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+Project Gutenberg's American Grape Training, by Liberty Hyde (L.H.) Bailey
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: American Grape Training
+       An account of the leading forms now in use of Training the
+       American Grapes
+
+Author: Liberty Hyde (L.H.) Bailey
+
+Release Date: May 23, 2012 [EBook #39779]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Cathy Maxam and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
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+
+
+  AMERICAN
+  GRAPE TRAINING
+
+  An account of the leading
+  forms now in use of Training
+  the American Grapes.
+
+  _By L. H. BAILEY_
+
+  NEW YORK:
+  THE RURAL PUBLISHING COMPANY
+  1893.
+
+
+
+
+    _By the same Author._
+
+
+    =Annals of Horticulture= in North America for the year 1889. A
+    witness of passing events and a record of progress. 249 pages, 52
+    illustrations.
+
+    =Annals for 1890.= 312 pages, 82 illustrations.
+
+    =Annals for 1891.= 416 pages, 77 illustrations.
+
+    =Annals for 1892.=
+
+    *.* A new volume is issued each year, each complete in
+    itself. Cloth, $1; paper, 60 cents.
+
+    =The Horticulturist's Rule-Book.= A compendium of useful information
+    for fruit-growers, truck-gardeners, florists and others. Second
+    edition, revised to the opening of 1892. 221 pages. Cloth, $1;
+    paper, 50 cents.
+
+    =The Nursery Book.= A complete guide to the multiplication and
+    pollination of plants. 304 pages, 106 illustrations. Cloth, $1;
+    paper, 50c.
+
+    =Cross-Breeding and Hybridizing.= With a brief bibliography of the
+    subject. 44 pages. Paper, 40 cents. (Rural Library Series.)
+
+    =Field Notes on Apple Culture.= 90 pages, 19 illustrations. Cloth,
+    75 cents.
+
+    =Talks Afield=: About plants and the science of plants. 173 pages,
+    100 illustrations. Cloth, $1.
+
+  COPYRIGHTED 1893,
+  BY L. H. BAILEY.
+
+  ELECTROTYPED AND PRINTED BY
+  J. HORACE M'FARLAND CO., HARRISBURG, PA.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+                   Pages
+
+  Introduction      9-11
+
+  Pruning      11-24
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+  Preliminary Preparations for Training--The Trellis--Tying      25-33
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+  The Upright Systems. (Horizontal Arm Spur System. High Renewal. Fan
+    Training)      34-55
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+  The Drooping Systems. (True or Four-Cane Kniffin. Modifications of
+    the Four-Cane Kniffin. The Two-Cane Kniffin or Umbrella System. The
+    Low or One-Wire Kniffin. The Six-Cane Kniffin. Overhead, or Arbor
+    Kniffin. The Cross-Wire System. Renewal Kniffin. The Munson System)
+    56-82
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+  Miscellaneous Systems. (Horizontal Training. Post Training. Arbors.
+    Remodeling Old Vines)      83-92
+
+
+[Illustration: (Drawing of grapes)]
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                     PAGE
+
+   1. Grape Shoot      12
+
+   2. The Bearing Wood      13
+
+   3. Diagram      15
+
+   4. Spur      18
+
+   5. Renewal Pruning      19
+
+   6. A Newly Set Vineyard      21
+
+   7. Horizontal Arm Spur Training      35
+
+   8. Horizontal Arm (Diagram)      36
+
+   9. Short Arm Spur Training      38
+
+  10. The Second Season of Upright Training      40
+
+  11. Making the T-Head      42
+
+  12. The Third Season of High Renewal      43
+
+  13. High Renewal, before Pruning      44
+
+  14. High Renewal, Pruned      45
+
+  15. High Renewal, Pruned and Tied      46
+
+  16. High Renewal with Four Canes      47
+
+  17. High Renewal Complete      48
+
+  18. A Slat Trellis, with Upright Training      51
+
+  19. Fan Training, after Pruning      55
+
+  20. William Kniffin      57
+
+  21. The True Kniffin Training      59
+
+  22. No. 21, when Pruned      60
+
+  23. A Poor Type of Kniffin      64
+
+  24. The Y-Trunk Kniffin      65
+
+  25. Umbrella Training      67
+
+  26. A Poor Umbrella System      68
+
+  27. Eight-Cane Kniffin (Diagram)      70
+
+  28. Overhead Kniffin      71
+
+  29. Overhead Kniffin      72
+
+  30. Overhead Kniffin, before Pruning      73
+
+  31. Cross-Wire Training      75
+
+  32. Cross-Wire Training, Outside View      76
+
+  33. Munson Training. End View      78
+
+  34. Munson Training. Side View      79
+
+  35. Horizontal Training      83
+
+  36. Low Post Training      86
+
+  37. A Yearling Graft      91
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This little book has grown out of an attempt to teach the principles and
+methods of grape training to college students. I have found such
+teaching to be exceedingly difficult and unsatisfactory. It is
+impossible to firmly impress the lessons by mere lectures. The student
+must apprehend the principles slowly and by his own effort. He must have
+time to thoroughly assimilate them before he attempts to apply them. I
+therefore cast about for books which I could put before my class, but I
+at once found that there are very few succinct accounts of the subjects
+of grape pruning and training, and that none of our books portray the
+methods which are most largely practised in the large grape regions of
+the east. My only recourse, therefore, was to put my own notes into
+shape for print, and this I have now done. And inasmuch as all
+grape-growers are students, I hope that the simple account will find a
+use beyond the classroom.
+
+This lack of adequate accounts of grape training at first astonished me,
+but is not strange after all. It must be remembered that the cultivation
+of the native grape is of very recent origin. There are many men who can
+remember its beginning in a commercial way. It seldom occurs to the
+younger generation, which is familiar with the great vineyards in many
+states, that the Concord is yet scarcely forty years old, and that all
+grape growing in eastern America is yet in an experimental stage.
+Progress has been so rapid in recent years that the new methods outstrip
+the books. The old horizontal arm spur system, which is still the chief
+method in the books, has evolved itself into a high renewal training,
+which is widely used but which has not found its way into the manuals.
+The Kniffin type has outgrown its long period of incubation, and is now
+taking an assured place in vineyard management. So two great types,
+opposed in method, are now contending for supremacy, and they will
+probably form the basis of all future developments. This evolution of
+American grape training is one of the most unique and signal
+developments of our modern horticulture, and its very recent departure
+from the early doubts and trials is a fresh illustration of the youth
+and virility of all horticultural pursuits in North America.
+
+This development of our grape training should form the subject of a
+historical inquiry. I have not attempted such in this little hand-book.
+I have omitted all reference to the many early methods, which were in
+most cases transportations or modifications of European practices, for
+their value is now chiefly historical and their insertion here would
+only confuse the reader. I have attempted nothing more than a plain
+account of the methods now in use; in fact, I am aware that I have not
+accomplished even this much, for there are various methods which I have
+not mentioned. But these omitted forms are mostly of local use or
+adaptation, and they are usually only modifications of the main types
+here explained. It is impossible to describe all the variations in grape
+training in a book of pocket size; neither is it necessary. Nearly
+every grower who has given grape raising careful attention has
+introduced into his own vineyard some modifications which he thinks are
+of special value to him. There are various curious and instructive old
+books to which the reader can go if he desires to know the history and
+evolution of grape training in America. He will find that we have now
+passed through the long and costly experiment with European systems. And
+we have also outgrown the gross or long-wood styles, and now prune close
+with the expectation of obtaining superior and definite results.
+
+I have not attempted to rely upon my own resources in the preparation of
+this book. All the manuscript has been read by three persons--by George
+C. Snow, Penn Yan, N. Y., William D. Barns, Middle Hope, N. Y., and L.
+C. Corbett, my assistant in the Cornell Experiment Station. Mr. Snow is
+a grower in the lake region of western New York, and employs the High
+Renewal system; Mr. Barns is a grower in the Hudson River valley, and
+practices the Kniffin system; while Mr. Corbett has been a student of
+all the systems and has practiced two or three of them in commercial
+plantations. These persons have made many suggestions of which I have
+been glad to avail myself, and to them very much of the value of the
+book is to be attributed.
+
+     L. H. BAILEY,
+
+     ITHACA, N. Y., _Feb. 1, 1893_.
+
+
+
+
+John Adlum, of the District of Columbia, appears to have been the first
+person to systematically undertake the cultivation and amelioration of
+the native grapes. His method of training, as described in 1823, is as
+follows: One shoot is allowed to grow the first year, and this is cut
+back to two buds the first fall. The second year two shoots are allowed
+to grow, and they are tied to "two stakes fixed down to the side of each
+plant, about five or six feet high;" in the fall each cane is cut back
+to three or four buds. In the third spring, these two short canes are
+spread apart "so as to make an angle of about forty-five degrees with
+the stem," and are tied to stakes; this season about two shoots are
+allowed to grow from each branch, making four in all, and in the fall
+the outside ones are cut back to three or four buds and the inner ones
+to two. These outside shoots are to bear the fruit the fourth year, and
+the inside ones give rise to renewal canes. These two outer canes or
+branches are secured to two stakes set about sixteen inches upon either
+side of the vine, and the shoots are tied up to the stakes, as they
+grow. The renewal shoots from the inside stubs are tied to a third stake
+set near the root of the vine. The outside branches are to be cut away
+entirely at the end of the fourth year. This is an ingenious renewal
+post system, and it is easy to see how the Horizontal Arm and High
+Renewal systems may have sprung from it.
+
+
+
+
+AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTION--PRUNING.
+
+
+Pruning and training the grape are perplexed questions, even to those
+who have spent a lifetime in grape growing. The perplexity arises from
+several diverse sources, as the early effort to transplant European
+methods, the fact that many systems present almost equally good results
+for particular purposes and varieties, and the failure to comprehend the
+fundamental principles of the operations.
+
+It is sufficient condemnation of European methods when applied in
+eastern America, to say that the American grapes are distinct species
+from the European grapes, and that they are consequently different in
+habit. This fact does not appear to have been apprehended clearly by the
+early American grape-growers, even after the native varieties had begun
+to gain prominence. American viticulture, aside from that upon the
+Pacific slope which is concerned with the European grape, is an industry
+of very recent development. It was little more than a century ago that
+the first American variety gained favor, and so late as 1823 that the
+first definite attempt was made, in Adlum's "Memoir on the Cultivation
+of the Vine in America," to record the merits of native grapes for
+purposes of cultivation. Even Adlum's book was largely given to a
+discussion of European varieties and practices. In 1846 "Thomas' Fruit
+Culturist" mentioned only six "American hardy varieties," and all of
+these, save the Catawba, are practically not in cultivation at the
+present time. The Concord appeared in 1853. American grape training is,
+therefore, a very recent development, and we are only now outgrowing the
+influence of the practices early imported from Europe. The first decided
+epoch in the evolution of our grape training was the appearance of
+Fuller's "Grape Culturist," in 1864; for while the system which he
+depicted and which yet often bears his name, was but a modification of
+some European methods and had been outlined by earlier American writers,
+it was at that time placed clearly and cogently before the public and
+became an accepted practice. The fundamental principles of pruning are
+alike for both European and American grapes, but the details of pruning
+and training must be greatly modified for different species. We must
+understand at the outset that American species of grapes demand an
+American system of treatment.
+
+The great diversity of opinion which exists amongst the best grape
+growers concerning the advantages of different systems of training is
+proof that many systems have merit, and that no one system is better
+than others for all purposes. The grower must recognize the fact that
+the most important factor in determining the merits of any system of
+training is the habit of the vine--as its vigor, rate of growth, normal
+size, relative size and abundance of leaves, and season and character of
+fruit. Nearly every variety differs from others in habit in some
+particular, and it therefore requires different treatment in some
+important detail. Varieties may thrive equally well upon the same
+general system of training, but require minor modifications; so it comes
+that no hard and fast lines can be laid down, either for any system or
+any variety. One system differs from another in some one main principle
+or idea, but the modifications of all may meet and blend. If two men
+practice the Kniffin system, therefore, this fact does not indicate that
+they prune and train their vines exactly alike. It is impossible to
+construct rules for grape training; it is, therefore, important that we
+understand thoroughly the philosophy of pruning and training, both in
+general and in the different systems which are now most popular. These
+points we shall now consider.
+
+
+PRUNING.
+
+Pruning and training are terms which are often confounded when speaking
+of the grape, but they represent distinct operations. Pruning refers to
+such removal of branches as shall insure better and larger fruit upon
+the remaining portions. Training refers to the disposition of the
+different parts of the vine. It is true that different methods of
+training demand different styles of pruning, but the modification in
+pruning is only such as shall adapt it to the external shape and size of
+the vine, and does not in any way affect the principle upon which it
+rests. Pruning is a necessity, and, in essence, there is but one method;
+training is largely a convenience, and there are as many methods as
+there are fancies among grape growers.
+
+[Illustration: 1. GRAPE SHOOT.]
+
+All intelligent pruning of the grape rests upon the fact that _the fruit
+is borne in a few clusters near the base of the growing shoots of the
+season, and which spring from wood of last year's growth_. It may be
+said here that a growing, leafy branch of the grape vine is called a
+_shoot_; a ripened shoot is called a _cane_; a branch or trunk two or
+more years old is called an _arm_. Fig. 1 is a shoot as it appears in
+the northern states in June. The whole shoot has grown within a month,
+from a bud. As it grew, flower clusters appeared and these are to bear
+the grapes. Flowering is now over, but the shoot will continue to grow,
+perhaps to the length of ten or twenty feet. At picking time, therefore,
+the grapes all hang near the lower end or base of the shoots or new
+canes, as in fig. 2. Each bud upon the old cane, therefore, produces a
+new cane, which may bear fruit as well as leaves. At the close of the
+season, this long ripened shoot or cane has produced a bud every foot or
+less, from which new fruit-bearing shoots are to spring next year. But
+if all these buds were allowed to remain, the vine would be overtaxed
+with fruit the coming year and the crop would be a failure. The cane is,
+therefore, cut off until it bears only as many buds as experience has
+taught us the vine should carry. The cane may be cut back to five or ten
+buds, and perhaps some of these buds will be removed, or "rubbed off,"
+next spring if the young growth seems to be too thick, or if the plant
+is weak. Each shoot will bear, on an average, two or three clusters.
+Some shoots will bear no clusters. From one to six of the old canes,
+each bearing from five to ten buds, are left each spring. The number of
+clusters which a vine can carry well depends upon the variety, the age
+and size of the vine, the style of the training, and the soil and
+cultivation. Experience is the only guide. A strong vine of Concord,
+which is a prolific variety, trained upon any of the ordinary systems
+and set nine or ten feet apart each way, will usually carry from thirty
+to sixty clusters. The clusters will weigh from a fourth to a half pound
+each. Twelve or fifteen pounds of marketable grapes is a fair or average
+crop for such a Concord vine, and twenty-five pounds is a very heavy
+crop.
+
+[Illustration: 2. THE BEARING WOOD.]
+
+The pruning of the grape vine, therefore, is essentially a thinning
+process. In the winter pruning, all the canes of the last season's
+growth are cut away except from two to six, which are left to make the
+fruit and wood of the next year; and each of these remaining canes is
+headed back to from three to ten buds. The number and length of the
+canes which are left after the pruning depend upon the style of training
+which is practiced. A vine which may completely cover a trellis in the
+fall, will be cut back so severely that a novice will fear that the
+plant is ruined. But the operator bears in mind the fact that the grape,
+unlike the apple, pear and peach, does not bear distinct fruit-buds in
+the fall, but buds which produce both fruit and wood the following
+season.
+
+[Illustration: 3. DIAGRAM.]
+
+Let us now suppose, therefore, that we have pruned our vine in the fall
+of 1891 to two canes, each bearing ten buds. We will call these canes A
+and B, respectively. (Fig. 3.) In 1892, therefore, twenty shoots grow
+from them, and each of these shoots or new canes branches, or produces
+laterals. We will call these new canes of 1892, A 1, A 2, A 3, B 1, B 2,
+and so on. Each of the new canes bears at the base about two clusters of
+grapes, giving a total yield of about forty clusters. These clusters
+stand opposite the leaves, as seen in fig. 1. In the axil of each leaf a
+bud is formed which will produce a cane, and perhaps fruit, in 1893. If
+each of these new canes, A 1, A 2, etc., produce ten buds--which is a
+moderate number--the vine would go into the winter of 1892-3 with 200
+buds for the next year's growth and crop; but these buds should be
+reduced to about twenty, as they were in the fall of 1891. That is,
+every year we go back again to the same number of buds, and the top of
+the vine gets no larger from year to year. We must, therefore, cut back
+again to two canes. We cut back each of the original canes, A and B, to
+one new cane. That is, we leave only A 1 and B 1, cutting off A 2, A 3,
+etc., and B 2, B 3, etc. This brings the vine back to very nearly its
+condition in the fall of 1891; but the new canes, A 1 and B 1, which are
+now to become the main canes by being bent down horizontally, were borne
+at some distance--say three or four inches--from the base of the
+original canes, A and B, so that the permanent part of the vine is
+constantly lengthening itself. This annually lengthening portion is
+called a _spur_. Spurs are rarely or never made in this exact position,
+however, although this diagrammatic sketch illustrates clearly the
+method of their formation. The common method of spurring is that
+connected with the horizontal arm system of training, in which the canes
+A and B are allowed to become permanent arms, and the upright canes, A
+1, A 2, B 1, B 2, B 3, etc., are cut back to within two or three buds of
+the arms each year. The cane A 1, for instance, is cut back in the fall
+of 1892 to two or three buds, and in 1893 two or three canes will grow
+from this stub. In the fall of 1893 only one cane is left after the
+pruning, and this one is cut back to two or three buds; and so on. So
+the spur grows higher every year, although every effort is made to keep
+it short, both by reducing the number of buds to one or two and by
+endeavoring to bring out a cane lower down on the spur every few years.
+Fig. 4 shows a short spur of two years' standing. The horizontal portion
+shows the permanent arm. The first upright portion is the remains of the
+first-year cane and the upper portion is the second-year cane after it
+is cut back in the fall. In this instance, the cane is cut back to one
+fruiting bud, _b_, the small buds, _a a_, being rubbed out. There are
+serious objections to spurs in any position. They become hard and
+comparatively lifeless after a time, it is often difficult to replace
+them by healthy fresh wood, and the bearing portion of the vine is
+constantly receding from the main trunk. The bearing wood should spring
+from near the central portions of the vine, or be kept "near the head,"
+as the grape-growers say. In order to do this, it is customary to allow
+two canes to grow out each year back of the canes A 1 and B 1, or from
+the head of the vine; these canes may be designated C and D. (Fig. 3.)
+These canes, C and D, are grown during 1892--when they may bear fruit
+like other canes--for the sole purpose of forming the basis of the
+bearing top in 1893, while all the old top, A and B, with the secondary
+canes, A 1, A 2, B 1, B 2, B 3, etc., is cut entirely away. Here, then,
+are two distinct methods of forming the bearing top for the succeeding
+year: either from _spurs_, which are the remains of the previous top; or
+from _renewals_, which are taken each year from the old wood near the
+head of the vine, or even from the ground. Renewals from the ground are
+now little used, however, for they seldom give a sufficient crop unless
+they are headed in the first fall and are allowed to bear the second
+year. It should be borne in mind that the spur and renewal methods refer
+entirely to pruning, not to training, for either one can be used in any
+system of training. Spur pruning, however, is growing in disfavor
+amongst commercial grape-growers, and the renewal is more or less used
+in all systems of training.
+
+[Illustration: 4. SPUR.]
+
+Fig. 5 illustrates a renewal pruning. This engraving shows the head of a
+vine seven years old, and upon which two canes are allowed to remain
+after each annual pruning. The portion extending from _b_ to _f_ and _d_
+is the base of the bearing cane of 1892. In the winter of 1892-3, this
+cane is cut off at _d_, and the new cane, _e_, is left to make the
+bearing wood of 1893. Another cane sprung from _f_, but it was too weak
+to leave for fruiting. It was, therefore, cut away. The old stub, _b_,
+_f_, _d_, will be cut away a year hence, in the winter of 1893-4. In the
+meantime, a renewal cane will have grown from the stub _c_, which is
+left for that purpose, and the old cane, _b d_, will be cut off just
+beyond it, between _c_ and _f_. In this way, the bearing wood is kept
+close to the head of the vine. The wound _a_ shows where an old stub
+was cut away this winter, 1892-3, while _b_ shows where one was cut off
+the previous winter. A scar upon the back of the head, which does not
+show in the illustration, marks the spot where a stub was cut away two
+years ago, in the winter of 1890-1. This method of pruning can be kept
+up almost indefinitely, and if care is exercised in keeping the stubs
+short, the head will not enlarge out of proportion to the growth of the
+stock or trunk.
+
+[Illustration: 5. RENEWAL PRUNING.]
+
+
+_Pruning Young Vines._--The time required after planting to get the vine
+onto the wires or trellis varies with the strength of the vine when set,
+the variety, the soil and cultivation, and the system of training; but,
+as a rule, the training begins the second or third year, previous to
+which time the vine is pruned, not trained. Two-year-old vines are most
+popular for planting, although in the strong varieties, like Concord and
+Niagara, well-grown yearling vines are probably as good, if not better.
+The strong-growing kinds are commonly set from eight to ten feet apart
+in the row, and the rows eight or nine feet apart. Delawares and other
+small vines may be set closer, although eight feet is preferable. When
+set, the vine is cut back to two or three buds. During the first year,
+the young canes are usually allowed to lie upon the ground at will, as
+seen in fig. 6. In the fall or winter, all the canes but one are cut
+off, and this one is cut back to two or three buds. The vine is,
+therefore, no larger at the expiration of a year's growth than it was
+when planted; but in the meantime the plant has become thoroughly
+established in the soil, and the second year's growth should be strong
+enough to form the basis for the permanent trunk or arm. If, however,
+the second year's growth is weak, it may be cut back as before, and the
+third season's growth used for the trunk. On the other hand, the growth
+of the first year is sometimes carried onto the wires to form the
+permanent trunk and arms, but it is only with extra strong vines in good
+soil that this practice is admissible. From this point, the treatment
+of the vine is discussed under training.
+
+[Illustration: 6. A NEWLY SET VINEYARD.]
+
+
+_When to Prune._--Grape vines may be pruned at any time during the
+winter. It is the practice among most grape-growers in the north to
+prune as time permits from November to late in February, or even early
+March. The sap flows very freely from cuts made in spring and early
+summer, causing the phenomenon known as "bleeding," or in Europe as
+"weeping," and in order to prevent this loss, pruning is stopped six
+weeks or more before the time at which the buds usually swell. It is yet
+a moot point if this bleeding injures the vine, but it is a safe
+practice to prune early. The vine is cut off an inch or two beyond the
+last bud which it is desired to leave, in order to avoid injury to the
+bud from the drying out of the end of the cane.
+
+The pruning is done with small hand pruning-shears. The canes are often
+allowed to remain tied to the wires until the pruning is accomplished,
+although it is the practice with most growers who use the Kniffin system
+to cut the strings before pruning. The removal of the severed canes is
+known as "stripping." In large vineyards, the pruner sometimes leaves
+the stripping to boys or other cheap labor. The stripping may be done at
+any time after the pruning is performed until spring. It must be done
+before the growth starts on the remaining portions of the vine, however,
+to avoid injury to the young buds when tearing the vines off the
+trellis.
+
+
+_Summer Pruning._--There is much discussion as to the advisability of
+summer pruning. It is essential to the understanding of the question
+that the grower bear in mind that this summer pruning is of two
+kinds--the removal or "breaking out" of the superfluous shoots, and
+heading-in or "stopping" the main canes to keep them within limits. The
+superfluous shoots are such as spring from small, weak buds or those
+which break from the old arms or trunk of the vine. Shoots which start
+from the very base of the old cane are usually weak and should be
+removed. Buds in this position are shown at _a a_, in fig. 4. The
+secondary or axillary branches, which often start from the base of the
+season's shoots, should be removed or broken out. These superfluous
+shoots are pulled off from time to time as they appear, or the buds may
+be rubbed off before the shoots begin to grow.
+
+The heading-in of the main canes, while desirable for the purpose of
+keeping the vine within bounds, is apt to cause a growth of laterals
+which choke up the vine and which do not mature, and in those styles of
+training in which very little wood is allowed to grow, the practice may
+prevent the development of a sufficient amount of leaf surface to
+properly sustain the vine. Vines are often weakened by summer pruning.
+These dangers can be overcome by careful attention, however, especially
+by heading-in very lightly and by doing it as late in the season as
+possible, when new lateral growth does not start readily. The necessity
+of much heading-in has been largely obviated in late years by the
+adoption of high or drooping systems of training, and by setting the
+vines far apart. The strong varieties, like Concord, Brighton and
+Niagara, should be set ten feet apart in the row, especially if grown
+upon the Kniffin system. Catawba, being a very upright grower and
+especially well adapted to upright training, may be set eight feet
+apart, and Delawares are often set as close as six or eight feet. It is
+doubtful, however, if any variety should be set less than eight feet
+apart for trellis culture. In Virginia and southward, where the growth
+is large because of the long seasons, vines are often set more than ten
+feet apart. In the South, the rows should run north and south, that the
+fruit may be shaded from midday sun. The only summer heading-in now
+generally recommended is the clipping of the tips when they fall over
+and begin to touch the ground. This clipping is often done with a sickle
+or sharp corn-cutter.
+
+
+_Objects of Pruning._--The objects of pruning the grape, as of other
+fruits, are five:
+
+  1. To produce larger and better fruit.
+
+  2. To maintain or augment the vigor of the vine.
+
+  3. To keep the vine within manageable limits.
+
+  4. To facilitate cultivation.
+
+  5. To facilitate spraying.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS FOR TRAINING--THE TRELLIS--TYING.
+
+
+Training the grape vine is practiced for the purpose of keeping the vine
+in convenient shape and to allow each cluster to receive its full amount
+of space and light. A well trained vine is easily cultivated and
+sprayed, and the grapes are readily harvested, and it is only upon such
+vines that the best and fairest fruit is uniformly produced. Some kind
+of training is essential, for a vine will not often bear good fruit when
+it lies upon the ground. In essence, there are three general types or
+styles of training, which may be designated as the upright, drooping and
+horizontal, these terms designating the direction of the bearing shoots.
+The upright systems carry two or more canes or arms along a low
+horizontal wire, or sometimes obliquely across a trellis from below
+upwards, and the shoots are tied up as they grow to the wires above. The
+horizontal systems carry up a perpendicular cane or arm, or sometimes
+two or more, from which the shoots are carried out horizontally and are
+tied to perpendicular wires or posts. The drooping systems, represented
+in the Kniffin and post-training, carry the canes or arms upon a high
+horizontal wire or trellis and allow the shoots to hang without tying.
+To one or another of these types all the systems of American
+grape-training can be referred.
+
+There is no system of training which is best for all purposes and all
+varieties. The strong-growing varieties more readily adapt themselves to
+the high drooping systems than the weaker varieties, although the
+Delaware is often trained on a comparatively low Kniffin with good
+effect. The high or drooping systems are of comparatively recent date,
+and their particular advantages are the saving of labor in summer tying,
+cheapness of the trellis, and the facility with which the ground can be
+cultivated without endangering the branches of the vine. The upright
+training distributes the bearing wood more evenly upon the vine and is
+thought, therefore, to insure more uniform fruit, it keeps the top near
+the root, which is sometimes thought to be an advantage, and it is
+better suited to the stature of the small-growing varieties. There is,
+perhaps, a greater temptation to neglect the vines in the drooping
+systems than in the others, because the shoots need no tying and do not,
+therefore, demand frequent attention; while in the upright systems the
+shoots soon become broken or displaced if not watched. For very large
+areas, or circumstances in which the best of care cannot be given the
+vineyard, the Kniffin or drooping systems are perhaps always to be
+recommended. Yet the Kniffin profits as much from diligence and skill as
+the other systems; but it will give better results than the others
+under partial neglect. The strong varieties, especially those making
+long and drooping canes, are well adapted to the Kniffin styles; but the
+smaller sorts, and those stronger sorts which, like Catawba, make an
+upright and stocky growth, are usually trained upon the upright systems.
+But the merits of both systems are so various and even so little
+understood, that it is impossible to recommend either one unqualifiedly.
+The advantages in either case are often little more than matters of
+personal opinion. It should be said, however, that the Kniffin or
+drooping systems are gaining in favor rapidly, and are evidently
+destined to overthrow much of the older upright training. This fact does
+not indicate, however, that the upright system is to be entirety
+superseded, but rather that it must be confined to those varieties and
+conditions for which it is best adapted. The two systems will
+undoubtedly supplement each other. The horizontal systems are
+occasionally used for choice varieties, but they are little known.
+
+
+_Making the Trellis._--The fall or winter following the planting of the
+vineyard, the trellis is begun if the upright systems are used; but this
+operation is usually delayed a year longer in the Kniffin systems, and
+stakes are commonly used, or at least recommended, during the second
+season. In the South the trellis is made the first year. The style of
+trellis will depend upon the style of training, but the main features
+are the same for all. Strong posts of some durable timber, as cedar,
+locust or oak, are placed at such distance apart that two vines can be
+set between each two. If the vines are set nine feet apart, the posts
+maybe eighteen or twenty feet apart, and a vine will then stand four or
+five feet from each post. If the posts in the row are eighteen feet
+apart and the rows eight feet apart, about 330 posts will be required to
+the acre. Except in very hard and stony lands, the posts are driven with
+a heavy maul, although many people prefer to set the end posts in holes,
+thinking that they endure the strain better. In all loose soils,
+however, posts can be made as firm by driving as by setting with a
+spade. All posts should be as firm as possible, in order to hold up the
+heavy loads of vines and fruit. In setting posts on hillsides, it is a
+common practice to lean them slightly uphill, for there is always a
+tendency for the posts to tilt down the slope. For the Kniffin systems,
+especially for the strong-growing grapes, the posts must stand six or
+six and one-half feet high when set, but a foot less will usually be
+sufficient for the upright and horizontal systems. The posts should
+stand higher at first than is necessary for the support of the wires,
+for they will need to be driven down occasionally as they become loose.
+The end posts of each row should be well braced, as shown in several of
+the illustrations in this volume.
+
+The wire ordinarily used is No. 12, except for the top wire in the
+Kniffin training, which is usually No. 10, as the greater part of the
+weight is then upon the top wire. No. 9 is sometimes used, but it is
+heavier than necessary. No. 14 is occasionally used for the middle and
+upper rows in the upright systems, but it is not strong enough. The
+following figures show the sizes and weights of these and similar iron
+and steel wires:
+
+  No.    Diameter in inches.    Weight of 100 feet.   Feet in 2,000 pounds.
+
+   9             .148              5.80 pounds.              34,483
+  10             .135              4.83    "                 41,408
+  11             .120              3.82    "                 52,356
+  12             .105              2.92    "                 68,493
+  13             .092              2.24    "                 89,286
+  14             .080              1.69    "                118,343
+  15             .072              1.37    "                145,985
+  16             .063              1.05    "                190,476
+
+The plain annealed iron wire costs about 3 cents per pound, and the
+galvanized--which is less used for vineyards--3-1/2 cents. Of No. 12
+wire, about 160 pounds is required per acre for a single run on rows
+eight feet apart, and about 500 pounds for three runs. The cost of No.
+12 wire per acre, for three runs, therefore, is about $15.
+
+The wire is secured to the intermediate posts by staples driven in
+firmly so that the wire will not pull through readily of its own weight,
+but still loosely enough to allow of the tightening of the wires. In
+other words, the head of the staple should not quite touch the wire.
+Grape staples are of three lengths, about an inch, inch and a quarter,
+and an inch and a half respectively. The shortest length is little
+used. The medium length is used for hard-wood posts and the longest for
+soft posts, like chestnut and cedar. These staples cost five cents per
+pound usually, and a pound of the medium length contains from 90 to 100
+of the No. 10 wire size. An acre, for three wires, will therefore
+require, for this size, about nine or ten pounds of staples. In windy
+regions, the wires should be placed upon the windward side of the posts.
+
+There are various devices for securing the wire to the end posts, but
+the commonest method is to wind them about the post once and secure them
+with a staple, or twist the end of the wire back upon itself, forming a
+loop. The wires should be drawn taut to prevent sagging with the weight
+of fruit and leaves. In order to allow for the contraction of the wires
+in winter, some growers loosen the wires after harvest and others
+provide some device which will relieve the strain. The Yeoman's Patent
+Grape-Vine Trellis is a simple and effective lever-contrivance attached
+to each wire, and which is operated to loosen the wires in fall and to
+tighten them in spring. The end post is sometimes provided upon the back
+with a square-headed pin which works tightly in an inch and a half augur
+hole and about which the end of the wire is wound. A square-headed iron
+wrench operates the pin, while the tension of the wire around the side
+of the post keeps the pin from slipping. This device is not durable,
+however. An ingenious man can easily contrive some device for relieving
+the tension, if he should think it necessary. As a matter of practice,
+however, the wires soon stretch and sag enough with the burden of fruit
+and vines to take up the winter contraction, and most growers do not
+release the wires in fall. It will be found necessary, in fact, to
+tighten the wires and to straighten up the posts from year to year, as
+they become loose. It is always a profitable labor to tamp the ground
+firmly about all the posts every spring. The wires should always be kept
+tight during the growing season to prevent the whipping of the vines by
+wind. This is especially important in white grapes, which are discolored
+by the rubbing of leaves and twigs. Unless the vines are very strong it
+will be necessary to stretch only one wire the first winter.
+
+Trellises are often made of slats, as shown in Fig. 18, but these are
+always less durable than the wire trellises and more expensive to keep
+in repair; and in the older portions of the country, where timber is
+dear, they are also more expensive at the outset. They catch the wind,
+and, not being held together by continuous strands, are likely to blow
+down in sections. Fuller particulars concerning the styles of trellis
+are given in the discussions of the different systems of training.
+
+
+_Tying._--Probably the best material for tying the canes and shoots to
+the trellis is raffia. This is a bast-like material which comes in
+skeins and which can be bought of seedsmen and nurserymen for about 20
+cents a pound. A pound will suffice to tie a quarter of an acre of
+upright training throughout the season. Raffia is obtained from the
+strippings of an oriental palm (_Raphia Ruffia_). Wool-twine is also
+still largely used for tying, but it is not so cheap and handy as
+raffia, and it usually has to be cut when the trellis is stripped at the
+winter pruning, while the raffia breaks with a quick pull of the vine.
+Some complain that the raffia is not strong enough to hold the vine
+during the season, but it can easily be doubled. Osier willows are much
+used for tying up the canes in the spring, and also for summer tying,
+especially in the nursery regions where the slender trimmings of the
+cultivated osier willows are easily procured. Wild willows are often
+used if they can be obtained handily. These willows are tied up in a
+small bundle, which is held upon the back above the hips by a cord
+passed about the body. The butts project under the right hand, if the
+person is right-handed, and the strands are pulled out as needed. The
+butt is first used, the tie being made with a twist and tuck, the strand
+is then cut off with a knife, and the twig is operated in like manner
+until it is used up. When wool-twine is used, the ball is often held in
+front of the workman by a cord which is tied about it and then passed
+about the waist. The ball is unwound from the inside, and it will hold
+its shape until the end becomes so short that it will easily drag upon
+the ground. Some workmen carry the ball in a bag, after the manner of
+carrying seed-corn. Raffia is not so easily carried in the field as the
+wool-twine or the willow, and this fact interferes with its popularity.
+Green rye-straw, cut directly from the field, is much used for tying the
+shoots in summer. Small wire, about two-thirds the size of broom-wire,
+is used occasionally for tying up the canes in spring, but it must be
+used with care or it will injure the vine. Corn-husks are also employed
+for this purpose when they can be secured. Bass-bark is sometimes used
+for tying, but in most of the grape regions it is difficult to secure,
+and it has no advantage over raffia.
+
+It is very important that the canes be tied up early in spring, for the
+buds are easily broken after they begin to swell. These canes are tied
+rather firmly to the wires to hold them steady; but the growing shoots,
+which are tied during the summer, are fastened more loosely, to allow of
+the necessary increase in diameter.
+
+[Illustration: (Drawing of grapes)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE UPRIGHT SYSTEMS.
+
+
+The upright systems are the oldest and best known of the styles of
+American grape training. They consist, essentially, in carrying out two
+horizontal canes, or sometimes arms, upon a low wire and training the
+shoots from them vertically upwards. These shoots are tied to the upper
+wires as they grow. This type was first clearly and forcibly described
+in detail by A. S. Fuller, in his "Grape Culturist," in 1864, and it
+became known as the Fuller system, although it was practiced many years
+previous to this time.
+
+
+_Horizontal Arm Spur System._--There are two types or styles of this
+upright system. The older type and the one described in the books, is
+known as the Horizontal Arm Spur training. In this method, the two
+horizontal branches are permanent, or, in other words, they are true
+arms. The canes are cut back each fall to upright spurs upon these arms,
+as explained on page 15 (fig. 4.) Two shoots are often allowed to grow
+from each of these spurs, as shown in fig. 7. These spurs become
+overgrown and weak after a few years, and they are renewed from new
+shoots which spring from near their base or from the arm itself.
+Sometimes the whole arm is renewed from the head of the vine, or even
+from the ground.
+
+[Illustration: 7. HORIZONTAL ARM SPUR TRAINING.]
+
+The number of these upright canes and their distance apart upon these
+permanent arms depend upon the variety, the strength of the vine and
+soil and the fancy of the grower. From twelve to twenty inches apart
+upon the arm is the common distance. If a vine is strong enough to carry
+five canes and the vines are eight feet apart, then the canes are
+distributed at intervals of about twenty inches. Some very strong vines
+of vigorous varieties will carry eight canes upon the two arms
+together, and in this case the canes stand about a foot apart. In the
+fall or winter, the cane is cut away and the strongest new cane which
+springs from its base is left for the bearing wood of the following
+year. This new cane is itself headed in to the height of the trellis;
+that is, if the uppermost and lowermost wires are 34 inches apart--as
+they are in the Brocton vineyards of western New York, where this system
+is largely used--this new cane is shortened in to 34 inches long. Upon
+this length of cane there will be about seven good buds in the common
+varieties.
+
+[Illustration: 8. HORIZONTAL ARM. (Diagram.)]
+
+A modification of this horizontal arm system is shown in fig. 9. It is
+used about Forestville, in Chautauqua county, New York. The arms in this
+case are very short, and canes are taken out only at two or three
+places. The picture shows a vine in which two canes are taken from the
+end of each arm, making four canes for the bearing top of the vine.
+These canes are cut back to spurs in the fall, as explained in the above
+paragraph. Sometimes one or two other canes are taken out of these arms
+nearer the main trunk. The advantages urged for this style of training
+are the stronger growth which is insured by so few canes, and the small
+amount of old or permanent wood which is left to each vine.
+
+[Illustration: 9. SHORT ARM SPUR TRAINING.]
+
+The horizontal arm training is less popular than it was twenty years
+ago. It has serious faults, especially in the persistence of the old
+spurs, and probably will eventually give place to other systems. Aside
+from the spur pruning, the system is much like the following, which is a
+modification to allow of a renewal pruning and to which the reader is
+referred for further details. This modification, which may be called the
+High Renewal, and which is one of the most serviceable of any of the
+styles of training, although it has never been fully described, we shall
+now consider.
+
+
+_The High Renewal_, or upright training which is now very extensively
+employed in the lake regions of New York and elsewhere, starts the head
+or branches of the vine from eighteen to thirty inches from the ground.
+The ideal height for most varieties is probably about two feet to the
+first wire, although thirty inches is better than eighteen. If the vines
+are lower than two feet, they are liable to be injured by the plow or
+cultivator, the earth is dashed against the clusters by heavy rains, and
+if the shoots become loose they strike the ground and the grapes are
+soon soiled. A single trunk or arm is carried up to the required height,
+or if good branches happen to form lower down, two main canes are
+carried from this point up to the required distance to meet the lower
+wire, so that the trunk becomes Y-shaped, as seen in figs. 10, 16 and
+17. In fact, vineyardists usually prefer to have this head or crotch a
+few inches below the lowest wire, to facilitate the spreading and
+placing of the canes. The trellis for the upright systems nearly always
+comprises three wires, although only two are sometimes used for the
+smaller growing varieties, and very rarely four are used for the
+strongest kinds, although this number is unnecessary. The lowest wire is
+stretched at eighteen, twenty-four or thirty inches from the ground, and
+the two upper ones are placed at distances of eighteen or twenty inches
+apart.
+
+[Illustration: 10. THE SECOND SEASON OF UPRIGHT TRAINING.]
+
+[Illustration: 11. MAKING THE T-HEAD.]
+
+The second season after planting should see the vine tied to the first
+wire. Fig. 10 is a photograph taken in July, 1892, of a Concord vine
+which was set in the spring of 1891. In the fall of 1891 the vine was
+cut back to three or four buds, and in the spring of 1892 two of these
+buds were allowed to make canes. These two canes are now tied to the
+wire, which was stretched in the spring of 1892. In this case, the
+branches start near the surface of the ground. Sometimes only a single
+strong shoot grows, and in order to secure the two branches it is broken
+over where it passes the wire, and is usually tied to a stake to afford
+support. Fig. 11 shows this operation. A bud will develop at the bend or
+break, from which a cane can be trained in the opposite direction from
+the original portion, and the T-head is secured.
+
+[Illustration: 12. THE THIRD SEASON OF HIGH RENEWAL.--CONCORD.]
+
+[Illustration: 13. HIGH RENEWAL, BEFORE PRUNING.--CATAWBA.]
+
+The close of the second season after planting, therefore, will usually
+find the vine with two good canes extending in opposite directions and
+tied to the wire. The pruning at that time will consist in cutting off
+the ends of these canes back to firm and strong wood, which will leave
+them bearing from five to eight buds. The third season, shoots will grow
+upright from these buds and will be tied to the second wire, which has
+now been supplied. Late in the third season the vine should have much
+the appearance of that shown in fig. 12. The third wire is usually added
+to the trellis at the close of the second season, at the same time that
+the second wire is put on; but occasionally this is delayed until the
+close of the third season. Some of the upright shoots may bear a few
+grapes this third season, but unless the vines are very strong the
+flower clusters should be removed; and a three-year-old vine should
+never be allowed to bear heavily. It must be remembered, however, that
+both these horizontal canes, with all their mass of herbage, are to be
+cut away in the fall or winter of the third year. Some provision must
+have been made, therefore, for the top for the fourth year. It will be
+recalled that in discussing the renewal pruning (page 16, fig. 5), it
+was found that two or more shoots are allowed to grow each year to form
+the basis of the top the following year. In fig. 12 three or four such
+shoots can be seen springing from the Y-shaped portion in the center of
+the vine. These shoots or canes are to be bent down to the lowest wire
+next spring, and the bearing shoots will arise from them. This process
+will be seen at a glance from figs. 13, 14 and 15. The first shows a
+full grown old vine, trained on three wires. Fig. 14 shows the same vine
+when pruned. Two long canes, with six or eight buds each, are left to
+form the top of the following year. The two stubs from which the renewal
+canes are to grow for the second year's top are seen in the center. In
+the fall of the next year, therefore, these two outside canes will be
+cut away to the base of these renewal stubs; and the renewal canes, in
+the meantime, will have made a year's growth. These renewal stubs in
+this picture are really spurs, as will be seen; that is, they contain
+two ages of wood. It is the purpose, however, to remove these stubs or
+spurs every two or three years at most, and to bring new canes
+directly from the old wood or head. If possible, the renewal cane is
+brought from a new place on the old wood every year in order to avoid a
+spur. Such was the case in the vine shown in fig. 5, page 19. Fig. 15
+shows the same vine tied down to the lowest wire. Two ties have been
+made upon each cane. Fig. 16 shows a vine in which four canes have been
+left to form the top for the following year. The stubs for the renewals
+can be seen in the Y. It is customary to leave more than two canes,
+occasionally, in strong-growing varieties like Concord. Sometimes four
+and occasionally six are left. If four canes are left, two may be tied
+together in each direction upon the bottom wire. If six are used, the
+two extra ones should be tied along the second wire, parallel with the
+lowest ones. These extra canes are sometimes tied obliquely across the
+trellis, but this practice should be discouraged, for the usual tendency
+of the vine is to make its greatest growth at the top, and the lower
+buds may fail to bear.
+
+[Illustration: 14. HIGH RENEWAL, PRUNED.]
+
+[Illustration: 15. HIGH RENEWAL, PRUNED AND TIED.]
+
+The ideal length of the two canes varies with different varieties and
+the distance apart at which the vines are set. Very strong kinds, like
+Concord and Niagara, can carry ten or twelve buds on each cane,
+especially if the vines are set more than eight feet apart. Fig. 17
+shows half of a Concord vine in which about ten buds were left on each
+cane. These strong sorts can often carry forty or fifty buds to the vine
+to advantage, but when this number is left the canes should be four, as
+explained in the last paragraph. In Delaware and other weak-growing
+varieties, twenty or twenty-five buds to the vine should be the maximum
+and only two canes should be left. In short-jointed varieties, the canes
+are usually cut to the desired length--four to six feet--even if too
+great a number of buds is left, but the shoots which spring from these
+extra buds are broken out soon after they start. A Delaware vine which
+has made an unusually short or weak growth will require fewer buds to be
+left for next year's top than a neighboring vine of the same variety
+which has made a strong growth. The Catawba, which is a short but very
+stiff grower, is usually cut back to six or eight buds, as seen in figs.
+13, 14 and 15. The grower soon learns to adjust the pruning to the
+character of the vine without effort. He has in his mind a certain ideal
+crop of grapes, perhaps about so many bunches, and he leaves enough buds
+to produce this amount, allowing, perhaps, ten per cent. of the buds for
+accidents and barren shoots. He knows, too, that the canes should always
+be cut back to firm, well-ripened wood. It should be said that mere
+size of cane does not indicate its value as a fruit-bearing branch.
+Hard, smooth wood of medium size usually gives better results than the
+very large and softer canes which are sometimes produced on soils rich
+in nitrogenous manures. This large and overgrown wood is known as a
+"bull cane." A cane does not attain its full growth the first year, but
+will increase in diameter during the second season. The tying therefore,
+should be sufficiently loose or elastic to allow of growth, although it
+should be firm enough to hold the cane constantly in place. The cane
+should not be hung from the wire, but tied close to it, provision being
+made for the swelling of the wood to twice its diameter.
+
+[Illustration: 16. HIGH RENEWAL WITH FOUR CANES.]
+
+[Illustration: 17. HIGH RENEWAL COMPLETE.--CONCORD.]
+
+The shoots are tied to the second wire soon after they pass it, or have
+attained firmness enough to allow of tying, and the same shoots are tied
+again to the top wire. All the shoots do not grow with equal rapidity,
+and the vineyard must be gone over more than twice if the shoots are
+kept properly tied. Perhaps four times over the vineyard will be all
+that is necessary for careful summer tying. Many vineyardists tie only
+once or twice, but this neglect should be discouraged. This tying is
+mostly done with green rye straw or raffia. A piece of straw about ten
+inches long is used for each tie, it usually being wrapped but once
+about the shoot. The knot is made with a twist and tuck. If raffia is
+used, a common string-knot is made. When the shoots reach the top of
+the trellis, they are usually allowed to take care of themselves. The
+Catawba shoots stand nearly erect above the top wire and ordinarily need
+no attention. The long-growing varieties will be likely to drag the
+shoots upon the ground before the close of the season. If these tips
+interfere with the cultivation, they may be clipped off with a sickle or
+corn-cutter, although this practice should be delayed as long as
+possible to prevent the growth of laterals (see page 21). It is probably
+better to avoid cutting entirely. Some growers wind or tie the longest
+shoots upon the top wire, as seen in fig. 17. It is probably best, as a
+rule, to allow the shoots to hang over naturally, and to clip them only
+when they seriously interfere with the work of the hoe and cultivator.
+The treatment for slat trellises, as shown in fig. 18, is the same as on
+wire trellises, except that longer strings must be used in tying.
+
+[Illustration: 18. A SLAT TRELLIS, WITH UPRIGHT TRAINING.]
+
+It is apparent that nearly or quite all the fruit in the High Renewal is
+borne between the first and second wires, at the bottom of the trellis.
+If the lower wire is twenty-four or thirty inches high, this fruit will
+hang at the most convenient height for picking. The fruit trays are set
+upon the ground, and both hands are free. The fruit is also protected
+from the hot suns and from frost; and if the shoots are properly tied,
+the clusters are not shaken roughly by the wind. It is, of course,
+desirable that all the clusters should be fully exposed to light and
+air, and all superfluous shoots should, therefore, be pulled off, as
+already explained (page 21). In rare cases it may also be necessary, for
+this purpose, to prune the canes which droop over from the top of the
+trellis.
+
+After a few years, the old top or head of the vine becomes more or less
+weak and it should be renewed from the root. The thrifty vineyardist
+anticipates this circumstance, and now and then allows a thrifty shoot
+which may spring from the ground to remain. This shoot is treated very
+much like a young vine, and the head is formed during the second year
+(page 16, bottom). If it should make a strong growth during the first
+year and develop stout laterals, it may be cut back only to the lowest
+wire the first fall; but in other cases, it should be cut back to two or
+three buds, from one of which a strong and permanent shoot is taken the
+second year. When this new top comes into bearing, the old trunk is cut
+off at the surface of the ground, or below if possible. A top will
+retain its vigor for six or eight years under ordinary treatment, and
+sometimes much longer. These tops are renewed from time to time as
+occasion permits or demands, and any vineyard which has been bearing a
+number of years will nearly always have a few vines in process of
+renewal. The reader should not receive the impression, however, that the
+life or vitality of a vine is necessarily limited. Vines often continue
+to bear for twenty years or more without renewal; but the head after a
+time comes to be large and rough and crooked, and often weakened by
+scars, and better results are likely to be obtained if a new, clean vine
+takes its place.
+
+The High Renewal is extensively used in the lake region of Western New
+York, for all varieties. It is particularly well adapted to Delaware,
+Catawba, and other weak or short varieties. When systematically pursued,
+it gives fruit of the highest excellence. This High Renewal training,
+like all the low upright systems, allows the vines to be laid down
+easily in winter, which is an important consideration in many parts of
+Canada and in the colder northern states.
+
+
+_Fan Training._--A system much used a few years ago and still sometimes
+seen, is one which renews back nearly to the ground each year, and
+carries the fruiting canes up in a fan-shaped manner. This system has
+the advantages of dispensing with much of the old wood, or trunk, and
+facilitating laying down the vine in winter in cold climates. On the
+other hand, it has the disadvantages of bearing the fruit too
+low--unless the lower clusters are removed--and making a vine of
+inconvenient shape for tying. It is little used at present. Fig. 19
+shows a vine pruned for fan-training, although it is by no means an
+ideal vine. This vine has not been properly renewed, but bears long,
+crooked spurs, from which the canes spring. One of these spurs will be
+seen to extend beyond the lower wire. The spurs should be kept very
+short, and they should be entirely removed every two or three years, as
+explained in the above discussion of the High Renewal training.
+
+The shoots are allowed to take their natural course, being tied to any
+wire near which they chance to grow, finally lopping over the top wire.
+Sometimes the canes are bent down and tied horizontally to the wires,
+and this is probably the better practice. Two canes may be tied in each
+direction on the lower wire, or the two inner canes may be tied down to
+the second wire. In either case, the vine is essentially like the High
+Renewal, except that the trunk is shorter.
+
+[Illustration: 19. FAN TRAINING, AFTER PRUNING.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE DROOPING SYSTEMS.
+
+
+In 1845 William T. Cornell planted a vineyard in the Hudson River
+Valley. A neighbor, William Kniffin, was a stone mason with a few acres
+of land to which he devoted his attention during the leisure seasons of
+his trade. Cornell induced Kniffin to plant a few grapes. He planted the
+Isabella, and succeeding beyond his expectations, the plantation was
+increased into a respectable vineyard and Kniffin came to be regarded as
+a local authority upon grape culture. Those were the pioneer days in
+commercial grape growing in North America, and there were no undisputed
+maxims of cultivation and training. If any system of close training and
+pruning was employed, it was probably the old horizontal arm spur
+system, or something like it. One day a large limb broke from an
+apple-tree and fell upon a grape-vine, tearing off some of the canes and
+crushing the vine into a singular shape. The vine was thought to be
+ruined, but it was left until the fruit could be gathered. But as the
+fruit matured, its large size and handsome appearance attracted
+attention. It was the best fruit in the vineyard! Mr. Kniffin was an
+observant man, and he inquired into the cause of the excellent fruit.
+He noticed that the vine had been pruned and that the best canes stood
+out horizontally. From this suggestion he developed the four-cane system
+of training which now bears his name. A year or two later, in 1854, the
+system had attracted the attention of those of his neighbors who
+cultivated grapes, and thereafter it spread throughout the Hudson
+valley, where it is to-day, with various modifications, the chief method
+of grape training. Its merits have become known beyond its original
+valley, and it is now spreading more rapidly than any other system. The
+ground upon which the old Isabellas grew is now occupied by Concords,
+which are as vigorous and productive as those grown upon newer soils.
+William Kniffin died at his home in Clintondale, Ulster county, New
+York, June 13, 1876, at fifty-seven years of age. The portrait is from a
+photograph which was taken two or three years before his death.
+
+[Illustration: 20. WILLIAM KNIFFIN.]
+
+
+_The True or Four-Cane Kniffin System._--Figure 21 shows the true
+Kniffin system, very nearly as practiced by its originator. A single
+stem or trunk is carried directly to the top wire, and two canes are
+taken out from side spurs at each wire. Mr. Kniffin believed in short
+canes, and cut them back to about six buds on both wires. But most
+growers now prefer to leave the upper canes longer than the lower ones,
+as seen in illustration. The bearing shoots are allowed to hang at will,
+so that no summer tying is necessary; this is the distinguishing mark of
+the various Kniffin systems. The main trunk is tied to each wire, and
+the canes are tied to the wires in spring. This system possesses the
+great advantage, therefore, of requiring little labor during the busy
+days of the growing season; and the vines are easily cultivated, and if
+the rows are nine or ten feet apart, currants or other bush-fruits can
+be grown between. The system is especially adapted to the strong
+varieties of grapes. For further comparisons of the merits of different
+systems of training, the reader should consult Chapter II.
+
+[Illustration: 21. THE TRUE KNIFFIN TRAINING.]
+
+[Illustration: 22. NO. 21 WHEN PRUNED.]
+
+The pruning of the Kniffin vine consists in cutting off all the wood
+save a single cane from each spur. Fig. 22 illustrates the process. This
+is the same vine which is shown with the full amount of wood on in fig.
+21. The drooping shoots shown in that illustration bore the grapes of
+1892; and now, in the winter of 1892-93, they are all to be cut away,
+with the horizontal old canes from which they grew, save only the four
+canes which hang nearest the main trunk. Fig. 22 shows the vine after it
+had been pruned. It is not obligatory that the canes which are left
+after the pruning should be those nearest the trunk, for it may happen
+that these may be weak; but, other things being equal, these canes are
+preferable because their selection keeps the old spurs short. The
+careful grower will take pains to remove the weak shoots which start
+from this point, in order that a strong cane may be obtained. It is
+desirable that these side spurs be removed entirely every three or four
+years, a new cane being brought out again from the main body or trunk.
+There is little expectation, however, that there shall be such a
+complete renewal pruning as that practiced in the High Renewal, which we
+discussed in the last chapter.
+
+It will be seen that the drooping canes in fig. 22 are shorter than they
+were originally, as shown in fig. 21. They have been cut back. The
+length at which these canes shall be left is a moot point. Much depends
+upon the variety, the distance between the wires, the strength of the
+soil, and other factors. Nearly all growers now agree that the upper
+canes should be longer than the lower ones, although equal canes are
+still used in some places. In strong varieties, like Worden, each of the
+upper canes may bear ten buds and each of the lower ones five. This
+gives thirty buds to the vine. Some growers prefer to leave twelve buds
+above and only four below.
+
+These four pruned canes are generally allowed to hang during winter, but
+are tied onto the wires before the buds swell in spring. They are
+stretched out horizontally and secured to the wire by one or two ties
+upon each cane. The shoots which spring from these horizontal canes
+stand upright or oblique at first but they soon fall over with the
+weight of foliage and fruit. If they touch the ground, the ends may be
+clipped off with a sickle, corn-cutter or scythe, although this is not
+always done, and is not necessary unless the canes interfere with
+cultivation. There is no summer-pinching nor pruning, although the
+superfluous shoots should be broken out, as in other systems. (See page
+23).
+
+Only two wires are used in the true Kniffin trellis. The end posts are
+usually set in holes, rather than driven, to render them solid, and they
+should always be well braced. The intermediate posts are driven, and
+they usually stand between every alternate vine, or twenty feet apart if
+the vines are ten feet apart--which is a common distance for the most
+vigorous varieties. For the strong-growing varieties, the top wire is
+placed from five and one-half to six feet above the ground. Five feet
+nine inches is a popular height. The posts will heave sufficiently to
+bring the height to six feet, although it is best to "tap" the posts
+every spring with a maul in order to drive them back and make them firm.
+The lower wire is usually placed at three and one-half feet. Delawares,
+if trained Kniffin, should not stand above five feet four inches, or at
+most five feet six inches. Strong vines on good soil are often put onto
+the trellis the second year, although it is a commoner practice,
+perhaps, to stake them the second season, as already explained (page
+27), and put them on the wires the third season. The year following the
+tying to the trellis, the vine should bear a partial crop. The vine is
+usually carried directly to the top wire the first season of training,
+although it is the practice of some growers, especially outside the
+Hudson valley, to stop the trunk at the lower wire the first year of
+permanent training, and to carry it to the top wire the following year.
+
+Yields from good Kniffin vines will average fully as high and perhaps
+higher than from other species of training. W. D. Barns, of Orange
+county, New York, has had an annual average of twenty-six pounds of
+Concords to the vine for nine years, 1,550 vines being considered in the
+calculation. While the Delaware is not so well suited to the Kniffin
+system as stronger varieties, it can nevertheless be trained in this
+manner with success, as the following average yields obtained by Mr.
+Barns from 200 vines set in 1881 will show:
+
+  1886            8-1/2  pounds to the vine.
+  1887           11-3/4     "    "  "    "
+  1888            8         "    "  "    "
+  1889            9-1/2     "    "  "    "
+  1890            7         "    "  "    "
+  1891           16         "    "  "    "
+  1892           13         "    "  "    "
+
+
+_Modifications of the Four-Cane Kniffin._--Various modifications of this
+original four-cane Kniffin are in use. The Kniffin idea is often
+carelessly applied to a rack trellis. In such cases, several canes were
+allowed to grow where only two should have been left. Fig. 23 is a
+common but poor style of Kniffin used in some of the large new
+vineyards of western New York. It differs from the type in the training
+of the young wood. These shoots, instead of being allowed to hang at
+will, are carried out horizontally and either tied to the wire or
+twisted around it. The advantage urged for this modification is the
+little injury done by wind, but, as a matter of practice, it affords
+less protection than the true drooping Kniffin, for in the latter the
+shoots from the upper cane soon cling to the lower wire, and the shoots
+from both tiers of canes protect each other below the lower wire. There
+are three serious disadvantages to this holding up of the shoots,--it
+makes unnecessary labor, the canes are likely to make wood or "bull
+canes" (see page 50) at the expense of fruit, and the fruit is bunched
+together on the vines.
+
+[Illustration: 23. A POOR TYPE OF KNIFFIN.]
+
+Another common modification of the four-cane Kniffin is that shown in
+fig. 24, in which a crotch or Y is made in the trunk. This crotch is
+used in the belief that the necessary sap supply is thereby more readily
+deflected into the lower arms than by the system of side spurring on a
+straight or continuous trunk. This is probably a fallacy, and may have
+arisen from the attempt to grow as heavy canes on the lower wire as on
+the upper one. Nevertheless, this modification is in common use in
+western New York and elsewhere.
+
+[Illustration: 24. THE Y-TRUNK KNIFFIN.]
+
+If it is desired to leave an equal number of buds on both wires, the
+Double Kniffin will probably be found most satisfactory. Two distinct
+trunks are brought from the root, each supplying a single wire only. The
+trunks are tied together to hold them in place. This system, under the
+name of Improved Kniffin, is just coming into notice in restricted
+portions of the Hudson valley.
+
+
+_The Two-Cane Kniffin, or Umbrella System._--Inasmuch as the greater
+part of the fruit in the Four-Cane Kniffin is born upon the upper wire,
+the question arises if it would not be better to dispense with the
+lower canes and cut the upper ones longer. This is now done to a
+considerable extent, especially in the Hudson valley. Fig. 25 explains
+the operation. This shows a pruned vine. The trunk is tied to the lower
+wire to steady it, and two canes, each bearing from nine to fifteen
+buds, are left upon the upper wire. These canes are tied to the upper
+wire and they are then bent down, hoop-like, to the lower wire, where
+the ends are tied. In some instances, the lower wire is dispensed with,
+but this is not advisable. This wire holds the vine in place against the
+winds and prevents the too violent whipping of the hanging shoots.
+During the growing season, renewal canes are taken from the spurs in
+exactly the same manner as in the ordinary Kniffin. This species of
+training reduces the amount of leaf-surface to a minimum, and every
+precaution must be taken to insure a healthy leaf-growth. This system
+of training will probably not allow of the successful girdling of the
+vine for the purpose of hastening the maturity and augmenting the size
+of the fruit. Yet heavy crops can be obtained from it, if liberal
+fertilizing and good cultivation are employed, and the fruit is nearly
+always first-class. A Concord vine trained in this manner produced in
+1892 eighty clusters of first quality grapes, weighing forty pounds.
+
+[Illustration: 25. UMBRELLA TRAINING.]
+
+Another type of Umbrella training is shown in fig. 26, before pruning.
+Here five main canes were allowed to grow, instead of two. Except in
+very strong vines, this top is too heavy, and it is probably never so
+good as the other (fig. 25), if the highest results are desired; but for
+the grower who does not care to insure high cultivation it is probably a
+safer system than the other.
+
+[Illustration: 26. A POOR UMBRELLA SYSTEM.]
+
+
+_The Low, or One-Wire Kniffin._--A modification of this Umbrella system
+is sometimes used, in which the trellis is only three or four feet high
+and comprises but a single wire. A cane of ten or a dozen buds is tied
+out in each direction, and the shoots are allowed to hang in essentially
+the same manner as in the True or High Kniffin system. The advantages
+urged for this system are the protection of the grapes from wind, the
+large size of the fruit due to the small amount of bearing wood, the
+ease of laying down the vines, the readiness with which the top can be
+renewed from the root as occasion demands, and the cheapness of the
+trellis.
+
+
+_The Six-Cane Kniffin._--There are many old vineyards in eastern New
+York which are trained upon a six-cane or three-wire system. The general
+pruning and management of these vines do not differ from that of the
+common Kniffin. Very strong varieties which can carry an abundance of
+wood, may be profitable upon this style of training, but it cannot be
+recommended. A Concord vineyard over thirty years old, comprising 295
+vines, trained in this fashion, is still thrifty and productive. Twice
+it has produced crops of six tons.
+
+[Illustration: 27. EIGHT-CANE KNIFFIN. (Diagram.)]
+
+
+_Eight-Cane Kniffin._--Eight and even ten canes are sometimes left upon
+a single trunk, and are trained out horizontally or somewhat obliquely,
+as shown in the accompanying diagram (fig. 27). Unless these canes are
+cut back to four or five buds each, the vine carries too much wood and
+fruit. This system allows of close planting, but the trellis is too
+expensive. The trunk soon becomes overgrown with spurs, and it is likely
+to become prematurely weak. This style is very rarely used.
+
+[Illustration: 28. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN.]
+
+[Illustration: 29. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN.]
+
+
+_Overhead, or Arbor Kniffin._--A curious modification of the Kniffin is
+employed somewhat on the Hudson, particularly by Sands Haviland at
+Marlboro'. The vines are carried up on a kind of overhead arbor, as
+shown in figs. 28, 29 and 30. The trellis is six feet above the ground,
+and is composed of three horizontal wires lying in the same plane. The
+central wire runs from post to post, and one upon either side is
+attached to the end of a three-foot cross-bar, as represented in fig.
+28. The rows are nine feet apart, and the vines and posts twelve feet
+apart in the row. Contiguous rows are braced by a connecting-pole, as in
+fig. 29. The trunk of the vine ends in a T-shaped head, which is well
+displayed in the vine at the extreme right in the foreground in fig. 30.
+From this T-head, five canes are carried out from spurs. It was formerly
+the practice to carry out six canes, one in each direction upon each
+wire, but this was found to supply too much wood. Now two canes are
+carried in one direction and three in the other; and the positions of
+these sets are alternated each year, if possible. The canes which are
+left after the winter pruning are tied along the wires in spring, as in
+the Kniffin, and the shoots hang over the wires. The chief advantage of
+this training is that it allows of the growing of bush-fruits between
+the rows, as seen in fig. 29. It is also said that the clusters hang so
+free that the bloom is not injured by the twigs or leaves, and the fruit
+is protected from sun and frost. Every post must be large and firmly
+set, however, adding much to the cost of the trellis. Several styles
+similar to this are in use, one of the best being the Crittenden system,
+of Michigan. In this system, the trellis is low, not exceeding four or
+five feet, and the vines cover a flat-topped platform two or three feet
+wide.
+
+[Illustration: 30. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN, BEFORE PRUNING.]
+
+
+_The Cross-Wire System._--Another high Kniffin training, and which is
+also confined to the vicinity of Marlboro', New York, is the Cross-Wire,
+represented in figs. 31 and 32. Small posts are set eight feet apart
+each way, and a single wire runs from the top of post to post--six and
+one-half feet from the ground--in each direction, forming a check-row
+system of overhead wires. The grape-vine is set at the foot of the
+stake, to which the trunk is tied for support. Four canes are taken from
+spurs on the head of the trunk, one for each of the radiating wires.
+These canes are cut to three and one-half or four feet in length, and
+the bearing shoots droop as they grow. Fig. 31 shows this training as it
+appears some time after the leaves start in spring. Later in the season
+the whole vineyard becomes a great arbor, and a person standing at a
+distance sees an almost impenetrable mass of herbage, as in fig. 32.
+This system appears to have little merit, and will always remain local
+in application. It possesses the advantage of economy in construction of
+the trellis, for very slender posts are used, even at the ends of the
+rows. The end posts are either braced by a pole or anchored by a wire
+taken from the top and secured to a stake or stone eight or ten feet
+beyond, outside the vineyard.
+
+[Illustration: 31. CROSS-WIRE TRAINING.]
+
+[Illustration: 32. CROSS-WIRE TRAINING. OUTSIDE VIEW.]
+
+
+_Renewal Kniffin._--It is an easy matter to adapt the Kniffin principle
+of free hanging shoots to a true renewal method of pruning. There are a
+few modifications in use in which the wood is annually renewed to near
+the ground. The trellises comprise either two or three wires, and are
+made in the same manner as for the upright systems, as the High Renewal.
+At the annual pruning only one cane is left. This comprises twelve or
+fifteen buds, and is tied up diagonally across the trellis, the point or
+end of the cane usually being bent downward somewhat, in order to check
+the strong growth from the uppermost parts. The shoots hang from this
+cane, and they may be pinched back when they reach the ground. In the
+meantime a strong shoot is taken out from the opposite side of the
+head--which usually stands a foot or less from the ground--to make the
+bearing wood of the next year; and this new cane will be tied in an
+opposite direction on the trellis from the present bearing cane, and the
+next renewal shoot will be taken from the other side of the head, or the
+side from which the present bearing wood sprung; so that the bearing top
+of the vine is alternated in either direction upon the trellis. This
+system, and similar ones, allow of laying down the vines easily in
+winter, and insure excellent fruit because the amount of bearing wood
+is small; but the crop is not large enough to satisfy most demands.
+
+
+_The Munson System._--An unique system of training, upon the Kniffin
+principle, has been devised by T. V. Munson, of Denison, Texas, a
+well-known authority upon grapes. Two posts are set in the same hole,
+their tops diverging. A wire is stretched along the top of these posts
+and a third one is hung between them on cross-wires. The trunk of the
+vine, or its head, is secured to this middle lower wire and the shoots
+lop over the side wires. The growth, therefore, makes a V-shaped or
+trough-like mass of herbage. Fig. 33 is an end view of this trellis,
+showing the short wire connecting the posts and which also holds the
+middle trellis-wire at the point of the V. Fig. 34 is a side view of the
+trellis. The bearing canes, two or four, in number, which are left after
+the annual pruning, are tied along this middle wire. The main trunk
+forks just under the middle wire, as seen at the left in fig. 34. A head
+is formed at this place not unlike like that which characterizes the
+High Renewal, for this system also employs renewal pruning. The trellis
+stands six feet high. The shoots stand upright at first, but soon fall
+down and are supported by the side wires. The following account of this
+system of training is written for this occasion by Mr. Munson:
+
+"After the vines have flowered, the bearing laterals have their tips
+pinched off, and that is all the summer pruning the vine gets, except to
+rub off all eyes that start on the body below the crotch. Two to four
+shoots, according to strength of vine, are started from the forks or
+crotch and allowed to bear no fruit, but are trained along over the
+lower central wire for renewal canes. When pruning time arrives, the
+entire bearing cane of the present year, with all its laterals, is cut
+away at a point near where the young renewal shoots have started, and
+these shoots are shortened back, according to strength of vine; some,
+such as Herbemont, being able at four years to fill four shoots six or
+eight feet long with fine fruit, while Delaware could not well carry
+over three or four feet each way of one shoot only. The different
+varieties are set at various distances apart, according as they are
+strong or weak growers.
+
+[Illustration: 33. MUNSON TRAINING. END VIEW.]
+
+"Thus the trellis and system of pruning are reduced to the simplest
+form. A few cuts to each vine cover all the pruning, and a few ties
+complete the task. A novice can soon learn to do the work well. The
+trunk or main stem is secured to the middle lower wire, along which all
+bearing canes are tied after pruning, and from which the young laterals
+which produce the crop are to spring. These laterals strike the two
+outer wires, soon clinging to them with their tendrils, and are safe
+from destruction, while the fruit is thrown in the best possible
+position for spraying and gathering, and is still shaded with the canopy
+of leaves. I have now used this trellis five years upon ten acres of
+mixed vines, and I am more pleased with it every year.
+
+[Illustration: 34. MUNSON TRAINING. SIDE VIEW.]
+
+"The following advantages are secured by this system:
+
+"1. The natural habit of the vine is maintained, which is a canopy to
+shade the roots and body of vine and the fruit, without smothering.
+
+"2. New wood, formed by sap which has never passed through bearing wood,
+is secured for the next crop--a very important matter.
+
+"3. Simplicity and convenience of trellis, allowing free passage in any
+direction through the vineyard; circulation of air without danger of
+breaking tender shoots; ease of pruning, spraying, cultivation,
+harvesting.
+
+"4. Perfect control in pruning of amount of crop to suit capacity of
+vine.
+
+"5. Long canes for bearing, which agrees exactly with the nature of
+nearly all our American species far better than short spurs.
+
+"6. Ease of laying down in winter. The vine being pruned and not tied,
+standing away from posts, can be bent down to one side between the rows,
+and earth thrown upon it, and can be quickly raised and tied in
+position.
+
+"7. Cheapness of construction and ease of removing trellis material and
+using it again.
+
+"8. Durability of both trellis and vineyard."
+
+[Illustration: (Drawing of grapes)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS SYSTEMS.
+
+
+_Horizontal Training._--There are very few types of horizontal shoot
+training now in use. The best is probably that shown in fig. 35. This
+particular vine is a Delaware, to which this training is well adapted.
+It will be noticed that this picture represents the end of a trellis,
+and the diagonal stick seen near the ground is a brace for the end post.
+Two wires run from post to post, one about two and one-half feet above
+the ground and the other five and one-half feet high. The posts are set
+at the ordinary distance of 16 or 18 feet apart. The vines are set six
+or eight feet apart, if Delawares. A strong stake is driven in the
+ground behind each vine, standing as high as the top of the trellis when
+set. The permanent trunk or head of the vine stands about a foot high.
+The vine is renewed back to the top of this trunk every year. One cane
+is left at each pruning, which, when tied up to the stake, is as high as
+the trellis. From this perpendicular cane, the bearing shoots are
+carried out horizontally. About six of these shoots are allowed to grow
+upon either side of the cane. As the shoots grow, they are tied to
+perpendicular slats which are fastened on the wires. These slats do not
+touch the ground. Two slats are provided upon either side, making four
+to a vine. They stand a foot or fifteen inches apart. The clusters hang
+free from the horizontal shoots. If the shoots grow too long, they are
+pinched in when they have passed the second slat. While these shoots are
+covering the trellis, another shoot is taken out from the head or trunk
+of the vine and, without being allowed to fruit, is tied up along the
+central stake. This shoot is to form the top next year, for all the
+present vine is to be entirely cut away at the winter's pruning. So the
+vine starts every spring with but a single cane.
+
+[Illustration: 35. HORIZONTAL TRAINING.]
+
+Excellent results are obtained from the slender growing varieties by
+this method of training, but it is too expensive in trellis and in labor
+of tying to make it generally practicable. Delaware, however, thrives
+remarkably well when trained in this fashion.
+
+
+_Post Training._--There are various methods of training to posts, all of
+which possess two advantages--the saving of the expense of trellis and
+allowing of cultivation both ways. But they also have grave
+disadvantages, especially in the thickness of the head of foliage which
+harbors rot and mildew and prevents successful spraying, and hinders the
+fruit from coloring and ripening well. These faults are so serious that
+post training is now little used for the American grapes. The saving in
+cost of trellis is not great, for more posts are required to the acre
+than in the trellis systems, and they do not endure long when standing
+alone with the whole weight of the vines thrown upon them.
+
+[Illustration: 36. LOW POST TRAINING.]
+
+There are various methods of pruning for the stake training, but nearly
+all of them agree in pruning to side spurs upon a permanent upright arm
+which stands the full height of the vine. There may be one or two sets
+of these spurs. We might suppose the Kniffin vine, shown in fig. 22, to
+be tied to a post instead of stretched on a trellis; in that event,
+the four canes would hang at will, or they might be wrapped about the
+post, the shoots hanging out unsupported in all directions. The post
+systems are essentially Kniffin in principle, for the shoots hang free.
+In low styles of post training, the permanent head of the vine may be
+only three or four feet high. This head will have a ring of spurs on it,
+and at the annual pruning three to five canes with from six to ten buds
+each are left. Fig. 36 is a view in such a post vineyard.
+
+The main trunk is usually tied permanently to the post. The canes left
+after pruning are variously disposed. Sometimes they are bent upwards
+and tied to the post above the head of the vine, but they are oftenest
+either wound loosely about the post, or are allowed to hang loose. Two
+trunks are frequently used to each post, both coming from the ground
+from a common root. These are wound about the post in opposite
+directions, one outside the other, and if the outside one is secured at
+the top by a small nail driven through it, or by a cord, no other tying
+will be necessary. Sometimes two or three posts are set at distances of
+one foot or more apart, and the vines are wrapped about them, but this
+only augments the size and depth of the mass of foliage. Now and then
+one sees a careful post training, in which but little wood is left and
+vigorous breaking out of shoots practiced, which gives excellent
+results; but on the whole, it cannot be recommended. The European post
+and stake systems or modifications of them, are yet occasionally
+recommended for American vines, but under general conditions, especially
+in commercial grape growing, they rarely succeed long. One of the latest
+recommendations of any of these types is that of the single pole system
+of the Upper Rhine Valley, by A. F. Hofer, of Iowa, in a little treatise
+published in 1878.
+
+
+_Arbors._--Arbors and bowers are usually formed with little reference to
+pruning and training. The first object is to secure shade and seclusion,
+and these are conditions which may seriously interfere with the
+production of fine grapes. As a rule, too much wood must be allowed to
+grow, and the soil about arbors is rarely ever cultivated. Still, fair
+results in fruit can be obtained if the operator makes a diligent use of
+the pruning shears. It is usually best to carry one main or permanent
+trunk up to the top or center of the arbor. Along this trunk at
+intervals of two feet or less, spurs may be left to which the wood is
+renewed each year. If the vines stand six feet apart about the
+arbor--which is a satisfactory distance--one cane three feet long may be
+left on each spur when the pruning is done. The shoots which spring from
+these canes will soon cover up the intermediate spaces. At the close of
+the season, this entire cane with its laterals is cut away at the spur,
+and another three-foot cane--which grew during the season--is left in
+its place. This pruning is essentially that of the Kniffin vine in fig.
+22. Imagine this vine, with as many joints or tiers as necessary, laid
+upon the arbor. The canes are tied out horizontally to the slats instead
+of being tied on wires. This same system--running up a long trunk and
+cutting in to side spurs--will apply equally well to tall walls and
+fences which it is desired to cover. Undoubtedly a better plan, so far
+as yield and quality of fruit is concerned, is to renew back nearly to
+the root, bringing up a strong new cane, or perhaps two or three every
+year, and cutting the old ones off; but as the vines are desired for
+shade one does not care to wait until midsummer for the vines to reach
+and cover the top of the arbor.
+
+
+_Remodeling Old Vines._--Old and neglected tops can rarely be remodeled
+to advantage. If the vine is still vigorous, it will probably pay to
+grow an entirely new top by taking out a cane from the root. If the old
+top is cut back severely for a year or two, this new cane will make a
+vigorous growth, and it can be treated essentially like a new or young
+vine. If it is very strong and ripens up well, it can be left long
+enough the first fall to make the permanent trunk; but if it is rather
+weak and soft, it should be cut back in the fall or winter to two or
+three buds, from one of which the permanent trunk is to be grown the
+second season. Thereafter, the instructions which are given in the
+preceding pages for the various systems, will apply to the new vine.
+The old trunk should be cut away as soon as the new one is permanently
+tied to the wires, that is, at the close of either the first or second
+season of the new trunk. Care must be exercised to rub off all sprouts
+which spring from the old root or stump. If this stump can be cut back
+into the ground and covered with earth, better results may be expected.
+Old vines treated in this manner often make good plants, but if the
+vines are weak and the soil is poor, the trouble will scarcely pay for
+itself.
+
+These old vines can be remodeled easily by means of grafting. Cut off
+the trunk five or six inches below the surface of the ground, leaving an
+inch or two of straight wood above the roots. Into this stub insert two
+cions exactly as for cleft-grafting the apple. Cions of two or three
+buds, of firm wood the size of a lead-pencil, should be inserted. The
+top bud should stand above the ground. The cleft will need no tying nor
+wax, although it is well to place a bit of waxed cloth or other material
+over the wound to keep the soil out of it. Fill the earth tightly about
+it. Fig. 37 shows the first year's growth from two cions of Niagara set
+in a Red Wyoming root. Great care must be taken in any pruning which is
+done this first year, or the cions may be loosened. If the young shoots
+are tied to a stake there will be less danger from wind and careless
+workmen. In the vine shown in the illustration, no pruning nor rubbing
+out was done, but the vine would have been in better shape for
+training if only one or two shoots had been allowed to grow. Such a vine
+as this can be carried onto the trellis next year; or it may be cut back
+to three or four buds, one of which is allowed to make the permanent
+trunk next year, like a two-year set vine.
+
+[Illustration: 37. A YEARLING GRAFT.]
+
+If it is desired, however, to keep the old top, it will be best to cut
+back the annual growth heavily at the winter pruning. The amount of wood
+which shall be left must be determined by the vigor of the plant and the
+variety, but three or four canes of six to ten buds each may be left at
+suitable places. During the next season a strong shoot from the base of
+each cane may be allowed to grow, which shall form the wood of the
+following season, while all the present cane is cut away at the end of
+the year. So the bearing wood is renewed each year, as in the regular
+systems of training. Much skill and experience are often required to
+properly rejuvenate an old vine; and in very many cases the vine is not
+worth the trouble.
+
+[Illustration: (Drawing of grapes}]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+               Page
+
+  Adlum, quoted, 10
+
+  Arbor Kniffin, 72
+
+  Arbors, 88
+
+  Arm, defined, 13
+
+
+  Barns, W. D., quoted, 63
+
+  Bass bark, 33
+
+  Bleeding, 22
+
+  Breaking-out, 23
+
+  Brocton, Training at, 37
+
+  Bull cane, 50, 66
+
+
+  Cane, defined, 13
+
+  Chautauqua County, Training in, 37
+
+  Contraction of wires, 30
+
+  Cornell, William T., 56
+
+  Cornhusks, for tying, 33
+
+  Crittenden training, 74
+
+  Cross-wire training, 74
+
+  Crotch Kniffin, 66
+
+
+  Double Kniffin, 66
+
+  Drooping systems, 56
+
+
+  Eight-cane Kniffin, 70
+
+
+  Fan training, 54
+
+  Forestville, Training at, 37
+
+  Four-cane Kniffin, 58
+
+  Fuller, quoted, 10, 34
+
+
+  Girdling, 69
+
+  Grafting, 90
+
+
+  Haviland, Sands, 72
+
+  Heading-in, 23
+
+  High Renewal training, 39
+
+  Hofer, A. F., 88
+
+  Horizontal Arm training, 34
+
+  Horizontal training, 83
+
+  Husks, for tying, 33
+
+
+  Improved Kniffin, 66
+
+
+  Kniffin systems, 58
+
+  Kniffin training, Comparison of, 26
+
+  Kniffin, William, 56
+
+
+  Low Kniffin, 69
+
+
+  Marlboro', Training at, 72, 74
+
+  Modified Kniffin, 63
+
+  Munson training, 78
+
+  Munson, T. V., 78
+
+
+  Objects of pruning, 24
+
+  Old vines, Remodeling of, 89
+
+  One-wire Kniffin, 69
+
+  Overhead Kniffin, 72
+
+
+  Planting, 20
+
+  Posts, 28
+
+  Post training, 85
+
+  Pruning, 11
+
+  Pruning, Objects of, 24
+
+  " of young vines, 20
+
+  " Summer, 23
+
+  " Time for, 22
+
+
+  Raffia, 32
+
+  Raphia Ruffia, 32
+
+  Reasons for pruning, 24
+
+  Remodeling old vines, 89
+
+  Renewal, defined, 18
+
+  Renewal Kniffin, 77
+
+  Rubbing off, 14, 23
+
+  Rye straw for tying, 33
+
+
+  Sagging of wires, 30
+
+  Setting, 20
+
+  Shoot, defined, 13
+
+  Six-cane Kniffin, 70
+
+  Spur, defined, 17
+
+  Spur training, 34
+
+  Staples, 29
+
+  Stopping, 23
+
+  Stripping, 22
+
+  Summer pruning, 23
+
+  Superfluous shoots, 23
+
+  Systems compared, 25
+
+
+  T-head, 41
+
+  Thomas' Fruit Culturist, quoted, 10
+
+  Tightening wires, 31
+
+  Trellis, Making, 27
+
+  True Kniffin, 58
+
+  Twine for tying, 32
+
+  Two-cane Kniffin, 66
+
+  Tying, 31
+
+
+  Umbrella training, 66
+
+  Upright training, 34
+
+
+  Walls, Training on, 89
+
+  Weeping, 22
+
+  Willows, for tying, 32
+
+  Wire, for trellis, 28
+
+  " for tying, 33
+
+  " weights and sizes, 29
+
+  Wool-twine, 32
+
+
+  Y-trunk Kniffin, 66
+
+  Yeoman's patent trellis, 30
+
+  Yields of grapes, 14, 63, 69, 70
+
+  Young vines, Pruning of, 20
+
+[Illustration: (Drawing of grapes}]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+=THIS ILLUSTRATION= was made from a photograph of fair
+samples of the different grades of our grape vines, reduced to one-tenth
+their natural size.
+
+We take great pride and comfort in our ability to furnish _strong_,
+_fibrous-rooted_ stock, so well appreciated by intelligent and
+experienced fruit growers.
+
+WHOLESALE TRADE ESPECIALLY SOLICITED. CATALOGUE FREE.
+
+LEWIS ROESCH, FREDONIA, N. Y.,
+
+Grape Vine Specialist And General Nurseryman.
+
+When writing name this book.
+
+
+
+
+Hardy
+
+Native
+
+Grapes.
+
+
+We desire to call the attention of planters to our large and complete
+stock of Grape Vines.
+
+We propagate and offer for sale upwards of sixty varieties, embracing
+the popular old sorts as well as the new ones which seem to have merit.
+Our catalogue contains accurate descriptions, and classifies the
+different varieties according to color.
+
+Besides the above we offer an immense collection of all kinds of Fruit
+and Ornamental Trees, Shrubs, Roses, Hardy Plants, etc. Our General
+Catalogue (160 pages), embellished with numerous engravings of the most
+popular Trees, Shrubs, etc., and enclosed in an illuminated cover, will
+be mailed free to all who have not received it.
+
+Our Supplementary Catalogue (28 pages) of Rare and Choice Trees, Shrubs,
+etc., including several valuable novelties and many specialties of
+superior merit, will also be mailed free.
+
+ELLWANGER & BARRY,
+
+      Mount Hope Nurseries,
+
+53rd Year.     ROCHESTER, N. Y.
+
+
+
+
+Pleasant Valley Nurseries
+
+PEAR TREES.--Lincoln, Coreless, Bessemianka, Japan Golden Russet,
+Kieffer, LeConte, etc., Nut Trees in variety. Fruit Trees of all sorts.
+Ornamentals, Eleagnus Longipes, Japanese Wineberry Juneberry, Trifoliate
+Orange and other valued novelties.
+
+[Illustration: FRUIT TREES! BERRY PLANTS!]
+
+STRAWBERRIES, Van Deman, E. P. Roe, and other new varieties; all the old
+standard sorts, Gooseberries, Raspberries, Blackberries, Currants,
+Asparagus Roots and Grape Vines.
+
+J. S. COLLINS & SON, Moorestown, N. J.
+
+Send for Catalogue.
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS BOOKS.
+
+For the Farm and Household.
+
+Any one of these valuable books will be sent, postpaid, direct, on
+receipt of price.
+
+Be careful to write name and post office plain, so that there may be no
+mistake in mailing.
+
+Address
+
+_The Rural Publishing Co., New York._
+
+POPULAR ERRORS ABOUT PLANTS.--By A. A. CROZIER. A collection of errors
+and superstitions entertained by farmers, gardeners and others, together
+with brief scientific refutations. Highly interesting to students and
+intelligent readers of the new and attractive in rural literature, and
+of real value to practical cultivators who want to know the truth about
+their work.
+
+Price, cloth, $1.
+
+
+THE NURSERY BOOK.--By L. H. BAILEY. A complete handbook of Propagation
+and Pollination of Plants. _Profusely illustrated._ This valuable little
+manual has been compiled with great pains. The author has had unusual
+facilities for its preparation, having been aided by many experts. The
+book is absolutely devoid of theory and speculation. It has nothing to
+do with plant physiology or abstruse reasoning about plant growth. It
+simply tells, plainly and briefly, what every one who sows a seed, makes
+a cutting, sets a graft, or crosses a flower wants to know. It is
+entirely new and original in method and matter. The cuts number 107, and
+are made expressly for it, direct from nature. The book treats all kinds
+of cultivated plants, fruits, vegetables, greenhouse plants, hardy
+herbs, ornamental trees, shrubs and forest trees.
+
+CONTENTS:
+
+I.--SEEDAGE. On Propagation by Seed.
+
+II.--SEPARATION.
+
+III.--LAYERAGE. Propagation by Layering.
+
+IV.--CUTTAGE. Propagation by Cuttings.
+
+V.--GRAFTAGE.--Including Grafting, Budding, Inarching, etc.
+
+VI.--NURSERY LIST.--This is the great feature of the book. It is an
+alphabetical list of all kinds of plants, with a short statement telling
+which of the operations described in the first five chapters are
+employed in propagating them. _Over 2,000 entries_ are made in the list.
+The following entries will give an idea of the method:
+
+=Acer= (MAPLE). _Sapindaceae._ Stocks are grown from stratified seeds,
+which should be sown an inch or two deep; or some species, as _A.
+dasycarpum_, come readily if seeds are sown as soon as ripe. Some
+cultural varieties are layered, but better plants are obtained by
+grafting. Varieties of native species are worked upon common or native
+stocks. The Japanese sorts are winter-worked upon imported _A.
+polymorphum_ stocks, either by whip or veneer grafting. Maples can also
+be budded in summer, and they grow readily from cuttings of both ripe
+and soft wood.
+
+=Phyllocactus, Phyllocereus, Disocactus= (LEAF CACTUS). _Cacteae._ Fresh
+seeds grow readily. Sow in rather sandy soil which is well drained, and
+apply water as for common seeds. When the seedlings appear, remove to a
+light position. Cuttings from mature shoots, three to six inches in
+length, root readily in sharp sand. Give a temperature of about 60 deg., and
+apply only sufficient water to keep from flagging. If the cuttings are
+very juicy they may be laid on dry sand for several days before
+planting.
+
+VII.--POLLINATION.
+
+Price, in Library Style, cloth, wide margins, $1 Pocket Style, paper,
+narrow margins, 50 cents.
+
+
+THE MODIFICATION OF PLANTS BY CLIMATE.--By A. A. CROZIER. An essay on
+the influence of climate upon size, form, color, fruitfulness, etc.,
+with a discussion on the question of acclimation. 35 pp.
+
+Price, paper, 25 cents.
+
+
+FRUIT CULTURE, and the Laying Out and Management of a Country Home.--By
+W. C. STRONG, Ex-President of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society,
+and Vice-President of the American Pomological Society. Illustrated. New
+revised edition, with many additions, making it the latest and freshest
+book on the subject.
+
+CONTENTS:
+
+Rural Homes--Choice of Locality--Treatment--A Good Lawn--The Approach.
+Fruits--Location of the Fruit Garden--Success in Fruit-Culture--Profit
+in Fruit-Culture. How to Procure Trees--Quality--How to Plant--Time to
+Plant--Preparing the Land--Fertilizers--Cutting Back--Distances for
+Planting. Care of the Fruit-Garden--Irrigation--Application of
+Fertilizers--Thinning the Fruit--Labels. The Apple--Insects Injurious to
+the Apple. The Pear--Dwarf Pears--Situation and Soil--Pruning--Ripening
+the Fruit--Insects Injurious to the Pear--Diseases. The Peach--Injurious
+Insects and Diseases of the Peach--Nectarines. The Plum--Insects and
+Diseases of the Plum--Apricots. The Cherry--Insects Injurious to the
+Cherry. The Quince--Insects Injurious to the Quince. The
+Grape--Grape-Houses--Varieties--Insects Injurious to the Grape--Mildew.
+The Currant--Insects Attacking the Currant--The Gooseberry. The
+Raspberry--The Blackberry. The Strawberry. The Mulberry--The
+Fig--Rhubarb--Asparagus. Propagating Fruit-Trees--From the Seed--By
+Division--By Cuttings--By Layers--By Budding--By Grafting.
+Insecticides--Fungicides--Recipes. Price, in one volume, 16mo., cloth,
+$1.
+
+
+CHRYSANTHEMUM CULTURE FOR AMERICA.--By JAMES MORTON. An excellent and
+thorough book; especially adapted to the culture of Chrysanthemums in
+America. The contents include Propagation by Grafting. Inarching and
+Seed. American History. Propagation by Cuttings. Exhibition Plants.
+Classification. Exhibition Blooms. Soil for Potting. Watering and Liquid
+Manure. Selection of Plants. Top-Dressing. Hints on Exhibitions. List of
+Synonyms. Staking and Tying. General Culture. Insects and Diseases.
+Standard Chrysanthemums. Sports and Variations. Disbudding and Thinning.
+Oriental and European History. Calendar of Monthly Operations.
+Chrysanthemum Shows and Organizations. National Chrysanthemum
+Society. Early and Late-Flowering Varieties. Chrysanthemums as
+House-Plants--Varieties for Various Purposes. Price, cloth, $1; paper,
+60 cents.
+
+
+IMPROVING THE FARM, or Methods of Culture that shall afford a profit,
+and at the same time increase the fertility of the soil.--By LUCIUS D.
+DAVIS, of Conanicut Park Farm. The contents treat exhaustively on
+renewing run-down farms, and comprise the following chapters:
+Book-Farming. The Run-Down Farm. Will It Pay to Improve the Farm? How
+Farms Become Exhausted. Thorough Tillage. Rotation of Crops. Green
+Manuring. More About Clover. Barn-Yard Manure--How Made, Its Cost and
+Value. How Prepared and Applied. The Use of Wood-Ashes. Commercial
+Fertilizers. Special Fertilizers. Complete Manures. Experiments with
+Fertilizers. Stock on the Farm. Providing Food for Stock. Specialties in
+Farming. Price, cloth, $1.
+
+
+LANDSCAPE-GARDENING.--By ELIAS A. LONG. A practical treatise comprising
+32 diagrams of actual grounds and parts of grounds, with copious
+explanations. Of the diagrams, all but nine have appeared in the serial,
+"Taste and Tact in Arranging Ornamental Grounds," which has been so
+attractive a feature of _Popular Gardening_ and _American Gardening_
+during the past year. But in the new form the matter has been entirely
+rewritten. Printed on heavy plate paper, it is unsurpassed for beauty by
+any other work on Landscape Gardening.
+
+Price, 50 cents.
+
+
+THE BUSINESS HEN.--Breeding and Feeding Poultry for Profit. The pat
+title of a unique book is The Business Hen. A condensed and, practical
+little encyclopedia of profitable poultry-keeping. P. H. Jacobs, Henry
+Hale, James Rankin, J. H. Drevenstedt and others equally well known have
+written chapters on their specialties, the whole being skillfully
+arranged and carefully edited by H. W. Collingwood, managing editor of
+_The Rural New-Yorker_. Starting with the question, "What is an Egg?"
+the book goes on step by step to indicate the most favorable conditions
+for developing the egg into a "Business Hen." Incubation, care of
+chicks, treatment of diseases, selection and breeding, feeding and
+housing, are all discussed in a clear and simple manner. Two successful
+egg-farms are described in detail. On one of these farms the owner has
+succeeded in developing a flock of 600 hens that average over 200 eggs
+each per year.
+
+Price, cloth, 75 cents; paper, 40 cents.
+
+
+FIRST LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE. (_2nd Edition, Revised and Enlarged._)--By
+F. A. Gulley, M. S., Professor of Agriculture in the Agricultural
+College of Mississippi. This book discusses the more important
+principles which underlie agriculture in a plain, simple way, within the
+comprehension of students and readers who have not studied chemistry,
+botany, and other branches of science related to agriculture. It
+supplies a much-needed text-book for common schools, and is useful for
+the practical farmer. Includes all the latest developments in
+agricultural science as applied to the subject.
+
+Price, cloth, $1. Special prices for Schools and Colleges.
+
+
+THE NEW POTATO CULTURE.--By ELBERT S. CARMAN. This book gives the result
+of 15 years' experiment work on The Rural ground. It treats particularly
+of: How to increase the crop without corresponding cost of production.
+Manures and fertilizers: kinds and methods of application. The soil, and
+how to put it in right condition. Depth of planting. How much seed to
+plant. Methods of culture. The Rural trench system. Varieties, etc.,
+etc.
+
+Nothing old or worn-out about this book. It treats of new and profitable
+methods; in fact, of _The NEW Potato Culture_. It is respectfully
+submitted that these experiments at The Rural grounds have, directly and
+indirectly, thrown more light upon the various problems involved in
+successful potato-culture than any other experiments that have been
+carried on in America.
+
+Price, cloth, 75 cents; paper, 40 cents.
+
+
+HORTICULTURIST'S RULE-BOOK.--By Professor L. H. BAILEY, Editor of
+_American Gardening_, Horticulturist of the Cornell Experiment Station,
+and Professor of Horticulture in Cornell University. It contains in
+handy and concise form, a great number of Rules and Recipes required by
+gardeners, fruit-growers, truckers, florists, farmers, etc.
+
+Synopsis of Contents: Injurious insects, with preventives and remedies.
+Fungicides for plant diseases. Plant diseases, with preventives and
+remedies. Injuries from mice, rabbits, birds, etc., with preventives and
+remedies. Waxes and washes for grafting and for wounds. Cements, paints,
+etc. _Seed Tables_: Quantities required for sowing given areas. Weight
+and size of seeds. Longevity of seeds. Time required for seeds to
+germinate. _Planting Tables_: Dates for sowing seeds in different
+latitudes. Tender and hardy vegetables. Distances apart for planting.
+_Maturity and Yields_: Time required for maturity of vegetables; for
+bearing of fruit plants. Average yields of crops. Keeping and storing
+fruits and vegetables. _Propagation of Plants_: Ways of grafting and
+budding. Methods by which fruits are propagated. Stocks used for fruits.
+_Standard Measures and Sizes_: Standard flower-pots. Standard and legal
+measures. English measures for sale of fruits and vegetables. Quantities
+of water held in pipes and tanks. Effect of wind in cooling off glass
+roofs. Per cent. of light reflected from glass at various angles of
+inclination. Weights of various varieties of apples per bushel. Amount
+of various products yielded by given quantities of fruit. Labels.
+Loudon's rules of horticulture. Rules of nomenclature. Rules for
+exhibition. Weather signs and protection from frost. _Collecting and
+Preserving_: How to make an herbarium. Preserving and printing of
+flowers and other parts of plants. Keeping cut-flowers. How to collect
+and preserve insects. Chemical composition of fruits and vegetables, and
+seeds, fertilizers, soils and vegetables. _Names and Histories_:
+Vegetables which have different names in England and America. Derivation
+of names of various fruits and vegetables. Names of fruits and
+vegetables in various languages. Glossary. Calendar.
+
+Price, cloth, $1; paper, 60 cents.
+
+
+CROSS-BREEDING AND HYBRIDIZING:--The Philosophy of the Crossing of
+Plants considered with reference to their Cultivation--How to Improve
+plants by Hybridizing.--By L. H. BAILEY. It is the only book accessible
+to American horticulture which gives the reasons, discouragements,
+possibilities and limitations of Cross-Breeding. Every man who owns a
+plant should have it, if for no other reason than to post himself upon
+one of the leading practices of the day. The pamphlet contains also a
+bibliography of the subject, including over 400 entries.
+
+Price, paper, 40 cents.
+
+
+CHEMICALS AND CLOVER.--By H. W. COLLINGWOOD, Managing Editor of _The
+Rural New-Yorker_. A concise and practical discussion of the
+all-important topic of commercial fertilizers in connection with green
+manuring in bringing up worn-out soils, and in general farm practice.
+
+Price, paper, 20 cents.
+
+
+ANNALS OF HORTICULTURE, Vol. IV.--Bright, New, Clean and Fresh. These
+Annals are entirely rewritten every year. They are the _only records_ of
+the progress in horticulture. Exhaustive lists of all the plants
+introduced in 1892, with descriptions, directories, full accounts of all
+new discoveries, new tools, and a wealth of practical matter for
+_Gardeners_, _Fruit-Growers_, _Florists_, _Vegetable-Gardeners and
+Landscape-Gardeners_, comprise its contents.
+
+Ready soon. Illustrated. Vol. IV., cloth $1. Vols. I., II. and III. at
+the same price.
+
+
+INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES.--A practical Manual concerning Noxious
+Insects and the Methods of Preventing their Injuries. By CLARENCE M.
+WEED, Professor of Entomology and Zoology, New Hampshire State College.
+
+I think that you have gotten together a very useful and valuable little
+book.--DR. C. V. RILEY, _U.S. Entomologist_.
+
+It is excellent. I must congratulate you on the skill you have displayed
+in putting in the most important insects, and the complete manner in
+which you have done the work.--JAMES FLETCHER, _Dominion Entomologist_.
+
+I am well pleased with it. There is certainly a demand for just such a
+work.--DR. F. M. HEXAMER, _Editor American Agriculturist_.
+
+Price, cloth, $1.25.
+
+
+THE CAULIFLOWER.--BY A. A. CROZIER. Teacher and Practical Origin and
+History of this increasingly important and always delicious vegetable.
+
+The Cauliflower Industry.--In Europe. In the United States. Importation
+of Cauliflowers.
+
+Management of the Crop.--Soil. Fertilizers. Planting. Cultivating.
+Harvesting. Keeping. Marketing.
+
+The Early Crop.--Caution against planting it largely. Special
+directions. Buttoning.
+
+Cauliflower Regions of the United States.--Upper Atlantic Coast. Lake
+Region. Prairie Region. Cauliflowers in the South. The Pacific Coast.
+
+Insect and Fungous Enemies.--Flea-beetle. Cut-worms. Cabbage-maggot.
+Cabbage-worm. Stem-rot. Damping-off. Black-leg.
+
+Cauliflower Seed.--Importance of careful selection. Where the seed is
+grown. Influence of climate. American-grown seed.
+
+Varieties.--Descriptive catalogue. Order of earliness. Variety tests.
+Best varieties.
+
+Broccoli.--Difference between Broccoli and Cauliflower. Cultivation, use
+and varieties of Broccoli.
+
+Cooking Cauliflower.--Digestibility. Nutritive value. Chemical
+composition. Recipes.
+
+Price, cloth, $1.
+
+
+PRACTICAL FARM CHEMISTRY.--A Practical Handbook of Profitable
+Crop-Feeding, written for Practical Men. By T. GREINER.
+
+Part I. The Raw Materials of Plant-Food.
+
+Part II. The Available Sources of Supply.
+
+Part III. Principles of Economic Application, or Manuring for Money.
+
+This work, written in plainest language, is intended to assist the
+farmer in the selection, purchase and application of plant-foods. If you
+wish to learn ways how to save money in procuring manurial substances,
+and how to make money by their proper use, read this book. If you want
+your boy to learn the principle of crop-feeding, and become a successful
+farmer, give him a copy of this book. The cost of the book will be
+returned a hundred-fold to every reader who peruses its pages with care
+and applies its teachings to practice.
+
+Price, cloth, $1.
+
+
+SPRAYING CROPS.--Why, When and How to Do It.--By PROF. CLARENCE M.
+WEED. A handy volume of about 100 pages; illustrated. Covers the whole
+field of the insect and fungous enemies of crops for which the spray is
+used. The following topics are discussed in a concise, practical manner:
+
+Spraying Against Insects. Feeding Habits of Insects. Spraying Against
+Fungous Diseases. The Philosophy of Spraying. Spraying Apparatus.
+Spraying Trees in Blossom. Precautions in Spraying. Insecticides used in
+Spraying. Fungicides used in Spraying. Combining Insecticides and
+Fungicides. Cost of Spraying Materials. Prejudice Against Spraying.
+Spraying the Larger Fruits. Spraying Small Fruits and Nursery Stock.
+Spraying Shade Trees, Ornamental Plants and Flowers. Spraying
+Vegetables, Field Crops and Domestic Animals.
+
+Price in stiff paper cover, 50 cents; flexible cloth, 75 cents.
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:
+
+Illustrations have been moved to the nearest appropriate paragraph
+break. For the benefit of readers of the text version of this e-book,
+a small description was added to 5 decorative line drawings which have
+no caption or description in the original text. This addition appears
+in parentheses as: "(Drawing of grapes)".
+
+An asterism in the text is represented as: *.*
+
+Inconsistencies in the author's spelling and use of punctuation are
+unchanged in this e-text.
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+Obvious typographical and printer errors have been corrected without
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+In addition to obvious errors, the following changes have been made:
+
+   1. On page 87: "arguments" was changed to "augments" in the phrase,
+     "... this only augments the size and depth...."
+
+   2. On page 90: "side" was changed to "size" in the phrase, "...
+     wood the size of a lead-pencil...."
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of American Grape Training, by
+Liberty Hyde (L.H.) Bailey
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