shield. An elephant was brought to England as +early as the days of Henry III., but he had no immediate armorial +progeny, although Saunders of Northants may have borne before the end of +the middle ages the elephants' heads which speak of Alysaunder the +Great, patron of all Saunderses. Bevil of the west had a red bull, and +Bulkeley bore three silver bulls' heads. The heads in Neteham's +14th-century shield are neat's heads, ox heads are for Oxwyk. Calves are +for Veel, and the same mild beasts are in the arms of that fierce knight +Hugh Calveley. Stansfeld bore three rams with bells at their necks, and +a 14th-century Lecheford thought no shame to bear the head of the ram +who is the symbol of lechery. Lambton had lambs. Goats were borne by +Chevercourt to play on his name, a leaping goat by Bardwell, and goats' +heads by Gateshead. Of the race of dogs the greyhound and the talbot, or +mastiff, are found most often. Thus Talbot of Cumberland had talbots, +and Mauleverer, running greyhounds or "leverers" for his name's sake. +The alaund, a big, crop-eared dog, is in the 15th-century shield of John +Woode of Kent, and "kenets," or little tracking dogs, in a 13th-century +coat of Kenet. The horse is not easily found as an English charge, but +Moyle's white mule seems an old coat; horses' heads are in Horsley's +shield, and ass heads make crests for more than one noble house. Askew +has three asses in his arms. Three bats or flittermice are in the shield +of Burninghill and in that of Heyworth of Whethamstede. + +As might be looked for in a land where forest and greenwood once linked +from sea to sea, the wild deer is a common charge in the shield. Downes +of Cheshire bore a hart "lodged" or lying down. Hertford had harts' +heads, Malebis, fawns' heads (_testes de bis_), Bukingham, heads of +bucks. The harts in Rotherham's arms are the roes of his name's first +syllable. Reindeer heads were borne by Bowet in the 14th century. +Antelopes, fierce beasts with horns that have something of the ibex, +show by their great claws, their lion tails, and their boar muzzles and +tusks that they are midway between the hart and the monster. + +[Illustration: Griffin.] + +Of the outlandish monsters the griffon is the oldest and the chief. With +the hinder parts of a lion, the rest of him is eagle, head and +shoulders, wings and fore legs. The long tuft under the beak and his +pointed ears mark him out from the eagle when his head alone is borne. +At an early date a griffon rampant, his normal position, was borne by +the great house of Montagu as a quartering, and another griffon played +upon Griffin's name. + +[Illustration: Drake.] + +The wyver, who becomes wyvern in the 16th century, and takes a new form +under the care of inventive heralds, was in the middle ages a +lizard-like dragon, generally with small wings. Sir Edmund Mauley in the +14th century is found differencing the black bend of his elder brother +by charging it with three wyvers of silver. During the middle ages there +seems small distinction between the wyver and the still rarer dragon, +which, with the coming of the Tudors, who bore it as their badge, is +seen as a four-legged monster with wings and a tail that ends like a +broad arrow. The monster in the arms of Drake, blazoned by Tudor heralds +as a wyvern, is clearly a fire-drake or dragon in his origin. + +The unicorn rampant was borne by Harlyn of Norfolk, unicorn's heads by +the Cambridgeshire family of Paris. The mermaid with her comb and +looking-glass makes a 14th-century crest for Byron, while "Silver a bend +gules with three silver harpies thereon" is found in the 15th century +for Entyrdene. + +Concerning beasts and monsters the heraldry books have many adjectives +of blazonry which may be disregarded. Even as it was once the pride of +the cook pedant to carve each bird on the board with a new word for the +act, so it became the delight of the pedant herald to order that the +rampant horse should be "forcene," the rampant griffon "segreant," the +passant hart "trippant"; while the same hart must needs be "attired" as +to its horns and "unguled" as to its hoofs. There is ancient authority +for the nice blazonry which sometimes gives a separate colour to the +tongue and claws of the lion, but even this may be set aside. Though a +black lion in a silver field may be armed with red claws, and a golden +leopard in a red field given blue claws and tongues, these trifles are +but fancies which follow the taste of the painter, and are never of +obligation. The tusks and hoofs of the boar, and often the horns of the +hart, are thus given in some paintings a colour of their own which +elsewhere is neglected. + +As the lion is among armorial beasts, so is the eagle among the birds. A +bold convention of the earliest shield painters displayed him with +spread wing and claw, the feat of a few strokes of the brush, and after +this fashion he appears on many scores of shields. Like the claws and +tongue of the lion, the beak and claws of the eagle are commonly painted +of a second colour in all but very small representations. Thus the +golden eagle of Lymesey in a red field may have blue beak and claws, and +golden beak and claws will be given to Jorce's silver eagle upon red. A +lure, or two wings joined and spread like those of an eagle, is a rare +charge sometimes found. When fitted with the cord by which a falconer's +lure is swung, the cord must be named. + + Monthermer bore "Gold an eagle vert." + + Siggeston bore "Silver a two-headed eagle sable." + + Gavaston, earl of Cornwall, bore "Vert six eagles gold." + + Bayforde of Fordingbridge sealed (in 1388) with arms of "An eagle + bendwise, with a border engrailed and a baston." + + Graunson bore "Paly silver and azure with a bend gules and three + golden eagles thereon." + + Seymour bore "Gules a lure of two golden wings." + +Commoner than the eagle as a charge is the martlet, a humbler bird which +is never found as the sole charge of a shield. In all but a few early +representations the feathers of the legs are seen without the legs or +claws. The martlet indicates both swallow and martin, and in the arms of +the Cornish Arundels the martlets must stand for "hirundels" or +swallows. + +[Illustration: Monthermer. Siggeston. Gavaston. Graunson. Arundel.] + +The falcon or hawk is borne as a rule with close wings, so that he may +not be taken for the eagle. In most cases he is there to play on the +bearer's name, and this may be said of most of the flight of lesser +birds. + + Naunton bore "Sable three martlets silver." + + Heron bore "Azure three herons silver." + + Fauconer bore "Silver three falcons gules." + + Hauvile bore "Azure a dance between three hawks gold." + + Twenge bore "Silver a fesse gules between three popinjays (or parrots) + vert." + + Cranesley bore "Silver a cheveron gules between three cranes azure." + + Asdale bore "Gules a swan silver." + + Dalston bore "Silver a cheveron engrailed between three daws' heads + razed sable." + + Corbet bore "Gold two corbies sable." + +[Illustration: Seymour. Naunton. Fauconer. Twenge.] + + Cockfield bore "Silver three cocks gules." + + Burton bore "Sable a cheveron sable between three silver owls." + + Rokeby bore "Silver a cheveron sable between three rooks." + + Duffelde bore "Sable a cheveron silver between three doves." + + Pelham bore "Azure three pelicans silver." + +[Illustration: Asdale. Corbet. Cockfield. Burton.] + + Sumeri (13th century) sealed with arms of "A peacock with his tail + spread." + + John Pyeshale of Suffolk (14th century) sealed with arms of "Three + magpies." + +_Fishes, Reptiles and Insects._--Like the birds, the fishes are borne +for the most part to call to mind their bearers' names. Unless their +position be otherwise named, they are painted as upright in the shield, +as though rising towards the water surface. The dolphin is known by his +bowed back, old artists making him a grotesquely decorative figure. + + Lucy bore "Gules three luces (or pike) silver." + + Heringaud bore "Azure, crusilly gold, with six golden herrings." + + Fishacre bore "Gules a dolphin silver." + + La Roche bore "Three roach swimming." + + John Samon (14th century) sealed with arms of "Three salmon swimming." + + Sturgeon bore "Azure three sturgeon swimming gold, with a fret gules + over all." + + Whalley bore "Silver three whales' heads razed sable." + +Shell-fish would hardly have place in English armory were it not for the +abundance of scallops which have followed their appearance in the +banners of Dacre and Scales. The crest of the Yorkshire Scropes, +playing upon their name, was a pair of crabs' claws. + + Dacre bore "Gules three scallops silver." + + Shelley bore "Sable a fesse engrailed between three whelk-shells + gold." + +[Illustration: Rokeby. Pelham. Lucy. Fishacre. Roche.] + +Reptiles and insects are barely represented. The lizards in the crest +and supporters of the Ironmongers of London belong to the 15th century. +Gawdy of Norfolk may have borne the tortoise in his shield in the same +age. "Silver three toads sable" was quartered as a second coat for +Botreaux of Cornwall in the 16th century--Botereau or Boterel signifying +a little toad in the old French tongue--but the arms do not appear on +the old Botreaux seals beside their ancient bearing of the griffon. +Beston bore "Silver a bend between six bees sable" and a 15-century +Harbottle seems to have sealed with arms of three bluebottle flies. +Three butterflies are in the shield of Presfen of Lancashire in 1415, +while the winged insect shown on the seal of John Mayre, a King's Lynn +burgess of the age of Edward I., is probably a mayfly. + +[Illustration: Dacre. Shelley. See of Salisbury. Isle of Man.] + +_Human Charges._--Man and the parts of him play but a small part in +English shields, and we have nothing to put beside such a coat as that +of the German Manessen, on which two armed knights attack each other's +hauberks with their teeth. But certain arms of religious houses and the +like have the whole figure, the see of Salisbury bearing the Virgin and +Child in a blue field. And old crests have demi-Saracens and falchion +men, coal-miners, monks and blackamoors. Sowdan bore in his shield a +turbaned soldan's head; Eady, three old men's "'eads"! Heads of maidens, +the "winsome marrows" of the ballad, are in the arms of Marow. The +Stanleys, as kings of Man, quartered the famous three-armed legs +whirling mill-sail fashion, and Tremayne of the west bore three men's +arms in like wise. "Gules three hands silver" was for Malmeyns as early +as the 13th century, and Tynte of Colchester displayed hearts. + +_Miscellaneous Charges._--Other charges of the shield are less frequent +but are found in great variety, the reason for most of them being the +desire to play upon the bearer's name. + +Weapons and the like are rare, having regard to the military +associations of armory. Daubeney bore three helms; Philip Marmion took +with his wife, the coheir of Kilpek, the Kilpek shield of a sword +(_espek_). Tuck had a stabbing sword or "tuck." Bent bows were borne by +Bowes, an arblast by Arblaster, arrows by Archer, birding-bolts or +_bosouns_ by Bosun, the mangonel by Mangnall. The three lances of +Amherst is probably a medieval coat; Leweston had battle-axes. + +A scythe was in the shield of Praers; Picot had picks; Bilsby a hammer +or "beal"; Malet showed mallets. The chamberlain's key is in the shield +of a Chamberlain, and the spenser's key in that of a Spenser. Porter +bore the porter's bell, Boteler the butler's cup. Three-legged pots were +borne by Monbocher. Crowns are for Coroun. Yarde had yard-wands; +Bordoun a burdon or pilgrim's staff. + +Of horse-furniture we have the stirrups of Scudamore and Giffard, the +horse-barnacles of Bernake, and the horse-shoes borne by many branches +and tenants of the house of Ferrers. + +Of musical instruments there are pipes, trumps and harps for Pipe, +Trumpington and Harpesfeld. Hunting horns are common among families +bearing such names as Forester or Horne. Remarkable charges are the +three organs of Grenville, who held of the house of Clare, the lords of +Glamorgan. + +Combs play on the name of Tunstall, and gloves (_wauns_ or _gauns_) on +that of Wauncy. Hose were borne by Hoese; buckles by a long list of +families. But the most notable of the charges derived from clothing is +the hanging sleeve familiar in the arms of Hastings, Conyers and Mansel. + +Chess-rooks, hardly to be distinguished from the _roc_ or _roquet_ at +the head of a jousting-lance, were borne by Rokewode and by many more. +Topcliffe had pegtops in his shield, while Ambesas had a cast of three +dice which should each show the point of one, for "to throw ambesace" is +an ancient phrase used of those who throw three aces. + +Although we are a sea-going people, there are few ships in our armory, +most of these in the arms of sea-ports. Anchors are commoner. + +Castles and towers, bridges, portcullises and gates have all examples, +and a minster-church was the curious charge borne by the ancient house +of Musters of Kirklington. + +Letters of the alphabet are very rarely found in ancient armory; but +three capital T's, in old English script, were borne by Toft of Cheshire +in the 14th century. In the period of decadence whole words or +sentences, commonly the names of military or naval victories, are often +seen. + +_Blazonry._--An ill-service has been done to the students of armory by +those who have pretended that the phrases in which the shields and their +charges are described or blazoned must follow arbitrary laws devised by +writers of the period of armorial decadence. One of these laws, and a +mischievous one, asserts that no tincture should be named a second time +in the blazon of one coat. Thus if gules be the hue of the field any +charge of that colour must thereafter be styled "of the first." Obeying +this law the blazoner of a shield of arms elaborately charged may find +himself sadly involved among "of the first," "of the second," and "of +the third." It is needless to say that no such law obtained among +armorists of the middle ages. The only rule that demands obedience is +that the brief description should convey to the reader a true knowledge +of the arms described. + +The examples of blazonry given in that part of this article which deals +with armorial charges will be more instructive to the student than any +elaborated code of directions. It will be observed that the description +of the field is first set down, the blazoner giving its plain tincture +or describing it as burely, party, paly or barry, as powdered or sown +with roses, crosslets or fleurs-de-lys. Then should follow the main or +central charges, the lion or griffon dominating the field, the cheveron +or the pale, the fesse, bend or bars, and next the subsidiary charges in +the field beside the "ordinary" and those set upon it. Chiefs and +quarters are blazoned after the field and its contents, and the border, +commonly an added difference, is taken last of all. Where there are +charges both upon and beside a bend, fesse or the like, a curious +inversion is used by pedantic blazoners. The arms of Mr Samuel Pepys of +the Admiralty Office would have been described in earlier times as +"Sable a bend gold between two horses' heads razed silver, with three +fleurs-de-lys sable on the bend." Modern heraldic writers would give the +sentence as "Sable, on a bend or between two horses' heads erased +argent, three fleurs-de-lys of the first." Nothing is gained by this +inversion but the precious advantage of naming the bend but once. On the +other side it may be said that, while the newer blazon couches itself in +a form that seems to prepare for the naming of the fleurs-de-lys as the +important element of the shield, the older form gives the fleurs-de-lys +as a mere postscript, and rightly, seeing that charges in such a +position are very commonly the last additions to a shield by way of +difference. In like manner when a crest is described it is better to say +"a lion's head out of a crown" than "out of a crown a lion's head." The +first and last necessity in blazonry is lucidity, which is cheaply +gained at the price of a few syllables repeated. + +_Modern Heraldry._--With the accession of the Tudors armory began a +rapid decadence. Heraldry ceased to play its part in military affairs, +the badges and banners under which the medieval noble's retinue came +into the field were banished, and even the tournament in its later days +became a renascence pageant which did not need the painted shield and +armorial trappers. Treatises on armory had been rare in the days before +the printing press, but even so early a writer as Nicholas Upton had +shown himself as it were unconcerned with the heraldry that any man +might see in the camp and the street. From the Book of St Albans onward +the treatises on armory are informed with a pedantry which touches the +point of crazy mysticism in such volumes as that of Sylvanus Morgan. +Thus came into the books those long lists of "diminutions of +ordinaries," the closets and escarpes, the endorses and ribands, the +many scores of strange crosses and such wild fancies as the rule, based +on an early German pedantry, that the tinctures in peers shields should +be given the names of precious stones and those in the shields of +sovereigns the names of planets. Blazon became cumbered with that +vocabulary whose French of Stratford atte Bowe has driven serious +students from a business which, to use a phrase as true as it is +hackneyed, was at last "abandoned to the coachpainter and the +undertaker." + +With the false genealogy came in the assumption or assigning of shields +to which the new bearers had often no better claim than lay in a surname +resembling that of the original owner. The ancient system of +differencing arms disappeared. Now and again we see a second son obeying +the book-rules and putting a crescent in his shield or a third son +displaying a molet, but long before our own times the practice was +disregarded, and the most remote kinsman of a gentle house displayed the +"whole coat" of the head of his family. + +The art of armory had no better fate. An absurd rule current for some +three hundred years has ordered that the helms of princes and knights +should be painted full-faced and those of peers and gentlemen sidelong. +Obeying this, the herald painters have displayed the crests of knights +and princes as sideways upon a full-faced helm; the torse or wreath, +instead of being twisted about the brow of the helm, has become a +sausage-shaped bar see-sawing above the helm; and upon this will be +balanced a crest which might puzzle the ancient craftsman to mould in +his leather or parchment. A ship on a lee-shore with a thunderstorm +lowering above its masts may stand as an example of such devices. +"Tastes, of course, differ," wrote Dr Woodward, "but the writer can +hardly think that the epergne given to Lieut.-General Smith by his +friends at Bombay was a fitting ornament for a helmet." As with the +crest, so with the shield. It became crowded with ill-balanced figures +devised by those who despised and ignored the ancient examples whose +painters had followed instinctively a simple and pleasant convention. +Landscapes and seascapes, musical lines, military medals and corrugated +boiler-flues have all made their appearance in the shield. Even as on +the signs of public houses, written words have taken the place of +figures, and the often-cited arms exemplified to the first Earl Nelson +marked, it may be hoped, the high watermark of these distressing +modernisms. Of late years, indeed, official armory in England has shown +a disposition to follow the lessons of the archaeologist, although the +recovery of medieval use has not yet been as successful as in Germany, +where for a long generation a school of vigorous armorial art has +flourished. + +_Officers of Arms._--Officers of arms, styled kings of arms, heralds and +pursuivants, appear at an early period of the history of armory as the +messengers in peace and war of princes and magnates. It is probable that +from the first they bore in some wise their lord's arms as the badge of +their office. In the 14th century we have heralds with the arms on a +short mantle, witness the figure of the duke of Gelderland's herald +painted in the _Armorial de Gelre_. The title of Blue Mantle +pursuivant, as old as the reign of Edward III., suggests a like usage in +England. When the tight-laced coat of arms went out of fashion among the +knighthood the loose tabard of arms with its wide sleeves was at once +taken in England as the armorial dress of both herald and cavalier, and +the fashion of it has changed but little since those days. Clad in such +a coat the herald was the image of his master and, although he himself +was rarely chosen from any rank above that of the lesser gentry, his +person, as a messenger, acquired an almost priestly sacredness. To +injure or to insult him was to affront the coat that he wore. + +We hear of kings of arms in the royal household of the 13th century, and +we may compare their title with those of such officers as the King of +the Ribalds and the King of the Minstrels; but it is noteworthy that, +even in modern warrants for heralds' patents, the custom of the reign of +Edward III. is still cited as giving the necessary precedents for the +officers' liveries. Officers of arms took their titles from their +provinces or from the titles and badges of their masters. Thus we have +Garter, Norroy and Clarenceux, March, Lancaster, Windsor, Leicester, +Leopard, Falcon and Blanc Sanglier as officers attached to the royal +house; Chandos, the herald of the great Sir John Chandos; Vert Eagle of +the Nevill earls of Salisbury, Esperance and Crescent of the Percys of +Northumberland. The spirit of Henry VII.'s legislation was against such +usages in baronial houses, and in the age of the Tudors the last of the +private heralds disappears. + +In England the royal officers of arms were made a corporation by Richard +III. Nowadays the members of this corporation, known as the College of +Arms or Heralds' College, are Garter Principal King of Arms, Clarenceux +King of Arms South of Trent, Norroy King of Arms North of Trent, the +heralds Windsor, Chester, Richmond, Somerset, York and Lancaster, and +the pursuivants Rouge Croix, Bluemantle, Rouge Dragon and Portcullis. +Another king of arms, not a member of this corporation, has been +attached to the order of the Bath since the reign of George I., and an +officer of arms, without a title, attends the order of St Michael and St +George. + +There is no college or corporation of heralds in Scotland or Ireland. In +Scotland "Lyon-king-of-arms," "Lyon rex armorum," or "Leo fecialis," so +called from the lion on the royal shield, is the head of the office of +arms. When first the dignity was constituted is not known, but Lyon was +a prominent figure in the coronation of Robert II. in 1371. The office +was at first, as in England, attached to the earl marshal, but it has +long been conferred by patent under the great seal, and is held direct +from the crown. Lyon is also king-of-arms for the national order of the +Thistle. He is styled "Lord Lyon," and the office has always been held +by men of family, and frequently by a peer who would appoint a "Lyon +depute." He is supreme in all matters of heraldry in Scotland. Besides +the "Lyon depute," there are the Scottish heralds, Albany, Ross and +Rothesay, with precedence according to date of appointment; and the +pursuivants, Carrick, March and Unicorn. Heralds and pursuivants are +appointed by Lyon. + +In Ireland also there is but one king-of-arms, Ulster. The office was +instituted by Edward VI. in 1553. The patent is given by Rymer, and +refers to certain emoluments as "praedicto officio ... ab antiquo +spectantibus." The allusion is to an Ireland king-of-arms mentioned in +the reign of Richard II. and superseded by Ulster. Ulster holds office +by patent, during pleasure; under him the Irish office of arms consists +of two heralds, Cork and Dublin; and a pursuivant, Athlone. Ulster is +king-of-arms to the order of St Patrick. He held visitations in parts of +Ireland from 1568 to 1620, and these and other records, including all +grants of arms from the institution of the office, are kept in the +Birmingham Tower, Dublin. + +The armorial duties of the ancient heralds are not clearly defined. The +patent of Edward IV., creating John Wrythe king of arms of England with +the style of Garter, speaks vaguely of the care of the office of arms +and those things which belong to that office. We know that the heralds +had their part in the ordering of tournaments, wherein armory played its +greatest part, and that their expert knowledge of arms gave them such +duties as reckoning the noble slain on a battlefield. But it is not +until the 15th century that we find the heralds following a recognized +practice of granting or assigning arms, a practice on which John of +Guildford comments, saying that such arms given by a herald are not of +greater authority than those which a man has taken for himself. The Book +of St Albans, put forth in 1486, speaking of arms granted by princes and +lords, is careful to add that "armys bi a mannys proper auctorite take, +if an other man have not borne theym afore, be of strength enogh," +repeating, as it seems, Nicholas Upton's opinion which, in this matter, +does not conflict with the practice of his day. It is probable that the +earlier grants of arms by heralds were made by reason of persons +uncunning in armorial lore applying for a suitable device to experts in +such matters--and that such setting forth of arms may have been +practised even in the 14th century. + +The earliest known grants of arms in England by sovereigns or private +persons are, as a rule, the conveyance of a right in a coat of arms +already existing or of a differenced version of it. Thus in 1391 Thomas +Grendale, a squire who had inherited through his grandmother the right +in the shield of Beaumeys, granted his right in it to Sir William +Moigne, a knight who seems to have acquired the whole or part of the +Beaumeys manor in Sawtry. Under Henry VI. we have certain rare and +curious letters of the crown granting nobility with arms "_in signum +hujusmodi nobilitatis_" to certain individuals, some, and perhaps all of +whom, were foreigners who may have asked for letters which followed a +continental usage. After this time we have a regular series of grants by +heralds who in later times began to assert that new arms, to be valid, +must necessarily be derived from their assignments, although ancient use +continued to be recognized. + +An account of the genealogical function of the heralds, so closely +connected with their armorial duties will be found in the article +GENEALOGY. In spite of the work of such distinguished men as Camden and +Dugdale they gradually fell in public estimation until Blackstone could +write of them that the marshalling of coat-armour had fallen into the +hands of certain officers called heralds, who had allowed for lucre such +falsity and confusion to creep into their records that even their common +seal could no longer be received as evidence in any court of justice. +From this low estate they rose again when the new archaeology included +heraldry in its interests, and several antiquaries of repute have of +late years worn the herald's tabard. + +In spite of the vast amount of material which the libraries catalogue +under the head of "Heraldry," the subject has as yet received little +attention from antiquaries working in the modern spirit. The old books +are as remarkable for their detachment from the facts as for their +folly. The work of Nicholas Upton, _De studio militari_, although +written in the first half of the 15th century, shows, as has been +already remarked, no attempt to reconcile the conceits of the author +with the armorial practice which he must have seen about him on every +side. Gerard Leigh, Bossewell, Ferne and Morgan carry on this bad +tradition, each adding his own extravagances. The _Display of Heraldry_, +first published in 1610 under the name of John Guillim, is more +reasonable if not more learned, and in its various editions gives a +valuable view of the decadent heraldry of the 17th century. In the 19th +century many important essays on the subject are to be found in such +magazines as the _Genealogist_, the _Herald and Genealogist_ and the +_Ancestor_, while Planche's _Pursuivant of Arms_ contains some slight +but suggestive work which attempts original enquiry. But Dr Woodward's +_Treatise on Heraldry, British and Foreign_ (1896), in spite of many +errors arising from the author's reliance upon unchecked material, must +be counted the only scholarly book in English upon a matter which has +engaged so many pens. Among foreign volumes may be cited those of +Menestrier and Spener, and the vast compilation of the German +Siebmacher. Notable ordinaries of arms are those of Papworth and +Renesse, companions to the armorials of Burke and Rietstap. The student +may be advised to turn his attention to all works dealing with the +effigies, brasses and other monuments of the middle ages, to the ancient +heraldic seals and to the heraldry of medieval architecture and +ornament. (O. Ba.) + + + + +HERAT, a city and province of Afghanistan. The city of Herat lies in 340 +deg. 20' 30" N., and 62 deg. 11' 0" E., at an altitude of 2500 ft. above +sea-level. Estimated pop. about 10,000. It is a city of great interest +historically, geographically, politically and strategically, but in +modern days it has quite lost its ancient commercial importance. From +this central point great lines of communication radiate in all +directions to Russian, British, Persian and Afghan territory. Sixty-six +miles to the north lies the terminus of the Russian railway system; to +the south-east is Kandahar (360 m.) and about 70 m. beyond that, New +Chaman, the terminus of the British railway system. Southward lies +Seistan (200 m.), and eastward Kabul (550 m.); while on the west four +routes lead into Persia by Turbet to Meshed (215 m.), and by Birjend to +Kerman (400 m.), to Yezd (500 m.), or to Isfahan (600 m.). The city +forms a quadrangle of nearly 1 m. square (more accurately about 1600 +yds. by 1500 yds.); on the western, southern and eastern faces the line +of defence is almost straight, the only projecting points being the +gateways, but on the northern face the contour is broken by a double +outwork, consisting of the _Ark_ or citadel, which is built of sun-dried +brick on a high artificial mound within the enceinte, and a lower work +at its foot, called the _Ark-i-nao_, or "new citadel," which extends 100 +yds. beyond the line of the city wall. That which distinguishes Herat +from all other Oriental cities, and at the same time constitutes its +main defence, is the stupendous character of the earthwork upon which +the city wall is built. This earthwork averages 250 ft. in width at the +base and about 50 ft. in height, and as it is crowned by a wall 25 ft. +high and 14 ft. thick at the base, supported by about 150 semicircular +towers, and is further protected by a ditch 45 ft. in width and 16 in +depth, it presents an appearance of imposing strength. When the royal +engineers of the Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission entered Herat in 1885 +they found its defences in various stages of disrepair. The gigantic +rampart was unflanked, and the covered ways in the face of it subject to +enfilade from end to end. The ditch was choked, the gates were +unprotected; the tumbled mass of irregular mud buildings which +constituted the city clung tightly to the walls; there were no gun +emplacements. Outside, matters were almost worse than inside. To the +north of the walls the site of old Herat was indicated by a vast mass of +debris--mounds of bricks and pottery intersected by a network of shallow +trenches, where the only semblance of a protective wall was the +irregular line of the Tal-i-Bangi. South of the city was a vast area +filled in with the graveyards of centuries. Here the trenches dug by the +Persians during the last siege were still in a fair state of +preservation; they were within a stone's-throw of the walls. Round about +the city on all sides were similar opportunities for close approach; +even the villages stretched out long irregular streets towards the city +gates. To the north-west, beyond the Tal-i-Bangi, the magnificent +outlines of the Mosalla filled a wide space with the glorious curves of +dome and gateway and the stately grace of tapering minars, but the +impressive beauty of this, by far the finest architectural structure in +all Afghanistan, could not be permitted to weigh against the fact that +the position occupied by this pile of solid buildings was fatal to the +interests of effective defence. By the end of August 1885, when a +political crisis had supervened between Great Britain and Russia, under +the orders of the Amir the Mosalla was destroyed; but four minars +standing at the corners of the wide plinth still remain to attest to the +glorious proportions of the ancient structure, and to exhibit samples of +that decorative tilework, which for intricate beauty of design and +exquisite taste in the blending of colour still appeals to the memory as +unique. At the same time the ancient graveyards round the city were +swept smooth and levelled; obstructions were demolished, outworks +constructed, and the defences generally renovated. Whether or no the +strength of this bulwark of North-Western Afghanistan should ever be +practically tested, the general result of the most recent investigations +into the value of Herat as a strategic centre has been largely to +modify the once widely-accepted view that the key to India lies within +it. Abdur Rahman and his successor Habibullah steadfastly refused the +offer of British engineers to strengthen its defences; and though the +Afghans themselves have occasionally undertaken repairs, it is doubtful +whether the old walls of Herat are maintained in a state of efficiency. + +The exact position of Herat, with reference to the Russian station of +Kushk (now the terminus of a branch railway from Merv), is as follows: +From Herat, a gentle ascent northwards for 3 m. reaches to the foot of +the Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja, crossing the Jui Nao or "new" canal, which here +divides the gravel-covered foot hills from the alluvial flats of the +Hari Rud plain. The crest of the outer ridges of this subsidiary range +is about 700 ft. above the city, at a distance of 4 m. from it. For 28 +m. farther the road winds first amongst the broken ridges of the +Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja, then over the intervening _dasht_ into the southern +spurs of the Paropamisus to the Ardewan pass. This is the highest point +it attains, and it has risen about 2150 ft. from Herat. From the pass it +drops over the gradually decreasing grades of a wide sweep of Chol +(which here happens to be locally free from the intersecting network of +narrow ravines which is generally a distinguishing feature of Turkestan +loess formations) for a distance of 35 m. into the Russian railway +station, falling some 2700 ft. from the crest of the Paropamisus. To the +south the road from Herat to India through Kandahar lies across an open +plain, which presents no great engineering difficulties, but is of a +somewhat waterless and barren character. + +The city possesses five gates, two on the northern face, the Kutab-chak +near the north-east angle of the wall, and the Malik at the re-entering +angle of the Ark-i-nao; and three others in the centres of the remaining +faces, the Irak gate on the west, the Kandahar gate on the south and the +Kushk gate on the east face. Four streets called the _Chahar-suk_, +running from the centre of each face, meet in the centre of the town in +a small domed quadrangle. The principal street runs from the south or +Kandahar gate to the market in front of the citadel, and is covered in +with a vaulted roof through its entire length, the shops and buildings +of this bazaar being much superior to those of the other streets, and +the merchants' caravanserais, several of which are spacious and well +built, all opening out on this great thoroughfare. Near the central +quadrangle of the city is a vast reservoir of water, the dome of which +is of bold and excellent proportions. The only other public building of +any consequence in Herat is the great mosque or _Mesjid-i-Juma_, which +comprises an area of 800 yds. square, and must have been a most +magnificent structure. It was erected towards the close of the 15th +century, during the reign of Shah Sultan Hussein of the family of Timur, +and is said when perfect to have been 465 ft. long by 275 ft. wide, to +have had 408 cupolas, 130 windows, 444 pillars and 6 entrances, and to +have been adorned in the most magnificent manner with gilding, carving, +precious mosaics and other elaborate and costly embellishments. Now, +however, it is falling rapidly into ruin, the ever-changing provincial +governors who administer Herat having neither the means nor the +inclination to undertake the necessary repairs. Neither the palace of +the Charbagh within the city wall, which was the residence of the +British mission in 1840-1841, nor the royal quarters in the citadel +deserve any special notice. At the present day, with the exception of +the _Chahar-suk_, where there is always a certain amount of traffic, and +where the great diversity of race and costume imparts much liveliness to +the scene, Herat presents a very melancholy and desolate appearance. The +mud houses in rear of the bazaars are for the most part uninhabited and +in ruins, and even the burnt brick buildings are becoming everywhere +dilapidated. The city is also one of the filthiest in the East, as there +are no means of drainage or sewerage, and garbage of every description +lies in heaps in the open streets. + +Along the slopes of the northern hills there is a space of some 4 m. in +length by 3 m. in breadth, the surface of the plain, strewn over its +whole extent with pieces of pottery and crumbling bricks, and also +broken here and there by earthen mounds and ruined walls, the debris of +palatial structures which at one time were the glory and wonder of the +East. Of these structures indeed some have survived to the present day +in a sufficiently perfect state to bear witness to the grandeur and +beauty of the old architecture of Herat. Such was the mosque of the +Mosalla before its destruction. Scarcely inferior in beauty of design +and execution, though of more moderate dimensions, is the tomb of the +saint Abdullah Ansari, in the same neighbourhood. This building, which +was erected by Shah Rukh Mirza, the grandson of Timur, over 500 years +ago, contains some exquisite specimens of sculpture in the best style of +Oriental art. Adjoining the tomb also are numerous marble mausoleums, +the sepulchres of princes of the house of Timur; and especially +deserving of notice is a royal building tastefully decorated by an +Italian artist named Geraldi, who was in the service of Shah Abbas the +Great. The locality, which is further enlivened by gardens and running +streams, is named _Gazir-gah_, and is a favourite resort of the Heratis. +It is held indeed in high veneration by all classes, and the famous Dost +Mahommed Khan is himself buried at the foot of the tomb of the saint. +Two other royal palaces named respectively _Bagh-i-Shah_ and +_Takht-i-Sefer_, are situated on the same rising ground somewhat farther +to the west. The buildings are now in ruins, but the view from the +pavilions, shaded by splendid plane trees on the terraced gardens formed +on the slope of the mountain, is said to be very beautiful. + +The population of Herat and the neighbourhood is of a very mixed +character. The original inhabitants of Ariana were no doubt of the Aryan +family, and immediately cognate with the Persian race, but they were +probably intermixed at a very early period with the Sacae and +Massagetae, who seem to have held the mountains from Kabul to Herat from +the first dawn of history, and to whom must be ascribed--rather than to +an infusion of Turco-Tartaric blood introduced by the armies of Jenghiz +and Timur--the peculiar broad features and flattish countenance which +distinguish the inhabitants of Herat, Seistan and the eastern provinces +of Persia from their countrymen farther to the west. Under the +government of Herat, however, there are a very large number cf tribes, +ruled over by separate and semi-independent chiefs, and belonging +probably to different nationalities. The principal group of tribes is +called the _Chahar-Aimak_, or "four races," the constituent parts of +which, however, are variously stated by different authorities both as to +strength and nomenclature. The Heratis are an agricultural race, and are +not nearly so warlike as the Pathans from the neighbourhood of Kabul or +Kandahar. + + + Environs of Herat. + +The long narrow valley of the Hari Rud, starting from the western slopes +of the Koh-i-Baba, extends almost due west for 300 m. before it takes +its great northern bend at Kuhsan, and passes northwards through the +broken ridges of the Siah Bubuk (the western extremity of the range +which we now call Paropamisus) towards Sarakhs. For the greater part of +its length it drains the southern slopes only of the Paropamisus and the +northern slopes of a parallel range called Koh-i-Safed. The Paropamisus +forms the southern face of the Turkestan plateau, which contains the +sources of the Murghab river; the northern face of the same plateau is +defined by the Band-i-Turkestan. On the south of the plateau we find a +similar succession of narrow valleys dividing parallel flexures, or +anticlinals, formed under similar geological conditions to those which +appear to be universally applicable to the Himalaya, the Hindu Kush, and +the Indus frontier mountain systems. From one of these long lateral +valleys the Hari Rud receives its principal tributary, which joins the +main river below Obeh, 180 m. from its source; and it is this tributary +(separated from the Hari Rud by the narrow ridges of the Koh-i-Safed and +Band-i-Baian) that offers the high road from Herat to Kabul, and not the +Hari Rud itself. From its source to Obeh the Hari Rud is a valley of +sandy desolation. There are no glaciers near its sources, although they +must have existed there in geologically recent times, but masses of +melting snow annually give rise to floods, which rush through the midst +of the valley in a turbid red stream, frequently rendering the river +impassable and cutting off the crazy brick bridges at Herat and Tirpul. +It is impossible, whilst watching the rolling, seething volume of +flood-water which swirls westwards in April, to imagine the waste +stretches of dry river-bed which in a few months' time (when every +available drop of water is carried off for irrigation) will represent +the Hari Rud. The soft shales or clays of the hills bounding the valley +render these hills especially subject to the action of denudation, and +the result, in rounded slopes and easily accessible crests, determines +the nature of the easy tracks and passes which intersect them. At the +same time, any excessive local rainfall is productive of difficulty and +danger from the floods of liquid mud and loose boulders which sweep like +an avalanche down the hill sides. The intense cold which usually +accompanies these sudden northern blizzards of Herat and Turkestan is a +further source of danger. + +From Obeh, 50 m. east of Herat, the cultivated portion of the valley +commences, and it extends, with a width which varies from 8 to 16 m., to +Kuhsan, 60 m. west of the city. But the great stretch of highly +irrigated and valuable fruit-growing land, which appears to spread from +the walls of Herat east and west as far as the eye can reach, and to +sweep to the foot of the hills north and south with an endless array of +vineyards and melon-beds, orchards and villages, varied with a brilliant +patchwork of poppy growth brightening the width of green wheat-fields +with splashes of scarlet and purple--all this is really comprised within +a narrow area which does not extend beyond a ten-miles' radius from the +city. The system of irrigation by which these agricultural results are +attained is most elaborate. The despised Herati Tajik, in blue shirt and +skull-cap, and with no instrument better than a three-cornered spade, is +as skilled an agriculturist as is the Ghilzai engineer, but he cannot +effect more than the limits of his water-supply will permit. He adopts +the karez (or, Persian, _kanat_) system of underground irrigation, as +does the Ghilzai, and brings every drop of water that he can find to the +surface; but it cannot be said that he is more successful than the +Ghilzai. It is the startling contrast of the Herati oasis with the vast +expanse of comparative sterility that encloses it which has given such a +fictitious value to the estimates of the material wealth of the valley +of the Hari Rud. + +The valley about Herat includes a flat alluvial plain which might, for +some miles on any side except the north, be speedily reduced to an +impassable swamp by means of flood-water from the surrounding canals. +Three miles to the south of the city the river flows from east to west, +spanned by the Pal-i-Malun, a bridge possessing grand proportions, but +which was in 1885 in a state of grievous disrepair and practically +useless. East and west stretches the long vista of the Hari Rud. Due +north the hills called the Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja appear to be close and +dominating, but the foot of these hills is really about 3 m. distant +from the city. This northern line of barren, broken sandstone hills is +geographically no part of the Paropamisus range, from which it is +separated by a stretch of sandy upland about 20 m. in width, called the +Dasht-i-Hamdamao, or Dasht-i-Ardewan, formed by the talus or drift of +the higher mountains, which, washed down through centuries of +denudation, now forms long sweeping spurs of gravel and sand, scantily +clothed with wormwood scrub and almost destitute of water. Through this +stretch of _dasht_ the drainage from the main water-divide breaks +downwards to the plains of Herat, where it is arrested and utilized for +irrigation purposes. To the north-east of the city a very considerable +valley has been formed between the Paropamisus and the subsidiary +Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja range, called Korokh. Here there are one or two +important villages and a well-known shrine marked by a group of pine +trees which is unique in this part of Afghanistan. The valley leads to a +group of passes across the Paropamisus into Turkestan, of which the +Zirmast is perhaps the best known. The main water-divide between Herat +and the Turkestan Chol (the loess district) has been called Paropamisus +for want of any well-recognized general name. To the north of the Korokh +valley it exhibits something of the formation of the Hindu Kush (of +which it is apparently a geological extension), but as it passes +westwards it becomes broken into fragments by processes of denudation, +until it is hardly recognizable as a distinct range at all. The direct +passes across it from Herat (the Baba and the Ardewan) wind amongst +masses of disintegrating sandstone for some miles on each side of the +dividing watershed, but farther west the rounded knolls of the +rain-washed downs may be crossed almost at any point without difficulty. +The names applied to this debris of a once formidable mountain system +are essentially local and hardly distinctive. Beyond this range the sand +and clay loess formation spreads downwards like a tumbled sea, hiding +within the folds of its many-crested hills the twisting course of the +Kushk and its tributaries. + +_History._--The origin of Herat is lost in antiquity. The name first +appears in the list of primitive Zoroastrian settlements contained in +the _Vendidad Sade_, where, however, like most of the names in the same +list,--such as _Sughudu_ (Sogdiana), _Mouru_ (Merv or Margus), +_Haraquiti_ (Arachotus or Arghand-ab), _Haetumant_ (Etymander or +Helmund), and _Ragha_ (or Argha-stan),--it seems to apply to the river +or river-basin, which was the special centre of population. This name of +_Haroyu_, as it is written in the _Vendidad_, or _Hariwa_, as it appears +in the inscriptions of Darius, is a cognate form with the Sanskrit +_Sarayu_, which signifies "a river," and its resemblance to the ethnic +title of Aryan (Sans. _Arya_) is purely fortuitous; though from the +circumstance of the city being named "Aria Metropolis" by the Greeks, +and being also recognized as the capital of Ariana, "the country of the +Arians," the two forms have been frequently confounded. Of the +foundation of Herat (or Heri, as it is still often called) nothing is +known. We can only infer from the colossal character of the earth-works +which surround the modern town, that, like the similar remains at Bost +on the Helmund and at Ulan Robat of Arachosia, they belong to that +period of Central-Asian history which preceded the rise of Achaemenian +power, and which in Grecian romance is illustrated by the names of +Bacchus, of Hercules and of Semiramis. To trace in any detail the +fortunes of Herat would be to write the modern history of the East, for +there has hardly been a dynastic revolution, or a foreign invasion, or a +great civil war in Central Asia since the time of the prophet, in which +Herat has not played a conspicuous part and suffered accordingly. Under +the Tahirids of Khorasan, the Saffarids of Seistan and the Samanids of +Bokhara, it flourished for some centuries in peace and progressive +prosperity; but during the succeeding rule of the Ghaznevid kings its +metropolitan character was for a time obscured by the celebrity of the +neighbouring capital of Ghazni, until finally in the reign of Sultan +Sanjar of Merv about 1157 the city was entirely destroyed by an +irruption of the Ghuzz, the predecessors, in race as well as in habitat, +of the modern Turkomans. Herat gradually recovered under the enlightened +Ghorid kings, who were indeed natives of the province, though they +preferred to hold their court amid their ancestral fortresses in the +mountains of Ghor, so that at the time of Jenghiz Khan's invasion it +equalled or even exceeded in populousness and wealth its sister capitals +Of Balkh, Merv and Nishapur, the united strength of the four cities +being estimated at three millions of inhabitants. But this Mogul +visitation was most calamitous; forty persons, indeed, are stated to +have alone survived the general massacre of 1232, and as a similar +catastrophe overtook the city at the hands of Timur in 1398, when the +local dynasty of Kurt, which had succeeded the Ghorides in eastern +Khorasan, was put an end to, it is astonishing to find that early in the +15th century Herat was again flourishing and populous, and the favoured +seat of the art and literature of the East. It was indeed under the +princes of the house of Timur that most of the noble buildings were +erected, of which the remains still excite our admiration at Herat, +while all the great historical works relative to Asia, such as the +_Rozetes-Sefa_, the _Habib-es-seir_, _Hafiz Abru's Tarikh_, the _Matla' +a-es-Sa'adin_, &c., date from the same place and the same age. Four +times was Herat sacked by Turkomans and Usbegs during the centuries +which intervened between the Timuride princes and the rise of the Afghan +power, and it has never in modern times attained to anything like its +old importance. Afghan tribes, who had originally dwelt far to the +east, were first settled at Herat by Nadir Shah, and from that time they +have monopolized the government and formed the dominant element in the +population. It will be needless to trace the revolutions and +counter-revolutions which have followed each other in quick succession +at Herat since Ahmad Shah Durani founded the Afghan monarchy about the +middle of the 18th century. Let it suffice to say that Herat has been +throughout the seat of an Afghan government, sometimes in subordination +to Kabul and sometimes independent. Persia indeed for many years showed +a strong disposition to reassert the supremacy over Herat which was +exercised by the Safawid kings, but great Britain, disapproving of the +advance of Persia towards the Indian frontier, steadily resisted the +encroachment; and, indeed, after helping the Heratis to beat off the +attack of the Persian army in 1838, the British at length compelled the +shah in 1857 at the close of his war with them to sign a treaty +recognizing the further independence of the place, and pledging Persia +against any further interference with the Afghans. In 1863 Herat, which +for fifty years previously had been independent of Kabul, was +incorporated by Dost Mahomed Khan in the Afghan monarchy, and the Amir, +Habibullah of Afghanistan, like his father Abdur Rahman before him, +remained Amir of Herat and Kandahar, as well as Kabul. + + See Holdich, _Indian Borderland_ (1901); C. E. Yate, _Northern + Afghanistan_ (1888). (T. H. H.*) + + + + +HERAULT, a department in the south of France, formed from Lower +Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 482,779. Area, 2403 sq. m. It is bounded N.E. by +Gard, N.W. by Aveyron and Tarn, and S. by Aude and the Golfe du Lion. +The southern prolongation of the Cevennes mountains occupies the +north-western zone of the department, the highest point being about 4250 +ft. above the sea-level. South-east of this range comes a region of +hills and plateaus decreasing in height as they approach the sea, from +which they are separated by the rich plains at the mouth of the Orb and +the Herault and, farther to the north-east, by the line of +intercommunicating salt lagoons (Etang de Thau, &c.) which fringes the +coast. The region to the north-west of Montpellier comprises an +extensive tract of country known as the Garrigues, a district of dry +limestone plateaus and hills, which stretches into the neighbouring +department of Gard. The mountains of the north-west form the watershed +between the Atlantic and Mediterranean basins. From them flow the +Herault, its tributary the Lergue, and more to the south-west the Livron +and the Orb, which are the main rivers of the department. Dry summers, +varied by occasional violent storms, are characteristic of Herault. The +climate is naturally colder and more rainy in the mountains. + +A third of the surface of Herault is planted with vines, which are the +chief source of agricultural wealth, the department ranking first in +France with respect to the area of its vineyards; the red wines of St +Georges, Cazouls-les-Beziers, Picpoul and Maranssan, and the white wines +of Frontignan and Lunel (pop. in 1906, 6769) are held in high +estimation. The area given over to arable land and pasture is small in +extent. Fruit trees of various kinds, but especially mulberries, olives +and chestnuts flourish. The rearing of silk-worms is largely carried on. +Considerable numbers of sheep are raised, their milk being utilized for +the preparation of Roquefort cheeses. The mineral wealth of the +department is considerable. There are mines of lignite, coal in the +vicinity of Graissessac, iron, calamine and copper, and quarries of +building-stone, limestone, gypsum, &c.; the marshes supply salt. Mineral +springs are numerous, the most important being those of +Lamalon-les-Bains and Balaruc-les-Bains. The chief manufactures are +woollen and cotton cloth, especially for military use, silk (Ganges), +casks, soap and fertilizing stuffs. There are also oil-works, +distilleries (Beziers) and tanneries (Bedarieux). Fishing is an +important industry. Cette and Meze (pop. in 1906, 5574) are the chief +ports. Herault exports salt fish, wine, liqueurs, timber, salt, +building-material, &c. It imports cattle, skins, wool, cereals, +vegetables, coal and other commodities. The railway lines belong chiefly +to the Southern and Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee companies. The Canal du +Midi traverses the south of the department for 44 m. and terminates at +Cette. The Canal des Etangs traverses the department for about 20 m., +forming part of a line of communication between Cette and Aigues-Mortes. +Montpellier, the capital, is the seat of a bishopric of the province of +Avignon, and of a court of appeal and centre of an academic (educational +division). The department belongs to the 16th military region, which has +its headquarters at Montpellier. It is divided into the arrondissements +of Montpellier, Beziers, Lodeve and St Pons, with 36 cantons and 340 +communes. + +Montpellier, Beziers, Lodeve, Bedarieux, Cette, Agde, Pezenas, +Lamalou-les-Bains and Clermont-l'Herault are the more noteworthy towns +and receive separate treatment. Among the other interesting places in +the department are St Pons, with a church of the 12th century, once a +cathedral, Villemagne, which has several old houses and two ruined +churches, one of the 13th, the other of the 14th century; Pignan, a +medieval town, near which is the interesting abbey-church of Vignogoul +in the early Gothic style; and St Guilhem-le-Desert, which has a church +of the 11th and 12th centuries. Maguelonne, which in the 6th century +became the seat of a bishopric transferred to Montpellier in 1536, has a +cathedral of the 12th century. + + + + +HERAULT DE SECHELLES, MARIE JEAN (1759-1794), French politician, was +born at Paris on the 20th of September 1759, of a noble family connected +with those of Contades and Polignac. He made his debut as a lawyer at +the Chatelet, and delivered some very successful speeches; later he was +_avocat general_ to the parlement of Paris. His legal occupations did +not prevent him from devoting himself also to literature, and after 1789 +he published an account of a visit he had made to the comte de Buffon at +Montbard. Herault's account is marked by a delicate irony, and it has +with some justice been called a masterpiece of interviewing, before the +day of journalists. Herault, who was an ardent champion of the +Revolution, took part in the taking of the Bastille, and on the 8th of +December 1789 was appointed judge of the court of the first +arrondissement in the department of Paris. From the end of January to +April 1791 Herault was absent on a mission in Alsace, where he had been +sent to restore order. On his return he was appointed _commissaire du +roi_ in the court of cassation. He was elected as a deputy for Paris to +the Legislative Assembly, where he gravitated more and more towards the +extreme left; he was a member of several committees, and, when a member +of the diplomatic committee, presented a famous report demanding that +the nation should be declared to be in danger (11th June 1793). After +the revolution of the 10th of August 1792 (see FRENCH REVOLUTION), he +co-operated with Danton, one of the organizers of this rising, and on +the 2nd of September was appointed president of the Legislative +Assembly. He was a deputy to the National Convention for the department +of Seine-et-Oise, and was sent on a mission to organize the new +department of Mont Blanc. He was thus absent during the trial of Louis +XVI., but he made it known that he approved of the condemnation of the +king, and would probably have voted for the death penalty. On his return +to Paris, Herault was several times president of the Convention, notably +on the 2nd of June 1793, the occasion of the attack on the Girondins, +and on the 10th of August 1793, on which the passing of the new +constitution was celebrated. On this occasion Herault, as president of +the Convention, had to make several speeches. It was he, moreover, who, +on the rejection of the projected constitution drawn up by Condorcet, +was entrusted with the task of preparing a fresh one; this work he +performed within a few days, and his plan, which, however, differed very +little from that of Condorcet, became the Constitution of 1793, which +was passed, but never applied. As a member of the Committee of Public +Safety, it was with diplomacy that Herault was chiefly concerned, and +from October to December 1793 he was employed on a diplomatic and +military mission in Alsace. But this mission helped to make him an +object of suspicion to the other members of the Committee of Public +Safety, and especially to Robespierre, who as a deist and a fanatical +follower of the ideas of Rousseau, hated Herault, the follower of the +naturalism of Diderot. He was accused of treason, and after being tried +before the revolutionary tribunal, was condemned at the same time as +Danton, and executed on the 16th Germinal in the year II. (5th April +1794). He was handsome, elegant and a lover of pleasure, and was one of +the most individual figures of the Revolution. + + See the _Voyage a Montbard_, published by A. Aulard (Paris, 1890); A. + Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention_, 2nd ed. + (Paris, 1906); J. Claretie, _Camille Desmoulins ... etude sur les + Dantonistes_ (Paris, 1875); Dr Robinet, _Le Proces des Dantonistes_ + (Paris, 1879); "Herault de Sechelles, sa premiere mission en Alsace" + in the review _La Revolution Francaise_, tome 22; E. Daudet, _Le Roman + d'un conventionnel. Herault de Sechelles et les dames de Bellegarde_ + (1904). His _Oeuvres litteraires_ were edited (Paris, 1907) by E. + Dard. (R. A.*) + + + + +HERB (Lat. _herba_, grass, food for cattle, generally taken to represent +the Old Lat. _forbea_, Gr. [Greek: phorbe], pasture, [Greek: pherbein], +to feed, Sans. _bharb_, to eat), in botany, the name given to those +plants whose stem or stalk dies entirely or down to the root each year, +and does not become, as in shrubs or trees, woody or permanent, such +plants are also called "herbaceous." The term "herb" is also used of +those herbaceous plants, which possess certain properties, and are used +for medicinal purposes, for flavouring or garnishing in cooking, and +also for perfumes (see HORTICULTURE and PHARMACOLOGY). + + + + +HERBARIUM, or HORTUS SICCUS, a collection of plants so dried and +preserved as to illustrate as far as possible their characters. Since +the same plant, owing to peculiarities of climate, soil and situation, +degree of exposure to light and other influences may vary greatly +according to the locality in which it occurs, it is only by gathering +together for comparison and study a large series of examples of each +species that the flora of different regions can be satisfactorily +represented. Even in the best equipped botanical garden it is impossible +to have, at one and the same time, more than a very small percentage of +the representatives of the flora of any given region or of any large +group of plants. Hence a good herbarium forms an indispensable part of a +botanical museum or institution. There are large herbaria at the British +Museum and at the Royal Gardens, Kew, and smaller collections at the +botanical institutions at the principal British universities. The +original herbarium of Linnaeus is in the possession of the Linnaean +Society of London. It was purchased from the widow of Linnaeus by Dr +(afterwards Sir) J. E. Smith, one of the founders of the Linnaean +Society, and after his death was purchased by the society. Herbaria are +also associated with the more important botanic gardens and museums in +other countries. The value of a herbarium is much enhanced by the +possession of "types," that is, the original specimens on the study of +which a species was founded. Thus the herbarium at the British Museum, +which is especially rich in the earlier collections made in the 18th and +early 19th centuries, contains the types of many species founded by the +earlier workers in botany. It is also rich in the types of Australian +plants in the collections of Sir Joseph Banks and Robert Brown, and +contains in addition many valuable modern collections. The Kew +herbarium, founded by Sir William Hooker and greatly increased by his +son Sir Joseph Hooker, is also very rich in types, especially those of +plants described in the _Flora of British India_ and various colonial +floras. The collection of Dillenius is deposited at Oxford, and that of +Professor W. H. Harvey at Trinity College, Dublin. The collections of +Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, his son Adrien, and of Auguste de St +Hilaire, are included in the large herbarium of the Jardin des Plantes +at Paris, and in the same city is the extensive private collection of Dr +Ernest Cosson. At Geneva are three large collections--Augustin Pyrame de +Candolle's, containing the typical specimens of the _Prodromus_, a large +series of monographs of the families of flowering plants, Benjamin +Delessert's fine series at the Botanic Garden, and the Boissier +Herbarium, which is rich in Mediterranean and Oriental plants. The +university of Gottingen has had bequeathed to it the largest collection +(exceeding 40,000 specimens) ever made by a single individual--that of +Professor Grisebach. At the herbarium in Brussels are the specimens +obtained by the traveller Karl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, the +majority of which formed the groundwork of his _Flora Brasiliensis_. The +Berlin herbarium is especially rich in more recent collections, and +other national herbaria sufficiently extensive to subserve the +requirements of the systematic botanist exist at St Petersburg, Vienna, +Leiden, Stockholm, Upsala, Copenhagen and Florence. Of those in the +United States of America, the chief, formed by Asa Gray, is the property +of Harvard university; there is also a large one at the New York +Botanical Garden. The herbarium at Melbourne, Australia, under Baron +Muller, attained large proportions; and that of the Botanical Garden of +Calcutta is noteworthy as the repository of numerous specimens described +by writers on Indian botany. + +Specimens of flowering plants and vascular cryptograms are generally +mounted on sheets of stout smooth paper, of uniform quality; the size +adopted at Kew is 17 in. long by 11 in. broad, that at the British +Museum is slightly larger; the palms and their allies, however, and some +ferns, require a larger size. The tough but flexible coarse grey paper +(German _Fliesspapier_), upon which on the Continent specimens are +commonly fixed by gummed strips of the same, is less hygroscopic than +ordinary cartridge paper, but has the disadvantage of affording +harbourage in the inequalities of its surface to a minute insect, +_Atropos pulsatoria_, which commits great havoc in damp specimens, and +which, even if noticed, cannot be dislodged without difficulty. The +majority of plant specimens are most suitably fastened on paper by a +mixture of equal parts of gum tragacanth and gum arabic made into a +thick paste with water. Rigid leathery leaves are fixed by means of +glue, or, if they present too smooth a surface, by stitching at their +edges. Where, as in private herbaria, the specimens are not liable to be +handled with great frequency, a stitch here and there round the stem, +tied at the back of the sheet, or slips of paper passed over the stem +through two slits in the sheet and attached with gum to its back, or +simply strips of gummed paper laid across the stem, may be resorted to. + +To preserve from insects, the plants, after mounting, are often brushed +over with a liquid formed by the solution of 1/4 lb. each of corrosive +sublimate and carbolic acid in 1 gallon of methylated spirits. They are +then laid out to dry on shelves made of a network of stout galvanized +iron wire. The use of corrosive sublimate is not, however, recommended, +as it forms on drying a fine powder which when the plants are handled +will rub off and, being carried into the air, may prove injurious to +workers. If the plants are subjected to some process, before mounting, +by which injurious organisms are destroyed, such as exposure in a closed +chamber to vapour of carbon bisulphide for some hours, the presence of +pieces of camphor or naphthalene in the cabinet will be found a +sufficient preservative. After mounting are written--usually in the +right-hand corner of the sheet, or on a label there affixed--the +designation of each species, the date and place of gathering, and the +name of the collector. Other particulars as to habit, local abundance, +soil and claim to be indigenous may be written on the back of the sheet +or on a slip of writing paper attached to its edge. It is convenient to +place in a small envelope gummed to an upper corner of the sheet any +flowers, seeds or leaves needed for dissection or microscopical +examination, especially where from the fixation of the specimen it is +impossible to examine the leaves for oil-receptacles and where seed is +apt to escape from ripe capsules and be lost. The addition of a careful +dissection of a flower greatly increases the value of the specimen. To +ensure that all shall lie evenly in the herbarium the plants should be +made to occupy as far as possible alternately the right and left sides +of their respective sheets. The species of each genus are then arranged +either systematically or alphabetically in separate covers of stout, +usually light brown paper, or, if the genus be large, in several covers +with the name of the genus clearly indicated in the lower left-hand +corner of each, and opposite it the names or reference numbers of the +species. Undetermined species are relegated to the end of the genus. +Thus prepared, the specimens are placed on shelves or movable trays, at +intervals of about 6 in., in an air-tight cupboard, on the inner side of +the door of which, as a special protection against insects, is suspended +a muslin bag containing a piece of camphor. + +The systematic arrangement varies in different herbaria. In the great +British herbaria the orders and genera of flowering plants are usually +arranged according to Bentham and Hooker's _Genera plantarum_; the +species generally follow the arrangement of the most recent complete +monograph of the family. In non-flowering plants the works usually +followed are for ferns, Hooker and Baker's _Synopsis filicum_; for +mosses, Muller's _Synopsis muscorum frondosorum_, Jaeger & Sauerbeck's +_Genera et species muscorum_, and Engler & Prantl's _Pflanzenfamilien_; +for algae, de Toni's _Sylloge algarum_; for hepaticae, Gottsche, +Lindenberg and Nees ab Esenbeck's _Synopsis hepaticarum_, supplemented +by Stephani's _Species hepaticarum_; for fungi, Saccardo's _Sylloge +fungorum_, and for mycetozoa Lister's monograph of the group. For the +members of large genera, e.g. _Piper_ and _Ficus_, since the number of +cosmopolitan or very widely distributed species is comparatively few, a +geographical grouping is found specially convenient by those who are +constantly receiving parcels of plants from known foreign sources. The +ordinary systematic arrangement possesses the great advantage, in the +case of large genera, of readily indicating the affinities of any +particular specimen with the forms most nearly allied to it. Instead of +keeping a catalogue of the species contained in the herbarium, which, +owing to the constant additions, would be almost impossible, such +species are usually ticked off with a pencil in the systematic work +which is followed in arranging them, so that by reference to this work +it is possible to see at a glance whether the specimen sought is in the +herbarium and what species are still wanted. + + Specimens intended for the herbarium should be collected when possible + in dry weather, care being taken to select plants or portions of + plants in sufficient number and of a size adequate to illustrate all + the characteristic features of the species. When the root-leaves and + roots present any peculiarities, they should invariably be collected, + but the roots should be dried separately in an oven at a moderate + heat. Roots and fruits too bulky to be placed on the sheet of the + herbarium may be conveniently arranged in glass-covered boxes + contained in drawers. The best and most effective mode of drying + specimens is learned only by experience, different species requiring + special treatment according to their several peculiarities. The chief + points to be attended to are to have a plentiful supply of botanical + drying paper, so as to be able to use about six sheets for each + specimen; to change the paper at intervals of six to twelve hours; to + avoid contact of one leaf or flower with another; and to increase the + pressure applied only in proportion to the dryness of the specimen. To + preserve the colour of flowers pledgets of cotton wool, which prevent + bruising, should be introduced between them, as also, if the stamens + are thick and succulent, as in _Digitalis_, between these and the + corolla. A flower dissected and gummed on the sheets will often retain + the colour which it is impossible to preserve in a crowded + inflorescence. A flat sheet of lead or some other suitable weight + should be laid upon the top of the pile of specimens, so as to keep up + a continuous pressure. Succulent specimens, as many of the + _Orchidaceae_ and sedums and various other Crassulaceous plants, + require to be killed by immersion in boiling water before being placed + in drying paper, or, instead of becoming dry, they will grow between + the sheets. When, as with some plants like _Verbascum_, the thick hard + stems are liable to cause the leaves to wrinkle in drying by removing + the pressure from them, small pieces of bibulous paper or cotton wool + may be placed upon the leaves near their point of attachment to the + stem. When a number of specimens have to be submitted to pressure, + ventilation is secured by means of frames corresponding in size to the + drying paper, and composed of strips of wood or wires laid across each + other so as to form a kind of network. Another mode of drying is to + keep the specimens in a box of dry sand in a warm place for ten or + twelve hours, and then press them in drying paper. A third method + consists in placing the specimen within bibulous paper, and enclosing + the whole between two plates of coarsely perforated zinc supported in + a wooden frame. The zinc plates are then drawn close together by means + of straps, and suspended before a fire until the drying is effected. + By the last two methods the colour of the flowers may be well + preserved. When the leaves are finely divided, as in _Conium_, much + trouble will be experienced in lifting a half-dried specimen from one + paper to another; but the plant may be placed in a sheet of thin + blotting paper, and the sheet containing the plant, instead of the + plant itself, can then be moved. Thin straw-coloured paper, such as is + used for biscuit bags, may be conveniently employed by travellers + unable to carry a quantity of bibulous paper. It offers the advantage + of fitting closely to thick-stemmed specimens and of rapidly drying. A + light but strong portfolio, to which pressure by means of straps can + be applied, and a few quires of this paper, if the paper be changed + night and morning, will be usually sufficient to dry all except very + succulent plants. When a specimen is too large for one sheet, and it + is necessary, in order to show its habit, &c., to dry the whole of it, + it may be divided into two or three portions, and each placed on a + separate sheet for drying. Specimens may be judged to be dry when they + no longer cause a cold sensation when applied to the cheek, or assume + a rigidity not evident in the earlier stages of preparation. + + Each class of flowerless or cryptogamic plants requires special + treatment for the herbarium. + + Marine algae are usually mounted on tough smooth white cartridge paper + in the following manner. Growing specimens of good colour and in fruit + are if possible selected, and cleansed as much as practicable from + adhering foreign particles, either in the sea or a rocky pool. Some + species rapidly change colour, and cause the decay of any others with + which they come in contact. This is especially the case with the + _Ectocarpi_, _Desmarestiae_, and a few others, which should therefore + be brought home in a separate vessel. In mounting, the specimen is + floated out in a flat white dish containing sea-water, so that foreign + matter may be detected, and a piece of paper of suitable size is + placed under it, supported either by the fingers of the left hand or + by a palette. It is then pruned, in order clearly to show the mode of + branching, and is spread out as naturally as possible with the right + hand. For this purpose a bone knitting-needle answers well for the + coarse species, and a camel's-hair pencil for the more delicate ones. + The paper with the specimen is then carefully removed from the water + by sliding it over the edge of the dish so as to drain it as much as + possible. If during this process part of the fronds run together, the + beauty of the specimen may be restored by dipping the edge into water, + so as to float out the part and allow it to subside naturally on the + paper. The paper, with the specimen upwards, is then laid on bibulous + paper for a few minutes to absorb as much as possible of the + superfluous moisture. When freed from excess of water it is laid on a + sheet of thick white blotting-paper, and a piece of smooth washed + calico is placed upon it (unwashed calico, on account of its "facing," + adheres to the sea-weed). Another sheet of blotting-paper is then laid + over it; and, a number of similar specimens being formed into a pile, + the whole is submitted to pressure, the paper being changed every hour + or two at first. The pressure is increased, and the papers are changed + less frequently as the specimens become dry, which usually takes place + in thirty-six hours. Some species, especially those of a thick or + leathery texture, contract so much in drying that without strong + pressure the edges of the paper become puckered. Other species of a + gelatinous nature, like _Nemalion_ and _Dudresnaya_, may be allowed to + dry on the paper, and need not be submitted to pressure until they no + longer present a gelatinous appearance. Large coarse algae, such, for + instance, as the _Fucaceae_ and _Laminariae_, do not readily adhere to + paper, and require soaking for some time in fresh water before being + pressed. The less robust species, such as _Sphacelaria scoparia_, + which do not adhere well to paper, may be made to do so by brushing + them over either with milk carefully skimmed, or with a liquid formed + by placing isinglass (1/4 oz.) and water (1(1/2) oz.) in a wide-mouthed + bottle, and the bottle in a small glue-pot or saucepan containing cold + water, heating until solution is effected, and then adding 1 oz. of + rectified spirits of wine; the whole is next stirred together, and + when cold is kept in a stoppered bottle. For use, the mixture is + warmed to render it fluid, and applied by means of a camel's hair + brush to the under side of the specimen, which is then laid neatly on + paper. For the more delicate species, such as the _Callithamnia_ and + _Ectocarpi_, it is an excellent plan to place a small fruiting + fragment, carefully floated out in water, on a slip of mica of the + size of an ordinary microscopical slide, and allow it to dry. The + plant can then be at any time examined under the microscope without + injuring the mounted specimen. Many of the fresh-water algae which + form a mere crust, such as _Palmella cruenta_, may be placed in a + vessel of water, where after a time they float like a scum, the earthy + matter settling down to the bottom, and may then be mounted by + slipping a piece of mica under them and allowing it to dry. + _Oscillatoriae_ may be mounted by laying a portion on a silver coin + placed on a piece of paper in a plate, and pouring in water until the + edge of the coin is just covered. The alga by its own peculiar + movement will soon form a radiating circle, perfectly free from dirt, + around the coin, which may then be removed. There is considerable + difficulty in removing mounted specimens of algae from paper, and + therefore a small portion preserved on mica should accompany each + specimen, enclosed for safety in a small envelope fastened at one + corner of the sheet of paper. Filamentous diatoms may be mounted like + ordinary sea-weeds, and, as well as all parasitic algae, should + whenever possible be allowed to remain attached to a portion of the + alga on which they grow, some species being almost always found + parasitical on particular plants. Ordinary diatoms and desmids may be + mounted on mica, as above described, by putting a portion in a vessel + of water and exposing it to sunlight, when they rise to the surface, + and may be thus removed comparatively free from dirt or impurity. + Owing to their want of adhesiveness, they are, however, usually + mounted on glass as microscopic slides, either in glycerin jelly, + Canada balsam or some other suitable medium. + + Lichens are generally mounted on sheets of paper of the ordinary size, + several specimens from different localities being laid upon one sheet, + each specimen having been first placed on a small square of paper + which is gummed on the sheet, and which has the locality, date, name + of collector, &c., written upon it. This mode has some disadvantages + attending it; such sheets are difficult to handle; the crustaceous + species are liable to have their surfaces rubbed; the foliaceous + species become so compressed as to lose their characteristic + appearance; and the spaces between the sheets caused by the thickness + of the specimen permit the entrance of dust. A plan which has been + found to answer well is to arrange them in cardboard boxes, either + with glass tops or in sliding covers, in drawers--the name being + placed outside each box and the specimens gummed into the boxes. + Lichens for the herbarium should, whenever possible, be sought for on + a slaty or laminated rock, so as to procure them on flat thin pieces + of the same, suitable for mounting. Specimens on the bark of trees + require pressure until the bark is dry, lest they become curled; and + those growing on sand or friable soil, such as _Coniocybe furfuracea_, + should be laid carefully on a layer of gum in the box in which they + are intended to be kept. Many lichens, such as the _Verrucariae_ and + _Collemaceae_, are found in the best condition during the winter + months. In mounting collemas it is advisable to let the specimen + become dry and hard, and then to separate a portion from adherent + mosses, earth, &c., and mount it separately so as to show the + branching of the thallus. _Pertusariae_ should be represented by both + fruiting and sorediate specimens. + + The larger species of fungi, such as the _Agaricini_ and _Polyporei_, + &c., are prepared for the herbarium by cutting a slice out of the + centre of the plant so as to show the outline of the cap or pileus, + the attachment of the gills, and the character of the interior of the + stem. The remaining portions of the pileus are then lightly pressed, + as well as the central slices, between bibulous paper until dry, and + the whole is then "poisoned," and gummed on a sheet of paper in such a + manner as to show the under surface of the one and the upper surface + of the other half of the pileus on the same sheet. A "map" of the + spores should be taken by separating a pileus and placing it flat on a + piece of thin paper for a few hours when the spores will fall and + leave a nature print of the arrangement of the gills which may be + fixed by gumming the other side of the paper. As it is impossible to + preserve the natural colours of fungi, the specimens should, whenever + possible, be accompanied by a coloured drawing of the plant. + Microscopic fungi are usually preserved in envelopes, or simply + attached to sheets of paper or mounted as microscopic slides. Those + fungi which are of a dusty nature, and the _Myxomycetes_ or + _Mycetozoa_ may, like the lichens, be preserved in small boxes and + arranged in drawers. Fungi under any circumstances form the least + satisfactory portion of an herbarium. + + Mosses when growing in tufts should be gathered just before the + capsules have become brown, divided into small flat portions, and + pressed lightly in drying paper. During this process the capsules + ripen, and are thus obtained in a perfect state. They are then + preserved in envelopes attached to a sheet of paper of the ordinary + size, a single perfect specimen being washed, and spread out under the + envelope so as to show the habit of the plant. For attaching it to the + paper a strong mucilage of gum tragacanth, containing an eighth of its + weight of spirit of wine, answers best. If not preserved in an + envelope the calyptra and operculum are very apt to fall off and + become lost. Scale-mosses are mounted in the same way, or may be + floated out in water like sea-weeds, and dried in white blotting paper + under strong pressure before gumming on paper, but are best mounted as + microscopic slides, care being taken to show the stipules. The + specimens should be collected when the capsules are just appearing + above or in the colesule or calyx; if kept in a damp saucer they soon + arrive at maturity, and can then be mounted in better condition, the + fruit-stalks being too fragile to bear carriage in a botanical tin + case without injury. + + Of the _Characeae_ many are so exceedingly brittle that it is best to + float them out like sea-weeds, except the prickly species, which may + be carefully laid out on bibulous paper, and when dry fastened on + sheets of white paper by means of gummed strips. Care should be taken + in collecting charae to secure, in the case of dioecious species, + specimens of both forms, and also to get when possible the roots of + those species on which the small granular starchy bodies or gemmae are + found, as in _C. fragifera_. Portions of the fructification may be + preserved in small envelopes attached to the sheets. + + + + +HERBART, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1776-1841), German philosopher and +educationist, was born at Oldenburg on the 4th of May 1776. After +studying under Fichte at Jena he gave his first philosophical lectures +at Gottingen in 1805, whence he removed in 1809 to occupy the chair +formerly held by Kant at Konigsberg. Here he also established and +conducted a seminary of pedagogy till 1833, when he returned once more +to Gottingen, and remained there as professor of philosophy till his +death on the 14th of August 1841. + + Philosophy, according to Herbart, begins with reflection upon our + empirical conceptions, and consists in the reformation and elaboration + of these--its three primary divisions being determined by as many + distinct forms of elaboration. Logic, which stands first, has to + render our conceptions and the judgments and reasonings arising from + them clear and distinct. But some conceptions are such that the more + distinct they are made the more contradictory their elements become; + so to change and supplement these as to make them at length thinkable + is the problem of the second part of philosophy, or metaphysics. There + is still a class of conceptions requiring more than a logical + treatment, but differing from the last in not involving latent + contradictions, and in being independent of the reality of their + objects, the conceptions, viz. that embody our judgments of approval + and disapproval; the philosophic treatment of these conceptions falls + to Aesthetic. + + In Herbart's writings logic receives comparatively meagre notice; he + insisted strongly on its purely formal character, and expressed + himself in the main at one with Kantians such as Fries and Krug. + + As a metaphysician he starts from what he terms "the higher + scepticism" of the Hume-Kantian sphere of thought, the beginnings of + which he discerns in Locke's perplexity about the idea of substance. + By this scepticism the real validity of even the _forms_ of experience + is called in question on account of the contradictions they are found + to involve. And yet that these forms are "given" to us, as truly as + sensations are, follows beyond doubt when we consider that we are as + little able to control the one as the other. To attempt at this stage + a psychological inquiry into the origin of these conceptions would be + doubly a mistake; for we should have to use these unlegitimated + conceptions in the course of it, and the task of clearing up their + contradictions would still remain, whether we succeeded in our enquiry + or not. But how are we to set about this task? We have given to us a + conception A uniting among its constituent marks two that prove to be + contradictory, say M and N; and we can neither deny the unity nor + reject one of the contradictory members. For to do either is forbidden + by experience; and yet to do nothing is forbidden by logic. We are + thus driven to the assumption that the conception is contradictory + because incomplete; but how are we to supplement it? What we have must + point the way to what we want, or our procedure will be arbitrary. + Experience asserts that M is the same (i.e. a mark of the same + concept) as N, while logic denies it; and so--it being impossible for + one and the same M to sustain these contradictory positions--there is + but one way open to us; we must posit _several_ Ms. But even now we + cannot say one of these Ms is the same as N, another is not; for every + M must be both thinkable and valid. We may, however, take the Ms not + singly but together; and again, no other course being open to us, this + is what we must do; we must assume that N results from a combination + of Ms. This is Herbart's method of relations, the counterpart in his + system of the Hegelian dialectic. + + In the _Ontology_ this method is employed to determine what in reality + corresponds to the empirical conceptions of substance and cause, or + rather of inherence and change. But first we must analyse this notion + of reality itself, to which our scepticism had already led us, for, + though we could doubt whether "the given" is what it appears, we + cannot doubt that it is something; the conception of the real thus + consists of the two conceptions of being and quality. That which we + are compelled to "posit," which cannot be sublated, is that which + _is_, and in the recognition of this lies the simple conception of + being. But when is a thing thus posited? When it is posited as we are + wont to posit the things we see and taste and handle. If we were + without sensations, i.e. were never bound against our will to endure + the persistence of a presentation, we should never know what being is. + Keeping fast hold of this idea of absolute position, Herbart leads us + next to the quality of the real. (1) This must exclude everything + negative; for non-A sublates instead of positing, and is not absolute, + but relative to A. (2) The real must be absolutely simple; for if it + contain two determinations, A and B, then either these are reducible + to one, which is the true quality, or they are not, when each is + conditioned by the other and their position is no longer absolute. (3) + All quantitative conceptions are excluded, for quantity implies parts, + and these are incompatible with simplicity. (4) But there may be a + plurality of "reals," albeit the mere conception of being can tell us + nothing as to this. The doctrine here developed is the first cardinal + point of Herbart's system, and has obtained for it the name of + "pluralistic realism." + + The contradictions he finds in the common-sense conception of + inherence, or of "a thing with several attributes," will now become + obvious. Let us take some thing, say A, having n attributes, a, b, + c...: we are forced to posit each of these because each is presented + in intuition. But in conceiving A we make, not n positions, still less + n + 1 positions, but one position simply; for common sense removes the + absolute position from its original source, sensation. So when we ask, + What is the one posited? we are told--the possessor of a, b, c..., or + in other words, their seat or substance. But if so, then A, as a real, + being simple, must = a; similarly it must = b; and so on. Now this + would be possible if a, b, c ... were but "contingent aspects" of A, + as e.g. 2^3, [root]64, 4 + 3 + 1 are contingent aspects of 8. Such, of + course, is not the case, and so we have as many contradictions as + there are attributes; for we must say A is a, is not a, is b, is not + b, &c. There must then, according to the method of relations, be + several As. For a let us assume A1 + A1 + A1...; for b, A2 + A2 + + A2...; and so on for the rest. But now what relation can there be + among these several As, which will restore to us the unity of our + original A or substance? There is but one; we must assume that the + first A of every series is identical, just as the centre is the same + point in every radius. By way of concrete illustration Herbart + instances "the common observation that the properties of things exist + only under external conditions. Bodies, we say, are coloured, but + colour is nothing without light, and nothing without eyes. They sound, + but only in a vibrating medium, and for healthy ears. Colour and tone + present the appearance of inherence, but on looking closer we find + they are not really immanent in things but rather presuppose a + communion among several." The result then is briefly thus: In place of + the one absolute position, which in some unthinkable way the common + understanding substitutes for the absolute positions of the n + attributes, we have really a series of two or more positions for each + attribute, every series, however, beginning with the same (as it were, + central) real (hence the unity of substance in a group of attributes), + but each being continued by different reals (hence the plurality and + difference of attributes in unity of substance). Where there is the + appearance of inherence, therefore, there is always a plurality of + reals; no such correlative to substance as attribute or accident can + be admitted at all. Substantiality is impossible without causality, + and to this as its true correlative we now turn. + + The common-sense conception of change involves at bottom the same + contradiction of opposing qualities in one real. The same A that was + a, b, c ... becomes a, b, d...; and this, which experience thrusts + upon us, proves on reflection unthinkable. The metaphysical + supplementing is also fundamentally as before. Since c depended on a + series of reals A3 + A3 + A3 ... in connexion with A, and d may be + said similarly to depend on a series A4 + A4 + A4..., then the change + from c to d means, not that the central real A or any real has + changed, but that A is now in connexion with A4, &c., and no longer in + connexion with A3, &c. + + But to think a number of reals "in connexion" (_Zusammensein_) will + not suffice as an explanation of phenomena; something or other must + happen when they are in connexion; what is it? The answer to this + question is the second hinge-point of Herbart's theoretical + philosophy. What "actually happens" as distinct from all that seems to + happen, when two reals A and B are together is that, assuming them to + differ in quality, they tend to disturb each other to the extent of + that difference, at the same time that each preserves itself intact by + resisting, as it were, the other's disturbance. And so by coming into + connexion with different reals the "self-preservations" of A will vary + accordingly, A remaining the same through all; just as, by way of + illustration, hydrogen remains the same in water and in ammonia, or as + the same line may be now a normal and now a tangent. But to indicate + this opposition in the qualities of the reals A + B, we must + substitute for these symbols others, which, though only "contingent + aspects" of A and B, i.e. representing their relations, not + themselves, yet like similar devices in mathematics enable thought to + advance. Thus we may put A = [alpha] + [beta] - [gamma], B = m + n + + [gamma]; [gamma] then represents the character of the + self-preservations in this case, and [alpha] + [beta] + m + n + represents all that could be observed by a spectator who did not know + the simple qualities, but was himself involved in the relations of A + to B; and such is exactly our position. + + Having thus determined what really is and what actually happens, our + philosopher proceeds next to explain synthetically the objective + semblance (_der objective Schein_) that results from these. But if + this construction is to be truly objective, i.e. valid for all + intelligences, ontology must furnish us with a clue. This we have in + the forms of Space, Time and Motion which are involved whenever we + think the reals as being in, or coming into, connexion and the + opposite. These forms then cannot be merely the products of our + psychological mechanism, though they may turn out to coincide with + these. Meanwhile let us call them "intelligible," as being valid for + all who comprehend the real and actual by thought, although no such + forms are predicable of the real and actual themselves. The elementary + spatial relation Herbart conceives to be "the contiguity + (_Aneinander_) of two points," so that every "pure and independent + line" is discrete. But an investigation of dependent lines which are + often incommensurable forces us to adopt the contradictory fiction of + partially overlapping, i.e. divisible points, or in other words, the + conception of Continuity.[1] But the contradiction here is one we + cannot eliminate by the method of relations, because it does not + involve anything real; and in fact as a necessary outcome of an + "intelligible" form, the fiction of continuity is valid for the + "objective semblance," and no more to be discarded than say + [root](-1). By its help we are enabled to comprehend what actually + happens among reals to produce the appearance of matter. When three or + more reals are together, each disturbance and self-preservation will + (in general) be imperfect, i.e. of less intensity than when only two + reals are together. But "objective semblance" corresponds with + reality; the spatial or external relations of the reals in this case + must, therefore, tally with their inner or actual states. Had the + self-preservations been perfect, the coincidence in space would have + been complete, and the group of reals would have been inextended; or + had the several reals been simply contiguous, i.e. without connexion, + then, as nothing would actually have happened, nothing would appear. + As it is we shall find a continuous molecule manifesting attractive + and repulsive forces; attraction corresponding to the tendency of the + self-preservations to become perfect, repulsion to the frustration of + this. Motion, even more evidently than space, implicates the + contradictory conception of continuity, and cannot, therefore, be a + real predicate, though valid as an intelligible form and necessary to + the comprehension of the objective semblance. For we have to think of + the reals as absolutely independent and yet as entering into + connexions. This we can only do by conceiving them as originally + moving through intelligible space in rectilinear paths and with + uniform velocities. For such motion no cause need be supposed; motion, + in fact, is no more a state of the moving real than rest is, both + alike being but relations, with which, therefore, the real has no + concern. The changes in this motion, however, for which we _should_ + require a cause, would be the objective semblance of the + self-preservations that actually occur when reals meet. Further, by + means of such motion these actual occurrences, which are in themselves + timeless, fall for an observer in a definite time--a time which + becomes continuous through the partial coincidence of events. + + But in all this it has been assumed that we are spectators of the + objective semblance; it remains to make good this assumption, or, in + other words, to show the possibility of knowledge; this is the problem + of what Herbart terms Eidolology, and forms the transition from + metaphysic to psychology. Here, again, a contradictory conception + blocks the way, that, viz. of the Ego as the identity of knowing and + being, and as such the stronghold of idealism. The contradiction + becomes more evident when the ego is defined to be a subject (and so a + real) that is its own object. As real and not merely formal, this + conception of the ego is amenable to the method of relations. The + solution this method furnishes is summarily that there are several + objects which mutually modify each other, and so constitute that ego + we take for the presented real. But to explain this modification is + the business of psychology; it is enough now to see that the subject + like all reals is necessarily unknown, and that, therefore, the + idealist's theory of knowledge is unsound. But though the simple + quality of the subject or soul is beyond knowledge, we know what + actually happens when it is in connexion with other's reals, for its + self-preservations then are what we call sensations. And these + sensations are the sole material of our knowledge; but they are not + given to us as a chaos but in definite groups and series, whence we + come to know the relations of those reals, which, though themselves + unknown, our sensations compel us to posit absolutely. + + In his _Psychology_ Herbart rejects altogether the doctrine of mental + faculties as one refuted by his metaphysics, and tries to show that + all psychical phenomena whatever result from the action and + interaction of elementary ideas or presentations (_Vorstellungen_). + The soul being one and simple, its separate acts of self-preservation + or primary presentations must be simple too, and its several + presentations must become united together. And this they can do at + once and completely when, as is the case, for example, with the + several attributes of an object, they are not of opposite quality. But + otherwise there ensues a conflict in which the opposed presentations + comport themselves like forces and mutually suppress or obscure each + other. The act of presentation (_Vorstellen_) then becomes partly + transformed into an effort, and its product, the idea, becomes in the + same proportion less and less intense till a position of equilibrium + is reached; and then at length the remainders coalesce. We have thus a + statics and a mechanics of mind which investigate respectively the + conditions of equilibrium and of movement among presentations. In the + statics two magnitudes have to be determined: (1) the amount of the + suppression or inhibition (_Hemmungssumme_), and (2) the ratio in + which this is shared among the opposing presentations. The first must + obviously be as small as possible; thus for two totally-opposed + presentations a and b, of which a is the greater, the _inhibendum_ = + b. For a given degree of opposition this burden will be shared between + the conflicting presentations in the inverse ratio of their strength. + When its remainder after inhibition = 0, a presentation is said to be + on the threshold of consciousness, for on a small diminution of the + inhibition the "effort" will become actual presentation in the same + proportion. Such total exclusion from consciousness is, however, + manifestly impossible with only two presentations,[2] though with + three or a greater number the residual value of one may even be + negative. The first and simplest law in psychological mechanics + relates to the "sinking" of inhibited presentations. As the + presentations yield to the pressure, the pressure itself diminishes, + so that the velocity of sinking decreases, i.e. we have the equation + (S - [sigma]) dt = d[sigma], where S is the total _inhibendum_, and + [sigma] the intensity actually inhibited after the time t. Hence t = + log (S/S - [sigma]), and [sigma] = S[1 - e^(-t)]. From this law it + follows, for example, that equilibrium is never quite obtained for + those presentations which continue above the threshold of + consciousness, while the rest which cannot so continue are very + speedily driven beyond the threshold. More important is the law + according to which a presentation freed from inhibition and rising + anew into consciousness tends to raise the other presentations with + which it is combined. Suppose two presentations p and [pi] united by + the residua r and [rho]; then the amount of p's "help" to [pi] is r, + the portion of which appropriated by [pi] is given by the ratio [rho]: + [pi]; and thus the initial help is r[rho]/[pi]. + + But after a time t, when a portion of [rho] represented by [omega] has + been actually brought into consciousness, the help afforded in the + next instant will be found by the equation + + r[rho] [rho] - [omega] + ------ . --------------- dt = d[omega], + [pi] [rho] + + from which by integration we have the value of [omega]. + + [omega] = [rho] {1 - [epsilon]^(-rt/[pi])}. + + So that if there are several [pi]s connected with p by smaller and + smaller parts, there will be a definite "serial" order in which they + will be revived by p; and on this fact Herbart rests all the phenomena + of the so-called faculty of memory, the development of spatial and + temporal forms and much besides. Emotions and volitions, he holds, are + not directly self-preservations of the soul, as our presentations are, + but variable states of such presentations resulting from their + interaction when above the threshold of consciousness. Thus when some + presentations tend to force a presentation into consciousness, and + others at the same time tend to drive it out, that presentation is the + seat of painful feeling; when, on the other hand, its entrance is + favoured by all, pleasure results. Desires are presentations + struggling into consciousness against hindrances, and when accompanied + by the supposition of success become volitions. Transcendental freedom + of will in Kant's sense is an impossibility. Self-consciousness is the + result of an interaction essentially the same in kind as that which + takes place when a comparatively simple presentation finds the field + of consciousness occupied by a long-formed and well-consolidated + "mass" of presentations--as, e.g. one's business or garden, the + theatre, &c., which promptly inhibit the isolated presentation if + incongruent, and unite it to themselves if not. What we call Self is, + above all, such a central mass, and Herbart seeks to show with great + ingenuity and detail how this position is occupied at first chiefly by + the body, then by the seat of ideas and desires, and finally by that + first-personal Self which recollects the past and resolves concerning + the future. But at any stage the actual constituents of this + "complexion" are variable; the concrete presentation of Self is never + twice the same. And, therefore, finding on reflection any particular + concrete factor contingent, we abstract the position from that which + occupies it, and so reach the speculative notion of the pure Ego. + + _Aesthetics_ elaborates the "ideas" involved in the expression of + taste called forth by those relations of object which acquire for them + the attribution of beauty or the reverse. The beautiful ([Greek: + kalon]) is to be carefully distinguished from the allied conceptions + of the useful and the pleasant, which vary with time, place and + person; whereas beauty is predicated absolutely and involuntarily by + all who have attained the right standpoint. Ethics, which is but one + branch of aesthetics, although the chief, deals with such relations + among volitions (_Willensverhaltnisse_) as thus unconditionally please + or displease. These relations Herbart finds to be reducible to five, + which do not admit of further simplification; and corresponding to + them are as many moral ideas (_Musterbegriffe_), viz.: (1) _Internal + Freedom_, the underlying relation being that of the individual's will + to his judgment of it; (2) _Perfection_, the relation being that of + his several volitions to each other in respect of intensity, variety + and concentration; (3) _Benevolence_, the relation being that between + his own will and the thought of another's; (4) _Right_, in case of + actual conflict with another; and (5) _Retribution_ or _Equity_, for + intended good or evil done. The ideas of a final society, a system of + rewards and punishments, a system of administration, a system of + culture and a "unanimated society," corresponding to the ideas of law, + equity, benevolence, perfection and internal freedom respectively, + result when we take account of a number of individuals. Virtue is the + perfect conformity of the will with the moral ideas; of this the + single virtues are but special expressions. The conception of duty + arises from the existence of hindrances to the attainment of virtue. A + general scheme of principles of conduct is possible, but the + subsumption of special cases under these must remain matter of tact. + The application of ethics to things as they are with a view to the + realization of the moral ideas is moral technology (_Tugendlehre_), of + which the chief divisions are Paedagogy and Politics. + + In _Theology_ Herbart held the argument from design to be as valid for + divine activity as for human, and to justify the belief in a + super-sensible real, concerning which, however, exact knowledge is + neither attainable nor on practical grounds desirable. + + Among the post-Kantian philosophers Herbart doubtless ranks next to + Hegel in importance, and this without taking into account his very + great contributions to the science of education. His disciples speak + of theirs as the "exact philosophy," and the term well expresses their + master's chief excellence and the character of the chief influence he + has exerted upon succeeding thinkers of his own and other schools. His + criticisms are worth more than his constructions; indeed for exactness + and penetration of thought he is quite on a level with Hume and Kant. + His merits in this respect, however, can only be appraised by the + study of his works at first hand. But we are most of all indebted to + Herbart for the enormous advance psychology has been enabled to make, + thanks to his fruitful treatment of it, albeit as yet but few among + the many who have appropriated and improved his materials have + ventured to adopt his metaphysical and mathematical foundations. + (J. W.*) + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Herbart's works were collected and published by his + disciple G. Hartenstein (Leipzig, 1850-1852; reprinted at Hamburg, + with supplementary volume, 1883-1893); another edition by K. Kehrbach + (Leipzig, 1882, and Langensalza, 1887). The following are the most + important: _Allgemeine Padagogik_ (1806; new ed., 1894); _Hauptpunkte + der Metaphysik_ (1808); _Allgemeine praktische Philosophie_ (1808); + _Lehrbuch zur Einleitung in die Philosophie_ (1813; new ed. by + Hartenstein, 1883); _Lehrbuch der Psychologie_ (1816; new ed. by + Hartenstein, 1887); _Psychologie als Wissenschaft_ (1824-1825); + _Allgemeine Metaphysik_ (1828-1829); _Encyklopadie der Philosophie_ + (2nd ed., 1841); _Umriss padagogischer Vorlesungen_ (2nd ed., 1841); + _Psychologische Untersuchungen_ (1839-1840). + + Some of his works have been translated into English under the + following titles: _Textbook in Psychology_, by M. K. Smith (1891); + _The Science of Education and the Aesthetic Revelation of the World_ + (1892), and _Letters and Lectures on Education_ (1898), by H. M. and + E. Felkin; _A B C of Sense Perception and minor pedagogical works_ + (New York, 1896), by W. J. Eckhoff and others; _Application of + Psychology to the Science of Education_ (1898), by B. C. Mulliner; + _Outlines of Educational Doctrine_, by A. F. Lange (1901). + + There is a life of Herbart in Hartenstein's introduction to his + _Kleinere philosophische Schriften und Abhandlungen_ (1842-1843) and + by F. H. T. Allihn in _Zeitschrift fur exacte Philosophie_ (Leipzig, + 1861), the organ of Herbart and his school, which ceased to appear in + 1873. In America the National Society for the Scientific Study of + Education was originally founded as the National Herbart Society. + + Of the large number of writings dealing with Herbart's works and + theories, the following may be mentioned: H. A. Fechner, _Zur Kritik + der Grundlagen von Herbart's Metaphysik_ (Leipzig, 1853); J. Kaftan, + _Sollen und Sein in ihrem Verhaltniss zu einander: eine Studie zur + Kritik Herbarts_ (Leipzig, 1872); M. W. Drobisch, _Uber die + Fortbildung der Philosophie durch Herbart_ (Leipzig, 1876); K. S. + Just, _Die Fortbildung der Kant'schen Ethik durch Herbart_ (Eisenach, + 1876); C. Ufer, _Vorschule der Padagogik Herbarts_ (1883; Eng. tr. by + J. C. Zinser, 1895); G. Kozle, _Die padagogische Schule Herbarts und + ihre Lehre_ (Gutersloh, 1889); L. Strumpell, _Das System der Padagogik + Herbarts_ (Leipzig, 1894); J. Christinger, _Herbarts Erziehungslehre + und ihre Fortbildner_ (Zurich, 1895); O. H. Lang, _Outline of + Herbart's Pedagogics_ (1894); H. M. and E. Felkin, _Introduction to + Herbart's Science and Practice of Education_ (1895); C. de Garmo, + _Herbart and the Herbartians_ (New York, 1895); E. Wagner, _Die Praxis + der Herbartianer_ (Langensalza, 1897) and _Vollstandige Darstellung + der Lehre Herbarts_ (ib., 1899); J. Adams, _The Herbartian Psychology + applied to Education_ (1897); F. H. Hayward, _The Student's Herbart_ + (1902), _The Critics of Herbartianism_ (1903), _Three Historical + Educators: Pestalozzi, Frobel, Herbart_ (1905), _The Secret of + Herbart_ (1907), _The Meaning of Education as interpreted by Herbart_ + (1907); W. Kinkel, _J. F. Herbart: sein Leben und seine Philosophie_ + (1903); A. Darroch, _Herbart and the Herbartian Theory of Education_ + (1903); C. J. Dodd, _Introduction to the Herbartian Principles of + Teaching_ (1904); J. Davidson, _A new Interpretation of Herbart's + Psychology and Educational Theory through the Philosophy of Leibnitz_ + (1906); see also J. M. Baldwin, _Dictionary of Psychology and + Philosophy_ (1901-1905). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Hence Herbart gave the name Synechology to this branch of + metaphysics, instead of the usual one, Cosmology. + + [2] Thus, taking the case above supposed, the share of the inhibendum + falling to the smaller presentation b is the fourth term of the + proportion a + b : a :: b : ab/(a + b); and so b's remainder is b + - ab/(a + b) = b^2/(a + b), which only = 0 when a = [infinity]. + + + + +HERBELOT DE MOLAINVILLE, BARTHELEMY D' (1625-1695), French orientalist, +was born on the 14th of December 1625 at Paris. He was educated at the +university of Paris, and devoted himself to the study of oriental +languages, going to Italy to perfect himself in them by converse with +the orientals who frequented its sea-ports. There he also made the +acquaintance of Holstenius, the Dutch humanist (1596-1661), and Leo +Allatius, the Greek scholar (1586-1669). On his return to France after a +year and a half, he was received into the house of Fouquet, +superintendent of finance, who gave him a pension of 1500 livres. Losing +this on the disgrace of Fouquet in 1661, he was appointed secretary and +interpreter of Eastern languages to the king. A few years later he again +visited Italy, when the grand-duke Ferdinand II. of Tuscany presented +him with a large number of valuable Oriental MSS., and tried to attach +him to his court. Herbelot, however, was recalled to France by Colbert, +and received from the king a pension equal to the one he had lost. In +1692 he succeeded D'Auvergne in the chair of Syriac, in the College de +France. He died in Paris on the 8th of December 1695. His great work is +the _Bibliotheque orientale, ou dictionnaire universel contenant tout +ce qui regarde la connaissance des peuples de l'Orient_, which occupied +him nearly all his life, and was completed in 1697 by A. Galland. It is +based on the immense Arabic dictionary of Hadji Khalfa, of which indeed +it is largely an abridged translation, but it also contains the +substance of a vast number of other Arabic and Turkish compilations and +manuscripts. + + The _Bibliotheque_ was reprinted at Maestricht (fol. 1776), and at the + Hague (4 vols. 4to, 1777-1799). The latter edition is enriched with + the contributions of the Dutch orientalist Schultens, Johann Jakob + Reiske (1716-1774), and by a supplement provided by Visdelow and + Galland. Herbelot's other works, none of which have been published, + comprise an _Oriental Anthology_, and an _Arabic, Persian, Turkish and + Latin Dictionary_. + + + + +HERBERAY DES ESSARTS, NICOLAS DE (d. about 1557), French translator, was +born in Picardy. He served in the artillery, and at the expressed desire +of Francis I. he translated into French the first eight books of _Amadis +de Gaul_ (1540-1548). The remaining books were translated by other +authors. His other translations from the Spanish include _L'Amant +maltraite de sa mye_ (1539); _Le Premier Livre de la chronique de dom +Flores de Grece_ (1552); and _L'Horloge des princes_ (1555) from +Guevara. He also translated the works of Josephus (1557). He died about +1557. The _Amadis de Gaul_ was translated into English by Anthony Munday +in 1619. + + + + +HERBERT (FAMILY). The sudden rising of this English family to great +wealth and high place is the more remarkable in that its elevation +belongs to the 15th century and not to that age of the Tudors when many +new men made their way upwards into the ranks of the nobility. Earlier +generations of a pedigree which carries the origin of the Herberts to +Herbert the Chamberlain, a Domesday tenant, being disregarded, their +patriarch may be taken to be one Jenkin ap Adam (temp. Edward III.), who +had a small Monmouthshire estate at Llanvapley and the office of master +sergeant of the lordship of Abergavenny, a place which gave him +precedence after the steward of that lordship. Jenkin's son, Gwilim ap +Jenkin, who followed his father as master sergeant, is given six sons by +the border genealogists, no less than six score pedigrees finding their +origin in these six brothers. Their order is uncertain, although the +Progers of Werndee, the last of whom sold his ancestral estate in 1780, +are reckoned as the senior line of Gwilim's descendants. But Thomas ap +Gwilim Jenkin, called the fourth son, is ancestor of all those who bore +the surname of Herbert. + +Thomas's fifth son, William or Gwilim ap Thomas, who died in 1446, was +the first man of the family to make any figure in history. This Gwilim +ap Thomas was steward of the lordships of Usk and Caerleon under +Richard, duke of York. Legend makes him a knight on the field of +Agincourt, but his knighthood belongs to the year 1426. He appears to +have married twice, his first wife being Elizabeth Bluet of Raglan, +widow of Sir James Berkeley, and his second a daughter of David Gam, a +valiant Welsh squire slain at Agincourt. Royal favour enriched Sir +William, and he was able to buy Raglan Castle from the Lord Berkeley, +his first wife's son, the deed, which remains among the Beaufort +muniments, refuting the pedigree-maker's statement that he inherited the +castle as heir of his mother "Maude, daughter of Sir John Morley." His +sons William and Richard, both partisans of the White Rose, took the +surname of Herbert in or before 1461. Playing a part in English affairs +remote from the Welsh Marches, their lack of a surname may well have +inconvenienced them, and their choice of the name Herbert can only be +explained by the suggestion that their long pedigree from Herbert the +Chamberlain, absurdly represented as a bastard son of Henry I., must +already have been discovered for them. Copies exist of an alleged +commission issued by Edward IV. to a committee of Welsh bards for the +ascertaining of the true ancestry of William Herbert, earl of Pembroke, +whom "the chiefest men of skill" in the province of South Wales declare +to be the descendant of "Herbert, a noble lord, natural son to King +Henry the first," and it is recited that King Edward, after the creation +of the earldom, commanded the earl and Sir Richard his brother to "take +their surnames after their first progenitor Herbert fitz Roy and to +forego the British order and manner." But this commission, whose date +anticipates by some years the true date of the creation of the earldom, +is the work of one of the many genealogical forgers who flourished under +the Tudors. + +Sir William Herbert, called by the Welsh Gwilim Ddu or Black William, +was a baron in 1461 and a Knight of the Garter in the following year. +With many manors and castles on the Marches he had the castle, town and +lordship of Pembroke, and after the attainder of Jasper Tudor in 1468 +was created earl of Pembroke. When in July 1469 he was taken by Sir John +Conyers and the northern Lancastrians on Hedgecote, he was beheaded with +his brother Sir Richard Herbert of Coldbrook. The second earl while +still a minor exchanged at the king's desire in 1479 his earldom of +Pembroke for that of Huntingdon. In 1484 this son of one whom Hall not +unjustly describes as born "a mean gentleman" contracted to marry +Katharine the daughter of King Richard III., but her death annulled the +contract and the earl married Mary, daughter of the Earl Rivers, by whom +he had a daughter Elizabeth, whose descendants, the Somersets, lived in +the Herbert's castle of Raglan until the cannon of the parliament broke +it in ruins. With the second earl's death in 1491 the first Herbert +earldom became extinct. No claim being set up among the other +descendants of the first earl, it may be taken that their lines were +illegitimate. One of the chief difficulties which beset the genealogist +of the Herberts lies in their Cambrian disregard of the marriage tie, +bastards and legitimate issue growing up, it would seem, side by side in +their patriarchal households. Thus the ancestor of the present earls of +Pembroke and Carnarvon and of the Herbert who was created marquess of +Powis was a natural son of the first earl, one Richard Herbert, whom the +restored inscription on his tomb at Abergavenny incorrectly describes as +a knight. He was constable and porter of Abergavenny Castle, and his son +William, "a mad fighting fellow" in his youth, married a sister of +Catherine Parr and thus in 1543 became nearly allied to the king, who +made him one of the executors of his will. The earldom of Pembroke was +revived for him in 1551. It is worthy of note that all traces of +illegitimacy have long since been removed from the arms of the noble +descendants of Richard Herbert. + +The honours and titles of this clan of marchmen make a long list. They +include the marquessate of Powis, two earldoms with the title of +Pembroke, two with that of Powis, and the earldoms of Huntingdon and +Montgomery, Torrington and Carnarvon, the viscountcies of Montgomery and +Ludlow, fourteen baronies and seven baronetcies. Seven Herberts have +worn the Garter. The knights and rich squires of the stock can hardly be +reckoned, more especially as they must be sought among Raglans, Morgans, +Parrys, Vaughans, Progers, Hugheses, Thomases, Philips, Powels, Gwyns, +Evanses and Joneses, as well as among those who have borne the surname +of Herbert, a surname which in the 19th century was adopted by the +Joneses of Llanarth and Clytha, although they claim no descent from +those sons of Sir William ap Thomas for whom it was devised. (O. Ba.) + + + + +HERBERT, GEORGE (1593-1633), English poet, was born at Montgomery Castle +on the 3rd of April 1593. He was the fifth son of Sir Richard Herbert +and a brother of Lord Herbert of Cherbury. His mother, Lady Magdalen +Herbert, a woman of great good sense and sweetness of character, and a +friend of John Donne, exercised great influence over her son. Educated +privately until 1605, he was then sent to Westminster School, and in +1609 he became a scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was +made B.A. in 1613, M.A. and major fellow of the college in 1616. In 1618 +he became Reader in Rhetoric, and in 1619 orator for the university. In +this capacity he was several times brought into contact with King James. +From Cambridge he wrote some Latin satiric verses[1] in defence of the +universities and the English Church against Andrew Melville, a Scottish +Presbyterian minister. He numbered among his friends Dr Donne, Sir +Henry Wotton, Izaak Walton, Bishop Andrewes and Francis Bacon, who +dedicated to him his translation of the Psalms. Walton tells us that +"the love of a court conversation, mixed with a laudable ambition to be +something more than he was, drew him often from Cambridge to attend the +king wheresoever the court was," and James I. gave him in 1623 the +sinecure lay rectory of Whitford, Flintshire, worth L120 a year. The +death of his patrons, the duke of Richmond and the marquess of Hamilton, +and of King James put an end to his hopes of political preferment; +moreover he probably distrusted the conduct of affairs under the new +reign. Largely influenced by his mother, he decided to take holy orders, +and in July 1626 he was appointed prebendary of Layton Ecclesia +(Leighton Bromswold), Huntingdon. Here he was within two miles of Little +Gidding, and came under the influence of Nicholas Ferrar. It was at +Ferrar's suggestion that he undertook to rebuild the church at Layton, +an undertaking carried through by his own gifts and the generosity of +his friends. There is little doubt that the close friendship with Ferrar +had a large share in Herbert's adoption of the religious life. In 1630 +Charles I., at the instance of the earl of Pembroke, whose kinsman +Herbert was, presented him to the living of Fugglestone with Bemerton, +near Salisbury, and he was ordained priest in September. A year before, +after three days' acquaintance, he had married Jane Danvers, whose +father had been set on the marriage for a long time. He had often spoken +of his daughter Jane to Herbert, and "so much commended Mr Herbert to +her, that Jane became so much a Platonic as to fall in love with Mr +Herbert unseen." The story of the poet's life at Bemerton, as told by +Walton, is one of the most exquisite pictures in literary biography. He +devoted much time to explaining the meaning of the various parts of the +Prayer-Book, and held services twice every day, at which many of the +parishioners attended, and some "let their plough rest when Mr Herbert's +saints-bell rung to prayers, that they might also offer their devotions +to God with him." Next to Christianity itself he loved the English +Church. He was passionately fond of music, and his own hymns were +written to the accompaniment of his lute or viol. He usually walked +twice a week to attend the cathedral at Salisbury, and before returning +home, would "sing and play his part" at a meeting of music lovers. +Walton illustrates Herbert's kindness to the poor by many touching +anecdotes, but he had not been three years in Bemerton when he succumbed +to consumption. He was buried beneath the altar of his church on the 3rd +of March 1633. + +None of Herbert's English poems was published during his lifetime. On +his death-bed he gave to Nicholas Ferrar a manuscript with the title +_The Temple: Sacred Poems and Private Ejaculations_. This was published +at Cambridge, apparently for private circulation, almost immediately +after Herbert's death, and a second imprint followed in the same year. +On the title-page of both is the quotation "In his Temple doth every man +speak of his honour." _The Temple_ is a collection of religious poems +connected by unity of sentiment and inspiration. Herbert tried to +interpret his own devout meditations by applying images of all kinds to +the ritual and beliefs of the Church. Nothing in his own church at +Bemerton was too commonplace to serve as a starting-point for the +epigrammatic expression of his piety. The church key reminds him that +"it is my sin that locks his handes," and the stones of the floor are +patience and humility, while the cement that binds them together is love +and charity. The chief faults of the book are obscurity, verbal conceits +and a forced ingenuity which shows itself in grotesque puns, odd metres +and occasional want of taste. But the quaint beauty of Herbert's style +and its musical quality give _The Temple_ a high place. "The Church +Porch," "The Agony," "Sin," "Sunday," "Virtue," "Man," "The British +Church," "The Quip," "The Collar," "The Pulley," "The Flower," "Aaron" +and "The Elixir" are among the best known of these poems. Herbert and +Keble are the poets of Anglican theology. No book is fuller of devotion +to the Church of England than _The Temple_, and no poems in our language +exhibit more of the spirit of true Christianity. Every page is marked by +transparent sincerity, and reflects the beautiful character of "holy +George Herbert." + + Nicholas Ferrar's translation (Oxford, 1638) of the _Hundred and Ten + Considerations ..._ of Juan de Valdes contained a letter and notes by + Herbert. In 1652 appeared _Herbert's Remains; or, Sundry Pieces of + that Sweet Singer of the Temple, Mr George Herbert_. This included _A + Priest to the Temple; or, The Country Parson, his Character, and Rule + of Holy Life_, in prose; _Jacula prudentum_, a collection of proverbs + with a separate title-page dated 1651, which had appeared in a shorter + form as _Outlandish Proverbs_ in 1640; and some miscellaneous matter. + The completest edition of his works is that by Dr A. B. Grosart in + 1874, this edition of the Poetical works being reproduced in the + "Aldine edition" in 1876. _The English Works of George Herbert ..._ (3 + vols., 1905) were edited in much detail by G. H. Palmer. A + contemporary account of Herbert's life by Barnabas Oley was prefixed + to the _Remains_ of 1652, but the classic authority is Izaak Walton's + _Life of Mr George Herbert_, published in 1670, with some letters from + Herbert to his mother. See also A. G. Hyde, _George Herbert and his + Times_ (1907), and the "Oxford" edition of his poems by A. Waugh + (1908). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Printed in 1662 as an appendix to J. Vivian's _Ecclesiastes + Solomonis_. + + + + +HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM ["Frank Forester"] (1807-1858), English novelist +and writer on sport, son of the Hon. and Rev. William Herbert, dean of +Manchester, a son of the first earl of Carnarvon, was born in London on +the 3rd of April 1807. He was educated at Eton and at Caius College, +Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1830. Having become involved in +debt, he emigrated to America, and from 1831 to 1839 was teacher of +Greek in a private school in New York. In 1833 he started the _American +Monthly Magazine_, which he edited, in conjunction with A. D. Patterson, +till 1835. In 1834 he published his first novel, _The Brothers: a Tale +of the Fronde_, which was followed by a number of others which obtained +a certain degree of popularity. He also wrote a series of historical +studies, including _The Cavaliers of England_ (1852), _The Knights of +England, France and Scotland_ (1852), _The Chevaliers of France_ (1853), +and _The Captains of the Old World_ (1851); but he is best known for his +works on sport, published under the pseudonym of "Frank Forester." These +include _The Field Sports of the United States and British Provinces_ +(1849), _Frank Forester and his Friends_ (1849), _The Fish and Fishing +of the United States_ (1850), _The Young Sportsman's Complete Manual_ +(1852), and _The Horse and Horsemanship in the United States and British +Provinces of North America_ (1858). He also translated many of the +novels of Eugene Sue and Alexandre Dumas. Herbert was a man of varied +accomplishments, but of somewhat dissipated habits. He died by his own +hand in New York on the 17th of May 1858. + + + + +HERBERT, SIR THOMAS (1606-1682), English traveller and author, was born +at York in 1606. Several of his ancestors were aldermen and merchants in +that city--e.g. his grandfather and benefactor, Alderman Herbert (d. +1614)--and they traced a connexion with the earls of Pembroke. Thomas +became a commoner of Jesus College, Oxford, in 1621, but afterwards +removed to Cambridge, through the influence of his uncle Dr Ambrose +Akroyd. In 1627 the earl of Pembroke procured his appointment in the +suite of Sir Dodmore Cotton, then starting as ambassador for Persia with +Sir Robert Shirley. Sailing in March they visited the Cape, Madagascar, +Goa and Surat; landing at Gambrun (10th of January 1627-1628), they +travelled inland to Ashraf and thence to Kazvin, where both Cotton and +Shirley died, and whence Herbert made extensive travels in the Persian +_Hinterland_, visiting Kashan, Bagdad, &c. On his return voyage he +touched at Ceylon, the Coromandel coast, Mauritius and St Helena. He +reached England in 1629, travelled in Europe in 1630-1631, married in +1632 and retired from court in 1634 (his prospects perhaps blighted by +Pembroke's death in 1630); after this he resided on his Tintern estate +and elsewhere till the Civil War, siding with the parliament till his +appointment to attend on the king in 1646. Becoming a devoted royalist, +he was rewarded with a baronetcy at the Restoration (1660). He resided +mainly in York Street, Westminster, till the Great Plague (1666), when +he retired to York, where he died (at Petergate House) on the 1st of +March 1682. + + Herbert's chief work is the _Description of the Persian Monarchy now + beinge: the Orientall Indyes, Iles and other parts of the Greater Asia + and Africk_ (1634), reissued with additions, &c., in 1638 as _Some + Yeares Travels into Africa and Asia the Great_ (al. _into divers parts + of Asia and Afrique_); a third edition followed in 1664, and a fourth + in 1677. This is one of the best records of 17th-century travel. Among + its illustrations are remarkable sketches of the dodo, cuneiform + inscriptions and Persepolis. Herbert's _Threnodia Carolina; or, + Memoirs of the two last years of the reign of that unparallell'd + prince of ever blessed memory King Charles I._, was in great part + printed at the author's request in Wood's _Athenae Oxonienses_; in + full by Dr C. Goodall in his _Collection of Tracts_ (1702, repr. G. & + W. Nicol, 1813). Sir William Dugdale is understood to have received + assistance from Herbert in the _Monasticon Anglicanum_, vol. iv.; see + two of Herbert's papers on St John's, Beverley and Ripon collegiate + church, now cathedral, in Drake's _Eboracum_ (appendix). Cf. also + Robert Davies' account of Herbert in _The Yorkshire Archaeological and + Topographical Journal_, part iii., pp. 182-214 (1870), containing a + facsimile of the inscription on Herbert's tomb; Wood's _Athenae_, iv. + 15-41; and _Fasti_, ii. 26, 131, 138, 143-144, 150. + + + + +HERBERT OF CHERBURY, EDWARD HERBERT, BARON (1583-1648), English soldier, +diplomatist, historian and religious philosopher, eldest son of Richard +Herbert of Montgomery Castle (a member of a collateral branch of the +family of the earls of Pembroke) and of Magdalen, daughter of Sir +Richard Newport, was born at Eyton-on-Severn near Wroxeter on the 3rd of +March 1583. After careful private tuition he matriculated at University +College, Oxford, as a gentleman commoner, in May 1596. On the 28th of +February 1599 he married his cousin Mary, daughter and heiress of Sir +William Herbert (d. 1593). He returned to Oxford with his wife and +mother, continued his studies, and obtained proficiency in modern +languages as well as in music, riding and fencing. On the accession of +James I. he presented himself at court and was created a knight of the +Bath on the 24th of July 1603. In 1608 he went to Paris, enjoying the +friendship and hospitality of the old constable de Montmorency, and +being entertained by Henry IV. On his return, as he says himself with +naive vanity, he was "in great esteem both in court and city, many of +the greatest desiring my company." In 1610 he served as a volunteer in +the Low Countries under the prince of Orange, whose intimate friend he +became, and distinguished himself at the capture of Juliers from the +emperor. He offered to decide the war by engaging in single combat with +a champion chosen from among the enemy, but his challenge was declined. +During an interval in the fighting he paid a visit to Spinola, in the +Spanish camp near Wezel, and afterwards to the elector palatine at +Heidelberg, subsequently travelling in Italy. At the instance of the +duke of Savoy he led an expedition of 4000 Huguenots from Languedoc into +Piedmont to help the Savoyards against Spain, but after nearly losing +his life in the journey to Lyons he was imprisoned on his arrival there, +and the enterprise came to nothing. Thence he returned to the +Netherlands and the prince of Orange, arriving in England in 1617. In +1619 he was made by Buckingham ambassador at Paris, but a quarrel with +de Luynes and a challenge sent by him to the latter occasioned his +recall in 1621. After the death of de Luynes Herbert resumed his post in +February 1622. He was very popular at the French court and showed +considerable diplomatic ability, his chief objects being to accomplish +the union between Charles and Henrietta Maria and secure the assistance +of Louis XIII. for the unfortunate elector palatine. This latter +advantage he could not obtain, and he was dismissed in April 1624. He +returned home greatly in debt and received little reward for his +services beyond the Irish peerage of Castle island in 1624 and the +English barony of Cherbury, or Chirbury, on the 7th of May 1629. In 1632 +he was appointed a member of the council of war. He attended the king at +York in 1639, and in May 1642 was imprisoned by the parliament for +urging the addition of the words "without cause" to the resolution that +the king violated his oath by making war on parliament. He determined +after this to take no further part in the struggle, retired to +Montgomery Castle, and declined the king's summons. On the 5th of +September 1644 he surrendered the castle to the parliamentary forces, +returned to London, submitted, and was granted a pension of L20 a week. +In 1647 he paid a visit to Gassendi at Paris, and died in London on the +20th of August, 1648, being buried in the church of St Giles's in the +Fields. + +Lord Herbert left two sons, Richard (c. 1600-1655), who succeeded him as +2nd Lord Herbert of Cherbury, and Edward, the title becoming extinct in +the person of Henry Herbert, the 4th baron, grandson of the 1st Lord +Herbert in 1691. In 1694, however, it was revived in favour of Henry +Herbert (1654-1709), son of Sir Henry Herbert (1595-1673), brother of +the 1st Lord Herbert of Cherbury. Sir Henry was master of the revels to +Charles I. and Charles II., being busily employed in reading and +licensing plays and in supervising all kinds of public entertainments. +He died in April 1673; his son Henry died in January 1709, when the +latter's son Henry became 2nd Lord Herbert of Cherbury of the second +creation. He died without issue in April 1738, and again the barony +became extinct. In 1743 it was revived for Henry Arthur Herbert (c. +1703-1772), who five years later was created earl of Powis. This +nobleman was a great-grandson of the 2nd Lord Herbert of Cherbury of the +first creation, and since his time the barony has been held by the earls +of Powis. + +Lord Herbert's cousin, Sir Edward Herbert (c. 1591-1657), was a member +of parliament under James I. and Charles I. Having become +attorney-general he was instructed by Charles to take proceedings +against some members of parliament who had been concerned in the passing +of the Grand Remonstrance; the only result, however, was Herbert's own +impeachment by the House of Commons and his imprisonment. Later in life +he was with the exiled royal family in Holland and in France, becoming +lord keeper of the great seal to Charles II., an office which he had +refused in 1645. He died in Paris in December 1657. One of Herbert's son +was Arthur Herbert, earl of Torrington, and another was Sir Edward +Herbert (c. 1648-1698), titular earl of Portland, who was made chief +justice of the king's bench in 1685 in succession to Lord Jeffreys. It +was Sir Edward who declared for the royal prerogative in the case of +_Godden_ v. _Hales_, asserting that the kings of England, being +sovereign princes, could dispense with particular laws in particular +cases. After the escape of James II. to France this king made Herbert +his lord chancellor and created him earl of Portland, although he was a +Protestant and had exhibited a certain amount of independence during +1687. + + The first Lord Herbert's real claim to fame and remembrance is derived + from his writings. Herbert's first and most important work is the _De + veritate prout distinguitur a revelatione, a verisimili, a possibili, + et a falso_ (Paris, 1624; London, 1633; translated into French 1639, + but never into English; a MS. in add. MSS. 7081. Another, Sloane MSS. + 3957, has the author's dedication to his brother George in his own + hand, dated 1622). It combines a theory of knowledge with a partial + psychology, a methodology for the investigation of truth, and a scheme + of natural religion. The author's method is prolix and often far from + clear; the book is no compact system, but it contains the skeleton and + much of the soul of a complete philosophy. Giving up all past theories + as useless, Herbert professedly endeavours to constitute a new and + true system. Truth, which he defines as a just conformation of the + faculties with one another and with their objects, he distributed into + four classes or stages: (1) truth in the thing or the truth of the + object; (2) truth of the appearance; (3) truth of the apprehension + (_conceptus_); (4) truth of the intellect. The faculties of the mind + are as numerous as the differences of their objects, and are + accordingly innumerable; but they may be arranged in four groups. The + first and fundamental and most certain group is the _Natural + Instinct_, to which belong the [Greek: koinai ennoiai], the _notitiae + communes_, which are innate, of divine origin and indisputable. The + second group, the next in certainty, is the _sensus internus_ (under + which head Herbert discusses amongst others love, hate, fear, + conscience with its _communis notitia_, and free will); the third is + the _sensus externus_; and the fourth is _discursus_, reasoning, to + which, as being the least certain, we have recourse when the other + faculties fail. The ratiocinative faculties proceed by division and + analysis, by questioning, and are slow and gradual in their movement; + they take aid from the other faculties, those of the _instinctus + naturalis_ being always the final test. Herbert's categories or + questions to be used in investigation are ten in number whether (a + thing is), what, of what sort, how much, in what relation, how, when, + where, whence, wherefore. No faculty, rightly used, can err "even in + dreams"; badly exercised, reasoning becomes the source of almost all + our errors. The discussion of the _notitiae communes_ is the most + characteristic part of the book. The exposition of them, though highly + dogmatic, is at times strikingly Kantian in substance. "So far are + these elements or sacred principles from being derived from experience + or observation that without some of them, or at least some one of + them, we can neither experience nor even observe." Unless we felt + driven by them to explore the nature of things, "it would never occur + to us to distinguish one thing from another." It cannot be said that + Herbert proves the existence of the common notions; he does not deduce + them or even give any list of them. But each faculty has its common + notion; and they may be distinguished by six marks, their _priority_, + _independence_, _universality_, _certainty_, _necessity_ (for the + well-being of man), and _immediacy_. Law is based on certain _common + notions_; so is religion. Though Herbert expressly defines the scope + of his book as dealing with the intellect, not faith, it is the common + notions of religion he has illustrated most fully; and it is plain + that it is in this part of his system that he is chiefly interested. + The common notions of religion are the famous five articles, which + became the charter of the English deists (see DEISM). There is little + polemic against the received form of Christianity, but Herbert's + attitude towards the Church's doctrine is distinctly negative, and he + denies revelation except to the individual soul. In the _De religione + gentilium_ (completed 1645, published Amsterdam, 1663, translated into + English by W. Lewis, London, 1705) he gives what may be called, in + Hume's words, "a natural history of religion." By examining the + heathen religions Herbert finds, to his great delight, the + universality of his five great articles, and that these are clearly + recognizable under their absurdities as they are under the rites, + ceremonies and polytheism invented by sacerdotal superstition. The + same vein is maintained in the tracts _De causis errorum_, an + unfinished work on logical fallacies, _Religio laici_, and _Ad + sacerdotes de religione laici_ (1645). In the _De veritate_ Herbert + produced the first purely metaphysical treatise written by an + Englishman, and in the _De religione gentilium_ one of the earliest + studies extant in comparative theology; while both his metaphysical + speculations and his religious views are throughout distinguished by + the highest originality and provoked considerable controversy. His + achievements in historical writing are vastly inferior, and vitiated + by personal aims and his preoccupation to gain the royal favour. + Herbert's first historical work is the _Expeditio Buckinghami ducis_ + (published in a Latin translation in 1656 and in the original English + by the earl of Powis for the Philobiblon Society in 1860), a defence + of Buckingham's conduct of the ill-fated expedition of 1627. _The Life + and Raigne of King Henry VIII._ (1649) derives its chief value from + its composition from original documents, but is ill-proportioned, and + the author judges the character and statesmanship of Henry with too + obvious a partiality. + + His poems, published in 1665 (reprinted and edited by J. Churton + Collins in 1881), show him in general a faithful disciple of Donne, + obscure and uncouth. His satires are miserable compositions, but a few + of his lyrical verses show power of reflection and true inspiration, + while his use of the metre afterwards employed by Tennyson in his "In + Memoriam" is particularly happy and effective. His Latin poems are + evidence of his scholarship. Three of these had appeared together with + the _De causis errorum_ in 1645. To these works must be added _A + Dialogue between a Tutor and a Pupil_ (1768; a treatise on education, + MS. in the Bodleian Library); a treatise on the king's supremacy in + the Church (MS. in the Record Office and at Queen's College, Oxford), + and his well-known autobiography, first published by Horace Walpole in + 1764, a naive and amusing narrative, too much occupied, however, with + his duels and amorous adventures, to the exclusion of more creditable + incidents in his career, such as his contributions to philosophy and + history, his intimacy with Donne, Ben Jonson, Selden and Carew, + Casaubon, Gassendi and Grotius, or his embassy in France, in relation + to which he only described the splendour of his retinue and his social + triumphs. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The autobiography edited by Sidney Lee with + correspondence from add. MSS. 7082 (1886); article in the _Dict. of + Nat. Biog._ by the same writer and the list of authorities there + collated; _Hist. MSS. Comm. Rep._ x. app. iv., 378; _Lord Herbert de + Cherbury_, by Charles de Remusat (1874); _Eduard, Lord Herbert von + Cherbury_, by C. Guttler (a criticism of his philosophy; 1897); + _Collections Historical and Archaeological_ relating to + Montgomeryshire, vols. vii., xi., xx.; R. Warner's _Epistolary + Curiosities_, i. ser.; Reid's works, edited by Sir William Hamilton; + _National Review_, xxxv. 661 (Leslie Stephen); Locke's _Essay on Human + Understanding_; Wood, _Ath. Oxon._ (Bliss), iii. 239; _Gentleman's + Magazine_ (1816), i. 201 (print of remains of his birthplace); _Lord + Herbert's Poems_, ed. by J. Churton Collins (1881); Aubrey's _Lives of + Eminent Men_; also works quoted under DEISM. + + + + +HERBERT OF LEA, SIDNEY HERBERT, 1ST BARON (1810-1861), English +statesman, was the younger son of the 11th earl of Pembroke. Educated at +Harrow and Oriel, Oxford, he made a reputation at the Oxford Union as a +speaker, and entered the House of Commons as Conservative member for a +division of Wiltshire in 1832. Under Peel he held minor offices, and in +1845 was included in the cabinet as secretary at war, and again held +this office in 1852-1855, being responsible for the War Office during +the Crimean difficulties, and in 1859. It was Sidney Herbert who sent +Florence Nightingale out to the Crimea, and he led the movement for War +Office reform after the war, the hard work entailed causing his +breakdown in health, so that in July 1861, having been created a baron, +he had to resign office, and died on the 2nd of August 1861. His statue +was placed in front of the War Office in Pall Mall. He was succeeded in +the title by his eldest son, who later became 13th earl of Pembroke, and +the barony is now merged in that earldom; his second son became 14th +earl. Another son, the Hon. Michael Herbert (1857-1904), was British +Ambassador at Washington in succession to Lord Pauncefote. + + A life of Lord Herbert by Lord Stanmore was published in 1906. + + + + +HERBERTON, a mining town of Cardwell county, Queensland, Australia, 55 +m. S.W. of Cairns. Pop. (1901) 2806. Tin was discovered in the locality +in 1879, and to this mineral the town chiefly owes its prosperity, +though copper, bismuth and some silver and gold are also found. +Atherton, 12 m. from the town, is served by rail from Cairns, which is +the port for the Herberton district. + + + + +HERCULANEUM, an ancient city of Italy, situated about two-thirds of a +mile from the Portici station of the railway from Naples to Pompeii. The +ruins are less frequently visited than those of Pompeii, not only +because they are smaller in extent and of less obvious interest, but +also because they are more difficult of access. The history of their +discovery and exploration, and the artistic and literary relics which +they have yielded, are worthy, however, of particular notice. The small +part of the city, which was investigated at the spot called _Gli scavi +nuovi_ (the new excavations) was discovered in the 19th century. But the +more important works were executed in the 18th century; and of the +buildings then explored at a great depth, by means of tunnels, none is +visible except the theatre, the orchestra of which lies 85 ft. below the +surface. + +The brief notices of the classical writers inform us that Herculaneum[1] +was a small city of Campania between Neapolis and Pompeii, that it was +situated between two streams at the foot of Vesuvius on a hill +overlooking the sea, and that its harbour was at all seasons safe. With +regard to its earlier history nothing is known. The account given by +Dionysius repeats a tradition which was most natural for a city bearing +the name of Hercules. Strabo follows up the topographical data with a +few brief historical statements--[Greek: Oskoi eichon kai tauten kai ten +ephexes Pompeian ... eita Turrhenoi kai Pelasgoi, meta tauta Saunitai]. +But leaving the questions suggested by these names (see ETRURIA, +&c.),[2] as well as those which relate to the origin of Pompeii (q.v.), +it is sufficient here to say that the first historical record about +Herculaneum has been handed down by Livy (viii. 25), where he relates +how the city fell under the power of Rome during the Samnite wars. It +remained faithful to Rome for a long time, but it joined the Italian +allies in the Social War. Having submitted anew in June of the year 665 +(88 B.C.), it appears to have been less severely treated than Pompeii, +and to have escaped the imposition of a colony of Sulla's veterans, +although Zumpt has suspected the contrary (_Comm. epigr._ i. 259). It +afterwards became a municipium, and enjoyed great prosperity towards the +close of the republic and in the earlier times of the empire, since many +noble families of Rome selected this pleasant spot for the construction +of splendid villas, one of which indeed belonged to the imperial house +(Seneca, _De ira_, iii.), and another to the family of Calpurnius Piso. +By means of the Via Campana it had easy communication north-westward +with Neapolis, Puteoli and Capua, and thence by the Via Appia with Rome; +and southwards with Pompeii and Nuceria, and thence with Lucania and the +Bruttii. In the year A.D. 63 it suffered terribly from the earthquake +which, according to Seneca, "Campaniam nunquam securam huius mali, +indemnem tamen, et toties defunctam metu magna strage vastavit. Nam et +Herculanensis oppidi pars ruit dubieque stant etiam quae relicta sunt" +(_Nat. quaest._ vi. 1). Hardly had Herculaneum completed the restoration +of some of its principal buildings (cf. Mommsen, I.N. n. 2384; _Catalogo +del Museo Nazionale di Napoli_, n. 1151) when it fell beneath the great +eruption of the year 79, described by Pliny the younger (_Ep._ vi. 16, +20), in which Pompeii also was destroyed, with other flourishing cities +of Campania. According to the commonest account, on the 23rd of August +of that year Pliny the elder, who had command of the Roman fleet at +Misenum, set out to render assistance to a young lady of noble family +named Rectina and others dwelling on that coast, but, as there was no +escape by sea, the little harbour having been on a sudden filled up so +as to be inaccessible, he was obliged to abandon to their fate those +people of Herculaneum who had managed to flee from their houses, +overwhelmed in a moment by the material poured forth by Vesuvius. But +the text of Pliny the younger, where this account is given, has been +subjected to various interpretations; and from the comparison of other +classical testimonies and the study of the excavations it has been +concluded that it is impossible to determine the date of the +catastrophe, though there are satisfactory arguments to justify the +statement that the event took place in the autumn. The opinion that +immediately after the first outbreak of Vesuvius a torrent of lava was +ejected over Herculaneum was refuted by the scholars of the 18th +century, and their refutation is confirmed by Beule (_Le Drame du +Vesuve_, p. 240 seq.). And the last recensions of the passage quoted +from Pliny, aided by an inscription,[3] prove that Rectina cannot have +been the name of the harbour described by Beule (ib. pp. 122, 247), but +the name of a lady who had implored succour, the wife of Caesius Bassus, +or rather Tascius (cf. Pliny, ed. Keil, Leipzig, 1870; Aulus Persius, +ed. Jahn, _Sat._ vi.). The shore, moreover, according to the accurate +studies of the engineer Michele Ruggiero, director of the excavations, +was not altered by the causes adduced by Beule (p. 125), but by a +simpler event. "It is certain," he says (_Pompei e la regione sotterrata +dal Vesuvio l'anno 79_, Naples, 1879, p. 21 seq.), "that the districts +between the south and west, and those between the south and east, were +overwhelmed in two quite different ways. From Torre Annunziata (which is +believed to be the site of the ancient Oplontii) to San Giovanni a +Teduccio, for a distance of about 9 m., there flowed a muddy eruption +which in Herculaneum and the neighbouring places, where it was most +abundant, raised the level of the country more than 65 ft. The matter +transported consisted of soil of various kinds--sand, ashes, fragments +of lava, pozzolana and whitish pumice, enclosing grains of uncalcined +lime, similar in every respect to those of Pompeii. In the part of +Herculaneum already excavated the corridors in the upper portions of the +theatre are compactly filled, up to the head of the arches, with +pozzolana and pumice transformed into tufa (which proves that the +formation of this stone may take place in a comparatively short time). +Tufa is also found in the lowest part of the city towards the sea in +front of the few houses that have been discovered; and in the very high +banks that surround them, as also in the lowest part of the theatre, +there are plainly to be seen earth, sand, ashes, fragments of lava and +pumice, with little distinction of strata, almost always confused and +mingled together, and varying from spot to spot in degree of +compactness. It is clear that this immense congeries of earth and stones +could not flow in a dry state over those 5 m. of country (in the +beginning very steep, and at intervals almost level), where certainly it +would have been arrested and all accumulated in a mound; but it must +have been borne along by a great quantity of water, the effects of which +may be distinctly recognized, not only in the filling and choking up +even of the most narrow, intricate and remote parts of the buildings, +but also in the formation of the tufa, in which water has so great a +share; for it cannot be supposed that enough of it has filtered through +so great a depth of earth. The torrent ran in a few hours to the sea, +and formed that shallow or lagoon called by Pliny _Subitum Vadum_, which +prevented the ships approaching the shores." Hence it is that, while +many made their escape from Pompeii (which was overwhelmed by the fall +of the small stones and afterwards by the rain of ashes), comparatively +few can have managed to escape from Herculaneum, and these, according to +the interpretation given to the inscription preserved in the National +Museum (Mommsen, _I.N._ n. 2455), found shelter in the neighbouring city +of Neapolis, where they inhabited a quarter called that of the buried +city (Suetonius, _Titus_, 8; _C.I.L._ x. No. 1492, in Naples: "Regio +primaria splendidissima Herculanensium"). The name of Herculaneum, which +for some time remained attached to the site of the disaster, is +mentioned in the later itineraries; but in the course of the middle ages +all recollection of it perished. + + In 1719, while Prince Elbeuf of the house of Lorraine, in command of + the armies of Charles VI., was seeking crushed marble to make plaster + for his new villa near Portici, he learned from the peasants that + there were in the vicinity some pits from which they not only quarried + excellent marble, but had extracted many statues in the course of + years (see Jorio, _Notizia degli scavi d' Ercolano_, Naples, 1827). In + 1738, while Colonel D. Rocco de Alcubierre was directing the works for + the construction of the "Reali Delizie" at Portici, he received orders + from Charles IV. (later, Charles III. of Spain) to begin excavations + on the spot where it had been reported to the king that the Elbeuf + statues had been found. At first it was believed that a temple was + being explored, but afterwards the inscriptions proved that the + building was a theatre. This discovery excited the greatest commotion + among the scholars of all nations; and many of them hastened to Naples + to see the marvellous statues of the Balbi and the paintings on the + walls. But everything was kept private, as the government wished to + reserve to itself the right of illustrating the monuments. First of + all Monsignor Bayardi was brought from Rome and commissioned to write + about the antiquities which were being collected in the museum at + Portici under the care of Camillo Paderni, and when it was recognized + that the prelate had not sufficient learning, and by the progress of + the excavations other most abundant material was accumulated, about + which at once scholars and courtiers were anxious to be informed, + Bernardo Tanucci, having become secretary of state in 1755, founded + the Accademia Ercolanese, which published the principal works on + Herculaneum (_Le Pitture ed i bronzi d' Ercolano_, 8 vols., 1757, + 1792; _Dissertations isagogicae ad Herculanensium voluminum + explanationem pars prima_, 1797). The criterion which guided the + studies of the academicians was far from being worthy of unqualified + praise, and consequently their work did not always meet the approval + of the best scholars who had the opportunity of seeing the monuments. + Among these was Winckelmann, who in his letters gave ample notices of + the excavations and the antiquities which he was able to visit on + several occasions. Other notices were furnished by Gori, _Symbolae + litterariae Florentinae_ (1748, 1751), by Marcello Venuti, + _Descrizione delle prime scoperte d' Ercolano_ (Rome, 1748), and + Scipione Maffei, _Tre lettere intorno alle scoperte d' Ercolano_ + (Verona, 1748). The excavations, which continued for more than forty + years (1738-1780), were executed at first under the immediate + direction of Alcubierre (1738-1741), and then with the assistance of + the engineers Rorro and Bardet (1741-1745), Carl Weber (1750-1764), + and Francesco La Vega. After the death of Alcubierre (1780) the + last-named was appointed director-in-chief of the excavations; but + from that time the investigations at Herculaneum were intermitted, and + the researches at Pompeii were vigorously carried on. Resumed in 1827, + the excavations at Herculaneum were shortly after suspended, nor were + the new attempts made in 1866 with the money bestowed by King Victor + Emmanuel attended with success, being impeded by the many dangers + arising from the houses built overhead. The meagreness of the results + obtained by the occasional works executed in the last century, and the + fact that the investigators were unfortunate enough to strike upon + places already explored, gave rise to the opinion that the whole area + of the city had been crossed by tunnels in the time of Charles III. + and in the beginning of the reign of Ferdinand IV. And although it is + recognized that the works had not been prosecuted with the caution + that they required, yet in view of the serious difficulties that would + attend the collection of the little that had been left by the first + excavators, every proposal for new investigations has been abandoned. + But in a memoir which Professor Barnabei read in the Reale Accademia + dei Lincei (_Atti della R. Ac._ series iii. vol. ii. p. 751) he + undertook to prove that the researches made by the government in the + 18th century did not cover any great area. The antiquities excavated + at Herculaneum in that century (i.e. the 18th) form a collection of + the highest scientific and artistic value. They come partly from the + buildings of the ancient city (theatre, basilica, houses and forum), + and partly from the private villa of a great Roman family (cf. + Comparetti and de Petra, _La Villa Ercolanese dei Pisoni_, Turin, + 1883). From the city come, among many other marble statues, the two + equestrian statues of the Balbi (_Museo Borbonico_, vol. ii. pl. + xxxviii.-xxxix.), and the great imperial and municipal bronze statues. + Mural paintings of extraordinary beauty were also discovered here, + such as those that represent Theseus after the slaughter of the + Minotaur (Helbig, _Wandgemalde_, Leipzig, 1878, No. 1214), Chiron + teaching Achilles the art of playing on the lyre (ibid. No. 1291), and + Hercules finding Telephus who is being suckled by the hind (ibid. No. + 1143). + + Notwithstanding subsequent discoveries of stupendous paintings in the + gardens of the Villa Farnesina on the banks of the Tiber, the + monochromes of Herculaneum remain among the finest specimens of the + exquisite taste and consummate skill displayed by the ancient artists. + Among the best preserved is Leto and Niobe, which has been the subject + of so many studies and so many publications (ibid. No. 1706). There is + also a considerable number of lapidary inscriptions edited in vol. ii. + of the epigraphic collection of the _Cat. del Mus. Naz. di Napoli_. + The Villa Suburbana has given us a good number of marble busts, and + the so-called statue of Aristides, but above all that splendid + collection of bronze statues and busts mostly reproductions of famous + Greek works now to be found in the Naples Museum. It is thence that we + have obtained the reposing Hermes, the drunken Silenus, the sleeping + Faunus, the dancing girls, the bust called Plato's, that believed to + be Seneca's, the two quoit-throwers or discoboli, and so many + masterpieces more, figured by the academicians in their volume on the + bronzes. But a still further discovery made in the Villa Suburbana + contributed to magnify the greatness of Herculaneum; within its walls + was found the famous library, of which, counting both entire and + fragmentary volumes, 1803 papyri are preserved. Among the nations + which took the greatest interest in the discovery of the Herculaneum + library, the most honourable rank belongs to England, which sent + Hayter and other scholars to Naples to solicit the publication of the + volumes. Of the 341 papyri which have been unrolled, 195 have been + published (_Herculanensium voluminum quae supersunt_ (Naples, + 1793-1809); _Collectio altera_, 1862-1876). They contain works by + Epicurus, Demetrius, Polystratus, Colotes, Chrysippus, Carniscus and + Philodemus. The names of the authors are in themselves sufficient to + show that the library belonged to a person whose principal study was + the Epicurean philosophy. But of the great master of this school only + a few works have been found. Of his treatise [Greek: Peri physeos], + divided into 37 books, it is known that there were three copies in the + library (_Coll. alt._ vi.). Professor Comparetti, studying the first + fasciculus of volume xi. of the same new collection, recognized most + important fragments of the _Ethics_ of Epicurus, and these he + published in 1879 in Nos. ix. and xi. of the _Rivista di filologia e + d' istruzione classica_ (Turin). Even the other authors above + mentioned are but poorly represented, with the exception of + Philodemus, of whom 26 different treatises have been recognized. But + all these philosophic discussions, belonging for the most part to an + author less than secondary among the Epicureans, fall short of the + high expectations excited by the first discovery of the library. Among + the many volumes unrolled only a few are of historical + importance--that edited by Bucheler, which treats of the philosophers + of the academy (_Acad. phil. index Hercul._, Greifswald, 1859), and + that edited by Comparetti, which deals with the Stoics ("Papiro + ercolanese inedito," in _Rivista di fil. e d' ist. class._ anno iii. + fasc. x.-xii.). To appreciate the value of the volumes unrolled but + not yet published (for 146 vols. were only copied and not printed) the + student must read Comparetti's paper, "Relazione sui papiri + ercolanesi." Contributions of some value have been made to the study + of Herculaneum fragments by Spengel ("Die hercul. Rollen," in + _Philologus_, 1863, suppl. vol.), and Gomperz (_Hercul. Studien_, + Leipzig, 1865-1866, cf. _Zeitschr. f. osterr. Gymn._, 1867-1872). + There are in the library some volumes written in Latin, which, + according to Boot (_Notice sur les manuscrits trouves a Herculaneum_, + Amsterdam, 1845), were found tied up in a bundle apart. Of these we + know 18, but they are all so damaged that hardly any of them can be + deciphered. One with verses relating to the battle of Actium is + believed to belong to a poem of Rabirius. The numerical preponderance + of the works of Philodemus led some people to believe that this had + been the library of that philosopher. Professor Comparetti has thrown + out a conjecture (cf. Comparetti and de Petra, op. cit.) that the + library was collected by Lucius Piso Caesoninus (see _Regione + sotterrata dal Vesuvio_, Naples, 1879, p. 159 sq.), but this + conjecture has not found many supporters. Professor de Petra (in the + same work) has also published the official notices upon the + antiquities unearthed in the sumptuous villa, giving the plan + executed by Weber and recovered by chance by the director of + excavations, Michele Ruggiero. This plan, which is here reproduced + from de Petra[4] is the only satisfactory document for the topography + of Herculaneum; for the plan of the theatre published in the + _Bullettino archeologico italiano_ (Naples, 1861, i. 53, tab. iii.) + was executed in 1747, when the excavations were not completed. And + even for the history of the "finds" made in the Villa Suburbana the + necessity for further studies makes itself felt, since there is a lack + of agreement between the accounts given by Alcubierre and Weber and + those communicated to the _Philosophical Transactions_ (London, vol. + x.) by Camillo Paderni, conservator of the Portici Museum. + + [Illustration: Plan of Villa Erolanese, Herculaneum.] + + Among the older works relating to Herculaneum, in addition to those + already quoted, may be mentioned de Brosses, _Lettre sur l'etat actuel + de la ville souterraine d'Heraclea_ (Paris, 1750); Seigneux de + Correvon, _Lettre sur la decouverte de l'ancienne ville d'Herculane_ + (Yverdon, 1770); David, _Les Antiquites d'Herculaneum_ (Paris, 1780); + D' Ancora Gaetano, _Prospetto storico-fisico degli scavi d' Ercolano e + di Pompei_ (Naples, 1803); Venuti, _Prime Scoverte di Ercolano_ (Rome, + 1748); and Romanelli, _Viaggio ad Ercolano_ (Naples, 1811). A full + list will be found in vol. i. of _Museo Borbonico_ (Naples, 1824), pp. + 1-11. + + The most important reference work is C. Waldstein and L. Shoobridge, + _Herculaneum, Past, Present and Future_ (London, 1908); it contains + full references to the history and the explorations, and to the + buildings and objects found (with illustrations). Miss E. R. Barker's + _Buried Herculaneum_ (1908) is exceedingly useful. + + In 1904 Professor Waldstein expounded both in Europe and in America an + international scheme for thorough investigation of the site. + Negotiations of a highly complex character ensued with the Italian + government, which ultimately in 1908 decided that the work should be + undertaken by Italian scholars with Italian funds. The work was begun + in the autumn of 1908, but financial difficulties with property owners + in Resina immediately arose with the result that progress was + practically stopped. (F. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] A fragment of L. Sisenna calls it "Oppidum tumulo in excelso loco + propter mare, parvis moenibus, inter duas fluvias, infra Vesuvium + collocatum" (lib. iv., fragm. 53, Peters). Of one of these rivers + this historian again makes mention in the passage where probably he + related the capture of Herculaneum by Minatius Magius and T. Didius + (Velleius Paterculus ii. 16). Further topographical details are + supplied by Strabo, who, after speaking about Naples, + continues--[Greek: hechomenon de phrourion estin Hrakleion ekkeimenen + eis ten thalattan akran echon, katapneomenon Libi thaumastos hoshth + hugieinen poiein ten katoikian]. Dionysius of Halicarnassus relates + that Heracles, in the place where he stopped with his fleet on the + return voyage from Iberia, founded a little city ([Greek: + polichnen]), to which he gave his own name; and he adds that this + city was in his time inhabited by the Romans, and that, situated + between Neapolis and Pompeii, it had [Greek: limenas en panti kairo + bebaious] (i. 44). + + [2] See also Niebuhr, _Hist. of Rome_, i. 76, and Mommsen, _Die + unteritalischen Dialekte_ (1850), p. 314; for later discussions see + OSCA LINGUA, PELASGIANS. + + [3] _C.I.L._ ii. No. 3866. This Spanish inscription refers to a + Rectina who died at the age of 18 and was the wife of Voconius + Romanus. It is quite possible that she was the Rectina whom Pliny the + elder wished to assist during the disaster of Vesuvius, for her + husband, Voconius Romanus, was an intimate friend of Pliny the + younger. The latter addressed four letters to Voconius (i. 5, ii. 1, + iii. 13, ix. 28), in another letter commended him to the emperor + Trajan (x. 3), and in another (ii. 13) says of him: "Hunc ego cum + simul studere, mus arte familiariterque dilexi; ille meus in urbe, + ille in secessu contubernalis; cum hoc seria et jocos miscui." + + [4] The diagram shows the arrangement and proportions of the Villa + Ercolanese. The dotted lines show the course taken by the + excavations, which began at the lower part of the plan. + + + + +HERCULANO DE CARVALHO E ARAUJO, ALEXANDRE (1810-1877), Portuguese +historian, was born in Lisbon of humble stock, his grandfather having +been a foreman stonemason in the royal employ. He received his early +education, comprising Latin, logic and rhetoric, at the Necessidades +Monastery, and spent a year at the Royal Marine Academy studying +mathematics with the intention of entering on a commercial career. In +1828 Portugal fell under the absolute rule of D. Miguel, and Herculano, +becoming involved in the unsuccessful military _pronunciamento_ of +August 1831, had to leave Portugal clandestinely and take refuge in +England and France. In 1832 he accompanied the Liberal expedition to +Terceira as a volunteer, and was one of D. Pedro's famous army of 7500 +men who landed at the Mindello and occupied Oporto. He took part in all +the actions of the great siege, and at the same time served as a +librarian in the city archives. He published his first volume of verses, +_A Voz de Propheta_, in 1832, and two years later another entitled _A +Harpa do Crente_. Privation had made a man of him, and in these little +books he proves himself a poet of deep feeling and considerable power of +expression. The stirring incidents in the political emancipation of +Portugal inspired his muse, and he describes the bitterness of exile, +the adventurous expedition to Terceira, the heroic defence of Oporto, +and the final combats of liberty. In 1837 he founded the _Panorama_ in +imitation of the _English Penny Magazine_, and there and in +_Illustracao_ he published the historical tales which were afterwards +collected into _Lendas e Narratives_; in the same year he became royal +librarian at the Ajuda Palace, which enabled him to continue his studies +of the past. The _Panorama_ had a large circulation and influence, and +Herculano's biographical sketches of great men and his articles of +literary and historical criticism did much to educate the middle class +by acquainting them with the story of their nation, and with the +progress of knowledge and the state of letters in foreign countries. On +entering parliament in 1840 he resigned the editorship to devote himself +to history, but he still remained its most important contributor. + +Up to the age of twenty-five Herculano had been a poet, but he then +abandoned poetry to Garrett, and after several essays in that direction +he definitely introduced the historical novel into Portugal in 1844 by a +book written in imitation of Walter Scott. _Eurico_ treats of the fall +of the Visigothic monarchy and the beginnings of resistance in the +Asturias which gave birth to the Christian kingdoms of the Peninsula, +while the _Monge de Cister_, published in 1848, describes the time of +King John I., when the middle class and the municipalities first +asserted their power and elected a king in opposition to the nobility. +From an artistic standpoint, these stories are rather laboured +productions, besides being ultra-romantic in tone; but it must be +remembered that they were written mainly with an educational object, +and, moreover, they deserve high praise for their style. Herculano had +greater book learning than Scott, but lacked descriptive talent and +skill in dialogue. His touch is heavy, and these novels show no dramatic +power, which accounts for his failure as a playwright, but their +influence was as great as their followers were many, and they still find +readers. These and editions of two old chronicles, the _Chronica de D. +Sebastiao_ (1839) and the _Annaes del rei D. Joao III_ (1844), prepared +Herculano for his life's work, and the year 1846 saw the first volume of +his _History of Portugal from the Beginning of the Monarchy to the end +of the Reign of Affonso III._, a book written on critical lines and +based on documents. The difficulties he encountered in producing it were +very great, for the foundations had been ill-prepared by his +predecessors, and he was obliged to be artisan and architect at the same +time. He had to collect MSS. from all parts of Portugal, decipher, +classify and weigh them before he could begin work, and then he found it +necessary to break with precedents and destroy traditions. Serious +students in Portugal and abroad welcomed the book as an historical work +of the first rank, for its evidence of careful research, its able +marshalling of facts, its learning and its painful accuracy, while the +sculptural simplicity of the style and the correctness of the diction +have made it a Portuguese classic. The first volume, however, gave rise +to a celebrated controversy, because Herculano had reduced the famous +battle of Ourique, which was supposed to have seen the birth of the +Portuguese monarchy, to the dimensions of a mere skirmish, and denied +the apparition of Christ to King Affonso, a fable first circulated in +the 15th century. Herculano was denounced from the pulpit and the press +for his lack of patriotism and piety, and after bearing the attack for +some time his pride drove him to reply. In a letter to the cardinal +patriarch of Lisbon entitled _Eu e o Clero_ (1850), he denounced the +fanaticism and ignorance of the clergy in plain terms, and this provoked +a fierce pamphlet war marked by much personal abuse. The professor of +Arabic in Lisbon intervened to sustain the accepted view of the battle, +and charged Herculano and his supporter Gayangos with ignorance of the +Arab historians and of their language. The conduct of the controversy, +which lasted some years, did credit to none of the contending parties, +but Herculano's statement of the facts is now universally accepted as +correct. The second volume of his history appeared in 1847, the third in +1849 and the fourth in 1853. In his youth, the excesses of absolutism +had made Herculano a Liberal, and the attacks on his history turned this +man, full of sentiment and deep religious conviction, into an +anti-clerical who began to distinguish between political Catholicism and +Christianity. His _History of the Origin and Establishment of the +Inquisition_ (1854-1855), relating the thirty years' struggle between +King John III. and the Jews--he to establish the tribunal and they to +prevent him--was compiled, as the preface showed, to stem the +Ultramontane reaction, but none the less carried weight because it was a +recital of events with little or no comment or evidence of passion in +its author. Next to these two books his study, _Do Estado das classes +servas na Peninsula desde o VII. ate o XII. seculo_, is Herculano's most +valuable contribution to history. In 1856 he began editing a series of +_Portugalliae monumenta historica_, but personal differences between him +and the keeper of the Archive office, which he was forced to frequent, +caused him to interrupt his historical studies, and on the death of his +friend King Pedro V. he left the Ajuda and retired to a country house +near Santarem. + +Disillusioned with men and despairing of the future of his country, he +spent the rest of his life devoted to agricultural pursuits, and rarely +emerged from his retirement; when he did so, it was to fight political +and religious reaction. Once he had defended the monastic orders, +advocating their reform and not their suppression, supported the rural +clergy and idealized the village priest in his _Parocho da Aldeia_, +after the manner of Goldsmith in the _Vicar of Wakefield_. +Unfortunately, however, the brilliant epoch of the alliance of +Liberalism and Catholicism, represented on its literary side by +Chateaubriand and by Lamartine, to whose poetic school Herculano had +belonged, was past, and fanatical attacks and the progress of events +drove this former champion of the Church into conflict with the +ecclesiastical authorities. His protest against the Concordat of the +21st of February 1857 between Portugal and the Holy See, regulating the +Portuguese Padroado in the East, his successful opposition to the entry +of foreign religious orders, and his advocacy of civil marriage, were +the chief landmarks in his battle with Ultra-montanism, and his _Estudos +sobre o Casamento Civil_ were put on the Index. Finally in 1871 he +attacked the dogmas of the Immaculate Conception and papal +infallibility, and fell into line with the Old Catholics. In the domain +of letters he remained until his death a veritable pontiff, and an +article or book of his was an event celebrated from one end of Portugal +to the other. The nation continued to look up to him for mental +leadership, but, in his later years, lacking hope himself, he could not +stimulate others or use to advantage the powers conferred upon him. In +politics he remained a constitutional Liberal of the old type, and for +him the people were the middle classes in opposition to the lower, which +he saw to have been the supporters of tyranny in all ages, while he +considered Radicalism to mean a return via anarchy to absolutism. +However, though he conducted a political propaganda in the newspaper +press in his early days, Herculano never exercised much influence in +politics. Grave as most of his writings are, they include a short +description of a crossing from Jersey to Granville, in which he +satirizes English character and customs, and reveals an unexpected sense +of humour. A rare capacity for tedious work, a dour Catonian rectitude, +a passion for truth, pride, irritability at criticism and independence +of character, are the marks of Herculano as a man. He could be broken +but never bent, and his rude frankness accorded with his hard, sombre +face, and alienated men's sympathies though it did not lose him their +respect. His lyrism is vigorous, feeling, austere and almost entirely +subjective and personal, while his pamphlets are distinguished by energy +of conviction, strength of affirmation, and contempt for weaker and more +ignorant opponents. His _History of Portugal_ is a great but incomplete +monument. A lack of imagination and of the philosophic spirit prevented +him from penetrating or drawing characters, but his analytical gift, +joined to persevering toil and honesty of purpose enabled him to present +a faithful account of ascertained facts and a satisfactory and lucid +explanation of political and economic events. His remains lie in a +majestic tomb in the Jeronymos at Belem, near Lisbon, which was raised +by public subscription to the greatest modern historian of Portugal and +of the Peninsula. His more important works have gone through many +editions and his name is still one to conjure with. + + AUTHORITIES.--Antonio de Serpa Pimentel, _Alexandre Herculano e o seu + tempo_ (Lisbon, 1881); A. Romero Ortiz, _La Litteratura Portuguesa en + el siglo XIX._ (Madrid, 1869); Moniz Barreto, _Revista de Portugal_ + (July 1889). (E. Pr.) + + + + +HERCULES (O. Lat. _Hercoles_, _Hercles_), the latinized form of the +mythical Heracles, the chief national hero of Hellas. The name [Greek: +Herakles] ([Greek: Hera], and [Greek: kleos] = glory) is explained as +"renowned through Hera" (i.e. in consequence of her persecution) or "the +glory of Hera" i.e. of Argos. The thoroughly national character of +Heracles is shown by his being the mythical ancestor of the Dorian +dynastic tribe, while revered by Ionian Athens, Lelegian Opus and +Aeolo-Phoenician Thebes, and closely associated with the Achaean heroes +Peleus and Telamon. The Perseid Alcmena, wife of Amphitryon of Tiryns, +was Hercules' mother, Zeus his father. After his father he is often +called Amphitryoniades, and also Alcides, after the Perseid Alcaeus, +father of Amphitryon. His mother and her husband lived at Thebes in +exile as guests of King Creon. By the craft of Hera, his foe through +life, his birth was delayed, and that of Eurystheus, son of Sthenelus of +Argos, hastened, Zeus having in effect sworn that the elder of the two +should rule the realm of Perseus. Hera sent two serpents to destroy the +new-born Hercules, but he strangled them. He was trained in all manly +accomplishments by heroes of the highest renown in each, until in a +transport of anger at a reprimand he slew Linus, his instructor in +music, with the lyre. Thereupon he was sent to tend Amphitryon's oxen, +and at this period slew the lion of Mount Cithaeron. By freeing Thebes +from paying tribute to the Minyans of Orchomenus he won Creon's +daughter, Megara, to wife. Her children by him he killed in a frenzy +induced by Hera. After purification he was sent by the Pythia to serve +Eurystheus. Thus began the cycle of the twelve labours. + + 1. Wrestling with the Nemean lion. + + 2. Destruction of the Lernean hydra. + + 3. Capture of the Arcadian hind (a _stag_ in art). + + 4. Capture of the boar of Erymanthus, while chasing which he fought + the Centaurs and killed his friends Chiron and Pholus, this homicide + leading to Demeter's institution of _mysteries_. + + 5. Cleansing of the stables of Augeas. + + 6. Shooting the Stymphalian birds. + + 7. Capture of the Cretan bull subsequently slain by Theseus at + Marathon. + + 8. Capture of the man-eating mares of the Thracian Diomedes. + + 9. Seizure of the girdle of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons. + + 10. Bringing the oxen of Geryones from Erythia in the far west, which + errand involved many adventures in the coast lands of the + Mediterranean, and the setting up of the "Pillars of Hercules" at the + Straits of Gibraltar. + + 11. Bringing the golden apples from the garden of the Hesperides. + + 12. Carrying Cerberus from Hades to the upper world. + +Most of the labours lead to various adventures called [Greek: parerga]. +On Hercules' return to Thebes he gave his wife Megara to his friend and +charioteer Iolaus, son of Iphicles, and by beating Eurytus of Oechalia +and his sons in a shooting match won a claim to the hand of his daughter +Iole, whose family, however, except her brother Iphitus, withheld their +consent to the union. Iphitus persuaded Hercules to search for Eurytus' +lost oxen, but was killed by him at Tiryns in a frenzy. He consulted the +Pythia about a cure for the consequent madness, but she declined to +answer him. Whereupon he seized the oracular tripod, and so entered upon +a contest with Apollo, which Zeus stopped by sending a flash of +lightning between the combatants. The Pythia then sent him to serve the +Lydian queen Omphale. He then, with Telamon, Peleus and Theseus, took +Troy. He next helped the gods in the great battle against the giants. He +destroyed sundry sea-monsters, set free the bound Prometheus, took part +in the Argonautic voyage and the Calydonian boar hunt, made war against +Augeas, and against Nestor and the Pylians, and restored Tyndareus to +the sovereignty of Lacedaemon. He sustained many single combats, one +very famous struggle being the wrestling with the Libyan Antaeus, son of +Poseidon and Ge (Earth), who had to be held in the air, as he grew +stronger every time he touched his mother, Earth. Hercules withstood +Ares, Poseidon and Hera, as well as Apollo. The close of his career is +assigned to Aetolia and Trachis. He wrestles with Achelous for Deianeira +("destructive to husband"), daughter of Oeneus, king of Calydon, +vanquishes the river god, and breaks off one of his horns, which as a +horn of plenty is found as an attribute of Hercules in art. Driven from +Calydon for homicide, he goes with Deianeira to Trachis. On the way he +slays the centaur Nessus, who persuades Deianeira that his blood is a +love-charm. From Trachis he wages successful war against the Dryopes and +Lapithae as ally of Aegimius, king of the Dorians, who promised him a +third of his realm, and after his death adopted Hyllus, his son by +Deianeira. Finally Hercules attacks Eurytus, takes Oechalia and carries +off Iola. Thereupon Deianeira, prompted by love and jealousy, sends him +a tunic dipped in the blood of Nessus, and the unsuspecting hero puts it +on just before sacrificing at the headland of Cenaeum in Euboea. (So far +the dithyramb of Bacchylides xv. [xvi.], agrees with Sophocles' +_Trachiniae_ as to the hero's end.) Mad with pain, he seizes Lichas, the +messenger who had brought the fatal garment, and hurls him on the rocks; +and then he wanders in agony to Mount Oeta, where he mounts a pyre, +which, however, no one will kindle. At last Poeas, father of +Philoctetes, takes pity on him, and is rewarded with the gift of his bow +and arrows. The immortal part of Hercules passes to Olympus, where he is +reconciled to Hera and weds her daughter Hebe. This account of the +hero's principal labours, exploits and crimes is derived from the +mythologists Apollodorus and Diodorus, who probably followed the +_Heracleia_ by Peisander of Rhodes as to the twelve labours or that of +Panyasis of Halicarnassus, but sundry variations of order and incident +are found in classical literature. + +In one aspect Hercules is clearly a sun-god, being identified, +especially in Cyprus and in Thasos (as Makar), with the Tyrian Melkarth. +The third and twelfth labours may be solar, the horned hind representing +the moon, and the carrying of Cerberus to the upper world an eclipse, +while the last episode of the hero's tragedy is possibly a complete +solar myth developed at Trachis. The winter sun is seen rising over the +Cenaean promontory to toil across to Mount Oeta and disappear over it in +a bank of fiery cloud. But more important and less speculative is the +hero's aspect as a national type or an amalgamation of tribal types of +physical force, of dauntless effort and endurance, of militant +civilization, and of Hellenic enterprise, "stronger than everything +except his own passions," and "at once above and below the noblest type +of man" (Jebb). The fifth labour seems to symbolize some great +improvement in the drainage of Elis. Strenuous devotion to the +deliverance of mankind from dangers and pests is the "virtue" which, in +Prodicus' famous apologue on the _Choice of Hercules_, the hero +preferred to an easy and happy life. Ethically, Hercules symbolizes the +attainment of glory and immortality by toil and suffering. + +The Old-Dorian Hercules is represented in three cycles of myth, the +Argive, the Boeotian and the Thessalian; the legends of Arcadia, +Aetolia, Lydia, &c., and Italy are either local or symbolical and +comparatively late. The fatality by which Hercules kills so many friends +as well as foes recalls the destroying Apollo; while his career +frequently illustrates the Delphic views on blood-guiltiness and +expiation. As Apollo's champion Hercules is Daphnephoros, and fights +Cycnus and Amyntor to keep open the sacred way from Tempe to Delphi. As +the Dorian tutelar he aids Tyndareus and Aegimius. As patron of maritime +adventure ([Greek: hegemonios]) he struggles with Nereus and Triton, +slays Eryx and Busiris, and perhaps captures the wild horses and oxen, +which may stand for pirates. As a god of athletes he is often a wrestler +([Greek: palaimon]), and founds the Olympian games. In comedy and +occasionally in myths he is depicted as voracious ([Greek: bouphagos]). +He is also represented as the companion of Dionysus, especially in Asia +Minor. The "Resting" ([Greek: anapauomenos]) Hercules is, as at +Thermopylae and near Himera, the natural tutelar of hot springs in +conjunction with his protectress Athena, who is usually depicted +attending him on ancient vases. The glorified Hercules was worshipped +both as a god and a hero. In the Attic deme Melita he was invoked as +[Greek: alexikakos] ("Helper in ills"), at Olympia as [Greek: +kallinikos] ("Nobly-victorious"), in the rustic worship of the Oetaeans +as [Greek: kornopion] ([Greek: kornopes], "locusts"), by the Erythraeans +of Ionia as [Greek: ipoktonos] ("Canker-worm-slayer"). He was [Greek: +soter] ("Saviour"), i.e. a protector of voyagers, at Thasos and Smyrna. +Games in his honour were held at Thebes and Marathon and annual +festivals in every deme of Attica, in Sicyon and Agyrium (Sicily). His +guardian goddess was Athena (Homer, _Il._ viii. 638; Bacchylides v. 91 +f.). In early poetry, as often in art, he is an archer, afterwards a +club-wielder and fully-armed warrior. In early art the adult Hercules is +bearded, but not long-haired. Later he is sometimes youthful and +beardless, always with short curly hair and thick neck, the lower part +of the brow prominent. A lion's skin is generally worn or carried. +Lysippus worked out the finest type of sculptured Hercules, of which the +Farnese by Glycon is a grand specimen. The infantine struggle with +serpents was a favourite subject. + +Quite distinct was the Idaean Hercules, a Cretan Dactyl connected with +the cult of Rhea or Cybele. The Greeks recognized Hercules in an +Egyptian deity _Chons_ and an Indian _Dorsanes_, not to mention +personages of other mythologies. + +Hercules is supposed to have visited Italy on his return from Erythia, +when he slew Cacus, son of Vulcan, the giant of the Aventine mount of +Rome, who had stolen his oxen. To this victory was assigned the founding +of the _Ara maxima_ by Evander. His worship, introduced from the Greek +colonies in Etruria and in the south of Italy, seems to have been +established in Rome from the earliest times, as two old Patrician +_gentes_ were associated with his cult and the Fabii claimed him as +their ancestor. The tithes vowed to him by Romans and men of Sora and +Reate, for safety on journeys and voyages, furnished sacrifices and (in +Rome) public entertainment (_polluctum_). Tibur was a special seat of +his cult. In Rome he was patron of gladiators, as of athletes in Greece. +With respect to the Roman relations of the hero, it is manifest that the +native myths of Recaranus, or Sancus, or Dius Fidius, were transferred +to the Hellenic Hercules. (C. A. M. F.) + + See L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_ (4th ed., Berlin, 1900); W. + H. Roscher, _Ausfuhrliches Lexikon der griechischen und romischen + Mythologie_ (1884); Sir R. C. Jebb, _Trachiniae_ of Sophocles + (Introd.), (1892); Ch. Daremberg and E. Saglio, _Dictionnaire des + antiquites grecques et romaines_; Breal, _Hercule et Cacus_, 1863; J. + G. Winter, _Myth of Hercules at Rome_ (New York, 1910). + + In the article GREEK ART, fig. 16 represents Heracles wrestling with + the river-god Achelous; fig. 20 (from a small pediment, possibly of a + shrine of the hero) the slaying of the Hydra; fig. 35 Heracles holding + up the sky on a cushion. + + Hercules was a favourite figure in French medieval literature. In the + romance of Alexander the tent of the hero is decorated with incidents + from his adventures. In the prose romance _Les Prouesses et vaillances + du preux Hercule_ (Paris, 1500), the hero's labours are represented as + having been performed in honour of a Boeotian princess; Pluto is a + king dwelling in a dismal castle; the Fates are duennas watching + Proserpine; the entrance to Pluto's castle is watched by the giant + Cerberus. Hercules conquers Spain and takes Merida from Geryon. The + book is translated into English as _Hercules of Greece_ (n. d.). + Fragments of a French poem on the subject will be found in the + _Bulletin de la soc. des anciens textes francais_ (1877). Don Enrique + de Villena took from _Les Prouesses_ his prose _Los Doze Trabajos de + Hercules_ (Zamora, 1483 and 1499), and Fernandez de Heredia wrote + _Trabajos y afanes de Hercules_ (Madrid, 1682), which belies its + title, being a collection of adages and allegories. _Le Fatiche + d'Ercole_ (1475) is a romance in poetic prose by Pietro Bassi, and the + _Dodeci Travagli di Ercole_ (1544) a poem by J. Perillos. + + + + +HERCULES, in astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere, +mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.) +and catalogued by Ptolemy (29 stars) and Tycho Brahe (28 stars). +Represented by a man kneeling, this constellation was first known as +"the man on his knees," and was afterwards called Cetheus, Theseus and +Hercules by the ancient Greeks. Interesting objects in this +constellation are: [alpha] _Herculis_, a fine coloured double star, +composed of an orange star of magnitude 2(1/2), and a blue star of +magnitude 6; [zeta] _Herculis_, a binary star, discovered by Sir William +Herschel in 1782; one component is a yellow star of the third magnitude, +the other a bluish, which appears to vary from red to blue, of magnitude +6; g and u _Herculis_, irregularly variable stars; and the cluster _M. +13 Herculis_, the finest globular cluster in the northern hemisphere, +containing at least 5000 stars and of the 1000 determined only 2 are +variable. + + + + +HERD (a word common to Teutonic languages; the O. Eng. form was _heord_; +cf. Ger. _Herde_, Swed. and Dan. _hjord_; the Sans. _ca'rdhas_, which +shows the pre-Teutonic form, means a troop), a number of animals of one +kind driven or fed together, usually applied to cattle as "flock" is to +sheep, but used also of whales, porpoises, &c., and of birds, as swans, +cranes and curlews. A "herd-book" is a book containing the pedigree and +other information of any breed of cattle or pigs, like the "flock-book" +for sheep or "stud-book" for horses. Formerly the word "herdwick" was +applied to the pasture ground under the care of a shepherd, and it is +now used of a special hardy breed of sheep in Cumberland and +Westmorland. The word "herd" is also applied in a disparaging sense to a +company of people, a mob or rabble, as "the vulgar herd." As the name +for a keeper of a herd or flock of domestic animals, the herdsman, it is +usually qualified to denote the kind of animal under his protection, as +swine-herd, shepherd, &c., but in Ireland, Scotland and the north of +England, "herd" alone is commonly used. + + + + +HERDER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED VON (1744-1803), one of the most prolific and +influential writers that Germany has produced, was born in Mohrungen, a +small town in East Prussia, on the 25th of August 1744. Like his +contemporary Lessing, Herder had throughout his life to struggle against +adverse circumstances. His father was poor, having to put together a +subsistence by uniting the humble offices of sexton, choir-singer and +petty schoolmaster. After receiving some rudimentary instruction from +his father, the boy was sent to the grammar school of his native town. +The mode of discipline practised by the pedantic and irritable old man +who stood at the head of this institution was not at all to the young +student's liking, and the impression made upon him stimulated him later +on to work out his projects of school reform. The hardships of his early +years drove him to introspection and to solitary communion with nature, +and thus favoured a more than proportionate development of the +sentimental and poetic side of his mind. When quite young he expressed a +wish to become a minister of the gospel, but his aspirations were +discouraged by the local clergyman. In 1762, at the age of eighteen, he +went up to Konigsberg with the intention of studying medicine, but +finding himself unequal to the operations of the dissecting-room, he +abandoned this object, and, by the help of one or two friends and his +own self-supporting labours, followed out his earlier idea of the +clerical profession by joining the university. There he came under the +influence of Kant, who was just then passing from physical to +metaphysical problems. Without becoming a disciple of Kant, young Herder +was deeply stimulated to fresh critical inquiry by that thinker's +revolutionary ideas in philosophy. To Kant's lectures and conversations +he further owed something of his large interest in cosmological and +anthropological problems. Among the writers whom he most carefully read +were Plato, Hume, Shaftesbury, Leibnitz, Diderot and Rousseau. Another +personal influence under which he fell at Konigsberg, and which was +destined to be far more permanent, was that of J. G. Hamann, "the +northern Mage." This writer had already won a name, and in young Herder +he found a mind well fitted to be the receptacle and vehicle of his new +ideas on literature. From this vague, incoherent, yet gifted writer our +author acquired some of his strong feeling for the naive element in +poetry, and for the earliest developments of national literature. Even +before he went to Konigsberg he had begun to compose verses, and at the +age of twenty he took up the pen as a chief occupation. His first +published writings were occasional poems and reviews contributed to the +_Konigsbergische Zeitung_. Soon after this he got an appointment at +Riga, as assistant master at the cathedral school, and a few years +later, became assistant pastor. In this busy commercial town, in +somewhat improved pecuniary and social circumstances, he developed the +main ideas of his writings. In the year 1767 he published his first +considerable work _Fragmente uber die neuere deutsche Literatur_, which +at once made him widely known and secured for him the favourable +interest of Lessing. From this time he continued to pour forth a number +of critical writings on literature, art, &c. His bold ideas on these +subjects, which were a great advance even on Lessing's doctrines, +naturally excited hostile criticism, and in consequence of this +opposition, which took the form of aspersions on his religious +orthodoxy, he resolved to leave Riga. He was much carried away at this +time by the idea of a radical reform of social life in Livonia, which +(after the example of Rousseau) he thought to effect by means of a +better method of school-training. With this plan in view he began (1769) +a tour through France, England, Holland, &c., for the purpose of +collecting information respecting their systems of education. It was +during the solitude of his voyage to France, when on deck at night, that +he first shaped his idea of the genesis of primitive poetry, and of the +gradual evolution of humanity. Having received an offer of an +appointment as travelling tutor and chaplain to the young prince of +Eutin-Holstein, he abandoned his somewhat visionary scheme of a social +reconstruction of a Russian province. He has, however, left a curious +sketch of his projected school reforms. His new duties led him to +Strassburg, where he met the young Goethe, on whose poetical development +he exercised so potent an influence. At Darmstadt he made the +acquaintance of Caroline Flachsland, to whom he soon became betrothed, +and who for the rest of his life supplied him with that abundance of +consolatory sympathy which his sensitive and rather querulous nature +appeared to require. The engagement as tutor did not prove an agreeable +one, and he soon threw it up (1771) in favour of an appointment as court +preacher and member of the consistory at Buckeburg. Here he had to +encounter bitter opposition from the orthodox clergy and their +followers, among whom he was regarded as a freethinker. His health +continued poor, and a fistula in the eye, from which he had suffered +from early childhood, and to cure which he had undergone a number of +painful operations, continued to trouble him. Further, pecuniary +difficulties, from which he never long managed to keep himself free, by +delaying his marriage, added to his depression. Notwithstanding these +trying circumstances he resumed literary work, which his travels had +interrupted. For some time he had been greatly interested by the poetry +of the north, more particularly Percy's _Reliques_, the poems of +"Ossian" (in the genuineness of which he like many others believed) and +the works of Shakespeare. Under the influence of this reading he now +finally broke with classicism and became one of the leaders of the new +_Sturm und Drang_ movement. He co-operated with a band of young writers +at Darmstadt and Frankfort, including Goethe, who in a journal of their +own sought to diffuse the new ideas. His marriage took place in 1773. In +1776 he obtained through Goethe's influence the post of general +superintendent and court preacher at Weimar, where he passed the rest of +his life. There he enjoyed the society of Goethe, Wieland, Jean Paul +(who came to Weimar in order to be near Herder), and others, the +patronage of the court, with whom as a preacher he was very popular, and +an opportunity of carrying out some of his ideas of school reform. Yet +the social atmosphere of the place did not suit him. His personal +relations with Goethe again and again became embittered. This, added to +ill-health, served to intensify a natural irritability of temperament, +and the history of his later Weimar days is a rather dreary page in the +chronicles of literary life. He had valued more than anything else a +teacher's influence over other minds, and as he began to feel that he +was losing it he grew jealous of the success of those who had outgrown +this influence. Yet while presenting these unlovely traits, Herder's +character was on the whole a worthy and attractive one. This seems to be +sufficiently attested by the fact that he was greatly liked and +esteemed, not only in the pulpit but in private intercourse, by +cultivated women like the countess of Buckeburg, the duchess of Weimar +and Frau von Stein, and, what perhaps is more, was exceedingly popular +among the gymnasium pupils, in whose education he took so lively an +interest. While much that Herder produced after settling in Weimar has +little value, he wrote also some of his best works, among others his +collection of popular poetry on which he had been engaged for many +years, _Stimmen der Volker in Liedern_ (1778-1779); his translation of +the Spanish romances of the _Cid_ (1805); his celebrated work on Hebrew +poetry, _Vom Geist der hebraischen Poesie_ (1782-1783); and his _opus +magnum_, the _Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit_ +(1784-1791). Towards the close of his life he occupied himself, like +Lessing, with speculative questions in philosophy and theology. The +boldness of some of his ideas cost him some valuable friendships, as +that of Jacobi, Lavater and even of his early teacher Hamann. He died on +the 18th of December 1803, full of new literary plans up to the very +last. + +Herder's writings were for a long time regarded as of temporary value +only, and fell into neglect. Recent criticism, however, has tended very +much to raise their value by tracing out their wide and far-reaching +influence. His works are very voluminous, and to a large extent +fragmentary and devoid of artistic finish; nevertheless they are nearly +always worth investigating for the brilliant suggestions in which they +abound. His place in German literature has already been indicated in +tracing his mental development. Like Lessing, whose work he immediately +continued, he was a pioneer of the golden age of this literature. +Lessing had given the first impetus to the formation of a national +literature by exposing the folly of the current imitation of French +writers. But in doing this he did not so much call his fellow-countrymen +to develop freely their own national sentiments and ideas as send them +back to classical example and principle. Lessing was the exponent of +German classicism; Herder, on the contrary, was a pioneer of the +romantic movement. He fought against all imitation as such, and bade +German writers be true to themselves and their national antecedents. As +a sort of theoretic basis for this adhesion to national type in +literature, he conceived the idea that literature and art, together with +language and national culture as a whole, are evolved by a natural +process, and that the intellectual and emotional life of each people is +correlated with peculiarities of physical temperament and of material +environment. In this way he became the originator of that genetic or +historical method which has since been applied to all human ideas and +institutions. Herder was thus an evolutionist, but an evolutionist still +under the influence of Rousseau. That is to say, in tracing back the +later acquisitions of civilization to impulses which are as old as the +dawn of primitive culture, he did not, as the modern evolutionist does, +lay stress on the superiority of the later to the earlier stages of +human development, but rather became enamoured of the simplicity and +spontaneity of those early impulses which, since they are the oldest, +easily come to look like the most real and precious. Yet even in this +way he helped to found the historical school in literature and science, +for it was only after an excessive and sentimental interest in primitive +human culture had been awakened that this subject would receive the +amount of attention which was requisite for the genetic explanation of +later developments. This historical idea was carried by Herder into the +regions of poetry, art, religion, language, and finally into human +culture as a whole. It colours all his writings, and is intimately +connected with some of the most characteristic attributes of his mind, a +quick sympathetic imagination, a fine feeling for local differences, and +a scientific instinct for seizing the sequences of cause and effect. + + Herder's works may be arranged in an ascending series, corresponding + to the way in which the genetic or historical idea was developed and + extended. First come the works on poetic literature, art, language and + religion as special regions of development. Secondly, we have in the + _Ideen_ a general account of the process of human evolution. Thirdly, + there are a number of writings which, though inferior in interest to + the others, may be said to supply the philosophic basis of his leading + ideas. + + 1. In the region of poetry Herder sought to persuade his countrymen, + both by example and precept, to return to a natural and spontaneous + form of utterance. His own poetry has but little value; Herder was a + skilful verse-maker but hardly a creative poet. He was most successful + in his translation of popular song, in which he shows a rare + sympathetic insight into the various feelings and ideas of peoples as + unlike as Greenlanders and Spaniards, Indians and Scots. In the + _Fragmente_ he aims at nationalizing German poetry and freeing it from + all extraneous influence. He ridicules the ambition of German writers + to be classic, as Lessing had ridiculed their eagerness to be French. + He looked at poetry as a kind of "proteus among the people, which + changes its form according to language, manners, habits, according to + temperament and climate, nay, even according to the accent of + different nations." This fact of the idiosyncrasy of national poetry + he illustrated with great fulness and richness in the case of Homer, + the nature of whose works he was one of the first to elucidate, the + Hebrew poets, and the poetry of the north as typified in "Ossian." + This same idea of necessary relation to national character and + circumstance is also applied to dramatic poetry, and more especially + to Shakespeare. Lessing had done much to make Shakespeare known to + Germany, but he had regarded him in contrast to the French dramatists + with whom he also contrasted the Greek dramatic poets, and accordingly + did not bring out his essentially modern and Teutonic character. + Herder does this, and in doing so shows a far deeper understanding of + Shakespeare's genius than his predecessor had shown. + + 2. The views on art contained in Herder's _Kritische Walder_ (1769), + _Plastik_ (1778), &c., are chiefly valuable as a correction of the + excesses into which reverence for Greek art had betrayed Winckelmann + and Lessing, by help of his fundamental idea of national idiosyncrasy. + He argues against the setting up of classic art as an unchanging type, + valid for all peoples and all times. He was one of the first to bring + to light the characteristic excellences of Gothic art. Beyond this, he + eloquently pleaded the cause of painting as a distinct art, which + Lessing in his desire to mark off the formative arts from poetry and + music had confounded with sculpture. He regarded this as the art of + the eye, while sculpture was rather the art of the organ of touch. + Painting being less real than sculpture, because lacking the third + dimension of space, and a kind of dream, admitted of much greater + freedom of treatment than this last. Herder had a genuine appreciation + for early German painters, and helped to awaken the modern interest in + Albrecht Durer. + + 3. By his work on language _Uber den Ursprung der Sprache_ (1772), + Herder may be said to have laid the first rude foundations of the + science of comparative philology and that deeper science of the + ultimate nature and origin of language. It was specially directed + against the supposition of a divine communication of language to man. + Its main argument is that speech is a necessary outcome of that + special arrangement of mental forces which distinguishes man, and more + particularly from his habits of reflection. "If," Herder says, "it is + incomprehensible to others how a human mind could invent language, it + is as incomprehensible to me how a human mind could be what it is + without discovering language for itself." The writer does not make + that use of the fact of man's superior organic endowments which one + might expect from his general conception of the relation of the + physical and the mental in human development. + + 4. Herder's services in laying the foundations of a comparative + science of religion and mythology are even of greater value than his + somewhat crude philological speculations. In opposition to the general + spirit of the 18th century he saw, by means of his historic sense, the + naturalness of religion, its relation to man's wants and impulses. + Thus with respect to early religious beliefs he rejected Hume's notion + that religion sprang out of the fears of primitive men, in favour of + the theory that it represents the first attempts of our species to + explain phenomena. He thus intimately associated religion with + mythology and primitive poetry. As to later forms of religion, he + appears to have held that they owe their vitality to their embodiment + of the deep-seated moral feelings of our common humanity. His high + appreciation of Christianity, which contrasts with the contemptuous + estimate of the contemporary rationalists, rested on a firm belief in + its essential humanity, to which fact, and not to conscious deception, + he attributes its success. His exposition of this religion in his + sermons and writings was simply an unfolding of its moral side. In his + later life, as we shall presently see, he found his way to a + speculative basis for his religious beliefs. + + 5. Herder's masterpiece, the _Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte_, + has the ambitious aim of explaining the whole of human development in + close connexion with the nature of man's physical environment. Man is + viewed as a part of nature, and all his widely differing forms of + development as strictly natural processes. It thus stands in sharp + contrast to the anthropology of Kant, which opposes human development + conceived as the gradual manifestation of a growing faculty of + rational free will to the operations of physical nature. Herder + defines human history as "a pure natural history of human powers, + actions and propensities, modified by time and place." The _Ideen_ + shows us that Herder is an evolutionist after the manner of Leibnitz, + and not after that of more modern evolutionists. The lower forms of + life prefigure man in unequal degrees of imperfection; they exist for + his sake, but they are not regarded as representing necessary + antecedent conditions of human existence. The genetic method is + applied to varieties of man, not to man as a whole. It is worth + noting, however, that Herder in his provokingly tentative way of + thinking comes now and again very near ideas made familiar to us by + Spencer and Darwin. Thus in a passage in book xv. chap, ii., which + unmistakably foreshadows Darwin's idea of a struggle for existence, we + read: "Among millions of creatures whatever could preserve itself + abides, and still after the lapse of thousands of years remains in the + great harmonious order. Wild animals and tame, carnivorous and + graminivorous, insects, birds, fishes and man are adapted to each + other." With this may be compared a passage in the _Ursprung der + Sprache_, where there is a curious adumbration of Spencer's idea that + intelligence, as distinguished from instinct, arises from a growing + complexity of action, or, to use Herder's words, from the substitution + of a more for a less contracted sphere. Herder is more successful in + tracing the early developments of particular peoples than in + constructing a scientific theory of evolution. Here he may be said to + have laid the foundations of the science of primitive culture as a + whole. His account of the first dawnings of culture, and of the ruder + Oriental civilizations, is marked by genuine insight. On the other + hand the development of classic culture is traced with a less skilful + hand. Altogether this work is rich in suggestion to the philosophic + historian and the anthropologist, though marked by much vagueness of + conception and hastiness of generalization. + + 6. Of Herder's properly metaphysical speculations little needs to be + said. He was too much under the sway of feeling and concrete + imagination to be capable of great things in abstract thought. It is + generally admitted that he had no accurate knowledge either of + Spinoza, whose monism he advocated, or of Kant, whose critical + philosophy he so fiercely attacked. Herder's Spinozism, which is set + forth in his little work, _Vom Erkennen und Empfinden der menschlichen + Seele_ (1778), is much less logically conceived than Lessing's. It is + the religious aspect of it which attracts him, the presentation in God + of an object which at once satisfies the feelings and the intellect. + With respect to his attacks on the critical philosophy in the + _Metakritik_ (1799), it is easy to understand how his concrete mind, + ever alive to the unity of things, instinctively rebelled against that + analytic separation of the mental processes which Kant attempted. + However crude and hasty this critical investigation, it helped to + direct philosophic reflection to the unity of mind, and so to develop + the post-Kantian line of speculation. Herder was much attracted by + Schelling's early writings, but appears to have disliked Hegelianism + because of the atheism it seemed to him to involve. In the _Kalligone_ + (1800), work directed against Kant's _Kritik der Urteilskraft_, Herder + argues for the close connexion of the beautiful and the good. To his + mind the content of art, which he conceived as human feeling and human + life in its completeness, was much more valuable than the form, and so + he was naturally led to emphasize the moral element in art. Thus his + theoretic opposition to the Kantian aesthetics is but the reflection + of his practical opposition to the form-idolatry of the Weimar poets. + (J. S.) + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--An edition of Herder's _Samtliche Werke_ in 45 vols. + was published after his death by his widow (1805-1820); a second in 60 + vols. followed in 1827-1830; a third in 40 vols. in 1852-1854. There + is also an edition by H. Duntzer (24 vols., 1869-1879). But these have + all been superseded by the monumental critical edition by B. Suphan + (32 vols., 1877 _sqq._). Of the many "selected works," mention may be + made of those by B. Suphan (4 vols., 1884-1887); by H. Lambel, H. + Meyer and E. Kuhnemann in Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_ (10 + vols., 1885-1894). For Herder's correspondence, see _Aus Herders + Nachlass_ (3 vols., 1856-1857), _Herders Reise nach Italien_ (1859), + _Von und an Herder: Ungedruckte Briefe_ (3 vols., 1861-1862)--all + three works edited by H. Duntzer and F. G. von Herder. Herder's + _Briefwechsel mit Nicolai_ and his _Briefe an Hamann_ have been edited + by O. Hoffmann (1887 and 1889). For biography and criticism, see + _Erinnerungen aus dem Leben Herders_, by his wife, edited by J. G. + Muller (2 vols., 1820); _J. G. von Herders Lebensbild_ (with his + correspondence), by his son, E. G. von Herder (6 vols., 1846); C. + Joret, _Herder et la renaissance litteraire en Allemagne au XVIII^e + siecle_ (1875); F. von Barenbach, _Herder als Vorganger Darwins_ + (1877); R. Haym, _Herder nach seinem Leben und seinen Werken_ (2 + vols., 1880-1885); H. Nevinson, _A Sketch of Herder and his Times_ + (1884); M. Kronenberg, _Herders Philosophie nach ihrem + Entwicklungsgang_ (1889); E. Kuhnemann, _Herders Leben_ (1895); R. + Burkner, _Herder, sein Leben und Wirken_ (1904). + + + + +HEREDIA, JOSE MARIA DE (1842-1905), French poet, the modern master of +the French sonnet, was born at Fortuna Cafeyere, near Santiago de Cuba, +on the 22nd of November 1842, being in blood part Spanish Creole and +part French. At the age of eight he came from the West Indies to France, +returning thence to Havana at seventeen, and finally making France his +home not long afterwards. He received his classical education with the +priests of Saint Vincent at Senlis, and after a visit to Havana he +studied at the Ecole des Chartes at Paris. In the later 'sixties, with +Francois Coppee, Sully-Prudhomme, Paul Verlaine and others less +distinguished, he made one of the band of poets who gathered round +Leconte de Lisle, and received the name of Parnassiens. To this new +school, form--the technical side of their art--was of supreme +importance, and, in reaction against the influence of Musset, they +rigorously repressed in their work the expression of personal feeling +and emotion. "True poetry," said M. de Heredia in his discourse on +entering the Academy--"true poetry dwells in nature and in humanity, +which are eternal, and not in the heart of the creature of a day, +however great." M. de Heredia's place in the movement was soon assured. +He wrote very little, and published even less, but his sonnets +circulated in MS., and gave him a reputation before they appeared in +1893, together with a few longer poems, as a volume, under the title of +_Les Trophees_. He was elected to the Academy on the 22nd of February +1894, in the place of Louis de Mazade-Percin the publicist. Few purely +literary men can have entered the Academy with credentials so small in +quantity. A small volume of verse--a translation, with introduction, of +Diaz del Castillo's _History of the Conquest of New Spain_ +(1878-1881)--a translation of the life of the nun Alferez (1894), de +Quincey's "Spanish Military Nun"--and one or two short pieces of +occasional verse, and an introduction or so--this is but small literary +baggage, to use the French expression. But the sonnets are of their kind +among the most superb in modern literature. "A _Legende des siecles_ in +sonnets" M. Francois Coppee called them. Each presents a picture, +striking, brilliant, drawn with unfaltering hand--the picture of some +characteristic scene in man's long history. The verse is flawless, +polished like a gem; and its sound has distinction and fine harmony. If +one may suggest a fault, it is that each picture is sometimes too much +of a picture only, and that the poetical line, like that of M. de +Heredia's master, Leconte de Lisle himself, is occasionally overcrowded. +M. de Heredia was none the less one of the most skilful craftsmen who +ever practised the art of verse. In 1901 he became librarian of the +Bibliotheque de l'Arsenal at Paris. He died at the Chateau de Bourdonne +(Seine-et-Oise) on the 3rd of October 1905, having completed his +critical edition of Andre Chenier's works. + + + + +HEREDIA Y CAMPUZANO, JOSE MARIA (1803-1839), Cuban poet, was born at +Santiago de Cuba on the 31st of December 1803, studied at the university +of Havana, and was called to the bar in 1823. In the autumn of 1823 he +was arrested on a charge of conspiracy against the Spanish government, +and was sentenced to banishment for life. He took refuge in the United +States, published a volume of verses at New York in 1825, and then went +to Mexico, where, becoming naturalized, he obtained a post as +magistrate. In 1832 a collection of his poems was issued at Toluca, and +in 1836 he obtained permission to visit Cuba for two months. +Disappointed in his political ambitions, and broken in health, Heredia +returned to Mexico in January 1837, and died at Toluca on the 21st of +May 1839. Many of his earlier pieces are merely clever translations from +French, English and Italian; but his originality is placed beyond doubt +by such poems as the _Himno del desterrado_, the epistle to Emilia, +_Desenganos_, and the celebrated ode to Niagara. Bello may be thought to +excel Heredia in execution, and a few lines of Olmedo's _Canto a Junin_ +vibrate with a virile passion to which the Cuban poet rarely attained; +but the sincerity of his patriotism and the sublimity of his imagination +have secured for Heredia a real supremacy among Spanish-American poets. + + The best edition of his works is that published at Paris in 1893 with + a preface by Elias Zerolo. + + + + +HEREDITAMENT (from Lat. _hereditare_, to inherit, _heres_, heir), in +law, every kind of property that can be _inherited_. Hereditaments are +divided into corporeal and incorporeal; corporeal hereditaments are +"such as affect the senses, and may be seen and handled by the body; +incorporeal are not the subject of sensation, can neither be seen nor +handled, are creatures of the mind, and exist only in contemplation" +(Blackstone, _Commentaries_). An example of a corporeal hereditament is +land held in freehold, of incorporeal hereditaments, tithes, advowsons, +pensions, annuities, rents, franchises, &c. It is still used in the +phrase "lands, tenements and hereditaments" to describe property in +land, as distinguished from goods and chattels or movable property. + + + + +HEREDITY, in biological science, the name given to the generalization, +drawn from the observed facts, that animals and plants closely resemble +their progenitors. (That the resemblance is not complete involves in the +first place the subject of variation (see VARIATION AND SELECTION); but +it must be clearly stated that there is no adequate ground for the +current loose statements as to the existence of opposing "laws" or +"forces" of heredity and variation.) In the simplest cases there seems +to be no separate problem of heredity. When a creeping plant propagates +itself by runners, when a _Nais_ or _Myrianida_ breaks up into a series +of similar segments, each of which becomes a worm like the parent, we +have to do with the general fact that growing organisms tend to display +a symmetrical repetition of equivalent parts, and that reproduction by +fission is simply a special case of metamerism. When we try to answer +the question why the segments of an organism resemble one another, +whether they remain in association to form a segmented animal, or break +into different animals, we come to the conclusion, which at least is on +the way to an answer, that it is because they are formed from pieces of +the same protoplasm, growing under similar conditions. It is apparently +a fundamental property of protoplasm to be able to multiply by division +into parts, the properties of which are similar to each other and to +those of the parent. + +This leads us directly to the cases of reproduction where there is an +obvious problem of heredity. In the majority of cases among animals and +plants the new organisms arise from portions of living matter, separated +from the parents, but different from the parents in size and structure. +These germs of the new organisms may be spores, reproductive cells, +fused reproductive cells or multicellular masses (see REPRODUCTION). For +the present purpose it is enough to state that they consist of portions +of the parental protoplasm. These pass through an embryological history, +in which by growth, multiplication and specialization they form +structures closely resembling the parents. Now, if it could be shown +that these reproductive masses arose directly from the reproductive +masses which formed the parent body, the problems of heredity would be +extremely simplified. If the first division of a reproductive cell set +apart one mass to lie dormant for a time and ultimately to form the +reproductive cells of the new generation, while the other mass, exactly +of the same kind, developed directly into the new organism, then +heredity would simply be a delayed case of what is called organic +symmetry, the tendency of similar living material to develop in similar +ways under the stimulus of similar external conditions. The cases in +which this happens are very rare. In the Diptera the first division of +the egg-cell separates the nuclear material of the subsequent +reproductive cells from the material that is elaborated into the new +organism to contain these cells. In the _Daphnidae_ and in _Sagitta_ a +similar separation occurs at slightly later stages; in vertebrates it +occurs much later; while in some hydroids the germ-cells do not arise in +the individual which is developed from the egg-cell at all, but in a +much later generation, which is produced from the first by budding. +However, it is not necessary to dismiss the fertile idea of what Moritz +Nussbaum and August Weismann, who drew attention to it, called +"continuity of the germ-plasm." Weismann has shown that an actual series +of organic forms might be drawn up in which the formation of germ-cells +begins at stages successively more remote from the first division of the +egg-cell. He has also shown evidence, singularly complete in the case of +the hydroids, for the existence of an actual migration of the place of +formation of the germ-cells, the migration reaching farther and farther +from the egg-cell. He has elaborated the conception of the germ-track, a +chain of cell generations in the development of any creature along which +the reproductive material saved over from the development of one +generation for the germ-cells of the next generation is handed on in a +latent condition to its ultimate position. And thus he supposes a real +continuity of the germ-plasm, extending from generation to generation in +spite of the apparent discontinuity in the observed cases. The +conception certainly ranks among the most luminous and most fertile +contributions of the 19th century to biological thought, and it is +necessary to examine at greater length the superstructure which Weismann +has raised upon it. + +_Weismann's Theory of the Germ-plasm._--A living being takes its +individual origin only where there is separated from the stock of the +parent a little piece of the peculiar reproductive plasm, the so-called +germ-plasm. In sexless reproduction one parent is enough; in sexual +reproduction equivalent masses of germ-plasm from each parent combine to +form the new individual. The germ-plasm resides in the nucleus of cells, +and Weismann identifies it with the nuclear material named chromatin. +Like ordinary protoplasm, of which the bulk of cell bodies is composed, +germ-plasm is a living material, capable of growing in bulk without +alteration of structure when it is supplied with appropriate food. But +it is a living material much more complex than protoplasm. In the first +place, the mass of germ-plasm which is the starting-point of a new +individual consists of several, sometimes of many, pieces named +"idants," which are either the chromosomes into a definite number of +which the nuclear material of a dividing cell breaks up, or possibly +smaller units named chromomeres. These idants are a collection of "ids," +which Weismann tentatively identifies with the microsomata contained in +the chromosomes, which are visible after treatment with certain +reagents. Each id contains all the possibilities--generic, specific, +individual--of a new organism, or rather the directing substance which +in appropriate surroundings of food, &c., forms a new organism. Each id +is a veritable microcosm, possessed of an historic architecture that has +been elaborated slowly through the multitudinous series of generations +that stretch backwards in time from every living individual. This +microcosm, again, consists of a number of minor vital units called +"determinants," which cohere according to the architecture of the whole +id. The determinants are hypothetical units corresponding to the number +of parts of the organism independently variable. Lastly, each +determinant consists of a number of small hypothetical units, the +"biophores." These are adaptations of a conception of H. de Vries, and +are supposed to become active by leaving the nucleus of the cell in +which they lie, passing out into the general protoplasm of the cell and +ruling its activities. Each new individual begins life as a nucleated +cell, the nucleus of which contains germ-plasm of this complex structure +derived from the parent. The reproductive cell gives rise to the new +individual by continued absorption of food, by growth, cell-divisions +and cell-specializations. The theory supposes that the first divisions +of the nucleus are "doubling," or homogeneous divisions. The germ-plasm +has grown in bulk without altering its character in any respect, and, +when it divides, each resulting mass is precisely alike. From these +first divisions a chain of similar doubling divisions stretches along +the "germ-tracks," so marshalling unaltered germ-plasm to the generative +organs of the new individual, to be ready to form the germ-cells of the +next generation. In this mode the continuity of the germ-plasm from +individual to individual is maintained. This also is the immortality of +the germ-cells, or rather of the germ-plasm, the part of the theory +which has laid so large a hold on the popular imagination, although it +is really no more than a reassertion in new terms of biogenesis. With +this also is connected the celebrated denial of the inheritance of +acquired characters. It seemed a clear inference that, if the hereditary +mass for the daughters were separated off from the hereditary mass that +was to form the mother, at the very first, before the body of the mother +was formed, the daughters were in all essentials the sisters of their +mother, and could take from her nothing of any characters that might be +impressed on her body in subsequent development. In the later +elaboration of his theory Weismann has admitted the possibility of some +direct modification of the germ-plasm within the body of the individual +acting as its host. + +The mass of germ-plasm which is not retained in unaltered form to +provide for the generative cells is supposed to be employed for the +elaboration of the individual body. It grows, dividing and multiplying, +and forms the nuclear matter of the tissues of the individual, but the +theory supposes this process to occur in a peculiar fashion. The nuclear +divisions are what Weismann calls "differentiating" or heterogeneous +divisions. In them the microcosms of the germ-plasm are not doubled, but +slowly disintegrated in accordance with the historical architecture of +the plasm, each division differentiating among the determinants and +marshalling one set into one portion, another into another portion. +There are differences in the observed facts of nuclear division which +tend to support the theoretical possibility of two sorts of division, +but as yet these have not been correlated definitely with the divisions +along the germ-tracks and the ordinary divisions of embryological +organogeny. The theoretical conception is, that when the whole body is +formed, the cells contain only their own kind of determinants, and it +would follow from this that the cells of the tissues cannot give rise to +structures containing germ-plasm less disintegrated than their own +nuclear material, and least of all to reproductive cells which must +contain the undisintegrated microcosms of the germ-plasm. Cases of +bud-formation and of reconstructions of lost parts (see REGENERATION OF +LOST PARTS) are regarded as special adaptations made possible by the +provision of latent groups of accessory determinants, to become active +only on emergency. + +It is to be noticed that Weismann's conception of the processes of +ontogeny is strictly evolutionary, and in so far is a reversion to the +general opinion of biologists of the 17th and 18th centuries. These +supposed that the germ-cell contained an image-in-little of the adult, +and that the process of development was a mere unfolding or evolution of +this, under the influence of favouring and nutrient forces. Hartsoeker, +indeed, went so far as to figure the human spermatozoon with a mannikin +seated within the "head," and similar extremes of imagination were +indulged in by other writers for the spermatozoon or ovum, according to +the view they took of the relative importance of these two bodies. C. F. +Wolff, in his _Theoria generationis_ (1759), was the first distinguished +anatomist to make assault on these evolutionary views, but his direct +observations on the process of development were not sufficient in bulk +nor in clarity of interpretation to convince his contemporaries. +Naturally the improved methods and vastly greater knowledge of modern +days have made evolution in the old sense an impossible conception; we +know that the egg is morphologically unlike the adult, that various +external conditions are necessary for its subsequent progress through a +slow series of stages, each of which is unlike the adult, but gradually +approaching it until the final condition is reached. None the less, +Weismann's theory supposes that the important determining factor in +these gradual changes lies in the historical architecture of the +germ-plasm, and from the theoretical point of view his theory remains +strictly an unfolding, a becoming manifest of hidden complexity. + +_Hertwig's View._--The chief modern holder of the rival view, and the +writer who has put together in most cogent form the objections to +Weismann's theory, is Oscar Hertwig. He points out that there is no +direct evidence for the existence of differentiating as opposed to +doubling divisions of the nuclear matter, and, moreover, he thinks that +there is very generally diffused evidence as to the universality of +doubling division. In the first place, there is the fundamental fact +that single-celled organisms exhibit only doubling division, as by that +the persistence of species which actually occurs alone is possible. In +the case of higher plants, the widespread occurrence of tissues with +power of reproduction, the occurrence of budding in almost any part of +the body in lower animals and in plants, and the widespread powers of +regeneration of lost parts, are easily intelligible if every cell like +the egg-cell has been formed by doubling division, and so contains the +germinal material for every part of the organism, and thus, on the call +of special conditions, can become a germ-cell again. He lays special +stress on those experiments in which the process of development has been +interfered with in various ways at various stages, as showing that the +cells which arise from the division of the egg-cell were not predestined +unalterably for a particular role, according to a predetermined plan. He +dismisses Weismann's suggestion of the presence of accessory +determinants which remain latent unless they happen to be required, as +being too complicated a supposition to be supported without exact +evidence, a view in which he has received strong support from those who +have worked most at the experimental side of the question. From +consideration of a large number of physiological facts, such as the +results of grafting, transplantations of tissues and transfusions of +blood, he concludes that the cells of an organism possess, in addition +to their patent microscopical characters, latent characters peculiar to +the species, and pointing towards a fundamental identity of the germinal +substance in every cell. + +_The Nuclear Matter._--Apart from these two characteristic protagonists +of extreme and opposing views, the general consensus of biological +opinion does not take us very far beyond the plainest facts of +observation. The resemblances of heredity are due to the fact that the +new organism takes its origin from a definite piece of the substance of +its parent or parents. This piece always contains protoplasm, and as the +protoplasm of every animal and plant appears to have its own specific +reactions, we cannot exclude this factor; indeed many, following the +views of M. Verworn, and seeing in the specific metabolisms of +protoplasm a large part of the meaning of life, attach an increasing +importance to the protoplasm in the hereditary mass. Next, it always +contains nuclear matter, and, in view of the extreme specialization of +the nuclear changes in the process of maturation and fertilization of +the generative cells, there is more than sufficient reason for believing +that the nuclear substance, if not actually the specific germ-plasm, is +of vast importance in heredity. The theory of its absolute dominance +depends on a number of experiments, the interpretation of which is +doubtful. Moritz Nussbaum showed that in Infusoria non-nucleated +fragments of a cell always died, while nucleated fragments were able to +complete themselves; but it may be said with almost equal confidence +that nuclei separated from protoplasm also invariably die--at least, all +attempts to preserve them have failed. Hertwig and others, in their +brilliant work on the nature of fertilization, showed that the process +always involved the entrance into the female cell of the nucleus of the +male cell, but we now know that part of the protoplasm of the +spermatozoon also enters. T. Boveri made experiments on the +cross-fertilization of non-nucleated fragments of the eggs of +_Sphaerechinus granularis_ with spermatozoa of _Echinus +microtuberculatus_, and obtained dwarf larvae with only the paternal +characters; but the nature of his experiments was not such as absolutely +to exclude doubt. Finally, in addition to the nucleus and the +protoplasm, another organism of the cell, the centrosome, is part of the +hereditary mass. In sum, while most of the evidence points to a +preponderating importance of the nuclear matter, it cannot be said to be +an established proposition that the nuclear matter is the germ-plasm. +Nor are we yet definitely in a position to say that the germinal mass +(nuclear matter, protoplasm, &c., of the reproductive cells) differs +essentially from the general substance of the organism--whether, in +fact, there is continuity of _germ-plasm_ as opposed to continuity of +living material from individual to individual. The origin of sexual +cells from only definite places, in the vast majority of cases, and such +phenomena as the phylo-genetic migration of their place of origin among +the Hydro-medusae, tell strongly in favour of Weismann's conception. +Early experiments on dividing eggs, in which, by separation or +transposition, cells were made to give rise to tissues and parts of the +organism which in the natural order they would not have produced, tell +strongly against any profound separation between germ-plasm and +body-plasm. It is also to be noticed that the failure of germ-cells to +arise except in specific places may be only part of the specialized +ordering of the whole body, and does not necessarily involve the +interpretation that reproductive material is absolutely different in +kind. + +_Amphimixis._--Hitherto we have considered the material bearer of +heredity apart from the question of sexual union, and we find that the +new organism takes origin from a portion of living matter, forming a +material which may be called germ-plasm, in which resides the capacity +to correspond to the same kind of surrounding forces as stimulated the +parent germ-plasm by growth of the same fashion. In many cases (e.g. +asexual spores) the piece of germ-plasm comes from one parent, and from +an organ or tissue not associated with sexual reproduction; in other +cases (parthenogenetic eggs) it comes from the ovary of a female, and +may have the apparent characters of a sexual egg, except that it +develops without fertilization; here also are to be included the cases +where normal female ova have been induced to develop, not by the +entrance of a spermatozoon, but by artificial chemical stimulation. In +such cases the problem of heredity does not differ fundamentally from +the symmetrical repetition of parts. In most of the higher plants and +animals, however, sexual reproduction is the normal process, and from +our present point of view the essential feature of this is that the +germ-plasm which starts the new individual (the fertilized egg) is +derived from the male (the spermatozoon) and from the female parent (the +ovum). Although it cannot yet be set down sharply as a general +proposition, there is considerable evidence to show that in the +preparation of the ovum and spermatozoon for fertilization the nuclear +matter of each is reduced by half (reducing division of the +chromosomes), and that fertilization means the restoration of the normal +bulk in the fertilized cell by equal contributions from male and female. +So far as the known facts of this process of union of germ-plasms go, +they take us no farther than to establish such a relation between the +offspring and two parents as exists between the offspring and one parent +in the other cases. Amphimixis has a vast importance in the theory of +evolution (Weismann, for instance, regards it as the chief factor in the +production of variations); for its relation to heredity we are as yet +dependent on empirical observations. + +_Heredity and Development._--The actual process by which the germinal +mass slowly assumes the characters of the adult--that is, becomes like +the parent--depends on the interaction of two sets of factors: the +properties of the germinal material itself, and the influences of +substances and conditions external to the germinal material. Naturally, +as K. W. von Nageli and Hertwig in particular have pointed out, there is +no perpetual sharp contrast between the two sets of factors, for, as +growth proceeds, the external is constantly becoming the internal; the +results of influences, which were in one stage part of the environment, +are in the next and subsequent stages part of the embryo. The +differences between the exponents of evolution and epigenesis offer +practical problems to be decided by experiment. Every phenomenon in +development that is proved the direct result of epigenetic factors can +be discounted from the complexity of the germinal mass. If, for +instance, as H. Driesch and Hertwig have argued, much of the +differentiation of cells and tissues is a function of locality and is +due to the action of different external forces on similar material, then +just so much burden is removed from what evolutionists have to explain. +That much remains cannot be doubted. Two eggs similar in appearance +develop side by side in the same sea-water, one becoming a mollusc, the +other an _Amphioxus_. Hertwig would say that the slight differences in +the original eggs would determine slight differences in metabolism and +so forth, with the result that the segmentation of the two is slightly +different; in the next stage the differences in metabolisms and other +relations will be increased, and so on indefinitely. But in such cases +_c'est le premier pas qui coute_, and the absolute cost in theoretical +complexity of the germinal material can be estimated only after a +prolonged course of experimental work in a field which is as yet hardly +touched. + +_Empirical Study of Heredity._--The fundamental basis of heredity is the +separation of a mass from the parent (germ-plasm) which under certain +conditions grows into an individual resembling the parent. The goal of +the study of heredity will be reached only when all the phenomena can be +referred to the nature of the germ-plasm and of its relations to the +conditions under which it grows, but we have seen how far our knowledge +is from any attempt at such references. In the meantime, the empirical +facts, the actual relations of the characters in the offspring to the +characters of the parents and ancestors, are being collected and +grouped. In this inquiry it at once becomes obvious that every character +found in a parent may or may not be present in the offspring. When any +character occurs in both, it is generally spoken of as transmissible and +of having been transmitted. In this broad sense there is no character +that is not transmissible. In all kinds of reproduction, the characters +of the class, family, genus, species, variety or race, and of the actual +individual, are transmissible, the certainty with which any character +appears being almost in direct proportion to its rank in the descending +scale from order to individual. The transmitted characters are +anatomical, down to the most minute detail; physiological, including +such phenomena as diatheses, timbre of voice and even compound +phenomena, such as _gaucherie_ and peculiarity of handwriting; +psychological; pathological; teratological, such as syndactylism and all +kinds of individual variations. Either sex may transmit characters which +in themselves are necessarily latent, as, for instance, a bull may +transmit a good milking strain. In forms of asexual reproduction, such +as division, budding, propagation by slips and so forth, every character +of the parent may appear in the descendant, and apparently even in the +descendants produced from that descendant by the ordinary sexual +processes. In reproduction by spore formation, in parthenogenesis and in +ordinary sexual modes, where there is an embryological history between +the separated mass and the new adult, it is necessary to attempt a +difficult discrimination between acquired and innate characters. + +_Acquired Characters._--Every character is the result of two sets of +factors, those resident in the germinal material and those imposed from +without. Our knowledge has taken us far beyond any such idea as the +formation of a germinal material by the collection of particles from the +adult organs and tissues (gemmules of C. Darwin). The inheritance of any +character means the transmission in the germinal material of matter +which, brought under the necessary external conditions, develops into +the character of the parent. There is necessarily an acquired or +epigenetic side to every character; but there is nothing in our +knowledge of the actual processes to make necessary or even probable the +supposition that the result of that factor in one generation appears in +the germ-plasm of the subsequent generations, in those cases where an +embryological development separates parent and offspring. The +development of any normal, so-called "innate," character, such as, say, +the assumption of the normal human shape and relations of the frontal +bone, requires the co-operation of many factors external to the +developing embryo, and the absence of abnormal distorting factors. When +we say that such an innate character is transmitted, we mean only that +the germ-plasm has such a constitution that, in the presence of the +epigenetic factors and the absence of abnormal epigenetic factors, the +bone will appear in due course and in due form. If an abnormal +epigenetic factor be applied during development, whether to the embryo +_in utero_, to the developing child, or in after life, abnormality of +some kind will appear in the bone, and such an abnormality is a good +type of what is spoken of as an "acquired" character. Naturally such a +character varies with the external stimulus and the nature of the +material to which the stimulus is applied, and probability and +observation lead us to suppose that as the germ-plasm of the offspring +is similar to that of the parent, being a mass separated from the +parent, abnormal epigenetic influences would produce results on the +offspring similar to those which they produced on the parent. Scrutiny +of very many cases of the supposed inheritance of acquired characters +shows that they may be explained in this fashion--that is to say, that +they do not necessarily involve any feature different in kind from what +we understand to occur in normal development. The effects of increased +use or of disuse on organs or tissues, the reactions of living tissues +to various external influences, to bacteria, to bacterial or other +toxins, or to different conditions of respiration, nutrition and so +forth, we know empirically to be different in the case of different +individuals, and we may expect that when the living matter of a parent +responds in a certain way to a certain external stimulus, the living +matter of the descendant will respond to similar circumstances in a +similar fashion. The operation of similar influences on similar material +accounts for a large proportion of the facts. In the important case of +the transmission of disease from parent to offspring it is plain that +three sets of normal factors may operate, and other cases of +transmission must be subjected to similar scrutiny: (1) a child may +inherit the anatomical and physiological constitution of either parent, +and with that a special liability of failure to resist the attacks of a +widespread disease; (2) the actual bacteria may be contained in the ovum +or possibly in the spermatozoon; (3) the toxins of the disease may have +affected the ovum, or the spermatozoon, or through the placenta the +growing embryo. Obviously in the first two cases the offspring cannot be +said in any strict sense to have inherited the disease; in the last +case, the theoretical nomenclature is more doubtful, but it is at least +plain that no inexplicable factor is involved. + +It is to be noticed, however, that "Lamarckians" and "Neo-Lamarckians" +in their advocacy of an inheritance of "acquired characters" make a +theoretical assumption of a different kind, which applies equally to +"acquired" and to "innate" characters. They suppose that the result of +the epigenetic factors is reflected on the germ-plasm in such a mode +that in development the products would display the same or a similar +character without the co-operation of the epigenetic factors on the new +individual, or would display the result in an accentuated form if with +the renewed co-operation of the external factors. Such an assumption +presents its greatest theoretical difficulty if, with Weismann, we +suppose the germ-plasm to be different in kind from the general +soma-plasm, and its least theoretical difficulty if, with Hertwig, we +suppose the essential matter of the reproductive cells to be similar in +kind to the essential substance of the general body cells. But, apart +from the differences between such theories, it supposes, in all cases +where an embryological development lies between parent and descendant, +the existence of a factor towards which our present knowledge of the +actual processes gives us no assistance. The separated hereditary mass +does not contain the organs of the adult; the Lamarckian factor would +involve the translation of the characters of the adult back into the +characters of the germ-cell in such a fashion that when the germ-cell +developed these characters would be re-translated again into those which +originally had been produced by co-operation between germ-plasm +characters and epigenetic factors. In the present state of our knowledge +the theoretical difficulty is not fatal to the Lamarckian supposition; +it does no more than demand a much more careful scrutiny of the supposed +cases. Such a scrutiny has been going on since Weismann first raised the +difficulty, and the present result is that no known case has appeared +which cannot be explained without the Lamarckian factor, and the vast +majority of cases have been resolved without any difficulty into the +ordinary events of which we have full experience. Taking the empirical +data in detail, it would appear first that the effects of single +mutilations are not inherited. The effects of long-continued mutilations +are not inherited, but Darwin cites as a possible case the Mahommedans +of Celebes, in whom the prepuce is very small. C. E. Brown-Sequard +thought that he had shown in the case of guinea-pigs the inheritance of +the results of nervous lesions, but analyses of his results leave the +question extremely doubtful. The inheritance of the effects of use and +disuse is not proved. The inheritance of the effects of changed +conditions of life is quite uncertain. Nageli grew Alpine plants at +Munich, but found that the change was produced at once and was not +increased in a period of thirteen years. Alphonse de Candolle starved +plants, with the result of producing better blooms, and found that +seedlings from these were also above the average in luxuriance of +blossom, but in these experiments the effects of selection during the +starvation, and of direct effect on the nutrition of the seeds, were not +eliminated. Such results are typical of the vast number of experiments +and observations recorded. The empirical issue is doubtful, with a +considerable balance against the supposed inheritance of acquired +characters. + +_Empirical Study of Effects of Amphimixis._--Inheritance is +theoretically possible from each parent and from the ancestry of each. +In considering the total effect it is becoming customary to distinguish +between "blended" inheritance, where the offspring appears in respect of +any character to be intermediate between the conditions in the parents; +"prepotent" inheritance, where one parent is supposed to be more +effective than the other in stamping the offspring (thus, for instance, +Negroes, Jews and Chinese are stated to be prepotent in crosses); +"exclusive" inheritance, where the character of the offspring is +definitely that of one of the parents. Such a classification depends on +the interpretation of the word character, and rests on no certain +grounds. An apparently blended character or a prepotent character may on +analysis turn out to be due to the inheritance of a certain proportion +of minuter characters derived exclusively from either parent. H. de +Vries and later on a number of other biologists have advanced the +knowledge of heredity in crosses by carrying out further the +experimental and theoretical work of Gregor Mendel (see MENDELISM and +HYBRIDISM), and results of great practical importance to breeders have +already been obtained. These experiments and results, however, appear to +relate exclusively to sexual reproduction and almost entirely to the +crossing of artificial varieties of animals and plants. So far as they +go, they point strongly to the occurrence of alternate inheritance +instead of blended inheritance in the case of artificial varieties. On +the other hand, in the case of natural varieties it appears that blended +inheritance predominates. The difficulty of the interpretation of the +word "character" still remains and the Mendelian interpretation cannot +be dismissed with regard to the behaviour of any "character" in +inheritance until it is certain that it is a unit and not a composite. +There is another fundamental difficulty in making empirical comparisons +between the characters of parents and offspring. At first sight it seems +as if this mode of work were sufficiently direct and simple, and +involved no more than a mere collection of sufficient data. The cranial +index, or the height of a human being and of so many of his ancestors +being given, it would seem easy to draw an inference as to whether or no +in these cases brachycephaly or stature were inherited. But our modern +conceptions of the individual and the race make it plain that the +problems are not so simple. With regard to any character, the race type +is not a particular measurement, but a curve of variations derived from +statistics, and any individual with regard to the particular character +may be referable to any point of the curve. A tall race like the modern +Scots may contain individuals of any height within the human limits; a +dolichocephalic race like the modern Spaniards may contain extremely +round-headed individuals. What is meant by saying that one race is tall +or the other dolichocephalic, is merely that if a sufficiently large +number be chosen at random, the average height of the one race will be +great, the cranial index of the other low. It follows that the study of +variation must be associated with, or rather must precede, the empirical +study of heredity, and we are beginning to know enough now to be certain +that in both cases the results to be obtained are practically useless +for the individual case, and of value only when large masses of +statistics are collected. No doubt, when general conclusions have been +established, they must be acted on for individual cases, but the results +can be predicted not for the individual case, but only for the average +of a mass of individual cases. It is impossible within the limits of +this article to discuss the mathematical conceptions involved in the +formation and applications of the method, but it is necessary to insist +on the fact that these form an indispensable part of any valuable study +of empirical data. One interesting conclusion, which may be called the +"ancestral law" of heredity, with regard to any character, such as +height, which appears to be a blend of the male and female characters, +whether or no the apparent blend is really due to an exclusive +inheritance of separate components, may be given from the work of F. +Galton and K. Pearson. Each parent, on the average, contributes 1/4 or +(0.5)^2, each grandparent 1/16 or (0.5)^4, and each ancestor of n^th +place (0.5)^(2n). But this, like all other deductions, is applicable +only to the mass of cases and not to any individual case. + +_Regression._--An important result of quantitative work brings into +prominence the steady tendency to maintain the type which appears to be +one of the most important results of amphimixis. In the tenth generation +a man has 1024 tenth grandparents, and is thus the product of an +enormous population, the mean of which can hardly differ from that of +the general population. Hence this heavy weight of mediocrity produces +regression or progression to type. Thus in the case of height, a large +number of cases being examined, it was found that fathers of a stature +of 72 in. had sons with a mean stature of 70.8 in., a regression towards +the normal stature of the race. Fathers with a stature of 66 in. had +sons with a mean of 68.3 in., a progression towards the normal. It +follows from this that where there is much in-and-in breeding the weight +of mediocrity will be less, and the peculiarities of the breed will be +accentuated. + +_Atavism._--Under this name a large number of ordinary cases of +variation are included. A tall man with very short parents would +probably be set down as a case of atavism if the existence of a very +tall ancestor were known. He would, however, simply be a case of normal +variation, the probability of which may be calculated from a table of +stature variations in his race. Less marked cases set down to atavism +may be instances merely of normal regression. Many cases of more +abnormal structure, which are really due to abnormal embryonic or +post-embryonic development, are set down to atavism, as, for instance, +the cervical fistulae, which have been regarded as atavistic +persistences of the gill clefts. It is also used to imply the reversion +that takes place when domestic varieties are set free and when species +or varieties are crossed (see HYBRIDISM). Atavism is, in fact, a +misleading name covering a number of very different phenomena. + +_Telegony_ is the name given to the supposed fact that offspring of a +mother to one sire may inherit characters from a sire with which the +mother had previously bred. Although breeders of stock have a strong +belief in the existence of this, there are no certain facts to support +it, the supposed cases being more readily explained as individual +variations of the kind generally referred to as "atavism." None the +less, two theoretical explanations have been suggested: (1) that +spermatozoa, or portions of spermatozoa, from the first sire may +occasionally survive within the mother for an abnormally long period; +(2) that the body, or the reproductive cells of the mother, may be +influenced by the growth of the embryo within her, so that she acquires +something of the character of the sire. The first supposition has no +direct evidence to support it, and is made highly improbable from the +fact that a second impregnation is always necessary. Against the second +supposition Pearson brings the cogent empirical evidence that the +younger children of the same sire show no increased tendency to resemble +him. (See TELEGONY.) + + AUTHORITIES.--The following books contain a fair proportion of the new + and old knowledge on this subject:--W. Bateson, _Materials for the + Study of Variation_ (1894); Y. Delage, _La Structure du protoplasma et + les theories sur l'heredite_ (a very full discussion and list of + literature); G. H. T. Eimer, _Organic Evolution_, Eng. trans. by + Cunningham (1890); J. C. Ewart, _The Penycuik Experiments_ (1899); F. + Galton, _Natural Inheritance_ (1887); O. Hertwig, _Evolution or + Epigenesis?_ Eng. trans. by P. C. Mitchell (1896); K. Pearson, _The + Grammar of Science_ (1900); Verworn, _General Physiology_, Eng. trans. + (1899); A. Weismann, _The Germ Plasm_, Eng. trans. by Parker (1893). + Lists of separate papers are given in the annual volumes of the + _Zoological Record_ under heading "General Subject." (P. C. M.) + + + + +HEREFORD, a city and municipal and parliamentary borough, and the county +town of Herefordshire, England, on the river Wye, 144 m. W.N.W. of +London, on the Worcester-Cardiff line of the Great Western railway and +on the west-and-north joint line of that company and the North-Western. +It is connected with Ross and Gloucester by a branch of the Great +Western, and is the terminus of a line from the west worked by the +Midland and Neath & Brecon companies. Pop. (1901) 21,382. It is mainly +on the left bank of the river, which here traverses a broad valley, well +wooded and pleasant. The cathedral of St Ethelbert exemplifies all +styles from Norman to Perpendicular. The see was detached from Lichfield +in 676, Putta being its first bishop; and the modern diocese covers most +of Herefordshire, a considerable part of Shropshire, and small portions +of Worcestershire, Staffordshire and Monmouthshire; extending also a +short distance across the Welsh border. The removal of murdered +Aethelbert's body from Marden to Hereford led to the foundation of a +superior church, reconstructed by Bishop Athelstane, and burnt by the +Welsh in 1055. Begun again in 1079 by Bishop Robert Losinga, it was +carried on by Bishop Reynelm and completed in 1148 by Bishop R. de +Betun. In 1786 the great western tower fell and carried with it the west +front and the first bay of the nave, when the church suffered much from +unhappy restoration by James Wyatt, but his errors were partly corrected +by the further work of Lewis Cottingham and Sir Gilbert Scott in 1841 +and 1863 respectively, while the present west front is a reconstruction +completed in 1905. The total length of the cathedral outside is 342 ft., +inside 327 ft. 5 in., the nave being 158 ft. 6 in., the choir from +screen to reredos 75 ft. 6 in. and the lady chapel 93 ft. 5 in. Without, +the principal features are the central tower, of Decorated work with +ball-flower ornament, formerly surmounted by a timber spire; and the +north porch, rich Perpendicular with parvise. The lady chapel has a bold +east end with five narrow lancet windows. The bishop's cloisters, of +which only two walks remain, are Perpendicular of curious design, with +heavy tracery in the bays. A picturesque tower at the south-east corner, +in the same style, is called the "Lady Arbour," but the origin of the +name is unknown. Of the former fine decagonal Decorated chapter-house, +only the doorway and slight traces remain. Within, the nave has Norman +arcades, showing the wealth of ornament common to the work of this +period in the church. Wyatt shortened it by one bay, and the clerestory +is his work. There is a fine late Norman font, springing from a base +with the rare design of four lions at the corners. The south transept is +also Norman, but largely altered by the introduction of Perpendicular +work. The north transept was wholly rebuilt in 1287 to contain the +shrine of St Thomas de Cantilupe, bishop of Hereford, of which there +remains the magnificent marble pedestal surmounted by an ornate arcade. +The fine lantern, with its many shafts and vaulting, was thrown open to +the floor of the bell-chamber by Cottingham. The choir screen is a +florid design by Sir Gilbert Scott, in light wrought iron, with a wealth +of ornament in copper, brass, mosaic and polished stones. The dark choir +is Norman in the arcades and the stage above, with Early English +clerestory and vaulting. At the east end is a fine Norman arch, blocked +until 1841 by a Grecian screen erected in 1717. The choir stalls are +largely Decorated. The organ contains original work by the famous +builder Renatus Harris, and was the gift of Charles II. to the +cathedral. The small north-east and south-east transepts are Decorated +but retain traces of the Norman apsidal terminations eastward. The +eastern lady chapel, dated about 1220, shows elaborate Early English +work. On the south side opens the little Perpendicular chantry of Bishop +Audley (1492-1502). In the north choir aisle is the beautiful +fan-vaulted chantry of Bishop Stanbury (1470). The crypt is remarkable +as being, like the lady chapel, Early English, and is thus the only +cathedral crypt in England of a later date than the 11th century. The +ancient monastic library remains in the archive room, with its heavy oak +cupboards. Deeds, documents and several rare manuscripts and relics are +preserved, and several of the precious books are still secured by +chains. But the most celebrated relic is in the south choir aisle. This +is the Map of the World, dating from about 1314, the work of a +Lincolnshire monk, Richard of Haldingham. It represents the world as +surrounded by ocean, and embodies many ideas taken from Herodotus, Pliny +and other writers, being filled with grotesque figures of men, beasts, +birds and fishes, together with representations of famous cities and +scenes of scriptural classical story, such as the Labyrinth of Crete, +the Egyptian pyramids, Mount Sinai and the journeyings of the +Israelites. The map is surmounted by representations of Paradise and the +Day of Judgment. + +From the south-east transept of the cathedral a cloister leads to the +quadrangular college of the Vicars-Choral, a beautiful Perpendicular +building. On this side of the cathedral, too, the bishop's palace, +originally a Norman hall, overlooks the Wye, and near it lies the castle +green, the site of the historic castle, which is utterly effaced. There +is here a column (1809) commemorating the victories of Nelson. The +church of All Saints is Early English and Decorated, and has a lofty +spire. Both this and St Peter's (originally Norman) have good carved +stalls, but the fabric of both churches is greatly restored. One only of +the six gates and a few fragments of the old walls are still to be seen, +but there are ruins of the Black Friars' Monastery in Widemarsh, and a +mile out of Hereford on the Brecon Road, the White Cross, erected in +1347 by Bishop Louis Charlton, and restored by Archdeacon Lord Saye and +Sele, commemorates the departure of the Black Plague. Of domestic +buildings the "Old House" is a good example of the picturesque +half-timbered style, dating from 1621, and the Coningsby Hospital +(almshouses) date from 1614. The inmates wear a remarkable uniform of +red, designed by the founder, Sir T. Coningsby. St Ethelbert's hospital +is an Early English foundation. Old-established schools are the +Cathedral school (1384) and the Blue Coat school (1710); there is also +the County College (1880). The public buildings are the shire hall in St +Peter's Street, in the Grecian Doric style, with a statue in front of it +of Sir George Cornewall Lewis, who represented the county in parliament +from 1847 to 1852, the town hall (1904), the corn-exchange (1858), the +free library and museum in Broad Street; the guildhall and mansion +house. A musical festival of the choirs of Hereford, Gloucester and +Worcester cathedrals is held annually in rotation at these cities. + +The government is in the hands of a municipal council consisting of a +mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 5031 acres. + +Hereford (_Herefortuna_), founded after the crossing of the Severn by +the West Saxons early in the 7th century, had a strategic importance due +to its proximity to the Welsh March. The foundation of the castle is +ascribed to Earl Harold, afterwards Harold II. The castle was +successfully besieged by Stephen, and was the prison of Prince Edward +during the Barons' Wars. The pacification of Wales deprived Hereford of +military significance until it became a Royalist stronghold during the +Civil Wars. It surrendered easily to Waller in 1643; but was reoccupied +by the king's troops and received Rupert on his march to Wales after +Naseby. It was besieged by the Scots during August 1645 and relieved by +the king. It fell to the Parliamentarians in this year. In 1086 the town +included fees of the bishop, the dean and chapter, and the Knights +Hospitallers, but was otherwise royal demesne. Richard I. in 1189 sold +their town to the citizens at a fee farm rent, which grant was confirmed +by John, Henry III., Edward II., Edward III., Richard II., Henry IV. and +Edward IV. Incorporation was granted to the mayor, aldermen and citizens +in 1597, and confirmed in 1620 and 1697-1698. Hereford returned two +members to parliament from 1295 until 1885, when the Redistribution Act +deprived it of one representative. In 1116-1117 a fair beginning on St +Ethelberta's day was conferred on the bishop, the antecedent of the +modern fair in the beginning of May. A fair beginning on St Denis' day, +granted to the citizens in 1226-1227, is represented by that held in +October. The fair of Easter Wednesday was granted in 1682. In 1792 the +existing fairs of Candlemas week and the beginning of July were held. +Market days were, under Henry VIII. and in 1792, Wednesday, Friday and +Saturday; the Friday market was discontinued before 1835. Hereford was +the site of a provincial mint in 1086 and later. A grant of an exclusive +merchant gild, in 1215-1216, was several times confirmed. The trade in +wool was important in 1202, and eventually responsible for gilds of +tailors, drapers, mercers, dyers, fullers, cloth workers, weavers and +haberdashers; it brought into the market Welsh friezes and white cloth; +but declined in the 16th century, although it existed in 1835. The +leather trade was considerable in the 13th century. In 1835 the glove +trade had declined. The city anciently had an extensive trade in bread +with Wales. It was the birthplace of David Garrick, the actor, in 1716, +and probably of Nell Gwyn, mistress of Charles II., to whose memory a +tablet was erected in 1883, marking the supposed site of her house. + + See R. Johnson, _Ancient Customs of Hereford_ (London, 1882); J. + Duncumbe, _History of Hereford_ (Hereford, 1882); _Journal_ of Brit. + Arch. Assoc. xxvi. + + + + +HEREFORDSHIRE, an inland county of England on the south Welsh border, +bounded N. by Shropshire, E. by Worcestershire, S. by Monmouthshire and +Gloucestershire, and W. by Radnorshire and Brecknockshire. The area is +839.6 sq. m. The county is almost wholly drained by the Wye and its +tributaries, but on the north and east includes a small portion of the +Severn basin. The Wye enters Herefordshire from Wales at Hay, and with a +sinuous and very beautiful course crosses the south-western part of the +county, leaving it close above the town of Monmouth. Of its tributaries, +the Lugg enters in the north-west near Presteign, and has a course +generally easterly to Leominster, where it turns south, receives the +Arrow from the west, and joins the Wye 6 m. below Hereford, the Frome +flowing in from the east immediately above the junction. The Monnow +rising in the mountains of Brecknockshire forms the boundary between +Herefordshire and Monmouthshire over one-half of its course (about 20 +m.), but it joins the main river at Monmouth. Its principal tributary in +Herefordshire is the Dore, which traverses the picturesque Golden +Valley. The Wye is celebrated for its salmon fishing, which is carefully +preserved, while the Lugg, Arrow and Frome abound in trout and grayling, +as does the Teme. This last is a tributary of the Severn, and only two +short reaches lie within this county in the north, while it also forms +parts of the northern and eastern boundary. The Leddon, also flowing to +the Severn, rises in the east of the county and leaves it in the +south-east, passing the town of Ledbury. High ground, of an elevation +from 500 to 800 ft., separates the various valleys, while on the eastern +boundary rise the Malvern Hills, reaching 1194 ft. in the Herefordshire +Beacon, and 1395 ft. in the Worcestershire Beacon, and on the boundary +with Brecknockshire the Black Mountains exceed 2000 ft. The scenery of +the Wye, with its wooded and often precipitous banks, is famous, the +most noteworthy point in this county being about Symond's Yat, on the +Gloucestershire border below Ross. + + _Geology._--The Archean or Pre-Cambrian rocks, the most ancient in the + county, emerge from beneath the newer deposits in three small isolated + areas. On the western border, Stanner Rock, a picturesque craggy hill + near Kington, consists of igneous materials (granitoid rock, felstone, + dolerite and gabbro), apparently of intrusive origin and possibly of + Uriconian age. In Brampton Bryan Park, a few miles to the north-east, + some ancient conglomerates emerge and may be of Longmyndian age. On + the east of the county the Herefordshire Beacon in the Malvern chain + consists of gneisses and schists and Uriconian volcanic rocks; these + have been thrust over various members of the Cambrian and Silurian + systems, and owing to their hard and durable nature they form the + highest ground in the county. The Cambrian rocks (Tremadoc Beds) come + next in order of age and consist of quartzites, sandstones and shales, + well exposed at the southern end of the Malvern chain and also at + Pedwardine near Brampton Bryan. The Silurian rocks are well developed + in the north-west part of the county, between Presteign and Ludlow; + also along the western flanks of the Malvern Hills and in the eroded + dome of Woolhope. Smaller patches come to light at Westhide east of + Hereford and at May Hill near Newent. They consist of highly + fossiliferous sandstones, mudstones, shales and limestones, known as + the Llandovery, Wenlock and Ludlow Series; the Woolhope, Wenlock and + Aymestry Limestones are famed for their rich fossil contents. The + remainder and by far the greater part of the county is occupied by the + Old Red Sandstone, through which the rocks above described project in + detached areas. The Old Red Sandstone consists of a great thickness of + red sandstones and marls, with impersistent bands of impure + concretionary limestone known as cornstones, which by their superior + hardness give rise to scarps and rounded ridges; they have yielded + remains of fishes and crustaceans. Some of the upper beds are + conglomeratic. On its south-eastern margin the county just reaches the + Carboniferous Limestone cliffs of the Wye Valley near Ross. Glacial + deposits, chiefly sand and gravel, are found in the lower ground along + the river-courses, while caves in the Carboniferous Limestone have + yielded remains of the hyena, cave-lion, rhinoceros, mammoth and + reindeer. + +_Agriculture and Industries._--The soil is generally marl and clay, but +in various parts contains calcareous earth in mixed proportions. +Westward the soil is tenacious and retentive of water; on the east it is +a stiff and often reddish clay. In the south is found a light sandy +loam. More than four-fifths of the total area of the county is under +cultivation and about two-thirds of this is in permanent pasture. Ash +and oak coppices and larch plantations clothe its hillsides and crests. +The rich red soil of the Old Red Sandstone formation is famous for its +pear and apple orchards, the county, notwithstanding its much smaller +area, ranking in this respect next to Devonshire. The apple crop, +generally large, is enormous one year out of four. Twenty hogsheads of +cider have been made from an acre of orchard, twelve being the ordinary +yield. Cider is the staple beverage of the county, and the trade in +cider and perry is large. Hops are another staple of the county, the +vines of which are planted in rows on ploughed land. As early as +Camden's day a Herefordshire adage coupled Weobley ale with Leominster +bread, indicating the county's capacity to produce fine wheat and +barley, as well as hops. + +Herefordshire is also famous as a breeding county for its cattle of +bright red hue, with mottled or white faces and sleek silky coats. The +Herefords are stalwart and healthy, and, though not good milkers, put on +more meat and fat at an early age, in proportion to food consumed, than +almost any other variety. They produce the finest beef, and are more +cheaply fed than Devons or Durhams, with which they are advantageously +crossed. As a dairy county Herefordshire does not rank high. Its small, +white-faced, hornless, symmetrical breed of sheep known as "the +Ryelands," from the district near Ross, where it was bred in most +perfection, made the county long famous both for the flavour of its meat +and the merino-like texture of its wool. Fuller says of this that it was +best known as "Lempster ore," and the finest in all England. In its +original form the breed is extinct, crossing with the Leicester having +improved size and stamina at the cost of the fleece, and the chief +breeds of sheep on Herefordshire farms at present are Shropshire Downs, +Cotswolds and Radnors, with their crosses. Agricultural horses of good +quality are bred in the north, and saddle and coach horses may be met +with at the fairs. Breeders' names from the county are famous at the +national cattle shows, and the number, size and quality of the stock are +seen in their supply of the metropolitan and other markets. Prize +Herefords are constantly exported to the colonies. + +Manufacturing enterprise is small. There are some iron foundries and +factories for agricultural implements, and some paper is made. There are +considerable limestone quarries, as near Ledbury. + +_Communications._--Hereford is an important railway centre. The +Worcester and Cardiff line of the Great Western railway, entering on the +east, runs to Hereford by Ledbury and then southward. The joint line of +the Great Western and North-Western companies runs north from Hereford +by Leominster, proceeding to Shrewsbury and Crewe. At Leominster a Great +Western branch crosses, connecting Worcester, Bromyard and New Radnor. +From Hereford a Great Western branch follows the Wye south to Ross, and +thence to the Forest of Dean and to Gloucester; a branch connects +Ledbury with Gloucester, and the Golden Valley is traversed by a branch +from Pontrilas on the Worcester-Cardiff line. From Hereford the Midland +and Neath and Brecon line follows the Wye valley westward. None of the +rivers is commercially navigable and the canals are out of use. + +_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is +537,363 acres, with a population in 1891 of 115,949 and in 1901 of +114,380. The area of the administrative county is 538,921 acres. The +county contains 12 hundreds. It is divided into two parliamentary +divisions, Leominster (N.) and Ross (S.), and it also includes the +parliamentary borough of Hereford, each returning one member. There are +two municipal boroughs--Hereford (pop. 21,382) and Leominster (5826). +The other urban districts are Bromyard (1663), Kington (1944), Ledbury +(3259) and Ross (3303). The county is in the Oxford circuit, and assizes +are held at Hereford. It has one court of quarter sessions and is +divided into 11 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Hereford and +Leominster have separate commissions of the peace, and the borough of +Hereford has in addition a separate court of quarter sessions. There are +260 civil parishes. The ancient county, which is almost entirely in the +diocese of Hereford, with small parts in those of Gloucester, Worcester +and Llandaff, contains 222 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly +or in part. + +_History._--At some time in the 7th century the West Saxons pushed their +way across the Severn and established themselves in the territory +between Wales and Mercia, with which kingdom they soon became +incorporated. The district which is now Herefordshire was occupied by a +tribe the Hecanas, who congregated chiefly in the fertile area about +Hereford and in the mining districts round Ross. In the 8th century Offa +extended the Mercian frontier to the Wye, securing it by the earthwork +known as Offa's dike, portions of which are visible at Knighton and +Moorhampton in this county. In 915 the Danes made their way up the +Severn to the district of Archenfield, where they took prisoner +Cyfeiliawg bishop of Llandaff, and in 921 they besieged Wigmore, which +had been rebuilt in that year by Edward. From the time of its first +settlement the district was the scene of constant border warfare with +the Welsh, and Harold, whose earldom included this county, ordered that +any Welshman caught trespassing over the border should lose his right +hand. In the period preceding the Conquest much disturbance was caused +by the outrages of the Norman colony planted in this county by Edward +the Confessor. Richard's castle in the north of the county was the first +Norman fortress erected on English soil, and Wigmore, Ewyas Harold, +Clifford, Weobley, Hereford, Donnington and Caldecot were all the sites +of Norman strongholds. The conqueror entrusted the subjugation of +Herefordshire to William FitzOsbern, but Edric the Wild in conjunction +with the Welsh prolonged resistance against him for two years. + +In the wars of Stephen's reign Hereford and Weobley castles were held +against the king, but were captured in 1138. Edward, afterwards Edward +I., was imprisoned in Hereford Castle, and made his famous escape thence +in 1265. In 1326 the parliament assembled at Hereford which deposed +Edward II. In the 14th and 15th centuries the forest of Deerfold gave +refuge to some of the most noted followers of Wycliffe. During the Wars +of the Roses the influence of the Mortimers led the county to support +the Yorkist cause, and Edward, afterwards Edward IV., raised 23,000 men +in this neighbourhood. The battle of Mortimer's Cross was fought in 1461 +near Wigmore. Before the outbreak of the civil war of the 17th century, +complaints of illegal taxation were rife in Herefordshire, but a strong +anti-puritan feeling induced the county to favour the royalist cause. +Hereford, Goodrich and Ledbury all endured sieges. + +The earldom of Hereford was granted by William I. to William FitzOsbern, +about 1067, but on the outlawry of his son Roger in 1074 the title +lapsed until conferred on Henry de Bohun about 1199. It remained in the +possession of the Bohuns until the death of Humphrey de Bohun in 1373; +in 1397 Henry, earl of Derby, afterwards King Henry IV., who had married +Mary Bohun, was created duke of Hereford. Edward VI. created Walter +Devereux, a descendant of the Bohun family, Viscount Hereford, in 1550, +and his grandson, the famous earl of Essex, was born in this county. +Since this date the viscounty has been held by the Devereux family, and +the holder ranks as the premier viscount of England. The families of +Clifford, Giffard and Mortimer figured prominently in the warfare on the +Welsh border, and the Talbots, Lacys, Crofts and Scudamores also had +important seats in the county, Sir James Scudamore of Holme Lacy being +the original of the Sir Scudamore of Spenser's _Faery Queen_. Sir John +Oldcastle, the leader of the Lollards, was sheriff of Herefordshire in +1406. + +Herefordshire probably originated as a shire in the time of Aethelstan, +and is mentioned in the Saxon Chronicle in 1051. In the Domesday Survey +parts of Monmouthshire and Radnorshire are assessed under Herefordshire, +and the western and southern borders remained debatable ground until +with the incorporation of the Welsh marches in 1535 considerable +territory was restored to Herefordshire and formed into the hundreds of +Wigmore, Ewyas Lacy and Huntingdon, while Ewyas Harold was united to +Webtree. At the time of the Domesday Survey the divisions of the county +were very unsettled. As many as nineteen hundreds are mentioned, but +these were of varying extent, some containing only one manor, some from +twenty to thirty. Of the twelve modern hundreds, only Greytree, Radlow, +Stretford, Wolphy and Wormelow retain Domesday names. Herefordshire has +been included in the diocese of Hereford since its foundation in 676. In +1291 it comprised the deaneries of Hereford, Weston, Leominster, +Weobley, Frome, Archenfield and Ross in the archdeaconry of Hereford, +and the deaneries of Burford, Stottesdon, Ludlow, Pontesbury, Clun and +Wenlock, in the archdeaconry of Shropshire. In 1877 the name of the +archdeaconry of Shropshire was changed to Ludlow, and in 1899 the +deaneries of Abbey Dore, Bromyard, Kingsland, Kington and Ledbury were +created in the archdeaconry of Hereford. + +Herefordshire was governed by a sheriff as early as the reign of Edward +the Confessor, the shire-court meeting at Hereford where later the +assizes and quarter sessions were also held. In 1606 an act was passed +declaring Hereford free from the jurisdiction of the council of Wales, +but the county was not finally relieved from the interference of the +Lords Marchers until the reign of William and Mary. + +Herefordshire has always been esteemed an exceptionally rich +agricultural area, the manufactures being unimportant, with the sole +exception of the woollen and the cloth trade which flourished soon after +the Conquest. Iron was worked in Wormelow hundred in Roman times, and +the Domesday Survey mentions iron workers in Marcle. At the time of +Henry VIII. the towns had become much impoverished, and Elizabeth in +order to encourage local industries, insisted on her subjects wearing +English-made caps from the factory of Hereford. Hops were grown in the +county soon after their introduction into England in 1524. In 1580 and +again in 1637 the county was severely visited by the plague, but in the +17th century it had a flourishing timber trade and was noted for its +orchards and cider. + +Herefordshire was first represented in parliament in 1295, when it +returned two members, the boroughs of Ledbury, Hereford, Leominster and +Weobley being also represented. Hereford was again represented in 1299, +and Bromyard and Ross in 1304, but the boroughs made very irregular +returns, and from 1306 until Weobley regained representation in 1627, +only Hereford and Leominster were represented. Under the act of 1832 the +county returned three members and Weobley was disfranchised. The act of +1868 deprived Leominster of one member, and under the act of 1885 +Leominster was disfranchised, and Hereford lost one member. + +_Antiquities._--There are remains of several of the strongholds which +Herefordshire possessed as a march county, some of which were maintained +and enlarged, after the settlement of the border, to serve in later +wars. To the south of Ross are those of Wilton and Goodrich, commanding +the Wye on the right bank, the latter a ruin of peculiar magnificence, +and both gaining picturesqueness from their beautiful situations. Of the +several castles in the valleys of the boundary-river Monnow and its +tributaries, those in this county include Pembridge, Kilpeck and +Longtown; of which the last shows extensive remains of the strong keep +and thick walls. In the north the finest example is Wigmore, consisting +of a keep on an artificial mound within outer walls, the seat of the +powerful family of Mortimer. + +Beside the cathedral of Hereford, and the fine churches of Ledbury, +Leominster and Ross, described under separate headings, the county +contains some churches of almost unique interest. In that of Kilpeck +remarkable and unusual Norman work is seen. It consists of the three +divisions of nave, choir and chancel, divided by ornate arches, the +chancel ending in an apse, with a beautiful and elaborate west end and +south doorway. The columns of the choir arch are composed of figures. A +similar plan is seen in Peterchurch in the Golden Valley, and in Moccas +church, on the Wye above Hereford. Among the large number of churches +exhibiting Norman details that at Bromyard is noteworthy. At Abbey Dore, +the Cistercian abbey church, still in use, is a large and beautiful +specimen of Early English work, and there are slight remains of the +monastic buildings. At Madley, south of the Wye 5 m. W. of Hereford, is +a fine Decorated church (with earlier portions), with the rare feature +of a Decorated apsidal chancel over an octagonal crypt. Of the churches +in mixed styles those in the larger towns are the most noteworthy, +together with that of Weobley. + +The half-timbered style of domestic architecture, common in the west and +midlands of England in the 16th and 17th centuries, beautifies many of +the towns and villages. Among country houses, that of Treago, 9 m. W. of +Ross, is a remarkable example of a fortified mansion of the 13th +century, in a condition little altered. Rudhall and Sufton Court, +between Ross and Hereford, are good specimens of 15th-century work, and +portions of Hampton Court, 8 m. N. of Hereford, are of the same period, +built by Sir Rowland Lenthall, a favourite of Henry IV. Holme Lacy, 5 m. +S.E. of Hereford, is a fine mansion of the latter part of the 17th +century, with picturesque Dutch gardens, and much wood-carving by +Grinling Gibbons within. This was formerly the seat of the Scudamores, +from whom it was inherited by the Stanhopes, earls of Chesterfield, the +9th earl of Chesterfield taking the name of Scudamore-Stanhope. His son, +the 10th earl, has recently (1909) sold Holme Lacy to Sir Robert +Lucas-Tooth, Bart. Downton Castle possesses historical interest in +having been designed in 1774, in a strange mixture of Gothic and Greek +styles, by Richard Payne Knight (1750-1824), a famous scholar, +numismatist and member of parliament for Leominster and Ludlow; while +Eaton Hall, now a farm, was the seat of the family of the famous +geographer Richard Hakluyt. + + See _Victoria County History, Herefordshire_; J. Duncomb, _Collections + towards the History and Antiquities of the County of Hereford_ + (Hereford, 1804-1812); John Allen, _Bibliotheca Herefordiensis_ + (Hereford, 1821); John Webb, _Memorials of the Civil War between + Charles I. and the Parliament of England as it affected Herefordshire + and the adjacent Counties_ (London, 1879); R. Cooke, _Visitation of + Herefordshire, 1569_ (Exeter, 1886); F. T. Havergal, _Herefordshire + Words and Phrases_ (Walsall, 1887); J. Hutchinson, _Herefordshire + Biographies_ (Hereford, 1890). + + + + +HERERO, or OVAHERERO ("merry people"), a Bantu people of German +South-West Africa, living in the region known as Damaraland or +Hereroland. They call themselves Ovaherero and their language +Otshi-herero. Sometimes they are described as Cattle Damara or "Damara +of the Plains" in distinction from the Hill Damara who are of mixed +blood and Hottentots in language. The Herero, whose main occupation is +that of cattle-rearing, are a warlike race, possessed of considerable +military skill, as was shown in their campaigns of 1904-5 against the +Germans. (See further GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA.) + + + + +HERESY, the English equivalent of the Greek word [Greek: hairesis] which +is used in the Septuagint for "free choice," in later classical +literature for a philosophical school or sect as "chosen" by those who +belong to it, in Philo for religion, in Josephus for a religious party +(the Sadducees, the Pharisees and the Essenes). + + + New Testament. + +It is in this last sense that the term is used in the New Testament, +usually with an implicit censure of the factious spirit to which such +divisions are due. The term is applied to the Sadducees (Acts v. 17) and +Pharisees (Acts xv. 5, xxvi. 5). From the standpoint of opponents, +Christianity is itself so described (Acts xxiv. 14, xxviii. 22). In the +Pauline Epistles it is used with severe condemnation of the divisions +within the Christian Church itself. Heresies with "enmities, strife, +jealousies, wraths, factions, divisions, envyings" are reckoned among +"the works of the flesh" (Gal. v. 20). Such divisions, proofs of a +carnal mind, are censured in the church of Corinth (1 Cor. iii. 3, 4); +and the church of Rome is warned against those who cause them (Rom. xvi. +17). The term "schism," afterwards distinguished from "heresy," is also +used of these divisions (1 Cor. i. 10). The estrangements of the rich +and the poor in the church at Corinth, leading to a lack of Christian +fellowship even at the Lord's Supper, is described as "heresy" (1 Cor. +xi. 19). Breaches of the law of love, not errors about the truth of the +Gospel, are referred to in these passages. But the first step towards +the ecclesiastical use of the term is found already in 2 Peter ii. 1, +"Among you also there shall be false teachers who shall privily bring in +destructive heresies (R.V. margin "sects of perdition"), denying even +the Master that bought them, bringing upon themselves swift +destruction." The meaning here suggested is "falsely chosen or erroneous +tenets. Already the emphasis is moving from persons and their temper to +mental products--from the sphere of sympathetic love to that of +objective truth" (Bartlet, art. "Heresy," Hastings's _Bible +Dictionary_). As the parallel passage in Jude, verse 4, shows, however, +that these errors had immoral consequences, the moral reference is not +absent even from this passage. The first employment of the term outside +the New Testament is also its first use for theological error. Ignatius +applies it to Docetism (_Ad Trall._ 6). As doctrine came to be made more +important, heresy was restricted to any departure from the recognized +creed. Even Constantine the Great describes the Christian Church as "the +Catholic heresy," "the most sacred heresy" (Eusebius, _Ecclesiastical +History_, x. c. 5, the letter to Chrestus, bishop of Syracuse); but this +use was very soon abandoned, and the Catholic Church distinguished +itself from the dissenting minorities, which it condemned as "heresies." +The use of the term heresy in the New Testament cannot be regarded as +defining the attitude of the Christian Church, even in the Apostolic +age, towards errors in belief. The Apostolic writings show a vehement +antagonism towards all teaching opposed to the Gospel. Paul declares +_anathema_ the Judaizer, who required the circumcision of the Gentiles +(Gal. i. 8), and even calls them the "dogs of the concision" and "evil +workers" (Phil. iii. 2). The elders of Ephesus are warned against the +false teachers who would appear in the church after the apostle's death +as "grievous wolves not sparing the flock" (Acts xx. 29); and the +speculations of the Gnostics are denounced as "seducing spirits and +doctrines of devils" (1 Tim. iv. 1), as "profane babblings and +oppositions of the knowledge which is falsely so called" (vi. 20). +John's warnings are as earnest and severe. Those who deny the fact of +the Incarnation are described as "antichrist," and as "deceivers" (1 +John iv. 3; 2 John 7). The references to heretics in 2 Peter and Jude +have already been dealt with. This antagonism is explicable by the +character of the heresies that threatened the Christian Church in the +Apostolic age. Each of these heresies involved such a blending of the +Gospel with either Jewish or pagan elements, as would not only pollute +its purity, but destroy its power. In each of these the Gospel was in +danger of being made of none effect by the environment, which it must +resist in order that it might transform (see Burton's Bampton Lectures +on _The Heresies of the Apostolic Age_). + + + Gnosticism. + +These Gnostic heresies, which threatened to paganize the Christian +Church, were condemned in no measured terms by the fathers. These false +teachers are denounced as "servants of Satan, beasts in human shape, +dealers in deadly poison, robbers and pirates." Polycarp, Ignatius, +Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Tertullian and even Clement of +Alexandria and Origen are as severe in condemnation as the later fathers +(cf. Matt. xiii. 35-43; Tertullian, _Praescr._ 31). While the necessity +of the heresies is admitted in accordance with 1 Cor. xi. 19, yet woe is +pronounced on those who have introduced them, according to Matt. xviii. +7. (This application of these passages, however, is of altogether +doubtful validity.) "It was necessary," says Tertullian (ibid. 30), +"that the Lord should be betrayed; but woe to the traitor." The very +worst motives, "pride, disappointed ambition, sensual lust, and +avarice," are recklessly imputed to the heretics; and no possibility of +morally innocent doubt, difficulty or difference in thought is admitted. +Origen and Augustine do, however, recognize that even false teachers may +have good motives. While we must admit that there was a very serious +peril to the thought and life of the Christian Church in the teaching +thus denounced, yet we must not forget that for the most part these +teachers are known to us only in the _ex parte_ representation that +their opponents have given of them; and we must not assume that even +their doctrines, still less their characters, were so bad as they are +described. + +The attitude of the church in the post-Nicene period differs from that +in the ante-Nicene in two important respects. (1) As has already been +indicated, the earlier heresies threatened to introduce Jewish or pagan +elements into the faith of the church, and it was necessary that they +should be vigorously resisted if the church was to retain its +distinctive character. Many of the later heresies were differences in +the interpretation of Christian truth, which did not in the same way +threaten the very life of the church. No vital interest of Christian +faith justified the extravagant denunciations in which theological +partisanship so recklessly and ruthlessly indulged. (2) In the +ante-Nicene period only ecclesiastical penalties, such as reproof, +deposition or excommunication, could be imposed. In the post-Nicene the +union of church and state transformed theological error into legal +offence (see below). + + + Christian definition. + +We must now consider the definition of heresy which was gradually +reached in the Christian Church. It is "a religious error held in wilful +and persistent opposition to the truth after it has been defined and +declared by the church in an authoritative manner," or "pertinax +defensio dogmatis ecclesiae universalis judicio condemnati" (Schaff's +_Ante-Nicene_ Christianity, ii. 512-516). (i.) It "denotes an opinion +antagonistic to a fundamental article of the Christian faith," due to +the introduction of "foreign elements" and resulting in a perversion of +Christianity, and an amalgamation with it of ideas discordant with its +nature (Fisher's _History of Christian Doctrine_, p. 9). It has been +generally assumed that the ecclesiastical authority was always competent +to determine what are the fundamental articles of the Christian faith, +and to detect any departures from them; but it is necessary to admit the +possibility that the error was in the church, and the truth was with the +heresy. (ii.) There cannot be any heresy where there is no orthodoxy, +and, therefore, in the definition it is assumed that the church has +declared what is the truth or the error in any matter. Accordingly +"heresy is to be distinguished from defective stages of Christian +knowledge. For example, the Jewish believers, including the Apostles +themselves, at the outset required the Gentile believers to be +circumcised. They were not on this account chargeable with heresy. +Additional light must first come in, and be rejected, before that +earlier opinion could be thus stigmatized. Moreover, heresies are not to +be confounded with tentative and faulty hypotheses broached in a period +prior to the scrutiny of a topic of Christian doctrine, and before that +scrutiny has led the general mind to an assured conclusion. Such +hypotheses--for example, the idea that in the person of Christ the Logos +is substituted for a rational human spirit--are to be met with in +certain early fathers" (ibid. p. 10). Origen indulged in many +speculations which were afterwards condemned, but, as these matters were +still open questions in his day, he was not reckoned a heretic. (iii.) +In accordance with the New Testament use of the term heresy, it is +assumed that moral defect accompanies the intellectual error, that the +false view is held pertinaciously, in spite of warning, remonstrance and +rebuke; aggressively to win over others, and so factiously, to cause +division in the church, a breach in its unity. + + + Schism. + +A distinction is made between "heresy" and "schism" (from Gr. [Greek: +schizein], rend asunder, divide). "The fathers commonly use 'heresy' of +false teaching in opposition to Catholic doctrine, and 'schism' of a +breach of discipline, in opposition to Catholic government" (Schaff). +But as the claims of the church to be the guardian through its +episcopate of the apostolic tradition, of the Christian faith itself, +were magnified, and unity in practice as well as in doctrine came to be +regarded as essential, this distinction became a theoretical rather than +a practical one. While severely condemning, both Irenaeus and Tertullian +distinguished schismatics from heretics. "Though we are by no means +entitled to say that they acknowledged orthodox schismatics they did not +yet venture to reckon them simply as heretics. If it was desired to get +rid of these, an effort was made to impute to them some deviation from +the rule of faith; and under this pretext the church freed herself from +the Montanists and the Monarchians. Cyprian was the first to proclaim +the identity of heretics and schismatics by making a man's Christianity +depend on his belonging to the great episcopal church confederation. But +in both East and West, this theory of his became established only by +very imperceptible degrees, and indeed, strictly speaking, the process +was never completed. The distinction between heretics and schismatics +was preserved because it prevented a public denial of the old +principles, because it was advisable on political grounds to treat +certain schismatic communities with indulgence, and because it was +always possible in case of need to prove heresy against the +schismatics." (Harnack's _History of Dogma_, ii. 92-93). + + + Heretical baptism. + +There was considerable controversy in the early church as to the +validity of heretical baptism. As even "the Christian virtues of the +heretics were described as hypocrisy and love of ostentation," so no +value whatever was attached by the orthodox party to the sacraments +performed by heretics. Tertullian declares that the church can have no +communion with the heretics, for there is nothing common; as they have +not the same God, and the same Christ, so they have not the same baptism +(_De bapt._ 15). Cyprian agreed with him. The validity of heretical +baptism was denied by the church of Asia Minor as well as of Africa; but +the practice of the Roman Church was to admit without second baptism +heretics who had been baptized with the name of Christ, or of the Holy +Trinity. Stephen of Rome attempted to force the Roman practice on the +whole church in 253. The controversy his intolerance provoked was closed +by Augustine's controversial treatise _De Baptismo_, in which the +validity of baptism administered by heretics is based on the objectivity +of the sacrament. Whenever the name of the three-one God is used, the +sacrament is declared valid by whomsoever it may be performed. This was +a triumph of sacramentarianism, not of charity. + + + Types of heresy. + +Three types of heresy have appeared in the history of the Christian +Church.[1] The earliest may be called the _syncretic_; it is the fusion +of Jewish or pagan with Christian elements. _Ebionitism_ asserted "the +continual obligation to observe the whole of the Mosaic law," and +"outran the Old Testament monotheism by a barren monarchianism that +denied the divinity of Christ" (Kurtz, _Church History_, i. 120). +"_Gnosticism_ was the result of the attempt to blend with Christianity +the religious notions of pagan mythology, mysterology, theosophy and +philosophy" (p. 98). The Judaizing and the paganizing tendency were +combined in _Gnostic Ebionitism_ which was prepared for in _Jewish +Essenism_. In the later heresy of _Manichaeism_ there were affinities to +Gnosticism, but it was a mixture of many elements, Babylonian-Chaldaic +theosophy, Persian dualism and even Buddhist ethics (p. 126). + +The next type of heresy may be called _evolutionary_ or _formatory_. +When the Christian faith is being formulated, undue emphasis may be put +on one aspect, and thus so partial a statement of truth may result in +error. Thus when in the ante-Nicene age the doctrine of the Trinity was +under discussion, dynamic _Monarchianism_ "regarded Christ as a mere +man, who, like the prophets, though in a much higher measure, had been +endued with divine wisdom and power"; modal _Monarchianism_ saw in the +Logos dwelling in Christ "only a mode of the activity of the Father"; +_Patripassianism_ identified the Logos with the Father; and +_Sabellianism_ regarded Father, Son and Spirit as "the _roles_ which the +God who manifests Himself in the world assumes in succession" (Kurtz, +_Church History_, i. 175-181). When Arius asserted the subordination of +the Son to the Father, and denied the eternal generation, Athanasius and +his party asserted the _Homoousia_, the cosubstantiality of the Father +and the Son. This assertion of the divinity of Christ triumphed, but +other problems at once emerged. How was the relation of the humanity to +the divinity in Christ to be conceived? Apollinaris denied the +completeness of the human nature, and substituted the divine Logos for +the reasonable soul of man. Nestorius held the two natures so far apart +as to appear to sacrifice the unity of the person of Christ. Eutyches on +the contrary "taught not only that after His incarnation Christ had only +one nature, but also that the body of Christ as the body of God is not +of like substance with our own" (Kurtz, _Church History_, i, 330-334). +The Church in the Creed of Chalcedon in A.D. 451 affirmed "that Christ +is true God and true man, according to His Godhead begotten from +eternity and like the Father in everything, only without sin; and that +after His incarnation the unity of the person consists in two natures +which are conjoined without confusion, and without change, but also +without rending and without separation." The problem was not solved, but +the inadequate solutions were excluded, and the data to be considered in +any adequate solution were affirmed. After this decision the +controversies about the Person of Christ degenerated into mere +hair-splitting; and the interference of the imperial authority from time +to time in the dispute was not conducive to the settlement of the +questions in the interests of truth alone. This problem interested the +East for the most part; in the West there was waged a theological +warfare around the nature of man and the work of Christ. To Augustine's +doctrine of man's total depravity, his incapacity for any good, and the +absolute sovereignty of the divine grace in salvation according to the +divine election, Pelagius opposed the view that "God's grace is destined +for all men, but man must make himself worthy of it by honest striving +after virtue" (Kurtz, _Church History_, i. 348). While Pelagius was +condemned, it was only a modified Augustinianism which became the +doctrine of the church. It is not necessary in illustration of the +second type of heresy--that which arises when the contents of the +Christian faith are being defined--to refer to the doctrinal +controversies of the middle ages. It may be added that after the +Reformation Arianism was revived in Socinianism, and Pelagianism in +Arminianism; but the conception of heresy in Protestantism demands +subsequent notice. + +The third type of heresy is the _revolutionary_ or _reformatory_. This +is not directed against doctrine as such, but against the church, its +theory and its practice. Such movements of antagonism to the errors or +abuses of ecclesiastical authority may be so permeated by defective +conceptions and injurious influences as by their own character to +deserve condemnation. But on the other hand the church in maintaining +its place and power may condemn as heretical genuine efforts at reform +by a return, though partial, to the standard set by the Holy Scriptures +or the Apostolic Church. On the one hand there were during the middle +ages sects, like the Catharists and Albigenses, whose "opposition as a +rule developed itself from dualistic or pantheistic premises (surviving +effects of old Gnostic or Manichaean views)" and who "stood outside of +ordinary Christendom, and while no doubt affecting many individual +members within it, had no influence on church doctrine." On the other +hand there were movements, such as the Waldensian, the Wycliffite and +Hussite, which are often described as "reformations anticipating the +Reformation" which "set out from the Augustinian conception of the +Church, but took exception to the development of the conception," and +were pronounced by the medieval church as heretical for (1) "contesting +the hierarchical gradation of the priestly order; or (2) giving to the +religious idea of the Church implied in the thought of predestination a +place superior to the conception of the empirical Church; or (3) +applying to the priests, and thereby to the authorities of the Church, +the test of the law of God, before admitting their right to exercise, as +holding the keys, the power of binding and loosing" (Harnack's _History +of Dogma_, vi. 136-137). The Reformation itself was from the standpoint +of the Roman Catholic Church heresy and schism. + + + Modern use of the term. + +"In the present divided state of Christendom," says Schaff (_Ante-Nicene +Christianity_, ii. 513-514), "there are different kinds of orthodoxy and +heresy. Orthodoxy is conformity to the recognized creed or standard of +public doctrine; heresy is a wilful departure from it. The Greek Church +rejects as heretical, because contrary to the teaching of the first +seven ecumenical councils, the Roman dogmas of the papacy, of the double +procession of the Holy Ghost, the immaculate conception of the Virgin +Mary, and the infallibility of the Pope. The Roman Church anathematized, +in the council of Trent, all the distinctive doctrines of the Protestant +Reformation. Among Protestant churches again there are minor doctrinal +differences, which are held with various degrees of exclusiveness or +liberality according to the degree of departure from the Roman Catholic +Church. Luther, for instance, would not tolerate Zwingli's view on the +Lord's Supper, while Zwingli was willing to fraternize with him +notwithstanding this difference." At the colloquy of Marburg "Zwingli +offered his hand to Luther with the entreaty that they be at least +Christian brethren, but Luther refused it and declared that the Swiss +were of another spirit. He expressed surprise that a man of such views +as Zwingli should wish brotherly relations with the Wittenberg +reformers" (Walker, _The Reformation_, p. 174). A difference of opinion +on the question of the presence of Christ in the elements at the Lord's +Supper was thus allowed to divide and to weaken the forces of the +Reformation. On the problem of divine election Lutheranism and Calvinism +remained divided. The Formula of Concord (1577), which gave to the whole +Lutheran Church of Germany a common doctrinal system, declined to accept +the Calvinistic position that man's condemnation as well as his +salvation is an object of divine predestination. Within Calvinism itself +Pelagianism was revived in Arminianism, which denied the +irresistibility, and affirmed the universality of grace. This heresy was +condemned by the synod of Dort (1619). The standpoint of the Reformed +churches was the substitution of the authority of the Scriptures for the +authority of the church. Whatever was conceived as contrary to the +teaching of the Bible was regarded as heresy. The position is well +expressed in the _Scotch Confession_ (1559). "Protesting, that if any +man will note in this our Confession any article or sentence repugning +to God's Holy Word, that it would please him, of his gentleness, and for +Christian charity's sake, to admonish us of the same in writ, and we of +our honour and fidelity do promise unto him satisfaction from the mouth +of God; that is, from His Holy Scripture, or else reformation of that +which he shall prove to be amiss. In God we take to record in our +consciences that from our hearts we abhor all sects of heresy, and all +teachers of erroneous doctrines; and that with all humility we embrace +purity of Christ's evangel, which is the only food of our souls" +(Preface). + +Although subsequently to the Reformation period the Protestant churches +for the most part relapsed into the dogmatism of the Roman Catholic +Church, and were ever ready with censure for every departure from +orthodoxy--yet to-day a spirit of diffidence in regard to one's own +beliefs, and of tolerance towards the beliefs of others, is abroad. The +enlargement of the horizon of knowledge by the advance of science, the +recognition of the only relative validity of human opinions and beliefs +as determined by and adapted to each stage of human development, which +is due to the growing historical sense, the alteration of view regarding +the nature of inspiration, and the purpose of the Holy Scriptures, the +revolt against all ecclesiastical authority, and the acceptance of +reason and conscience as alone authoritative, the growth of the spirit +of Christian charity, the clamorous demand of the social problem for +immediate attention, all combine in making the Christian churches less +anxious about the danger, and less zealous in the discovery and +condemnation of heresy. + + + Persecution of heretics. + +Having traced the history of opinion in the Christian churches on the +subject of heresy, we must now return to resume a subject already +mentioned, the persecution of heretics. According to the Canon Law, +which "was the ecclesiastical law of medieval Europe, and is still the +law of the Roman Catholic Church," heresy was defined as "error which is +voluntarily held in contradiction to a doctrine which has been clearly +stated in the creed, and has become part of the defined faith of the +church," and which is "persisted in by a member of the church." It was +regarded not only as an error, but also as a crime to be detected and +punished. As it belongs, however, to a man's thoughts and not his deeds, +it often can be proved only from suspicions. The canonists define the +degrees of suspicion as "light" calling for vigilance, "vehement" +demanding denunciation, and "violent" requiring punishment. The grounds +of suspicion have been formulated "Pope Innocent III. declared that to +lead a solitary life, to refuse to accommodate oneself to the prevailing +manners of society and to frequent unauthorized religious meetings were +abundant grounds of suspicion; while later canonists were accustomed to +give lists of deeds which made the doers suspect: a priest who did not +celebrate mass, a layman who was seen in clerical robes, those who +favoured heretics, received them as guests, gave them safe conduct, +tolerated them, trusted them, defended them, fought under them or read +their books were all to be suspect" (T. M. Lindsay in article "Heresy," +_Ency. Brit._ 9th edition). That the dangers of heresy might be avoided, +laymen were forbidden to argue about matters of faith by Pope Alexander +IV., an oath "to abjure every heresy and to maintain in its completeness +the Catholic faith" was required by the council of Toledo (1129), the +reading of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue was not allowed to the +laity by Pope Pius IV. The reading of books was restricted and certain +books were prohibited. Regarding heresy as a crime, the church was not +content with inflicting its spiritual penalties, such as excommunication +and such civil disabilities as its own organization allowed it to impose +(e.g. the heretics were forbidden to give evidence in ecclesiastical +courts, fathers were forbidden to allow a son or a daughter to marry a +heretic, and to hold social intercourse with a heretic was an offence). +It regarded itself as justified in invoking the power of the state to +suppress heresy by civil pains and penalties, including even torture and +death. + +The story of the persecution of heretics by the state must be briefly +sketched. + +As long as the Christian Church was itself persecuted by the pagan +empire, it advocated freedom of conscience, and insisted that religion +could be promoted only by instruction and persuasion (Justin Martyr, +Tertullian, Lactantius); but almost immediately after Christianity was +adopted as the religion of the Roman empire the persecution of men for +religious opinions began. While Constantine at the beginning of his +reign (313) declared complete religious liberty, and kept on the whole +to this declaration, yet he confined his favours to the orthodox +hierarchical church, and even by an edict of the year 326 formally +asserted the exclusion from these of heretics and schismatics. Arianism, +when favoured by the reigning emperor, showed itself even more +intolerant than Catholic Orthodoxy. Theodosius the Great, in 380, soon +after his baptism, issued, with his co-emperors, the following edict: +"We, the three emperors, will that all our subjects steadfastly adhere +to the religion which was taught by St Peter to the Romans, which has +been faithfully preserved by tradition, and which is now professed by +the pontiff Damasus of Rome, and Peter, bishop of Alexandria, a man of +apostolic holiness. According to the institution of the Apostles, and +the doctrine of the Gospel, let us believe in the one Godhead of the +Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, of equal majesty in the Holy +Trinity. We order that the adherents of this faith be called _Catholic +Christians_; we brand all the senseless followers of the other religions +with the infamous name of _heretics_, and forbid their conventicles +assuming the name of churches. Besides the condemnation of divine +justice, they must expect the heavy penalties which our authority, +guided by heavenly wisdom, shall think proper to inflict" (Schaff's +_Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity_, i. 142). The fifteen penal laws +which this emperor issued in as many years deprived them of all right to +the exercise of their religion, "excluded them from all civil offices, +and threatened them with fines, confiscation, banishment and even in +some cases with death." In 385 Maximus, his rival and colleague, caused +seven heretics to be put to death at Treves (Trier). Many bishops +approved the act, but Ambrose of Milan and Martin of Tours condemned it. +While Chrysostom disapproved of the execution of heretics, he approved +"the prohibition of their assemblies and the confiscation of their +churches." Jerome by an appeal to Deut. xiii. 6-10 appears to defend +even the execution of heretics. Augustine found a justification for +these penal measures in the "compel them to come in" of Luke xiv. 23, +although his personal leanings were towards clemency. Only the +persecuted themselves insisted on toleration as a Christian duty. In the +middle ages the church showed no hesitation about persecuting unto death +all who dared to contradict her doctrine, or challenge her practice, or +question her authority. The instruction and persuasion which St Bernard +favoured found little imitation. Even the Dominicans, who began as a +preaching order to convert heretics, soon became persecutors. In the +Albigensian Crusade (A.D. 1209-1229) thousands were slaughtered. As the +bishops were not zealous enough in enforcing penal laws against +heretics, the Tribunal of the Inquisition was founded in 1232 by Gregory +IX., and was entrusted to the Dominicans who "as _Domini canes_ +subjected to the most cruel tortures all on whom the suspicion of heresy +fell, and all the resolute were handed over to the civil authorities, +who readily undertook their execution" (Kurtz, _Church History_, ii. +137-138). + +At the Reformation Luther laid down the principle that the civil +government is concerned with the province of the external and temporal +life, and has nothing to do with faith and conscience. "How could the +emperor gain the right," he asks, "to rule my faith?" With that only the +Word of God is concerned. "Heresy is a spiritual thing," he says, "which +one cannot hew with any iron, burn with any fire, drown with any water. +The Word of God alone is there to do it." Nevertheless Luther assigned +to the state, which he assumes to be Christian, the function of +maintaining the Gospel and the Word of God in public life. He was not +quite consistent in carrying out his principle (see Luthard's +_Geschichte der christlichen Ethik_, ii. 33). In the Religious Peace of +Augsburg the principle "cujus regio ejus religio" was accepted; by it a +ruler's choice between Catholicism and Lutheranism bound his subjects, +but any subject unwilling to accept the decision might emigrate without +hindrance. + +In Geneva under Calvin, while the _Consistoire_, or ecclesiastical +court, could inflict only spiritual penalties, yet the medieval idea of +the duty of the state to co-operate with the church to maintain the +religious purity of the community in matters of belief as well as of +conduct so far survived that the civil authority was sure to punish +those whom the ecclesiastical had censured. Calvin consented to the +death of Servetus, whose views on the Trinity he regarded as most +dangerous heresy, and whose denial of the full authority of the +Scriptures he dreaded as overthrowing the foundations of all religious +authority. Protestantism generally, it is to be observed, quite approved +the execution of the heretic. The Synod of Dort (1619) not only +condemned Arminianism, but its defenders were expelled from the +Netherlands; only in 1625 did they venture to return, and not till 1630 +were they allowed to erect schools and churches. In modern Protestantism +there is a growing disinclination to deal even with errors of belief by +ecclesiastical censure; the appeal to the civil authority to inflict any +penalty is abandoned. During the course of the 19th century in Scottish +Presbyterianism the affirmation of Christ's atoning death for _all_ men, +the denial of eternal punishment, the modification of the doctrine of +the inspiration of the Scriptures by acceptance of the results of the +Higher Criticism, were all censured as perilous errors. + +The subject cannot be left without a brief reference to the persecution +of witches. To the beginning of the 13th century the popular +superstitions regarding sorcery, witchcraft and compacts with the devil +were condemned by the ecclesiastical authorities as heathenish, sinful +and heretical. But after the establishment of the Inquisition "heresy +and sorcery were regarded as correlates, like two agencies resting on +and serviceable to the demoniacal powers, and were therefore treated in +the same way as offences to be punished with torture and the stake" +(Kurtz, _Church History_, ii. 195). While the Franciscans rejected the +belief in witchcraft, the Dominicans were most zealous in persecuting +witches. In the 15th century this delusion, fostered by the +ecclesiastical authorities, took possession of the mind of the people, +and thousands, mostly old women, but also a number of girls, were +tortured and burned as witches. Protestantism took over the superstition +from Catholicism. It was defended by James I. of England. As late as the +18th century death was inflicted in Germany and Switzerland on men, +women and even children accused of this crime. This superstition +dominated Scotland. Not till 1736 were the statutes against witchcraft +repealed; an act which the Associate Presbytery at Edinburgh in 1743 +declared to be "contrary to the express law of God, for which a holy God +may be provoked in a way of righteous judgment." + + + Non-Christian religions. + +The recognition and condemnation of errors in religious belief is by no +means confined to the Christian Church. Only a few instances of heresy +in other religions can be given. In regard to the fetishism of the Gold +Coast of Africa, Jevons (_Introduction to the History of Religion_, pp. +165-166) maintains that "public opinion does not approve of the worship +by an individual of a _suhman_, or private tutelary deity, and that his +dealings with it are regarded in the nature of 'black art' as it is not +a god of the community." In China there is a "classical or canonical, +primitive and therefore alone orthodox (_tsching_) and true religion," +Confucianism and Taoism, while the "heterodox (_sic_)," Buddhism +especially, is "partly tolerated, but generally forbidden, and even +cruelly persecuted" (Chantepie de la Saussaye, _Religionsgeschichte_, i. +57). In Islam "according to an unconfirmed tradition Mahomet is said to +have foretold that his community would split into seventy-three sects +(see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION, S _Sects_), of which only one would escape the +flames of hell." The first split was due to uncertainty regarding the +principle which should rule the succession to the Caliphate. The Arabic +and orthodox party (i.e. the Sunnites, who held by the Koran and +tradition) maintained that this should be determined by the choice of +the community. The Persian and heterodox party (the Shiites) insisted on +heredity. But this political difference was connected with theological +differences. The sect of the Mu'tazilites which affirmed that the Koran +had been created, and denied predestination, began to be persecuted by +the government in the 9th century, and discussion of religious questions +was forbidden (see CALIPHATE, sections B and C). The mystical tendency +in Islam, Sufism, is also regarded as heretical (see Kuenen's Hibbert +Lecture, pp. 45-50). Buddhism is a wide departure in doctrine and +practice from Brahmanism, and hence after a swift unfolding and quick +spread it was driven out of India and had to find a home in other lands. +Essenism from the standpoint of Judaism was heterodox in two respects, +the abandonment of animal sacrifices and the adoration of the sun. + +Although in Greece there was generally wide tolerance, yet in 399 B.C. +Socrates "was indicted as an irreligious man, a corrupter of youth, and +an innovator in worship." + + Besides the works quoted above, see Gottfried Arnold's _Unparteiische + Kirchen- und Ketzer-Historie_ (1699-1700; ed. Schaffhausen, 1740). A + very good list of writers on heresy, ancient and medieval, is given in + Burton's _Bampton Lectures on Heresies of the Apostolic Age_ (1829). + The various Trinitarian and Christological heresies may be studied in + Dorner's _History of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ_ (1845-1856; + Eng. trans., 1861-1862); the Gnostic and Manichaean heresies in the + works of Mansel, Matter and Beausobre; the medieval heresies in Hahn's + _Geschichte der Ketzer im Mittelalter_ (1846-1850), and Preger's + _Geschichte der deutschen Mystik_ (1875); Quietism in Heppe's + _Geschichte der quietistischen Mystik_ (1875); the Pietist sects in + Palmer's _Gemeinschaften und Secten Wurttembergs_ (1875); the + Reformation and 17th-century heresies and sects in the _Anabaptisticum + et enthusiasticum Pantheon und geistliches Rust-Haus_ (1702). Bohmer's + _Jus ecclesiasticum Protestantium_ (1714-1723), and van Espen's _Jus + ecclesiasticum_ (1702) detail at great length the relations of heresy + to canon and civil law. On the question of the baptism of heretics see + Smith and Cheetham's _Dict. of Eccl. Antiquities_, "Baptism, Iteration + of"; and on that of the readmission of heretics into the church, + compare Martene, _De ritibus_, and Morinus, _De poenitentia_. + (A. E. G.*) + + _Heresy according to the Law of England._--The highest point reached + by the ecclesiastical power in England was in the Act _De Haeretico + comburendo_ (2 Henry IV. c. 15). Some have supposed that a writ of + that name is as old as the common law, but its execution might be + arrested by a pardon from the crown. The Act of Henry IV. enabled the + diocesan alone, without the co-operation of a synod, to pronounce + sentence of heresy, and required the sheriff to execute it by burning + the offender, without waiting for the consent of the crown.[2] A large + number of penal statutes were enacted in the following reigns, and the + statute 1 Eliz. c. 1 is regarded by lawyers as limiting for the first + time the description of heresy to tenets declared heretical either by + the canonical Scripture or by the first four general councils, or such + as should thereafter be so declared by parliament with the assent of + Convocation. The writ was abolished by 29 Car. II. c. 9, which + reserved to the ecclesiastical courts their jurisdiction over heresy + and similar offences, and their power of awarding punishments not + extending to death. Heresy became henceforward a purely ecclesiastical + offence, although disabling laws of various kinds continued to be + enforced against Jews, Catholics and other dissenters. The temporal + courts have no knowledge of any offence known as heresy, although + incidentally (e.g. in questions of copyright) they have refused + protection to persons promulgating irreligious or blasphemous + opinions. As an ecclesiastical offence it would at this moment be + almost impossible to say what opinion, in the case of a layman at + least, would be deemed heretical. Apparently, if a proper case could + be made out, an ecclesiastical court might still sentence a layman to + excommunication for heresy, but by no other means could his opinions + be brought under censure. The last case on the subject (Jenkins _v._ + Cook, _L.R._ 1 P.D. 80) leaves the matter in the same uncertainty. In + that case a clergyman refused the communion to a parishioner who + denied the personality of the devil. The judicial committee held that + the rights of the parishioners are expressly defined in the statute of + I Edw. VI. c. i, and, without admitting that the canons of the church, + which are not binding on the laity, could specify a lawful cause for + rejection, held that no lawful cause within the meaning of either the + canons or the rubric had been shown. It was maintained at the bar that + the denial of the most fundamental doctrines of Christianity would not + be a lawful cause for such rejection, but the judgment only queries + whether a denial of the personality of the devil or eternal punishment + is consistent with membership of the church. The right of every layman + to the offices of the church is established by statute without + reference to opinions, and it is not possible to say what opinions, if + any, would operate to disqualify him. + + The case of clergymen is entirely different. The statute 13 Eliz. c. + 12, S 2, enacts that "if any person ecclesiastical, or which shall + have an ecclesiastical living, shall advisedly maintain or affirm any + doctrine directly contrary or repugnant to any of the said articles, + and by conventicle before the bishop of the diocese, or the ordinary, + or before the queen's highness's commissioners in matters + ecclesiastical, shall persist therein or not revoke his error, or + after such revocation eftsoons affirm such untrue doctrine," he shall + be deprived of his ecclesiastical promotions. The act it will be + observed applies only to clergymen, and the punishment is strictly + limited to deprivation of benefice. The judicial committee of the + privy council, as the last court of appeal, has on several occasions + pronounced judgments by which the scope of the act has been confined + to its narrowest legal effect. The court will construe the Articles of + Religion and formularies according to the _legal rules for the + interpretation of statutes and written instruments_. No rule of + doctrine is to be ascribed to the church which is not distinctly and + expressly stated or plainly involved in the _written law of the + Church_, and where there is no rule, a clergyman may express his + opinion without fear of penal consequences. In the _Essays and + Reviews_ cases (Williams _v._ the Bishop of Salisbury, and Wilson _v._ + Fendall, 2 _Moo._ P.C.C., N.S. 375) it was held to be not penal for a + clergyman to speak of merit by transfer as a "fiction," or to express + a hope of the ultimate pardon of the wicked, or to affirm that any + part of the Old or New Testament, however unconnected with religious + faith or moral duty, was not written under the inspiration of the Holy + Spirit. In the case of Noble _v._ Voysey (_L.R._ 3 P.C. 357) in 1871 + the committee held that it was not bound to affix a meaning to + articles of really dubious import, as it would have been in cases + affecting property. At the same time any manifest contradiction of the + Articles, or any obvious evasion of them, would subject the offender + to the penalties of deprivation. In some of the cases the question has + been raised how far the doctrine of the church could be ascertained by + reference to the opinions generally expressed by divines belonging to + its communion. Such opinions, it would seem, might be taken into + account as showing the extent of liberty which had been in practice, + claimed and exercised on the interpretation of the articles, but would + certainly not be allowed to increase their stringency. It is not the + business of the court to pronounce upon the absolute truth or + falsehood of any given opinion, but simply to say whether it is + formally consistent with the legal doctrines of the Church of England. + Whether Convocation has any jurisdiction in cases of heresy is a + question which has occasioned some difference of opinion among + lawyers. Hale, as quoted by Phillimore (_Ecc. Law_), says that before + the time of Richard II., that is, before any acts of Parliament were + made about heretics, it is without question that in a convocation of + the clergy or provincial synod "they might and frequently did here in + England proceed to the sentencing of heretics." But later writers, + while adhering to the statement that Convocation might declare + opinions to be heretical, doubted whether it could proceed to punish + the offender, even when he was a clerk in orders. Phillimore states + that there is no longer any doubt, even apart from the effect of the + Church Discipline Act 1840, that Convocation has no power to condemn + clergymen for heresy. The supposed right of Convocation to stamp + heretical opinions with its disapproval was exercised on a somewhat + memorable occasion. In 1864 the Convocation of the province of + Canterbury, having taken the opinion of two of the most eminent + lawyers of the day (Sir Hugh Cairns and Sir John Rolt), passed + judgment upon the volume entitled _Essays and Reviews_. The judgment + purported to "synodically condemn the said volume as containing + teaching contrary to the doctrine received by the United Church of + England and Ireland, in common with the whole Catholic Church of + Christ." These proceedings were challenged in the House of Lords by + Lord Houghton, and the lord chancellor (Westbury), speaking on behalf + of the government, stated that if there was any "synodical judgment" + it would be a violation of the law, subjecting those concerned in it + to the penalties of a _praemunire_, but that the sentence in question, + was "simply nothing, literally no sentence at all." It is thus at + least doubtful whether Convocation has a right even to express an + opinion unless specially authorized to do so by the crown, and it is + certain that it cannot do anything more. Heresy or no heresy, in the + last resort, like all other ecclesiastical questions, is decided by + the judicial committee of the council. + + The English lawyers, following the Roman law, distinguish between + heresy and apostasy. The latter offence is dealt with by an act which + still stands on the statute book, although it has long been virtually + obsolete--the 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 35. If any person _who has been + educated in or has professed the Christian religion_ shall, by + writing, printing, teaching, or advised speaking, assert or maintain + that there are more Gods than one, or shall deny any of the persons of + the Holy Trinity to be God, or shall deny the Christian religion to be + true or the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testament to be of + divine authority, he shall for the first offence be declared incapable + of holding any ecclesiastical, civil, or military office or + employment, and for the second incapable of bringing any action, or of + being guardian, executor, legatee, or grantee, and shall suffer three + years' imprisonment without bail. Unitarians were saved from these + atrocious penalties by a later act (53 Geo. III. c. 160), which + permits Christians to deny any of the persons in the Trinity without + penal consequences. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For fuller details see separate articles. + + [2] Stephen's _Commentaries_, bk. iv. ch. 7. + + + + +HEREWARD, usually but erroneously styled "the Wake" (an addition of +later days), an Englishman famous for his resistance to William the +Conqueror. It is now established that he was a tenant of Peterborough +Abbey, from which he held lands at Witham-on-the-Hill and Barholme with +Stow in the south-western corner of Lincolnshire, and of Crowland Abbey +at Rippingale in the neighbouring fenland. His first authentic act is +the storm and sacking of Peterborough in 1070, in company with outlaws +and Danish invaders. The next year he took part in the desperate stand +against the Conqueror's rule made in the isle of Ely, and, on its +capture by the Normans, escaped with his followers through the fens. +That his exploits made an exceptional impression on the popular mind is +certain from the mass of legendary history that clustered round his +name; he became, says Mr Davis, "in popular eyes the champion of the +English national cause." The Hereward legend has been fully dealt with +by him and by Professor Freeman, who observed that "with no name has +fiction been more busy." + + See E. A. Freeman, _History of the Norman Conquest_, vol. iv.; J. H. + Round, _Feudal England_; H. W. C. Davis, _England under the Normans + and Angevins_. (J. H. R.) + + + + +HERFORD, a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia, situated at the +confluence of the Werre and Aa, on the Minden & Cologne railway, 9 m. +N.E. of Bielefeld, and at the junction of the railway to Detmold and +Altenbeken. Pop. (1885) 15,902; (1905) 24,821. It possesses six +Evangelical churches, notably the Munsterkirche, a Romanesque building +with a Gothic apse of the 15th century; the Marienkirche, in the Gothic +style; and the Johanniskirche, with a steeple 280 ft. high. The other +principal buildings are the Roman Catholic church, the synagogue, the +gymnasium founded in 1540, the agricultural school and the theatre. +There is a statue of Frederick William of Brandenburg. The industries +include cotton and flax-spinning, and the manufacture of linen cloth, +carpets, furniture, machinery, sugar, tobacco and leather. + +Herford owes its origin to a Benedictine nunnery which is said to have +been founded in 832, and was confirmed by the emperor Louis the Pious in +839. From the emperor Frederick I. the abbess obtained princely rank and +a seat in the imperial diet. Among the abbesses was the celebrated +Elizabeth (1618-1680), eldest daughter of the elector palatine Frederick +V., who was a philosophical princess, and a pupil of Descartes. Under +her rule the sect of the Labadists settled for some time in Herford. The +foundation was secularized in 1803. Herford was a member of the +Hanseatic League, and its suzerainty passed in 1547 from the abbesses to +the dukes of Juliers. In 1631 it became a free imperial town, but in +1647 it was subjugated by the elector of Brandenburg. It came into the +possession of Westphalia in 1807, and in 1813 into that of Prussia. + + See L. Holscher, _Reformationsgeschichte der Stadt Herford_ + (Gutersloh, 1888). + + + + +HERGENROTHER, JOSEPH VON (1824-1890), German theologian, was born at +Wurzburg in Bavaria on the 15th of September 1824. He studied at +Wurzburg and at Rome. After spending a year as parish priest at +Zellingen, near his native city, he went, in 1850, at his bishop's +command, to the university of Munich, where he took his degree of doctor +of theology the same year, becoming in 1851 _Privatdozent_, and in 1855 +professor of ecclesiastical law and history. At Munich he gained the +reputation of being one of the most learned theologians on the +Ultramontane side of the Infallibility question, which had begun to be +discussed; and in 1868 he was sent to Rome to arrange the proceedings of +the Vatican Council. He was a stanch supporter of the infallibility +dogma; and in 1870 he wrote _Anti-Janus_, an answer to _The Pope and the +Council_, by "Janus" (Dollinger and J. Friedrich), which made a great +sensation at the time. In 1877 he was made prelate of the papal +household; he became cardinal deacon in 1879, and was afterwards made +curator of the Vatican archives. He died in Rome on the 3rd of October +1890. + + Hergenrother's first published work was a dissertation on the doctrine + of the Trinity according to Gregory Nazianzen (Regensburg, 1850), and + from this time onward his literary activity was immense. After several + articles and brochures on Hippolytus and the question of the + authorship of the _Philosophumena_, he turned to the study of Photius, + patriarch of Constantinople, and the history of the Greek schism. For + twelve years he was engaged upon this work, the result being his + monumental _Photius, Patriarch von Constantinopel. Sein Leben, seine + Schriften und das griechische Schisma_ (3 vols., Regensburg, + 1867-1869); an additional volume (1869) gave, under the title + _Monumenta Graeca ad Photium ... pertinentia_, a collection of the + unpublished documents on which the work was largely based. Of + Hergenrother's other works, the most important are his history of the + Papal States since the Revolution (_Der Kirchenstaat seit der + franzosischen Revolution_, Freiburg i. B., 1860; Fr. trans., Leipzig, + 1860), his great work on the relations of church and state + (_Katholische Kirche und christlicher Staat in ihrer geschichtlichen + Entwickelung und in Beziehung auf Fragen der Gegenwart_, 2 parts, + Freiburg i. B., 1872; 2nd ed. expanded, 1876; Eng. trans., London, + 1876, Baltimore, 1889), and his universal church history (_Handbuch + der allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte_, 3 vols., Freiburg i. B., + 1876-1880; 2nd ed., 1879, &c.; 3rd ed., 1884-1886; 4th ed., by Peter + Kirsch, 1902, &c.; French trans., Paris, 1880, &c.). He also found + time for a while to edit the new edition of Wetzer and Welte's + _Kirchenlexikon_ (1877), to superintend the publication of part of the + _Regesta_ of Pope Leo X. (Freiburg i. B., 1884-1885), and to add two + volumes to Hefele's _Conciliengeschichte_ (ib., 1887 and 1890). + + + + +HERINGSDORF, a seaside resort of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Pomerania, on the north coast of the island of Usedom, 5 m. by rail N.W. +of Swinemunde. It is surrounded by beech woods, and is perhaps the most +popular seaside resort on the German shore of the Baltic, being +frequented by some 12,000 visitors annually. + + + + +HERIOT, GEORGE (1563-1623), the founder of Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh, +was descended from an old Haddington family; his father, a goldsmith in +Edinburgh, represented the city in the Scottish parliament. George was +born in 1563, and after receiving a good education was apprenticed to +his father's trade. In 1586 he married the daughter of a deceased +Edinburgh merchant, and with the assistance of her patrimony set up in +business on his own account. At first he occupied a small "buith" at the +north-east corner of St Giles's church, and afterwards a more +pretentious shop at the west end of the building. To the business of a +goldsmith he joined that of a money-lender, and in 1597 he had acquired +such a reputation that he was appointed goldsmith to Queen Anne, consort +of James VI. In 1601 he became jeweller to the king, and followed him to +London, occupying a shop opposite the Exchange. Heriot was largely +indebted for his fortune to the extravagance of the queen, and the +imitation of this extravagance by the nobility. Latterly he had such an +extensive business as a jeweller that on one occasion a government +proclamation was issued calling upon all the magistrates of the kingdom +to aid him in securing the workmen he required. He died in London on the +10th of February 1623. In 1608, having some time previously lost his +first wife, he married Alison Primrose, daughter of James Primrose, +grandfather of the first earl of Rosebery, but she died in 1612; by +neither marriage had he any issue. The surplus of his estate, after +deducting legacies to his nearest relations and some of his more +intimate friends, was bequeathed to found a hospital for the education +of freemen's sons of the town of Edinburgh; and its value afterwards +increased so greatly as to supply funds for the erection of several +Heriot foundation schools in different parts of the city. + + Heriot takes a leading part in Scott's novel, _The Fortunes of Nigel_ + (see also the Introduction). A _History of Heriot's Hospital, with a + Memoir of the Founder_, by William Steven, D.D., appeared in 1827; 2nd + ed. 1859. + + + + +HERIOT, by derivation the arms and equipment (_geatwa_) of a soldier or +army (_here_); the O. Eng. word is thus here-geatwa. The lord of a fee +provided his tenant with arms and a horse, either as a gift or loan, +which he was to use in the military service paid by him. On the death of +the tenant the lord claimed the return of the equipment. When by the +10th century land was being given instead of arms, the heriot was still +paid, but more in the nature of a "relief" (q.v.). There seems to have +been some connexion between the payment of the heriot and the power of +making a will (F. W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and Beyond_, p. 298). By +the 13th century the payment was made either in money or in kind by the +handing over of the best beast or of the best other chattel of the +tenant (see Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_, i. 270 sq.). +For the manorial law relating to heriots, see COPYHOLD. + + + + +HERISAU, the largest town in the entire Swiss canton of Appenzell, built +on the Glatt torrent, and by light railway 7 m. south-west of St Gall or +13(1/2) m. north of Appenzell. In 1900 it had 13,497 inhabitants, mainly +Protestant and German-speaking. The lower portion of the massive tower +of the parish church (Protestant) dates from the 11th century or even +earlier. It is a prosperous little industrial town in the Ausser Rhoden +half of the canton, especially busied with the manufacture of embroidery +by machinery, and of muslins. Near it is the goats' whey cure +establishment of Heinrichsbad, and the two castles of Rosenberg and +Rosenburg, ruined in 1403 when the land rose against its lord, the abbot +of St Gall. About 5 m. to the south-east is Hundwil, a village of 1523 +inhabitants, where the _Landsgemeinde_ of Ausser Rhoden meets In the odd +years (in other years at Trogen) on the last Sunday in April. + + + + +HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS, in the law of Scotland, grants of jurisdiction +made to a man and his heirs. They were a usual accompaniment to feudal +tenures, and the power which they conferred on great families, being +recognized as a source of danger to the state, led to frequent attempts +being made by statute to restrict them, both before and after the Union. +They were all abolished in 1746. + + + + +HERKIMER, a village and the county-seat of Herkimer county, New York, +U.S.A., in the township of the same name, on the Mohawk river, about 15 +m. S.E. of Utica. Pop. (1900) 5555 (724 being foreign-born); (1905, +state census) 6596; (1910) 7520. It is served by the New York Central & +Hudson River railway, a branch of which (the Mohawk & Malone railway) +extends through the Adirondacks to Malone, N.Y.; by inter-urban electric +railway to Little Falls, Syracuse, Richfield Springs, Cooperstown and +Oneonta, and by the Erie canal. The village has a public library, and is +the seat of the Folts Mission Institute (opened 1893), a training school +for young women, controlled by the Women's Foreign Missionary Society of +the Methodist Episcopal Church. Herkimer is situated in a rich dairying +region, and has various manufactures. The municipality owns and operates +its water-supply system and electric-lighting plant. Herkimer, named in +honour of General Nicholas Herkimer (c. 1728-1777), who was mortally +wounded in the Battle of Oriskany, and in whose memory there is a +monument (unveiled on the 6th of August 1907) in the village, was +settled about 1725 by Palatine Germans, who bought from the Mohawk +Indians a large tract of land including the present site of the village +and established thereon several settlements which became known +collectively as the "German Flats." In 1756 a stone house, built in 1740 +by General Herkimer's father, John Jost Herkimer (d. 1775)--apparently +one of the original group of settlers--a stone church, and other +buildings, standing within what is now Herkimer village, were enclosed +in a stockade and ditch fortifications by Sir William Johnson, and this +post, at first known as Fort Kouari (the Indian name), was subsequently +called Fort Herkimer. Another fort (Ft. Dayton) was built within the +limits of the present village in 1776 by Colonel Elias Dayton +(1737-1807), who later became a brigadier-general (1783) and served in +the Confederation Congress in 1787-1788. During the French and Indian +War the settlement was attacked (12th November 1757) and practically +destroyed, many of the settlers being killed or taken prisoners; and it +was again attacked on the 30th of April 1758. In the War of Independence +General Herkimer assembled here the force which on the 6th of August +1777 was ambushed near Oriskany on its march from Ft. Dayton to the +relief of Ft. Schuyler (see ORISKANY); and the settlement was attacked +by Indians and "Tories" in September 1778 and in June 1782. The township +of Herkimer was organized in 1788, and in 1807 the village was +incorporated. + + See Nathaniel I. Benton, _History of Herkimer County_ (Albany, 1856); + and Phoebe S. Cowen, _The Herkimers and Schuylers_, (1903). + + + + +HERKOMER, SIR HUBERT VON (1849- ), British painter, was born at Waal, +in Bavaria, and eight years later was brought to England by his father, +a wood-carver of great ability. He lived for some time at Southampton +and in the school of art there began his art training; but in 1866 he +entered upon a more serious course of study at the South Kensington +Schools, and in 1869 exhibited for the first time at the Royal Academy. +By his picture, "The Last Muster," at the Academy in 1875, he definitely +established his position as an artist of high distinction. He was +elected an associate of the Academy in 1879, and academician in 1890; an +associate of the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours in 1893, and +a full member in 1894; and in 1885 he was appointed Slade professor at +Oxford. He exhibited a very large number of memorable portraits, figure +subjects and landscapes, in oil and water colour; he achieved marked +success as a worker in enamel, as an etcher, mezzotint engraver and +illustrative draughtsman; and he exercised wide influence upon art +education by means of the Herkomer School (Incorporated), at Bushey, +which he founded in 1883 and directed gratuitously until 1904, when he +retired. It was then voluntarily wound up, and is now conducted +privately. Two of his pictures, "Found" (1885) and "The Chapel of the +Charterhouse" (1889), are in the National Gallery of British Art. In the +year 1907 he received the honorary degree of D.C.L. at Oxford, and a +knighthood was conferred upon him by the king in addition to the +commandership of the Royal Victorian Order with which he was already +decorated. + + See _Hubert von Herkomer, R.A., a Study and a Biography_, by A. L. + Baldry (London, 1901); _Professor Hubert Herkomer, Royal Academician, + His Life and Work_, by W. L. Courtney (London, 1892). + + + + +HERLEN (or HERLIN), FRITZ, of Nordlingen, German artist of the early +Swabian school, in the 15th century. The date and place of his birth are +unknown, but his name is on the roll of the tax-gatherers of Ulm in +1449; and in 1467 he was made citizen and town painter at Nordlingen, +"because of his acquaintance with Flemish methods of painting." One of +the first of his acknowledged productions is a shrine on one of the +altars of the church of Rothenburg on the Tauber, the wings of which +were finished in 1466, with seven scenes from the lives of Christ and +the Virgin Mary. In the town-hall of Rothenburg is a Madonna and St +Catherine of 1467; and in the choir of Nordlingen cathedral a triptych +of 1488, representing the "Nativity" and "Christ amidst the Doctors," at +the side of a votive Madonna attended by St Joseph and St Margaret as +patrons of a family. In each of these works the painter's name certifies +the picture, and the manner is truly that of an artist "acquainted with +Flemish methods." We are not told under whom Herlen laboured in the +Netherlands, but he probably took the same course as Schongauer and Hans +Holbein the elder, who studied in the school of van der Weyden. His +altarpiece at Rothenburg contains groups and figures, as well as forms +of action and drapery, which seem copied from those of van der Weyden's +or Memlinc's disciples, and the votive Madonna of 1488, whilst +characterized by similar features, only displays such further changes as +may be accounted for by the master's constant later contact with +contemporaries in Swabia. Herlen had none of the genius of Schongauer. +He failed to acquire the delicacy even of the second-rate men who handed +down to Matsys the traditions of the 15th century; but his example was +certainly favourable to the development of art in Swabia. By general +consent critics have assigned to him a large altar-piece, with scenes +from the gospels and figures of St Florian and St Floriana, and a +Crucifixion, the principal figure of which is carved in high relief on +the surface of a large panel in the church of Dinkelsbuhl. A +Crucifixion, with eight scenes from the New Testament, is shown as his +in the cathedral, a "Christ in Judgment, with Mary and John," and the +"Resurrection of Souls" in the town-hall of Nordlingen. A small +Epiphany, once in the convent of the Minorites of Ulm, is in the +Holzschuher collection at Augsburg, a Madonna and Circumcision in the +National Museum at Munich. Herlen's epitaph, preserved by Rathgeber, +states that he died on the 12th of October 1491, and was buried at +Nordlingen. + + + + +HERMAE, in Greek antiquities, quadrangular pillars, broader above than +at the base, surmounted by a head or bust, so called either because the +head of Hermes was most common or from their etymological connexion with +the Greek word [Greek: hermata] (blocks of stone), which originally had +no reference to Hermes at all. In the oldest times Hermes, like other +divinities, was worshipped in the form of a heap of stones or of an +amorphous block of wood or stone, which afterwards took the shape of a +phallus, the symbol of productivity. The next step was the addition of a +head to this phallic column which became quadrangular (the number 4 was +sacred to Hermes, who was born on the fourth day of the month), with the +significant indication of sex still prominent. In this shape the number +of herms rapidly increased, especially those of Hermes, for which the +distinctive name of Hermhermae has been suggested. In Athens they were +found at the corners of streets; before the gates and in the courtyards +of houses, where they were worshipped by women as having the power to +make them prolific; before the temples; in the gymnasia and palaestrae. +On each side of the road leading from the Stoa Poikile to the Stoa +Basileios, rows of Hermae were set up in such numbers by the piety of +private individuals or public corporations, that the Stoa Basileios was +called the Stoa of the Hermae. The function of Hermes as protector of +the roads, of merchants and of commerce, explains the number of Hermae +that served the purpose of signposts on the roads outside the city. It +is stated in the pseudo-Platonic _Hipparchus_ that the son of +Peisistratus had set up marble pillars at suitable places on the roads +leading from the different country districts to Athens, having the +places connected with the roads inscribed on the one side in a hexameter +verse, and on the other a pentameter containing a short proverb or moral +precept for the edification of travellers. Sometimes they bore +inscriptions celebrating the valour of those who had fought for their +country. Just as it was customary for the passer-by to show respect to +the rudest form of the god (the heap of stones) by contributing a stone +to the heap or anointing it with oil, in like manner small offerings, +generally of dried figs, were deposited near the Hermae, to appease the +hunger of the necessitous wayfarer. Garlands of flowers were also +suspended on the two arm-like tenons projecting from either side of the +column at the top (for the oracle at Pharae see HERMES). These pillars +were also used to mark the frontier boundaries or the limits of +different estates. The great respect attaching to them is shown by the +excitement caused in Athens by the "Mutilation of the Hermae" just +before the departure of the Sicilian expedition (May 415 B.C.). They +formed the object of a special industry, the makers of them being called +Hermoglyphi. The surmounting heads were not, however, confined to those +of Hermes; those of other gods and heroes, and even of distinguished +mortals, were of frequent occurrence. In this case a compound was +formed: Hermathena (a herm of Athena), Hermares, Hermaphroditus, +Hermanubis, Hermalcibiades, and so on. In the case of these compounds it +is disputed whether they indicated a herm with the head of Athena, or +with a Janus-like head of both Hermes and Athena, or a figure compounded +of both deities. The Romans not only borrowed the Hermes pillars for +their deities which at an early period they assimilated to those of the +Greeks (as Heracles--Hercules) but also for the indigenous gods who +preserved their individuality. Thus herms of Jupiter Terminalis (the +hermae being identified with the Roman termini) and of Silvanus occur. +Under the empire, the function of the hermae was rather architectural +than religious. They were used to keep up the draperies in the interior +of a house, and in the Circus Maximus they were used to support the +barriers. + + See the article with bibliography by Pierre Paris in Daremberg and + Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_; for the mutilation of the + Hermae, Thucydides vi. 27; Andocides, _De mysteriis_; Grote, _Hist. of + Greece_, ch. 58; H. Weil, _Etudes sur l'antiquite grecque_ (1900); + Burolt, _Griech. Gesch._ (ed. 1904), III. ii. p. 1287. + + + + +HERMAGORAS, of Temnos, Greek rhetorician of the Rhodian school and +teacher of oratory in Rome, flourished during the first half of the 1st +century B.C. He obtained a great reputation among a certain section and +founded a special school, the members of which called themselves +Hermagorei. His chief opponent was Posidonius of Rhodes, who is said to +have contended with him in argument in the presence of Pompey (Plutarch, +_Pompey_, 42). Hermagoras devoted himself particularly to the branch of +rhetoric known as [Greek: oikonomia] (_inventio_), and is said to have +invented the doctrine of the four [Greek: staseis] (_status_) and to +have arranged the parts of an oration differently from his predecessors. +Cicero held an unfavourable opinion of his methods, which were approved +by Quintilian, although he considers that Hermagoras neglected the +practical side of rhetoric for the theoretical. According to Suidas and +Strabo, he was the author of [Greek: technai rhetorikai] (rhetorical +manuals) and of other works, which should perhaps be attributed to his +younger namesake, surnamed Carion, the pupil of Theodorus of Gadara. + + See Strabo xiii. p. 621; Cicero, _De inventione_, i. 6. 8, _Brutus_, + 76, 263. 78, 271; Quintilian, _Instit._ iii. 1. 16, 3. 9, 11. 22; C. + W. Piderit, _De Hermagora rhetore_ (1839); G. Thiele, _Hermagoras Ein + Beitrag zur Geschichte der Rhetorik_ (1893). + + + + +HERMANDAD (from _hermano_, Lat. _germanus_, a brother), a Castilian word +meaning, strictly speaking, a brotherhood. In the Romance language +spoken on the east coast of Spain in Catalonia it is written _germandat_ +or _germania_. In the form _germania_ it has acquired the significance +of "thieves' Latin" or "thieves' cant," and is applied to any jargon +supposed to be understood only by the Initiated. But the typical +"germania" is a mixture of slang and of the gipsy language. The +hermandades have played a conspicuous part in the history of Spain. The +first recorded case of the formation of an hermandad occurred in the +12th century when the towns and the peasantry of the north united to +police the pilgrim road to Santiago in Galicia, and protect the pilgrims +against robber knights. Throughout the middle ages such alliances were +frequently formed by combinations of towns to protect the roads +connecting them, and were occasionally extended to political purposes. +They acted to some extent like the Fehmic courts of Germany. The +Catholic sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella, adapted an existing +hermandad to the purpose of a general police acting under officials +appointed by themselves, and endowed with large powers of summary +jurisdiction even in capital cases. The hermandad became, in fact, a +constabulary, which, however, fell gradually into neglect. In Catalonia +and Valencia the "germanias" were combinations of the peasantry to +resist the exactions of the feudal lords. + + + + +HERMAN DE VALENCIENNES, 12th-century French poet, was born at +Valenciennes, of good parentage. His father and mother, Robert and +Herembourg, belonged to Hainault, and gave him for god-parents Count +Baldwin and Countess Yoland--doubtless Baldwin IV. of Hainault and his +mother Yoland. Herman was a priest and the author of a verse _Histoire +de la Bible_, which includes a separate poem on the Assumption of the +Virgin. The work is generally known as _Le Roman de sapience_, the name +arising from a copyist's error in the first line of the poem: + + "Comens de sapiense, ce est la cremors de Deu" + +the first word being miswritten in one MS. _Romens_, and In another +_Romanz_. His work has, indeed, the form of an ordinary romance, and +cannot be regarded as a translation. He selects such stories from the +Bible as suit his purpose, and adds freely from legendary sources, +displaying considerable art in the selection and use of his materials. +This scriptural poem, very popular in its day, mentions Henry II. of +England as already dead, and must therefore be assigned to a date +posterior to 1189. + + See _Notices et extraits des manuscrits_ (Paris, vol. 34), and Jean + Bonnard, _Les Traductions de la Bible en vers francais au moyen age_ + (1884). + + + + +HERMANN I. (d. 1217), landgrave of Thuringia and count palatine of +Saxony, was the second son of Louis II. the Hard, landgrave of +Thuringia, and Judith of Hohenstaufen, sister of the emperor Frederick +I. Little is known of his early years, but in 1180 he joined a coalition +against Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, and with his brother, the +landgrave Louis III., suffered a short imprisonment after his defeat at +Weissensee by Henry. About this time he received from his brother Louis +the Saxon palatinate, over which he strengthened his authority by +marrying Sophia, sister of Adalbert, count of Sommerschenburg, a former +count palatine. In 1190 Louis died and Hermann by his energetic measures +frustrated the attempt of the emperor Henry VI. to seize Thuringia as a +vacant fief of the Empire, and established himself as landgrave. Having +joined a league against the emperor he was accused, probably wrongly, of +an attempt to murder him. Henry was not only successful in detaching +Hermann from the hostile combination, but gained his support for the +scheme to unite Sicily with the Empire. In 1197 Hermann went on crusade. +When Henry VI. died in 1198 Hermann's support was purchased by the late +emperor's brother Philip, duke of Swabia, but as soon as Philip's cause +appeared to be weakening he transferred his allegiance to Otto of +Brunswick, afterwards the emperor Otto IV. Philip accordingly invaded +Thuringia in 1204 and compelled Hermann to come to terms by which he +surrendered the lands he had obtained in 1198. After the death of Philip +and the recognition of Otto he was among the princes who invited +Frederick of Hohenstaufen, afterwards the emperor Frederick II., to come +to Germany and assume the crown. In consequence of this step the Saxons +attacked Thuringia, but the landgrave was saved by Frederick's arrival +in Germany in 1212. After the death of his first wife in 1195 Hermann +married Sophia, daughter of Otto I., duke of Bavaria. By her he had four +sons, two of whom, Louis and Henry Raspe, succeeded their father in turn +as landgrave. Hermann died at Gotha on the 25th of April 1217, and was +buried at Reinhardsbrunn. He was fond of the society of men of letters, +and Walther von der Vogelweide and other Minnesingers were welcomed to +his castle of the Wartburg. In this connexion he figures in Wagner's +_Tannhauser_. + + See E. Winkelmann, _Philipp von Schwaben und Otto IV. von + Braunschweig_ (Leipzig, 1873-1878); T. Knochenhauer, _Geschichte + Thuringens_ (Gotha, 1871); and F. Wachter, _Thuringische und + obersachsische Geschichte_ (Leipzig, 1826). + + + + +HERMANN OF REICHENAU (HERIMANNUS AUGIENSIS), commonly distinguished as +Hermannus Contractus, i.e. the Lame (1013-1054), German scholar and +chronicler, was the son of Count Wolferad of Alshausen in Swabia. +Hermann, who became a monk of the famous abbey of Reichenau, is at once +one of the most attractive and one of the most pathetic figures of +medieval monasticism. Crippled and distorted by gout from his childhood, +he was deprived of the use of his legs; but, in spite of this, he became +one of the most learned men of his time, and exercised a great personal +and intellectual influence on the numerous band of scholars he gathered +round him. He died on the 24th of September 1054, at the family castle +of Alshausen near Biberach. Besides the ordinary studies of the monastic +scholar, he devoted himself to mathematics, astronomy and music, and +constructed watches and instruments of various kinds. + + His chief work is a _Chronicon ad annum_ 1054, which furnishes + important and original material for the history of the emperor Henry + III. The first edition, from a MS. no longer extant, was printed by J. + Sichard at Basel in 1529, and reissued by Heinrich Peter in 1549; + another edition appeared at St Blaise in 1790 under the supervision of + Ussermann; and a third, as a result of the collation of numerous MSS., + forms part of vol. v. of Pertz's _Monumenta Germaniae historica_. A + German translation of the last is contributed by K. F. A. Nobbe to + _Die Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit_ (1st ed., Berlin, + 1851; 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1893). The separate lives of Conrad II. and + Henry III., often ascribed to Hermann, appear to have perished. His + treatises _De mensura astrolabii_ and _De utilitatibus astrolabii_ (to + be found, on the authority of Salzburg MSS., in Pez, _Thesaurus + anecdotorum novissimus_, iii.) being the first contributions of moment + furnished by a European to this subject, Hermann was for a time + considered the inventor of the astrolabe. A didactic poem from his + pen, _De octo vitiis principalibus_, is printed in Haupt's + _Zeitschrift fur deutsches Alterthum_ (vol. xiii.); and he is + sometimes credited with the composition of the Latin hymns _Veni + Sancte Spiritus, Salve Regina_, and _Alma Redemptoris_. A + _martyrologium_ by Hermann was discovered by E. Dummler in a MS. at + Stuttgart, and was published by him in "Das Martyrologium Notkers und + seine Verwandten" in _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, xxv. + (Gottingen, 1885). + + See H. Hansjakob, _Herimann der Lahme_ (Mainz, 1875); Potthast, + _Bibliotheca med. aev._ s. "Herimannus Augiensis." + + + + +HERMANN OF WIED (1477-1552), elector and archbishop of Cologne, was the +fourth son of Frederick, count of Wied (d. 1487), and was born on the +14th of January 1477. Educated for the Church, he became elector and +archbishop in 1515, and ruled his electorate with vigour and +intelligence, taking up at first an attitude of hostility towards the +reformers and their teaching. A quarrel with the papacy turned, or +helped to turn, his thoughts in the direction of Church reform, but he +hoped this would come from within rather than from without, and with the +aid of his friend John Gropper (1503-1559), began, about 1536, to +institute certain reforms in his own diocese. One step led to another, +and as all efforts at union failed the elector invited Martin Bucer to +Cologne in 1542. Supported by the estates of the electorate, and relying +upon the recess of the diet of Regensburg in 1541, he encouraged Bucer +to press on with the work of reform, and in 1543 invited Melanchthon to +his assistance. His conversion was hailed with great joy by the +Protestants, and the league of Schmalkalden declared they were resolved +to defend him; but the Reformation in the electorate received checks +from the victory of Charles V. over William, duke of Cleves, and the +hostility of the citizens of Cologne. Summoned both before the emperor +and the pope, the elector was deposed and excommunicated by Paul III. in +1546. He resigned his office in February 1547, and retired to Wied. +Hermann, who was also a bishop of Paderborn from 1532 to 1547, died on +the 15th of August 1552. + + See C. Varrentrapp, _Hermann von Wied_ (Leipzig, 1878). + + + + +HERMANN, FRIEDRICH BENEDICT WILHELM VON (1795-1868), German economist, +was born on the 5th of December 1795, at Dinkelsbuhl in Bavaria. After +finishing his primary education he was for some time employed in a +draughtsman's office. He then resumed his studies, partly at the +gymnasium in his native town, partly at the universities of Erlangen and +Wurzburg. In 1817 he took up a private school at Nuremberg, where he +remained for four years. After filling an appointment as teacher of +mathematics at the gymnasium of Erlangen, he became in 1823 +_Privatdozent_ at the university in that town. His inaugural +dissertation was on the notions of political economy among the Romans +(_Dissertatio exhibens sententias Romanorum ad oeconomiam politicam +pertinentes_, Erlangen, 1823). He afterwards acted as professor of +mathematics at the gymnasium and polytechnic school in Nuremberg, where +he continued till 1827. During his stay there he published an elementary +treatise on arithmetic and algebra (_Lehrbuch der Arith. u. Algeb._, +1826), and made a journey to France to inspect the organization and +conduct of technical schools in that country. The results of his +investigation were published in 1826 and 1828 (_Uber technische +Unterrichts-Anstalten_). Soon after his return from France he was made +_professor extraordinarius_ of political science of the university of +Munich, and in 1833 he was advanced to the rank of ordinary professor. +In 1832 appeared the first edition of his great work on political +economy, _Staatswirthschaftliche Untersuchungen_. In 1835 he was made +member of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences. From the year 1836 he +acted as inspector of technical instruction in Bavaria, and made +frequent journeys to Berlin and Paris in order to study the methods +there pursued. In the state service of Bavaria, to which he devoted +himself, he rose rapidly. In 1837 he was placed on the council for +superintendence of church and school work; in 1839 he was entrusted with +the direction of the bureau of statistics; in 1845 he was one of the +councillors for the interior; in 1848 he sat as member for Munich in the +national assembly at Frankfort. In this assembly Hermann, with Johann +Heckscher and others, was mainly instrumental in organizing the +so-called "Great German" party, and was selected as one of the +representatives of their views at Vienna. Warmly supporting the customs +union (Zollverein), he acted in 1851 as one of its commissioners at the +great industrial exhibition at London, and published an elaborate report +on the woollen goods. Three years later he was president of the +committee of judges at the similar exhibition at Munich, and the report +of its proceedings was drawn up by him. In 1855 he became councillor of +state, the highest honour in the service. From 1835 to 1847 he +contributed a long series of reviews, mainly of works on economical +subjects, to the _Munchener gelehrte Anzeigen_ and also wrote for Rau's +_Archiv der politischen Okonomie_ and the _Augsburger allgemeine +Zeitung_. As head of the bureau of statistics he published a series of +valuable annual reports (_Beitrage zur Statistik des Konigreichs +Bayern_, Hefte 1-17, 1850-1867). He was engaged at the time of his +death, on the 23rd of November 1868, upon a second edition of his +_Staatswirthschaftliche Untersuchungen_, which was published in 1870. + +Hermann's rare technological knowledge gave him a great advantage in +dealing with some economic questions. He reviewed the principal +fundamental ideas of the science with great thoroughness and acuteness. +"His strength," says Roscher, "lies in his clear, sharp, exhaustive +distinction between the several elements of a complex conception, or the +several steps comprehended in a complex act." For keen analytical power +his German brethren compare him with Ricardo. But he avoids several +one-sided views of the English economist. Thus he places public spirit +beside egoism as an economic motor, regards price as not measured by +labour only but as a product of several factors, and habitually +contemplates the consumption of the labourer, not as a part of the cost +of production to the capitalist, but as the main practical end of +economics. + + See Kautz, _Gesch. Entwicklung d. National-Okonomik_, pp. 633-638; + Roscher, _Gesch. d. Nat.-Okon. in Deutschland_, pp. 860-879. + + + + +HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB (1772-1848), German classical scholar +and philologist, was born at Leipzig on the 28th of November 1772. +Entering the university of his native city at the age of fourteen, +Hermann at first studied law, which he soon abandoned for the classics. +After a session at Jena in 1793-1794, he became a lecturer on classical +literature in Leipzig, in 1798 _professor extraordinarius_ of philosophy +in the university, and in 1803 professor of eloquence (and poetry, +1809). He died on the 31st of December 1848. Hermann maintained that an +accurate knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages was the only road to +a clear understanding of the intellectual life of the ancient world, and +the chief, if not the only, aim of philology. As the leader of this +grammatico-critical school, he came into collision with A. Bockh and +Otfried Muller, the representatives of the historico-antiquarian school, +which regarded Hermann's view of philology as inadequate and one-sided. + +Hermann devoted his early attention to the classical poetical metres, +and published several works on that subject, the most important being +_Elementa doctrinae metricae_ (1816), in which he set forth a scientific +theory based on the Kantian categories. His writings on Greek grammar +are also valuable, especially _De emendanda ratione Graecae grammaticae_ +(1801), and notes and excursus on Viger's treatise on Greek idioms. His +editions of the classics include several of the plays of Euripides; the +_Clouds_ of Aristophanes (1799); _Trinummus_ of Plautus (1800); +_Poetica_ of Aristotle (1802); _Orphica_ (1805); the Homeric _Hymns_ +(1806); and the _Lexicon_ of Photius (1808). In 1825 Hermann finished +the edition of Sophocles begun by Erfurdt. His edition of Aeschylus was +published after his death in 1852. The _Opuscula_, a collection of his +smaller writings in Latin, appeared in seven volumes between 1827 and +1839. + + See monographs by O. Jahn (1849) and H. Kochly (1874); C. Bursian, + _Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland_ (1883); art. in + _Allgem. deutsche Biog._; Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ iii. + + + + +HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1804-1855), German classical scholar and +antiquary, was born on the 4th of August 1804, at Frankfort-on-Main. +Having studied at the universities of Heidelberg and Leipzig, he went +for a tour in Italy, on his return from which he lectured as +_Privatdozent_ in Heidelberg. In 1832 he was called to Marburg as +_professor ordinarius_ of classical literature; and in 1842 he was +transferred to Gottingen to the chair of philology and archaeology, +vacant by the death of Otfried Muller. He died at Gottingen on the 31st +of December 1855. His knowledge of all branches of classical learning +was profound, but he was chiefly distinguished for his works on Greek +antiquities and ancient philosophy. Among these may be mentioned the +_Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitaten_ (new ed., 1889) dealing with +political, religious and domestic antiquities; the _Geschichte und +System der Platonischen Philosophie_ (1839), unfinished; an edition of +the Platonic Dialogues (6 vols., 1851-1853); and _Culturgeschickte der +Griechen und Romer_ (1857-1858), published after his death by C. G. +Schmidt. He also edited the text of Juvenal and Persius (1854) and +Lucian's _De conscribenda historia_ (1828). A collection of +_Abhandlungen und Beitrage_ appeared in 1849. + + See M. Lechner, _Zur Erinnerung an K. F. Hermann_ (1864), and article + by C. Halm in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, xii. (1880). + + + + +HERMAPHRODITUS, in Greek mythology, a being, partly male, partly female, +originally worshipped as a divinity. The conception undoubtedly had its +origin in the East, where deities of a similar dual nature frequently +occur. The oldest traces of the cult in Greek countries are found in +Cyprus. Here, according to Macrobius (_Saturnalia_, iii. 8) there was a +bearded statue of a male aphrodite, called Aphroditos by Aristophanes +(probably in his [Greek: Niobos], a similar variant). Philochorus in his +_Atthis_ (_ap._ Macrobius _loc. cit._) further identified this divinity, +at whose sacrifices men and women exchanged garments, with the moon. +This double sex also attributed to Dionysus and Priapus--the union in +one being of the two principles of generation and conception--denotes +extensive fertilizing and productive powers. This Cyprian Aphrodite is +the same as the later Hermaphroditos, which simply means Aphroditos in +the form of a herm (see HERMAE), and first occurs in the _Characteres_ +(16) of Theophrastus. After its introduction at Athens (probably in the +5th century B.C.), the importance of this being seems to have declined. +It appears no longer as the object of a special cult, but limited to the +homage of certain sects, expressed by superstitious rites of obscure +significance. The still later form of the legend, a product of the +Hellenistic period, is due to a mistaken etymology of the name. In +accordance with this, Hermaphroditus is the son of Hermes and Aphrodite, +of whom the nymph of the fountain of Salmacis in Caria became enamoured +while he was bathing. When her overtures were rejected, she embraced him +and entreated the gods that she might be for ever united with him. The +result was the formation of a being, half man, half woman. This story is +told by Ovid (_Metam._ iv. 285) to explain the peculiarly enervating +qualities of the water of the fountain. Strabo (xiv. p. 656) attributes +its bad reputation to the attempt of the inhabitants of the country to +find some excuse for the demoralization caused by their own luxurious +and effeminate habits of life. There was a famous statue of +Hermaphroditus by Polycles of Athens, probably the younger of the two +statuaries of that name. In later Greek art he was a favourite subject. + + See articles in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquites_, + and Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_; and for art, A. Baumeister, + _Denkmaler des klassischen Altertums_ (1884-1888). + + + + +HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF, one of the works representing the Apostolic Fathers +(q.v.), a hortatory writing which "holds the mirror up" to the Church in +Rome during the 3rd Christian generation. This is the period indicated +by the evidence of the Muratorian Canon, which assigns it to the brother +of Pius, Roman bishop c. 139-154. Probably it was not the fruit of a +single effort of its author. Rather its contents came to him piecemeal +and at various stages in his ministry as a Christian "prophet," +extending over a period of years; and, like certain Old Testament +prophets, he shows us how by his own experiences he became the medium of +a divine message to his church and to God's "elect" people at large. + +In its present form it falls under three heads: _Visions_, _Mandates_, +_Similitudes_. But these divisions are misleading. The personal and +preliminary revelation embodied in _Vision_ i. brings the prophet a new +sense of sin as essentially a matter of the heart, and an awakened +conscience as before the "glory of God," the Creator and Upholder of all +things. His responsibility also for the sad state of religion at home is +emphasized, and he is given a mission of repentance to his erring +children. How far in all this and in the next vision the author is +describing facts, and how far transforming his personal history into a +type (after the manner of Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_), the better to +impress his moral upon his readers, is uncertain. But the whole style of +the work, with its use of conventional apocalyptic forms, favours the +more symbolic view. _Vision_ ii. records his call proper, through +revelation of his essential message, to be delivered both to his wife +and children and to "all the saints who have sinned unto this day" (2. +4). It contains the assurances of forgiveness even for the gravest sins +after baptism (save blasphemy of the Name and betrayal of the brethren, +_Sim._ ix. 19), "if they repent with their whole heart and remove doubts +from their minds. For the Master hath sworn by His glory ('His Son,' +below) touching His elect, that if there be more sinning after this day +which He hath limited, they shall not obtain salvation. For the +repentance of the righteous hath an end; the days of repentance for all +saints are fulfilled.... Stand fast, then, ye that work righteousness +and be not of doubtful mind.... Happy are all ye that endure the great +tribulation which is to come.... _The Lord is nigh unto them that turn +to Him_, as it is written in the book of Eldad and Modad, who prophesied +to the people in the wilderness." + +Here, in the gist of the "booklet" received from the hand of a female +figure representing the Church, we have in germ the message of _The +Shepherd_. But before Hermas announces it to the Roman Church, and +through "Clement"[1] to the churches abroad, there are added two +_Visions_ (iii. iv.) tending to heighten its impressiveness. He is shown +the "holy church" under the similitude of a tower in building, and the +great and final tribulation (already alluded to as near at hand) under +that of a devouring beast, which yet is innocuous to undoubting faith. + +Hermas begins to deliver the message of _Vis._ i.-iv., as bidden. But as +he does so, it is added to, in the way of detail and illustration, by a +fresh series of revelations through an angel in the guise of a Shepherd, +who in a preliminary interview announces himself as the Angel of +Repentance, sent to administer the special "repentance" which it was +Hermas's mission to declare. This interview appears in our MSS. as +_Vis._ v.,[2] but is really a prelude to the _Mandates_ and +_Similitudes_ which form the bulk of the whole work, hence known as "The +Shepherd." The relation of this second part to _Vis._ i.-iv. is set +forth by the Shepherd himself. "I was sent, quoth he, to show thee +_again_ all that thou sawest before, to wit the sum of the things +profitable for thee. First of all write thou my mandates and +similitudes; and _the rest_, as I will show thee, so shalt thou write." +This programme is fulfilled in the xii. _Mandates_--perhaps suggested by +the _Teaching of the Twelve Apostles_ (see DIDACHE), which Hermas +knows--and _Similitudes_ i.-viii., while _Simil._ ix. is "the rest" and +constitutes a distinct "book" (_Sim._ ix. 1. 1, x. 1. 1). In this latter +the building of the Tower, already shown in outline in _Vis._ iii., is +shown "more carefully" in an elaborate section dealing with the same +themes. One may infer that _Sim._ ix. represents a distinctly later +stage in Hermas's ministry--during the whole of which he seems to have +committed to writing what he received on each occasion,[3] possibly for +recital to the church (cf. _Vis._ ii. _fin._). Finally came _Sim._ x., +really an epilogue in which Hermas is "delivered" afresh to the +Shepherd, for the rest of his days. He is "to continue in this ministry" +of proclaiming the Shepherd's teaching, "so that they who have repented +or are about to repent may have the same mind with thee," and so receive +a good report before God (_Sim._ x. 2 2-4). Only they must "make haste +to do aright," lest while they delay the tower be finished (4. 4), and +the new aeon dawn (after the final tribulation: cf. _Vis._ iv. 3. 5). + +The relation here indicated between the Shepherd's instruction and the +initial message of one definitive repentance, open to those believers +who have already "broken" their "seal" of baptism by deadly sins, as +announced in _Visions_ i.-iv. is made yet plainer by _Sim._ vi. 1. 3 f. +"These mandates are profitable to such as are about to repent; for +except they walk in them their repentance is in vain." Hermas sees that +mere repentance is not enough to meet the backsliding condition in which +so many Christians then were, owing to the recoil of inveterate habits +of worldliness[4] entrenched in society around and within. It is, after +all, too negative a thing to stand by itself or to satisfy God. "Cease, +Hermas," says the Church, "to pray all about thy sins. Ask for +righteousness also" (_Vis._ iii. 1. 6). The positive Christian ideal +which "the saints" should attain, "the Lord enabling," it is the +business of the Shepherd to set forth. + +Here lies a great merit of Hermas's book, his insight into experimental +religion and the secret of failure in Christians about him, to many of +whom Christianity had come by birth rather than personal conviction. +They shared the worldly spirit in its various forms, particularly the +desire for wealth and the luxuries it affords, and for a place in "good +society"--which meant a pagan atmosphere. Thus they were divided in soul +between spiritual goods and worldly pleasures, and were apt to doubt +whether the rewards promised by God to the life of "simplicity" (all +Christ meant by the childlike spirit, including generosity in giving and +forgiving) and self-restraint, were real or not. For while the expected +"end of the age" delayed, persecutions abounded. Such "doubled-souled" +persons, like Mr Facing-both-ways, inclined to say, "The Christian ideal +may be glorious, but is it practicable?" It is this most fatal doubt +which evokes the Shepherd's sternest rebuke; and he meets it with the +ultimate religious appeal, viz. to "the glory of God." He who made man +"to rule over all things under heaven," could He have given behests +beyond man's ability? If only a man "hath the Lord in his heart," he +"shall know that there is nothing easier nor sweeter nor gentler than +these mandates" (_Mand._ xii. 3-4). So in the forefront of the +_Mandates_ stands the secret of all: "First of all believe that there is +one God.... Believe therefore in Him, and fear Him, and fearing Him have +self-mastery. For the fear of the Lord dwelleth in the good desire," and +to "put on" this master-desire is to possess power to curb "evil desire" +in all its shapes (_Mand._ xii. 1-2). Elsewhere "good desire" is +analysed into the "spirits" of the several virtues, which yet are +organically related, Faith being mother, and Self-mastery her daughter, +and so on (_Vis._ iii. 8. 3 seq.; cf. _Sim._ ix. 15). These are the +specific forms of the Holy Spirit power, without whose indwelling the +mandates cannot be kept (_Sim._ x. 3; cf. ix. 13. 2, 24. 2). + +Thus the "moralism" sometimes traced in Hermas is apparent rather than +real, for he has a deep sense of the enabling grace of God. His defect +lies rather in not presenting the historic Christ as the Christian's +chief inspiration, a fact which connects itself with the strange absence +of the names "Jesus" and "Christ." He uses rather "the Son of God," in a +peculiar Adoptianist sense, which, as taken for granted in a work by the +bishop's own brother, must be held typical of the Roman Church of his +day. But as it is implicit and not part of his distinctive message, it +did not hinder his book from enjoying wide quasi-canonical honour during +most of the Ante-Nicene period. + + The absence of the historic names, "Jesus" and "Christ," may be due to + the form of the book as purporting to quote angelic communications. + This would also explain the absence of explicit scriptural citations + generally, though knowledge both of the Old Testament and of several + New Testament books--including the congenially symbolic Gospel of + John--is clear (cf. _The New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers_, + Oxford, 1905, 105 seq.). The one exception is a prophetic writing, the + apocryphal _Book of Eldad and Modad_, which is cited apparently as + being similar in the scope of its message. Among its non-scriptural + sources may be named the allegoric picture of human life known as + _Tabula Cebetis_ (cf. C. Taylor, as below), the _Didache_, and perhaps + certain "Sibylline Oracles." + + Hermas regarded Christians as "justified by the most reverend Angel" + (i.e. the pre-existent Holy Spirit or Son, who dwelt in Christ's + "flesh"), in baptism, the "seal" which even Old Testament saints had + to receive in Hades (_Sim._ ix. 16. 3-7) and so attain to "life." Yet + the degree of "honour" (e.g. that of martyrs, _Vis._ iii. 2; _Sim._ + ix. 28), the exact place in the kingdom or consummated church (the + Tower), is given as reward for zeal in doing God's will beyond the + minimum requisite in all. Here comes in Hermas's doctrine of works of + supererogation, in fulfilment of counsels of perfection, on lines + already seen in _Did._ vi. 2, cf. i. 4, and reappearing in the two + types of Christian recognized by Clement and Origen and in later + Catholicism. Again his doctrine of fasting is a spiritualizing of a + current _opus operatum_ conception on Jewish lines as though "keeping + a watch" (_statio_) in that way atoned for sins (_Sim._ v.). The + Shepherd enjoins instead, first, as "a perfect fast," a fast "from + every evil word and every evil desire, ... from all the vanities of + this world-age" (3. 6; cf. _Barn._ iii. and the Oxyrhynchus Saying, + "except ye fast from the world"); and next, as a counsel of + perfection, a fast to yield somewhat for the relief of the widow and + orphan, that this extra "service" may be to God for a "sacrifice." + + Generally speaking, Hermas's piety, especially in its language, + adheres closely to Old Testament forms. But it is doubtful (_pace_ + Spina and Volter, who assume a Jewish or a proselyte basis) whether + this means more than that the Old Testament was still _the_ Scriptures + of the Church. In this respect, too, Hermas faithfully reflects the + Roman Church of the early 2nd century (cf. the language of 1 Clem., + esp. the liturgical parts, and even the Roman Mass). Indeed the prime + value of the _Shepherd_ is the light it casts on Christianity at Rome + in the otherwise obscure period c. 110-140, when it had as yet hardly + felt the influences converging on it from other centres of tradition + and thought. Thus Hermas's comparatively mild censures on Gnostic + teachers in _Sim._ ix. suggest that the greater systems, like the + Valentinian and Marcionite, had not yet made an impression there, as + Harnack argues that they must have done by c. 145. This date, then, is + a likely lower limit for Hermas's revision of his earlier prophetic + memoranda, and their publication in a single homogeneous work, such as + the _Shepherd_ appears to be. Its wider historic significance--it was + felt by its author to be adapted to the needs of the Church at large, + and was generally welcomed as such--is great but hard to determine in + detail.[5] What is certain is its influence on the development of the + Church's policy as to discipline in grave cases, like apostasy and + adultery--a burning question for some generations from the end of the + 2nd century, particularly in Rome and North Africa. Indirectly, too, + Hermas tended to keep alive the idea of the Christian prophet, even + after Montanism had helped to discredit it. + + LITERATURE.--The chief modern edition is by O. von Gebhardt and A. + Harnack, in Fasc. iii. of their _Patr. apost. opera_ (Leipzig, 1877); + it is edited less fully by F. X. Funk, _Patr. apost._ (Tubingen, + 1901), and in an English trans., with Introduction and occasional + notes, by Dr C. Taylor (S.P.C.K., 2 vols., 1903-1906). For the wide + literature of the subject, see the two former editions, also Harnack's + _Chronologie der altchr. Lit._ i. 257 seq., and O. Bardenhewer, + _Gesch. der altkirchl. Lit._ i. 557 seq. For the authorship see + APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE, sect. III. (J. V. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] More than one interpretation, typical or otherwise, of this + "Clement" is possible; but none justifies us in assigning even to + this _Vision_ a date consistent with that usually given to the + traditional bishop of this name (see CLEMENT I.). Yet we may have to + correct the dubious chronology of the first Roman bishops by this + datum, and prolong his life to about A.D. 110. This is Harnack's date + for the nucleus of _Vis._ ii., though he places our _Vis._ i.-iii. + later in Trajan's reign, and thinks _Vis._ iv. later still. + + [2] That a prior vision in which Hermas was "delivered" to the + Shepherd's charge, has dropped out, seems implied by _Vis._ v. 3 f., + _Sim._ x. 1. 1. + + [3] Harnack places "The Shepherd" proper mostly under Hadrian + (117-138), and the completed work c. 140-145. + + [4] A careful study of practical Christian ethics at Rome as implied + in the _Shepherd_, will be found in E. von Dobschutz, _Christian Life + in the Primitive Church_ (1904). + + [5] Note the prestige of martyrs and confessors, the ways of true and + false prophets in _Mand._ xi., and the different types of evil and + good "walk" among Christians, e.g. in _Vis._ iii. 5-7; _Mand._ viii.; + _Sim._ viii. + + + + +HERMENEUTICS (Gr. [Greek: hermeneutike], sc. [Greek: techne], Lat. _ars +hermeneutica_, from [Greek: hermeneuein], to interpret, from Hermes, the +messenger of the gods), the science or art of interpretation or +explanation, especially of the Holy Scriptures (see THEOLOGY). + + + + +HERMES, a Greek god, identified by the Romans with Mercury. The +derivation of his name and his primitive character are very uncertain. +The earliest centres of his cult were Arcadia, where Mt. Cyllene was +reputed to be his birthplace, the islands of Lemnos, Imbros and +Samothrace, in which he was associated with the Cabeiri and Attica. In +Arcadia he was specially worshipped as the god of fertility, and his +images were ithyphallic, as also were the "Hermae" at Athens. Herodotus +(ii. 51) states that the Athenians borrowed this type from the +Pelasgians, thus testifying to the great antiquity of the phallic +Hermes. At Cyllene in Elis a mere phallus served as his emblem, and was +highly venerated in the time of Pausanias (vi. 26. 3). Both in +literature and cult Hermes was constantly associated with the protection +of cattle and sheep; at Tanagra and elsewhere his title was [Greek: +kriophoros], the ram-bearer. As a pastoral god he was often closely +connected with deities of vegetation, especially Pan and the nymphs. His +pastoral character is recognized in the _Iliad_ (xiv. 490) and the later +epic hymn to Hermes; and his Homeric titles [Greek: akaketa, eriounios, +dotor eaon], probably refer to him as the giver of fertility. In the +_Odyssey_, however, he appears mainly as the messenger of the gods, and +the conductor of the dead to Hades. Hence in later times he is often +represented in art and mythology as a herald. The conductor of souls was +naturally a chthonian god; at Athens there was a festival in honour of +Hermes and the souls of the dead, and Aeschylus (_Persae_, 628) invokes +Hermes, with Earth and Hades, in summoning a spirit from the underworld. +The function of a messenger-god may have originated the conception of +Hermes as a dream-god; he is called the "conductor of dreams" ([Greek: +hegetor oneiron]), and the Greeks offered to him the last libation +before sleep. As a messenger he may also have become the god of roads +and doorways; he was the protector of travellers and his images were +used for boundary-marks (see HERMAE). It was a custom to make a cairn of +stones near the wayside statues of Hermes, each passer-by adding a +stone; the significance of the practice, which is found in many +countries, is discussed by Frazer (_Golden Bough_, 2nd ed., iii. 10 f.) +and Hartland (_Legend of Perseus_, ii. 228). Treasure found in the road +([Greek: hermaion]) was the gift of Hermes, and any stroke of good luck +was attributed to him; but it may be doubted whether his patronage of +luck in general was developed from his function as a god of roads. As +the giver of luck he became a deity of gain and commerce ([Greek: +kerdoos, agoraios]), an aspect which caused his identification with +Mercury, the Roman god of trade. From this conception his thievish +character may have been evolved. The trickery and cunning of Hermes is a +prominent theme in literature from Homer downwards, although it is very +rarely recognized in official cult.[1] In the hymn to Hermes the god +figures as a precocious child (a type familiar in folk-lore), who when a +new-born babe steals the cows of Apollo. In addition to these +characteristics various other functions were assigned to Hermes, who +developed, perhaps, into the most complete type of the versatile Greek. +In many respects he was a counterpart of Apollo, less dignified and +powerful, but more human than his greater brother. Hermes was a patron +of music, like Apollo, and invented the cithara; he presided over the +games, with Apollo and Heracles, and his statues were common in the +stadia and gymnasia. He became, in fact, the ideal Greek youth, equally +proficient in the "musical" and "gymnastic" branches of Greek education. +On the "musical" side he was the special patron of eloquence ([Greek: +logios]); in gymnastic, he was the giver of grace rather than of +strength, which was the province of Heracles. Though athletic, he was +one of the least militant of the gods; a title [Greek: promachos], the +Defender, is found only in connexion with a victory of young men +("ephebes") in a battle at Tanagra. A further point of contact between +Hermes and Apollo may here be noted: both had prophetic powers, although +Hermes held a place far inferior to that of the Pythian god, and +possessed no famous oracle. Certain forms of popular divination were, +however, under his patronage, notably the world-wide process of +divination by pebbles ([Greek: thriai]). The "Homeric" Hymn to Hermes +explains these minor gifts of prophecy as delegated by Apollo, who alone +knew the mind of Zeus. Only a single oracle is recorded for Hermes, in +the market-place of Pharae in Achaea, and here the procedure was akin to +popular divination. An altar, furnished with lamps, was placed before +the statue; the inquirer, after lighting the lamps and offering incense, +placed a coin in the right hand of the god; he then whispered his +question into the ear of the statue, and, stopping his own ears, left +the market place. The first sound which he heard outside was an omen. + +From the foregoing account it will be seen that it is difficult to +derive the many-sided character of Hermes from a single elemental +conception. The various theories which identified him with the sun, the +moon or the dawn, may be dismissed, as they do not rest on evidence to +which value would now be attached. The Arcadian or "Pelasgic" Hermes may +have been an earth-deity, as his connexion with fertility suggests; but +his symbol at Cyllene rather points to a mere personification of +reproductive powers. According to Plutarch the ancients "set Hermes by +the side of Aphrodite," i.e. the male and female principles of +generation; and the two deities were worshipped together in Argos and +elsewhere. But this phallic character does not explain other aspects of +Hermes, as the messenger-god, the master-thief or the ideal Greek +ephebe. It is impossible to adopt the view that the Homeric poets turned +the rude shepherd-god of Arcadia into a messenger, in order to provide +him with a place in the Olympian circle. To their Achaean audience +Hermes must have been more than a phallic god. It is more probable that +the Olympian Hermes represents the fusion of several distinct deities. +Some scholars hold that the various functions of Hermes may have +originated from the idea of good luck which is so closely bound up with +his character. As a pastoral god he would give luck to the flocks and +herds; when worshipped by townspeople, he would give luck to the +merchant, the orator, the traveller and the athlete. But though the +notion of luck plays an important part in early thought, it seems +improbable that the primitive Greeks would have personified a mere +abstraction. Another theory, which has much to commend it, has been +advanced by Roscher, who sees in Hermes a wind-god. His strongest +arguments are that the wind would easily develop into the messenger of +the gods ([Greek: Dios ouros]), and that it was often thought to promote +fertility in crops and cattle. Thus the two aspects of Hermes which seem +most discordant are referred to a single origin. The Homeric epithet +[Greek: Argeiphontes], which the Greeks interpreted as "the slayer of +Argus," inventing a myth to account for Argus, is explained as +originally an epithet of the wind ([Greek: argestes]), which clears away +the mists ([Greek: argos, phaino]). The uncertainty of the wind might +well suggest the trickery of a thief, and its whistling might contain +the germ from which a god of music should be developed. But many of +Roscher's arguments are forced, and his method of interpretation is not +altogether sound. For example, the last argument would equally apply to +Apollo, and would lead to the improbable conclusion that Apollo was a +wind-god. It must, in fact, be remembered that men make their gods after +their own likeness; and, whatever his origin, Hermes in particular was +endowed with many of the qualities and habits of the Greek race. If he +was evolved from the wind, his character had become so anthropomorphic +that the Greeks had practically lost the knowledge of his primitive +significance; nor did Greek cult ever associate him with the wind. + +The oldest form under which Hermes was represented was that of the +Hermae mentioned above. Alcamenes, the rival or pupil of Pheidias, was +the sculptor of a herm at Athens, a copy of which, dating from Roman +times, was discovered at Pergamum in 1903. But side by side with the +Hermae there grew up a more anthropomorphic conception of the god. In +archaic art he was portrayed as a full-grown and bearded man, clothed in +a long chiton, and often wearing a cap ([Greek: kyne]) or a +broad-brimmed hat ([Greek: petasos]), and winged boots. Sometimes he was +represented in his pastoral character, as when he bears a sheep on his +shoulders; at other times he appears as the messenger or herald of the +gods with the [Greek: kerykeion], or herald's staff, which is his most +frequent attribute. From the latter part of the 5th century his art-type +was changed in conformity with the general development of Greek +sculpture. He now became a nude and beardless youth, the type of the +young athlete. In the 4th century this type was probably fixed by +Praxiteles in his statue of Hermes at Olympia. + + AUTHORITIES.--F. G. Welcker, _Griech. Gotterl._ i. 342 f. (Gottingen, + 1857-1863); L. Preller, ed. C. Robert, _Griech. Mythologie_, ii. 385 + seq. (Berlin, 1894); W. H. Roscher, _Lex. der griech. u. rom. + Mythologie_, s.v. (Leipzig, 1884-1886); A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual and + Religion_, ii. 225 seq. (London, 1887); C. Daremberg and E. Saglio, + _Dict. des ant. grecques et rom._; Farnell, _Cults_ v. (1909); O. + Gruppe, _Griech. Mythologie u. Religionsgesch._ p. 1318 seq. (Munich, + 1906). In the article GREEK ART, figs. 43 and 82 (Plate VI.) represent + the Hermes of Praxiteles; fig. 57 (Plate II.), a professed copy of the + Hermes of Alcamenes. (E. E. S.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] We only hear of a Hermes [Greek: dolios] at Pellene (Paus. vii. + 27. 1) and of the custom of allowing promiscuous thieving during the + festival of Hermes at Samos (Plut. _Quaest. Graec._ 55). + + + + +HERMES, GEORG (1775-1831), German Roman Catholic theologian, was born on +the 22nd of April 1775, at Dreyerwalde, in Westphalia, and was educated +at the gymnasium and university of Munster, in both of which +institutions he afterwards taught. In 1820 he was appointed professor of +theology at Bonn, where he died on the 26th of May 1831. Hermes had a +devoted band of adherents, of whom the most notable was Peter Josef +Elvenich (1796-1886), who became professor at Breslau in 1829, and in +1870 threw in his lot with the Old Catholic movement. His works were +_Untersuchungen uber die innere Wahrheit des Christenthums_ (Munster, +1805), and _Einleitung in die christkatholische Theologie_, of which the +first part, a philosophical introduction, was published in 1819, the +second part, on positive theology, in 1829. The _Einleitung_ was never +completed. His _Christkatholische Dogmatik_ was published, from his +lectures, after his death by two of his students, Achterfeld and Braun +(3 vols., 1831-1834). + +The _Einleitung_ is a remarkable work, both in itself and in its effect +upon Catholic theology in Germany. Few works of modern times have +excited a more keen and bitter controversy. Hermes himself was very +largely under the influence of the Kantian and Fichtean ideas, and +though in the philosophical portion of his _Einleitung_ he criticizes +both these thinkers severely, rejects their doctrine of the moral law as +the sole guarantee for the existence of God, and condemns their +restricted view of the possibility and nature of revelation, enough +remained of purely speculative material to render his system obnoxious +to his church. After his death, the contests between his followers and +their opponents grew so bitter that the dispute was referred to the +papal see. The judgment was adverse, and on the 25th of September 1835 a +papal bull condemned both parts of the _Einleitung_ and the first volume +of the _Dogmatik_. Two months later the remaining volumes of the +_Dogmatik_ were likewise condemned. The controversy did not cease, and +in 1845 a systematic attempt was made anonymously by F. X. Werner to +examine and refute the Hermesian doctrines, as contrasted with the +orthodox Catholic faith (_Der Hermesianismus_, 1845). In 1847 the +condemnation of 1835 was confirmed by Pius IX. + + See K. Werner, _Geschichte der katholischen Theologie_ (1866), pp. 405 + sqq. + + + + +HERMES TRISMEGISTUS ("the thrice greatest Hermes"), an honorific +designation of the Egyptian Hermes, i.e. Thoth (q.v.), the god of +wisdom. In late hieroglyphic the name of Thoth often has the epithet +"the twice very great," sometimes "the thrice very great"; in the +popular language (demotic) the corresponding epithet is "the five times +very great," found as early as the 3rd century B.C. Greek translations +give [Greek: ho megas kai megas] and [Greek: megistos: trismegas] occurs +in a late magical text. [Greek: ho trismegistos] has not yet been found +earlier than the 2nd century A.D., but there can now be no doubt of its +origin in the above Egyptian epithets. + +Thoth was "the scribe of the gods," "Lord of divine words," and to +Hermes was attributed the authorship of all the strictly sacred books +generally called by Greek authors Hermetic. These, according to Clemens +Alexandrinus, our sole ancient authority (_Strom._ vi. p. 268 et seq.), +were forty-two in number, and were subdivided into six divisions, of +which the first, containing ten books, was in charge of the "prophet" +and dealt with laws, deities and the education of priests; the second, +consisting of the ten books of the _stolistes_, the official whose duty +it was to dress and ornament the statues of the gods, treated of +sacrifices and offerings, prayers, hymns, festive processions; the +third, of the "hierogrammatist," also in ten books, was called +"hieroglyphics," and was a repertory of cosmographical, geographical and +topographical information; the four books of the "horoscopus" were +devoted to astronomy and astrology; the two books of the "chanter" +contained respectively a collection of songs in honour of the gods and a +description of the royal life and its duties; while the sixth and last +division, consisting of the six books of the "pastophorus," was medical. +Clemens's statement cannot be contradicted. Works are extant in papyri +and on temple walls, treating of geography, astronomy, ritual, myths, +medicine, &c. It is probable that the native priests would have been +ready to ascribe the authorship or inspiration, as well as the care and +protection of all their books of sacred lore to Thoth, although there +were a goddess of writing (Seshit), and the ancient deified scribes +Imuthes and Amenophis, and later inspired doctors Petosiris, Nechepso, +&c., to be reckoned with; there are indeed some definite traces of such +an attribution extant in individual cases. Whether a canon of such books +was ever established, even in the latest times, may be seriously +doubted. We know, however, that the vizier of Upper Egypt (at Thebes) in +the eighteenth dynasty, had 40 (not 42) parchment rolls laid before him +as he sat in the hall of audience. Unfortunately we have no hint of +their contents. Forty-two was the number of divine assessors at the +judgment of the dead before Osiris, and was the standard number of the +nomes or counties in Egypt. + +The name of Hermes seems during the 3rd and following centuries to have +been regarded as a convenient pseudonym to place at the head of the +numerous syncretistic writings in which it was sought to combine +Neo-Platonic philosophy, Philonic Judaism and cabalistic theosophy, and +so provide the world with some acceptable substitute for the +Christianity which had even at that time begun to give indications of +the ascendancy it was destined afterwards to attain. Of these +pseudepigraphic Hermetic writings some have come down to us in the +original Greek; others survive in Latin or Arabic translations; but the +majority appear to have perished. That which is best known and has been +most frequently edited is the [Greek: Poimandres] _sive De potestate et +sapientia divina_ ([Greek: Poimandres] being the Divine Intelligence, +[Greek: poimen andron]), which consists of fifteen chapters treating of +such subjects as the nature of God, the origin of the world, the +creation and fall of man, and the divine illumination which is the sole +means of his deliverance. The _editio princeps_ appeared in Paris in +1554; there is also an edition by G. Parthey (1854); the work has also +been translated into German by D. Tiedemann (1781). Other Hermetic +writings which have been preserved, and which have been for the most +part collected by Patricius in the _Nova de universis philosophia_ +(1593), are (in Greek) [Greek: Iatromathematika pros Ammona Aiguption, +Peri katakliseos nosounton perignostika, Ek tes mathematikes epistemes +pros Ammona]: (in Latin) _Aphorismi sive Centiloquium, Cyranides_; (in +Arabic, but doubtless from a Greek original) an address to the human +soul, which has been translated by H. L. Fleischer (_An die menschliche +Seele_, 1870). + +The connexion of the name of Hermes with alchemy will explain what is +meant by hermetic sealing, and will account for the use of the phrase +"hermetic medicine" by Paracelsus, as also for the so-called "hermetic +freemasonry" of the middle ages. + +Besides Thoth, Anubis (q.v.) was constantly identified with Hermes; see +also HORUS. + + See Ursinus, _De Zoroastre, Hermete_, &c. (Nuremberg, 1661); Nicolas + Lenglet-Dufresnoy, _L'Histoire de la philosophie hermetique_ (Paris, + 1742); Baumgarten-Crusius, _De librorum hermeticorum origine atque + indole_ (Jena, 1827); B. J. Hilgers, _De Hermetis Trismegisti + Poemandro_ (1855); R. Menard, _Hermes Trismegiste, traduction + complete, precedee d'une etude sur l'origine des livres hermetiques_ + (1866); R. Pietschmann, _Hermes Trismegistus, nach agyptischen, + griechischen, und orientalischen Uberlieferungen_ (1875); R. + Reitzenstein, _Poimandres, Studien zur griechisch-agyptischen und + fruhchristlichen Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1904); G. R. S. Mead, _Thrice + Greatest Hermes_ (1907), introduction and translation. (F. Ll. G.) + + + + +HERMESIANAX, of Colophon, elegiac poet of the Alexandrian school, +flourished about 330 B.C. His chief work was a poem in three books, +dedicated to his mistress Leontion. Of this poem a fragment of about one +hundred lines has been preserved by Athenaeus (xiii. 597). Plaintive in +tone, it enumerates instances, mythological and historical, of the +irresistible power of love. Hermesianax, whose style is characterized by +alternate force and tenderness, was exceedingly popular in his own +times, and was highly esteemed even in the Augustan period. + + Many separate editions have been published of the fragment, the text + of which is in a very unsatisfactory condition: by F. W. Schneidewin + (1838), J. Bailey (1839, with notes, glossary, and Latin and English + versions), and others; R. Schulze's _Quaestiones Hermesianacteae_ + (1858), contains an account of the life and writings of the poet and a + section on the identity of Leontion. + + + + +HERMIAS. (1) A Greek philosopher of the Alexandrian school. A disciple +of Proclus, he was known best for the lucidity of his method rather than +for any original ideas. His chief works were a study of the _Isagoge_ of +Porphyry and a commentary on Plato's _Phaedrus_. Unlike the majority of +logicians of the time, he admitted the absolute validity of the second +and third figures of the syllogism. + +(2) A Christian apologist and philosopher who flourished probably in the +4th and 5th centuries. Nothing is known about his life, but there has +been preserved of his writings a small thesis entitled [Greek: Diasyrmos +ton exophilosophon]. In this work he attacked pagan philosophy for its +lack of logic in dealing with the root problems of life, the soul, the +cosmos and the first cause or vital principle. There is an edition by +von Otto published in the _Corpus apologetarum_ (Jena, 1872). It is +interesting, but without any claim to profundity of reasoning. + + Two minor philosophers of the same name are known. Of these, one was a + disciple of Plato and a friend of Aristotle; he became tyrant of + Atarneus and invited Aristotle to his court. Aristotle subsequently + married Pythias, who was either niece or sister of Hermias. Another + Hermias was a Phoenician philosopher of the Alexandrian school; when + Justinian closed the school of Athens, he was one of the five + representatives of the school who took refuge at the Persian court. + + + + +HERMIPPUS, "the one-eyed," Athenian writer of the Old Comedy, flourished +during the Peloponnesian War. He is said to have written 40 plays, of +which the titles and fragments of nine are preserved. He was a bitter +opponent of Pericles, whom he accused (probably in the [Greek: Moirai]) +of being a bully and a coward, and of carousing with his boon companions +while the Lacedaemonians were invading Attica. He also accused Aspasia +of impiety and offences against morality, and her acquittal was only +secured by the tears of Pericles (Plutarch, _Pericles_, 32). In the +[Greek: Artopolides] ("Bakeresses") he attacked the demagogue +Hyperbolus. The [Greek: Phormophoroi] (Mat-carriers) contains many +parodies of Homer. Hermippus also appears to have written scurrilous +iambic poems after the manner of Archilochus. + + Fragments in T. Kock, _Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta_, i. (1880), and + A. Meineke, _Poetarum Graecorum comicorum fragmenta_ (1855). + + + + +HERMIT, a solitary, one who withdraws from all intercourse with other +human beings in order to live a life of religious contemplation, and so +marked off from a "coenobite" (Gr. [Greek: koinos], common, and [Greek: +Bios], life), one who shares this life of withdrawal with others in a +community (see ASCETICISM and MONASTICISM). The word "hermit" is an +adaptation through the O. Fr. _ermite_ or _hermite_, from the Lat. form, +_eremite_, of the Gr. [Greek: eremites], a solitary, from [Greek: +eremia], a desert. The English form "eremite," which was used, according +to the _New English Dictionary_, quite indiscriminately with "hermit" +till the middle of the 17th century, is now chiefly used in poetry or +rhetorically, except with reference to the early hermits of the Libyan +desert, or sometimes to such particular orders as the eremites of St +Augustine (see AUGUSTINIAN HERMITS). Another synonym is "anchoret" or +"anchorite." This comes through the French and Latin forms from the Gr. +[Greek: anachoretes], from [Greek: anachorein], to withdraw. A form +nearer to the Greek original, "anachoret," is sometimes used of the +early Christian recluses in the East. + + + + +HERMOGENES, of Tarsus, Greek rhetorician, surnamed [Greek: Xuster] (the +polisher), flourished in the reign of Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161-180). +His precocious ability secured him a public appointment as teacher of +his art while as yet he was only a boy; but at the age of twenty-five +his faculties gave way, and he spent the remainder of his long life in a +state of intellectual impotence. During his early years, however, he had +composed a series of rhetorical treatises, which became popular +text-books, and the subject of subsequent commentaries. Of his [Greek: +Techne rhetorike] we still possess the sections [Greek: Peri ton +staseon] (on legal issues), [Greek: Peri heureseos] (on the invention of +arguments), [Greek: Peri ideon] (on the various kinds of style), [Greek: +Peri methodou deinotetos] (on the method of speaking effectively), and +[Greek: Progymnasmata] (rhetorical exercises). + + Editions by C. Walz (1832), and by L. Spengel (1854), in their + _Rhetores Graeci_; bibliographical note on the commentaries in W. + Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen Literatur_ (1898). + + + + +HERMON, the highest mountain in Syria (estimated at 9050 to 9200 ft.), +an outlier of the Anti-Lebanon. As the Hebrew name ([Hebrew: Hermon], +"belonging to a sanctuary," "separate") shows, it was always a sacred +mountain. The Sidonians called it _Sirion_, and the Amorites _Shenir_ +(Deut. iii. 9). According to one theory it is the "high mountain" near +Caesarea Philippi, which was the scene of the Transfiguration (Mark ix. +2). A curious reference in Enoch vi. 6, says that in the days of Jared +the wicked angels descended on the summit of the mountain and named it +Hermon. The modern name is _Jebel es-Sheikh_, or "mountain of the chief +or elder." It is also called _Jebel eth-Thelj_, "snowy mountain." The +ridge of Hermon, rising into a dome-shaped summit, is 20 m. long, +extending north-east and south-west. The formation of the lower part is +Nubian sandstone, that of the upper part is a hard dark-grey crystalline +limestone belonging to the Neocomian period, and full of fossils. The +spurs consist in some cases of white chalk covering the limestone, and +on the south there are several basaltic outbreaks. The view from Hermon +is very extensive, embracing all Lebanon and the plains east of +Damascus, with Palestine as far as Carmel and Tabor. On a clear day +Jaffa also may be seen. The mountain in spring is covered with snow, but +in autumn there is occasionally none left, even in the ravines. To the +height of 500 ft. it is clothed with oaks, poplars and brush, while +luxuriant vineyards abound. Foxes, wolves and Syrian bears are not +infrequently met with, and there is a heavy dew or night mist. Above the +snow-limit the mountain is bare and covered with fine limestone shingle. +The summit is a plateau from which three rocky knolls rise up, that on +the west being the lowest, that on the south-east the highest. On the +south slope of the latter are remains of a small temple or _sacellum_ +described by St Jerome. A semicircular dwarf wall of good masonry runs +round this peak, and a trench excavated in the rock may perhaps indicate +the site of an altar. On the plateau is a cave about 25 ft. sq. with the +entrance on the east. A rock column supports the roof, and a building +(possibly a Mithraeum) once stood above. Other small temples are found +on the sides of Hermon, of which twelve in all have been explored. They +face the east and are dated by architects about A.D. 200. The most +remarkable are those of Deir el 'Ashaiyir, Hibbariyeh, Hosn Niha and +Tell Thatha. At the ruined town called Rukleh on the northern slopes are +remains of a temple, the stones of which have been built into a church. +A large medallion, 5 ft. in diameter, with a head supposed to represent +the sun-god, is built into the wall. Several Greek inscriptions occur +among these ruins. In the 12th century Psalm lxxxix. 12 was supposed to +indicate the proximity of Hermon to Tabor. The conical hill immediately +south of Tabor was thus named Little Hermon, and is still so called by +some of the inhabitants of the district. + + + + +HERMSDORF, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia. +Pop. (1900) 10,975. There are coal and iron mines and lime quarries in +the vicinity, and in the town there are large iron-works. Hermsdorf is +known as Niederhermsdorf to distinguish it from other places of the same +name. Perhaps the most noteworthy of these is a village in Silesia at +the foot of the Riesengebirge, chiefly famous for the ruins of the +castle of Kynast. This castle, formerly the seat of the Schaffgotsch +family, was destroyed by lightning in 1675. A third Hermsdorf is a +village in Saxe-Altenburg, where porcelain is made. + + + + +HERNE, JAMES A. [originally AHERNE] (1840-1901), American actor and +playwright, was born in Troy, New York, and after theatrical experiences +in various companies produced his own first play, _Hearts of Oak_, in +1878, and his great success _Shore Acres_ in 1882. It was in rural drama +that his humour and pathos found their proper setting, and _Shore Acres_ +was seen throughout the United States almost continuously for six +seasons, being followed by the less successful _Sag Harbor_, 1900. + + + + +HERNE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, 15 m. +by rail N.W. of Dortmund. Pop. (1905) 33,258. It has coal mines, +boiler-works, gunpowder mills, &c. Herne was made a town in 1897. + + + + +HERNE BAY, a seaside resort in the St Augustine's parliamentary division +of Kent, England, 8 m. N. by E. of Canterbury, on the South Eastern and +Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6726. It has grown up +since 1830, above a sandy and pebbly shore, and has a pier 3/4 m. long. +The church of St Martin in the village of Herne, 1(1/2) m. inland, is +Early English and later; the living was held by Nicholas Ridley (1538), +afterwards Bishop of London. At Reculver, 3 m. E. of Herne Bay on the +coast, is the site of the Roman station of _Regulbium_. The fortress +occupied about 8 acres, but only traces of the south and east walls +remain. In Saxon times it was converted into a palace by King Ethelbert, +and in 669 a monastery was founded here by Egbert. The Early English +church was taken down early in the 19th century owing to the +encroachment of the sea, and parts of its fabric were preserved in the +modern church of St Mary. But its twin towers, known as the Sisters from +the tradition that they were built by a Benedictine abbess of Faversham +in memory of her sister, were preserved by Trinity House as a +conspicuous landmark. + + + + +HERNE THE HUNTER, a legendary huntsman who was alleged to haunt Windsor +Great Park at night, especially around an aged tree, long known as +Herne's oak, said to be nearly 700 years old. This was blown down in +1863, and a young oak was planted by Queen Victoria on the spot. Herne +has his French counterpart in the _Grand Veneur_ of Fontainebleau. +Mention is made of Herne in _The Merry Wives of Windsor_ and in Harrison +Ainsworth's _Windsor Castle_. Nothing definite is known of the Herne +legend. It is suggested that it originated in the life-story of some +keeper of the forest; but more probably it is only a variant of the +"Wild Huntsman" myth common to folk-lore, which (E. B. Tylor, _Primitive +Culture_, 4th ed. pp. 361-362) is almost certainly the modern form of a +prehistoric storm-myth. + + + + +HERNIA (Lat. _hernia_, perhaps from Gr. [Greek: ernos], a sprout), in +surgery, the protrusion of a viscus, or part of a viscus, from its +normal cavity; thus, _hernia cerebri_ is a protrusion of +brain-substance, _hernia pulmonum_, a protrusion of a portion of lung, +and _hernia iridis_, a protrusion of some of the iris through an +aperture in the cornea. But, used by itself, hernia implies a protrusion +from the abdominal cavity, or, in common language, a "rupture." A +rupture may occur at any weak point in the abdominal wall. The common +situations are the groin (_inguinal hernia_), the upper part of the +thigh (_femoral hernia_), and the navel (_umbilical hernia_). The more +movable the viscus the greater the liability to protrusion, and +therefore one commonly finds some of the small intestine, or of the +fatty apron (omentum), in the hernia. The tumour may contain intestine +alone (enterocele), omentum alone (epiplocele), or both intestine and +omentum (entero-epiplocele). The predisposing cause of rupture is +abnormal length of the suspensory membrane of the bowel (the mesentery), +or of the omentum, in conjunction with some weak spot in the abdominal +wall, as in an inguinal hernia, which descends along the canal in which +the spermatic cord lies in the male and the round ligament of the womb +in the female. A femoral hernia comes through a weak spot in the abdomen +to the inner side of the great femoral vessels; a ventral hernia takes +place by the yielding of the scar tissue left after an operation for +appendicitis or ovarian disease. The exciting cause of hernia is +generally some over-exertion, as in lifting a heavy weight, jumping off +a high wall, straining (as in difficult micturition), constipation or +excessive coughing. The pressure of the diaphragm above and the +abdominal wall in front acting on the abdominal viscera causes a +protrusion at the weakest point. + +Rupture is either congenital or acquired. A child may be born with a +hernia in the inguinal or umbilical region, the result of an arrest of +development in these parts; or the rupture may be acquired, first +appearing, perhaps, in adult life as the result of a strain or hurt. Men +suffer more frequently than women, because of their physical labours, +because they are more liable to accidents, and because of the passage +for the spermatic cord out of the abdomen being more spacious than that +for the round ligament of the womb. + +At first the rupture is small, and it gradually increases in bulk. It +varies from the size of a marble to a child's head. The swelling +consists of three parts--the coverings, sac and contents. The +"coverings" are the structures which form the abdominal wall at the part +where the rupture occurs. In femoral hernia the coverings are the +structures at the upper part of the thigh which are stretched, thinned +and matted together as the result of pressure; in other cases there is +an increase in their thickness, the result of repeated attacks of +inflammation. The "sac" is composed of the peritoneum or membrane lining +the abdominal cavity; in some rare cases the sac is wanting. The neck of +the sac is the narrowed portion where the peritoneum forming the sac +becomes continuous with the general peritoneal cavity. The neck of the +sac is often thickened, indurated and adherent to surrounding parts, the +result of chronic inflammation. The "contents" are bowel, omental fat, +or, in children, an ovary. + +The hernia may be reducible, irreducible or strangulated. A "reducible" +hernia is one in which the contents can be pushed back into the abdomen. +In some cases this reduction is effected with ease, in others it is a +matter of great difficulty. At any moment a reducible hernia may become +"irreducible," that is to say, it cannot be pushed back into the +abdominal cavity, perhaps because of inflammatory adhesions in and +around the fatty contents, or because of extra fullness of the bowel in +the sac. A "strangulated" hernia is one in which the circulation of the +blood through the hernial contents is interfered with, by the pinching +at the narrowest part of the passage. The interference is at first +slight, but it quickly becomes more pronounced; the pinched bowel in the +hernial sac swells as a finger does when a string is tightly wound round +its base. At first there is congestion, and this may go on to +inflammation, to infection by micro-organisms and to mortification. The +rapidity with which the change from simple congestion to mortification +takes place depends on the tightness of the constriction, and on the +virulence of the bacterial infection from the bowel. As a rule, the more +rapidly a hernia forms the greater the rapidity of serious change in the +conditions of the bowel or omentum, and the more urgent are the +symptoms. The constricting band may be one of the structures which form +the boundaries of the openings through which the hernia has travelled, +or it may be the neck of the sac, which has become thickened in +consequence of inflammation--especially is this the case in an inguinal +hernia. + +_Reducible Hernia._--With a reducible hernia there is a soft +compressible tumour (elastic when it contains intestine, doughy when it +contains omentum), its size increasing in the erect, and diminishing in +the horizontal posture. As a rule, it causes no trouble during the +night. It gives an impulse on coughing, and when the intestinal contents +are pushed back into the abdomen a gurgling sensation is perceptible by +the fingers. Such a tumour may be met with in any part of the abdominal +wall, but the chief situations are as follows. The inguinal region, in +which the neck of the tumour lies immediately above Poupart's ligament +(a cord-like ligamentous structure which can be felt stretching from the +front of the hip-bone to a ridge of bone immediately above the genital +organs); the femoral region, in the upper part of the thigh, in which +the neck of the sac lies immediately below the inner end of Poupart's +ligament; the umbilical region, in which the tumour appears at or near +the navel. As the inguinal hernia increases in size it passes into the +scrotum in the male, into the labium in the female; while the femoral +hernia gradually pushes upwards to the abdomen. + +The palliative treatment of a reducible hernia consists in pushing back +the contents of the tumour into the abdomen and applying a truss or +elastic bandage to prevent their again escaping. The younger the patient +the more chance there is of the truss acting as a curative agent. The +truss may generally be left off at night, but it should be put on in the +morning before the patient leaves his bed. If, after the hernia has been +once returned, it is not allowed again to come down, there is a +probability of an actual cure taking place; but if it is allowed to come +down occasionally, as it may do, even during the night, in consequence +of a cough, or from the patient turning suddenly in bed, the weak spot +is again opened out, and the improvement which might have been going on +for weeks is undone. It is sometimes found impossible to keep up a +hernia by means of a truss, and an operation becomes necessary. The +operation is spoken of as "the radical treatment of hernia," in +contra-distinction to the so-called "palliative treatment" by means of a +truss. It should not be spoken of as the radical cure, for skilfully as +the operation may have been performed it is not always a cure. The +principles involved in the operation are the emptying of the sac and its +entire removal, and the closure of the opening into the abdomen by +strong sutures; and, in this way, great advance has been made by modern +surgery. Without tiresome delay, and the tedious and sometimes +disappointing application of trusses, the weak spot in the abdominal +wall is exposed, the sac of the hernia is tied and removed, and the +canal by which the rupture descended is blockaded by buried sutures, and +with no material risk to life. Thus the patient's worries become a thing +of the past, and he is rendered a fit and normal member of society. +Experience has shown that very few ruptures are unsuited for successful +treatment by operation. No boy should now be sent to school compelled to +wear a truss, and so hindered in his games and rendered an object of +remark. + +_Irreducible Hernia._--The main symptom is a tumour in one of the +situations already referred to, of long standing and perhaps of large +size, in which the contents of the tumour, in whole or in part, cannot +be pushed back into the abdomen. The irreducibility is due either to its +large size or to changes which have taken place by indurations or +adhesions. Such a tumour is a constant source of danger: its contents +are liable, from their exposed situation, to injury from external +violence; it has a constant risk of increase; it may at any time become +strangulated, or the contents may inflame, and strangulation may occur +secondarily to the inflammation. It gives rise to dragging sensations +(referred to the abdomen), colic, dyspepsia and constipation, which may +lead to obstruction, that is to say, a stoppage may occur of the passage +of the contents of that portion of the intestinal canal which lies in +the hernia. When an irreducible hernia becomes painful and tender, a +local peritonitis has occurred, which resembles in many of its symptoms +a case of strangulation, and must be regarded with suspicion and +anxiety. Indeed, the only safe treatment is by operation. + +The treatment of irreducible hernia may be palliative; a "bag truss" may +be worn in the hope of preventing the hernia getting larger; the bowels +must be kept open, and all irregularities of diet avoided. A person with +such a hernia is in constant danger, and if his general condition does +not contra-indicate it he should be submitted to operative treatment. +That is to say, the surgeon should cut down on the hernia, open the sac, +divide any omental adhesions, tie and cut away indurated omentum, return +the bowel, and complete the radical operation by closing the aperture by +strong sutures. + +In _Strangulated Hernia_ the bowel or omentum is being nipped at the +neck of the sac, and the flow of blood into and from the delicate +tissues is stopped. The symptoms are--nausea, vomiting of bilious +matter, and after a time of faecal-smelling matter; a twisting, burning +pain generally referred to the region of the navel, intestinal +obstruction; a quick, wiry pulse and pain on pressure over the tumour; +the expression grows anxious, the abdomen becomes tense and drum-like, +and there is no impulse in the tumour on coughing, because its contents +are practically pinched off from the general abdominal cavity. Sometimes +there is complete absence of pain and tenderness in the hernia itself, +and in an aged person all the symptoms may be very slight. Sooner or +later, from eight hours to eight days, if the strangulation is +unrelieved, the tumour becomes livid, crackling with gas, mortification +of the bowel at the neck of the sac takes place, followed by +extravasation of the intestinal contents into the abdominal cavity; the +patient has hiccough; he becomes collapsed; and dies comatose from +blood-poisoning. + +The treatment of a strangulated hernia admits of no delay; if the hernia +does not "go back" on the surgeon trying to reduce it, it must be +operated on at once, the constriction being relieved, the bowel returned +and the opening closed. There should be no treatment by hot-bath or +ice-bag: operation is urgently needed. An anaesthetic should be +administered, and perhaps one gentle attempt to return the contents by +pressure (termed "taxis") may be made, but no prolonged attempts are +justifiable, because the condition of the hernial contents may be such +that they cannot bear the pressure of the fingers. "Think well of the +hernia," says the aphorism, "which has been little handled." + +The taxis to be successful should be made in a direction opposite to the +one in which the hernia has come down. The inguinal hernia should be +pressed upwards, outwards and backwards, the femoral hernia downwards, +backwards and upwards. The larger the hernia the greater is the chance +of success by taxis, and the smaller the hernia the greater the risk of +its being injured by manipulation and delay. In every case the handling +must be absolutely gentle. If taxis does not succeed the surgeon must at +once cut down on the tumour, carefully dividing the different coverings +until he reaches the sac. The sac is then opened, the constriction +divided, care being taken not to injure the bowel. The bowel must be +examined before it is returned into the abdomen, and if its lustreless +appearance, its dusky colour, or its smell, suggests that it is +mortified, or is on the point of mortifying, it must not be put back or +perforation would give rise to septic peritonitis which would probably +have a fatal ending. In such a case the damaged piece of bowel must be +resected and the healthy ends of the bowel joined together by fine +suturing. Matted or diseased omentum must be tied off and removed. +Should peritonitis supervene after the operation on account of bacillary +infection, the bowels should be quickly made to act by repeated doses of +Epsom salts in hot water. + +A person who is the subject of a reducible hernia should take great care +to obtain an accurately fitting truss, and should remember that whenever +symptoms resembling in any degree those of strangulation occur, delay in +treatment may prove fatal. A surgeon should at once be communicated +with, and he should come prepared to operate. (E. O.*) + + + + +HERNICI, an ancient people of Italy, whose territory was in Latium +between the Fucine Lake and the Trerus, bounded by the Volscian on the +S., and by the Aequian and the Marsian on the N. They long maintained +their independence, and in 486 B.C. were still strong enough to conclude +an equal treaty with the Latins (Dion. Hal. viii. 64 and 68). They broke +away from Rome in 362 (Livy vii. 6 ff.) and in 306 (Livy ix. 42), when +their chief town Anagnia (q.v.) was taken and reduced to a praefecture, +but Ferentinum, Aletrium and Verulae were rewarded for their fidelity by +being allowed to remain free _municipia_, a position which at that date +they preferred to the _civitas_. The name of the Hernici, like that of +the Volsci, is missing from the list of Italian peoples whom Polybius +(ii. 24) describes as able to furnish troops in 225 B.C.; by that date, +therefore, their territory cannot have been distinguished from Latium +generally, and it seems probable (Beloch, _Ital. Bund_, p. 123) that +they had then received the full Roman citizenship. The oldest Latin +inscriptions of the district (from Ferentinum, _C.I.L._ x. 5837-5840) +are earlier than the Social War, and present no local characteristic. + + For further details of their history see _C.I.L._ x. 572. + +There is no evidence to show that the Hernici ever spoke a really +different dialect from the Latins; but one or two glosses indicate that +they had certain peculiarities of vocabulary, such as might be expected +among folk who clung to their local customs. Their name, however, with +its _Co_-termination, classes them along with the _Co_-tribes, like the +Volsci, who would seem to have been earlier inhabitants of the west +coast of Italy, rather than with the tribes whose names were formed with +the _No_-suffix. On this question see VOLSCI and SABINI. + + See Conway's _Italic Dialects_ (Camb. Univ. Press, 1897), p. 306 ff., + where the glosses and the local and personal names of the district + will be found. (R. S. C.) + + + + +HERNOSAND, a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district (_lan_) of +Vesternorrland on the Gulf of Bothnia. Pop. (1900) 7890. It stands on +the island of Herno (which is connected with the mainland by bridges) +near the mouth of the Angerman river, 423 m. N. of Stockholm by rail. It +is the seat of a bishop and possesses a fine cathedral. There are +engine-works, timber-yards and saw-mills. The harbour is good, but +generally ice-bound from December to May. Timber, iron and wood-pulp are +exported. There are a school of navigation and an institute for +pisciculture. Hernosand was founded in 1584, and received its first +town-privileges from John III. in 1587. It was the first town in Europe +to be lighted by electricity (1885). The poet Franzen (q.v.), Bishop of +Hernosand, is buried here. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 13, Slice 3, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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