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Bailey + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license + + +Title: American Grape Training + An account of the leading forms now in use of Training the + American Grapes + +Author: Liberty Hyde (L.H.) Bailey + +Release Date: May 23, 2012 [EBook #39779] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING *** + + + + +Produced by Cathy Maxam and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="icover" name="icover"></a> +<img src="images/icover.jpg" alt="cover" /> +</div> + + + +<h1> +AMERICAN<br /> +<br /> +GRAPE TRAINING</h1> + +<p class="narrow big pb">An account of the leading +forms now in use of Training +the American Grapes.</p> + +<p class="center ps"><i>By L. H. BAILEY</i></p> + +<p class="center smaller pt"><span class="smcap">New York:<br /> +The Rural Publishing Company</span><br /> +1893. +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="bbox narrowmid smaller ps"> +<p class="center"><i>By the same Author.</i></p> + + +<p class="nospace"><b>Annals of Horticulture</b> in North America +for the year 1889. A witness of passing events +and a record of progress. 249 pages, 52 illustrations.</p> + +<p class="nospace"><b>Annals for 1890.</b> 312 pages, 82 illustrations.</p> + +<p class="nospace"><b>Annals for 1891.</b> 416 pages, 77 illustrations.</p> + +<p class="nospace"><b>Annals for 1892.</b></p> + +<p class="nospace"><sup>*</sup><sub>*</sub><sup>*</sup> A new volume is issued each year, each +complete in itself. Cloth, $1; paper, 60 cents.</p> + +<p class="nospace"><b>The Horticulturist's Rule-Book.</b> A compendium +of useful information for fruit-growers, +truck-gardeners, florists and others. Second +edition, revised to the opening of 1892. 221 +pages. Cloth, $1; paper, 50 cents.</p> + +<p class="nospace"><b>The Nursery Book.</b> A complete guide to +the multiplication and pollination of plants. +304 pages, 106 illustrations. Cloth, $1; paper, 50c.</p> + +<p class="nospace"><b>Cross-Breeding and Hybridizing.</b> With a +brief bibliography of the subject. 44 pages. +Paper, 40 cents. (Rural Library Series.)</p> + +<p class="nospace"><b>Field Notes on Apple Culture.</b> 90 pages, +19 illustrations. Cloth, 75 cents.</p> + +<p class="nospace"><b>Talks Afield</b>: About plants and the science +of plants. 173 pages, 100 illustrations. Cloth, $1.</p> +</div> + + +<table class="ps" summary="verso" cellpadding="20"> +<tr><td class="center smallest">COPYRIGHTED 1893,<br /> +BY L. H. BAILEY.</td> + +<td class="center smallest">ELECTROTYPED AND PRINTED BY<br /> +J. HORACE M'FARLAND CO., HARRISBURG, PA.</td></tr> +</table> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p class="center biggest">CONTENTS.</p> + + + + +<table class="small" summary="contents"> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></td> + +<td class="tdr small">Pages</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="hang2">Introduction</td> <td class="tdr">9-11</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="hang2">Pruning</td> <td class="tdr">11-24</td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="hang2">Preliminary Preparations for Training—The Trellis—Tying</td> +<td class="tdr">25-33</td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="hang2">The Upright Systems. (Horizontal Arm Spur System.<br /> +High Renewal. Fan Training)</td> <td class="tdr">34-55</td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="hang2">The Drooping Systems. (True or Four-Cane Kniffin. +Modifications of the Four-Cane Kniffin. The Two-Cane +Kniffin or Umbrella System. The Low or +One-Wire Kniffin. The Six-Cane Kniffin. Overhead, +or Arbor Kniffin. The Cross-Wire System. +Renewal Kniffin. The Munson System)</td> <td class="tdr">56-82</td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="hang2">Miscellaneous Systems. (Horizontal Training. Post +Training. Arbors. Remodeling Old Vines)</td> <td class="tdr">83-92</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i004" name="i004"></a> +<img src="images/i004.jpg" alt="i004" /> + + + +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p class="center biggest">ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> + + +<table class="small" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="4" summary="illustrations"> + +<tr> + +<td> </td><td> </td> +<td class="tdr">PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">1.</td> <td><a href="#i013">Grape Shoot</a></td> <td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">2.</td> <td><a href="#i014">The Bearing Wood</a></td> <td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">3.</td> <td><a href="#i016">Diagram</a></td> <td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">4.</td> <td><a href="#i019">Spur</a></td> <td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">5.</td> <td><a href="#i020">Renewal Pruning</a></td> <td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">6.</td> <td><a href="#i022">A Newly Set Vineyard</a></td> <td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">7.</td> <td><a href="#i036">Horizontal Arm Spur Training</a></td> <td class="tdr">35</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">8.</td> <td><a href="#i037">Horizontal Arm (Diagram)</a></td> <td class="tdr">36</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">9.</td> <td><a href="#i039">Short Arm Spur Training</a></td> <td class="tdr">38</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">10.</td> <td><a href="#i041">The Second Season of Upright Training</a></td> <td class="tdr">40</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">11.</td> <td><a href="#i043">Making the T-Head</a></td> <td class="tdr">42</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">12.</td> <td><a href="#i044">The Third Season of High Renewal</a></td> <td class="tdr">43</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">13.</td> <td><a href="#i045">High Renewal, before Pruning</a></td> <td class="tdr">44</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">14.</td> <td><a href="#i046">High Renewal, Pruned</a></td> <td class="tdr">45</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">15.</td> <td><a href="#i047">High Renewal, Pruned and Tied</a></td> <td class="tdr">46</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">16.</td> <td><a href="#i048">High Renewal with Four Canes</a></td> <td class="tdr">47</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">17.</td> <td><a href="#i049">High Renewal Complete</a></td> <td class="tdr">48</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">18.</td> <td><a href="#i052">A Slat Trellis, with Upright Training</a></td> <td class="tdr">51</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">19.</td> <td><a href="#i056">Fan Training, after Pruning</a></td> <td class="tdr">55</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">20.</td> <td><a href="#i058">William Kniffin</a></td> <td class="tdr">57</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">21.</td> <td><a href="#i060">The True Kniffin Training</a></td> <td class="tdr">59</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">22.</td> <td><a href="#i061">No. 21, when Pruned</a></td> <td class="tdr">60</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">23.</td> <td><a href="#i065">A Poor Type of Kniffin</a></td> <td class="tdr">64</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">24.</td> <td><a href="#i066">The Y-Trunk Kniffin</a></td> <td class="tdr">65</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">25.</td> <td><a href="#i068">Umbrella Training</a></td> <td class="tdr">67</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">26.</td> <td><a href="#i069">A Poor Umbrella System</a></td> <td class="tdr">68</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">27.</td> <td><a href="#i071">Eight-Cane Kniffin (Diagram)</a></td> <td class="tdr">70</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">28.</td> <td><a href="#i072">Overhead Kniffin</a></td> <td class="tdr">71</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">29.</td> <td><a href="#i073">Overhead Kniffin</a></td> <td class="tdr">72</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">30.</td> <td><a href="#i074">Overhead Kniffin, before Pruning</a></td> <td class="tdr">73</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">31.</td> <td><a href="#i076">Cross-Wire Training</a></td> <td class="tdr">75</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">32.</td> <td><a href="#i077">Cross-Wire Training, Outside View</a></td> <td class="tdr">76</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">33.</td> <td><a href="#i079">Munson Training. End View</a></td> <td class="tdr">78</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">34.</td> <td><a href="#i080">Munson Training. Side View</a></td> <td class="tdr">79</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">35.</td> <td><a href="#i084">Horizontal Training</a></td> <td class="tdr">83</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">36.</td> <td><a href="#i087">Low Post Training</a></td> <td class="tdr">86</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">37.</td> <td><a href="#i092">A Yearling Graft</a></td> <td class="tdr">91</td> +</tr> + +</table> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p class="center biggest">PREFACE.</p> + + +<p class="cap">THIS LITTLE book has grown out of an attempt to +teach the principles and methods of grape training +to college students. I have found such teaching +to be exceedingly difficult and unsatisfactory. It is impossible +to firmly impress the lessons by mere lectures. +The student must apprehend the principles slowly and by +his own effort. He must have time to thoroughly assimilate +them before he attempts to apply them. I therefore +cast about for books which I could put before my +class, but I at once found that there are very few succinct +accounts of the subjects of grape pruning and training, +and that none of our books portray the methods which +are most largely practised in the large grape regions of +the east. My only recourse, therefore, was to put my +own notes into shape for print, and this I have now done. +And inasmuch as all grape-growers are students, I hope +that the simple account will find a use beyond the classroom.</p> + +<p>This lack of adequate accounts of grape training at +first astonished me, but is not strange after all. It must +be remembered that the cultivation of the native grape is +of very recent origin. There are many men who can +remember its beginning in a commercial way. It seldom +occurs to the younger generation, which is familiar with +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> + great vineyards in many states, that the Concord is +yet scarcely forty years old, and that all grape growing in +eastern America is yet in an experimental stage. Progress +has been so rapid in recent years that the new +methods outstrip the books. The old horizontal arm +spur system, which is still the chief method in the books, +has evolved itself into a high renewal training, which is +widely used but which has not found its way into the +manuals. The Kniffin type has outgrown its long period +of incubation, and is now taking an assured place in vineyard +management. So two great types, opposed in method, +are now contending for supremacy, and they will probably +form the basis of all future developments. This evolution +of American grape training is one of the most unique and +signal developments of our modern horticulture, and its +very recent departure from the early doubts and trials is +a fresh illustration of the youth and virility of all horticultural +pursuits in North America.</p> + +<p>This development of our grape training should form the +subject of a historical inquiry. I have not attempted +such in this little hand-book. I have omitted all reference +to the many early methods, which were in most cases +transportations or modifications of European practices, +for their value is now chiefly historical and their insertion +here would only confuse the reader. I have attempted +nothing more than a plain account of the methods now in +use; in fact, I am aware that I have not accomplished +even this much, for there are various methods which I +have not mentioned. But these omitted forms are mostly +of local use or adaptation, and they are usually only modifications +of the main types here explained. It is impossible +to describe all the variations in grape training in a book +of pocket size; neither is it necessary. Nearly every +grower <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +who has given grape raising careful attention has +introduced into his own vineyard some modifications +which he thinks are of special value to him. There are +various curious and instructive old books to which the +reader can go if he desires to know the history and evolution +of grape training in America. He will find that we +have now passed through the long and costly experiment +with European systems. And we have also outgrown the +gross or long-wood styles, and now prune close with the +expectation of obtaining superior and definite results.</p> + +<p>I have not attempted to rely upon my own resources in +the preparation of this book. All the manuscript has been +read by three persons—by George C. Snow, Penn Yan, +N. Y., William D. Barns, Middle Hope, N. Y., and L. +C. Corbett, my assistant in the Cornell Experiment +Station. Mr. Snow is a grower in the lake region of +western New York, and employs the High Renewal system; +Mr. Barns is a grower in the Hudson River valley, and +practices the Kniffin system; while Mr. Corbett has been +a student of all the systems and has practiced two or +three of them in commercial plantations. These persons +have made many suggestions of which I have been glad +to avail myself, and to them very much of the value of +the book is to be attributed.</p> + +<p class="deepind small"> +L. H. BAILEY,</p> + +<p class="smallind smaller"><span class="smcap">Ithaca</span>, N. Y., <i>Feb. 1, 1893</i>.</p> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p> +<blockquote class="small cap"><p>JOHN ADLUM, of the District of Columbia, appears to have been +the first person to systematically undertake the cultivation +and amelioration of the native grapes. His method of training, +as described in 1823, is as follows: One shoot is allowed to +grow the first year, and this is cut back to two buds the first fall. +The second year two shoots are allowed to grow, and they are tied +to "two stakes fixed down to the side of each plant, about five or +six feet high;" in the fall each cane is cut back to three or four +buds. In the third spring, these two short canes are spread apart +"so as to make an angle of about forty-five degrees with the stem," +and are tied to stakes; this season about two shoots are allowed +to grow from each branch, making four in all, and in the fall the +outside ones are cut back to three or four buds and the inner ones +to two. These outside shoots are to bear the fruit the fourth year, +and the inside ones give rise to renewal canes. These two outer +canes or branches are secured to two stakes set about sixteen inches +upon either side of the vine, and the shoots are tied up to the +stakes, as they grow. The renewal shoots from the inside stubs +are tied to a third stake set near the root of the vine. The outside +branches are to be cut away entirely at the end of the fourth year. +This is an ingenious renewal post system, and it is easy to see +how the Horizontal Arm and High Renewal systems may have +sprung from it.</p></blockquote> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p> +<p class="center biggest">AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2> + +<p class="center small pt">INTRODUCTION—PRUNING.</p> + + +<p>Pruning and training the grape are perplexed +questions, even to those who have spent a lifetime +in grape growing. The perplexity arises from +several diverse sources, as the early effort to transplant +European methods, the fact that many systems +present almost equally good results for particular +purposes and varieties, and the failure to +comprehend the fundamental principles of the +operations.</p> + +<p>It is sufficient condemnation of European methods +when applied in eastern America, to say that +the American grapes are distinct species from the +European grapes, and that they are consequently +different in habit. This fact does not appear to have +been apprehended clearly by the early American +grape-growers, even after the native varieties had +begun to gain prominence. American viticulture, +aside from that upon the Pacific slope which is +concerned with the European grape, is an industry +of very recent development. It was little more +than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> + a century ago that the first American variety +gained favor, and so late as 1823 that the first +definite attempt was made, in Adlum's "Memoir +on the Cultivation of the Vine in America," to record +the merits of native grapes for purposes of +cultivation. Even Adlum's book was largely given +to a discussion of European varieties and practices. +In 1846 "Thomas' Fruit Culturist" mentioned +only six "American hardy varieties," and +all of these, save the Catawba, are practically not +in cultivation at the present time. The Concord +appeared in 1853. American grape training is, +therefore, a very recent development, and we are +only now outgrowing the influence of the practices +early imported from Europe. The first decided +epoch in the evolution of our grape training was +the appearance of Fuller's "Grape Culturist," in +1864; for while the system which he depicted and +which yet often bears his name, was but a modification +of some European methods and had been +outlined by earlier American writers, it was at that +time placed clearly and cogently before the public +and became an accepted practice. The fundamental +principles of pruning are alike for both +European and American grapes, but the details of +pruning and training must be greatly modified for +different species. We must understand at the outset +that American species of grapes demand an +American system of treatment.</p> + +<p>The great diversity of opinion which exists +amongst<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> + the best grape growers concerning the advantages +of different systems of training is proof +that many systems have merit, and that no one +system is better than others for all purposes. The +grower must recognize the fact that the most important +factor in determining the merits of any +system of training is the habit of the vine—as its +vigor, rate of growth, normal size, relative size and +abundance of leaves, and season and character of +fruit. Nearly every variety differs from others in +habit in some particular, and it therefore requires +different treatment in some important detail. Varieties +may thrive equally well upon the same general +system of training, but require minor modifications; +so it comes that no hard and fast lines can be laid +down, either for any system or any variety. One system +differs from another in some one main principle +or idea, but the modifications of all may meet and +blend. If two men practice the Kniffin system, +therefore, this fact does not indicate that they +prune and train their vines exactly alike. It is impossible +to construct rules for grape training; it is, +therefore, important that we understand thoroughly +the philosophy of pruning and training, both in +general and in the different systems which are now +most popular. These points we shall now consider.</p> + + +<p class="center small pt">PRUNING.</p> + +<p>Pruning and training are terms which are often +confounded when speaking of the grape, but they +represent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> + distinct operations. Pruning refers to +such removal of branches as shall insure better and +larger fruit upon the remaining portions. Training +refers to the disposition of the different parts +of the vine. It is true that different methods of +training demand different styles of pruning, but the +modification in pruning is only such as shall adapt +it to the external shape and size of the vine, and +does not in any way affect the principle upon which +it rests. Pruning is a necessity, and, in essence, +there is but one +method; training +is largely a convenience, +and there +are as many methods +as there +are fancies +among +grape growers.</p> + + +<div class="figleft"><a id="i013" name="i013"></a> +<img src="images/i013.jpg" alt="i013" /> + +<p class="caption">1. GRAPE SHOOT.</p> + +</div> + + +<p>All intelligent +pruning of the +grape rests upon the fact +that <i>the fruit is borne in a +few clusters near the base of +the growing shoots of the +season, and which spring +from wood of last year's +growth</i>. It may be said here that a growing, leafy +branch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> + of the grape vine is called a <i>shoot</i>; a ripened +shoot is called a <i>cane</i>; a branch or trunk two or +more years old is called an <i>arm</i>. <a href="#i013">Fig. 1</a> is a +shoot as it appears in the northern states in June. +The whole shoot has grown within a month, from +a bud. As it grew, flower clusters appeared and +these are to bear the grapes. Flowering is now +over, but the shoot will continue to grow, perhaps +to the length of ten or twenty feet. At picking +time, therefore, the grapes all hang near the lower +end or base of the shoots or new canes, as in <a href="#i014">fig. 2.</a> +Each bud upon the old cane, therefore, produces a +new<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> + cane, which may bear fruit as well as leaves. +At the close of the season, this long ripened shoot +or cane has produced a bud every foot or less, from +which new fruit-bearing shoots are to spring next +year. But if all these buds were allowed to remain, +the vine would be overtaxed with fruit the +coming year and the crop would be a failure. The +cane is, therefore, cut off until it bears only as many +buds as experience has taught us the vine should +carry. The cane may be cut back to five or ten +buds, and perhaps some of these buds will be removed, +or "rubbed off," next spring if the young +growth seems to be too thick, or if the plant is +weak. Each shoot will bear, on an average, two +or three clusters. Some shoots will bear no clusters. +From one to six of the old canes, each bearing +from five to ten buds, are left each spring. +The number of clusters which a vine can carry +well depends upon the variety, the age and size of +the vine, the style of the training, and the soil and +cultivation. Experience is the only guide. A +strong vine of Concord, which is a prolific variety, +trained upon any of the ordinary systems and set +nine or ten feet apart each way, will usually carry +from thirty to sixty clusters. The clusters will +weigh from a fourth to a half pound each. Twelve +or fifteen pounds of marketable grapes is a fair or +average crop for such a Concord vine, and twenty-five +pounds is a very heavy crop.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i014" name="i014"></a> +<img src="images/i014.jpg" alt="i014" /> + +<p class="caption">2. THE BEARING WOOD.</p> + +</div> + + +<p>The pruning of the grape vine, therefore, is +essentially<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> + a thinning process. In the winter pruning, +all the canes of the last season's growth are cut +away except from two to six, which are left to make +the fruit and wood of the next year; and each of +these remaining canes is headed back to from three +to ten buds. The number and length of the canes +which are left after the pruning depend upon the +style of training which is practiced. A vine which +may completely cover a trellis in the fall, will be +cut back so severely that a novice will fear that the +plant is ruined. But the operator bears in mind +the fact that the grape, unlike the apple, pear and +peach, does not bear distinct fruit-buds in the fall, +but buds which produce both fruit and wood the +following season.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i016" name="i016"></a> +<img src="images/i016.jpg" alt="i016" /> + +<p class="caption">3. DIAGRAM.</p> + +</div> + +<p>Let us now suppose, therefore, that we have +pruned our vine in the fall of 1891 to two canes, +each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> + bearing ten buds. We will call these canes +A and B, respectively. (<a href="#i016">Fig. 3.</a>) In 1892, therefore, +twenty shoots grow from them, and each of +these shoots or new canes branches, or produces +laterals. We will call these new canes of 1892, +A 1, A 2, A 3, B 1, B 2, and so on. Each of the +new canes bears at the base about two clusters of +grapes, giving a total yield of about forty clusters. +These clusters stand opposite the leaves, as seen +in <a href="#i013">fig. 1.</a> In the axil of each leaf a bud is formed +which will produce a cane, and perhaps fruit, in +1893. If each of these new canes, A 1, A 2, etc., +produce ten buds—which is a moderate number—the +vine would go into the winter of 1892-3 with +200 buds for the next year's growth and crop; but +these buds should be reduced to about twenty, as +they were in the fall of 1891. That is, every year +we go back again to the same number of buds, and +the top of the vine gets no larger from year to year. +We must, therefore, cut back again to two canes. +We cut back each of the original canes, A and B, +to one new cane. That is, we leave only A 1 and B 1, +cutting off A 2, A 3, etc., and B 2, B 3, etc. This +brings the vine back to very nearly its condition in +the fall of 1891; but the new canes, A 1 and B 1, +which are now to become the main canes by being +bent down horizontally, were borne at some distance—say +three or four inches—from the base of +the original canes, A and B, so that the permanent +part of the vine is constantly lengthening itself. +This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> + annually lengthening portion is called a <i>spur</i>. +Spurs are rarely or never made in this exact position, +however, although this diagrammatic sketch +illustrates clearly the method of their formation. +The common method of spurring is that connected +with the horizontal arm system of training, in which +the canes A and B are allowed to become permanent +arms, and the upright canes, A 1, A 2, B 1, B 2, +B 3, etc., are cut back to within two or three buds +of the arms each year. The cane A 1, for instance, +is cut back in the fall of 1892 to two or +three buds, and in 1893 two or three canes will +grow from this stub. In the fall of 1893 only one +cane is left after the pruning, and this one is cut +back to two or three buds; and so on. So the spur +grows higher every year, although every effort is +made to keep it short, both by reducing the number +of buds to one or two and by endeavoring to +bring out a cane lower down on the spur every few +years. <a href="#i019">Fig. 4</a> shows a short spur of two years' +standing. The horizontal portion shows the permanent +arm. The first upright portion is the remains +of the first-year cane and the upper portion +is the second-year cane after it is cut back in the +fall. In this instance, the cane is cut back to one +fruiting bud, <i>b</i>, the small buds, <i>a a</i>, being rubbed +out. There are serious objections to spurs in any +position. They become hard and comparatively +lifeless after a time, it is often difficult to replace +them by healthy fresh wood, and the bearing portion +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> + the vine is constantly receding from the +main trunk. The bearing wood should spring from +near the central portions of the vine, or be kept +"near the head," as the grape-growers say. In +order to do this, it is customary to allow two canes +to grow out each year back of the canes A 1 and B 1, +or from the head of the vine; these canes may be +designated C and D. (<a href="#i016">Fig. +3.</a>) These canes, C and D, +are grown during 1892—when +they may bear fruit +like other canes—for the +sole purpose of forming the +basis of the bearing top in +1893, while all the old top, +A and B, with the secondary +canes, A 1, A 2, B 1, +B 2, B 3, etc., is cut entirely +away. Here, then, are two +distinct methods of forming the bearing top for the +succeeding year: either from <i>spurs</i>, which are the +remains of the previous top; or from <i>renewals</i>, +which are taken each year from the old wood near +the head of the vine, or even from the ground. Renewals +from the ground are now little used, however, +for they seldom give a sufficient crop unless +they are headed in the first fall and are allowed to +bear the second year. It should be borne in mind +that the spur and renewal methods refer entirely to +pruning, not to training, for either one can be used +in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> + any system of training. Spur pruning, however, +is growing in disfavor amongst commercial +grape-growers, and the renewal is more or less +used in all systems of training.</p> + +<div class="figleft"><a id="i019" name="i019"></a> +<img src="images/i019.jpg" alt="i019" /> + +<p class="caption">4. SPUR.</p> + +</div> + + +<p><a href="#i020">Fig. 5</a> illustrates a renewal pruning. This engraving +shows the head of a vine seven years old, +and upon which two canes are allowed to remain +after each annual pruning. The portion extending +from <i>b</i> to <i>f</i> and <i>d</i> is the +base of the bearing cane of +1892. In the winter of +1892-3, this cane is cut off +at <i>d</i>, and the new cane, <i>e</i>, is left to make the bearing +wood of 1893. Another cane sprung from <i>f</i>, +but it was too weak to leave for fruiting. It was, +therefore, cut away. The old stub, <i>b</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>d</i>, will be +cut away a year hence, in the winter of 1893-4. In +the meantime, a renewal cane will have grown +from the stub <i>c</i>, which is left for that purpose, and +the old cane, <i>b d</i>, will be cut off just beyond it, between +<i>c</i> and <i>f</i>. In this way, the bearing wood is +kept close to the head of the vine. The wound <i>a</i> +shows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> + where an old stub was cut away this winter, +1892-3, while <i>b</i> shows where one was cut off the +previous winter. A scar upon the back of the +head, which does not show in the illustration, +marks the spot where a stub was cut away two +years ago, in the winter of 1890-1. This method +of pruning can be kept up almost indefinitely, and +if care is exercised in keeping the stubs short, the +head will not enlarge out of proportion to the +growth of the stock or trunk.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i020" name="i020"></a> +<img src="images/i020.jpg" alt="i020" /> + +<p class="caption">5. RENEWAL PRUNING.</p> + +</div> + + + + +<p class="pt"><i>Pruning Young Vines.</i>—The time required after +planting to get the vine onto the wires or trellis +varies with the strength of the vine when set, the +variety, the soil and cultivation, and the system of +training; but, as a rule, the training begins the +second or third year, previous to which time the +vine is pruned, not trained. Two-year-old vines +are most popular for planting, although in the +strong varieties, like Concord and Niagara, well-grown +yearling vines are probably as good, if not +better. The strong-growing kinds are commonly +set from eight to ten feet apart in the row, and the +rows eight or nine feet apart. Delawares and +other small vines may be set closer, although eight +feet is preferable. When set, the vine is cut back +to two or three buds. During the first year, the +young canes are usually allowed to lie upon the +ground at will, as seen in <a href="#i022">fig. 6</a>. In the fall or +winter, all the canes but one are cut off, and this +one is cut back to two or three buds. The vine is, +therefore,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> + no larger at the expiration of a year's +growth than it was when planted; but in the meantime +the plant has become thoroughly established +in the soil, and the second year's growth +should be strong enough to form the basis for the +permanent trunk or arm. If, however, the second +year's growth is weak, it may be cut back as before, +and the third season's growth used for the trunk. +On the other hand, the growth of the first year is +sometimes carried onto the wires to form the permanent +trunk and arms, but it is only with extra +strong vines in good soil that this practice is admissible. +From<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> + this point, the treatment of the +vine is discussed under training.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i022" name="i022"></a> +<img src="images/i022.jpg" alt="i022" /> + +<p class="caption">6. A NEWLY SET VINEYARD.</p> + +</div> + + + + +<p class="pt"><i>When to Prune.</i>—Grape vines may be pruned at +any time during the winter. It is the practice +among most grape-growers in the north to prune +as time permits from November to late in February, +or even early March. The sap flows very freely +from cuts made in spring and early summer, causing +the phenomenon known as "bleeding," or in +Europe as "weeping," and in order to prevent +this loss, pruning is stopped six weeks or more before +the time at which the buds usually swell. It +is yet a moot point if this bleeding injures the vine, +but it is a safe practice to prune early. The vine +is cut off an inch or two beyond the last bud which +it is desired to leave, in order to avoid injury to +the bud from the drying out of the end of the cane.</p> + +<p>The pruning is done with small hand pruning-shears. +The canes are often allowed to remain +tied to the wires until the pruning is accomplished, +although it is the practice with most growers who +use the Kniffin system to cut the strings before +pruning. The removal of the severed canes is +known as "stripping." In large vineyards, the +pruner sometimes leaves the stripping to boys or +other cheap labor. The stripping may be done at +any time after the pruning is performed until +spring. It must be done before the growth starts +on the remaining portions of the vine, however, to +avoid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> + injury to the young buds when tearing the +vines off the trellis.</p> + + +<p class="pt"><i>Summer Pruning.</i>—There is much discussion as +to the advisability of summer pruning. It is essential +to the understanding of the question that the +grower bear in mind that this summer pruning is +of two kinds—the removal or "breaking out" of +the superfluous shoots, and heading-in or "stopping" +the main canes to keep them within limits. +The superfluous shoots are such as spring from +small, weak buds or those which break from the old +arms or trunk of the vine. Shoots which start from +the very base of the old cane are usually weak and +should be removed. Buds in this position are +shown at <i>a a</i>, in <a href="#i019">fig. 4</a>. The secondary or axillary +branches, which often start from the base of the +season's shoots, should be removed or broken out. +These superfluous shoots are pulled off from time +to time as they appear, or the buds may be rubbed +off before the shoots begin to grow.</p> + +<p>The heading-in of the main canes, while desirable +for the purpose of keeping the vine within +bounds, is apt to cause a growth of laterals which +choke up the vine and which do not mature, and +in those styles of training in which very little wood +is allowed to grow, the practice may prevent the +development of a sufficient amount of leaf surface +to properly sustain the vine. Vines are often +weakened by summer pruning. These dangers can +be overcome by careful attention, however, especially +by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> + heading-in very lightly and by doing it as +late in the season as possible, when new lateral +growth does not start readily. The necessity of +much heading-in has been largely obviated in late +years by the adoption of high or drooping systems +of training, and by setting the vines far apart. The +strong varieties, like Concord, Brighton and Niagara, +should be set ten feet apart in the row, +especially if grown upon the Kniffin system. Catawba, +being a very upright grower and especially +well adapted to upright training, may be set eight +feet apart, and Delawares are often set as close as +six or eight feet. It is doubtful, however, if any +variety should be set less than eight feet apart for +trellis culture. In Virginia and southward, where +the growth is large because of the long seasons, +vines are often set more than ten feet apart. In +the South, the rows should run north and south, +that the fruit may be shaded from midday sun. +The only summer heading-in now generally recommended +is the clipping of the tips when they fall +over and begin to touch the ground. This clipping +is often done with a sickle or sharp corn-cutter.</p> + + +<p class="pt"><i>Objects of Pruning.</i>—The objects of pruning the +grape, as of other fruits, are five:</p> + +<blockquote><p> +1. To produce larger and better fruit.<br /> + +2. To maintain or augment the vigor of the vine.<br /> + +3. To keep the vine within manageable limits.<br /> + +4. To facilitate cultivation.<br /> + +5. To facilitate spraying.</p></blockquote> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2> + +<p class="center small pt">PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS FOR TRAINING—THE +TRELLIS—TYING.</p> + + +<p>Training the grape vine is practiced for the purpose +of keeping the vine in convenient shape and +to allow each cluster to receive its full amount of +space and light. A well trained vine is easily cultivated +and sprayed, and the grapes are readily +harvested, and it is only upon such vines that the +best and fairest fruit is uniformly produced. Some +kind of training is essential, for a vine will not often +bear good fruit when it lies upon the ground. In +essence, there are three general types or styles of +training, which may be designated as the upright, +drooping and horizontal, these terms designating +the direction of the bearing shoots. The upright +systems carry two or more canes or arms along a +low horizontal wire, or sometimes obliquely across +a trellis from below upwards, and the shoots are +tied up as they grow to the wires above. The horizontal +systems carry up a perpendicular cane or +arm, or sometimes two or more, from which the +shoots are carried out horizontally and are tied to +perpendicular wires or posts. The drooping systems, +represented in the Kniffin and post-training, +carry the canes or arms upon a high horizontal wire +or trellis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> + and allow the shoots to hang without tying. +To one or another of these types all the systems of +American grape-training can be referred.</p> + +<p>There is no system of training which is best for +all purposes and all varieties. The strong-growing +varieties more readily adapt themselves to the high +drooping systems than the weaker varieties, although +the Delaware is often trained on a comparatively +low Kniffin with good effect. The high or drooping +systems are of comparatively recent date, and +their particular advantages are the saving of labor +in summer tying, cheapness of the trellis, and the +facility with which the ground can be cultivated +without endangering the branches of the vine. The +upright training distributes the bearing wood more +evenly upon the vine and is thought, therefore, to +insure more uniform fruit, it keeps the top near the +root, which is sometimes thought to be an advantage, +and it is better suited to the stature of the small-growing +varieties. There is, perhaps, a greater +temptation to neglect the vines in the drooping +systems than in the others, because the shoots need +no tying and do not, therefore, demand frequent attention; +while in the upright systems the shoots soon +become broken or displaced if not watched. For +very large areas, or circumstances in which the best +of care cannot be given the vineyard, the Kniffin or +drooping systems are perhaps always to be recommended. +Yet the Kniffin profits as much from +diligence and skill as the other systems; but it will +give<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> + better results than the others under partial +neglect. The strong varieties, especially those +making long and drooping canes, are well adapted +to the Kniffin styles; but the smaller sorts, and +those stronger sorts which, like Catawba, make an +upright and stocky growth, are usually trained upon +the upright systems. But the merits of both systems +are so various and even so little understood, +that it is impossible to recommend either one unqualifiedly. +The advantages in either case are often +little more than matters of personal opinion. It +should be said, however, that the Kniffin or drooping +systems are gaining in favor rapidly, and are +evidently destined to overthrow much of the older +upright training. This fact does not indicate, however, +that the upright system is to be entirety superseded, +but rather that it must be confined to +those varieties and conditions for which it is best +adapted. The two systems will undoubtedly supplement +each other. The horizontal systems are +occasionally used for choice varieties, but they are +little known.</p> + + +<p class="pt"><i>Making the Trellis.</i>—The fall or winter following +the planting of the vineyard, the trellis is begun if +the upright systems are used; but this operation is +usually delayed a year longer in the Kniffin systems, +and stakes are commonly used, or at least +recommended, during the second season. In the +South the trellis is made the first year. The style +of trellis will depend upon the style of training, +but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> + the main features are the same for all. +Strong posts of some durable timber, as cedar, +locust or oak, are placed at such distance apart +that two vines can be set between each two. If the +vines are set nine feet apart, the posts maybe eighteen +or twenty feet apart, and a vine will then stand +four or five feet from each post. If the posts in the +row are eighteen feet apart and the rows eight feet +apart, about 330 posts will be required to the acre. +Except in very hard and stony lands, the posts are +driven with a heavy maul, although many people +prefer to set the end posts in holes, thinking that +they endure the strain better. In all loose soils, +however, posts can be made as firm by driving as +by setting with a spade. All posts should be as firm +as possible, in order to hold up the heavy loads of +vines and fruit. In setting posts on hillsides, it +is a common practice to lean them slightly uphill, +for there is always a tendency for the posts to tilt +down the slope. For the Kniffin systems, especially +for the strong-growing grapes, the posts must +stand six or six and one-half feet high when set, +but a foot less will usually be sufficient for the upright +and horizontal systems. The posts should +stand higher at first than is necessary for the support +of the wires, for they will need to be driven +down occasionally as they become loose. The end +posts of each row should be well braced, as shown +in several of the illustrations in this volume.</p> + +<p>The wire ordinarily used is No. 12, except for the +top<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> + wire in the Kniffin training, which is usually +No. 10, as the greater part of the weight is then +upon the top wire. No. 9 is sometimes used, but +it is heavier than necessary. No. 14 is occasionally +used for the middle and upper rows in the +upright systems, but it is not strong enough. The +following figures show the sizes and weights of +these and similar iron and steel wires:</p> + +<table class="smaller" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="4" summary="data"> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">No.</td> +<td class="center">Diameter in inches.</td> +<td class="center" colspan="2">Weight of 100 feet.</td> +<td class="center">Feet in 2,000 pounds.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +<td class="center">.148</td> +<td class="center">5.80</td> +<td class="center">pounds.</td> +<td class="center">34,483</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +<td class="center">.135</td> +<td class="center">4.83</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">41,408</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +<td class="center">.120</td> +<td class="center">3.82</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">52,356</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +<td class="center">.105</td> +<td class="center">2.92</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">68,493</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +<td class="center">.092</td> +<td class="center">2.24</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">89,286</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +<td class="center">.080</td> +<td class="center">1.69</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">118,343</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +<td class="center">.072</td> +<td class="center">1.37</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">145,985</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +<td class="center">.063</td> +<td class="center">1.05</td> +<td class="center">" </td> +<td class="center">190,476</td> +</tr> + + + + +</table> + +<p>The plain annealed iron wire costs about 3 cents +per pound, and the galvanized—which is less used +for vineyards—3½ cents. Of No. 12 wire, about +160 pounds is required per acre for a single run on +rows eight feet apart, and about 500 pounds for +three runs. The cost of No. 12 wire per acre, for +three runs, therefore, is about $15.</p> + +<p>The wire is secured to the intermediate posts by +staples driven in firmly so that the wire will not pull +through readily of its own weight, but still loosely +enough to allow of the tightening of the wires. In +other words, the head of the staple should not quite +touch the wire. Grape staples are of three lengths, +about an inch, inch and a quarter, and an inch and +a half respectively. The shortest length is little +used.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> + The medium length is used for hard-wood +posts and the longest for soft posts, like chestnut +and cedar. These staples cost five cents per pound +usually, and a pound of the medium length contains +from 90 to 100 of the No. 10 wire size. An acre, +for three wires, will therefore require, for this size, +about nine or ten pounds of staples. In windy +regions, the wires should be placed upon the windward +side of the posts.</p> + +<p>There are various devices for securing the wire +to the end posts, but the commonest method is +to wind them about the post once and secure them +with a staple, or twist the end of the wire back upon +itself, forming a loop. The wires should be drawn +taut to prevent sagging with the weight of fruit +and leaves. In order to allow for the contraction +of the wires in winter, some growers loosen the +wires after harvest and others provide some device +which will relieve the strain. The Yeoman's Patent +Grape-Vine Trellis is a simple and effective +lever-contrivance attached to each wire, and which +is operated to loosen the wires in fall and to tighten +them in spring. The end post is sometimes provided +upon the back with a square-headed pin +which works tightly in an inch and a half augur +hole and about which the end of the wire is wound. +A square-headed iron wrench operates the pin, +while the tension of the wire around the side of the +post keeps the pin from slipping. This device is +not durable, however. An ingenious man can +easily<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> + contrive some device for relieving the tension, +if he should think it necessary. As a matter of +practice, however, the wires soon stretch and sag +enough with the burden of fruit and vines to take +up the winter contraction, and most growers do not +release the wires in fall. It will be found necessary, +in fact, to tighten the wires and to straighten +up the posts from year to year, as they become +loose. It is always a profitable labor to tamp the +ground firmly about all the posts every spring. The +wires should always be kept tight during the growing +season to prevent the whipping of the vines by +wind. This is especially important in white grapes, +which are discolored by the rubbing of leaves and +twigs. Unless the vines are very strong it will be +necessary to stretch only one wire the first winter.</p> + +<p>Trellises are often made of slats, as shown in +<a href="#i052">Fig. 18</a>, but these are always less durable than the +wire trellises and more expensive to keep in repair; +and in the older portions of the country, where +timber is dear, they are also more expensive at the +outset. They catch the wind, and, not being held +together by continuous strands, are likely to blow +down in sections. Fuller particulars concerning +the styles of trellis are given in the discussions of +the different systems of training.</p> + + +<p class="pt"><i>Tying.</i>—Probably the best material for tying the +canes and shoots to the trellis is raffia. This is a +bast-like material which comes in skeins and which +can be bought of seedsmen and nurserymen for +about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> + 20 cents a pound. A pound will suffice to +tie a quarter of an acre of upright training throughout +the season. Raffia is obtained from the strippings +of an oriental palm (<i>Raphia Ruffia</i>). Wool-twine +is also still largely used for tying, but it is +not so cheap and handy as raffia, and it usually has +to be cut when the trellis is stripped at the winter +pruning, while the raffia breaks with a quick pull of +the vine. Some complain that the raffia is not strong +enough to hold the vine during the season, but it +can easily be doubled. Osier willows are much +used for tying up the canes in the spring, and also +for summer tying, especially in the nursery regions +where the slender trimmings of the cultivated osier +willows are easily procured. Wild willows are +often used if they can be obtained handily. These +willows are tied up in a small bundle, which is held +upon the back above the hips by a cord passed +about the body. The butts project under the right +hand, if the person is right-handed, and the strands +are pulled out as needed. The butt is first used, +the tie being made with a twist and tuck, the strand +is then cut off with a knife, and the twig is operated +in like manner until it is used up. When wool-twine +is used, the ball is often held in front of the +workman by a cord which is tied about it and then +passed about the waist. The ball is unwound from +the inside, and it will hold its shape until the end +becomes so short that it will easily drag upon the +ground. Some workmen carry the ball in a bag, +after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> + the manner of carrying seed-corn. Raffia is +not so easily carried in the field as the wool-twine +or the willow, and this fact interferes with its popularity. +Green rye-straw, cut directly from the +field, is much used for tying the shoots in summer. +Small wire, about two-thirds the size of broom-wire, +is used occasionally for tying up the canes in +spring, but it must be used with care or it will injure +the vine. Corn-husks are also employed for +this purpose when they can be secured. Bass-bark +is sometimes used for tying, but in most of the +grape regions it is difficult to secure, and it has no +advantage over raffia.</p> + +<p>It is very important that the canes be tied up +early in spring, for the buds are easily broken after +they begin to swell. These canes are tied rather +firmly to the wires to hold them steady; but the +growing shoots, which are tied during the summer, +are fastened more loosely, to allow of the necessary +increase in diameter.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i034" name="i034"></a> +<img src="images/i034.jpg" alt="i034" /> + + + +</div> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2> + +<p class="center small pt">THE UPRIGHT SYSTEMS.</p> + + +<p>The upright systems are the oldest and best +known of the styles of American grape training. +They consist, essentially, in carrying out two +horizontal canes, or sometimes arms, upon a low +wire and training the shoots from them vertically +upwards. These shoots are tied to the upper +wires as they grow. This type was first clearly +and forcibly described in detail by A. S. Fuller, in +his "Grape Culturist," in 1864, and it became +known as the Fuller system, although it was practiced +many years previous to this time.</p> + + +<p class="pt"><i>Horizontal Arm Spur System.</i>—There are two types +or styles of this upright system. The older type and +the one described in the books, is known as the +Horizontal Arm Spur training. In this method, +the two horizontal branches are permanent, or, in +other words, they are true arms. The canes are +cut back each fall to upright spurs upon these arms, +as explained on <a href="#Page_15">page 15</a> (<a href="#i019">fig. 4.</a>) Two shoots are +often allowed to grow from each of these spurs, as +shown in <a href="#i036">fig. 7</a>. These spurs become overgrown +and weak after a few years, and they are renewed +from new shoots which spring from near their base +or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> + from the arm itself. Sometimes the whole arm +is renewed from the head of the vine, or even from +the ground.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i036" name="i036"></a> +<img src="images/i036.jpg" alt="i036" /> + +<p class="caption">7. HORIZONTAL ARM SPUR TRAINING.</p> + +</div> + +<p>The number of these upright canes and their distance +apart upon these permanent arms depend +upon the variety, the strength of the vine and soil +and the fancy of the grower. From twelve to +twenty inches apart upon the arm is the common +distance. If a vine is strong enough to carry five +canes and the vines are eight feet apart, then the +canes are distributed at intervals of about twenty +inches. Some very strong vines of vigorous +varieties will carry eight canes upon the two arms +together,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> + and in this case the canes stand about +a foot apart. In the fall or winter, the cane +is cut away and the strongest new cane which +springs from its base is left for the bearing wood +of the following year. This new cane is itself +headed in to the height of the trellis; that is, if +the uppermost and lowermost wires are 34 +inches apart—as they are in the Brocton vineyards +of western New York, where this system is largely +used—this new cane is shortened in to 34 inches +long. Upon this length of cane there will be about +seven good buds in the common varieties.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i037" name="i037"></a> +<img src="images/i037.jpg" alt="i037" /> + +<p class="caption">8. HORIZONTAL ARM. (Diagram.)</p> + +</div> + +<p>A modification of this horizontal arm system is +shown in <a href="#i039">fig. 9</a>. It is used about Forestville, +in Chautauqua county, New York. The arms in +this case are very short, and canes are taken out +only at two or three places. The picture shows a +vine in which two canes are taken from the end of +each arm, making four canes for the bearing top of +the vine. These canes are cut back to spurs in the +fall, as explained in the above paragraph. Sometimes +one or two other canes are taken out of these +arms nearer the main trunk. The advantages +urged for this style of training are the stronger +growth which is insured by so few canes, and the +small amount of old or permanent wood which is +left to each vine.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i039" name="i039"></a> +<img src="images/i039.jpg" alt="i039" /> + +<p class="caption">9. SHORT ARM SPUR TRAINING.</p> + +</div> + + +<p>The horizontal arm training is less popular than +it was twenty years ago. It has serious faults, +especially in the persistence of the old spurs, and +probably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> + will eventually give place to other systems. +Aside from the spur pruning, the system is much +like the following, which is a modification to allow +of a renewal pruning and to which the reader is +referred for further details. This modification, +which may be called the High Renewal, and which +is one of the most serviceable of any of the styles +of training, although it has never been fully described, +we shall now consider.</p> + + +<p class="pt"><i>The High Renewal</i>, or upright training which is +now very extensively employed in the lake regions +of New York and elsewhere, starts the head or +branches of the vine from eighteen to thirty inches +from the ground. The ideal height for most varieties +is probably about two feet to the first wire, +although thirty inches is better than eighteen. If +the vines are lower than two feet, they are liable to +be injured by the plow or cultivator, the earth is +dashed against the clusters by heavy rains, and if +the shoots become loose they strike the ground +and the grapes are soon soiled. A single trunk or +arm is carried up to the required height, or if good +branches happen to form lower down, two main +canes are carried from this point up to the required +distance to meet the lower wire, so that the trunk becomes +Y-shaped, as seen in figs. <a href="#i041">10</a>, <a href="#i048">16</a> and <a href="#i049">17</a>. In +fact, vineyardists usually prefer to have this head or +crotch a few inches below the lowest wire, to facilitate +the spreading and placing of the canes. The +trellis for the upright systems nearly always comprises +three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> + wires, although only two are sometimes +used for the smaller growing varieties, and very +rarely four are used for the strongest kinds, although +this number is unnecessary. The lowest +wire is stretched at eighteen, twenty-four or thirty +inches from the ground, and the two upper ones +are placed at distances of eighteen or twenty inches +apart.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i041" name="i041"></a> +<img src="images/i041.jpg" alt="i041" /> + +<p class="caption">10. THE SECOND SEASON OF UPRIGHT TRAINING.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="figleft"><a id="i043" name="i043"></a> +<img src="images/i043.jpg" alt="i043" /> + +<p class="caption">11. <span class="smcap">making the +T-head.</span></p> + +</div> +<p>The second season after planting should see the +vine tied to the first wire. <a href="#i041">Fig. 10</a> is a photograph +taken in July, 1892, of a Concord vine which was +set in the spring of 1891. In the fall of 1891 the +vine was cut back to three or four buds, and in the +spring of 1892 two of these buds were allowed to +make<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> + canes. These two canes are now tied to the +wire, which was stretched in the spring of 1892. +In this case, the branches start near the surface of +the ground. Sometimes only a single strong shoot +grows, and in order to secure the two branches it +is broken over where it passes the wire, and is usually +tied to a stake to afford support. <a href="#i043">Fig. 11</a> +shows this operation. A bud will develop at the +bend or break, from which a cane can be trained +in the opposite direction from the original portion, +and the T-head is secured.</p> + + + + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i044" name="i044"></a> +<img src="images/i044.jpg" alt="i044" /> + +<p class="caption">12. THE THIRD SEASON OF HIGH RENEWAL.—CONCORD.</p> + +</div> + + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i045" name="i045"></a> +<img src="images/i045.jpg" alt="i045" /> + +<p class="caption">13. HIGH RENEWAL, BEFORE PRUNING.—CATAWBA.</p> + +</div> + + +<p>The close of the second season after planting, +therefore, will usually find the vine with two good +canes extending in opposite directions and tied to +the wire. The pruning at that time will consist in +cutting off the ends of these canes back to firm and +strong wood, which will leave them bearing from +five to eight buds. The third season, shoots will +grow upright from these buds and will be tied to +the second wire, which has now been supplied. +Late in the third season the vine should have much +the appearance of that shown in <a href="#i044">fig. 12</a>. The +third wire is usually added to the trellis at the +close of the second season, at the same time that +the second wire is put on; but occasionally this is +delayed until the close of the third season. Some +of the upright shoots may bear a few grapes this +third season, but unless the vines are very strong +the flower clusters should be removed; and a three-year-old +vine should never be allowed to bear +heavily.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> + It must be remembered, however, that +both these horizontal canes, with all their mass of +herbage, are to be cut away in +the fall or winter of the third +year. Some provision must have +been made, therefore, for the top +for the fourth year. It will be +recalled that in discussing the renewal +pruning (<a href="#Page_16">page 16</a>, <a href="#i020">fig. 5</a>), it +was found that two or more +shoots are allowed to grow each +year to form the basis of the top +the following year. In <a href="#i044">fig. 12</a> +three or four such shoots can be +seen springing from the Y-shaped +portion in the center of the vine. +These shoots or canes are to be +bent down to the lowest wire next +spring, and the bearing shoots will +arise from them. This process +will be seen at a glance from +figs. <a href="#i045">13</a>, <a href="#i046">14</a> and <a href="#i047">15</a>. The first +shows a full grown old vine, +trained on three wires. <a href="#i046">Fig. 14</a> +shows the same vine when pruned. +Two long canes, with six or eight buds each, are +left<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> + to form the top of the following year. The +two stubs from which the renewal canes are to +grow for the second year's top are seen in the center. +In the fall of the next year, therefore, these +two outside canes will be cut away to the base of +these renewal stubs; and the renewal canes, in the +meantime, will have made a year's growth. These +renewal stubs in this picture are really spurs, as +will be seen; that is, they contain two ages of +wood. It is the purpose, however, to remove these +stubs or spurs every two or three years at most, +and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> + to bring new canes directly from the old wood +or head. If possible, the renewal cane is brought +from a new place on the old wood every year in +order to avoid a spur. Such was the case in the +vine shown in <a href="#i020">fig. 5</a>, <a href="#Page_19">page 19</a>. <a href="#i047">Fig. 15</a> shows the +same vine tied down to the lowest wire. Two +ties have been made upon each cane. <a href="#i048">Fig. 16</a> +shows a vine in which four canes +have been left to form the top for +the following year. The stubs for the +renewals can be seen in the Y. It is +customary to leave more than two +canes, occasionally, in strong-growing +varieties like Concord. Sometimes +four and occasionally six are +left. If four canes are left, two may +be tied together in each direction +upon the bottom wire. If six are used, the two +extra ones should be tied along the second wire, +parallel with the lowest ones. These extra canes +are sometimes tied obliquely across the trellis, but +this practice should be discouraged, for the usual +tendency of the vine is to make its greatest growth +at the top, and the lower buds may fail to bear.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i046" name="i046"></a> +<img src="images/i046.jpg" alt="i046" /> + +<p class="caption">14. HIGH RENEWAL, PRUNED.</p> + +</div> + + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i047" name="i047"></a> +<img src="images/i047.jpg" alt="i047" /> + +<p class="caption">15. HIGH RENEWAL, PRUNED AND TIED.</p> + +</div> + + + +<p>The ideal length of the two canes varies with +different varieties and the distance apart at which +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> + vines are set. Very strong kinds, like Concord +and Niagara, can carry ten or twelve buds on +each cane, especially if the vines are set more than +eight feet apart. <a href="#i049">Fig. 17</a> shows half of a Concord +vine in which about ten buds were left on each +cane. These strong sorts can often carry forty or +fifty buds to the vine to advantage, but when this +number is left the canes should be four, as explained +in the last paragraph. In Delaware and other weak-growing +varieties, twenty or twenty-five buds to the +vine should be the maximum and only two canes +should be left. In short-jointed varieties, the canes +are usually cut to the desired length—four to six feet—even +if too great a number of buds is left, but the +shoots which spring from these extra buds are +broken out soon after they start. A Delaware +vine which has made an unusually short or weak +growth will require fewer buds to be left for next +year's top than a neighboring vine of the same variety +which has made a strong growth. The Catawba, +which is a short but very stiff grower, is usually +cut back to six or eight buds, as seen in figs. <a href="#i045">13</a>, +<a href="#i046">14</a> and <a href="#i047">15</a>. The grower soon learns to adjust the +pruning to the character of the vine without effort. +He has in his mind a certain ideal crop of grapes, +perhaps about so many bunches, and he leaves +enough buds to produce this amount, allowing, +perhaps, ten per cent. of the buds for accidents +and barren shoots. He knows, too, that the canes +should always be cut back to firm, well-ripened +wood.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> + It should be said that mere size of cane +does not indicate its value as a fruit-bearing branch. +Hard, smooth wood of medium size usually gives +better results than the very large and softer canes +which are sometimes produced on soils rich in +nitrogenous manures. This large and overgrown +wood is known as a "bull cane." A cane does not +attain its full growth the first year, but will increase +in diameter during the second season. The tying +therefore, should be sufficiently loose or elastic to +allow of growth, although it should be firm enough +to hold the cane constantly in place. The cane +should not be hung from the wire, but tied close to +it, provision being made for the swelling of the +wood to twice its diameter.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i048" name="i048"></a> +<img src="images/i048.jpg" alt="i048" /> + +<p class="caption">16. HIGH RENEWAL +WITH +FOUR CANES.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i049" name="i049"></a> +<img src="images/i049.jpg" alt="i049" /> + +<p class="caption">17. HIGH RENEWAL COMPLETE.—CONCORD.</p> + +</div> + +<p>The shoots are tied to the second wire soon after +they pass it, or have attained firmness enough to +allow of tying, and the same shoots are tied again +to the top wire. All the shoots do not grow with +equal rapidity, and the vineyard must be gone over +more than twice if the shoots are kept properly +tied. Perhaps four times over the vineyard will be +all that is necessary for careful summer tying. +Many vineyardists tie only once or twice, but this +neglect should be discouraged. This tying is +mostly done with green rye straw or raffia. A piece +of straw about ten inches long is used for each tie, +it usually being wrapped but once about the shoot. +The knot is made with a twist and tuck. If raffia +is used, a common string-knot is made. When the +shoots<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> + reach the top of the trellis, they are usually +allowed to take care of themselves. The Catawba +shoots stand nearly erect above the top wire and +ordinarily need no attention. The long-growing +varieties will be likely to drag the shoots upon the +ground before the close of the season. If these +tips interfere with the cultivation, they may be +clipped off with a sickle or corn-cutter, although +this practice should be delayed as long as possible +to prevent the growth of laterals (<a href="#Page_21">see page 21</a>). It +is probably better to avoid cutting entirely. Some +growers wind or tie the longest shoots upon the top +wire, as seen in <a href="#i049">fig. 17</a>. It is probably best, as a +rule, to allow the shoots to hang over naturally, and +to clip them only when they seriously interfere with +the work of the hoe and cultivator. The treatment +for slat trellises, as shown in <a href="#i052">fig. 18</a>, is the same as +on wire trellises, except that longer strings must be +used in tying.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i052" name="i052"></a> +<img src="images/i052.jpg" alt="i052" /> + +<p class="caption">18. A SLAT TRELLIS, WITH UPRIGHT TRAINING.</p> + +</div> + +<p>It is apparent that nearly or quite all the fruit +in the High Renewal is borne between the first and +second wires, at the bottom of the trellis. If the +lower wire is twenty-four or thirty inches high, this +fruit will hang at the most convenient height for +picking. The fruit trays are set upon the ground, +and both hands are free. The fruit is also protected +from the hot suns and from frost; and if the +shoots are properly tied, the clusters are not shaken +roughly by the wind. It is, of course, desirable +that all the clusters should be fully exposed to light +and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> + air, and all superfluous shoots should, therefore, +be pulled off, as already explained (<a href="#Page_21">page 21</a>). +In rare cases it may also be necessary, for this purpose, +to prune the canes which droop over from the +top of the trellis.</p> + +<p>After a few years, the old top or head of the vine +becomes more or less weak and it should be renewed +from the root. The thrifty vineyardist anticipates +this circumstance, and now and then allows a thrifty +shoot which may spring from the ground to remain. +This shoot is treated very much like a young vine, +and the head is formed during the second year +(<a href="#Page_16">page 16</a>, bottom). If it should make a strong growth +during the first year and develop stout laterals, it +may be cut back only to the lowest wire the +first fall; but in other cases, it should be cut back +to two or three buds, from one of which a strong +and permanent shoot is taken the second year. +When this new top comes into bearing, the old trunk +is cut off at the surface of the ground, or below if +possible. A top will retain its vigor for six or eight +years under ordinary treatment, and sometimes +much longer. These tops are renewed from time +to time as occasion permits or demands, and any +vineyard which has been bearing a number of years +will nearly always have a few vines in process of +renewal. The reader should not receive the impression, +however, that the life or vitality of a vine +is necessarily limited. Vines often continue to bear +for twenty years or more without renewal; but the +head<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> + after a time comes to be large and rough +and crooked, and often weakened by scars, and +better results are likely to be obtained if a new, +clean vine takes its place.</p> + +<p>The High Renewal is extensively used in the +lake region of Western New York, for all varieties. +It is particularly well adapted to Delaware, Catawba, +and other weak or short varieties. When systematically +pursued, it gives fruit of the highest excellence. +This High Renewal training, like all the +low upright systems, allows the vines to be laid +down easily in winter, which is an important consideration +in many parts of Canada and in the +colder northern states.</p> + + +<p class="pt"><i>Fan Training.</i>—A system much used a few years +ago and still sometimes seen, is one which renews +back nearly to the ground each year, and carries +the fruiting canes up in a fan-shaped manner. This +system has the advantages of dispensing with +much of the old wood, or trunk, and facilitating +laying down the vine in winter in cold climates. +On the other hand, it has the disadvantages of bearing +the fruit too low—unless the lower clusters are +removed—and making a vine of inconvenient shape +for tying. It is little used at present. <a href="#i056">Fig. 19</a> +shows a vine pruned for fan-training, although it is +by no means an ideal vine. This vine has not been +properly renewed, but bears long, crooked spurs, +from which the canes spring. One of these spurs +will be seen to extend beyond the lower wire. The +spurs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> + should be kept very short, and they should +be entirely removed every two or three years, as +explained in the above discussion of the High Renewal +training.</p> + +<p>The shoots are allowed to take their natural +course, being tied to any wire near which they +chance to grow, finally lopping over the top wire. +Sometimes the canes are bent down and tied horizontally +to the wires, and this is probably the better +practice. Two canes may be tied in each direction +on the lower wire, or the two inner canes may be +tied down to the second wire. In either case, the +vine is essentially like the High Renewal, except +that the trunk is shorter.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i056" name="i056"></a> +<img src="images/i056.jpg" alt="i056" /> + +<p class="caption">19. FAN TRAINING, AFTER PRUNING.</p> + +</div> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2> + +<p class="center small pt">THE DROOPING SYSTEMS.</p> + + +<p>In 1845 William T. Cornell planted a vineyard +in the Hudson River Valley. A neighbor, William +Kniffin, was a stone mason with a few acres of land +to which he devoted his attention during the leisure +seasons of his trade. Cornell induced Kniffin to +plant a few grapes. He planted the Isabella, and +succeeding beyond his expectations, the plantation +was increased into a respectable vineyard and +Kniffin came to be regarded as a local authority +upon grape culture. Those were the pioneer days +in commercial grape growing in North America, +and there were no undisputed maxims of cultivation +and training. If any system of close training and +pruning was employed, it was probably the old horizontal +arm spur system, or something like it. One +day a large limb broke from an apple-tree and fell +upon a grape-vine, tearing off some of the canes +and crushing the vine into a singular shape. The +vine was thought to be ruined, but it was left until +the fruit could be gathered. But as the fruit matured, +its large size and handsome appearance attracted +attention. It was the best fruit in the vineyard! +Mr. Kniffin was an observant man, and he +inquired<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> + into the cause of the excellent fruit. He +noticed that the vine had been pruned and that the +best canes stood out horizontally. From this suggestion +he developed the four-cane system of training +which now bears his name. A year or two later, +in 1854, the system had attracted the attention of +those of his neighbors who cultivated grapes, and +thereafter it spread throughout the Hudson valley, +where it is to-day, with various modifications, +the chief method of grape training. Its merits +have become known beyond its original valley, and +it is now spreading more rapidly than any other +system. The ground upon which the old Isabellas +grew<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> + is now occupied by Concords, which are as +vigorous and productive as those grown upon newer +soils. William Kniffin died at his home in Clintondale, +Ulster county, New York, June 13, 1876, at +fifty-seven years of age. The portrait is from a +photograph which was taken two or three years +before his death.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i058" name="i058"></a> +<img src="images/i058.jpg" alt="i058" /> + +<p class="caption">20. <span class="smcap">William Kniffin.</span></p> + +</div> + + +<p class="pt"><i>The True or Four-Cane Kniffin System.</i>—<a href="#i060">Figure 21</a> +shows the true Kniffin system, very nearly as +practiced by its originator. A single stem or trunk +is carried directly to the top wire, and two canes are +taken out from side spurs at each wire. Mr. +Kniffin believed in short canes, and cut them +back to about six buds on both wires. But most +growers now prefer to leave the upper canes +longer than the lower ones, as seen in illustration. +The bearing shoots are allowed to hang at will, +so that no summer tying is necessary; this is the +distinguishing mark of the various Kniffin systems. +The main trunk is tied to each wire, and the canes +are tied to the wires in spring. This system possesses +the great advantage, therefore, of requiring +little labor during the busy days of the growing +season; and the vines are easily cultivated, and if +the rows are nine or ten feet apart, currants or +other bush-fruits can be grown between. The system +is especially adapted to the strong varieties of +grapes. For further comparisons of the merits of +different systems of training, the reader should consult +Chapter II.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i060" name="i060"></a> +<img src="images/i060.jpg" alt="i060" /> + +<p class="caption">21. THE TRUE KNIFFIN TRAINING.</p> + +</div> + + + +<div class="figright"><a id="i061" name="i061"></a> +<img src="images/i061.jpg" alt="i061" /> + +<p class="caption">22. NO. 21 WHEN PRUNED.</p> + +</div> + +<p>The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> + pruning of the Kniffin vine consists in +cutting off all the wood save a single cane from +each spur. <a href="#i061">Fig. 22</a> +illustrates the process. +This is the +same vine which is +shown with the full +amount of wood on +in <a href="#i060">fig. 21</a>. The +drooping shoots +shown in that illustration +bore the +grapes of 1892; and +now, in the winter of +1892-93, they are all +to be cut away, with +the horizontal old +canes from which +they grew, save only +the four canes which +hang nearest the main +trunk. <a href="#i061">Fig. 22</a> shows +the vine after it had +been pruned. It is +not obligatory that +the canes which are +left after the pruning +should be those nearest the trunk, for it may happen +that these may be weak; but, other things being +equal, these canes are preferable because their +selection<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> + keeps the old spurs short. The careful +grower will take pains to remove the weak shoots +which start from this point, in order that a strong +cane may be obtained. It is desirable that these +side spurs be removed entirely every three or four +years, a new cane being brought out again from the +main body or trunk. There is little expectation, +however, that there shall be such a complete renewal +pruning as that practiced in the High Renewal, +which we discussed in the last chapter.</p> + +<p>It will be seen that the drooping canes in <a href="#i061">fig. 22</a> +are shorter than they were originally, as shown +in <a href="#i060">fig. 21</a>. They have been cut back. The length +at which these canes shall be left is a moot point. +Much depends upon the variety, the distance between +the wires, the strength of the soil, and other +factors. Nearly all growers now agree that the +upper canes should be longer than the lower ones, +although equal canes are still used in some places. +In strong varieties, like Worden, each of the upper +canes may bear ten buds and each of the lower +ones five. This gives thirty buds to the vine. +Some growers prefer to leave twelve buds above and +only four below.</p> + +<p>These four pruned canes are generally allowed to +hang during winter, but are tied onto the wires before +the buds swell in spring. They are stretched out +horizontally and secured to the wire by one or two +ties upon each cane. The shoots which spring +from these horizontal canes stand upright or +oblique<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> + at first but they soon fall over with the +weight of foliage and fruit. If they touch the +ground, the ends may be clipped off with a sickle, +corn-cutter or scythe, although this is not always +done, and is not necessary unless the canes interfere +with cultivation. There is no summer-pinching +nor pruning, although the superfluous shoots +should be broken out, as in other systems. (<a href="#Page_23">See +page 23</a>).</p> + +<p>Only two wires are used in the true Kniffin trellis. +The end posts are usually set in holes, rather than +driven, to render them solid, and they should always +be well braced. The intermediate posts are driven, +and they usually stand between every alternate vine, +or twenty feet apart if the vines are ten feet apart—which +is a common distance for the most vigorous +varieties. For the strong-growing varieties, +the top wire is placed from five and one-half to six +feet above the ground. Five feet nine inches is a +popular height. The posts will heave sufficiently to +bring the height to six feet, although it is best to +"tap" the posts every spring with a maul in order to +drive them back and make them firm. The lower +wire is usually placed at three and one-half feet. +Delawares, if trained Kniffin, should not stand +above five feet four inches, or at most five feet six +inches. Strong vines on good soil are often put onto +the trellis the second year, although it is a commoner +practice, perhaps, to stake them the second season, +as already explained (<a href="#Page_27">page 27</a>), and put them +on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> + the wires the third season. The year following +the tying to the trellis, the vine should bear a +partial crop. The vine is usually carried directly to +the top wire the first season of training, although +it is the practice of some growers, especially outside +the Hudson valley, to stop the trunk at the +lower wire the first year of permanent training, and +to carry it to the top wire the following year.</p> + +<p>Yields from good Kniffin vines will average fully +as high and perhaps higher than from other species +of training. W. D. Barns, of Orange county, New +York, has had an annual average of twenty-six +pounds of Concords to the vine for nine years, 1,550 +vines being considered in the calculation. While +the Delaware is not so well suited to the Kniffin +system as stronger varieties, it can nevertheless be +trained in this manner with success, as the following +average yields obtained by Mr. Barns from 200 +vines set in 1881 will show:</p> + +<table class="small" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="yield"> + +<tr> +<td class="tdldate">1886</td> +<td class="tdr rpad">8½</td> +<td class="center">pounds</td> +<td class="center">to</td> +<td class="center">the</td> +<td class="center">vine.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdldate">1887</td> +<td class="tdr rpad">11¾</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdldate">1888</td> +<td class="tdr rpad">8 </td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdldate">1889</td> +<td class="tdr rpad">9½</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdldate">1890</td> +<td class="tdr rpad">7 </td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdldate">1891</td> +<td class="tdr rpad">16 </td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdldate">1892</td> +<td class="tdr rpad">13 </td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +<td class="center">"</td> +</tr> + + +</table> + + +<p class="pt"><i>Modifications of the Four-Cane Kniffin.</i>—Various +modifications of this original four-cane Kniffin are +in use. The Kniffin idea is often carelessly applied +to a rack trellis. In such cases, several +canes were allowed to grow where only two should +have been left. <a href="#i065">Fig. 23</a> is a common but poor style +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> + Kniffin used in some of the large new vineyards +of western New York. It differs from the type in +the training of the young wood. These shoots, +instead of being allowed to hang at will, are carried +out horizontally and either tied to the wire or +twisted around it. The advantage urged for this +modification is the little injury done by wind, but, +as a matter of practice, it affords less protection +than the true drooping Kniffin, for in the latter the +shoots<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> + from the upper cane soon cling to the lower +wire, and the shoots from both tiers of canes protect +each other below the lower wire. There are +three serious disadvantages to this holding up of +the shoots,—it makes unnecessary labor, the canes +are likely to make wood or "bull canes" (<a href="#Page_50">see +page 50</a>) at the expense of fruit, and the fruit is +bunched together on the vines.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i065" name="i065"></a> +<img src="images/i065.jpg" alt="i065" /> + +<p class="caption">23. A POOR TYPE OF KNIFFIN.</p> + +</div> + + +<p>Another common modification of the four-cane +Kniffin is that shown in <a href="#i066">fig. 24</a>, in which a crotch or Y +is made in the trunk. This crotch is used in the belief +that the necessary sap supply is thereby more readily +deflected into the lower arms than by the system +of side spurring on a straight or continuous trunk. +This is probably a fallacy, and may have arisen +from the attempt to grow as heavy canes on the +lower wire as on the upper one. Nevertheless, this +modification is in common use in western New +York and elsewhere.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i066" name="i066"></a> +<img src="images/i066.jpg" alt="i066" /> + +<p class="caption">24. THE Y-TRUNK KNIFFIN.</p> + +</div> + +<p>If it is desired to leave an equal number of buds +on both wires, the Double Kniffin will probably be +found most satisfactory. Two distinct trunks are +brought from the root, each supplying a single wire +only. The trunks are tied together to hold them in +place. This system, under the name of Improved +Kniffin, is just coming into notice in restricted portions +of the Hudson valley.</p> + + +<p class="pt"><i>The Two-Cane Kniffin, or Umbrella System.</i>—Inasmuch +as the greater part of the fruit in the Four-Cane +Kniffin is born upon the upper wire, the question +arises<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> + if it would not be better to dispense with +the lower canes and cut the upper ones longer. +This is now done to a considerable extent, especially +in the Hudson valley. <a href="#i068">Fig. 25</a> explains the +operation. This shows a pruned vine. The trunk +is tied to the lower wire to steady it, and two canes, +each bearing from nine to fifteen buds, are left upon +the upper wire. These canes are tied to the upper +wire and they are then bent down, hoop-like, to the +lower wire, where the ends are tied. In some instances, +the lower wire is dispensed with, but this +is not advisable. This wire holds the vine in place +against the winds and prevents the too violent +whipping of the hanging shoots. During the growing +season, renewal canes are taken from the spurs +in exactly the same manner as in the ordinary Kniffin. +This species of training reduces the amount of +leaf-surface to a minimum, and every precaution +must be taken to insure a healthy leaf-growth. This +system<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> + of training will probably not allow of the +successful girdling of the vine for the purpose of +hastening the maturity and augmenting the size of +the fruit. Yet heavy crops can be obtained from +it, if liberal fertilizing and good cultivation are employed, +and the fruit is nearly always first-class. A +Concord vine trained in this manner produced in +1892 eighty clusters of first quality grapes, weighing +forty pounds.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i068" name="i068"></a> +<img src="images/i068.jpg" alt="i068" /> + +<p class="caption">25. UMBRELLA TRAINING.</p> + +</div> + +<p>Another type of Umbrella training is shown in +<a href="#i069">fig. 26</a>, before pruning. Here five main canes were +allowed to grow, instead of two. Except in very +strong vines, this top is too heavy, and it is probably +never so good as the other (<a href="#i068">fig. 25</a>), if the highest +results are desired; but for the grower who does +not care to insure high cultivation it is probably a +safer system than the other.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i069" name="i069"></a> +<img src="images/i069.jpg" alt="i069" /> + +<p class="caption">26. A POOR UMBRELLA SYSTEM.</p> + +</div> + + +<p class="pt"><i>The Low, or One-Wire Kniffin.</i>—A modification +of this Umbrella system is sometimes used, in which +the trellis is only three or four feet high and comprises +but a single wire. A cane of ten or a dozen +buds is tied out in each direction, and the shoots are +allowed to hang in essentially the same manner as +in the True or High Kniffin system. The advantages +urged for this system are the protection of the +grapes from wind, the large size of the fruit due to +the small amount of bearing wood, the ease of laying +down the vines, the readiness with which the +top can be renewed from the root as occasion demands, +and the cheapness of the trellis.</p> + + +<p class="pt pb"><i>The Six-Cane Kniffin.</i>—<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +There are many old vineyards +in eastern New York which are trained upon +a six-cane or three-wire system. The general pruning +and management of these vines do not differ +from that of the common Kniffin. Very strong varieties +which can carry an abundance of wood, +may be profitable upon this style of training, but +it cannot be recommended. A Concord vineyard +over thirty years old, comprising 295 vines, trained +in this fashion, is still thrifty and productive. +Twice it has produced crops of six tons.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i071" name="i071"></a> +<img src="images/i071.jpg" alt="i071" /> + +<p class="caption">27. EIGHT-CANE KNIFFIN. (Diagram.)</p> + +</div> + + +<p class="pb"><i>Eight-Cane Kniffin.</i>—Eight and even ten canes +are sometimes left upon a single trunk, and are +trained out horizontally or somewhat obliquely, as +shown in the accompanying diagram (<a href="#i071">fig. 27</a>). +Unless these canes are cut back to four or five buds +each, the vine carries too much wood and fruit. +This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> + system allows of close planting, but the trellis +is too expensive. The trunk soon becomes overgrown +with spurs, and it is likely to become prematurely +weak. This style is very rarely used.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i072" name="i072"></a> +<img src="images/i072.jpg" alt="i072" /> + +<p class="caption">28. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i073" name="i073"></a> +<img src="images/i073.jpg" alt="i073" /> + +<p class="caption">29. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN.</p> + +</div> + + +<p><i>Overhead, or Arbor Kniffin.</i>—A curious modification +of the Kniffin is employed somewhat on the +Hudson, particularly by Sands Haviland at Marlboro'. +The vines are carried up on a kind of overhead +arbor, as shown in figs. <a href="#i072">28</a>, <a href="#i073">29</a> and <a href="#i074">30</a>. The +trellis is six feet above the ground, and is composed +of three horizontal wires lying in the same plane. +The central wire runs from post to post, and one +upon either side is attached to the end of a three-foot +cross-bar, as represented in <a href="#i072">fig. 28</a>. The rows +are nine feet apart, and the vines and posts twelve +feet apart in the row. Contiguous rows are braced +by a connecting-pole, as in <a href="#i073">fig. 29</a>. The trunk of +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> + vine ends in a T-shaped head, which is well +displayed in the vine at the extreme right in the +foreground in <a href="#i074">fig. 30</a>. From this T-head, five canes +are carried out from spurs. It was formerly the +practice to carry out six canes, one in each direction +upon each wire, but this was found to supply +too much wood. Now two canes are carried in one +direction and three in the other; and the positions +of these sets are alternated each year, if possible. +The canes which are left after the winter pruning +are tied along the wires in spring, as in the Kniffin, +and the shoots hang over the wires. The chief +advantage of this training is that it allows of the +growing of bush-fruits between the rows, as seen in +<a href="#i073">fig. 29</a>. It is also said that the clusters hang so +free that the bloom is not injured by the twigs or +leaves, and the fruit is protected from sun and frost. +Every post must be large and firmly set, however, +adding much to the cost of the trellis. Several +styles similar to this are in use, one of the best being +the Crittenden system, of Michigan. In this +system, the trellis is low, not exceeding four or five +feet, and the vines cover a flat-topped platform two +or three feet wide.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i074" name="i074"></a> +<img src="images/i074.jpg" alt="i074" /> + +<p class="caption">30. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN, BEFORE PRUNING.</p> + +</div> + + +<p class="pt"><i>The Cross-Wire System.</i>—Another high Kniffin +training, and which is also confined to the vicinity +of Marlboro', New York, is the Cross-Wire, represented +in figs. <a href="#i076">31</a> and <a href="#i077">32</a>. Small posts are set eight +feet apart each way, and a single wire runs from the +top of post to post—six and one-half feet from the +ground—in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> + each direction, forming a check-row +system of overhead wires. The grape-vine is set at +the foot of the stake, to which the trunk is tied for +support. Four canes are taken from spurs on the +head of the trunk, one for each of the radiating +wires. These canes are cut to three and one-half or +four feet in length, and the bearing shoots droop as +they grow. <a href="#i076">Fig. 31</a> shows this training as it appears +some time after the leaves start in spring. Later in +the season the whole vineyard becomes a great arbor, +and a person standing at a distance sees an almost +impenetrable mass of herbage, as in <a href="#i077">fig. 32</a>. This +system appears to have little merit, and will always +remain local in application. It possesses the advantage +of economy in construction of the trellis, +for very slender posts are used, even at the ends of +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> + rows. The end posts are either braced by a +pole or anchored by a wire taken from the top and +secured to a stake or stone eight or ten feet beyond, +outside the vineyard.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i076" name="i076"></a> +<img src="images/i076.jpg" alt="i076" /> + +<p class="caption">31. CROSS-WIRE TRAINING.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i077" name="i077"></a> +<img src="images/i077.jpg" alt="i077" /> + +<p class="caption">32. CROSS-WIRE TRAINING. OUTSIDE VIEW.</p> + +</div> + + +<p class="pt"><i>Renewal Kniffin.</i>—It is an easy matter to adapt +the Kniffin principle of free hanging shoots to a +true renewal method of pruning. There are a few +modifications in use in which the wood is annually +renewed to near the ground. The trellises comprise +either two or three wires, and are made in the +same manner as for the upright systems, as the +High Renewal. At the annual pruning only one +cane is left. This comprises twelve or fifteen buds, +and is tied up diagonally across the trellis, the point +or end of the cane usually being bent downward +somewhat, in order to check the strong growth from +the uppermost parts. The shoots hang from this +cane, and they may be pinched back when they +reach the ground. In the meantime a strong shoot +is taken out from the opposite side of the head—which +usually stands a foot or less from the ground—to +make the bearing wood of the next year; and this +new cane will be tied in an opposite direction on the +trellis from the present bearing cane, and the next +renewal shoot will be taken from the other side of +the head, or the side from which the present bearing +wood sprung; so that the bearing top of the vine +is alternated in either direction upon the trellis. +This system, and similar ones, allow of laying down +the vines easily in winter, and insure excellent fruit +because<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> + the amount of bearing wood is small; but +the crop is not large enough to satisfy most demands.</p> + + +<p class="pt"><i>The Munson System.</i>—An unique system of training, +upon the Kniffin principle, has been devised by +T. V. Munson, of Denison, +Texas, a well-known authority +upon grapes. Two +posts are set in the same +hole, their tops diverging. +A wire is stretched along the +top of these posts and a third +one is hung between them +on cross-wires. The trunk +of the vine, or its head, is +secured to this middle lower +wire and the shoots lop over +the side wires. The growth, +therefore, makes a V-shaped +or trough-like mass of herbage. +<a href="#i079">Fig. 33</a> is an end view +of this trellis, showing the +short wire connecting the +posts and which also holds the +middle trellis-wire at the point of the V. <a href="#i080">Fig. 34</a> is a +side view of the trellis. The bearing canes, two or +four, in number, which are left after the annual pruning, +are tied along this middle wire. The main trunk +forks just under the middle wire, as seen at the left +in <a href="#i080">fig. 34</a>. A head is formed at this place not unlike +like<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> + that which characterizes the High Renewal, for +this system also employs renewal pruning. The +trellis stands six feet high. The shoots stand upright +at first, but soon fall down and are supported by +the side wires. The following account of this system +of training is written for this occasion by Mr. Munson:</p> + +<p>"After the vines have flowered, the bearing +laterals have their tips pinched off, and that is all +the summer pruning the vine gets, except to rub off +all eyes that start on the body below the crotch. +Two to four shoots, according to strength of vine, +are started from the forks or crotch and allowed to +bear no fruit, but are trained along over the lower central +wire for renewal canes. When pruning time arrives, +the entire bearing cane of the present year, with +all its laterals, is cut away at a point near where the +young renewal shoots have started, and these shoots +are shortened back, according to strength of vine; +some, such as Herbemont, being able at four years +to fill four shoots six or eight feet long with fine +fruit, while Delaware could not well carry over three +or four feet each way of one shoot only. The +different varieties are set at various distances apart, +according as they are strong or weak growers.</p> + +<div class="figright"><a id="i079" name="i079"></a> +<img src="images/i079.jpg" alt="i079" /> + +<p class="caption">33. MUNSON TRAINING. +END VIEW.</p> + +</div> + +<p>"Thus the trellis and system of pruning are reduced +to the simplest form. A few cuts to each +vine cover all the pruning, and a few ties complete +the task. A novice can soon learn to do the work +well. The trunk or main stem is secured to the +middle lower wire, along which all bearing canes +are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> + tied after pruning, and from which the young +laterals which produce the crop are to spring. +These laterals strike the two outer wires, soon +clinging to them with their tendrils, and are safe +from destruction, while the fruit is thrown in the +best possible position for spraying and gathering, +and is still shaded with the canopy of leaves. I +have now used this trellis five years upon ten acres +of mixed vines, and I am more pleased with it every +year.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i080" name="i080"></a> +<img src="images/i080.jpg" alt="i080" /> + +<p class="caption">34. MUNSON TRAINING. SIDE VIEW.</p> + +</div> + +<p>"The following advantages are secured by this +system:</p> + +<p>"1. The natural habit of the vine is maintained, +which is a canopy to shade the roots and body of +vine and the fruit, without smothering.</p> + +<p>"2. New wood, formed by sap which has never +passed through bearing wood, is secured for the +next crop—a very important matter.</p> + +<p>"3. Simplicity and convenience of trellis, +allowing free passage in any direction through the +vineyard; circulation of air without danger of breaking +tender shoots; ease of pruning, spraying, cultivation, +harvesting.</p> + +<p>"4. Perfect control in pruning of amount of crop +to suit capacity of vine.</p> + +<p>"5. Long canes for bearing, which agrees exactly +with the nature of nearly all our American +species far better than short spurs.</p> + +<p>"6. Ease of laying down in winter. The vine +being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> + pruned and not tied, standing away from +posts, can be bent down to one side between the +rows, and earth thrown upon it, and can be quickly +raised and tied in position.</p> + +<p>"7. Cheapness of construction and ease of removing +trellis material and using it again.</p> + +<p>"8. Durability of both trellis and vineyard."</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i083" name="i083"></a> +<img src="images/i083.jpg" alt="i083" /> + + +</div> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2> + +<p class="center small pt">MISCELLANEOUS SYSTEMS.</p> + + +<p class="pt"><i>Horizontal Training.</i>—There are very few types +of horizontal shoot training now in use. The best +is probably that shown in <a href="#i084">fig. 35</a>. This particular +vine is a Delaware, to which this training is well +adapted. It will be noticed that this picture represents +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> + end of a trellis, and the diagonal stick +seen near the ground is a brace for the end post. +Two wires run from post to post, one about two +and one-half feet above the ground and the other +five and one-half feet high. The posts are set at +the ordinary distance of 16 or 18 feet apart. The +vines are set six or eight feet apart, if Delawares. +A strong stake is driven in the ground behind each +vine, standing as high as the top of the trellis +when set. The permanent trunk or head of the +vine stands about a foot high. The vine is renewed +back to the top of this trunk every year. +One cane is left at each pruning, which, when tied +up to the stake, is as high as the trellis. From +this perpendicular cane, the bearing shoots are carried +out horizontally. About six of these shoots are +allowed to grow upon either side of the cane. As +the shoots grow, they are tied to perpendicular +slats which are fastened on the wires. These slats +do not touch the ground. Two slats are provided +upon either side, making four to a vine. They stand +a foot or fifteen inches apart. The clusters hang +free from the horizontal shoots. If the shoots +grow too long, they are pinched in when they have +passed the second slat. While these shoots are +covering the trellis, another shoot is taken out +from the head or trunk of the vine and, without +being allowed to fruit, is tied up along the central +stake. This shoot is to form the top next year, +for all the present vine is to be entirely cut away +at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> + the winter's pruning. So the vine starts every +spring with but a single cane.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i084" name="i084"></a> +<img src="images/i084.jpg" alt="i084" /> + +<p class="caption">35. HORIZONTAL TRAINING.</p> + +</div> + +<p>Excellent results are obtained from the slender +growing varieties by this method of training, but +it is too expensive in trellis and in labor of tying to +make it generally practicable. Delaware, however, +thrives remarkably well when trained in this +fashion.</p> + + +<p class="pt"><i>Post Training.</i>—There are various methods of +training to posts, all of which possess two advantages—the +saving of the expense of trellis and allowing +of cultivation both ways. But they also +have grave disadvantages, especially in the thickness +of the head of foliage which harbors rot and +mildew and prevents successful spraying, and +hinders the fruit from coloring and ripening well. +These faults are so serious that post training is +now little used for the American grapes. The +saving in cost of trellis is not great, for more posts +are required to the acre than in the trellis systems, +and they do not endure long when standing +alone with the whole weight of the vines thrown +upon them.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i087" name="i087"></a> +<img src="images/i087.jpg" alt="i087" /> + +<p class="caption">36. LOW POST TRAINING.</p> + +</div> + +<p>There are various methods of pruning for the +stake training, but nearly all of them agree in +pruning to side spurs upon a permanent upright +arm which stands the full height of the vine. +There may be one or two sets of these spurs. We +might suppose the Kniffin vine, shown in <a href="#i061">fig. 22</a>, +to be tied to a post instead of stretched on a trellis; +in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> + that event, the four canes would hang at +will, or they might be wrapped about the post, the +shoots hanging out unsupported in all directions. +The post systems are essentially Kniffin in principle, +for the shoots hang free. In low styles of +post training, the permanent head of the vine may +be only three or four feet high. This head will +have a ring of spurs on it, and at the annual pruning +three to five canes with from six to ten buds +each are left. <a href="#i087">Fig. 36</a> is a view in such a post +vineyard.</p> + +<p>The main trunk is usually tied permanently to +the post. The canes left after pruning are variously +disposed. Sometimes they are bent upwards +and tied to the post above the head of the +vine, but they are oftenest either wound loosely +about the post, or are allowed to hang loose. Two +trunks are frequently used to each post, both coming +from the ground from a common root. These +are wound about the post in opposite directions, +one outside the other, and if the outside one is secured +at the top by a small nail driven through it, +or by a cord, no other tying will be necessary. +Sometimes two or three posts are set at distances +of one foot or more apart, and the vines are +wrapped about them, but this only augments the +size and depth of the mass of foliage. Now and +then one sees a careful post training, in which but +little wood is left and vigorous breaking out of +shoots practiced, which gives excellent results; +but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> + on the whole, it cannot be recommended. The +European post and stake systems or modifications +of them, are yet occasionally recommended for +American vines, but under general conditions, especially +in commercial grape growing, they rarely +succeed long. One of the latest recommendations +of any of these types is that of the single pole system +of the Upper Rhine Valley, by A. F. Hofer, of +Iowa, in a little treatise published in 1878.</p> + + +<p class="pt"><i>Arbors.</i>—Arbors and bowers are usually formed +with little reference to pruning and training. The +first object is to secure shade and seclusion, and +these are conditions which may seriously interfere +with the production of fine grapes. As a rule, too +much wood must be allowed to grow, and the soil +about arbors is rarely ever cultivated. Still, fair results +in fruit can be obtained if the operator makes +a diligent use of the pruning shears. It is usually +best to carry one main or permanent trunk up to +the top or center of the arbor. Along this trunk +at intervals of two feet or less, spurs may be left +to which the wood is renewed each year. If the +vines stand six feet apart about the arbor—which +is a satisfactory distance—one cane three feet long +may be left on each spur when the pruning is done. +The shoots which spring from these canes will +soon cover up the intermediate spaces. At the +close of the season, this entire cane with its laterals +is cut away at the spur, and another three-foot +cane—which grew during the season—is left +in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> + its place. This pruning is essentially that of +the Kniffin vine in <a href="#i061">fig. 22</a>. Imagine this vine, +with as many joints or tiers as necessary, laid upon +the arbor. The canes are tied out horizontally to +the slats instead of being tied on wires. This same +system—running up a long trunk and cutting in to +side spurs—will apply equally well to tall walls and +fences which it is desired to cover. Undoubtedly +a better plan, so far as yield and quality of fruit +is concerned, is to renew back nearly to the root, +bringing up a strong new cane, or perhaps two or +three every year, and cutting the old ones off; but +as the vines are desired for shade one does not +care to wait until midsummer for the vines to reach +and cover the top of the arbor.</p> + + +<p class="pt"><i>Remodeling Old Vines.</i>—Old and neglected tops +can rarely be remodeled to advantage. If the vine +is still vigorous, it will probably pay to grow an entirely +new top by taking out a cane from the root. +If the old top is cut back severely for a year or +two, this new cane will make a vigorous growth, +and it can be treated essentially like a new or +young vine. If it is very strong and ripens up +well, it can be left long enough the first fall to +make the permanent trunk; but if it is rather +weak and soft, it should be cut back in the fall or +winter to two or three buds, from one of which the +permanent trunk is to be grown the second season. +Thereafter, the instructions which are given in the +preceding pages for the various systems, will apply +to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> + the new vine. The old trunk should be cut +away as soon as the new one is permanently tied +to the wires, that is, at the close of either the first +or second season of the new trunk. Care must be +exercised to rub off all sprouts which spring from +the old root or stump. If this stump can be cut +back into the ground and covered with earth, better +results may be expected. Old vines treated in +this manner often make good plants, but if the +vines are weak and the soil is poor, the trouble +will scarcely pay for itself.</p> + +<p>These old vines can be remodeled easily by means +of grafting. Cut off the trunk five or six inches +below the surface of the ground, leaving an inch or +two of straight wood above the roots. Into this +stub insert two cions exactly as for cleft-grafting +the apple. Cions of two or three buds, of firm +wood the size of a lead-pencil, should be inserted. +The top bud should stand above the ground. The +cleft will need no tying nor wax, although it is well +to place a bit of waxed cloth or other material over +the wound to keep the soil out of it. Fill the earth +tightly about it. <a href="#i092">Fig. 37</a> shows the first year's +growth from two cions of Niagara set in a Red +Wyoming root. Great care must be taken in any +pruning which is done this first year, or the cions +may be loosened. If the young shoots are tied to +a stake there will be less danger from wind and +careless workmen. In the vine shown in the illustration, +no pruning nor rubbing out was done, +but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> + the vine would have been in better shape for +training if only one or two shoots had been allowed +to grow. Such a vine as this can be carried onto +the trellis next year; or it may be cut back to three +or four buds, one of which is allowed to make the +permanent trunk next year, like a two-year set vine.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i092" name="i092"></a> +<img src="images/i092.jpg" alt="i092" /> + +<p class="caption">37. A YEARLING GRAFT.</p> + +</div> + +<p>If it is desired, however, to keep the old top, it will +be best to cut back the annual growth heavily at the +winter pruning. The amount of wood which shall +be left must be determined by the vigor of the plant +and the variety, but three or four canes of six to ten +buds each may be left at suitable places. During +the next season a strong shoot from the base of +each cane may be allowed to grow, which shall form +the wood of the following season, while all the +present cane is cut away at the end of the year. +So the bearing wood is renewed each year, as in the +regular systems of training. Much skill and experience +are often required to properly rejuvenate +an old vine; and in very many cases the vine is not +worth the trouble.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i093" name="i093"></a> +<img src="images/i093.jpg" alt="i093" /> + + + +</div> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p> +<h2><span class="smcap">Index.</span></h2> + + +<table class="small" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" summary="index"> +<tr><td> </td><td class="tdr">Page</td></tr> + + +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Adlum, quoted,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Arbor Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Arbors,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Arm, defined,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Barns, W. D., quoted,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Bass bark,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Bleeding,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Breaking-out,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Brocton, Training at,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Bull cane,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Cane, defined,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Chautauqua County, Training in,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Contraction of wires,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Cornell, William T.,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Cornhusks, for tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Crittenden training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Cross-wire training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Crotch Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Double Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Drooping systems,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Eight-cane Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Fan training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Forestville, Training at,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Four-cane Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Fuller, quoted,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Girdling,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Grafting,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Haviland, Sands,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Heading-in,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">High Renewal training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Hofer, A. F.,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Horizontal Arm training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Horizontal training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + +<td class="tdl rpad">Husks, for tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td> + +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Improved<span class="smpagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> + Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td> + +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Kniffin systems,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Kniffin training, Comparison of,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Kniffin, William,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Low Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Marlboro', Training at,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Modified Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Munson training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Munson, T. V.,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Objects of pruning,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Old vines, Remodeling of,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">One-wire Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Overhead Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Planting,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Posts,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Post training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Pruning,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Pruning, Objects of,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad"> " of young vines,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad"> " Summer,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad"> " Time for,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Raffia,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Raphia Ruffia,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Reasons for pruning,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Remodeling old vines,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Renewal, defined,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Renewal Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Rubbing off,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Rye straw for tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Sagging of wires,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Setting,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Shoot, defined,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Six-cane Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Spur, defined,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Spur training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Staples,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Stopping,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Stripping,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Summer pruning,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Superfluous shoots,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> + +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Systems<span class="smpagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> + compared,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">T-head,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Thomas' Fruit Culturist, quoted,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Tightening wires,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Trellis, Making,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">True Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Twine for tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Two-cane Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Umbrella training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Upright training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Walls, Training on,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Weeping,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Willows, for tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Wire, for trellis,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">" for tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">" weights and sizes,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Wool-twine,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Y-trunk Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Yeoman's patent trellis,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Yields of grapes,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl rpad">Young vines, Pruning of,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td> +</tr> + + +</table> + + + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i096" name="i096"></a> +<img src="images/i096.jpg" alt="i096" /> + + + +</div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i097" name="i097"></a> +<img src="images/i097.jpg" alt="i097" /> + + + +</div> + +<p class="small"><b>THIS ILLUSTRATION</b> was made from a photograph of fair samples of the different grades +of our grape vines, reduced to one-tenth their natural size.</p> + +<p class="small">We take great pride and comfort in our ability to furnish <i>strong</i>, <i>fibrous-rooted</i> stock, so +well appreciated by intelligent and experienced fruit growers.</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>WHOLESALE TRADE ESPECIALLY SOLICITED. CATALOGUE FREE.</b></p> +<p class="center big"><b>LEWIS ROESCH, FREDONIA, N. Y.</b>,</p> +<p class="center small"> +<b>Grape Vine Specialist And General Nurseryman.</b> +</p> + +<p class="smaller">When writing name this book.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + + +<table class="other" summary="ad"> +<tr> +<td class="tdl biggest"><b>Hardy</b></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl biggest"><b>Native</b></td> +<td class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/i098.jpg" alt="i098" /> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl biggest"><b>Grapes.</b></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>We desire to call the attention of planters to our +large and complete stock of Grape Vines.</p> + +<p>We propagate and offer for sale upwards of sixty +varieties, embracing the popular old sorts as well as the +new ones which seem to have merit. Our catalogue +contains accurate descriptions, and classifies the different +varieties according to color.</p> + +<p>Besides the above we offer an immense collection +of all kinds of Fruit and Ornamental Trees, Shrubs, +Roses, Hardy Plants, etc. Our General Catalogue +(160 pages), embellished with numerous engravings +of the most popular Trees, Shrubs, etc., and enclosed in +an illuminated cover, will be mailed free to all who +have not received it.</p> + +<p>Our Supplementary Catalogue (28 pages) of Rare +and Choice Trees, Shrubs, etc., including several +valuable novelties and many specialties of superior +merit, will also be mailed free.</p> + +<p class="firstind"> +ELLWANGER & BARRY,</p> + +<p class="midind">Mount Hope Nurseries,</p> + +<p class="deepind"> <span class="smcap">Rochester, N. Y.</span> +</p> + +<p class="small">53rd Year.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p class="biggest"><b>Pleasant Valley Nurseries</b></p> + +<p class="pleft small"> + +<b>PEAR TREES.</b>—Lincoln, Coreless, Bessemianka, +Japan Golden Russet, Kieffer, LeConte, etc., +Nut Trees in variety. Fruit Trees of +all sorts. Ornamentals, Eleagnus +Longipes, Japanese Wineberry +Juneberry, Trifoliate Orange +and other valued novelties.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/i099.jpg" alt="i099" /> + + + +</div> + + +<p class="pright"><b>STRAWBERRIES</b>, +Van Deman, E. P. +Roe, and other new varieties; +all the old standard +sorts, Gooseberries, Raspberries, +Blackberries, Currants, Asparagus +Roots and Grape Vines.</p> + + +<p class="bigger center"><b>J. S. COLLINS & SON, Moorestown, N. J.</b></p> + +<p class="center small">Send for Catalogue.</p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p class="biggest center"><b>MISCELLANEOUS BOOKS.</b></p> + +<p class="bigger center"><b>For the Farm and Household.</b></p> + + +<p class="smaller">Any one of these valuable books will be sent, postpaid, direct, on receipt of price.<br /> + +Be careful to write name and post office plain, so that there may be no mistake in mailing.</p> + +<p class="smaller ind"> +Address</p> +<p class="small midind pb"> +<i><b>The Rural Publishing Co., New York.</b></i> +</p> + +<p class="small cap pt"><b>POPULAR ERRORS ABOUT PLANTS.</b>—By <span class="smcap">A. A. Crozier</span>. A collection +of errors and superstitions entertained by farmers, gardeners +and others, together with brief scientific refutations. Highly interesting +to students and intelligent readers of the new and attractive in rural literature, +and of real value to practical cultivators who want to know the +truth about their work.</p> + +<p class="ind small">Price, cloth, $1.</p> + + +<p class="small cap pt"><b>THE NURSERY BOOK.</b>—By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. A complete handbook of +Propagation and Pollination of Plants. <i>Profusely illustrated.</i> This +valuable little manual has been compiled with great pains. The author +has had unusual facilities for its preparation, having been aided by many +experts. The book is absolutely devoid of theory and speculation. It has +nothing to do with plant physiology or abstruse reasoning about plant +growth. It simply tells, plainly and briefly, what every one who sows a +seed, makes a cutting, sets a graft, or crosses a flower wants to know. It +is entirely new and original in method and matter. The cuts number 107, +and are made expressly for it, direct from nature. The book treats all +kinds of cultivated plants, fruits, vegetables, greenhouse plants, hardy +herbs, ornamental trees, shrubs and forest trees.</p> + +<p class="center small"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:</p> + +<p class="small ind1 smspace"> +I.—<span class="smcap">Seedage.</span> On Propagation by Seed.</p> + +<p class="small ind05 smspace">II.—<span class="smcap">Separation.</span></p> + +<p class="small smspace">III.—<span class="smcap">Layerage.</span> Propagation by Layering.</p> + +<p class="small ind05 smspace">IV.—<span class="smcap">Cuttage.</span> Propagation by Cuttings.</p> + +<p class="small ind1 smspace">V.—<span class="smcap">Graftage.</span>—Including Grafting, Budding, Inarching, etc.<br /> +</p> +<p class="small ind05 smspace">VI.—<span class="smcap">Nursery List.</span>—This is the great feature of the book. It is an +alphabetical list of all kinds of plants, with a short statement telling which +of the operations described in the first five chapters are employed in propagating +them. <i>Over 2,000 entries</i> are made in the list. The following entries +will give an idea of the method:</p> + +<p class="small"><b>Acer</b> (<span class="smcap">Maple</span>). <i>Sapindaceæ.</i> Stocks are grown from stratified seeds, +which should be sown an inch or two deep; or some species, as <i>A. dasycarpum</i>, +come readily if seeds are sown as soon as ripe. Some cultural +varieties are layered, but better plants are obtained by grafting. Varieties +of native species are worked upon common or native stocks. The Japanese +sorts are winter-worked upon imported <i>A. polymorphum</i> stocks, either +by whip or veneer grafting. Maples can also be budded in summer, and +they grow readily from cuttings of both ripe and soft wood.</p> + +<p class="small"><b>Phyllocactus, Phyllocereus, Disocactus</b> (<span class="smcap">Leaf Cactus</span>). <i>Cacteæ.</i> +Fresh seeds grow readily. Sow in rather sandy soil which is well drained, +and apply water as for common seeds. When the seedlings appear, remove +to a light position. Cuttings from mature shoots, three to six +inches in length, root readily in sharp sand. Give a temperature of about +60°, and apply only sufficient water to keep from flagging. If the cuttings +are very juicy they may be laid on dry sand for several days before +planting.</p> + +<p class="small">VII.—<span class="smcap">Pollination.</span></p> + +<p class="small">Price, in Library Style, cloth, wide margins, $1 Pocket Style, paper, +narrow margins, 50 cents.</p> + + +<p class="small cap pt"><b>THE MODIFICATION OF PLANTS BY CLIMATE.</b>—By <span class="smcap">A. A. Crozier</span>. +An essay on the influence of climate upon size, form, color, +fruitfulness, etc., with a discussion on the question of acclimation. 35 pp.</p> + +<p class="small">Price, paper, 25 cents.</p> + + +<p class="small cap pt"><b>FRUIT CULTURE</b>, and the Laying Out and Management of a Country +Home.—By <span class="smcap">W. C. Strong</span>, Ex-President of the Massachusetts Horticultural +Society, and Vice-President of the American Pomological Society. +Illustrated. New revised edition, with many additions, making it +the latest and freshest book on the subject.</p> + +<p class="smaller center">CONTENTS:</p> + +<p class="small">Rural Homes—Choice of Locality—Treatment—A Good Lawn—The +Approach. Fruits—Location of the Fruit Garden—Success in Fruit-Culture—Profit +in Fruit-Culture. How to Procure Trees—Quality—How to +Plant—Time to Plant—Preparing the Land—Fertilizers—Cutting Back—Distances +for Planting. Care of the Fruit-Garden—Irrigation—Application +of Fertilizers—Thinning the Fruit—Labels. The Apple—Insects Injurious +to the Apple. The Pear—Dwarf Pears—Situation and Soil—Pruning—Ripening +the Fruit—Insects Injurious to the Pear—Diseases. The +Peach—Injurious Insects and Diseases of the Peach—Nectarines. The +Plum—Insects and Diseases of the Plum—Apricots. The Cherry—Insects +Injurious to the Cherry. The Quince—Insects Injurious to the +Quince. The Grape—Grape-Houses—Varieties—Insects Injurious to the +Grape—Mildew. The Currant—Insects Attacking the Currant—The Gooseberry. +The Raspberry—The Blackberry. The Strawberry. The Mulberry—The +Fig—Rhubarb—Asparagus. Propagating Fruit-Trees—From the +Seed—By Division—By Cuttings—By Layers—By Budding—By Grafting. +Insecticides—Fungicides—Recipes. Price, in one volume, 16mo., cloth, $1.</p> + + +<p class="small cap pt"><b>CHRYSANTHEMUM CULTURE FOR AMERICA.</b>—By <span class="smcap">James Morton</span>. +An excellent and thorough book; especially adapted to the +culture of Chrysanthemums in America. The contents include Propagation +by Grafting. Inarching and Seed. American History. Propagation by +Cuttings. Exhibition Plants. Classification. Exhibition Blooms. Soil for +Potting. Watering and Liquid Manure. Selection of Plants. Top-Dressing. +Hints on Exhibitions. List of Synonyms. Staking and Tying. +General Culture. Insects and Diseases. Standard Chrysanthemums. +Sports and Variations. Disbudding and Thinning. Oriental and European +History. Calendar of Monthly Operations. Chrysanthemum Shows +and Organizations. National Chrysanthemum Society. Early and Late-Flowering +Varieties. Chrysanthemums as House-Plants—Varieties for +Various Purposes. Price, cloth, $1; paper, 60 cents.</p> + + +<p class="small cap pt"><b>IMPROVING THE FARM</b>, or Methods of Culture that shall afford a +profit, and at the same time increase the fertility of the soil.—By <span class="smcap">Lucius +D. Davis</span>, of Conanicut Park Farm. The contents treat exhaustively +on renewing run-down farms, and comprise the following chapters: Book-Farming. +The Run-Down Farm. Will It Pay to Improve the Farm? +How Farms Become Exhausted. Thorough Tillage. Rotation of Crops. +Green Manuring. More About Clover. Barn-Yard Manure—How Made, +Its Cost and Value. How Prepared and Applied. The Use of Wood-Ashes. +Commercial Fertilizers. Special Fertilizers. Complete Manures. Experiments +with Fertilizers. Stock on the Farm. Providing Food for Stock. +Specialties in Farming. Price, cloth, $1.</p> + + +<p class="small cap pt"><b>LANDSCAPE-GARDENING.</b>—By <span class="smcap">Elias A. Long</span>. A practical treatise +comprising 32 diagrams of actual grounds and parts of grounds, with +copious explanations. Of the diagrams, all but nine have appeared in the +serial, "Taste and Tact in Arranging Ornamental Grounds," which +has been so attractive a feature of <i>Popular Gardening</i> and <i>American +Gardening</i> during the past year. But in the new form the matter has +been entirely rewritten. Printed on heavy plate paper, it is unsurpassed +for beauty by any other work on Landscape Gardening.</p> + +<p class="small">Price, 50 cents.</p> + + +<p class="small cap pt"><b>THE BUSINESS HEN.</b>—Breeding and Feeding Poultry for Profit. The +pat title of a unique book is The Business Hen. A condensed and, +practical little encyclopedia of profitable poultry-keeping. P. H. Jacobs, +Henry Hale, James Rankin, J. H. Drevenstedt and others equally well +known have written chapters on their specialties, the whole being skillfully +arranged and carefully edited by H. W. Collingwood, managing editor of +<i>The Rural New-Yorker</i>. Starting with the question, "What is an Egg?" +the book goes on step by step to indicate the most favorable conditions for +developing the egg into a "Business Hen." Incubation, care of chicks, +treatment of diseases, selection and breeding, feeding and housing, are +all discussed in a clear and simple manner. Two successful egg-farms are +described in detail. On one of these farms the owner has succeeded in +developing a flock of 600 hens that average over 200 eggs each per year.</p> + +<p class="small">Price, cloth, 75 cents; paper, 40 cents.</p> + + +<p class="small cap pt"><b>FIRST LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE.</b> (<i>2nd Edition, Revised and Enlarged.</i>)—By +F. A. Gulley, M. S., Professor of Agriculture in the Agricultural +College of Mississippi. This book discusses the more important +principles which underlie agriculture in a plain, simple way, within the +comprehension of students and readers who have not studied chemistry, +botany, and other branches of science related to agriculture. It supplies +a much-needed text-book for common schools, and is useful for the practical +farmer. Includes all the latest developments in agricultural science as +applied to the subject.</p> + +<p class="small">Price, cloth, $1. Special prices for Schools and Colleges.</p> + + +<p class="small cap pt"><b>THE NEW POTATO CULTURE.</b>—By <span class="smcap">Elbert S. Carman</span>. This book +gives the result of 15 years' experiment work on The Rural ground. +It treats particularly of: How to increase the crop without corresponding +cost of production. Manures and fertilizers: kinds and methods of application. +The soil, and how to put it in right condition. Depth of +planting. How much seed to plant. Methods of culture. The Rural +trench system. Varieties, etc., etc.</p> + +<p class="small">Nothing old or worn-out about this book. It treats of new and profitable +methods; in fact, of <i>The NEW Potato Culture</i>. It is respectfully submitted +that these experiments at The Rural grounds have, directly and +indirectly, thrown more light upon the various problems involved in successful +potato-culture than any other experiments that have been carried +on in America.</p> + +<p class="small">Price, cloth, 75 cents; paper, 40 cents.</p> + + +<p class="small cap pt"><b>HORTICULTURIST'S RULE-BOOK.</b>—By Professor <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>, +Editor of <i>American Gardening</i>, Horticulturist of the Cornell Experiment +Station, and Professor of Horticulture in Cornell University. It +contains in handy and concise form, a great number of Rules and Recipes +required by gardeners, fruit-growers, truckers, florists, farmers, etc.</p> + +<p class="small">Synopsis of Contents: Injurious insects, with preventives and remedies. +Fungicides for plant diseases. Plant diseases, with preventives and +remedies. Injuries from mice, rabbits, birds, etc., with preventives and +remedies. Waxes and washes for grafting and for wounds. Cements, +paints, etc. <i>Seed Tables</i>: Quantities required for sowing given areas. +Weight and size of seeds. Longevity of seeds. Time required for seeds +to germinate. <i>Planting Tables</i>: Dates for sowing seeds in different latitudes. +Tender and hardy vegetables. Distances apart for planting. <i>Maturity +and Yields</i>: Time required for maturity of vegetables; for bearing of +fruit plants. Average yields of crops. Keeping and storing fruits and vegetables. +<i>Propagation of Plants</i>: Ways of grafting and budding. Methods +by which fruits are propagated. Stocks used for fruits. <i>Standard +Measures and Sizes</i>: Standard flower-pots. Standard and legal measures. +English measures for sale of fruits and vegetables. Quantities of +water held in pipes and tanks. Effect of wind in cooling off glass roofs. +Per cent. of light reflected from glass at various angles of inclination. +Weights of various varieties of apples per bushel. Amount of various products +yielded by given quantities of fruit. Labels. Loudon's rules of +horticulture. Rules of nomenclature. Rules for exhibition. Weather signs +and protection from frost. <i>Collecting and Preserving</i>: How to make +an herbarium. Preserving and printing of flowers and other parts of +plants. Keeping cut-flowers. How to collect and preserve insects. Chemical +composition of fruits and vegetables, and seeds, fertilizers, soils and +vegetables. <i>Names and Histories</i>: Vegetables which have different names +in England and America. Derivation of names of various fruits and vegetables. +Names of fruits and vegetables in various languages. Glossary. +Calendar.</p> + +<p class="small">Price, cloth, $1; paper, 60 cents.</p> + +<p class="small cap pt"><b>CROSS-BREEDING AND HYBRIDIZING</b>:—The Philosophy of the +Crossing of Plants considered with reference to their Cultivation—How +to Improve plants by Hybridizing.—By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. It is the only +book accessible to American horticulture which gives the reasons, discouragements, +possibilities and limitations of Cross-Breeding. Every man +who owns a plant should have it, if for no other reason than to post himself +upon one of the leading practices of the day. The pamphlet contains +also a bibliography of the subject, including over 400 entries.</p> + +<p class="small">Price, paper, 40 cents.</p> + +<p class="small cap pt"><b>CHEMICALS AND CLOVER.</b>—By <span class="smcap">H. W. Collingwood</span>, Managing Editor +of <i>The Rural New-Yorker</i>. A concise and practical discussion of +the all-important topic of commercial fertilizers in connection with green +manuring in bringing up worn-out soils, and in general farm practice.</p> + +<p class="small">Price, paper, 20 cents.</p> + + +<p class="small cap pt"><b>ANNALS OF HORTICULTURE, Vol. IV.</b>—Bright, New, Clean and +Fresh. These Annals are entirely rewritten every year. They are +the <i>only records</i> of the progress in horticulture. Exhaustive lists of all +the plants introduced in 1892, with descriptions, directories, full accounts +of all new discoveries, new tools, and a wealth of practical matter for <i>Gardeners</i>, +<i>Fruit-Growers</i>, <i>Florists</i>, <i>Vegetable-Gardeners and Landscape-Gardeners</i>, +comprise its contents.</p> + +<p class="small">Ready soon. Illustrated. Vol. IV., cloth $1. Vols. I., II. and III. at +the same price.</p> + +<p class="small cap pt"><b>INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES.</b>—A practical Manual concerning Noxious +Insects and the Methods of Preventing their Injuries. By <span class="smcap">Clarence +M. Weed</span>, Professor of Entomology and Zoölogy, New Hampshire +State College.</p> + +<p class="small">I think that you have gotten together a very useful and valuable little +book.—<span class="smcap">Dr. C. V. Riley</span>, <i>U.S. Entomologist</i>.</p> + +<p>It is excellent. I must congratulate you on the skill you have displayed +in putting in the most important insects, and the complete manner +in which you have done the work.—<span class="smcap">James Fletcher</span>, <i>Dominion Entomologist</i>.</p> + +<p class="small">I am well pleased with it. There is certainly a demand for just such a +work.—<span class="smcap">Dr. F. M. Hexamer</span>, <i>Editor American Agriculturist</i>.</p> + +<p class="small">Price, cloth, $1.25.</p> + +<p class="small cap pt"><b>THE CAULIFLOWER.</b>—<span class="smcap">By A. A. Crozier</span>. Teacher and Practical +Origin and History of this increasingly important and always delicious +vegetable.</p> + +<p class="small">The Cauliflower Industry.—In Europe. In the United States. Importation +of Cauliflowers.</p> + +<p class="small">Management of the Crop.—Soil. Fertilizers. Planting. Cultivating. +Harvesting. Keeping. Marketing.</p> + +<p class="small">The Early Crop.—Caution against planting it largely. Special directions. +Buttoning.</p> + +<p class="small">Cauliflower Regions of the United States.—Upper Atlantic Coast. Lake +Region. Prairie Region. Cauliflowers in the South. The Pacific Coast.</p> + +<p class="small">Insect and Fungous Enemies.—Flea-beetle. Cut-worms. Cabbage-maggot. +Cabbage-worm. Stem-rot. Damping-off. Black-leg.</p> + +<p class="small">Cauliflower Seed.—Importance of careful selection. Where the seed +is grown. Influence of climate. American-grown seed.</p> + +<p class="small">Varieties.—Descriptive catalogue. Order of earliness. Variety tests. +Best varieties.</p> + +<p class="small">Broccoli.—Difference between Broccoli and Cauliflower. Cultivation, +use and varieties of Broccoli.</p> + +<p class="small">Cooking Cauliflower.—Digestibility. Nutritive value. Chemical +composition. Recipes.</p> + +<p class="small">Price, cloth, $1.</p> + + +<p class="small cap pt"><b>PRACTICAL FARM CHEMISTRY.</b>—A Practical Handbook of Profitable +Crop-Feeding, written for Practical Men. By <span class="smcap">T. Greiner</span>.</p> + +<p class="small ind smspace">Part I. The Raw Materials of Plant-Food.</p> + +<p class="small ind smspace">Part II. The Available Sources of Supply.</p> + +<p class="small ind smspace">Part III. Principles of Economic Application, or Manuring for Money.</p> + +<p class="small">This work, written in plainest language, is intended to assist the farmer +in the selection, purchase and application of plant-foods. If you wish to +learn ways how to save money in procuring manurial substances, and how +to make money by their proper use, read this book. If you want your +boy to learn the principle of crop-feeding, and become a successful farmer, +give him a copy of this book. The cost of the book will be returned a hundred-fold +to every reader who peruses its pages with care and applies its +teachings to practice.</p> + +<p class="small">Price, cloth, $1.</p> + +<p class="small cap pt"><b>SPRAYING CROPS.</b>—Why, When and How to Do It.—By <span class="smcap">Prof. Clarence +M. Weed</span>. A handy volume of about 100 pages; illustrated. +Covers the whole field of the insect and fungous enemies of crops for which +the spray is used. The following topics are discussed in a concise, practical +manner:</p> + +<p class="small">Spraying Against Insects. Feeding Habits of Insects. Spraying Against +Fungous Diseases. The Philosophy of Spraying. Spraying Apparatus. +Spraying Trees in Blossom. Precautions in Spraying. Insecticides used +in Spraying. Fungicides used in Spraying. Combining Insecticides +and Fungicides. Cost of Spraying Materials. Prejudice Against Spraying. +Spraying the Larger Fruits. Spraying Small Fruits and Nursery +Stock. Spraying Shade Trees, Ornamental Plants and Flowers. Spraying +Vegetables, Field Crops and Domestic Animals.</p> + +<p class="small">Price in stiff paper cover, 50 cents; flexible cloth, 75 cents.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<div class="notes"> +<p>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:</p> + +<p>Illustrations have been moved to the nearest appropriate paragraph break. +Some page numbers are missing as a result of moving full-page illustrations.</p> + +<p>Inconsistencies in the author's spelling and use of punctuation are +unchanged in this e-text.</p> + +<p>Obvious typographical and printer errors have been corrected without +comment.</p> + +<p>In addition to obvious errors, the following changes have been made:</p> + +<blockquote><p>1. On page 87: "arguments" was changed to "augments" in the phrase, +"... this only augments the size and depth...."</p> + +<p>2. On page 90: "side" was changed to "size" in the phrase, +"... wood the size of a lead-pencil...."</p></blockquote> +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of American Grape Training, by +Liberty Hyde (L.H.) 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