initial commit of ebook 39791HEADmain

1 files changed, 6283 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/39791.txt b/39791.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2111e67
--- /dev/null
+++ b/39791.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,6283 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Farm Mechanics, by Herbert A. Shearer
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Farm Mechanics
+       Machinery and its Use to Save Hand Labor on the Farm.
+
+Author: Herbert A. Shearer
+
+Release Date: May 25, 2012 [EBook #39791]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FARM MECHANICS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry LamA(C) and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                      TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES                           |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | Words printed in italics in the original work are represented here |
+  | between underscores, as in _text_. Words originally printed in bold|
+  | face are represented as =text=, words in small capitals as ALL     |
+  | CAPITALS.                                                          |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | Further Transcriber's Notes may be found at the end of this text.  |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+  FARM MECHANICS
+
+  MACHINERY AND ITS USE TO SAVE
+  HAND LABOR ON THE FARM
+
+  Including
+
+  Tools, Shop Work, Driving and Driven
+  Machines, Farm Waterworks, Care
+  and Repair of Farm Implements
+
+
+  By
+
+  HERBERT A. SHEARER
+
+  AGRICULTURIST
+
+  Author of "Farm Buildings with Plans and Descriptions"
+
+  _ILLUSTRATED WITH THREE
+  HUNDRED ORIGINAL DRAWINGS_
+
+
+  CHICAGO
+  FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO.
+  Publishers
+
+
+
+
+  Copyright 1918
+  By Frederick J. Drake & Co.
+  Chicago
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+More mechanical knowledge is required on the farm than in any other line
+of business. If a farmer is not mechanically inclined, he is under the
+necessity of employing someone who is.
+
+Some farms are supplied with a great many handy contrivances to save
+labor. Farmers differ a great deal in this respect. Some are natural
+mechanics, some learn how to buy and how to operate the best farm
+machinery, while others are still living in the past.
+
+Some farmers who make the least pretensions have the best machinery and
+implements. They may not be good mechanics, but they have an eye to the
+value of labor saving tools.
+
+The object of this book is to emphasize the importance of mechanics in
+modern farming; to fit scores of quick-acting machines into the daily
+routine of farm work and thereby lift heavy loads from the shoulders of
+men and women; to increase the output at less cost of hand labor and to
+improve the soil while producing more abundantly than ever before; to
+suggest the use of suitable machines to manufacture high-priced
+nutritious human foods from cheap farm by-products.
+
+Illustrations are used to explain principles rather than to recommend
+any particular type or pattern of machine.
+
+The old is contrasted with the new and the merits of both are expressed.
+
+THE AUTHOR.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                               PAGE
+  CHAPTER I
+  THE FARM SHOP WITH TOOLS FOR WORKING WOOD AND IRON              9
+
+  CHAPTER II
+  FARM SHOP WORK                                                 50
+
+  CHAPTER III
+  GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER TO DRIVE MODERN FARM MACHINERY     74
+
+  CHAPTER IV
+  DRIVEN MACHINES                                               100
+
+  CHAPTER V
+  WORKING THE SOIL                                              137
+
+  CHAPTER VI
+  HANDLING THE HAY CROP                                         163
+
+  CHAPTER VII
+  FARM CONVEYANCES                                              179
+
+  CHAPTER VIII
+  MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES                               197
+
+  INDEX                                                         241
+
+
+
+
+FARM MECHANICS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE FARM SHOP WITH TOOLS FOR WORKING WOOD AND IRON
+
+
+FARM SHOP AND IMPLEMENT HOUSE
+
+The workshop and shed to hold farm implements should look as neat and
+attractive as the larger buildings. Farm implements are expensive. Farm
+machinery is even more so. When such machinery is all properly housed
+and kept in repair the depreciation is estimated at ten per cent a year.
+When the machines are left to rust and weather in the rain and wind the
+loss is simply ruinous.
+
+More machinery is required on farms than formerly and it costs more.
+Still it is not a question whether a farmer can afford a machine. If he
+has sufficient work for it he knows he cannot afford to get along
+without it and he must have a shed to protect it from the weather when
+not in use.
+
+In the first place the implement shed should be large enough to
+accommodate all of the farm implements and machinery without crowding
+and it should be well built and tight enough to keep out the wind and
+small animals, including chickens and sparrows.
+
+The perspective and plan shown herewith is twenty-four feet in width and
+sixty feet in length.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1.--Perspective View of the Farm Shop, Garage and
+Implement Shed. The doors to the right are nearly 12 feet high to let in
+a grain separator over night, or during the winter, or a load of hay in
+case of a sudden storm.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2.--Floor Plan of Shop, Garage and Storage. The
+building is 60 feet wide and 24 feet from front to back. The doors of
+the garage and tool shed are made to open full width, but 8 feet is wide
+enough for the shop door. All doors open out against posts and are
+fastened to prevent blowing shut. The work shop is well lighted and the
+stationary tools are carefully placed for convenience in doing repair
+work of all kinds. The pipe vise is at the doorway between the shop and
+garage so the handles of the pipe tools may swing through the doorway
+and the pipe may lie full length along the narrow pipe bench.]
+
+The doorways provide headroom sufficient for the highest machines, and
+the width when the double doors are opened and the center post removed
+is nearly twenty feet, which is sufficient for a binder in field
+condition or a two-horse spring-tooth rake.
+
+One end of the building looking toward the house is intended for a
+machine shop to be partitioned off by enclosing the first bent. This
+gives a room twenty feet wide by twenty-four feet deep for a blacksmith
+shop and general repair work. The next twenty feet is the garage. The
+machine shop part of the building will be arranged according to the
+mechanical inclination of the farmer.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3.--Perspective View of Farm Implement Shed and
+Workshop.]
+
+A real farm repair shop is a rather elaborate mechanical proposition.
+There is a good brick chimney with a hood to carry off the smoke and
+gases from the blacksmith fire and the chimney should have a separate
+flue for a heating stove. Farm repair work is done mostly during the
+winter months when a fire in the shop is necessary for comfort and
+efficiency. A person cannot work to advantage with cold fingers. Paint
+requires moderate heat to work to advantage. Painting farm implements
+is a very important part of repair work.
+
+A good shop arrangement is to have an iron workbench across the shop
+window in the front or entrance end of the building. In the far corner
+against the back wall is a good place for a woodworking bench. It is too
+mussy to have the blacksmith work and the carpenter work mixed up.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 4.--Floor Plan of Farm Implement Shed, showing the
+workshop in one end of the building, handy to the implement storage
+room.]
+
+Sometimes it is necessary to bring in a pair of horses for shoeing, or
+to pull the shoes off. For this reason, a tie rail bolted to the
+studding on the side of the shop near the entrance is an extra
+convenience.
+
+In a hot climate a sliding door is preferable because the wind will not
+slam it shut. In cold climates, hinge doors are better with a good sill
+and threshold to shut against to keep out the cold. Sometimes the large
+door contains a small door big enough to step through, but not large
+enough to admit much cold, when it is being opened and shut. Likewise a
+ceiling is needed in a cold country, while in warmer sections, a roof is
+sufficient. Farm shops, like other farm buildings, should conform to
+the climate, as well as convenience in doing the work. A solid concrete
+floor is a great comfort. And it is easily kept clean.
+
+The perspective and floor plan show the arrangement of the doors,
+windows and chimney and the placing of the work benches, forge, anvil,
+toolbench and drill press.
+
+Figures 3 and 4 show the perspective and floor plan of a farm shop and
+implement house 40 x 16 feet in size, which is large enough for some
+farms.
+
+
+SHOP TOOLS
+
+Good tools are more important on a farm than in a city workshop for the
+reason that a greater variety of work is required.
+
+_Measuring Mechanical Work._--In using tools on the farm the first rule
+should be accuracy. It is just as easy to work to one-sixteenth of an
+inch as to carelessly lay off a piece of work so that the pieces won't
+go together right.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 5.--Caliper Rule. A handy slide caliper shop rule
+is made with a slide marked in fractions of inches as shown in the
+drawing. The diameter of a rivet, bolt or other round object may be
+taken instantly. It is not so accurate as calipers for close
+measurements, but it is a practical tool for farm use.]
+
+The handiest measuring tool ever invented is the old-fashioned two-foot
+rule that folds up to six inches in length to be carried in the pocket.
+Such rules to be serviceable should be brass bound. The interior marking
+should be notched to sixteenths. The outside marking may be laid out in
+eighths. The finer marking on the inside is protected by keeping the
+rule folded together when not in use. The coarser marking outside does
+not suffer so much from wear. Figure 5 shows a 12-inch rule with a slide
+caliper jaw.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 6.--Small Pocket Oilstone. Shop oilstone in a box.
+100-foot measuring tapeline marked in inches, feet and rods.]
+
+In using a two-foot rule to lay off work the forward end should contain
+the small figures so that the workman is counting back on the rule but
+forward on the work, and he has the end of the rule to scribe from. In
+laying off a 16-foot pole the stick is first marked with a knife point,
+or sharp scratchawl, and try square to square one end. The work is then
+laid off from left to right, starting from the left hand edge of the
+square mark or first mark. The two-foot rule is laid flat on top of the
+piece of wood. At the front end of the rule the wood is marked with a
+sharp scratchawl or the point of a knife blade by pressing the point
+against the end of the rule at the time of marking. In moving the rule
+forward the left end is placed exactly over the left edge of the mark,
+so the new measurement begins at the exact point where the other left
+off, and so on the whole length of the stick. The final mark is then
+made exactly sixteen feet from the first mark.
+
+In sawing the ends the saw kerf is cut from the waste ends of the stick.
+The saw cuts to the mark but does not cut it out.
+
+In using a rule carelessly a workman may gain one-sixteenth of an inch
+every time he moves the rule, which would mean half of an inch in laying
+off a 16-foot pole, which would ruin it for carpenter work. If the pole
+is afterwards used for staking fence posts, he would gain one-half inch
+at each post, or a foot for every twenty-four posts, a distance to
+bother considerably in estimating acres. It is just as easy to measure
+exactly as it is to measure a little more or a little less, and it marks
+the difference between right and wrong.
+
+
+WOODWORKING BENCH
+
+In a farm workshop it is better to separate the woodworking department
+as far as possible from the blacksmith shop. Working wood accumulates a
+great deal of litter, shavings, blocks, and kindling wood, which are in
+the way in the blacksmith shop, and a spark from the anvil might set the
+shavings afire.
+
+A woodworking bench, Figure 7, carpenter's bench, it is usually called,
+needs a short leg vise with wide jaws. The top of the vise should be
+flush with the top of the bench, so the boards may be worked when lying
+flat on the top of the bench. For the same reason the bench dog should
+lower down flush when not needed to hold the end of the board.
+
+It is customary to make carpenter's benches separate from the shop, and
+large enough to stand alone, so they may be moved out doors or into
+other buildings.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 7.--Carpenter's Bench. A woodworking bench is 16'
+long, 3' 6" wide and 32" high. The height, to be particular, should be
+the length of the leg of the man who uses it. Lincoln, when joking with
+Stanton, gave it as his opinion that "a man's legs should be just long
+enough to reach the ground." But that rule is not sufficiently definite
+to satisfy carpenters, so they adopted the inside leg measurement. They
+claim that the average carpenter is 5' 10" tall and he wears a 32" leg.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 8.--Carpenter's Trestle, or Saw-Bench. The top
+piece is 4 x 6 and the legs are 2 x 4. There is sufficient spread of leg
+to prevent it from toppling over, but the legs are not greatly in the
+way. It is heavy enough to stand still while you slide a board along. It
+is 2 feet high.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 9.--Shave Horse. For shaping pieces of hardwood
+for repair work. A good shave horse is about 8' long and the seat end is
+the height of a chair. The head is carved on a hardwood stick with three
+projections to grip different sized pieces to be worked.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 10.--Compasses, Wooden Clamp and Cutting Pliers.]
+
+Carpenter benches may be well made, or they may be constructed in a
+hurry. So long as the top is true it makes but little difference how the
+legs are attached, so long as they are strong and enough of them. A
+carpenter bench that is used for all kinds of work must be solid enough
+to permit hammering, driving nails, etc. Usually the top of the bench is
+straight, true and level and it should be kept free from litter and
+extra tools.
+
+Good carpenters prefer a tool rack separate from the bench. It may stand
+on the floor or be attached to the wall. Carpenter tools on a farm are
+not numerous, but they should have a regular place, and laborers on the
+farms should be encouraged to keep the tools where they belong.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 11.--Monkey-Wrenches are the handiest of all farm
+wrenches, but they were never intended to hammer with. Two sizes are
+needed--an eight-inch for small nuts and a much larger wrench, to open
+two inches or more, to use when taking the disks off the shafts of a
+disk harrow. A large pipe-wrench to hold the round shaft makes a good
+companion tool for this work.]
+
+
+WOODWORKING TOOLS
+
+Every farmer has an axe or two, some sort of a handsaw and a nail
+hammer. It is astonishing what jobs of repair work a handy farmer will
+do with such a dearth of tools. But it is not necessary to worry along
+without a good repair kit. Tools are cheap enough.
+
+Such woodworking tools as coarse and fine toothed hand saws, a good
+square, a splendid assortment of hammers and the different kinds of
+wrenches, screw clamps, boring tools--in fact a complete assortment of
+handy woodworking tools is an absolute necessity on a well-managed
+farm.
+
+The farm kit should contain two sizes of nail hammers, see Figure 15,
+one suitable to drive small nails, say up to eight penny, and the other
+for large nails and spikes; a long thin-bladed handsaw, having nine
+teeth to the inch, for sawing boards and planks; a shorter handsaw,
+having ten teeth to the inch, for small work and for pruning trees. A
+pruning saw should cut a fine, smooth kerf, so the wound will not
+collect and hold moisture.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 12.--Hand Saw. This pattern, both for cross cut
+and rip saw, has been adopted by all makers of fine saws. Nine teeth to
+the inch is fine enough for most jobs on the farm.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 13.--Keyhole Saw with point slim enough to start
+the cut from a half-inch auger hole.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 14.--Bramble Hook for trimming berry bushes and
+cleaning out fence corners. It has a knife-edge with hooked sawteeth.]
+
+Farmers' handsaws are required to do a great many different kinds of
+work. For this reason, it is difficult to keep them in good working
+condition, but if both saws are jointed, set and filed by a good
+mechanic once or twice a year, they may be kept in usable condition the
+rest of the time by a handy farm workman, unless extra building or
+special work is required.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 15.--Nail Hammers. Two styles. The upper hammer is
+made with a ball peen and a round face. It is tempered to drive small
+nails without slipping and shaped to avoid dinging the wood. This hammer
+should weigh 18 or 19 ounces, including the handle. The lower hammer is
+heavier, has a flat face and is intended for heavy work such as driving
+spikes and fence staples.]
+
+A long-bladed ripsaw is also very useful, and what is commonly termed a
+keyhole saw finds more use on the farm than in a carpenter's shop in
+town. It is necessary frequently to cut holes through partitions,
+floors, etc., and at such times a keyhole saw works in just right.
+
+Handaxes are necessary for roughing certain pieces of wood for repair
+jobs. Two sizes of handaxes for different kinds of work are very useful,
+also a wide blade draw shave, Figure 16, and shave horse, Figure 9. A
+steel square having one 24-inch blade and one 18-inch is the best size.
+Such squares usually are heavy enough to remain square after falling off
+the bench forty or fifty times. A good deal depends upon the quality of
+the steel.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 16.--Drawing-Knife with wide blade for finishing
+straight surfaces.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 17.--Try-Square With Six-Inch Blade. Wood, brass
+and steel are the proper materials for a try-square. A double marking
+gauge for scribing mortises is also shown.]
+
+Steel squares differ in the measuring marks, but the kind to buy has one
+side spaced to sixteenths and the other side to tenths or twelfths. The
+sixteenth interest farmers generally, so that special attention should
+be given this side of the square. The lumber rule on some squares is
+useful, but the brace rules and mitre calculations are not likely to
+interest farmers.
+
+Screw-drivers should be mostly strong and heavy for farm work. Three
+sizes of handled screw-drivers of different lengths and sizes, also two
+or three brace bit screw-drivers are needed. One or two bits may be
+broken or twisted so the assortment is sometimes exhausted before the
+screw is started.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 18.--Heavy Hand Axe for Use on the Shop Chopping
+Block. A beet topping knife is shown also.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 19.--Heavy Screwdriver. The strongest and cheapest
+screw-driver is made from a single bar of steel. The wooden handle is
+made in two parts and riveted as shown.]
+
+Pinch bars and claw bars are very useful in a farm tool kit. Farm
+mechanical work consists principally in repairing implements, machinery,
+fences and buildings. Always a worn or broken part must be removed
+before the repair can be made. A pinch bar twenty-four inches long,
+Figure 21, with a cold chisel end, and another bar eighteen inches long
+with a crooked claw end, Figure 22, for pulling nails and spikes comes
+in very handy. These two bars should be made of the best octagon steel,
+seven-eighths of an inch in diameter.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 20.--(1) Ratchet Screwdriver. It does rapid work
+and will last a generation if carefully used. (2) Auger-Bit of the Side
+Cutter Type. A full set is needed. They are not for boring into old
+wood. Running once against a nail ruins one of these bits.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 21.--Handspike. A wooden handspike or pry is about
+seven feet long by 3 inches thick at the prying end. In the North it is
+usually made from a hickory or an ironwood or a dogwood sapling. The
+bark is removed and the handle is worked round and smooth on the shave
+horse. It is better to cut the poles in the winter when the sap is in
+the roots. After the handspikes are finished they should be covered deep
+with straw so they will season slowly to prevent checking.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 22.--Wrecking Bar for pulling nails and to pry
+broken parts from other wreckage.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 23.--Carpenter's Level. For practical farm work
+the level should be 24" or 30" long. Wood is the most satisfactory
+material. The best levels are made up of different layers of wood glued
+together to prevent warping or twisting. For this reason a good level
+should be carefully laid away in a dry place immediately after using.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 24.--(1) Snips for cutting sheet metal. (2)
+Carpenter's Level, iron stock.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 25.--Wood-Boring Twist Drill Bit. Twist drills for
+wood have longer points than drills for boring iron.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 26.--Pod-Bit. The fastest boring gimlet bits are
+of this pattern. They are made in sizes from to 1/8" to 3/8" and are
+intended for boring softwood.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 27.--Auger-Bits. For smooth boring the lip bits
+are best. The side cutters project beyond the cutting lips to cut the
+circle ahead of the chips. For boring green wood the single-worm clears
+better than the double-worm bit.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 28.--Extension Boring Bits. The cutting lips may
+be set to bore holes from 1/2" to 3" in diameter. They are used mostly
+in softwood.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 29.--Ship Auger. This shape auger is made with or
+without a screw point. It will bore straighter in cross-grained wood
+without a point.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 30.--Long Ship Auger.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 31.--Bridge Auger. The long handle permits the
+workman to stand erect while boring. The home made handle is welded onto
+the shank of a ship auger.]
+
+A wooden carpenter's level, Figure 23, two feet long, with a plumb glass
+near one end, is the most satisfactory farm level, an instrument that is
+needed a great many times during the year.
+
+Good brace bits are scarce on farms. They are not expensive, but farmers
+are careless about bits and braces. Two sizes of braces are needed, a
+small brace for small pod bits and twist drills, and a large ratchet
+brace with a 6-inch crank radius for turning larger bits.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 32.--Carpenter's Jointer.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 33.--Fore-Plane. This style plane is preferred to
+a regular jointer for most farm work.]
+
+Twist drill bits will bore both wood and iron, and they are not
+expensive up to three-eighths inch or one-half inch. But for larger
+sizes from one-half inch to one inch the finest lip wood boring bits
+will give the best satisfaction. Extension bits are used for boring
+holes larger than one inch. Two extension bits are better than one bit
+with two lip cutters. They will bore holes in soft wood in sizes from
+one inch to three inches.
+
+Other cutting tools such as jack plane jointer and smoothing plane, also
+an assortment of chisels, belong to the farm equipment.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 34.--Tool Box of Socket Chisels and Gouges. The
+chisels are sized from 1/2" to 2" in width. The two chisels to the right
+show different patterns.]
+
+All cutting tools should be of the best design and the best steel. If
+they are properly used and taken care of, the different jobs of repair
+work can be handled quickly and to great advantage.
+
+
+FARM GRINDSTONE
+
+A grindstone may be gritty without being coarse so it will bite the
+steel easily and cut it away quickly. A good stone is a very
+satisfactory farm implement, but a greasy stone is a perpetual nuisance.
+
+There are grindstones with frames too light. The competition to
+manufacture and sell a grindstone for farm use at the cheapest possible
+price has resulted in turning out thousands of grindstone frames that
+possess very little stability.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 35.--Grindstone. The speed of a grindstone varies
+with the diameter of the stone. It should turn just fast enough to keep
+a flow of water on the upper face surface. If the stone turns too slow
+the water will run down; if too fast, it will fly off.]
+
+Grindstones should be kept under cover; the best stone will be injured
+by leaving it in the hot sun. The sun draws the moisture out of the
+upper side and leaves the lower side damp and soft so that in use the
+stone soon becomes flat sided. The wet side freezes in winter, which is
+a disintegrating process.
+
+The best stones, with good care, will become uneven in time. The remedy
+is to true them with a quarter-inch soft iron round rod used like a
+lathe tool over an iron rest placed close to the stone on a level with
+the center of the stone. The rod is held against the stone in such a way
+as to cut away the high bumps and make the stone truly round. The stone
+cuts away best when it is dry. A small rod is better than a large rod.
+It digs into the stone better and takes out a deeper bite. Large power
+stones in machine shops are trued up in this way frequently. Farm stones
+often are neglected until they wabble so badly that it is difficult to
+grind any tool to an edge. If the grindstone is turned by a belt from an
+engine the work of truing may be done in a few minutes. If the stone is
+turned by hand the work of making it round takes longer and requires
+some muscle, but it pays.
+
+The face of a grindstone should be rounded slightly, and it should be
+kept so by grinding the tools first on one side of edge of the stone,
+then on the other, with the cutting edge of the tool crosswise to the
+face of the stone.
+
+For safety and to prevent a sloppy waste of water the stone should turn
+away from the operator.
+
+The best way to keep a stone moist is by a trickle of water from an
+overhead supply. Troughs of water suspended under the stone are
+unsatisfactory, because the water soon gets thick and unfit for use.
+Such troughs are forgotten when the job is done, so that one side of the
+stone hangs in the water. An overhead supply of water leaks away and no
+damage is done.
+
+Grindstone frames are best made of wood 3" x 4" thoroughly mortised
+together and well braced with wooden braces and tied across with plenty
+of iron rods. A good grindstone frame could be made of angle iron, but
+manufacturers generally fail in the attempt.
+
+There are good ball-bearing grindstone hangers on the market, both for
+hand crank stones and for belt use.
+
+The belt is less in the way if it is brought up from below. This is not
+difficult to do. A grindstone turns slower than any other farm machine
+so a speed reducing jack may be bolted to the floor at the back of the
+grindstone a little to one side to escape the drip. This arrangement
+requires a short belt but it may have the full face width of the pulley
+as the tight and loose pulleys are on the jack shaft.
+
+_Emery Grinders._--There are small emery wheels made for grinding disks
+that work quickly and cut an even bevel all around. They are made in
+pairs and are attached to the ends of a mandrel supported by a metal
+stand which is bolted to a bench. The same rig is used for sickle
+grinding and other farm jobs.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 36.--Emery Grinder. The illustrations show two
+kinds of grinding that double emery wheels are especially adapted to. To
+grind a mowing-machine knife it is necessary to reverse. By placing the
+rest opposite the center between the two wheels the bevel will be the
+same on both sides, or edges, of the section.]
+
+
+BLACKSMITH SHOP
+
+The furniture in a blacksmith shop consists of forge, anvil, half
+barrel, vise bench, drill press and tool rack. A farm shop also has a
+heating stove, shave horse, a woodworking bench, a good power driven
+grindstone and a double emery grinder.
+
+_Forge._--The old-fashioned forge laid up with brick in connection with
+an old-fashioned chimney is just as popular as ever. The same old tuyer
+iron receives the air blast from the same old style leather bellows, and
+there is nothing more satisfactory. But there are modern portable
+forges, Figure 37, made of iron, that are less artistic, cheaper, take
+up less room and answer the purpose just about as well. The portable
+iron forge has a small blower attached to the frame which feeds oxygen
+into the fire. There are a good many different sizes of portable forges.
+Most of them work well up to their advertised capacity.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 37.--Portable Forges. The smaller forge is for
+light work such as heating rivets for iron bridge construction. The
+larger forge to the right is meant for blacksmith work.]
+
+Generally, farm forges are not required to develop a great amount of
+heat. Farmers do but little welding, most of the forge work on the farm
+being confined to repair work such as heating brace irons, so they may
+be easily bent into the proper shape, or to soften metal so that holes
+may be punched through it easily.
+
+Sharpening harrow teeth, drawing out plow points and horseshoeing are
+about the heaviest forge jobs required in a farm blacksmith shop, so
+that a medium size forge will answer the purpose.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 38.--Anvil. The only satisfactory anvil is forged
+out of ingot steel with a power trip-hammer. It should weigh 140
+pounds.]
+
+_Anvil._--An anvil should weigh at least 120 pounds; 140 is better. It
+should be set six feet from the center of the fire to the center of the
+anvil. It should be placed on a timber the size of the base of the anvil
+set three feet in the ground. The top of the anvil should be about
+thirty inches high. Holmstrom's rule is: "Close the fist, stand erect
+with the arm hanging down. The knuckles should just clear the face of
+the anvil."
+
+_Bench and Vise._--The vise bench should be made solid and it should
+face a good light. The bench window should look to the east or north if
+possible. It should be about four feet high and eight feet long, with
+the window sill about six inches above the bench.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 39.--(1) Shoeing Tool Box. The four small
+compartments are for horseshoe nails of different sizes. There may be a
+leather loop for the paring knife. The low box end is for the shoeing
+hammer, rasp, nippers and hoof knife. (2) Blacksmith Tool Rack. Tongs,
+handled punches and cutters are hung on the iron rails. Hammers are
+thrown on top. The lower platform is the shop catch-all.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 40.--Shoeing Knife. Good temper is the main
+qualification. All shoeing knives are practically the same shape,
+although they may vary in size.]
+
+Two and one-half feet is the usual height for a workbench above the
+floor. The best workbench tops are made by bolting together 2 x 4s with
+the edges up. Hardwood makes the best bench, but good pine will last for
+years. The top surface should be planed true and smooth after the nuts
+are drawn tight.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 41.--Horseshoeing Rasp and Wood Rasp. These are
+necessary tools in the farm shop.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 42.--Iron Work Bench. Solid is the first
+specification for an iron shop bench. It should be three feet wide, not
+less than eight feet long and about 32 inches high. The top is made of 2
+x 4s placed on edge and bolted together. The supports are 2 x 6 bolted
+to the shop studding and braced back to the studding at the sill. The
+front part of the bench is supported by iron legs made of gas-pipe with
+threaded flanges at top and bottom. Heavy right angle wrought iron lugs
+are used to fasten the top of the bench to the studding. The foot of the
+vise leg is let into the floor of the shop or into a solid wooden block
+sunk in the ground.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 43.--Assortment of Files and Rasps needed in a
+farm shop. (1) Slim three-cornered handsaw-file. (2) Common
+three-cornered file suitable for filing a buck-saw. (3) Double-cut, or
+bastard, 10-inch flat file. (4) Single-cut, or mill file, either 10 or
+12 inches. (5) Half-round 10-inch wood rasp. (6) Horseshoer's rasp.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 44.--File Handle. Basswood makes the most
+satisfactory file handles. They are fitted by carefully turning them
+onto the file shank to take the right taper. There should be a handle
+for each file. The handle should be the right size and fitted straight
+with the file so the file will take the same angle to the work when
+turned over.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 45.--Nail Set. On all wooden surfaces to be
+painted nails should be carefully driven with a round peen nail hammer
+and the heads sunk about one-eighth of an inch deep with a nail set. The
+holes may then be filled with putty and covered smoothly with paint.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 46.--Cold-Chisel. There are more flat cold-chisels
+than all other shapes. They are easily made in the farm shop and it is
+good practice. They are usually made from octagon steel. Different sizes
+are needed according to the work in hand. A piece of 5/8" steel 6" long
+makes a handy cold-chisel for repair work.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 47.--Cape Cold-Chisel. It may be tapered both ways
+or one way to a cutting edge, or one edge may be rounded.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 48.--(1) Tinner's Punch. Made of octagon steel in
+sizes to fit the rivets. The cutting end is flat and has sharp edges
+made by roll filing. It should be about 7" long and from 3/8" to 1/2" in
+diameter, according to the size of rivet and thickness of sheet metal to
+be punched. (2) Prick Punch. Usually made rather short and stocky. It
+may be 1/2" or 5/8" diameter and 4-1/2" to 5" long. (3) Hot-iron Punch.
+Made in many sizes and lengths. The taper should be the same as the
+drawing.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 49.--(1) Blacksmith Vise. The old-fashioned leg
+vise is the most satisfactory for the blacksmith shop. It should have 5"
+jaws. (2) Power Post Drill. Belt power is practical for the post drill
+in a farm shop. The hand crank may be easily attached when needed.]
+
+The bench vise should be heavy. A vise is used for bending iron hot from
+the forge. Unless the jaws are large, the hot iron is likely to heat the
+vise sufficiently to draw the temper. Heavy jaws are solid enough to
+support the iron when it is being hammered. Often heavy hammers are used
+for this purpose. A heavy vise holds the work solid, because it may be
+screwed so much tighter than a light vise. A heavy vise will hold light
+work, but a light vise will not hold heavy work. Heavy vises cost more,
+but they are cheaper in the end and more satisfactory at all times. A
+leg vise with five-inch jaws weighs about sixty pounds; five and
+one-half-inch jaws, eighty pounds. A machinist's vise is made to bolt
+on top of the bench. It will answer for blacksmith work on the farm, but
+is not as good as the old-fashioned leg vise. A machinist's vise is very
+useful in the garage, but it would hardly be necessary to have two heavy
+vises. The pipe vise belongs on a separate bench, which may be a plank
+bracketed against the side of the room.
+
+_Drill-Press._--The most satisfactory drill-press for use on a farm is
+the upright drill that bolts to a post. There is usually a self feed
+which may be regulated according to the work. The heavy flywheel keeps
+the motion steady, and because there is no bench in the way, wagon tires
+may be suspended from the drill block, so they will hang free and true
+for drilling. Often long pieces of straight iron are drilled with holes
+spaced certain distances apart. It is easier to pass them along when
+they lie flat side down on the drill block. To use a drill properly and
+safely, the chuck must run true. It is easy to break a drill when it
+wabbles.
+
+Most drills are made on the twist pattern, and it is something of a
+trick to grind a twist drill, but anyone can do it if he tackles the job
+with a determination to do it right. In grinding a twist drill, use a
+new drill for pattern. Grind the angles the same as the new drill, and
+be careful to have the point in the center. A little practice will make
+perfect.
+
+Mechanics will say that no one except an expert should attempt to grind
+a twist drill, but farmers who are mechanically inclined are the best
+experts within reach. It is up to a farmer to grind his own drills or
+use them dull.
+
+In drilling wrought iron either water or oil is required to cool the
+drill, but cast iron and brass are drilled dry. Light work such as
+hoop-iron may be drilled dry, but the cutting edge of the drill will
+last longer even in light work if the drill is fed with oil or water.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 50.--(1) Electric Drill-Press. A small electric
+motor is attached to the drill spindle. (2) Tram Points. Two steel
+points are fitted with thumbscrew clamps to fasten them to a long wooden
+bar. They are used to scribe circles too large for the compasses. (3)
+Ratchet-Brace. Two braces, or bitstocks, are needed. A large brace with
+a 6" radius for large bits and a small brace with a 3" or 3-1/2" radius
+for small bits.]
+
+In using drill-presses, some extra attachments come in very handy, such
+as a screw clamp to hold short pieces of metal. Before starting the
+drill, a center punch is used to mark the center of the hole to be
+bored and to start the drill in the right spot.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 51.--Twist-Drills. Round shank for the post drill
+and square taper shank for brace work. Brace drills are small, 1/4" or
+less.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 52.--Taper Reamer. Used to enlarge, or true, or
+taper a hole that has been drilled or punched.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 53.--Another style of Reamer.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 54.--Countersink. This is the old style,
+blacksmith-made, flat countersink. It will do quick work but not so
+smooth as the fluted kind.]
+
+In doing particular work, the drill may be re-centered when it starts
+wrong. This is done with a small round-nosed cold chisel. If the work
+is not very particular, the drill may be turned a little to one side by
+slanting the piece to be drilled. This plan is only a makeshift,
+however, the proper way being to block the work level, so that the drill
+will meet it perpendicularly. However, by starting carefully, the hole
+may be bored exactly as required.
+
+_Iron Working Tools._--Forge tools for a farm shop need not be numerous.
+Several pairs of tongs, one blacksmith hammer, one sledge, one hardy,
+one wooden-handled cold chisel, one pair pincers, one paring knife, one
+shoeing rasp, and one shoeing hammer will do to begin with.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 55.--Machinist's Hammers. A medium weight should
+be selected for farm repair work. It should be hung so the end of the
+handle clears half an inch when the face rests flat on the bench.]
+
+Monkey-wrenches come first in the wrench department. The farmer needs
+three sizes, one may be quite small, say six inches in length, one ten
+inches, and the other large enough to span a two-inch nut. And there
+should be an ironclad rule, never use a monkey-wrench for a hammer. For
+work around plows, cultivators, harvesters, and other farm machines, a
+case of S wrenches will be greatly appreciated. Manufacturers include
+wrenches with almost all farm machines, but such wrenches are too cheap
+to be of much use.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 56.--(1) Hardy. The anvil hardy is used more than
+any other anvil tool except the blacksmith's hammer and tongs. (2) A
+Cold-Shut Link that may be welded, riveted or simply pounded shut.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 57.--Calipers: (1) A pair of tight-joint inside
+calipers. (2) Its mate for taking outside dimensions. (3) A pair of
+spring-jointed, screw-adjustment inside calipers for machinists' use.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 58.--Blacksmith Tongs. Straight tongs made to hold
+3/8" iron is the handiest size. Two or three pairs for larger sizes of
+iron and one pair smaller come in handy.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 59.--(1) Wire Splicer. The oval openings in the
+tool are of different sizes. They are made to hold two wires, close
+together, with ends projecting in opposite directions. Each end is wound
+around the other wire. The ends are then notched with a three-cornered
+file and broken off short and filed smooth. The splicing tool should be
+thin, about 1/8" or 3/16", to bring the two twists close together. This
+is especially necessary in making hoops for wooden pails. (2) Blacksmith
+Shoeing Pincers, used to pull horseshoes. They should close together to
+catch a nail by the head.]
+
+For heavier work pipe-wrenches are absolutely necessary. The reason for
+having so many wrenches is to save time when in the field. It often
+happens that men and horses stand idle waiting for what should be a
+quick repair job.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 60.--(1) Cotter Pin Tool. Handy for inserting or
+removing all sorts of cotter keys. (2) Nest of S Wrenches of different
+sizes. Farmers have never appreciated the value of light, handy wrenches
+to fit all sorts of nuts and bolt heads closely.]
+
+For bench work a riveting hammer and a ball peen machinist's hammer are
+needed. A nest of S wrenches, two rivet sets, cold chisels, round
+punches and several files also are required.
+
+The same twist drills up to three-eighths-inch will do for iron as well
+as wood. However, if much drilling is done, then round shank twist
+drills to fit the drill chuck will work better. Farmers seldom drill
+holes in iron larger than one-half inch. For particular work, to get the
+exact size, reamers are used to finish the holes after drilling. Screw
+holes in iron are countersunk in the drill-press.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 61.--Hack Saw. One handle and a dozen blades. The
+frame should be stiff enough either to push or pull the saw without
+binding. The teeth may point either way to suit the work in hand.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 62.--Powerful Bolt Cutter. It is intended for
+factory use.]
+
+For small work, twist drills with square shanks for brace use should
+range in sizes from one thirty-second of an inch up to one-quarter inch,
+then every one-sixteenth inch up to one-half inch.
+
+For boring screw holes in wood the quickest work is done with pod bits.
+Not many sizes are needed, but they are cheap, so that a half dozen,
+ranging from one-sixteenth to one-quarter inch or thereabouts, will be
+found very useful. Pod bits belong to the wood department, but on
+account of being used principally for screw sinking, they are just as
+useful in the iron working department as in the carpenter shop.
+
+Sheet metal snips for cutting sheet metal properly belong with the iron
+working tools. Snips are from ten to fourteen inches in length. A medium
+size is best for miscellaneous work. If kept in good working order
+twelve-inch snips will cut 18-gauge galvanized or black iron. But a man
+would not care to do a great deal of such heavy cutting.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 63.--Cutting Nippers. For cutting the points from
+horseshoe nails after they are driven through the hoof to hold the shoe
+in place. These nippers are hard tempered and should not be used for any
+other purpose.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 64.--Two Shapes of Steel Crowbars.]
+
+_Pipe-Fitting Tools._--Recent farm improvements require a few tools that
+rightfully belong to plumbers. Every farm has some kind of water supply
+for domestic use and for live-stock. A great many farm machines require
+pipe tools for repair work. Every year more plumbing reaches the farm.
+
+Plumbing work is no more difficult than other mechanical work, if the
+tools are at hand to meet the different requirements. One job of
+plumbing that used to stand out as an impossibility was the soldering
+together of lead pipes, technically termed "wiping a joint." This
+operation has been discontinued. Every possible connection required in
+farm plumbing is now provided for in standardized fittings. Every
+pipe-fitting or connection that conducts supply water or waste water
+nowadays screws together. Sizes are all made to certain standards and
+the couplings are almost perfect, so that work formerly shrouded in
+mystery or hidden under trade secrets is now open to every schoolboy who
+has learned to read.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 65.--(1) Pipe Vise. Hinged to open for long pipes.
+(2) Machinist's Vise. Made with a turntable to take any horizontal
+angle. The pipe jaws are removable.]
+
+The necessary outfit to handle all the piping and plumbing on the farm
+is not very expensive, probably $25.00 will include every tool and all
+other appliances necessary to put in all the piping needed to carry
+water to the watering troughs and to supply hot and cold water to the
+kitchen and the bathroom, together with the waste pipes, ventilators and
+the sewer to the septic tank. The same outfit of tools will answer for
+repair work for a lifetime.
+
+Farm water pipes usually are small. There may be a two-inch suction pipe
+to the force pump, and the discharge may be one and a half inch. But
+these pipes are not likely to make trouble.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 66.--Pipe Cutter. The most satisfactory pipe
+cutter has three knife-edge roller cutters which follow each other
+around the pipe. Some of these cutters have two flat face rollers and
+one cutter roller to prevent raising a burr on the end of the pipe. The
+flat face rollers iron out the burr and leave the freshly cut pipe the
+same size clear to the end.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 67.--Pipe-Wrench. This type of wrench is valuable
+for working with the heavier farm implements. It is intended more for
+holding than for turning. It is rather rough on nuts. Damaged nuts show
+signs of careless work.]
+
+There should be a good pipe vise that will hold any size pipe up to
+three inches. At least two pipe wrenches are needed and they should be
+adjustable from one-quarter-inch up to two-inch pipe.
+
+We must remember that water pipe sizes mean inside measurements.
+One-inch pipe is about one and one-quarter inches outside diameter.
+Three-quarter-inch pipe is about one inch outside. Two-inch pipe will
+carry four times as much water as one-inch pipe, under the rule
+"doubling the diameter increases the capacity four times."
+
+[Illustration: Figure 68.--A smaller sized wrench with wooden handle.]
+
+The three-wheel pipe cutter works quickly and is satisfactory for most
+jobs. Sometimes two of the knife wheels are removed and rollers
+substituted to prevent raising a burr on the end of the pipe.
+
+Threading dies are made in standard sizes. A good farm set consists of
+stock and dies to thread all the different sizes of pipe from
+one-quarter inch to one inch, inclusive. Not many pipes larger than inch
+are threaded on the farm. They are cut to the proper lengths in the farm
+shop and the threads are cut in town.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+FARM SHOP WORK
+
+
+PROFITABLE HOME REPAIR WORK
+
+Each farmer must be the judge in regard to the kind of mechanical repair
+work that should be done at home and the kind and amount of repair work
+that should go to the shop in town. A great deal depends on the
+mechanical ability of the farmer or his helpers. However, the poorest
+farm mechanic can do "first aid" service to farm implements and
+machinery in the nick of time, if he is so disposed. A great many
+farmers are helpless in this respect because they want to be helpless.
+It is so much easier to let it go than to go right at it with a
+determination to fix it, and fix it right.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 69.--Logging Chain. One of the cleverest farm
+inventions of any age is the logging chain. It is universally used in
+all lumber camps and on every farm. It usually is from 16 to 20 feet in
+length, with a round hook on one end for the slip hitch and a grab hook
+on the other end that makes fast between any two links.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 70.--Neckyoke and Whiffletree Irons. Farmers can
+make better neckyokes and whiffletrees than they can buy ready-made. The
+irons may be bought separately and the wood selected piece by piece.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 71.--Measuring a Worn Skein for a New Boxing. The
+pasteboard calipers are cut to fit the old skein sideways because it is
+probably flattened on the bottom from wear.]
+
+On general principles, however, farm repair work should not occupy a
+farmer's time to the detriment of growing crops or the proper care of
+live-stock. Farming is the business; mechanical work is a side issue. At
+the same time, a farmer so inclined can find time during the year to
+look over every farm machine, every implement and every hand tool on the
+farm. The stupidest farm helper can clean the rust off of a spade and
+rub the surface with an oily cloth, in which some fine emery has been
+dusted. The emery will remove the rust and the oil will prevent it from
+further rusting. Every laborer knows better than to use a spade or
+shovel after a rivet head has given way so the handle is not properly
+supported by the plate extensions. There really is no excuse for using
+tools or machinery that are out of repair, but the extent to which
+a farmer can profitably do his own repairing depends on many
+contingencies. In every case he must decide according to circumstances,
+always, however, with a desire and determination to run his farm on
+business principles.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 72.--Wooden Wagon Axles. Axle timber may be bought
+in the rough or partly fitted to the skeins.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 73.--Showing how to fit the irons on the forward
+end of a wagon reach.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 74.--Wire Splice. With a little practice wire may
+be wound close enough to prevent slipping.]
+
+_Home-made Bolts._--The easiest way to make a bolt is to cut a rod of
+round iron the proper length and run a thread on each end. On one end
+the thread may be just long enough to rivet the head, while the thread
+on the other end is made longer to accommodate the nut and to take up
+slack. A farmer needs round iron in sizes from one-fourth inch to
+five-eighths inch. He will use more three-eighths and one-half inch than
+any other sizes. Blank nuts are made in standard sizes to fit any size
+of round iron. Have an assortment, in different sizes, of both the
+square and the hexagon nuts.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 75.--Emergency Bolts. A bolt may be made quickly
+without a forge fire by cutting a short thread on one end for the head
+and a longer thread on the other end for the nut.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 76.--Rivets. A stock of soft iron rivets of
+different sizes and lengths should be always kept on hand ready for
+immediate use.]
+
+To make a bolt in the ordinary way requires welding, but for repair work
+in a hurry it is better to select the proper iron and cut it to the
+required length either with a cold chisel in the vise, or with a hardy
+and a handled cold chisel over an anvil. The quickest way of cutting
+that mashes the rod the least is to be preferred. The size of the rod
+will determine the manner of cutting in most instances.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 77.--Rivets.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 78.--Rivet Set. This style of set is used for
+small rivets. The size should be selected to fit the rivets closely.
+Larger rivets are made to hug the work by means of a flat piece of steel
+with a hole through it.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 79.--Rivet Set.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 80.--(1) Coulter Clamp. Plow-beam clamps should be
+made in the farm shop to fit each plow. (2) Garden Weeder. The quickest
+hand killer of young weeds in the garden is a flat steel blade that
+works horizontally half an inch below the surface of the ground.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 81.--Stock and Dies. Taps and dies and stocks are
+best kept in compartments in a case made for the purpose.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 82.--Stock for Round Dies. The opening is turned
+true and sized accurately to fit. The screw applies pressure to hold the
+die by friction.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 83.--Taps and Dies. Standard threads are tapped
+into blank nuts and corresponding threads are cut onto bolts with
+accuracy and rapidity by using this style taps and dies. They may be had
+in all sizes. The range for farm work should cut from 1/4" to 5/8",
+inclusive.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 84.--Taper Tap for Blacksmith's Use.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 85.--Machine Bolt and Carriage Bolt. The first is
+used against iron and the second against wood, but this rule is not
+arbitrary. The rounded side of the nuts are turned in against wood; the
+flat side against washers or heavier iron. Use square head bolts if you
+expect to take them out after the nuts have rusted on.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 86.--Plow bolts and sickle bar bolts should be
+kept in stock. Standard sizes and shapes are made for several different
+makes of plows and machines.]
+
+Taps and dies are made to fit each size of rod. If the thread on the
+bolt is cut with a solid, or round, plate die, the corresponding tap is
+run clear through the nut. In that case the nut will screw on the bolt
+easily, possibly a little loose for some purposes. It is so intended by
+the manufacturers to give the workman a little leeway. If it is
+desirable to have the nut screw on the bolt very tight, then the tap is
+stopped before the last thread enters the nut. A little practice soon
+qualifies a workman to fit a nut according to the place the bolt is to
+occupy.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 87.--Lag Screw. To set a lag screw in hardwood,
+bore a hole the size of the screw shank as calipered between the
+threads.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 88.--(1) Wagon-Box Irons, showing how to attach
+the box and the rave to the cross-piece and to brace the side of the box
+to hold it upright. There may be several of these braces on each side of
+the wagon box. (2) U Bolt in Cement. A solid staple to be embedded in
+concrete for a horse ring, door hinge, cow stanchion, etc.]
+
+Generally it is desirable to have nuts fit very snug on parts of
+machines that shake a good deal, and this applies to almost all farm
+machinery and implements.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 89.--Wagon-Box Brace. It is offset to hold the
+rave and to brace the sideboard at the rear and the front ends and
+sometimes in the middle of light wagon beds.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 90.--Two Plow Clevises and a Plow Link.]
+
+Ordinarily a horse rake is supposed to travel steadily along like a
+cart, but the ground is rough and in practical use the nuts loosen
+almost as soon as haying commences.
+
+Some farmers make a practice of riveting bolt ends to prevent nuts from
+working loose. When the bolts have square heads, this practice is not
+objectionable, because with two wrenches a nut can be twisted off over
+the riveting, but a great many bolts have round heads and very short,
+square shanks. Theoretically, the shanks are driven into the wood firm
+enough to prevent the bolts from turning. Practically this theory is a
+delusion and a snare, as every farm boy can testify.
+
+Bolts are not manufactured in quantities in the farm blacksmith shop.
+They can be made by machinery cheaper, but so many times a bolt is
+needed on short notice that the farm shop should have the necessary
+tools and materials to supply the need quickly.
+
+_Forging Iron and Steel._--Iron and steel are composed of the same
+properties, but differ chemically. Steel also is finer grained than iron
+and it requires different treatment. Iron should be forged at a
+light-red or white heat. If forged at a dark-red heat the iron generally
+will granulate or crack open and weaken the metal. For a smooth finish
+the last forging may be done at a dark-red heat, but the hammer must be
+used lightly. The weight of the hammer as well as the blows also must
+differ with the different size of iron under heat. Small sizes should be
+treated with hammer blows that are rather light, while for large sizes
+the blows should be correspondingly heavy. If light blows be given with
+a light hammer in forging heavy iron the outside alone will be affected,
+thus causing uneven tension and contrarywise strain in the iron.
+
+Steel should never be heated above a yellow heat. If heated to a white
+heat the steel will be burned. Steel should never be forged at a
+dark-red heat. If this is done it will cause considerable strain between
+the inner and outer portions, which may cause it to crack while forging.
+The weight of the hammer and the hammer blows in forging of steel is
+vastly of more importance than in forging iron. If the blow or the
+hammer is not heavy enough to exert its force throughout the thickness
+of the steel it will probably crack in the process of hardening or
+tempering. If steel be properly forged it will harden easily and
+naturally, but if improperly forged the tempering will be very
+difficult--probably a failure. The quality of a finished tool depends
+greatly upon the correct heat and proper method used in forging and
+hardening it.
+
+_Making Steel Tools._--Steel for tools should first be annealed to even
+the density and prevent warping. This is done by heating it to a dull
+cherry red in a slow fire. A charcoal fire for this purpose is best
+because it contains no sulphur or other injurious impurities. After
+heating the piece of new steel all over as evenly as possible it should
+be buried several inches deep in powdered charcoal and left to cool.
+This completes the annealing process. While working steel into proper
+shape for tools, great care is required to prevent burning. It should be
+worked quickly and the process repeated as often as necessary. Practice
+is the only recipe for speed.
+
+When the tool is shaped as well as possible on the anvil it is then
+finished with a file by clamping the new tool in the vise, using single
+cut files. Bastard files are too rough for tool steel. After the tool is
+shaped by cross-filing and draw-filing to make it smooth it is sometimes
+polished by wrapping fine emery cloth around the file. Oil is used with
+emery cloth to give the steel a luster finish. Tempering is the last
+process in the making of such tools as cold chisels, drills, dies,
+punches, scratchawls, etc.
+
+_Tempering Steel Tools._--Good judgment is required to get the right
+temper. Good eyesight is needed to catch the color at the exact instant,
+and quick action to plunge it into the water before it cools too much.
+Dies are made very hard. The color of the steel at dipping time should
+be a bright straw color. Cold chisels will break when being used if
+tempered too hard. If cold chisels are to be used for cutting iron, the
+color should be violet; if the chisels are for cutting stone, purple is
+the color. Drills for boring iron are tempered a dark straw color at the
+cutting edge merging back into blue. The water in the dipping tub should
+be warm, as steel is likely to check or crack when it is tempered in
+cold water.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 91.--Blacksmith Hammers. Some smiths use a heavy
+machinist's hammer. But the flat peen is more useful when working around
+the anvil and the leg vise.]
+
+Tool steel should be held in a perpendicular position when it enters the
+water to cool all sides alike. Otherwise the new tool might warp. It is
+better to dip slowly, sometimes holding the point, or cutting edge, in
+the water while permitting the shank to cool slowly enough to remain
+soft. Some sizes of steel may be tempered too hard at first and the
+temper immediately drawn by permitting the heat of the shank to follow
+down almost to the edge, then dip. This is done quickly while watching
+the colors as they move towards the point or edge.
+
+_Draw-filing._--Making six-sided and eight-sided punches and scratchawls
+out of hexagon and octagon tool steel is interesting work. The steel is
+cut to length by filing a crease all around with a three-cornered file.
+When it is sufficiently notched, the steel will break straight across.
+To shape the tool and to draw out the point the steel is heated in the
+forge to a dull cherry red and hammered carefully to preserve the shape
+along the taper. Special attention must be given to the numerous
+corners. A scratchawl or small punch, must be heated many times and
+hammered quickly before cooling. An old English shop adage reads: "Only
+one blacksmith ever went to the devil and that was for pounding cold
+iron."
+
+After the punch or scratchawl is roughed out on the anvil, it is
+fastened in the vise and finished by cross-filing and draw-filing.
+Copper caps on the vise jaws will prevent indentations.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 92.--Vise Jaw Guards. Soft auxiliary vise jaws are
+made of sheet copper or galvanized iron.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 93.--Roll Filing. To file a piece of steel round
+it is rolled by one hand while the file is used by the other hand.]
+
+Draw-filing means grasping each end of the file and moving it back and
+forth sidewise along the work. For this purpose single-cut files are
+used. The smoothing is done with a very fine single-cut file, or if very
+particular, a float file is used. Then the polish is rubbed on with fine
+emery cloth and oil. The emery cloth is wrapped around the file and the
+same motion is continued. With some little practice a very creditable
+piece of work may be turned out. Such work is valuable because of the
+instruction. A good test of skill at blacksmithing is making an octagon
+punch that tapers true to the eye when finished.
+
+_Set-Screws._--It is customary to fasten a good many gear wheels, cranks
+and pulleys to machinery shafts by set-screws. There are two kinds of
+set-screws; one has a cone point, the other a cup end. Both screws are
+hardened to sink into the shaft. A cup is supposed to cut a ring and the
+point is supposed to sink into the shaft to make a small hole sufficient
+to keep the wheel from slipping. However, unless the cone-pointed screw
+is countersunk into the shaft, it will not hold much of a strain. The
+point is so small it will slip and cut a groove around the shaft. To
+prevent this, the set-screw may be countersunk by first marking the
+shaft with an indentation of the point of the screw. Then the wheel or
+crank or collar may be removed and a hole drilled into the shaft with a
+twist-drill the same size, or a sixty-fourth smaller, than the
+set-screw. Then by forcing the end of the set-screw into the drill hole,
+the wheel is held solid.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 94.--Machine-Bolt and Set-Screw. The bolt to the
+left is used to clamp cylinder heads in place. The set-screw to the
+right is the cup variety. The end is countersunk to form a cup with a
+sharp rim.]
+
+The principal objection to set-screws is that they are dangerous. The
+heads always project and are ready to catch a coat sleeve when the shaft
+is revolving. In all cases, set-screws should be as large as the hub
+will allow, and it is better to have them protected so it is impossible
+to catch anything to wind around the shaft. Cup set-screws are not
+satisfactory except for very light work. If necessary to use them, the
+ends may be firmly fixed by cutting a ring with a sharp, diamond-point
+cold chisel.
+
+_Setting the Handsaw._--Nine teeth to the inch is the most satisfactory
+handsaw for all kinds of lumber. Setting the teeth of this kind of saw
+is best done with a hand lever set. The plunger pin should be carefully
+adjusted to bend the teeth just far enough to give the necessary set.
+For general work a saw needs more set than is needed for kiln-dried
+stuff. The teeth should cut a kerf just wide enough to clear the blade.
+Anything more is a waste of time and muscle. It is better to work from
+both sides of the saw by first setting one side the whole length of the
+blade. Then reverse the saw in the clamp and set the alternate teeth in
+the same manner. There should be a good solid stop between the handles
+of the set to insure equal pressure against each sawtooth. The pin
+should be carefully placed against each tooth at exactly the same spot
+every time and the pressure should be the same for each tooth.
+
+The best saw-sets for fine tooth saws are automatic so far as it is
+possible to make them so, but the skill of the operator determines the
+quality of the work. The reason for setting a saw before jointing is to
+leave the flattened ends of the teeth square with the blade after the
+jointing and filing is completed.
+
+_Jointing a Handsaw._--After the saw has been set it must be jointed to
+square the teeth and to even them to equal length, and to keep the saw
+straight on the cutting edge. Some woodworkers give their saws a slight
+camber, or belly, to correspond with the sway-back. The camber
+facilitates cutting to the bottom in mitre-box work without sawing into
+the bed piece of the box. It also throws the greatest weight of the
+thrust upon the middle teeth. A saw with even teeth cuts smoother, runs
+truer and works faster than a saw filed by guess. It is easy to file a
+saw when all of the teeth are the same length and all have the same set.
+Anyone can do a good job of filing if the saw is made right to begin
+with, but no one can put a saw in good working order with a
+three-cornered file as his only tool.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 95.--Saw Jointer. The wooden block is about two
+inches square by 12" or 14" in length. The block is made true and
+scribed carefully to have the ripsaw slot square, straight and true. The
+file is set into a mortise square with the block.]
+
+_Filing the Handsaw._--First comes the three-cornered file. It should be
+just large enough to do the work. There is no economy in buying larger
+files thinking that each of the three corners will answer the same
+purpose as a whole file of smaller size. In the first place the small
+file is better controlled and will do better work. In the second place
+the three corners are needed to gum the bottoms of the divisions
+between the teeth. There is much more wear on the corners than on the
+sides of a saw-file. Also the corners of a small file are more acute,
+which means a good deal in the shape of the finished teeth.
+
+After the saw is carefully set and jointed, clamp it in the saw vise and
+file one side of the saw from heel to point. Then reverse the saw in the
+saw clamp and file the other side, being careful to keep the bevel of
+each tooth the same. It is better to stop filing just before the tooth
+comes to a point. A triangular or diamond shaped point will cut faster
+and leave a smoother saw kerf and last longer than a needle point.
+
+As the tooth of a crosscut saw is filed away from both edges, it is
+necessary to make allowances when filing the first side, otherwise some
+of the teeth will come to a sharp point before the gumming is deep
+enough.
+
+_Using a Handsaw._--Anyone can saw a board square both up and down and
+crossways by following a few simple rules. Have the board supported on
+the level by two well made saw-benches 24" high. Stand up straight as
+possible and look down on both sides of the saw blade. Use long even
+strokes and let the saw play lightly and evenly through the saw cut.
+
+Do not cut the mark out; cut to it on the waste end, or further end, if
+there are more pieces to be cut from the board. The saw kerf is about
+3/32" wide for a nine-tooth saw set for unkilned lumber or dimension
+stuff. If both saw kerfs are taken from one piece and none from the next
+then one length will be 3/16" shorter than the other.
+
+For practice it is a good plan to make two marks 3/32" apart and cut
+between them. Use a sharp-pointed scratchawl to make the marks. A
+penknife blade is next best, but it must be held flat against the blade
+of the square, otherwise it will crowd in or run off at a tangent.
+
+_Setting a Circular Saw._--A good saw-set for a circular saw may be made
+out of an old worn-out flat file. Heat the file in the forge fire to
+draw the temper and anneal it by covering it with ashes. Smooth it on
+the grindstone. Put it in the vise and file a notch in one edge. The
+notch should be just wide enough to fit loosely over the point of a
+sawtooth. The notch should be just deep enough to reach down one-quarter
+of the length of the tooth.
+
+Make a saw-set gauge out of a piece of flat iron or steel one inch wide
+and about four inches long. File a notch into and parallel to one edge
+at one corner, about one-sixteenth of an inch deep from the edge and
+about half an inch long measuring from the end. With the home-made
+saw-set bend the saw teeth outward until the points just miss the iron
+gauge in the corner notch. The edges of the gauge should be straight and
+parallel and the notch should be parallel with the edge. In use the edge
+of the gauge is laid against the side of the saw so the projecting tooth
+reaches into the notch. One-sixteenth of an inch may be too much set for
+a small saw but it won't be too much for a 24-inch wood saw working in
+green cord wood.
+
+_Jointing a Circular Saw._--Run the saw at full speed. Lay a 14-inch
+file flat on the top of the saw table at right angles to the saw. Move
+the file slowly and carefully towards the saw until it ticks against the
+teeth. Hold the file firmly by both ends until each sawtooth ticks
+lightly against the file. A saw in good working order needs very little
+jointing, but it should have attention every time the saw is set and it
+should be done after setting and before filing.
+
+_Filing a Circular Saw._--The teeth of a crosscut circular saw point a
+little ahead. Sometimes they point so nearly straight out from the
+center that you have to look twice to determine which way the saw should
+run. There are plenty of rules for the pitch of sawteeth, but they are
+subject to many qualifications. What interests a farmer is a saw that
+will cut green poles and crooked limbs into stove lengths with the least
+possible delay. A saw 20 inches in diameter will cut a stick eight
+inches through without turning it to finish the cut. The front or
+cutting edges of the teeth of a 24-inch crosscut circular saw for wood
+sawing should line to a point a little back from the center. This may
+not sound definite enough for best results, so the more particular
+farmers may use a straight edge. Select a straight stick about half an
+inch square. Rest it on top of or against the back of the saw mandrel
+and shape the forward edges of the teeth on a line with the upper side
+or rear side of the straight edge. The teeth will stand at the proper
+pitch when the saw is new, if it was designed for sawing green wood. If
+it works right before being filed, then the width of the straight edge
+may be made to conform to the original pitch and kept for future use.
+
+The gumming is done with the edge of the file while filing the front
+edges of the teeth. It is finished with the flat side of the file while
+filing the rear edges of the teeth. The depth, or length, of the teeth
+should be kept the same as the manufacturer designed them. A wood saw
+works best when the front edges of the teeth have but little bevel. The
+back edges should have more slant. The teeth should have three-cornered
+or diamond-shaped points. Needle points break off when they come against
+knots or cross-grained hardwood. Short teeth do no cutting. Single cut
+flat files are used for circular saws. The file should fit the saw. It
+should be about 1/8" wider than the length of the front side of the
+teeth. The back edges require that the file shall have some play to show
+part of the tooth while the file is in motion. Large files are clumsy.
+The file should be carefully selected.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 96.--How to Sharpen a Hoe. Grinding a hoe is
+difficult, but filing it sharp and straight at the cutting edge is easy.
+If the hoe chatters when held in the vise, spring a wooden block under
+the blade. Use false vise jaws to prevent dinging the shank.]
+
+_How to Sharpen a Hoe._--It is quicker and more satisfactory to file a
+hoe sharp than to grind it on the grindstone. The shank of the hoe must
+be held firmly in the vise and there should be a solid block of wood
+under the blade of the hoe, a little back from the edge; to keep the
+file from chattering. A single cut flat file is the best to use. It
+should be long enough to be easily held in one position to make a
+smooth, even bevel at the same angle to the face of the blade all the
+way across. To make sure not to file a feather edge it is better to
+joint the hoe to begin with, then to stop filing just before reaching
+the edge. If the edge be left 1/64" thick it will wear longer and work
+more easily after having been used an hour or two than it will if the
+edge be filed thin. This is especially noticeable when the ground
+contains small stones. Hoes are sharpened from the under side only. The
+inside of a hoe blade should be straight clear to the edge. Hoes should
+always have sharp corners. When working around valuable plants you want
+to know exactly where the corner of the hoe is when the blade is buried
+out of sight in the ground.
+
+_Shoeing Farm Horses._--Farmers have no time or inclination to make a
+business of shoeing horses, but there are occasions when it is necessary
+to pull a shoe or set a shoe and to do it quickly. Shoeing tools are not
+numerous or expensive. They consist first of a tool box, with a stiff
+iron handle made in the shape of a bale. The box contains a shoeing
+hammer, hoof rasp, hoof knife, or paring-knife, as it is usually called,
+and two sizes of horseshoe-nails. Sometimes a foot pedestal is used to
+set the horse's front foot on when the horse wants to bear down too
+hard, but this pedestal is not necessary in the farm shop.
+
+There are flat-footed horses that cannot work even in summer without
+shoes. Common sense and shoeing tools are the only requirements
+necessary to tack on a plate without calks. Shoes to fit any foot may be
+purchased at so much a pound.
+
+A paring-knife is used to level the bottom of the hoof so that it will
+have an even bearing on the shoe all the way round. It is not desirable
+to pare the frog or the braces in the bottom of a horse's foot. If the
+foot is well cupped, a little of the horny rim may be taken off near the
+edges. Generally it is necessary to shorten the toe. This is done partly
+with the hoof chisel and rasp after the shoe is nailed fast. Sometimes
+one-fourth of an inch is sufficient; at other times a horse's hoof is
+very much improved by taking off one-half inch or more of the toe growth
+either from the bottom or the front or both.
+
+Like all other mechanical work the shoeing of a horse's foot should be
+studied and planned before starting. A long toe is a bad leverage to
+overcome when pulling a heavy load. At the same time, nature intended
+that a horse should have considerable toe length as a protection to the
+more tender parts of the foot. And the pastern bone should play at the
+proper angle.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 97.--Tool Box for Field Use. The long open side is
+for tools. On the other side of the center partition bolts, keys,
+screws, nails, bits of wire, leather, tin, etc., are kept in the
+different divisions.]
+
+_Handy Tool Box._--A tool box with a high lengthwise partition in the
+middle and a handle in the middle of the top of the partition is the
+handiest tool box ever used on a farm. At haying and harvest time it
+should be fitted with the common tools required about haying and harvest
+machinery. One side is partitioned into square boxes to hold split wire
+keys, washers, bolts, rivets, and a collection of wire nails, bits of
+copper wire, a leather punch, etc. On the other side of the box is an
+assortment of wrenches, cold chisels, punches, pliers and hammers. This
+tool box belongs in the wagon that accompanies the outfit to the field.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 98.--Melting Ladle. Babbitting shaft boxing
+requires a melting ladle. It should be about five inches across the bowl
+and about three inches deep. That is a good size to heat in a forge
+fire.]
+
+_Babbitting Boxings._--Babbitting boxings is one of the repair jobs on
+the farm. Some men are careless about oiling; sometimes sand cuts them
+out. Every year some boxings need rebabbitting. The melting ladle should
+be large enough to pour the largest box. Usually a 5-inch bowl is about
+right. A large ladle will pour a small box but a small ladle won't pour
+a large one. In cold weather the shaft and box should be warmed to
+insure an even flow of metal. Pasteboard is fitted against the shaft
+when pouring the cap or top half of the box. Pasteboard is fitted around
+the shaft at the ends of the box to keep the melted metal from running
+out. Never use clay or putty, it is too mussy and the babbitt is made
+rough and uneven at the edges. Some skill is required to fit either wood
+or metal close enough to prevent leaks and to do a neat job.
+
+If the boxing is small, both top and bottom may be poured at once by
+making holes through the dividing pasteboard. The holes must be large
+enough to let the melted metal through and small enough to break apart
+easily when cold.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER TO DRIVE MODERN FARM MACHINERY
+
+
+At one time ninety-seven per cent of the population of the United States
+got their living directly from tilling the soil, and the power used was
+oxen and manual labor. At the present time probably not more than
+thirty-five per cent of our people are actively engaged in agricultural
+pursuits. And the power problem has been transferred to horses, steam,
+gasoline, kerosene and water power, with electricity as a power
+conveyor.
+
+Fifty years ago a farmer was lucky if he owned a single moldboard
+cast-iron plow that he could follow all day on foot and turn over one,
+or at most, two acres. The new traction engines are so powerful that it
+is possible to plow sixty feet in width, and other machines have been
+invented to follow the tractor throughout the planting and growing
+seasons to the end of the harvest. The tractor is supplemented by
+numerous smaller powers. All of which combine to make it possible for
+one-third of the people to grow enough to feed the whole American family
+and to export a surplus to Europe.
+
+At the same time, the standard of living is very much higher than it was
+when practically everyone worked in the fields to grow and to harvest
+the food necessary to live.
+
+Farm machinery is expensive, but it is more expensive to do without.
+Farmers who make the most money are the ones who use the greatest power
+and the best machinery. Farmers who have a hard time of it are the ones
+who use the old wheezy hand pump, the eight-foot harrow and the walking
+plow. The few horses they keep are small and the work worries them. The
+owner sympathizes with his team and that worries him. Worry is the
+commonest form of insanity.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 99.--Flail, the oldest threshing machine, still
+used for threshing pedigreed seeds to prevent mixing. The staff is seven
+or eight feet long and the swiple is about three feet long by two and
+one-half inches thick in the middle, tapering to one and one-half inches
+at the ends. The staff and swiple are fastened together by rawhide
+thongs.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 100.--Bucket Yoke. It fits around the neck and
+over the shoulders. Such human yokes have been used for ages to carry
+two buckets of water, milk or other liquids. The buckets or pails should
+nearly balance each other. They are steadied by hand to prevent
+slopping.]
+
+At a famous plowing match held at Wheatland, Illinois, two interesting
+facts were brought out. Boys are not competing for furrow prizes and the
+walking plow has gone out of fashion. The plowing at the Wheatland
+plowing match was done by men with riding plows. Only one boy under
+eighteen years was ready to measure his ability against competition. The
+attendance of farmers and visitors numbered about three thousand, which
+shows that general interest in the old-fashioned plowing match is as
+keen as ever. A jumbo tractor on the grounds proved its ability to draw
+a big crowd and eighteen plows at the same time. It did its work well
+and without vulgar ostentation. Lack of sufficient land to keep it busy
+was the tractor's only disappointment, but it reached out a strong
+right arm and harrowed the furrows down fine, just to show that it
+"wasn't mad at nobody."
+
+[Illustration: Figure 101.--Well Sweep. The length of the sweep is
+sufficient to lower the bucket into the water and to raise it to the
+coping at the top of the brickwork. The rock on the short end of the
+sweep is just heavy enough to balance the bucket full of water.]
+
+Modern farm methods are continually demanding more power. Larger
+implements are being used and heavier horses are required to pull them.
+A great deal of farm work is done by engine power. Farm power is
+profitable when it is employed to its full capacity in manufacturing
+high-priced products. It may be profitable also in preventing waste by
+working up cheap materials into valuable by-products. The modern,
+well-managed farm is a factory and it should be managed along
+progressive factory methods. In a good dairy stable hay, straw, grains
+and other feeds are manufactured into high-priced cream and butter.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 102.--Wire Stretcher. A small block and tackle
+will stretch a single barb-wire tight enough for a fence. By using two
+wire snatches the ends of two wires may be strained together for
+splicing.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 103.--Block and Tackle. The rope is threaded into
+two double blocks. There is a safety stop that holds the load at any
+height.]
+
+Farming pays in proportion to the amount of work intelligently applied
+to this manner of increasing values. It is difficult to make a profit
+growing and selling grain. Grain may sell for more than the labor and
+seed, but it takes so much vitality from the land that depreciation of
+capital often is greater than the margin of apparent profit. When grains
+are grown and fed to live-stock on the farm, business methods demand
+better buildings and more power, which means that the farmer is
+employing auxiliary machinery and other modern methods to enhance
+values.
+
+In other manufacturing establishments raw material is worked over into
+commercial products which bring several times the amount of money paid
+for the raw material.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 104.--Farm Hoists. Two styles of farm elevating
+hoists are shown in this illustration. Two very different lifting jobs
+are also shown.]
+
+The principle is the same on the farm except that when a farmer raises
+the raw material he sells it to himself at a profit. When he feeds it to
+live-stock and sells the live-stock he makes another profit. When the
+manure is properly handled and returned to the soil he is making another
+profit on a by-product.
+
+Farming carried on in this way is a complicated business which requires
+superior knowledge of business methods and principles. In order to
+conduct the business of farming profitably the labor problem has to be
+met. Good farm help is expensive. Poor farm help is more expensive.
+While farm machinery also is expensive, it is cheaper than hand labor
+when the farmer has sufficient work to justify the outlay. It is
+tiresome to have agricultural writers ding at us about the superior acre
+returns of German farms. German hand-made returns may be greater per
+acre, but one American farmhand, by the use of proper machinery, will
+produce more food than a whole German family.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 105.--Two Powerful Winches. The one to the left is
+used for pulling small stumps or roots in the process of clearing land.
+The rope runs on and off the drum to maintain three or four laps or
+turns. The winch to the right is used for hoisting well drilling tools
+or to hang a beef animal. The rope winds on the drum in two layers if
+necessary.]
+
+
+DOG CHURN
+
+Even the dog works on some farms. A dog is a nuisance among dairy
+cattle, but he can be made to earn his salt at churning time. All
+mechanism in connection with dog power must be light. It also is
+necessary to eliminate the friction as much as possible.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 106.--Dog Churn Power. A wheel keyed to an iron
+shaft is placed at an angle as shown. The weight of the dog turns the
+wheel and power is conveyed to the churn by a light rope belt. It is
+necessary to confine the dog between stationary partitions built like a
+stall over the wheel.]
+
+The best way to make a dog power is to use a light wooden sulky wheel
+for the revolving turn table. Next best to the sulky wheel is a light
+buggy wheel. The wheel is made fast to an upright iron shaft that is
+stepped into an iron oil well at the bottom and inclined at an angle of
+about fifteen degrees to give the necessary power. To steady the top of
+the shaft a light boxing is used, preferably a ball-bearing bicycle race
+to reduce friction. Power is conveyed to the churn by means of a grooved
+pulley on the top of the shaft. A small, soft rope or heavy string belt
+runs from this pulley to a similar pulley connected with the churn.
+
+Dogs learn to like the work when fed immediately after the churning is
+finished. Dogs have been known to get on to the power wheel to call
+attention to their hungry condition. This calls to mind the necessity
+of arranging a brake to stop the wheel to let the dog off. When the
+wheel is running light, the dog cannot let go.
+
+A spring brake to wear against the iron tire of the wheel is the most
+satisfactory. The brake may be tripped and set against the tire
+automatically by a small lever and weight attached to the underside of
+the wheel. When the speed is too fast the weight swings out and sets the
+brake. When the speed slackens the weight drops back towards the center
+and releases the brake. When the speed is about right the weight swings
+between the two spring catches.
+
+
+BULL TREADMILL
+
+On dairy farms it is common to see a valuable pure bred bull working a
+treadmill for exercise and to pump water. Sometimes he turns the
+cream-separator, but the motion is too unsteady for good results.
+Treadmills for this purpose are very simple. The mechanism turns a
+grooved pulley which propels a rope power conveyor. The rope belt may be
+carried across the yards in any direction and to almost any distance.
+Bull treadmills consist of a framework of wood which carries an endless
+apron supported on rollers. The apron link chains pass around and turn
+two drumhead sprocket-wheels at the upper end and an idler drum at the
+lower end. The sprocket-wheel drum shaft is geared to an auxiliary shaft
+which carries a grooved pulley. A rope belt power conveyor runs in this
+groove and carries power from the bull pen to the pump.
+
+Bull tread powers usually have smooth inclined lags, because a bull's
+steps on the tread power are naturally uneven and irregular. This
+construction gives an even straight tread to the travel surface. To
+prevent slipping, soft wooden strips are nailed onto the lags at the
+lower edges. Even incline tread blocks or lags are also recommended for
+horses that are not shod and for all animals with split hoofs. The
+traveling apron of the power is placed on an incline and the treads are
+carried around the two drums at the upper and lower ends of the frame by
+means of endless chains. There is a governor attachment which regulates
+the speed and prevents the machinery from "running away."
+
+[Illustration: Figure 107.--Bull Tread Power. Treadmills have gone out
+of fashion. Too much friction was the cause, but a mill like this is
+valuable to exercise a pure bred bull. Some dairymen make him pump
+water.]
+
+The simplest governor is made on the two-ball governor principle with
+weights on opposite levers. The governor is attached to two opposite
+spokes in the flywheel. As the speed increases the weights move outward
+because of their centrifugal force. This motion operates a brake lever
+to retard or stop the flywheel. When the machine stops an opposite
+weight rests against the flywheel until it starts in motion again, so
+the apron cannot be moved until the brake is released. This is necessary
+to get the animal on or off of the platform while it is at rest to avoid
+accidents. The usual incline is a rise of two feet in eight when power
+is wanted. This pitch compels the bull to lift one-quarter of his own
+weight and it may be too severe for a heavy animal. The endless apron is
+an endless hill climb to the bull. Treadmills are not economical of
+power because there are so many bearings to generate friction.
+
+
+WINDMILLS
+
+Wind power is the cheapest power we have. A windmill properly
+proportioned to its work is a great help, especially when it is attached
+to a good pump for the purpose of lifting water into an elevated tank
+from which it is piped under pressure for domestic purposes and for
+watering live-stock.
+
+You can have considerable patience with a windmill if you only depend
+upon it for pumping water, provided you have a tank that will hold a
+week's supply to be drawn during a dry, hot time when every animal on
+the farm demands a double allowance of water. That is the time when a
+farmer hates to attach himself to the pump handle for the purpose of
+working up a hickory breeze. That also is the time when the wind
+neglects a fellow.
+
+A good windmill is useful up to about one-third of its rated capacity,
+which is the strongest argument for buying a mill larger than at first
+seems necessary. Some men have suffered at some time in their lives with
+the delusion that they could tinker with a poorly constructed windmill
+and make it earn its oil. They have never waked up to a full
+realization of their early delusion. It is a positive fact that all
+windmills are not lazy, deceitful nor wholly unreliable. When properly
+constructed, rightly mounted and kept in good repair, they are not prone
+to work in a crazy fashion when the tank is full and loaf when it is
+empty. There are thousands of windmills that have faithfully staid on
+the job continuously twenty-four hours per day for five or ten years at
+a stretch, all the time working for nothing year after year without
+grumbling, except when compelled to run without oil. At such times the
+protest is loud and nerve racking.
+
+A good windmill with suitable derrick, pump and piping may cost $150.
+The yearly expense figures something like this:
+
+  Interest on investment at 6% per annum   $ 9.00
+  Depreciation 10%                          15.00
+  Oil                                        1.00
+  Repairs                                    3.00
+
+making a total of $28, which is less than $2.50 per month for the work
+of elevating a constant supply of water for the house, stable and
+barnyard.
+
+
+ONE-MULE PUMP
+
+A home-made device that is much used on live-stock ranches in California
+is shown in the illustration. This simple mechanism is a practical means
+for converting circular mule motion into vertical reciprocating pump
+action. A solid post is set rather deep in the ground about twelve feet
+from the well. This post is the fulcrum support of the walking-beam. One
+end of the walking-beam reaches to the center line of the well, where it
+connects with the pump shaft. The other end of the walking-beam is
+operated by a pitman shaft connecting with a crank wrist pin near the
+ground. A round iron shaft similar to a horsepower tumbling rod about
+ten or twelve feet in length and one and a half inches in diameter is
+used to convey power and motion to the pitman shaft.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 108.--Mule Pump. A practical home-made power to
+pump water for live-stock. It is used where the water-table is within 20
+feet of the surface of the ground. The drawing shows a post in the
+center which supports the walking-beam and acts as a fulcrum. A
+mowing-machine wheel is keyed to one end of a round iron shaft. The
+other end of this shaft turns in a boxing which is swiveled to a short
+post as shown at _B_. See also detail "_B_.". The two plunger shafts are
+shown at _A_ _A_. The mule is hitched to the round iron shaft near the
+traveling wheel by means of a round hook. As the mule walks around in a
+circle the shaft revolves and operates the crank _B_. There are side
+guys not shown in the drawing to keep the walking-beam in position.]
+
+A mowing-machine wheel is keyed to the outer end of the tumbling rod. At
+the crank end is a babbitted boxing with a bolt attachment reaching down
+into the top of a short post set solidly into the ground, directly under
+the inner end of the walking-beam. This bolt permits the boxing to
+revolve with a swivel motion. Another swivel connects the upper end of
+the pitman shaft with the walking-beam. The whiffletree is attached to
+the tumbling rod by an iron hook. This hook is held in place by two iron
+collars fastened to the tumbling rod by means of keys or set-screws.
+The mowing-machine drive wheel travels around in a circle behind the
+mule turning the shaft which works the walking-beam and operates the
+pump. It would be difficult to design another horse or mule power so
+cheap and simple and effective. The mule grows wise after a while, so it
+is necessary to use a blindfold, or he will soldier on the job. With a
+little encouragement from a whip occasionally a mule will walk around
+and around for hours pulling the mowing-machine wheel after him.
+
+
+HORSEPOWER
+
+One horsepower is a force sufficient to lift 33,000 pounds one foot high
+in one minute.
+
+The term "horsepower" in popular use years ago meant a collection of
+gear-wheels and long levers with eight or ten horses solemnly marching
+around in a circle with a man perched on a platform in the center in the
+capacity of umpire.
+
+This was the old threshing-machine horsepower. It was the first real
+success in pooling many different farm power units to concentrate the
+combined effort upon one important operation.
+
+Not many horses are capable of raising 33,000 pounds one foot in one
+minute every minute for an hour or a day. Some horses are natural-born
+slackers with sufficient acumen to beat the umpire at his own game. Some
+horses walk faster than others, also horses vary in size and capacity
+for work. But during a busy time each horse was counted as one
+horsepower, and they were only eight or ten in number. And it so
+developed that the threshing horsepower had limitations which the
+separator outgrew.
+
+The old threshing horsepower has been superseded by steam engines and
+gasoline and kerosene power, but horses are more important than ever.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 109.--Horse Power, showing the manner of attaching
+the braced lever to the bull wheel.]
+
+Farm horses are larger and more powerful; they are better kept, better
+trained, and hitched to better machinery, because it pays. One man
+drives three 1,600-pound draft horses as fast as he used to drive two
+1,000-pound general-purpose horses. The three drafters make play of a
+heavy load, while the two light horses worry themselves poor and
+accomplish little. Modern farm machinery is heavier, it cuts wider and
+digs deeper and does more thorough work. Modern farm requirements go
+scientifically into the proper cultivation and preparation of soil to
+increase fertility. Old methods used up fertility until the land refused
+to produce profitably.
+
+Although the old familiar horsepower has been greatly outclassed, it has
+not been discarded. There are many small horsepowers in use for
+elevating grain, baling hay, cutting straw for feed and bedding,
+grinding feed and other light work where engine power is not available.
+
+
+WATER-POWER
+
+Water-power is the most satisfactory of all kinds of stationary farm
+power, when a steady stream of water may be harnessed to a good
+water-wheel. It is not a difficult engineering feat to throw a dam
+across a small stream and take the water out into a penstock to supply
+water to a turbine water-wheel. In the first place it is necessary to
+measure the flow of water to determine the size of water-wheel which may
+be used to advantage. In connection with the flow of water it is also
+important to know the fall. Water is measured by what is termed a
+"weir." It is easily made by cutting an oblong notch in a plank placed
+across the stream, as a temporary dam which raises the water a few
+inches to get a steady, even flow of water through the notch so that
+calculations may be made in miner's inches. The term "miner's inch" is
+not accurate, but it comes near enough for practical purposes. Measuring
+the volume of water should be done during a dry time in summer.
+
+The fall of the stream is easily measured by means of a carpenter's
+level and a stake. The stake is driven into the ground at a point
+downstream where water may be delivered to the wheel and a tailrace
+established to the best advantage. Sighting over the level to a mark on
+the stake will show the amount of fall. When a manufacturer of
+water-wheels has the amount of water and the fall, he can estimate the
+size and character of wheel to supply. The penstock may be vertical or
+placed on a slant. A galvanized pipe sufficient to carry the necessary
+amount of water may be laid along the bank, but it should be thoroughly
+well supported because a pipe full of water is heavy, and settling is
+likely to break a joint.
+
+Galvanized piping for a farm penstock is not necessarily expensive. It
+may be made at any tin shop and put together on the ground in sections.
+The only difficult part about it is soldering the under side of the
+joints, but generally it may be rolled a little to one side until the
+bottom of the seam is reached.
+
+The most satisfactory way to carry power from the water-wheel to the
+farm buildings is by means of electricity. The dynamo may be coupled to
+the water-wheel and wires carried any required distance.
+
+The work of installing electric power machinery is more a question of
+detail than mechanics or electrical engineering. The different
+appliances are bought from the manufacturer and placed where they are
+needed. It is principally a question of expense and quantity of
+electricity needed or developed. If the current is used for power, then
+a motor is connected with the dynamo and current from the dynamo drives
+the motor. A dynamo may be connected with the water-wheel shaft at the
+source of power and the motor may be placed in the power-house or any of
+the other buildings.
+
+The cost of farm waterworks depends principally on the amount of power
+developed. Small machinery may be had for a few hundred dollars, but
+large, powerful machinery is expensive. If the stream is large and
+considerable power is going to waste it might pay to put in a larger
+plant and sell current to the neighbors for electric lighting and for
+power purposes. Standard machinery is manufactured for just such plants.
+
+The question of harnessing a stream on your own land when you control
+both banks is a simple business proposition. If anyone else can set up a
+plausible plea of riparian rights, flood damage, interstate
+complications or interference with navigation, it then becomes a
+question of litigation to be decided by some succeeding generation.
+
+
+STEAM BOILER AND ENGINE
+
+Farm engines usually are of two different types, steam engines and
+gasoline or oil engines. Steam stationary engines are used on dairy
+farms because steam is the best known means of keeping a dairy clean and
+sanitary. The boiler that furnishes power to run the engine also
+supplies steam to heat water and steam for sterilizing bottles, cans and
+other utensils.
+
+For some unaccountable reason steam engines are more reliable than
+gasoline engines. At the same time they require more attention, that is,
+the boilers do. Steam engines have been known to perform their tasks
+year after year without balking and without repairs or attention of any
+kind except to feed steam and oil into the necessary parts, and
+occasionally repack the stuffing boxes.
+
+On the other hand, boilers require superintendence to feed them with
+both fuel and water. The amount of time varies greatly. If the boiler is
+very much larger than the engine, that is, if the boiler is big enough
+to furnish steam for two such engines, it will furnish steam for one
+engine and only half try. This means that the fireman can raise 40 or 60
+pounds of steam and attend to his other work around the dairy or barn.
+
+Where steam boilers are required for heating water and furnishing steam
+to scald cans and wash bottles, the boiler should be several horsepower
+larger than the engine requirements. There is no objection to this
+except that a large boiler costs more than a smaller one, and that more
+steam is generated than is actually required to run the engine. The kind
+of work required of a boiler and engine must determine the size and
+general character of the installation.
+
+Portable boilers and engines are not quite so satisfactory as
+stationary, but there are a great many portable outfits that give good
+satisfaction, and there is the advantage of moving them to the different
+parts of the farm when power is required for certain purposes.
+
+
+SMALL GASOLINE ENGINES
+
+A gasoline engine of 2-1/2 horsepower is the most useful size for a
+general purpose farm engine. It is convenient to run the pump,
+washing-machine, fanning-mill, cream-separator, grindstone, and other
+similar farm chores that have heretofore always been done by human
+muscle. A small engine may be placed on a low-down truck and moved from
+one building to another by hand. One drive belt 20 or 30 feet long,
+making a double belt reach of 12 or 15 feet, will answer for each
+setting.
+
+The engine once lined up to hitch onto the pulley of any stationary
+machine is all that is necessary. When the truck is once placed in
+proper position the wheels may be blocked by a casting of concrete
+molded into a depression in the ground in front and behind each wheel.
+These blocks are permanent so that the truck may be pulled to the same
+spot each time.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 110.--Kerosene Farm Engine. This is a very compact
+type of engine with heavy flywheels. A longer base might sit steadier on
+a wagon, but for stationary use on a solid concrete pier it gives good
+service.]
+
+A gasoline engine for farm use is expected to run by the hour without
+attention. For this reason it should have a good, reliable hit and miss
+governor to regulate the speed, as this type is the most economical in
+fuel. It should have a magneto in addition to a six-cell dry battery. It
+should be equipped with an impulse starter, a device that eliminates all
+starting troubles. The engine should be perfectly balanced so as to
+insure smooth running, which adds materially to the life of the engine.
+With a good, solid pump jack, a 2-1/2 horsepower engine will pump water
+until the tank is full, whether it requires one hour or half a day.
+
+It is easily moved to the dairy house to run the separator. As the
+cream-separator chore comes along regularly every night and every
+morning, the engine and truck would naturally remain inside of the dairy
+house more than any other place. If the dairy house is too small to let
+the engine in, then an addition is necessary, for the engine must be
+kept under cover. The engine house should have some artistic pretensions
+and a coat of paint.
+
+
+KEROSENE PORTABLE ENGINES
+
+The kerosene engine is necessarily of the throttle governor type in
+order to maintain approximately uniform high temperature at all times,
+so essential to the proper combustion of kerosene fuel. Therefore, a
+kerosene engine of the hit-and-miss type should be avoided. However,
+there are certain classes of work where a throttle governor engine is at
+a decided disadvantage, such as sawing wood, because a throttle governor
+engine will not go from light load to full load as quickly as will a
+hit-and-miss type, and consequently chokes down much easier, causing
+considerable loss of time.
+
+A general purpose portable kerosene engine is admirably suited to all
+work requiring considerable horsepower and long hours of service with a
+fairly steady load, such as tractor work, threshing, custom feed
+grinding, irrigating and silo filling. There will be a considerable
+saving in fuel bill over a gasoline engine if the engine will really run
+with kerosene, or other low-priced fuel, without being mixed with
+gasoline.
+
+In choosing a kerosene engine, particular attention should be paid to
+whether or not the engine can be run on all loads without smoking.
+Unless this can be done, liquid fuel is entering the cylinder which will
+cause excessive wear on the piston and rings. A good kerosene engine
+should show as clean an exhaust as when operating on gasoline and
+should develop approximately as much horsepower. Another feature is
+harmonizing the fuel oil and the lubricating oil so that one will not
+counteract the effects of the other.
+
+
+PORTABLE FARM ENGINE AND TRUCK
+
+[Illustration: Figure 111.--Portable Farm Engine. This engine is
+permanently mounted on a low wheel truck wagon. The saw frame is
+detachable and the same truck is used for spraying and other work.]
+
+A convenient arrangement for truck and portable power for spraying,
+sawing wood and irrigation pumping, is shown in the accompanying
+illustration. The truck is low down, which keeps the machinery within
+reach. The wheels are well braced, which tends to hold the outfit steady
+when the engine is running. The saw table is detachable. When removed,
+the spraying tank bolts on to the same truck frame; also the elevated
+table with the railing around it, where the men stand to spray large
+apple trees, is bolted onto the wagon bed.
+
+Spraying never was properly done until the powerful engine and high
+pressure tanks were invented. Spraying to be effective, should be fine
+as mist, which requires a pressure of 150 pounds. There may be a number
+of attachments to a spraying outfit of this kind. A pipe suspended under
+the frame with a nozzle for each row is used to spray potatoes,
+strawberry vines and other low down crops that are grown in rows. When
+not in use as a portable engine it is blocked firmly into place to run
+the regular stationary farm machinery.
+
+
+HYDRAULIC RAM
+
+The hydraulic ram is a machine that gets its power from the momentum of
+running water. A ram consists of a pipe of large diameter, an air
+chamber and another pipe of small diameter, all connected by means of
+valves to encourage the flow of water in two different directions. A
+supply of running water with a fall of at least two feet is run through
+a pipe several inches in diameter reaching from above the dam to the
+hydraulic ram, where part of the flow enters the air chamber of the ram.
+Near the foot of the large pipe, or at what might be called the
+tailrace, is a peculiarly constructed valve that closes when running
+water starts to pass through it. When the large valve closes the water
+stops suddenly, which causes a back-pressure sufficient to lift a
+check-valve to admit a certain amount of water from the large supply
+pipe into the air-chamber of the ram.
+
+After the flow of water is checked, the foot-valve drops of its own
+weight, which again starts the flow of water through the large pipe, and
+the process is repeated a thousand or a million times, each time forcing
+a little water through the check-valve into the air chamber of the ram.
+The water is continually being forced out into the small delivery pipe
+in a constant stream because of the steady pressure of the imprisoned
+air in the air-chamber which acts as a cushion. This imprisoned air
+compresses after each kick and expands between kicks in a manner
+intended to force a more or less steady flow of water through the small
+pipe. The air pressure is maintained by means of a small valve that
+permits a little air to suck in with the supply of water.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 112.--Hydraulic Ram. The upper drawing shows how
+to install the ram. The lower drawing is a detail section through the
+center of the ram. Water flows downhill through the supply pipe. The
+intermittent action of the valve forces a portion of the water through
+another valve into the air-chamber. Air pressure forces this water out
+through delivery pipe. Another valve spills the waste water over into
+the tailrace. An automatic air-valve intermittently admits air into the
+air-chamber.]
+
+Water may be conveyed uphill to the house by this means, sometimes to
+considerable distance. The size of the ram and its power to lift water
+depends upon the amount of water at the spring and the number of feet of
+fall. In laying the small pipe, it should be placed well down under
+ground to keep it cool in summer and to bury it beyond the reach of
+winter frost. At the upper end where the water is delivered a storage
+tank with an overflow is necessary, so the water can run away when not
+being drawn for use. A constant supply through a ram demands a constant
+delivery. It is necessary to guard the water intake at the dam. A fence
+protection around the supply pool to keep live-stock or wild animals out
+is the first measure of precaution. A fine screen surrounding the upper
+end of the pipe that supplies water to the ram is necessary to keep
+small trash from interfering with the valves.
+
+
+THE FARM TRACTOR
+
+Farm tractors are becoming practical. Most theories have had a try out,
+the junk pile has received many failures and the fittest are about to
+survive. Now, if the manufacturers will standardize the rating and the
+important parts and improve their selling organizations the whole nation
+will profit. The successful tractors usually have vertical engines with
+four cylinders. They are likely to have straight spur transmission
+gears, and a straight spur or chain drive, all carefully protected from
+dust. And they will have considerable surface bearing to avoid packing
+the soil. Some tractors carry their weight mostly upon the drive
+wheels--a principle that utilizes weight to increase traction. Other
+tractors exert a great deal of energy in forcing a small, narrow front
+steering-wheel through the soft ground. Any farmer who has pushed a
+loaded wheelbarrow knows what that means. Some kerosene tractors require
+a large percentage of gasoline. The driver may be as much to blame as
+the engine. But it should be corrected.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 113.--Tractor Transmission Gear. Spur gears are
+the most satisfactory for heavy work.]
+
+Manufacturers should do more educational work and talk less about the
+wonderfully marvelous and marvelously wonderful. Salesmen should study
+mechanics instead of oratory. Tractor efficiency should be rated
+practically instead of theoretically. The few actual reports of
+performance have emanated from tests with new machines in the hands of
+trained demonstrators. Manufacturers include belt power work among the
+virtues of farm tractors, and they enumerate many light jobs, such as
+running a cream-separator, sawing wood, pumping water and turning the
+fanning-mill. Well, a farm tractor can do such work--yes. So can an
+elephant push a baby carriage. If manufacturers would devise a practical
+means of using electricity as an intermediary, and explain to farmers
+how a day's energy may be stored in practical working batteries to be
+paid out in a week, then we could understand why we should run a 20
+horsepower engine to operate a cream-separator one hour at night and
+another hour in the morning.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 114.--Straight Transmission Gear, forward and
+chain drive reverse, for traction engine.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+DRIVEN MACHINES
+
+
+FARM WATERWORKS
+
+Every farm has its own water supply. Some are very simple, others are
+quite elaborate. It is both possible and practical for a farmer to have
+his own tap water under pressure on the same plan as the city. When good
+water is abundant within 75 feet of the surface of the ground the farm
+supply may be had cheaper and better than the city. Even deep well
+pumping is practical with good machinery rightly installed. Farm
+waterworks should serve the house and the watering troughs under a
+pressure of at least 40 pounds at the ground level. The system should
+also include water for sprinkling the lawn and for irrigating the
+garden. If strawberries or other intensive money crops are grown for
+market there should be sufficient water in the pipes to save the crop in
+time of drouth. These different uses should all be credited to the farm
+waterworks system pro rata, according to the amounts used by the
+different departments of the farm. The books would then prove that the
+luxury of hot and cold running water in the farmhouse costs less than
+the average city family pays.
+
+_Three Systems of Water Storage._--The first plan adopted for supplying
+water under pressure on farms was the overhead tank. The water was
+lifted up into the tank by a windmill and force pump. Because wind
+power proved rather uncertain farmers adopted the gasoline engine,
+usually a two horsepower engine.
+
+The second water storage plan was the air-tight steel water-tank to be
+placed in the cellar or in a pit underground. The same pump and power
+supplies the water for this system, but it also requires an air-pump to
+supply pressure to force the water out of the tank.
+
+The third plan forces the water out of the well by air pressure, as it
+is needed for use. No water pump is required in this system; the
+air-compressor takes its place.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 115.--The Farm Pump. It superseded the iron-bound
+bucket, the slimy old bucket, the malaria-lined bucket that hung in the
+well, but it wore out the women. Oil was never wasted on its creaking
+joints. Later it was fitted with a stuffing-box and an air-chamber, and
+the plunger was hitched to the windmill.
+
+To the right are shown two kinds of post-hole diggers. The upper digger
+is sometimes used to clear the fine earth out of the bottom of a hole
+dug by the lower digger.]
+
+_Suction-Pumps._--The word suction, when applied to pumps, is a
+misnomer. The principle upon which such pumps work is this: The pump
+piston drives the air out of the pump cylinder which produces a vacuum.
+The pressure of the atmosphere is about fifteen pounds per square inch
+of surface. This pressure forces sufficient water up through the
+so-called suction pipe to fill the vacuum in the cylinder. The water is
+held in the cylinder by foot-valves or clack-valves. As the piston again
+descends into the cylinder it plunges into water instead of air. A
+foot-valve in the bottom end of the hollow piston opens while going down
+and closes to hold and lift the water as the piston rises. Water from
+the well is forced by atmospheric pressure to follow the piston and the
+pump continues to lift water so long as the joints remain air-tight. The
+size of piston and length of stroke depend on the volume of water
+required, the height to which it must be lifted and the power available.
+A small power and a small cylinder will lift a small quantity of water
+to a considerable height. But increasing the volume of water requires a
+larger pump and a great increase in the power to operate it. The size of
+the delivery pipe has a good deal to do with the flow of water. When
+water is forced through a small pipe at considerable velocity, there is
+a good deal of friction. Often the amount of water delivered is reduced
+because the discharge pipe is too small. Doubling the diameter of a pipe
+increases its capacity four times. Square turns in the discharge pipe
+are obstructions; either the pipe must be larger or there will be a
+diminished flow of water. Some pump makers are particular to furnish
+easy round bends instead of the ordinary right-angled elbows. A great
+many pumps are working under unnecessary handicaps, simply because
+either the supply pipe or discharge pipe is not in proportion to the
+capacity of the pump, or the arrangement of the pipes is faulty.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 116.--Hand Force-Pump. Showing two ways of
+attaching wooden handles to hand force-pumps.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 117.--Rotary Pump. Twin water-chamber rotary pumps
+take water through the bottom and divide the supply, carrying half of
+the stream around to the left and the other half to the right. The two
+streams meet and are discharged at the top.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 118.--Section of Rotary Pump.]
+
+_Rotary Pumps._--A twin-chamber rotary pump admits water at the bottom
+of the chamber and forces it out through the top. Intermeshing cogs and
+rotary cams revolve outward from the center at the bottom, as shown by
+the arrows in Figure 118. The stream of water is divided by the cams, as
+it enters the supply pipe at the bottom, and half of the water is
+carried each way around the outsides of the double chamber. These
+streams of water meet at the top of the chamber, where they unite to
+fill the discharge pipe. These pumps operate without air-chambers and
+supply water in a continuous stream. They may be speeded up to throw
+water under high pressure for fire fighting, but for economy in ordinary
+use the speed is kept down to 200 revolutions, or thereabout. Rotary
+pumps are also made with one single water chamber cylinder. The pump
+head, or shaft, is placed a little off center. A double end cam moves
+the water. Both ends of the cam fit against the bore of the cylinder. It
+works loosely back and forth through a slotted opening in the pump head.
+As the shaft revolves the eccentric motion of the double cam changes the
+sizes of the water-pockets. The pockets are largest at the intake and
+smallest at the discharge. Rotary pumps are comparatively cheap, as
+regards first cost, but they are not economical of power. In places
+where the water-table is near the surface of the ground they will throw
+water in a very satisfactory manner. But they are more used in
+refineries and factories for special work, such as pumping oil and other
+heavy liquids.
+
+_Centrifugal Pumps._--The invention and improvement of modern
+centrifugal pumps has made the lifting of water in large quantities
+possible. These pumps are constructed on the turbine principle. Water is
+lifted in a continuous stream by a turbine wheel revolving under high
+speed. Water is admitted at the center and discharged at the outside of
+the casing. Centrifugal pumps work best at depths ranging from twenty to
+sixty feet. Manufacturers claim that farmers can afford to lift
+irrigation water sixty feet with a centrifugal pump driven by a kerosene
+engine.
+
+The illustrations show the principle upon which the pump works and the
+most approved way of setting pumps and engines. Centrifugal pumps
+usually are set in dry wells a few feet above the water-table. While
+these pumps have a certain amount of suction, it is found that short
+supply pipes are much more efficient. Where water is found in abundance
+within from 15 to 30 feet of the surface, and the wells may be so
+constructed that the pull-down, or the lowering of the water while
+pumping is not excessive, then it is possible to lift water profitably
+to irrigate crops in the humid sections. Irrigation in such cases, in
+the East, is more in the nature of insurance against drouth. Valuable
+crops, such as potatoes and strawberries, may be made to yield double,
+or better, by supplying plenty of moisture at the critical time in crop
+development. It is a new proposition in eastern farming that is likely
+to develop in the near future.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 119.--Centrifugal Pump. This style of pump is used
+in many places for irrigation. It runs at high speed, which varies
+according to the size of the pump. It takes water at the center and
+discharges it at the outside of the casing.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 120.--Air Pressure Pump. Pumping water by air
+pressure requires a large air container capable of resisting a pressure
+of 100 pounds per square inch. This illustration shows the pressure
+tank, engine, air-compressor, well and submerged pump.]
+
+_Air Pressure Pump._--Instead of pumping water out of the well some
+farmers pump air into the well to force the water out. A double
+compartment cylindrical tank is placed in the water in the well. These
+tanks are connected with the farm water distributing system to be
+carried in pipes to the house and to the stock stables. Air under a
+pressure of from 50 to 100 pounds per square inch is stored in a steel
+tank above ground. Small gas-pipes connect this air pressure tank with
+the air-chamber of the air-water tank in the well. A peculiar automatic
+valve regulates the air so that it enters the compartment that is
+filled, or partly filled, with water, and escapes from the empty one so
+the two compartments work together alternately. That is, the second
+chamber fills with water, while the first chamber is being drawn upon.
+Then the first chamber fills while the second is being emptied. This
+system will work in a well as small as eight inches in diameter, and to
+a depth of 140 feet. It might be made to work at a greater depth, but it
+seems hardly practical to do so for the reason that, after allowing for
+friction in the pipes, 100 pounds of air pressure is necessary to lift
+water 150 feet. An air tank of considerable size is needed to provide
+storage for sufficient air to operate the system without attention for
+several days. Careful engineering figures are necessary to account for
+the different depths of farm wells, and the various amounts of water and
+power required. For instance: The air tank already contains 1,000
+gallons of air at atmospheric pressure--then: Forcing 1,000 gallons of
+atmospheric air into a 1,000-gallon tank will give a working pressure of
+15 pounds per square inch; 2,000 gallons, 30 pounds; 3,000 gallons, 45
+pounds, and so on. Therefore, a pressure of 100 pounds in a 1,000-gallon
+tank (42 inches by 14 feet) would require 6,600 gallons of free
+atmosphere, in addition to the original 1,000 gallons, and the tank
+would then contain 1,000 gallons of compressed air under a working
+pressure of 100 pounds per square inch. A one cylinder compressor 6
+inches by 6 inches, operating at a speed of 200 R.P.M. would fill this
+tank to a working pressure of 100 pounds in about 50 minutes. One gallon
+of air will deliver one gallon of water at the faucet. But the air must
+have the same pressure as the water, and there must be no friction.
+Thus, one gallon of air under a working pressure of forty-five pounds,
+will, theoretically, deliver one gallon of water to a height of 100
+feet. But it takes three gallons of free air to make one gallon of
+compressed air at forty-five pounds pressure. If the lift is 100 feet,
+then 1,000 gallons of air under a pressure of forty-five pounds will
+theoretically deliver 1,000 gallons of water. Practically, the air tank
+would have to be loaded to a very much greater pressure to secure the
+1,000 gallons of water before losing the elasticity of the compressed
+air. If one thousand gallons of water is needed on the farm every day,
+then the air pump would have to work about one hour each morning. This
+may not be less expensive than pumping the water directly, but it offers
+the advantage of water fresh from the well. Pure air pumped into the
+well tends to keep the water from becoming stale.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 121.--(1) Single-Gear Pump Jack. This type of jack
+is used for wells from 20 to 40 feet deep. (2) Double-Gear, or
+Multiple-Gear Pump Jack. This is a rather powerful jack designed for
+deep wells or for elevating water into a high water-tank.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 122.--Post Pump Jack. This arrangement is used in
+factories when floor space is valuable. The wide-face driving-pulley is
+shown to the left.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 123.--Three Jacks for Different Purposes. At the
+left is a reverse motion jack having the same speed turning either right
+or left. The little jack in the center is for light work at high belt
+speed. To the right is a powerful jack intended for slow speeds such as
+hoisting or elevating grain.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 124.--Speed Jack, for reducing speed between
+engine and tumbling rod or to increase speed between tumbling rod and
+the driven machine.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 125.--The Speed Jack on the left is used either to
+reduce or increase tumbling rod speed and to reverse the motion. The
+Speed Jack on the right transfers power either from belt to tumbling rod
+or reverse. It transforms high belt speed to low tumbling rod speed, or
+vice versa.]
+
+_Pump Jacks and Speed Jacks._--Farm pumps and speed-reducing jacks are
+partners in farm pumping. Force-pumps should not run faster than forty
+strokes per minute. Considerable power is required to move the piston
+when the water is drawn from a deep well and forced into an overhead
+tank. Jacks are manufactured which bolt directly to the pump, and there
+are pumps and jacks built together. A pump jack should have good, solid
+gearing to reduce the speed. Spur-gearing is the most satisfactory.
+Bevel-gears are wasteful of power when worked under heavy loads. Power
+to drive a pump jack is applied to a pulley at least twelve inches in
+diameter with a four-inch face when belting is used. If a rope power
+conveyor is used, then pulleys of larger diameters are required to
+convey the same amount of power.
+
+Only general terms may be used in describing the farm pump, because the
+conditions differ in each case. Generally speaking, farmers fail to
+appreciate the amount of power used, and they are more than likely to
+buy a jack that is too light. Light machinery may do the work, but it
+goes to pieces quicker, while a heavy jack with solid connections will
+operate the pump year in and year out without making trouble. For
+increasing or reducing either speed or power some kind of jack is
+needed. All farm machines have their best speed. A certain number of
+revolutions per minute will accomplish more and do better work than any
+other speed. To apply power to advantage speed jacks have been invented
+to adjust the inaccuracies between driver and driven.
+
+
+IRRIGATION BY PUMPING
+
+The annual rainfall in the United States varies in different parts of
+the country from a few inches to a few feet. Under natural conditions
+some soils get too much moisture and some too little. Irrigation is
+employed to supply the deficiency and drainage, either natural or
+artificial, carries off the excess. Irrigation and drainage belong
+together. Irrigation fills the soil with moisture and drainage empties
+it. Thus, a condition is established that supplies valuable farm plants
+with both air and moisture. In the drier portions of the United States,
+nothing of value will grow without irrigation. In the so-called humid
+districts deficiency of moisture at the critical time reduces the yield
+and destroys the profit. The value of irrigation has been demonstrated
+in the West, and the practice is working eastward.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 126.--Centrifugal Pump Setting. When used for
+irrigation, centrifugal pumps are set as close to the ground water as
+practical.]
+
+Irrigation is the new handmaiden of prosperity. A rainy season is a
+bountiful one. Irrigation supplies the bounty without encouraging
+destructive fungus diseases. Where water is abundant within easy reach,
+pumping irrigation water is thoroughly practical. Improvements in pumps
+in recent years have increased their capacity and insured much greater
+reliability. A centrifugal pump is recommended for depths down to 75
+feet; beyond this depth the necessity of installing more expensive
+machinery places the business of pumping for irrigation on a different
+plane. A centrifugal pump will throw more water with less machinery than
+any other device, but like all other mechanical inventions, it has its
+limitations. In figuring economical pumping, the minimum quantity should
+be at least 100 gallons per minute, because time is an object, and
+irrigation, if done at all, should cover an area sufficient to bring
+substantial returns. Centrifugal pumps should be placed near the surface
+of the water in the well. For this reason, a large, dry well is dug down
+to the level of the water-table and the pump is solidly bolted to a
+concrete foundation built on the bottom of this well. A supply pipe may
+be extended any depth below the pump, but the standing water surface in
+the well should reach within a few feet of the pump. The pump and supply
+must be so well balanced against each other that the pull-down from
+pumping will not lower the water-level in the well more than twenty feet
+below the pump. The nearer the ground water is to the pump the better.
+
+The water well below the pump may be bored, or a perforated well pipe
+may be driven; or several well points may be connected. The kind of well
+must depend upon the condition of the earth and the nature of the water
+supply. Driven wells are more successful when water is found in a
+stratum of coarse gravel.
+
+Before buying irrigation machinery, it is a good plan to test the water
+supply by temporary means. Any good farm pump may be hitched to a
+gasoline engine to determine if the water supply is lasting or not.
+Permanent pumping machinery should deliver the water on high ground. A
+main irrigation ditch may be run across the upper end of the field. This
+ditch should hold the water high enough so it may be tapped at
+convenient places to run through the corrugations to reach the roots of
+the plants to be benefited. There are different systems of irrigation
+designed to fit different soils. Corrugations are the cheapest and the
+most satisfactory when soils are loose enough to permit the water to
+soak into the soil sideways, as well as to sink down. The water should
+penetrate the soil on both sides of the corrugations for distances of
+several inches. Corrugations should be straight and true and just far
+enough apart so the irrigation water will soak across and meet between.
+Some soils will wash or gully out if the fall is too rapid. In such
+cases it may be necessary to terrace the land by following the natural
+contour around the ridges so the water may flow gently. Where the fall
+is very slight, that is, where the ground is so nearly level that it
+slopes away less than six inches in a hundred feet, it becomes necessary
+to prepare the land by building checks and borders to confine the water
+for a certain length of time. Then it is let out into the next check. In
+the check and border system the check bank on the lower side has an
+opening which is closed during the soaking period with a canvas dam.
+When the canvas is lifted the water flows through and fills the next
+check. This system is more expensive, and it requires more knowledge of
+irrigation to get it started, and it is not likely to prove
+satisfactory in the East.
+
+For fruits and vegetables, what is known as the furrow system of
+irrigation is the most practical. An orchard is irrigated by plowing
+furrows on each side of each row of trees. The water is turned into
+these furrows and it runs across the orchard like so many little
+rivulets. Potatoes are irrigated on the same plan by running water
+through between the rows after the potatoes have been ridged by a double
+shovel-plow. This plan also works well with strawberries. After the land
+is prepared for irrigation, the expense of supplying water to a fruit
+orchard, strawberry patch or potato field is very little compared with
+the increase in yield. In fact, there are seasons when one irrigation
+will save the crop and produce an abundant yield, when otherwise it
+would have been almost a total loss.
+
+_Overhead Spray Irrigation._--The most satisfactory garden irrigation is
+the overhead spray system. Posts are set ten feet apart in rows 50 feet
+apart. Water pipes are laid on the tops of the posts and held loosely in
+position by large staples. These water pipes are perforated by drilling
+a line of small holes about three feet apart in a straight line along
+one side of the pipe. The holes are tapped and small brass nozzles are
+screwed in. The overhead pipes are connected with standpipes at the
+highest place, generally at the ends of the rows. The pipe-lines are
+loosely coupled to the standpipes to permit them to roll partly around
+to direct the hundreds of spray nozzles as needed.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 127.--Overhead Irrigation. Diagram showing the
+arrangement of pipes for irrigating one acre of land. The pipes are
+supported on posts six feet high.]
+
+Six feet high is sufficient to throw a fine mist or spray twenty-five
+feet, which is far enough to meet the spray from the next row, so the
+ground will be completely covered. To do this the pipes are rolled from
+one side to the other, through a 90 degree arc to throw the spray on
+both sides. The pipes usually are laid with a grade which follows down
+the slope of the land. A fall of one foot in fifty is sufficient. Water
+is always admitted at the upper end of each pipe-line to flow down by
+gravity, assisted by tank pressure. A pressure of about forty pounds is
+needed to produce a fine spray, and to send it across to meet the
+opposite jets. The little brass nozzles are drilled with about a
+one-eighth inch hollow. But the jet opening is small, about No. 20 W. G.
+This gives a wire-drawn stream that quickly vaporizes when it meets the
+resistance of the atmosphere. When properly installed a fine misty rain
+is created, which quickly takes the same temperature as the air, and
+settles so gently that the most delicate plants are not injured.
+
+_Quantity of Water to Use._--Good judgment is necessary in applying
+water to crops in regard to quantity, as well as the time of making
+application. Generally speaking, it is better to wait until the crop
+really needs moisture. When the pump is started give the crop plenty
+with the expectation that one irrigation will be sufficient. Much
+depends upon the amount of moisture in the soil; also the kind of crop
+and weather conditions enter into the problem. On sandy land that is
+very dry where drainage is good, water may be permitted to run in the
+corrugations for several days until the ground is thoroughly soaked.
+When potatoes are forming, or clover is putting down its big root
+system, a great deal of water is needed. Irrigation sufficient to make
+two inches of rainfall may be used to advantage for such crops under
+ordinary farming conditions. It is necessary after each irrigation to
+break the soil crust by cultivation to prevent evaporation. This is just
+as important after irrigation as it is after a rain shower. Also any
+little pockets that hold water must be carefully drained out, otherwise
+the crop will be injured by standing water. We are not supposed to have
+such pockets on land that has been prepared for irrigation.
+
+_Kind of Crops to Irrigate._--Wheat, oats, barley, etc., may be helped
+with one irrigation from imminent failure to a wealth of production. But
+these rainfall grain crops do not come under the general classification
+that interests the regular irrigation farmer beyond his diversity plans
+for producing considerable variety. Fruits, roots, clover, alfalfa,
+vegetables and Indian corn are money crops under irrigation. Certain
+seed crops yield splendidly when watered. An apple orchard properly
+cared for and irrigated just at the right time will pay from five
+hundred to a thousand dollars per acre. Small fruits are just as
+valuable. These successes account for the high prices of irrigated land.
+In the East and in the great Middle West, valuable crops are cut short
+or ruined by drouth when the fruit or corn is forming. It makes no
+difference how much rain comes along at other times in the year, if the
+roots cannot find moisture at the critical time, the yield is reduced
+often below the profit of raising and harvesting the crop. Strawberry
+blossoms shrivel and die in the blooming when rain fails. Irrigation is
+better than rain for strawberries. Strawberries under irrigation may be
+made to yield more bushels than potatoes under humid conditions. One
+hundred bushels of strawberries per acre sounds like a fairy tale, but
+it is possible on rich land under irrigation.
+
+The cost of pumping for irrigation, where the well and machinery is used
+for no other purpose, must be charged up to the crop. The items of
+expense are interest on the first cost of the pumping machinery,
+depreciation, upkeep and running expenses. On Eastern farms, however,
+where diversified farming is the business, this expense may be divided
+among the different lines of work. Where live-stock is kept, it is
+necessary to have a good, reliable water supply for the animals. A
+reservoir on high ground so water may be piped to the watering troughs
+and to the house is a great convenience. Also the same engine that does
+the pumping may be used for other work in connection with the farm, so
+that the irrigation pump engine, instead of lying idle ten or eleven
+months in the year, may be utilized to advantage and made to earn its
+keep. Well-water contains many impurities. For this reason, it is
+likely to be valuable for crop growing purposes in a wider sense than
+merely to supply moisture. Well-water contains lime, and lime is
+beneficial to most soils. It has been noticed that crops grow especially
+well when irrigated from wells.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 128.--Power Transmission. Circular motion is
+converted into reciprocating motion by the different lengths of the two
+pitman cranks which cause the upper wheel to oscillate. Power is carried
+to a distance by wires. To reduce friction the wires are supported by
+swinging hangers. Sometimes wooden rods are used instead of wires to
+lessen expansion and contraction.]
+
+_House and Barns Supplied from a Reservoir._--A farm reservoir may
+sometimes be built very cheaply by throwing a dam across a narrow hollow
+between two hills, or ridges. On other farms, it is necessary to scrape
+out a hole on the highest ground within reach. For easy irrigation a
+reservoir is necessary, and it is economical because the pump may work
+overtime and supply enough water so the irrigation may be done quickly
+and with sufficient water to make it effective. When the cost of the
+reservoir can be charged up to the different departments of the
+business, such as irrigation, live-stock and house use, the cost is
+divided and the profits are multiplied.
+
+_Power Conveyor._--Circular motion is converted into reciprocal motion
+to operate a pump at a distance from the engine. The short jack crank
+oscillates the driving pulley to move the conveyor wires back and forth.
+The distance to which power may be carried is limited by the expansion
+and contraction of the conveying wires. Wooden rods are better under
+extremes of temperature. Where an engine is used night and morning in
+the dairy house to run a cream separator, this kind of power
+transmission may be worked to operate the pump at the house. Light wire
+hangers will support the line wires or rods. They should be about three
+feet in length, made fast at top and bottom to prevent wear. The spring
+of a No. 10 wire three feet long is sufficient to swing the length of a
+pump stroke and the friction is practically nothing.
+
+
+ELECTRICITY ON THE FARM
+
+Electric current in some sections may be purchased from electric
+railways or city lighting plants. But the great majority of farms are
+beyond the reach of high tension transmission cables. In some places
+three or four farmers may club together and buy a small lighting plant
+to supply their own premises with both light and power. Unless an
+engineer is employed to run it trouble is sure to follow, because one
+family does all of the work and others share equally in the benefits.
+The solution is for each farmer to install a small plant of his own.
+The proposition is not so difficult as it sounds. Two-horsepower plants
+are manufactured for this very purpose. But there is more to it than
+buying a dynamo and a few lamp bulbs. A farm electric system should
+supply power to run all of the light stationary machinery about the
+farm, and that means storage batteries, and the use of one or more small
+electric motors. There are several ways to arrange the plant, but to
+save confusion it is better to study first the storage battery plan and
+to start with an engine large enough to pump water and run the dynamo at
+the same time. It is a good way to do two jobs at once--you store water
+enough in the supply tank to last twenty-four or forty-eight hours, and
+at the same time you store up sufficient electricity to run the
+cream-separator for a week. Electric power is the only power that is
+steady enough to get all of the cream.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 129.--Electric Power Plant. A practical farm
+generator and storage battery, making a complete farm electric plant
+that will develop and store electricity for instant use in any or all of
+the farm buildings.]
+
+Refrigeration is a profitable way to use electric power. There are small
+automatic refrigerator machines that maintain low temperatures to
+preserve food products. This branch of the work may be made profitable.
+Laundry work on the farm was principally hand labor until the small
+power washers and wringers were invented. Now a small electric motor
+takes the blue out of Monday, and the women wear smiles. Electric
+flatirons afford the greatest comfort on Tuesday. The proper heat is
+maintained continually until the last piece is ironed. Cooking by
+electricity is another great success. Some women buy separate cooking
+utensils, such as toasters, chafing dishes and coffee percolators.
+Others invest in a regular electric cooking range at a cost of fifty
+dollars and feel that the money was well spent. It takes about 100
+K.W.H. per month in hot weather to cook by electricity for a family of
+four. In winter, when heat is more of a luxury, the coal or wood range
+will save half of the electric current. Dishwashing by electricity is
+another labor-saver three times a day. Vacuum cleaners run by
+electricity take the dust and microbes out of floor rugs with less hand
+labor than pushing a carpet sweeper. Incubators are better heated by
+electricity than any other way. Brooders come under the same class.
+Sewing-machines were operated by electricity in sweatshops years
+ago--because it paid. Farm women are now enjoying the same privilege.
+
+Electric lighting on the farm is the most spectacular, if not the most
+interesting result of electric generation in the country. This feature
+of the subject was somewhat overtaxed by talkative salesmen
+representing some of the pioneer manufacturers of electric lighting
+plants, but the business has steadied down. Real electric generating
+machinery is being manufactured and sold on its merits in small units.
+
+Not many miles from Chicago there is an electric lighting plant on a
+dairy farm that is giving satisfaction. The stables are large and they
+are managed on the plan of milking early in the morning and again in the
+middle of the afternoon. The morning work requires a great deal of light
+in the different stables, more light than ordinary, because the milking
+is done by machinery. The milking machine air-pump is driven by
+electricity generated on the farm, the power being supplied by a
+kerosene engine.
+
+Electricity on this farm is used in units, separate lines extending to
+the different buildings. The lighting plant is operated on what is known
+as the 32-volt system; the rating costs less to install than some others
+and the maintenance is less than when a higher voltage is used. I
+noticed also that there are fewer parts in connection with the plant
+than in other electric light works that I have examined.
+
+Technical knowledge of electricity and its behavior under different
+circumstances is hardly necessary to a farmer, because the manufacturers
+have simplified the mechanics of electric power and lighting to such an
+extent that it is only necessary to use ordinary precaution to run the
+plant to its capacity.
+
+At the same time it is just as well to know something about generators,
+switchboards and the meanings of such terms and names as volt, ampere,
+battery poles, voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat, discharge switch,
+underload circuit breaker, false fuse blocks, etc., because familiarity
+with these names, and the parts they represent gives the person
+confidence in charging the batteries. Such knowledge also supplies a
+reason for the one principal battery precaution, which is not to use out
+all of the electricity the batteries contain.
+
+Those who have electric lighting plants on the farm do not seem to feel
+the cost of running the plants, because they use the engine for other
+purposes. Generally manufacturers figure about 1 H.P. extra to run a
+dynamo to supply from 25 to 50 lights. My experience with farm engines
+is that for ordinary farm work such as driving the cream separator,
+working the pump and grinding feed, a two-horse power engine is more
+useful than any other size. Farmers who conduct business in the usual
+way will need a three-horsepower engine if they contemplate adding an
+electric lighting system to the farm equipment.
+
+Among the advantages of an electric lighting system is the freedom from
+care on the part of the women. There are no lamps to clean or broken
+chimneys to cut a finger, so that when the system is properly installed
+the only work the women have to do is to turn the switches to throw the
+lights on or off as needed.
+
+The expense in starting a farm electric light plant may be a little more
+than some other installations, but it seems to be more economical in
+service when figured from a farmer's standpoint, taking into
+consideration the fact that he is using power for generating electricity
+that under ordinary farm management goes to waste.
+
+A three-horsepower engine will do the same amount of work with the same
+amount of gasoline that a two-horsepower engine will do. This statement
+may not hold good when figured in fractions, but it will in farm
+practice. Also when running a pump or cream separator the engine is
+capable of doing a little extra work so that the storage batteries may
+be charged with very little extra expense.
+
+On one dairy farm a five-horsepower kerosene engine is used to
+furnish power for various farm purposes. The engine is belted to a
+direct-current generator of the shunt-wound type. The generator is wired
+to an electric storage battery of 88 ampere hour capacity. The battery
+is composed of a number of separate cells. The cells are grouped
+together in jars. These jars contain the working parts of the batteries.
+As each jar of the battery is complete in itself, any one jar may be cut
+out or another added without affecting the other units. The switchboard
+receives current either from the battery or from the engine and
+generator direct. There are a number of switches attached to the
+switchboard, which may be manipulated to turn the current in any
+direction desired.
+
+Some provision should be made for the renewal of electric lamps. Old
+lamps give less light than new ones, and the manufacturers should meet
+customers on some kind of a fair exchange basis. Tungsten lamps are
+giving good satisfaction for farm use. These lamps are economical of
+current, which means a reduction of power to supply the same amount of
+light. The Mazda lamp is another valuable addition to the list of
+electric lamps.
+
+The Wisconsin _Agriculturist_ publishes a list of 104 different uses for
+electricity on farms. Many of the electrical machines are used for
+special detail work in dairies where cheese or butter is made in
+quantity. Sugar plantations also require small units of power that
+would not apply to ordinary farming. Some of the work mentioned is extra
+heavy, such as threshing and cutting ensilage. Other jobs sound trivial,
+but they are all possible labor-savers. Here is the list:
+
+"Oat crushers, alfalfa mills, horse groomers, horse clippers, hay
+cutters, clover cutters, corn shellers, ensilage cutters, corn crackers,
+branding irons, currying machines, feed grinders, flailing machines,
+live stock food warmers, sheep shears, threshers, grain graders, root
+cutters, bone grinders, hay hoists, clover hullers, rice threshers, pea
+and bean hullers, gas-electric harvesters, hay balers, portable motors
+for running threshers, fanning-mills, grain elevators, huskers and
+shredders, grain drying machines, binder motors, wheat and corn
+grinders, milking machines, sterilizing milk, refrigeration, churns,
+cream-separators, butter workers, butter cutting-printing, milk cooling
+and circulating pumps, milk clarifiers, cream ripeners, milk mixers,
+butter tampers, milk shakers, curd grinders, pasteurizers, bottle
+cleaners, bottle fillers, concrete mixers, cider mills, cider presses,
+spraying machines, wood splitters, auto trucks, incubators, hovers,
+telephones, electric bells, ice cutters, fire alarms, electric vehicles,
+electro cultures, water supply, pumping, water sterilizers, fruit
+presses, blasting magnetos, lighting, interior telephones, vulcanizers,
+pocket flash lights, ice breakers, grindstones, emery wheels, wood saws,
+drop hammers, soldering irons, glue pots, cord wood saws, egg testers,
+burglar alarms, bell ringing transformers, devices for killing insects
+and pests, machine tools, molasses heaters, vacuum cleaners, portable
+lamps to attract insects, toasters, hot plates, grills, percolators,
+flatirons, ranges, toilette articles, water heaters, fans, egg boilers,
+heating pads, dishwashers, washing machines, curling irons, forge
+blowers."
+
+
+GASOLINE HOUSE LIGHTING
+
+Gasoline gas for house lighting is manufactured in a small generator by
+evaporating gasoline into gas and mixing it with air, about 5 per cent
+gas and 95 per cent air. We are all familiar with the little brass
+gasoline torch heater that tinners and plumbers use to heat their
+soldering irons. The principle is the same.
+
+There are three systems of using gasoline gas for farmhouse lighting
+purposes, the hollow wire, tube system, and single lamp system.
+
+The hollow wire system carries the liquid gasoline through the circuit
+in a small pipe called a hollow wire. Each lamp on the circuit takes a
+few drops of gasoline as needed, converts it into gas, mixes the gas
+with the proper amount of air and produces a fine brilliant light. Each
+lamp has its own little generator and is independent of all other lamps
+on the line.
+
+The tube system of gasoline gas lighting is similar in appearance, but
+the tubes are larger and look more like regular gas pipes. In the tube
+system the gas is generated and mixed with air before it gets into the
+distribution tube, so that lamps do not require separate generators.
+
+In the separate lamp system each lamp is separate and independent. Each
+lamp has a small supply of gasoline in the base of the lamp and has a
+gas generator attached to the burner, which converts the gasoline into
+gas, mixes it with the proper amount of air and feeds it into the burner
+as required. Farm lanterns are manufactured that work on this principle.
+They produce a brilliant light.
+
+By investigating the different systems of gasoline gas lighting in use
+in village stores and country homes any farmer can select the system
+that fits into his home conditions to the best advantage. In one
+farmhouse the owner wanted gasoline gas street lamps on top of his big
+concrete gateposts, and this was one reason why he decided to adopt
+gasoline gas lighting and to use the separate lamp system.
+
+
+ACETYLENE GAS
+
+Acetylene lighting plants are intended for country use beyond the reach
+of city gas mains or electric cables. Carbide comes in lump form in
+steel drums. It is converted into gas by a generator that is fitted with
+clock work to drop one or more lumps into water as gas is needed to keep
+up the pressure. Acetylene gas is said to be the purest of all
+illuminating gases. Experiments in growing delicate plants in
+greenhouses lighted with acetylene seem to prove this claim to be
+correct.
+
+The light also is bright, clear and powerful. The gas is explosive when
+mixed with air and confined, so that precautions are necessary in regard
+to using lanterns or matches near the generators. The expense of
+installing an acetylene plant in a farm home has prevented its general
+use.
+
+
+WOOD-SAW FRAMES
+
+There are a number of makes of saw frames for use on farms, some of
+which are very simple, while others are quite elaborate. Provision
+usually is made for dropping the end of the stick as it is cut.
+Sometimes carriers are provided to elevate the blocks onto a pile.
+Extension frames to hold both ends of the stick give more or less
+trouble, because when the stick to be sawed is crooked, it is almost
+impossible to prevent binding. If a saw binds in the kerf, very often
+the uniform set is pinched out of alignment, and there is some danger of
+buckling the saw, so that for ordinary wood sawing it is better to have
+the end of the stick project beyond the jig. If the saw is sharp and has
+the right set and the right motion, it will cut the stick off quickly
+and run free while the end is dropping to the ground.
+
+The quickest saw frames oscillate, being supported on legs that are
+hinged to the bottom of the frame. Oscillating frames work easier than
+sliding frames. Sliding frames are sometimes provided with rollers, but
+roller frames are not steady enough. For cross sawing lumber V-shaped
+grooves are best. No matter what the feeding device is, it should always
+be protected by a hood over the saw. The frame should fall back of its
+own weight, bringing the hood with it, so that the saw is always covered
+except when actually engaged with the stick. Saw-mandrels vary in
+diameter and length, but in construction they are much alike. For wood
+sawing the shaft should be 1-3/8" or 1-1/2" in diameter. The shaft runs
+in two babbitted boxes firmly bolted to the saw frame. The frame itself
+should be well made and well braced.
+
+
+ROOT PULPER
+
+There are root pulpers with concave knives which slice roots in such a
+way as to bend the slices and break them into thousands of leafy shreds.
+The principle is similar to bending a number of sheets of paper so that
+each sheet will slide past the next one. Animals do not chew roots when
+fed in large solid pieces. Cattle choke trying to swallow them whole,
+but they will munch shredded roots with apparent patience and evident
+satisfaction. American farmers are shy on roots. They do not raise roots
+in quantities because it requires a good deal of hand labor, but roots
+make a juicy laxative and they are valuable as an appetizer and they
+carry mineral. Pulped roots are safe to feed and they offer the best
+mixing medium for crushed grains and other concentrated foods.
+
+
+FEED CRUSHER
+
+Instead of grinding grain for feeding, we have what is known as a
+crusher which operates on the roller-mill principle. It breaks the
+grains into flour by crushing instead of grinding. It has the advantage
+of doing good work quickly. Our feed grinding is done in the two-story
+corncrib and granary. It is one of the odd jobs on the farm that every
+man likes. The grain is fed automatically into the machine by means of
+the grain spouts which lead the different kinds of grain down from the
+overhead bins. The elevator buckets carry the crushed feed back to one
+of the bins or into the bagger. In either case it is not necessary to do
+any lifting for the sacks are carried away on a bag truck. We have no
+use for a scoop shovel except as a sort of big dustpan to use with the
+barn broom.
+
+
+STUMP PULLER
+
+Pulling stumps by machinery is a quick operation compared with the old
+time methods of grubbing, chopping, prying and burning that our
+forefathers had on their hands. Modern stump pulling machines are small
+affairs compared with the heavy, clumsy things that were used a few
+years ago. Some of the new stump pullers are guaranteed to clear an acre
+a day of ordinary stumpage. This, of course, must be a rough estimate,
+because stumps, like other things, vary in numbers, size and condition
+of soundness. Some old stumps may be removed easily while others hang to
+the ground with wonderful tenacity.
+
+There are two profits to follow the removal of stumps from a partially
+cleared field. The work already put on the land has in every case cost
+considerable labor to get the trees and brush out of the way. The land
+is partially unproductive so long as stumps remain. For this reason, it
+is impossible to figure on the first cost until the stumps are removed
+to complete the work and to put the land in condition to raise machine
+made crops. When the stumps are removed, the value of the land either
+for selling or for farming purposes is increased at once. Whether sold
+or farmed, the increasing value is maintained by cropping the land and
+securing additional revenue.
+
+There are different ways of removing stumps, some of which are easy
+while others are difficult and expensive. One of the easiest ways is to
+bore a two-inch auger hole diagonally down into the stump; then fill the
+auger hole with coal-oil and let it remain for some weeks to soak into
+the wood. Large stumps may be bored in different directions so the
+coal-oil will find its way not only through the main part of the stumps
+but down into the roots. This treatment requires that the stumps should
+be somewhat dry. A stump that is full of sap has no room for coal-oil,
+but after the sap partially dries out, then coal oil will fill the pores
+of the wood. After the stump is thoroughly saturated with coal-oil, it
+will burn down to the ground, so that the different large roots will be
+separated. Sometimes the roots will burn below plow depth, but a good
+heavy pair of horses with a grappling hook will remove the separated
+roots.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 130.--The Oldest Farm Hoist. The first invention
+for elevating a heavy object was a tripod made of three poles tied
+together at the top with thongs of bark or rawhide. When hunters were
+lucky enough to kill a bear, the tripod elevator was erected over the
+carcass with the lower ends of the poles spread well apart to lower the
+apex. The gambrel was inserted under the hamstrings and attached to the
+top of the tripod. As the skinning of the animal proceeded the feet of
+the tripod were moved closer together. By the time the head was cut off
+the carcass would swing clear.]
+
+Dynamite often is used to blow stumps to pieces, and the work is not
+considered dangerous since the invention of safety devices. In some
+sections of the country where firewood is valuable, dynamite has the
+advantage of saving the wood. An expert with dynamite will blow a stump
+to pieces so thoroughly that the different parts are easily worked into
+stove lengths. Pitch-pine stumps have a chemical value that was not
+suspected until some fellows got rich by operating a retort.
+
+
+FARM ELEVATING MACHINERY
+
+Many handy and a few heavy elevators are being manufactured to replace
+human muscle. The simple tripod beef gin was familiar to the early
+settlers and it is still in use. When a heavy animal was killed for
+butchering, the small ends of three poles were tied together to form a
+tripod over the carcass. The feet of the tripod were placed wide apart
+to raise the apex only a few feet above the animal. After the gambrel
+was inserted and attached the feet of the tripod were moved gradually
+closer together as the skinning proceeded, thus elevating the carcass to
+swing clear of the ground.
+
+_Grain Elevators._--As a farm labor-saver, machinery to elevate corn
+into the two-story corncrib and grain into the upper bins is one of the
+newer and more important farming inventions. With a modern two-story
+corncrib having a driveway through the center, a concrete floor and a
+pit, it is easy to dump a load of grain or ear corn by raising the front
+end of the wagon box without using a shovel or corn fork. After the load
+is dumped into the pit a boy can drive a horse around in a circle while
+the buckets carry the corn or small grain and deliver it by spout into
+the different corncribs or grain bins. There are several makes of
+powerful grain elevating machines that will do the work easily and
+quickly.
+
+The first requisite is a building with storage overhead, and a
+convenient place to work the machinery. Some of the elevating machines
+are made portable and some are stationary. Some of the portable machines
+will work both ways. Usually stationary elevators are placed in vertical
+position. Some portable elevators may be operated either vertically or
+on an incline. Such machines are adaptable to different situations, so
+the corn may be carried up into the top story of a farm grain warehouse
+or the apparatus may be hauled to the railway station for chuting the
+grain or ear corn into a car. It depends upon the use to be made of the
+machinery whether the strictly stationary or portable elevator is
+required. To unload usually some kind of pit or incline is needed with
+any kind of an elevator, so the load may be dumped automatically quickly
+from the wagon box to be distributed by carrying buckets at leisure.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 131.--Portable Grain Elevator Filling a Corncrib.
+The same rig is taken to the railway to load box cars. The wagon is
+unloaded by a lifting jack. It costs from 1c to 1-1/2c per bushel to
+shovel corn by hand, but the greatest saving is in time.]
+
+Some elevators are arranged to take grain slowly from under the
+tailboard of a wagon box. The tailrod is removed and the tailboard
+raised half an inch or an inch, according to the capacity of the
+machinery. The load pays out through the opening as the front of the
+wagon is gradually raised, so the last grain will discharge into the pit
+or elevator hopper of its own weight. Technical building knowledge and
+skill is required to properly connect the building and elevating
+machinery so that the two will work smoothly together. There are certain
+features about the building that must conform to the requirements and
+peculiarities of the elevating machinery. The grain and ear corn are
+both carried up to a point from which they will travel by gravity to any
+part of the building. The building requires great structural strength in
+some places, but the material may be very light in others. Hence, the
+necessity of understanding both building and machinery in order to meet
+all of the necessary technical requirements.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+WORKING THE SOIL
+
+
+IMPORTANCE OF PLOWING
+
+[Illustration: Figure 132.--Heavy Disk Plow. A strong four-horse disk
+implement for breaking stumpy ground or to tear tough sod into bits
+before turning under with a moldboard.]
+
+Plowing is a mechanical operation that deals with physics, chemistry,
+bacteriology and entomology. The soil is the farmer's laboratory; his
+soil working implements are his mechanical laboratory appliances. A high
+order of intelligence is required to merge one operation into the next
+to take full advantage of the assistance offered by nature. The object
+of plowing and cultivation is to improve the mechanical condition of the
+soil, to retain moisture, to kill insects and to provide a suitable home
+for the different kinds of soil bacteria.
+
+There are aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, also nitrogen-gathering
+bacteria and nitrifying bacteria which are often loosely referred to as
+azotobacter species. Few of us are on intimate terms with any of them,
+but some of us have had formal introductions through experiments and
+observation.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 133.--Sulky Plow. This is a popular type of riding
+plow. It is fitted with a rolling coulter.]
+
+
+THE MECHANICS OF PLOWING
+
+_Walking Plow._--The draft of a walking plow may be increased or
+diminished by the manner of hitch. It is necessary to find the direct
+line of draft between the work performed and the propelling force. The
+clevis in the two-horse doubletree, or the three-horse evener and the
+adjusting clevis in the end of the plow-beam with the connecting link
+will permit a limited adjustment. The exact direction that this line
+takes will prove out in question. The walking plow should not have a
+tendency to run either in or out, neither too deep nor too shallow. For
+the proper adjustment as to width and depth of furrow, the plow should
+follow the line of draft in strict obedience to the pull so that it
+will keep to the furrow on level ground a distance of several feet
+without guidance from the handles. In making the adjustment it is first
+necessary to see that the plow itself is in good working order. All
+cutting edges such as share, coulter or jointer must be reasonably sharp
+and the land slip in condition as the makers intended.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 134.--Disk Plow. Less power is required to plow
+with a disk, but it is a sort of cut and cover process. The disk digs
+trenches narrow at the bottom. There are ridges between the little
+trenches that are not worked.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 135.--Three-Horse and Four-Horse Eveners. This
+kind of evener hitches the horses closer to the load than some others
+and they are easier to handle than the spread out kinds. The four-horse
+rig requires the best horses in the middle.]
+
+All plows should have a leather pocket on the side of the beam to carry
+a file. A 12-inch bastard file with a good handle is the most
+satisfactory implement for sharpening the cutting edges of a plow in the
+fields. A good deal depends on the character of the soil and its
+condition of dryness, but generally speaking, it pays to do a little
+filing after plowing a half mile of furrow. If the horses are doing
+their duty, a little rest at the end of the half mile is well earned.
+The plowman can put in the time to advantage with the file and the next
+half mile will go along merrily in consequence. No farmer would continue
+to chop wood all day without whetting his axe, but, unfortunately,
+plowmen often work from morning till night without any attempt to keep
+the cutting edges of their plows in good working order.
+
+_Riding Plow._--The riding plow in lifting and turning the furrow slice
+depends a good deal on the wheels. The action of the plow is that of a
+wedge with the power pushing the point, the share and the moldboard
+between the furrow slices and the land side and the furrow bottom. There
+is the same friction between the moldboard and the furrow slice as in
+the case of the walking plow, but the wheels are intended to materially
+reduce the pressure on the furrow bottom and against the land side. Plow
+wheels are intended to relieve the draft in this respect because wheels
+roll much easier than the plow bottom can slide with the weight of the
+work on top. The track made in the bottom of the furrow with the walking
+plow shows plainly the heavy pressure of the furrow slice on the
+moldboard by the mark of the slip. To appreciate the weight the slip
+carries, an interesting experiment may be performed by loading the
+walking plow with weights sufficient to make the same kind of a mark
+when the plow is not turning a furrow.
+
+One advantage in riding plows in addition to the relief of such a load
+is less packing of the furrow bottom. On certain soils when the moisture
+is just sufficient to make the subsoil sticky, a certain portion of the
+furrow bottom is cemented by plow pressure so that it becomes impervious
+to the passage of moisture either up or down. The track of a plow wheel
+is less injurious.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 136.--Three-Section, Spike-Tooth Harrow. The
+harrow is made straight, but the hitch is placed over to one side to
+give each tooth a separate line of travel.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 137.--Harrow Sled Long Enough to Hold a
+Four-Section Harrow.]
+
+Plow wheels should stand at the proper angle to the pressure with
+especial reference to the work performed. Wheels should be adjusted with
+an eye single to the conditions existing in the furrow. Some wheel plows
+apparently are especially built to run light like a wagon above ground
+regardless of the underground work required of them.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 138.--Corn Cultivator. A one-row, riding-disk
+cultivator. The ridges are smoothed by the spring scrapers to leave an
+even surface to prevent evaporation.]
+
+Axles should hang at right angles to the line of lift so accurately as
+to cause the wheels to wear but lightly on the ends of the hubs.
+Mistakes in adjustment show in the necessity of keeping a supply of
+washers on hand to replace the ones that quickly wear thin.
+
+In this respect a good deal depends on the sand-bands at the ends of the
+hubs. Plow wheels are constantly lifting gritty earth and dropping it on
+the hubs. There is only one successful way to keep sand out of the
+journals and that is by having the hubs, or hub ferrules, extend well
+beyond the bearings. Plow wheel hub extensions should reach two inches
+beyond the journal both at the large end of the hub and at the nut or
+linchpin end. Some plow wheels cut so badly that farmers consider oil a
+damage and they are permitted to run dry. This is not only very wasteful
+of expensive iron but the wheels soon wabble to such an extent that they
+no longer guide the plow, in which case the draft may be increased
+enormously.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 139.--A Combination Riding and Walking Cultivator,
+showing fenders attached to protect young plants the first time through.
+The two bull tongues shown are for use in heavy soils or when deeper
+digging is necessary.]
+
+_Scotch Plows._--When the long, narrow Scotch sod plows are exhibited at
+American agricultural fairs they attract a good deal of attention and no
+small amount of ridicule from American farmers because of the six or
+seven inch furrows they are intended to turn. In this country we are in
+too much of a hurry to spend all day plowing three-fourths of an acre of
+ground. Intensive farming is not so much of an object with us as the
+quantity of land put under cultivation.
+
+Those old-fashioned Scotch plows turn a furrow about two-thirds of the
+way over, laying the sod surface at an angle of about 45 deg. to the bottom
+of the furrow. The sharp comb cut by the coulter and share stands
+upright so that a sod field when plowed is marked in sharp ridges six or
+seven inches apart, according to the width of the furrow. Edges of sod
+show in the bottoms of the corrugations between these little furrow
+ridges.
+
+When the rains come the water is held in these grooves and it finds its
+way down the whole depth of the furrow slice carrying air with it and
+moistening every particle of trash clear to the bottom of the furrow.
+Such conditions are ideal for the work of the different forms of
+bacteria to break down plant fibre contained in the roots and trash and
+work it into humus, which is in turn manipulated by other forms of soil
+bacteria to produce soil water which is the only food of growing plants.
+
+_Jointer Plows._--American plow makers also have recognized the
+necessity of mixing humus with soil in the act of plowing. To facilitate
+the process and at the same time turn a wide furrow, the jointer does
+fairly good work when soil conditions are suitable. The jointer is a
+little plow which takes the place of the coulter and is attached to the
+plow-beam in the same manner. The jointer turns a little furrow one inch
+or two inches deep and the large plow following after turns a
+twelve-inch or fourteen-inch furrow slice flat over, throwing the little
+jointer furrow in the middle of the furrow bottom in such a way that the
+big furrow breaks over the smaller furrow.
+
+If the work is well done, cracks as wide as a man's hand and from three
+to five inches deep are left all over the field. These cracks lead air
+and moisture to rot the trash below. This is a much quicker way of
+doing a fairly good job of plowing. Such plows loosen the soil and
+furnish the conditions required by nature; and they may be operated with
+much less skill than the old-fashioned narrow-furrowed Scotch plows.
+
+Good plowing requires first that the soil be in proper condition to
+plow, neither too dry nor too wet, but no man can do good plowing
+without the proper kind of plow to fit the soil he is working with.
+
+
+PLOWING BY TRACTOR
+
+Under present conditions farm tractors are not intended to replace horse
+power entirely but to precede horses to smooth the rough places that
+horses may follow with the lighter machines to add the finishing
+touches. Light tractors are being made, and they are growing in
+popularity, but the real business of the farm tractor is to do the heavy
+lugging--the work that kills horses and delays seeding until the growing
+season has passed. The actual power best suited to the individual farm
+can only be determined by the nature of the land and the kind of
+farming.
+
+In the Middle West where diversified farming is practiced, the 8-16 and
+the 10-20 sizes seem to be the most satisfactory, and this is without
+regard to the size of the farm. The preponderance of heavy work will
+naturally dictate the buying of a tractor heavier than a 10-20. The
+amount of stationary work is a factor. In certain communities heavy farm
+tractors are made to earn dividends by running threshing machines after
+harvest, silo fillers in the fall and limestone crushers in the winter.
+
+Here is a classified list of jobs the medium size farm tractor is good
+for:
+
+Clearing the Land--pulling up bushes by the roots, tearing out hedges,
+pulling stumps, grubbing, pulling stones.
+
+Preparing Seed Bed and Seeding--plowing, disking, crushing clods,
+pulling a land plane, rolling, packing, drilling, harrowing.
+
+Harvesting--mowing, pulling grain binders, pulling potato digger.
+
+Belt Work--hay baling, corn shelling, heavy pumping for irrigation,
+grinding feed, threshing, clover hulling, husking and shredding, silo
+filling, stone crushing.
+
+Road Work--grading, dragging, leveling, ditching, hauling crops.
+
+Miscellaneous--running portable sawmill, stretching wire fencing, ditch
+digging, manure spreading.
+
+Generally speaking, however, the most important farm tractor work is
+preparing the seed-bed thoroughly and quickly while the soil and weather
+conditions are the best. And the tractor's ability to work all day and
+all night at such times is one of its best qualifications.
+
+To plow one square mile, or 640 acres, with a walking plow turning a
+twelve-inch furrow, a man and team must walk 5,280 miles. The gang-plow
+has always been considered a horse killer, and, when farmers discovered
+that they could use oil power to save their horses, many were quick to
+make the change.
+
+It requires approximately 10 horsepower hours to turn an acre of land
+with horses. At a speed of two miles, a team with one plow in ten hours
+will turn two acres. To deliver the two horsepower required to do this
+work, they must travel 176 feet per minute and exert a continuous pull
+of 375 pounds or 187.5 pounds per horse.
+
+One horsepower equals a pull of 33,000 pounds, moved one foot per
+minute. Two-mile speed equals two times 5,280 or 10,560 feet per hour,
+or 176 feet per minute. Sixty-six thousand divided by 176 equals 375
+foot pounds pull per minute. One horsepower is absorbed in 88 feet of
+furrow.
+
+Horse labor costs, according to Government figures, 12-1/2 cents per
+hour per horse. On this basis ten hours' work will be $1.25, which is
+the average daily cost of each horse. An average Illinois diversified
+farm of 160 acres would be approximately as follows: Fifty acres of
+corn, 30 acres of oats and wheat, 20 acres of hay, 60 acres of rough
+land, pasture, orchard, building and feed lots.
+
+This average farm supports six work horses or mules and one colt.
+According to figures taken from farm work reports submitted by many
+different corn belt farmers, the amount of horse-work necessary to do
+this cropping would figure out as follows:
+
+Fifty acres of corn land for plowing, disking, harrowing, planting,
+cultivating and harvesting would amount to a total of 1,450 horsepower
+hours. Thirty acres of wheat would require a total of 330 horsepower
+hours. Twenty acres of hay would require 110 horsepower hours. In round
+figures, 1,900 horsepower hours at 12-1/2 cents would amount to $237.50.
+
+Elaborate figures have been worked out theoretically to show that this
+work can be done by an 8-16 farm tractor in 27-3/4 days at a cost for
+kerosene fuel and lubricating oil of $1.89 per day. Adding interest,
+repairs and depreciation, brings this figure up to about $4.00 per day,
+or a total of $111.00 for the job. No account is kept of man power in
+caring for either the horses or the tractor. The actual man labor on the
+job, however, figures 12-1/3 days less for the tractor than for horses.
+We should remember that actual farm figures are used for the cost of
+horse work. Such figures are not available for tractor work.
+
+The cost of plowing with a traction engine depends upon so many factors
+that it is difficult to make any definite statement. It depends upon the
+condition of the ground, size of the tractor, the number of plows
+pulled, and the amount of fuel used. An 8-16 horsepower tractor, for
+instance, burning from 15 to 20 gallons of low grade kerosene per ten
+hour day and using one gallon of lubricating oil, costs about $1.90 per
+ten hours work. Pulling two 14-inch plows and traveling 20 miles per
+day, the tractor will plow 5.6 acres at a fuel and an oil cost of about
+30 cents per acre. Pulling three 14-inch plows, it will turn 8.4 acres
+at a cost for fuel and oil of about 20 cents an acre.
+
+The kind and condition of soil is an important factor in determining the
+tractor cost of plowing. Comparison between the average horse cost and
+the average tractor cost suggests very interesting possibilities in
+favor of tractor plowing under good management.
+
+Aside from the actual cost in dollars we should also remember that no
+horse gang can possibly do the quality of work that can be accomplished
+by an engine gang. Anxiety to spare the team has cut a big slice off the
+profits of many a farmer. He has often plowed late on account of hard
+ground, and he has many times allowed a field to remain unplowed on
+account of worn-out teams. Under normal conditions, late plowing never
+produces as good results as early plowing. Many a farmer has fed and
+harnessed by the light of the lantern, gone to the field and worked his
+team hard to take advantage of the cool of the morning. With the
+approach of the hot hours of midday, the vicious flies sapping the
+vitality from his faithful team, he has eased up on the work or quit the
+job.
+
+In using the tractor for plowing, there are none of these distressing
+conditions to be taken into consideration, nothing to think of but the
+quality of work done. It is possible to plow deep without thought of the
+added burden. Deep plowing may or may not be advisable. But where the
+soil will stand it, deep plowing at the proper time of year, and when
+done with judgment, holds moisture better and provides more plant food.
+
+The pull power required to plow different soils varies from about three
+pounds per square inch of furrow for light sand up to twenty pounds per
+square inch of furrow for gumbo. The draft of a plow is generally
+figured from clover sod, which averages about seven pounds per square
+inch. Suppose a plow rig has two 14-inch bottoms, and the depth to be
+plowed is six inches. A cross section of each plow is therefore 14 by 6
+inches, or 84 square inches. Twice this for two bottoms is 168 square
+inches. Since, in sandy soil, the pressure per square inch is three
+pounds, therefore 168 times 3 pounds equals 504 pounds, the draft in
+sandy soil. 168 times 7 pounds equals 1,176 pounds, the draft in clover
+sod. 168 times 8 pounds equals 1,344 pounds, the draft in clay sod.
+
+The success of crop growing depends upon the way the seed-bed is
+prepared. The final preparation of the seed-bed can never be thoroughly
+well done unless the ground is properly plowed to begin with. It is not
+sufficient to root the ground over or to crowd it to one side but the
+plow must really turn the furrow slice in a uniform, systematic manner
+and lay it bottom side uppermost to receive the beneficial action of
+the air, rain and sunshine.
+
+The moldboard of a plow must be smooth in order to properly shed the
+earth freely to make an easy turn-over. The shape of the shear and the
+forward part of the moldboard is primarily that of a wedge, but the roll
+or upper curve of the moldboard changes according to soil texture and
+the width and depth of furrow to be turned. Moldboards also differ in
+size and shape, according to the kind of furrow to be turned. Sometimes
+in certain soils a narrow solid furrow with a comb on the upper edge is
+preferable. In other soils a cracked or broken furrow slice works the
+best. When working our lighter soils a wide furrow turned flat over on
+top of a jointer furrow breaks the ground into fragments with wide
+cracks or openings reaching several inches down. Between these extremes
+there are many modifications made for the particular type or texture of
+the soil to be plowed. We can observe the effect that a rough, or badly
+scratched, or poorly shaped moldboard has on any kind of soil,
+especially when passing from gravelly soils to clay. In soil that
+contains the right amount of moisture, when a plow scours all the time,
+the top of the furrow slice always has a glazed or shiny appearance.
+This shows that the soil is slipping off the moldboard easily. In places
+where the plow does not scour the ground is pushed to one side and
+packed or puddled on the underside instead of being lifted and turned as
+it should be. A field plowed with a defective moldboard will be full of
+these places. Such ground cannot have the life to bring about a
+satisfactory bacteria condition necessary to promote the rapid plant
+growth that proper plowing gives it.
+
+Cultivated sandy soils are becoming more acid year after year. We are
+using lime to correct the acidity, but the use of lime requires better
+plowing and better after cultivation to thoroughly mix the trash with
+the earth to make soil conditions favorable to the different kinds of
+soil bacteria. Unless we pay special attention to the humus content of
+the soil we are likely to use lime to dissolve out plant foods that are
+not needed by the present crop, and, therefore, cannot be utilized. This
+is what the old adage means which reads: "Lime enricheth the father but
+impoverisheth the son." When that was written the world had no proper
+tillage tools and the importance of humus was not even dreamed of.
+
+Not so many years ago farm plows were made of cast iron. Then came the
+steel moldboard, which was supposed to be the acme of perfection in plow
+making. Steel would scour and turn the furrow in fluffy soils where cast
+iron would just root along without turning the ground at all. Later the
+art of molding steel was studied and perfected until many grades and
+degrees of hardness were produced and the shape of the moldboard passed
+through a thousand changes. The idea all the time was to make plows that
+would not only scour but polish in all kinds of soil. At the same time
+they must turn under all of the vegetable growth to make humus, to kill
+weeds and to destroy troublesome insects. Besides these requirements the
+soil must be pulverized and laid loose to admit both air and moisture.
+These experiments gradually led up to our present high grade plows of
+hardened steel and what is known as chilled steel.
+
+Besides the hardness there are different shapes designed for different
+soils so that a plow to work well on one farm may need to be quite
+different from a plow to do the best work in another neighborhood. The
+furrow slice sliding over a perfect moldboard leaves the surface of the
+upturned ground as even as the bottom of the furrow. By using a modern
+plow carefully selected to fit the soil, gravel, sandy, stony or muck
+soils, or silt loams that contain silica, lime, iron and aluminum oxide
+can be worked with the right plow to do the best work possible if we use
+the necessary care and judgment in making the selection.
+
+One object of good plowing is to retain moisture in the soil until the
+growing crop can make good use of it.
+
+The ease with which soils absorb, retain or lose moisture, depends
+mostly on their texture, humus content, physical condition, and surface
+slope or artificial drainage. It is to the extent that cultivation can
+modify these factors that more soil water can be made available to the
+growing crop. There are loose, open soils through which water percolates
+as through a sieve, and there are tight, gumbo soils which swell when
+the surface is moistened and become practically waterproof. Sandy soils
+take in water more readily than heavier soils, hence less precaution is
+necessary to prevent run-off.
+
+Among the thousands of plows of many different makes there are plenty of
+good ones. The first consideration in making a selection is a reliable
+home dealer who has a good business reputation and a thorough knowledge
+of local soil from a mechanical standpoint. The next consideration is
+the service the plow will give in proportion to the price.
+
+
+DISK HARROW
+
+For preparing land to receive the seed no other implement will equal a
+double disk. These implements are made in various sizes and weights of
+frame. For heavy land, where it is necessary to weight the disk down, an
+extra heavy frame is necessary. It would probably be advisable to get
+the extra strong frame for any kind of land, because even in light sand
+there are times when a disk may be used to advantage to kill quackgrass
+or to chew up sod before plowing. In such cases it is customary to load
+on a couple of sacks of sand in addition to the weight of the driver.
+When a disk is carrying 300 or 400 pounds besides its own weight the
+racking strains which pull from different directions have a tendency to
+warp or twist a light frame out of shape. To keep a disk cultivator in
+good working order it is necessary to go over it thoroughly before doing
+heavy work. Bolts must be kept tight, all braces examined occasionally,
+and the heavy nuts at the ends of the disk shafts watched. They
+sometimes loosen and give trouble. The greatest difficulty in running a
+disk harrow or cultivator is to keep the boxings in good trim. Wooden
+boxes are provided with the implement. It is a good plan to insist on
+having a full set of eight extra boxes. These wooden boxes may be made
+on the farm, but it sometimes is difficult to get the right kind of
+wood. They should be made of hard maple, bored according to size of
+shaft, and boiled in a good quality of linseed oil. Iron boxings have
+never been satisfactory on a disk implement. Wooden ones make enough
+trouble, but wood has proved better than iron. On most disk cultivators
+there are oil channels leading to the boxings. These channels are large
+enough to carry heavy oil. The lighter grades of cylinder oil work the
+best. It is difficult to cork these oil channels tight enough to keep
+the sand out. Oil and sand do not work well together in a bearing. The
+manufacturers of these implements could improve the oiling device by
+shortening the channel and building a better housing for the oil
+entrance. It is quite a job to take a disk apart to put in new boxings,
+but, like all other repair work, the disk should be taken into the shop,
+thoroughly cleaned, repaired, painted and oiled in the winter time.
+
+Some double disk cultivators have tongues and some are made without.
+Whether the farmer wants a tongue or not depends a good deal on the
+land. The only advantage is that a tongue will hold the disk from
+crowding onto the horses when it is running light along the farm lanes
+or the sides of the fields with the disks set straight. Horses have been
+ruined by having the sharp disks run against them when going down hill.
+Such accidents always are avoidable if a man realizes the danger.
+Unfortunately, farm implements are often used by men who do very little
+thinking. A spring disk scraper got twisted on a root and was thrown
+over the top of one of the disks so it scraped against the back of the
+disk and continued to make a harsh, scraping noise until the proprietor
+went to see what was wrong. The man driving the disk said he thought
+something must be the matter with the cultivator, but he couldn't tell
+for the life of him what it was. When farmers are up against such
+difficulties it is safer to buy a disk with a tongue.
+
+_Harrow Cart._--A small two-wheel cart with a spring seat overshadowed
+with a big umbrella is sometimes called a "dude sulky." Many sensitive
+farmers trudge along in the soft ground and dust behind their harrows
+afraid of such old fogy ridicule. The hardest and most tiresome and
+disagreeable job at seeding time is following a harrow on foot. Riding a
+harrow cart in the field is conserving energy that may be applied to
+better purposes after the day's work in the field is finished.
+
+
+KNIFE-EDGE PULVERIZERS
+
+A knife-edge weeder makes the best dust mulch pulverizer for orchard
+work or when preparing a seed-bed for grain. These implements are sold
+under different names. It requires a stretch of imagination to attach
+the word "harrow" to these knife-edge weeders. There is a central bar
+which is usually a hardwood plank. The knives are bolted to the
+underside of the plank and sloped backward and outward from the center
+to the right and left, so that the knife-edges stand at an angle of
+about 45 deg. to the line of draught. This angle is just about sufficient to
+let tough weeds slip off the edges instead of dragging along. If the
+knives are sharp, they will cut tender weeds, but the tough ones must be
+disposed of to prevent choking. The proper use of the knife-edge weeder
+prevents weeds from growing, but in farm practice, sometimes rainy
+weather prevents the use of such a tool until the weeds are well
+established. As a moisture retainer, these knife-edge weeders are
+superior to almost any other implement. They are made in widths of from
+eight to twenty feet. The wide ones are jointed in the middle to fit
+uneven ground.
+
+
+CLOD CRUSHER
+
+The farm land drag, float, or clod crusher is useful under certain
+conditions on low spots that do not drain properly. Such land must be
+plowed when the main portion of the field is in proper condition, and
+the result often is that the low spots are so wet that the ground packs
+into lumps that an ordinary harrow will not break to pieces. Such lumps
+roll out between the harrow teeth and remain on top of the ground to
+interfere with cultivation. The clod crusher then rides over the lumps
+and grinds them into powder. Unfortunately, clod crushers often are
+depended on to remedy faulty work on ordinary land that should receive
+better treatment. Many times the clod crusher is a poor remedy for poor
+tillage on naturally good land that lacks humus.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 140.--Land Float. Clod crushers and land floats
+belong to the same tribe. Theoretically they are all outlaws, but some
+practical farmers harbor one or more of them. Wet land, containing
+considerable clay, sometimes forms into lumps which should be crushed.]
+
+As ordinarily made, the land float or clod crusher consists of from five
+to eight planks, two inches thick and ten or twelve inches wide, spiked
+together in sawtooth position, the edges of the planks being lapped over
+each other like clapboards in house siding. The planks are held in place
+with spikes driven through into the crosspieces.
+
+
+FARM ROLLER
+
+Farm rollers are used to firm the soil. Sometimes a seed-bed is worked
+up so thoroughly that the ground is made too loose so the soil is too
+open and porous. Seeds to germinate require that the soil grains shall
+fit up closely against them. Good soil is impregnated with soil
+moisture, or film moisture as it is often called, because the moisture
+forms in a film around each little soil grain. In properly prepared
+soil this film moisture comes in contact with the freshly sown seed. If
+the temperature is right the seed swells and germination starts. The
+swelling of the seed brings it in contact with more film moisture
+attached to other grains of soil so the rootlet grows and pushes out
+into the soil in search of moisture on its own account. A roller is
+valuable to press the particles of soil together to bring the freshly
+sown seeds in direct contact with as many particles of soil as possible.
+Rolling land is a peculiar operation, the value of which is not always
+understood. The original idea was to benefit the soil by breaking the
+lumps. It may be of some benefit on certain soils for this purpose, but
+the land should always be harrowed after rolling to form a dust mulch to
+prevent the evaporation of moisture. Land that has been rolled and left
+overnight shows damp the next morning, which is sufficient proof that
+moisture is coming to the surface and is being dissipated into the
+atmosphere. In the so-called humid sections of the country the great
+problem is to retain moisture. Any farm implement that has a tendency to
+dissipate soil moisture is a damage to the farmer. Probably nine times
+out of ten a farm roller is a damage to the crop it is intended to
+benefit because of the manner in which it is used. It is the abuse, not
+the proper use of a roller, that injures the crop.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 141.--Iron Land Roller Made of Boiler Plate.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 142.--Wooden Land Roller.]
+
+
+CORN-PLANTER
+
+Corn-planters are designed to plant two rows at once. The width of rows
+may be adjusted from about 32 to 44 inches apart. When seed-corn is
+carefully graded to size the dropping mechanism will feed out the grains
+of corn regularly with very few skips. This is one reason why most
+farmers plant corn in drills. There are other cultural reasons which do
+not properly belong to this mechanical article. Hill dropping is
+considerably more complicated and difficult. After the feeding mechanism
+has been adjusted to the size of seed kernels to be planted so it will
+drop four kernels in a hill then the trip chain is tried out to see if
+it is right at every joint. Dropping in hills is a very careful
+mechanical proposition. An inch or two out of line either way means a
+loss of corn in cultivating.
+
+In setting the stakes to go and come by, a careful measurement of the
+field is necessary in order to get the stake lines on both sides of the
+field parallel. If the ring stakes are driven accurately on the line,
+then the first hill of corn must come at the same distance from the line
+in each row. Likewise in starting back from the far side of the field
+the first hill should measure exactly the same distance from the stake
+line as the first hills on the opposite side of the field. This is
+easily managed by counting the number of trips between the stake line
+and the first row of corn hills. If the two lines of stakes on the
+opposite sides of the field are exactly parallel it is not necessary to
+move either line in order to get the proper distance to start dropping,
+but it must be adjusted by measurement, otherwise the corn hills will be
+dodged. If the corn hills are to space three feet apart then the first
+row of hills should come nine or twelve feet from the stake line. Stakes
+may be measured and set a certain number of inches from the line to make
+the distance come right. This careful adjustment brings the hills in
+line in the rows.
+
+When the field is level or gently sloping there is no difficulty in
+making straight rows so far as check rowing is concerned. When the field
+is hilly another problem crops up. It is almost impossible to run corn
+rows along the side of a hill and keep them straight. The planter has a
+tendency to slide downhill. Also the distance across a field is greater
+where the rows pass over a hill. To keep the rows straight under such
+conditions allowance must be made for the stretch over the hill as well
+as for the side thrust of the planter. Where a chain marker is used it
+hangs downhill and a further allowance must be made for that. A good
+driver will skip an inch or so above the mark so that the rows will be
+planted fairly straight. This means a good deal more in check rowing
+than when the corn is planted in drills. The greatest objection to hill
+planting is the crowding of four corn plants into a space that should be
+occupied by one plant.
+
+A great many experiments have been tried to scatter the seeds in the
+hill, so far without definite results, except when considerable
+additional expense is incurred. However, a cone suspended below the end
+of the dropping tube usually will scatter the seeds so that no two seeds
+will touch each other. They may not drop and scatter four or five inches
+apart, but these little cones will help a good deal. They must be
+accurately adjusted so the point of the cone will center in the middle
+of the vertical delivery tube, and there must be plenty of room all
+around the cone so the corn seed kernels won't stick. The braces that
+hold the cones in place for the same reason must be turned edge up and
+supported in such a way as to leave plenty of clearance. The idea is
+that four kernels of corn drop together. They strike the cone and are
+scattered in different directions. They naturally fly to the outsides of
+the drill mark which scatters them as wide apart as the width of the
+shoe that opens the drill. The advantage of scattering seed grains in
+the hill has been shown by accurate experiments conducted at different
+times by agricultural colleges.
+
+
+GRAIN DRILL
+
+To know exactly how much seed the grain drill is using it is necessary
+to know how many acres are contained in the field. Most drills have an
+attachment that is supposed to measure how many acres and fractions of
+acres the drill covers. Farmers know how much grain each sack contains,
+so they can estimate as they go along, provided the drill register is
+correct. It is better to provide a check on the drill indicator. Have
+the field measured, then drive stakes along one side, indicating one
+acre, five acres and ten acres. When the one-acre stake is reached the
+operator can estimate very closely whether the drill is using more or
+less seed than the indicator registers. When the five-acre stake is
+reached another proof is available, and so on across the field. Next in
+importance to the proper working of the drill is straight rows. The only
+way to avoid gaps is to drive straight. The only way to drive straight
+is to sight over the wheel that follows the last drill mark. Farmers
+sometimes like to ride on the grain drill, which places the wheel
+sighting proposition out of the question. A harrow cart may be hitched
+behind the wheel of the grain drill, but it gives a side draft. The only
+way to have straight rows and thorough work is to walk behind the end of
+the drill. This is the proper way to use a drill, anyway, because a
+tooth may clog up any minute. Unless the operator is walking behind the
+drill he is not in position to see quickly whether every tooth is
+working properly or not. It is hard work to follow a drill all day long,
+but it pays at harvest time. It costs just as much to raise a crop of
+grain that only covers part of the ground, and it seems too bad to miss
+the highest possible percentage to save a little hard work at planting
+time.
+
+
+SPECIAL CROP MACHINERY
+
+Special crops require special implements. After they are provided, the
+equipment must be kept busy in order to make it pay. If a farmer
+produces five acres of potatoes he needs a potato cutter, a planter, a
+riding cultivator, a sprayer that works under high pressure, a digger
+and a sorter. The same outfit will answer for forty acres, which would
+reduce the per acre cost considerably. No farmer can afford to grow five
+acres of potatoes without the necessary machinery, because hand labor is
+out of the question for work of that kind.
+
+On the right kind of soil, and within reach of the right market,
+potatoes are money-makers. But they must be grown every year because the
+price of potatoes fluctuates more than any other farm crop. Under the
+right conditions potatoes grown for five years with proper care and good
+management are sure to make money. One year out of five will break even,
+two years will make a little money and the other two years will make big
+money. At the end of five years, with good business management, the
+potato machinery will be all paid for, and there will be a substantial
+profit.
+
+
+WHEEL HOE
+
+In growing onions and other truck crops, where the rows are too close
+together for horse cultivation, the wheel hoe is valuable. In fact, it
+is almost indispensable when such crops are grown extensively. The best
+wheel hoes have a number of attachments. When the seed-bed has been
+carefully prepared, and the soil is fine and loose, the wheel hoe may be
+used as soon as the young plants show above ground. Men who are
+accustomed to operating a wheel hoe become expert. They can work almost
+as close to the growing plants with an implement of this kind as they
+can with an ordinary hand hoe. The wheel hoe, or hand cultivator, works
+the ground on both sides of the row at once, and it does it quickly, so
+that very little hand weeding is necessary.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HANDLING THE HAY CROP
+
+
+REVOLVING HAYRAKE
+
+About the first contrivance for raking hay by horse power consisted of a
+stick eight or ten feet long with double-end teeth running through it,
+and pointing in two directions. These rakes were improved from time to
+time, until they reached perfection for this kind of tool. They have
+since been superseded by spring-tooth horse rakes, except for certain
+purposes. For pulling field peas, and some kinds of beans, the old style
+revolving horse rake is still in use.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 143.--Grass Hook, for working around borders where
+the lawn-mower is too clumsy.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 144.--Revolving Hayrake. The center piece is 4" x
+6" x 12' long. The teeth are double enders 1-3/8" square and 4' 6" long,
+which allows 24" of rake tooth clear of the center timber. Every stick
+in the rake is carefully selected. It is drawn by one horse. If the
+center teeth stick into the ground either the horse must stop instantly,
+or the rake must flop over, or there will be a repair job. This
+invention has never been improved upon for pulling Canada peas.]
+
+Improved revolving horse rakes have a center timber of hardwood about 4
+x 6 inches in diameter. The corners are rounded to facilitate sliding
+over the ground. A rake twelve feet long will have about eighteen
+double-end teeth. The teeth project about two and one-half feet each way
+from the center timber. Each tooth is rounded up, sled-runner fashion,
+at each end so it will point forward and slide along over and close to
+the ground without catching fast. There is an iron pull rod, or long
+hook, attached to each end of the center bar by means of a bolt that
+screws into the center of the end of the wooden center shaft, thus
+forming a gudgeon pin so the shaft can revolve. Two handles are fastened
+by band iron straps to rounded recesses or girdles cut around the center
+bar. These girdles are just far enough apart for a man to walk between
+and to operate the handles. Wooden, or iron lugs, reach down from the
+handles with pins projecting from their sides to engage the rake teeth.
+Two pins project from the left lug and three from the right. Sometimes
+notches are made in the lugs instead of pins. Notches are better; they
+may be rounded up to prevent catching when the rake revolves. As the
+rake slides along, the driver holds the rake teeth in the proper
+position by means of the handles. When sufficient load has been gathered
+he engages the upper notch in the right hand lug, releases the left and
+raises the other sufficient to point the teeth into the ground. The pull
+of the horse turns the rake over and the man grasps the teeth again with
+the handle lugs as before. Unless the driver is careful the teeth may
+stick in the ground and turn over before he is ready for it. It requires
+a little experience to use such a rake to advantage. No better or
+cheaper way has ever been invented for harvesting Canada peas. The only
+objections are that it shells some of the riper pods and it gathers up a
+certain amount of earth with the vines which makes dusty threshing.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 145.--Buck Rake. When hay is stacked in the field
+a four-horse buck rake is the quickest way to bring the hay to the
+stack. The buck rake shown is 16 feet wide and the 2 x 4 teeth are 11
+feet long. Two horses are hitched to each end and two drivers stand on
+the ends of the buck rake to operate it. The load is pushed under the
+horse fork, the horses are swung outward and the buck rake is dragged
+backward.]
+
+
+HAY-TEDDER
+
+The hay-tedder is an English invention, which has been adopted by
+farmers in rainy sections of the United States. It is an energetic
+kicker that scatters the hay swaths and drops the hay loosely to dry
+between showers. Hay may be made quickly by starting the tedder an hour
+behind the mowing machine.
+
+It is quite possible to cut timothy hay in the morning and put it in the
+mow in the afternoon, by shaking it up thoroughly once or twice with the
+hay-tedder. When clover is mixed with the timothy, it is necessary to
+leave it in the field until the next day, but the time between cutting
+and mowing is shortened materially by the use of the tedder.
+
+Grass cut for hay may be kicked apart in the field early during the
+wilting process without shattering the leaves. If left too long, then
+the hay-tedder is a damage because it kicks the leaves loose from the
+stems and the most valuable feeding material is wasted. But it is a good
+implement if rightly used. In catchy weather it often means the
+difference between bright, valuable hay and black, musty stuff, that is
+hardly fit to feed.
+
+Hay-tedders are expensive. Where two farmers neighbor together the
+expense may be shared, because the tedder does its work in two or three
+hours' time. Careful farmers do not cut down much grass at one time. The
+tedder scatters two mowing swaths at once. In fact the mowing machine,
+hay-tedder and horserake should all fit together for team work so they
+will follow each other without skips or unnecessary laps. The dividing
+board of the mowing-machine marks a path for one of the horses to follow
+and it is difficult to keep him out of it. But two horses pulling a
+hay-tedder will straddle the open strip between the swaths when the
+tedder is twice the width of the cut.
+
+
+HAY SKIDS
+
+[Illustration: Figure 146.--Hay Skid. This hay skid is 8 feet wide and
+16 feet long. It is made of 7/8" lumber put together with 2" carriage
+bolts--plenty of them. The round boltheads are countersunk into the
+bottom of the skid and the nuts are drawn down tight on the cleats. It
+makes a low-down, easy-pitching, hay-hauling device.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 147.--Hay Sling. It takes no longer to hoist 500
+pounds of hay than 100 pounds if the rig is large and strong enough.
+Four feet wide by ten feet in length is about right for handling hay
+quickly. But the toggle must reach to the ends of the rack if used on a
+wagon.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 148.--(1) Four-Tined Derrick Fork. (2) Pea Guard.
+An extension guard to lift pea-vines high enough for the sickle is the
+cleanest way to harvest Canada peas. The old-fashioned way of pulling
+peas with a dull scythe has gone into oblivion. But the heavy bearing
+varieties still persist in crawling on the ground. If the vines are
+lifted and cut clean they can be raked into windrows with a spring tooth
+hayrake. (3) Haystack Knife. This style of hay-cutting knife is used
+almost universally on stacks and in hay-mows. There is less use for
+hay-knives since farmers adopted power hayforks to lift hay out of a mow
+as well as to put it in.]
+
+Hay slips, or hay skids, are used on the old smooth fields in the
+eastern states. They are usually made of seven-eighths-inch boards
+dressed preferably on one side only. They are used smooth side to the
+ground to slip along easily. Rough side is up to better hold the hay
+from slipping. The long runner boards are held together by cross pieces
+made of inch boards twelve inches wide and well nailed at each
+intersection with nails well clinched. Small carriage bolts are better
+than nails but the heads should be countersunk into the bottom with the
+points up. They should be used without washers and the ends of the
+bolts cut close to the sunken nuts. The front end of the skid is rounded
+up slightly, sled runner fashion, as much as the boards will bear, to
+avoid digging into the sod to destroy either the grass roots or crowns
+of the plants. Hay usually is forked by hand from the windrows on to the
+skids. Sometimes hay slings are placed on the skids and the hay is
+forked on to the slings carefully in layers lapped over each other in
+such a way as to hoist on to the stack without spilling out at the
+sides. Four hundred to eight hundred pounds makes a good load for one
+of these skids, according to horse power and unevenness of the ground.
+They save labor, as compared to wagons, because there is no pitching up.
+All hoisting is supposed to be done by horse power with the aid of a hay
+derrick.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 149.--Double Harpoon Hayfork. This is a large size
+fork with extra long legs. For handling long hay that hangs together
+well this fork is a great success. It may be handled as quickly as a
+smaller fork and it carries a heavy load.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 150.--Six-Tined Grapple Hayfork. It is balanced to
+hang as shown in the drawing when empty. It sinks into the hay easily
+and dumps quickly when the clutch is released.]
+
+
+WESTERN HAY DERRICKS
+
+Two derricks for stacking hay, that are used extensively in the alfalfa
+districts of Idaho, are shown in the illustration, Figure 151. The
+derrick to the left is made with a square base of timbers which
+supports an upright mast and a horizontal boom. The timber base is
+sixteen feet square, made of five sticks of timber, each piece being 8 x
+8 inches square by 16 feet in length. Two of the timbers rest flat on
+the ground and are rounded up at the ends to facilitate moving the
+derrick across the stubble ground or along the road to the next
+hayfield. These sleigh runner timbers are notched on the upper side near
+each end and at the middle to receive the three cross timbers. The cross
+timbers also are notched or recessed about a half inch deep to make a
+sort of double mortise. The timbers are bound together at the
+intersections by iron U-clamps that pass around both timbers and fasten
+through a flat iron plate on top of the upper timbers. These flat plates
+or bars have holes near the ends and the threaded ends of the U-irons
+pass through these holes and the nuts are screwed down tight. The
+sleigh runner timbers are recessed diagonally across the bottom to fit
+the round U-irons which are let into the bottoms of the timbers just
+enough to prevent scraping the earth when the derrick is being moved.
+These iron U-clamp fasteners are much stronger and better than bolts
+through the timbers.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 151.--Idaho Hay Derricks. Two styles of hay
+derricks are used to stack alfalfa hay in Idaho. The drawing to the left
+shows the one most in use because it is easier made and easier to move.
+The derrick to the right usually is made larger and more powerful. Wire
+cable is generally used with both derricks because rope wears out
+quickly. They are similar in operation but different in construction.
+The base of each is 16 feet square and the high ends of the booms reach
+up nearly 40 feet. A single hayfork rope, or wire cable, is used; it is
+about 65 feet long. The reach is sufficient to drop the hay in the
+center of a stack 24 feet wide.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 152.--Hay Carrier Carriage. Powerful carriers are
+part of the new barn. The track is double and the wheels run on both
+tracks to stand a side pull and to start quickly and run steadily when
+the clutch is released.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 153.--(1) Hayfork Hitch. A whiffletree pulley
+doubles the speed of the fork. The knot in the rope gives double power
+to start the load. (2) Rafter Grapple, for attaching an extra pulley to
+any part of the barn roof.]
+
+There are timber braces fitted across the corners which are bolted
+through the outside timbers to brace the frame against a diamond
+tendency when moving the derrick. There is considerable strain when
+passing over uneven ground. It is better to make the frame so solid that
+it cannot get out of square. The mast is a stick of timber 8 inches
+square and 20 or 24 feet long. This mast is securely fastened solid to
+the center of the frame by having the bottom end mortised into the
+center cross timber at the middle and it is braced solid and held
+perpendicular to the framework by 4" x 4" wooden braces at the corners.
+These braces are notched at the top ends to fit the corners of the mast
+and are beveled at the bottom ends to fit flat on top of the timbers.
+They are held in place by bolts and by strap iron or band iron bands.
+These bands are drilled with holes and are spiked through into the
+timbers with four-inch or five-inch wire nails. Holes are drilled
+through the band iron the right size and at the proper places for the
+nails. The mast is made round at the top and is fitted with a heavy
+welded iron ring or band to prevent splitting. The boom is usually about
+30 feet long. Farmers prefer a round pole when they can get it. It is
+attached to the top of the mast by an iron stirrup made by a blacksmith.
+This stirrup is made to fit loosely half way around the boom one-third
+of the way up from the big end, which makes the small end of the boom
+project 20 feet out from the upper end of the mast. The iron stirrup is
+made heavy and strong. It has a round iron gudgeon 1-1/2" in diameter
+that reaches down into the top of the mast about 18 inches. The shoulder
+of the stirrup is supported by a square, flat iron plate which rests on
+and covers the top of the mast and has the corners turned down. It is
+made large to shed water and protect the top of the mast. This plate has
+a hole one and a half inches in diameter in the center through which the
+stirrup gudgeon passes as it enters the top of the mast. A farm chain,
+or logging chain, is fastened to the large end of the boom by passing
+the chain around the boom and engaging the round hook. The grab hook end
+of the chain is passed around the timber below and is hooked back to
+give it the right length, which doubles the part of the chain within
+reach of the man in charge. This double end of the chain is lengthened
+or shortened to elevate the outer end of the boom to fit the stack. The
+small outer end of the boom is thus raised as the stack goes up.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 154.--Hay Rope Pulleys. The housing of the pulley
+to the left prevents the rope from running off the sheaves.]
+
+An ordinary horse fork and tackle is used to hoist the hay. Three single
+pulleys are attached, one to the outer end of the boom, one near the top
+of the mast, and the other at the bottom of the mast so that the rope
+passes easily and freely through the three pulleys and at the same time
+permits the boom to swing around as the fork goes up from the wagon rack
+over the stack. This swinging movement is regulated by tilting the
+derrick towards the stack so that the boom swings over the stack by its
+own weight or by the weight of the hay on the horse fork. Usually a wire
+truss is rigged over the boom to stiffen it. The wire is attached to the
+boom at both ends and the middle of the wire is sprung up to rest on a
+bridge placed over the stirrup.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 155.--Gambrel Whiffletree, for use in hoisting hay
+to prevent entanglements. It is also handy when cultivating around
+fruit-trees.]
+
+Farmers like this simple form of hay derrick because it is cheaply made
+and it may be easily moved because it is not heavy. It is automatic and
+it is about as cheap as any good derrick and it is the most satisfactory
+for ordinary use. The base is large enough to make it solid and steady
+when in use. Before moving the point of the boom is lowered to a level
+position so that the derrick is not top-heavy. There is little danger
+of upsetting upon ordinary farm lands. Also the width of 16 feet will
+pass along country roads without meeting serious obstacles. Hay slings
+usually are made too narrow and too short. The ordinary little hay sling
+is prone to tip sideways and spill the hay. It is responsible for a
+great deal of profanity. The hay derrick shown to the right is somewhat
+different in construction, but is quite similar in action. The base is
+the same but the mast turns on a gudgeon stepped into an iron socket
+mortised into the center timber.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 156.--Cable Hay Stacker. The wire cable is
+supported by the two bipods and is secured at each end by snubbing
+stakes. Two single-cable collars are clamped to the cable to prevent the
+bipods from slipping in at the top. Two double-cable clamps hold the
+ends of the cables to form stake loops.]
+
+The wire hoisting cable is threaded differently, as shown in the
+drawing. This style of derrick is made larger, sometimes the peak
+reaches up 40' above the base. The extra large ones are awkward to move
+but they build fine big stacks.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 157.--California Hay Ricker, for putting either
+wild hay or alfalfa quickly in ricks. It is used in connection with
+home-made buck rakes. This ricker works against the end of the rick and
+is backed away each time to start a new bench. The upright is made of
+light poles or 2 x 4s braced as shown. It should be 28 or 30 feet high.
+Iron stakes hold the bottom, while guy wires steady the top.]
+
+
+CALIFORNIA HAY RICKER
+
+In the West hay is often put up in long ricks instead of stacks. One of
+my jobs in California was to put up 2,700 acres of wild hay in the
+Sacramento Valley. I made four rickers and eight buck rakes similar to
+the ones shown in the illustrations. Each ricker was operated by a crew
+of eight men. Four men drove two buck rakes. There were two on the rick,
+one at the fork and one to drive the hoisting rig. Ten mowing machines
+did most of the cutting but I hired eight more machines towards the
+last, as the latest grass was getting too ripe. The crop measured more
+than 2,100 tons and it was all put in ricks, stacks and barns without a
+drop of rain on it. I should add that rain seldom falls in the lower
+Sacramento Valley during the haying season in the months of May and
+June. This refers to wild hay, which is made up of burr clover, wild
+oats and volunteer wheat and barley.
+
+Alfalfa is cut from five to seven times in the hot interior valleys, so
+that if a farmer is rash enough to plant alfalfa under irrigation his
+haying thereafter will reach from one rainy season to the next.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+FARM CONVEYANCES
+
+
+STONE-BOAT
+
+One of the most useful and one of the least ornamental conveyances on a
+farm is the stone-boat. It is a low-down handy rig for moving heavy
+commodities in summer as well as in winter. No other sleigh or wagon
+will equal a stone-boat for carrying plows or harrows from one field to
+another. It is handy to tote bags of seed to supply the grain drill, to
+haul a barrel of water, feed for the hogs, and a great many other
+chores.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 158.--Stone-Boat. Stump logs are selected for the
+planks. The bend of the planks is the natural curve of the large roots.
+The sawing is done by band saw cutting from two directions.]
+
+When the country was new, sawmills made a business of sawing stone-boat
+plank. Trees for stone-boat staves were cut close to the ground and the
+natural crooks of the roots were used for the noses of sleigh runners
+and for stone-boats. But cast-iron noses are now manufactured with
+recesses to receive the ends of straight ordinary hardwood planks. These
+cast-iron ends are rounded up in front to make the necessary nose
+crook. The front plank cross piece is bolted well towards the front ends
+of the runner planks. Usually there are two other hardwood plank cross
+pieces, one near the rear end and the other about one-third of the way
+back from the front. Placing the cross pieces in this way gives room
+between to stand a barrel.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 159.--Wheelbarrow. This factory-made wheelbarrow
+is the only pattern worth bothering with. It is cheap and answers the
+purpose better than the heavier ones with removable side wings.]
+
+The cross pieces are bolted through from the bottom up. Round-headed
+bolts are used and they are countersunk, to come flush with the bottom
+of the sliding planks. The nuts are countersunk into the cross pieces by
+boring holes about one-quarter inch deep. The holes are a little larger
+than the cornerwise diameter of the nuts. No washers are used, and the
+nuts are screwed down tight into the plank. The ends of the bolts are
+cut off even and filed smooth. The nuts are placed sharp corner side
+down and are left nearly flush on top or even with the surface of the
+cross pieces. In using a stone-boat, nobody wants a projection to catch
+any part of the load.
+
+Regular doubletree clevises are attached to the corners of the
+old-fashioned stone-boat and the side chains are brought together to a
+ring and are just about long enough to form an equilateral triangle with
+the front end of the stone-boat. Cast-iron fronts usually have a
+projection in the center for the clevis hitch.
+
+
+OXEN ON A NEW ENGLAND FARM
+
+One of the most interesting experiences on a New England farm is to get
+acquainted with the manner in which oxen are pressed into farm service.
+One reason why oxen have never gone out of fashion in New England is the
+fact that they are patient enough to plow stony ground without smashing
+the plow.
+
+A great deal of New England farm land has been reclaimed by removing a
+portion of the surface stone. In the processes of freezing and thawing
+and cultivation, stones from underneath keep working up to the surface
+so that it requires considerable skill to do the necessary plowing and
+cultivating. Oxen ease the plowpoint over or around a rock so it can
+immediately dip in again to the full depth of the furrow. A good yoke of
+cattle well trained are gentle as well as strong and powerful.
+
+Oxen are cheaper than horses to begin with and they are valuable for
+beef when they are not needed any longer as work animals. The Holstein
+breed seems to have the preference for oxen with New England farmers.
+The necessary harness for a pair of cattle consists of an ox yoke with a
+ringbolt through the center of the yoke, midway between the two oxen. A
+heavy iron ring about five inches in diameter, made of round iron, hangs
+from the ringbolt. There are two oxbows to hold the yoke in place on the
+necks of the cattle. A logging chain with a round hook on one end and a
+grab hook on the other end completes the yoking outfit.
+
+The round hook of the chain is hitched into the ring in the plow clevis.
+The chain is passed through the large iron ring in the oxbow and is
+doubled back to get the right length. The grab hook is so constructed
+that it fits over one link of the chain flatwise so that the next link
+standing crosswise prevents it from slipping.
+
+The mechanism of a logging chain is extremely simple, positive in action
+and especially well adapted to the use for which it is intended. The
+best mechanical inventions often pass without notice because of their
+simplicity. Farmers have used logging chains for generations with hooks
+made on this plan without realizing that they were profiting by a high
+grade invention that embodies superior merit.
+
+In yoking oxen to a wagon the hitch is equally simple. The end of the
+wagon tongue is placed in the ring in the ox yoke, the round hook
+engages with a drawbolt under the hammer strap bar. The small grab hook
+is passed through the large yoke ring and is brought back and engaged
+with a chain link at the proper distance to stretch the chain taut.
+
+The process of yoking oxen and hitching them to a wagon is one of the
+most interesting performances on a farm. The off ox works on the off
+side, or far side from the driver. He usually is the larger of the two
+and the more intelligent. The near (pronounced n-i-g-h) ox is nearest to
+the driver who walks to the left. Old plows turned the furrow to the
+right so the driver could walk on hard ground. In this way the
+awkwardness and ignorance of the near ox is played against the docility
+and superior intelligence of the off ox. In yoking the two together the
+yoke is first placed on the neck of the off ox and the near ox is
+invited to come under. This expression is so apt that a great many years
+ago it became a classic in the hands of able writers to suggest
+submission or slavery termed "coming under the yoke." Coming under the
+yoke, however, for the New England ox, in these days of abundant
+feeding, is no hardship. The oxen are large and powerful and the work
+they have to do is just about sufficient to give them the needed
+exercise to enjoy their alfalfa hay and feed of oats or corn.
+
+
+TRAVOY
+
+One of the first implements used by farm settlers in the timbered
+sections of the United States and Canada, was a three-cornered sled made
+from the fork of a tree. This rough sled, in the French speaking
+settlements, was called a "travoy." Whether it was of Indian or French
+invention is not known; probably both Indians and French settlers used
+travoys for moving logs in the woods before American history was much
+written. The legs or runners of a travoy are about five feet long. There
+is a bunk which extends crossways from one runner to the other, about
+half or two-thirds of the way back from the turned-up nose. This bunk is
+fastened to the runners by means of wooden pins and U-shaped bows fitted
+into grooves cut around the upper half of the bunk near the ends. Just
+back of the turned up nose is another cross piece in the shape of a
+stout wooden pin or iron bolt that is passed through an auger hole
+extending through both legs from side to side of the travoy. The
+underside of the crotch is hollowed out in front of the bolt to make
+room to pass the logging chain through so it comes out in front under
+the turned up nose.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 160.--Travoy. A log-hauling sled made from the
+fork of a tree.]
+
+The front of the travoy is turned up, sled runner fashion, by hewing the
+wood with an axe to give it the proper shape. Travoys are used to haul
+logs from a thick woods to the skidways. The manner of using a travoy is
+interesting. It is hauled by a yoke of cattle or a team of horses to the
+place where the log lies in the woods. The round hook end of the logging
+chain is thrown over the butt end of the log and pulled back under the
+log then around the bunk just inside of the runner and hooked fast upon
+itself. The travoy is then leaned over against the log, the grab hook
+end of the chain is brought over the log and over the travoy and
+straightened out at right angles to the log. The cattle are hitched to
+the end of the logging chain and started. This kind of a hitch rolls the
+log over on top of the bunk on the travoy. The cattle are then
+unhitched. The grab hook end of the chain thus released is passed down
+and around under the other end of the bunk from behind. The chain is
+then passed over the bolt near the nose of the travoy and pulled down
+through the opening and out in front from under the nose. The small
+grab hook of the logging chain is then passed through the clevis, in the
+doubletree, if horses are used, or the ring in the yoke if cattle are
+used, and hitched back to the proper length. A little experience is
+necessary to regulate the length of the chain to give the proper pull.
+The chain should be short enough so the pull lifts a little. It is
+generally conceded by woodsmen that a short hitch moves a log easier
+than a long hitch. However, there is a medium. There are limitations
+which experience only can determine. A travoy is useful in dense woods
+where there is a good deal of undergrowth or where there are places so
+rough that bobsleighs cannot be used to advantage.
+
+
+LINCHPIN FARM WAGONS
+
+[Illustration: Figure 161.--Cross Reach Wagon. This wagon is coupled for
+a trailer, but it works just as well when used with a tongue and horses
+as a handy farm wagon. The bunks are made rigid and parallel by means of
+a double reach. There are two king bolts to permit both axles to turn.
+Either end is front.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 162.--Wagon Brake. The hounds are tilted up to
+show the brake beam and the manner of attaching it. The brake lever is
+fastened to the forward side of the rear bolster and turns up alongside
+of the bolster stake. The brake rod reaches from the upper end of the
+lever elbow to the foot ratchet at the front end of the wagon box.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 163.--Bolster Spring.]
+
+In some parts of the country the wheels of handy wagons about the farm
+are held on axle journals by means of linchpins in the old-fashioned
+manner. There are iron hub-bands on both ends of the hubs which project
+several inches beyond the wood. This is the best protection against sand
+to prevent it from working into the wheel boxing that has ever been
+invented. Sand from the felloes scatters down onto these iron bands and
+rolls off to the ground. There is a hole through each band on the outer
+ends of the hubs to pass the linchpin through so that before taking off
+a wheel to oil the journal it must first be turned so the hole comes
+directly over the linchpin. To pry out the linchpin the drawbolt is
+used. Old-fashioned drawbolts were made with a chisel shaped end tapered
+from both sides to a thickness of about an eighth of an inch. This thin
+wedge end of the drawbolt is placed under the end of the linchpin. The
+lower side of the hub-band forms a fulcrum to pry the pin up through the
+hole in the upper side of the sand-band projection. The linchpin has a
+hook on the outer side of the upper end so the lever is transferred to
+the top of the sand-band when another pry lifts the pin clear out of the
+hole in the end of the axle so the wheel may be removed and grease
+applied to the axle. The drawbolt on a linchpin wagon usually has a
+head made in the form of the jaws of a wrench. The wrench is the right
+size to fit the nuts on the wagon brace irons so that the drawbolt
+answers three purposes.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 164.--Wagon Seat Spring. The metal block fits over
+the top of the bolster stake.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 165.--Hollow Malleable Iron Bolster Stake to hold
+a higher wooden stake when necessary.]
+
+
+SAND-BANDS
+
+Many parts of farm machinery require projecting sand-bands to protect
+the journals from sand and dust. Most farms have some sandy fields or
+ridges. Some farms are all sand or sandy loam. Even dust from clay is
+injurious to machinery. There is more or less grit in the finest clay.
+The most important parts of farm machinery are supposed to be protected
+by oil-cups containing cotton waste to strain the oil, together with
+covers in the shape of metal caps. These are necessary protections and
+they help, but they are not adequate for all conditions. It is not easy
+to keep sand out of bearings on machinery that shakes a good deal.
+Wooden plugs gather sand and dust. When a plug is pulled the sand drops
+into the oil hole. Farm machinery that is properly designed protects
+itself from sand and dust. In buying a machine this particular feature
+should appeal to the farmers more than it does. Leather caps are a
+nuisance. They are a sort of patchwork to finish the job that the
+manufacturer commences. A man who is provident enough to supply himself
+with good working tools and is sufficiently careful to take care of
+them, usually is particular about the appearance as well as the
+usefulness of his tools, machinery and implements.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 166.--Sand Caps. Not one manufacturer in a hundred
+knows how to keep sand out of an axle bearing. Still it is one of the
+simplest tricks in mechanics. The only protection an axle needs is long
+ferrules that reach out three or four inches beyond the hub at both
+ends. Old-fashioned Linchpin farm wagons were built on this principle.
+The hubs held narrow rings instead of skeins, but they wore for years.]
+
+
+BOBSLEIGHS
+
+On Northern farms bobsleighs are as important in the winter time as a
+farm wagon in summer. There are different ways of putting bobsleighs
+together according to the use required of them. When using heavy
+bobsleighs for road work, farmers favor the bolster reach to connect the
+front and rear sleighs. With this attachment the horses may be turned
+around against the rear sled. The front bolster fits into a recessed
+plate bolted to the bench plank of the front sleigh. This plate is a
+combination of wearing plate and circle and must be kept oiled to turn
+easily under a heavy load. It not only facilitates turning, but it
+prevents the bolster from catching on the raves or on the upturned nose
+of the front bob when turning short.
+
+The heavy hardwood plank reach that connects the two bolsters is put
+through a mortise through the front bolster and is fastened rigidly by
+an extra large king-bolt. The reach plays back and forth rather loosely
+through a similar mortise in the other bolster on the rear sleigh. The
+rear hounds connect with the reach by means of a link and pin. This link
+pushes up through mortise holes in the reach and is fastened with a
+wooden pin or key on top of the reach. Sometimes the hounds are taken
+away and the reach is fastened with pins before and behind the rear
+bolster. This reach hitch is not recommended except for light road work.
+These two ways of attaching the rear sled necessitate different ways of
+fastening the rear bolster to the sled. When the rear bolster is
+required to do the pulling, it is attached to the sled by double
+eyebolts which permit the necessary rocking motion and allows the nose
+of the rear sled to bob up and down freely. This is an advantage when a
+long box bed is used, because the bolster is made to fit the box closely
+and is not continually oscillating and wearing. Eye-bolts provide for
+this natural movement of the sled. Light pleasure bobs are attached to
+the box with eyebolts without bolster stakes. The light passenger riding
+seat box is bound together with iron braces and side irons so it does
+not need bolsters to hold the sides together.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 167.--Bobsleighs, Showing Three Kinds of Coupling.
+The upper sleighs are coupled on the old-fashioned short reach plan
+except that the reach is not mortised into the roller. It is gained in a
+quarter of an inch and fastened by an iron strap with a plate and nuts
+on the under side. The bobs in the center show the bolster reach,
+principally used for road work. The bottom pair are coupled by cross
+chains for short turning around trees and stumps in the woods.]
+
+Bobsleighs for use in the woods are hitched together quite differently.
+The old-fashioned reach with a staple in the rear bench of the first
+sled and a clevis in the end of the reach is the old-fashioned rig for
+rough roads in the woods. Such sleighs are fitted with bunks instead of
+bolsters. Bunks are usually cut from good hardwood trees, hewed out with
+an axe and bored for round stakes. Log bunks for easy loading do not
+project beyond the raves. With this kind of a rig, a farmer can fasten
+two logging chains to the reach, carry the grab hook ends out and under
+and around the log and back again over the sleighs, and then hitch the
+horses to the two chains and roll the log up over a couple of skids and
+on to the bunks without doing any damage to the bobsleighs. Bobsleighs
+hitched together with an old-fashioned reach and provided with wide
+heavy raves will climb over logs, pitch down into root holes, and weave
+their way in and out among trees better than any other sled contrivance,
+and they turn short enough for such roads. The shortest turning rig,
+however, is the cross chain reach shown in Figure 167.
+
+
+MAKING A FARM CART
+
+A two-wheeled cart large enough to carry a barrel of cider is a great
+convenience on a farm. The front wheels of a buggy are about the right
+size and usually are strong enough for cart purposes. A one-inch iron
+axle will be stiff enough if it is reinforced at the square bends. The
+axle is bent down near the hubs at right angles and carried across to
+support the floor of the cart box about one foot from the ground. The
+distance from the ground should be just sufficient so that when the cart
+is tipped back the hind end will rest on the ground with the bottom
+boards at an easy slant to roll a barrel or milk can into the bottom of
+the box. Under the back end of the cart platform is a good stout bar of
+hardwood framed into the sidepieces. All of the woodwork about the cart
+is well braced with iron. The floor of the cart is better when made of
+narrow matched hardwood flooring about seven-eighths of an inch thick
+fastened with bolts. It should be well supported by cross pieces
+underneath. In fact the principal part of the box is the underneath part
+of the frame.
+
+Sidepieces of the box are wide and are bolted to the vertical parts of
+the axle and braced in different directions to keep the frame solid,
+square and firm. The sides of the box are permanently fastened but both
+tailboard and front board are held in place by cleats and rods and are
+removable so that long scantling or lumber may be carried on the cart
+bottom. The ends of the box may be quickly put in place again when it is
+necessary to use them.
+
+To hold a cart box together, four rods are necessary, two across the
+front and two behind. They are made like tailboard rods in wagon boxes.
+There is always some kind of tongue or handle bar in front of the farm
+cart conveniently arranged for either pulling or pushing. If a breast
+bar is used it handles better when supported by two curved projecting
+shafts or pieces of bent wood, preferably the bent up extended ends of
+the bedpieces. The handle bar should be about three feet from the
+ground.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 168.--Farm Cart. The axle need not be heavier than
+7/8". The hind axle of a light buggy works the best. It is bent down and
+spliced and welded under the box. The cart should be made narrow to
+prevent overloading. The box should be low enough to rest the back end
+on the ground at an angle of about 35 deg. for easy loading.]
+
+
+COLT-BREAKING SULKY
+
+A pair of shafts that look a good deal too long, an axle, two wheels and
+a whiffletree are the principal parts of a colt-breaking sulky. The
+shafts are so long that a colt can kick his best without reaching
+anything behind. The principal danger is that he may come down with one
+hind leg over the shaft. It is a question with horsemen whether it is
+better to first start a colt alongside of an old, steady horse. But it
+is generally conceded that in no case should a colt be made fast in such
+a way that he could kick himself loose. Different farmers have different
+ideas in regard to training colts, but these breaking carts with extra
+long shafts are very much used in some parts of the country. The shafts
+are heavy enough so that the colts may be tied down to make kicking
+impossible. A rope or heavy strap reaching from one shaft to the other
+over the colt's hips will keep its hind feet pretty close to the ground.
+Any rig used in connection with a colt should be strong enough to
+withstand any strain that the colt may decide to put upon it. If the
+colt breaks something or breaks loose, it takes him a long time to
+forget the scare. Farm boys make these breaking carts by using wheels
+and hind axles of a worn-out buggy. This is well enough if the wheels
+are strong and shafts thoroughly bolted and braced. It is easy to make a
+mistake with a colt. To prevent accidents it is much better to have the
+harness and wagon amply strong.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 169.--Colt-Breaking Sulky. The axle and hind
+wheels of a light wagon, two strong straight-grained shafts about 4 feet
+too long, a whiffletree and a spring seat are the principal parts of a
+colt-breaking sulky. The shafts and seat are thoroughly well bolted and
+clipped to the axle and braced against all possible maneuvers of the
+colt. The traces are made so long that the colt cannot reach anything to
+kick, and he is prevented from kicking by a strap reaching from one
+shaft up over his hips and down to the other shaft. In this rig the colt
+is compelled to go ahead because he cannot turn around. The axle should
+be longer than standard to prevent upsetting when the colt turns a
+corner at high speed.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES
+
+
+FARM OFFICE
+
+[Illustration: Figure 170.--Perspective View of Two-Story Corn Crib. The
+side of the building is cut away to show the elevating machinery.]
+
+Business farming requires an office. Business callers feel sensitive
+about talking farm or live-stock affairs before several members of the
+family. But they are quite at ease when alone with the farmer in his
+office. A farm office may be small but it should contain a desk or
+table, two or three chairs, book shelves for books, drawers for
+government bulletins and a cabinet to hold glassware and chemicals for
+making soil tests and a good magnifying glass for examining seeds before
+planting. A good glass is also valuable in tracing the destructive work
+of many kinds of insect pests.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 171.--Floor Plans of Two-Story Corn Crib. The
+first floor shows the driveway with corn cribs at the sides and the
+second floor plan shows the grain bins over the center driveway, with
+location of the downspouts, stairway, etc.]
+
+The office is the proper place for making germination tests of various
+farm seeds. Seventy degrees of heat is necessary for the best results in
+seed testing. For this reason, as well as for comfort while working, the
+heating problem should receive its share of attention. Many times it so
+happens that a farmer has a few minutes just before mealtime that he
+could devote to office work if the room be warm enough.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 172.--Economy of Round Barn. The diagrams show
+that the popular 36' x 80' cow stable and the commonest size of round
+barn have about the same capacity. Each barn will stable forty cows, but
+the round barn has room for a silo in the center. Both barns have feed
+overhead in the shape of hay and straw, but the round feed room saves
+steps.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 173.--Concrete Farm Scale Base and Pit.]
+
+Neatly printed letter-heads and envelopes are important. The sheets of
+paper should be eight and a half by eleven inches in size, pure white
+and of good quality. The printing should be plain black and of round
+medium-sized letters that may be easily read. Fancy lettering and
+flourishes are out of place on business stationery.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 174.--Top View of the Hay-Track Roof Extension,
+showing the ridgeboard and supporting jack-rafters.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 175.--Side view showing plan for building a
+Hayfork Hood to project from peak of a storage barn. The jack-rafters
+form a brace to support the end of the hay-track beam.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 176.--Slaughter House. The house should be twelve
+feet wide. It may be any length to provide storage, but 12 x 12 makes a
+good beef skinning floor. The windlass shaft should be ten feet above
+the floor, which requires twelve-foot studding. The wheel is eight feet
+in diameter and the winding drum is about ten inches. The animal is
+killed on the incline outside of the building and it lies limp against
+the revolving door. The door catch is sprung back and the carcass rolls
+down onto the concrete skinning floor.]
+
+Halftone illustration of farm animals or buildings are better used on
+separate advertising sheets that may be folded in with the letters when
+wanted.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 177.--Rule of Six, Eight and Ten. Diagram showing
+how to stake the foundation of a farm building so the excavation can be
+made clear out to the corners without undermining the stakes.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 178.--Roof Truss built strong enough to support
+the roof of a farm garage without center posts.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 179.--Design of Roof Truss Intended to Span a Farm
+Garage.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 180.--Roof Pitches. Mow capacity of the different
+roof pitches is given above the plates in figures.]
+
+Typewriters are so common that a hand-written letter is seldom seen
+among business correspondence. A busy farmer is not likely to acquire
+much speed with a typewriter, but his son or daughter may. One great
+advantage is the making of carbon copies. Every letter received is then
+filed in a letter case in alphabetical order and a carbon copy of each
+answer is pinned to it for future reference.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 181.--Double Corn Crib. Two cribs may be roofed
+this way as cheaply as to roof the two cribs separately. A storeroom is
+provided overhead and the bracing prevents the cribs from sagging.]
+
+The cost of furnishing a farm office will depend upon the inclinations
+of the man. A cheap kitchen table may be used instead of an expensive
+mahogany desk. A new typewriter costs from fifty to ninety dollars, but
+a rebuilt machine that will do good work may be obtained for twenty.
+
+A useful magnifying glass with legs may be bought for a dollar or two.
+Or considerable money may be invested in a high-powered microscope.
+
+
+SPEED INDICATOR
+
+The speed requirements of machines are given by the manufacturers. It is
+up to the farmer to determine the size of pulleys and the speed of
+intermediate shafts between his engine and the machine to be driven. A
+speed indicator is held against the end of a shaft at the center. The
+indicator pin then revolves with the shaft and the number of revolutions
+per minute are counted by timing the pointer on the dial with the second
+hand of a watch.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 182.--Speed Timers. Two styles. The point is held
+against the center of the shaft to be tested. The number of revolutions
+per minute is shown in figures on the face of the dial. The indicator is
+timed to the second hand of a watch.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 183.--Building Bracket. Made of 2 x 4 pieces put
+together at right angles with diagonal braces. The supporting leg fits
+between the four diagonal braces.]
+
+
+SOIL TOOLS
+
+Soil moisture often is the limiting factor in crop raising. Soil
+moisture may be measured by analysis. The first step is to obtain
+samples at different depths. This is done accurately and quickly with a
+good soil auger. Other paraphernalia is required to make a careful
+analysis of the sample, but a farmer of experience will make a mud ball
+and form a very good estimate of the amount of water in it.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 184.--Diagram showing how to cut a plank on a
+band-saw to form a curved rafter. The two pieces of the plank are spiked
+together as shown in the lower drawing. This makes a curved rafter
+without waste of material.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 185.--Breeding Crate for Hogs. The illustration
+shows the manner of construction.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 186.--Soil Auger. Scientific farming demands that
+soils shall be tested for moisture. A long handled auger is used to
+bring samples of soil to the surface. The samples are weighed, the water
+evaporated and the soil reweighed to determine the amount of moisture.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 187.--Post Hole Diggers. Two patterns of the same
+kind of digger are shown. The first has iron handles, the lower has
+wooden handles.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 188.--Hoes and Weeders. The hang of a hoe affects
+its working. The upper hoe shows about the easiest working angle between
+the blade and the handle. The difference between a hoe and a weeder is
+that the hoe is intended to strike into the ground to loosen the soil,
+while the blade of the weeder is intended to work parallel with the
+surface of the soil to cut young weeds.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 189.--Manure Hook and Potato Diggers.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 190.--Spud. Certain vegetables are grown for crop
+and for seed. The green plants are thinned with a spud for sale, leaving
+the best to ripen for seed. It is also used to dig tough weeds,
+especially those having tap roots.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 191.--(1) Corn Cutting Knife. (2) Asparagus
+Knife.]
+
+
+FENCE-MAKING TOOLS
+
+_Sliding Field Gate._--Each farm field should have a gate, not
+necessarily expensive, but it should be reasonably convenient. Farm
+field gates should be made sixteen feet long, which will allow for a
+clear opening about fourteen feet wide. The cheapest way to make a good
+farm gate is to use a 10-inch board for the bottom, 8-inch for the board
+next to the bottom and three 6-inch boards above that. The space between
+the bottom board and next board is two inches. This narrow space
+prevents hogs from lifting the gate with their noses. The spaces widen
+toward the top, so that the gate when finished is five feet high. If
+colts run the fields then a bar is needed along the top of the gate. Six
+cross pieces 1 inch by 6 inches are used to hold the gate together.
+These cross pieces are bolted through at each intersection. Also a
+slanting brace is used on the front half of the gate to keep it from
+racking and this brace is put on with bolts. Two posts are set at each
+end of the gate. The front posts hold the front end of the gate between
+them, and the rear posts the same. There is a cross piece which reaches
+from one of the rear posts to the other to slide the gate and hold it
+off the ground. A similar cross piece holds the front end of the gate up
+from the ground. Sometimes a swivel roller is attached to the rear cross
+piece to roll the gate if it is to be used a good deal. A plain, simple
+sliding gate is all that is necessary for fields some distance from the
+barn.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 192.--(1) Plumb-Bob and Plumb-Line. The line is
+paid out about 6 feet from the spool and given a half hitch. It may then
+be hung over the wire and the spool will balance the bob. (2) Bipod. The
+legs of a fence bipod are cut 6 feet long. The bolt is put through 6
+inches from the top ends. By the aid of the plummet the upper wire is
+strung plumb over the barb-wire in the furrow and 4' 6" above grade. The
+lower parts of the posts are set against the barb-wire and the upper
+faces of the posts at the top are set even with the upper wire. This
+plan not only places the posts in line, both at the top and bottom, but
+it regulates the height.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 193.--Fence Tools. The upper tool is a round steel
+pin to twist heavy brace wires. The scoop is for working stones out of
+post-holes. The steel crowbar is for working around the stones to loosen
+them.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 194.--Fence Pliers. This is a heavy fence tool
+made to pull fence staples and to stretch, cut and splice wire.]
+
+
+CORN SHOCK HORSE
+
+[Illustration: Figure 195.--Corn Horse. When corn is cut by hand there
+is no better shocking device than the old-style corn horse. It is almost
+as handy when setting up the corn sheaves from the corn binder.]
+
+A convenient corn shocking horse is made with a pole cut from a straight
+tree. The pole is about six inches through at the butt and tapers to a
+small end. About twenty feet is a good length. There are two legs which
+hold the large end of the pole up about 40" from the ground. These legs
+are well spread apart at the bottom. Two feet back from the legs is a
+horizontal hole about one and one-quarter inches in diameter to hold the
+crossbar. This crossbar may be an old broom handle. The pole and the
+crossbar mark the four divisions of a corn shock. Corn is cut and stood
+up in each corner, usually nine hills in a corner, giving thirty-six
+hills to a shock. Corn planted in rows is counted up to make about the
+same amount of corn to the shock. Of course a heavy or light crop must
+determine the number of rows or hills. When enough corn is cut for a
+shock it is tied with two bands, the crossbar is pulled out and the corn
+horse is dragged along to the next stand.
+
+
+HUSKING-PIN
+
+Hand huskers for dividing the cornhusks at the tips of the ears are made
+of wood, bone or steel. Wooden husking-pins are made of ironwood,
+eucalyptus, second growth hickory, or some other tough hardwood. The
+pin is about four inches long, five-eighths of an inch thick and it is
+shaped like a lead-pencil with a rather long point. A recessed girdle is
+cut around the barrel of the pin and a leather finger ring fits into and
+around this girdle. Generally the leather ring fits the larger finger to
+hold the pin in the right position while permitting it to turn to wear
+the point all around alike. Bone husking-pins are generally flat with a
+hole through the center to hold the leather finger ring. Steel
+husking-pins are shaped differently and have teeth to catch and tear the
+husks apart.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 196.--Brick Trowel.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 197.--Plastering Trowel.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 198.--Concrete Hog Wallow, showing drain pipe.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 199.--Concrete Center Alley for Hog House. The
+upper illustration represents the wooden template used to form the
+center of the hog house floor.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 200.--Sanitary Pig-Pen. One of the most
+satisfactory farrowing houses is constructed of concrete posts 6" square
+and 6" square mesh hog fencing and straw. The posts are set to make
+farrowing pens 8' wide and 16' deep from front to back. Woven wire is
+stretched and fastened to both sides of the posts at the sides and back
+of each pen. Straw is stuffed in between the two wire nets, thus making
+partitions of straw 6" thick and 42" high. Fence wire is stretched over
+the top and straw piled on deep enough to shed rain. The front of the
+pens face the south and are closed by wooden gates. In the spring the
+pigs are turned out on pasture, the straw roof is hauled to the fields
+for manure and the straw partitions burned out. The sun shines into the
+skeleton pens all summer so that all mischievous bacteria are killed and
+the hog-lice are burned or starved. The next fall concrete floors may be
+laid in the pens, the partitions restuffed with straw and covered with
+another straw roof. In a colder climate I would cover the whole top with
+a straw roof. Sufficient ventilation would work through the straw
+partitions and the front gate. In very cold weather add a thin layer of
+straw to the gate.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 201.--Concrete Wall Mold. Wooden molds for shaping
+a concrete wall may be made as shown. If the wall is to be low--2' or
+less--the mold will stay in place without bolting or wiring the sides
+together. The form is made level by first leveling the 2" x 6" stringers
+that support the form.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 202.--Husking-Pin. The leather finger ring is
+looped into the recess in the wooden pin.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 203.--Harness Punch. The hollow punch points are
+of different sizes.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 204.--Belt Punch. Two or three sizes should be
+kept in the tool box. Belt holes should be small to hold the lace tight.
+The smooth running of belts depends a good deal on the lacing. Holes
+punch better against the end of a hickory block or other fine grained
+hardwood.]
+
+
+PAINT BRUSHES
+
+Paint brushes may be left in the paint for a year without apparent
+injury. The paint should be deep enough to nearly bury the bristles.
+Pour a little boiled linseed oil over the top to form a skin to keep the
+air out. It is cheaper to buy a new brush than to clean the paint out of
+one that has been used.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 205.--Knots. The simple principles of knot tying
+as practiced on farms are here represented.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 206.--Sheepshank, two half hitches in a rope to
+take up slack. The rope may be folded upon itself as many times as
+necessary.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 207.--Marline Spike. Used for splicing ropes,
+tying rose knots, etc.]
+
+
+FRUIT PICKING
+
+[Illustration: Figure 208.--Fruit-Picking Tray. It is used for picking
+grapes and other fruits. The California lug box has vertical sides and
+is the same size top and bottom. Otherwise the construction is similar.]
+
+Apples are handled as carefully as eggs by men who understand the
+business of getting high prices. Picking boxes for apples have bothered
+orchard men more than any other part of the business. It is so difficult
+to get help to handle apples without bruising that many inventions have
+been tried to lessen the damage. In western New York a tray with
+vertical ends and slanting sides has been adopted by grape growers as
+the most convenient tray for grapes. Apple growers are adopting the same
+tray. It is made of three-eighths-inch lumber cut 30 inches long for the
+sides, using two strips for each side. The bottom is 30 inches long and
+three-eighths of an inch thick, made in one piece. The ends are
+seven-eighths of an inch thick cut to a bevel so the top edge of the end
+piece is fourteen inches long and the bottom edge is ten inches long.
+The depth of the end piece is eight inches. Hand cleats are nailed on
+the outsides of the end pieces so as to project one-half inch above the
+top. These cleats not only serve to lift and carry the trays, but when
+they are loaded on a wagon the bottoms fit in between the cleats to hold
+them from slipping endways. In piling these picking boxes empty, one
+end is slipped outward over the cleat until the other end drops down.
+This permits half nesting when the boxes are piled up for storage or
+when loaded on wagons to move to the orchard.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 209.--Fruit Thinning Nippers. Three styles of
+apple-stem cutters are shown. They are also used for picking grapes and
+other fruits.]
+
+Apples are picked into the trays from the trees. The trays are loaded on
+to wagons or stone-boats and hauled to the packing shed, where the
+apples are rolled out gently over the sloping sides of the crates on to
+the cushioned bottom of the sorting table. Orchard men should have
+crates enough to keep the pickers busy without emptying until they are
+hauled to the packing shed. The use of such trays or crates save
+handling the apples over several times. The less apples are handled the
+fewer bruises are made.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 210.--Apple Picking Ladder. When apples are picked
+and placed in bushel trays a ladder on wheels with shelves is convenient
+for holding the trays.]
+
+In California similar trays are used, but they have straight sides and
+are called lug boxes. Eastern fruit men prefer the sloping sides because
+they may be emptied easily, quickly and gently.
+
+
+FRUIT PICKING LADDERS
+
+Commercial orchards are pruned to keep the bearing fruit spurs as near
+the ground as possible, so that ladders used at picking time are not so
+long as they used to be.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 211.--Stepladder and Apple-Picking Bag. This
+ladder has only three feet, but the bottom of the ladder is made wide to
+prevent upsetting. This bag is useful when picking scattering apples on
+the outer or upper branches. Picking bags carelessly used are the cause
+of many bruised apples.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 212.--Tree Pruners. The best made pruners are the
+cheapest. This long handled pruner is made of fine tool steel from the
+cutting parts clear to the outer ends of the wooden handles. A positive
+stop prevents the handles from coming together. Small one-hand pruning
+nippers are made for clean cutting. The blades of both pruners should
+work towards the tree trunk so the hook will mash the bark on the
+discarded portion of the limb.]
+
+The illustration shows one of the most convenient picking ladders. It is
+a double ladder with shelves to hold picking trays supported by two
+wheels and two legs. The wheels which are used to support one side of
+the frame are usually old buggy wheels. A hind axle together with the
+wheels works about right. The ladder frame is about eight feet high with
+ladder steps going up from each side. These steps also form the support
+for the shelves. Picking trays or boxes are placed on the shelves, so
+the latter will hold eight or ten bushels of apples, and may be wheeled
+directly to the packing shed if the distance is not too great.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 213.--Shears. The first pair is used for sheep
+shearing. The second is intended for cutting grass around the edges of
+walks and flower beds.]
+
+Step-ladders from six to ten feet long are more convenient to get up
+into the middle of the tree than almost any other kind of ladder.
+Commercial apple trees have open tops to admit sunshine. For this
+reason, straight ladders are not much used. It is necessary to have
+ladders built so they will support themselves. Sometimes only one leg is
+used in front of a step-ladder and sometimes ladders are wide at the
+bottom and taper to a point at the top. The kind of ladder to use
+depends upon the size of the trees and the manner in which they have
+been pruned. Usually it is better to have several kinds of ladders of
+different sizes and lengths. Pickers then have no occasion to wait for
+each other.
+
+
+FEEDING RACKS
+
+Special racks for the feeding of alfalfa hay to hogs are built with
+slatted sides hinged at the top so they will swing in when the hogs
+crowd their noses through to get the hay. This movement drops the hay
+down within reach. Alfalfa hay is especially valuable as a winter feed
+for breeding stock. Sows may be wintered on alfalfa with one ear of
+corn a day and come out in the spring in fit condition to suckle a fine
+litter of pigs. Alfalfa is a strong protein feed. It furnishes the
+muscle-forming substances necessary for the young litter by causing a
+copious flow of milk. One ear of corn a day is sufficient to keep the
+sow in good condition without laying on too much fat. When shoats are
+fed in the winter for fattening, alfalfa hay helps them to grow. In
+connection with grain it increases the weight rapidly without adding a
+great deal of expense to the ration. Alfalfa in every instance is
+intended as a roughage, as an appetizer and as a protein feed. Fat must
+be added by the use of corn, kaffir corn, Canada peas, barley or other
+grains. Alfalfa hay is intended to take the place of summer pasture in
+winter more than as a fattening ration.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 214.--Horse Feeding Rack. This is a barnyard hay
+feeder for horses and colts. The diagonal boarding braces each corner
+post and leaves large openings at the sides. Horses shy at small hay
+holes. The top boards and the top rail are 2 x 4s for strength. The
+bottom is floored to save the chaff.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 215.--Corner Post Detail of Horse Feeding Rack. A
+2 x 6 is spiked into the edge of a 2 x 4, making a corner post 6"
+across. The side boarding is cut even with the corner of the post and
+the open corner is filled with a two-inch quarter-round as shown.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 216.--Automatic Hog Feeder. The little building is
+8' x 12' on the ground and it is 10' high to the plates. The crushed
+grain is shoveled in from behind and it feeds down hopper fashion as
+fast as the hogs eat it. The floor is made of matched lumber. It should
+stand on a dry concrete floor.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 217.--Sheep Feeding Rack. The hay bottom and grain
+trough sides slope together at 45 deg. angles. The boarding is made tight to
+hold chaff and grain from wasting.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 218.--Rack Base and Sides. The 2 x 4s are halved
+at the ends and put together at right angles. These frames are placed 3'
+apart and covered with matched flooring. Light braces should be nailed
+across these frames a few inches up from the ground. The 1 x 4 pickets
+are placed 7" apart in the clear, so the sheep can get their heads
+through to feed. These picketed frames are bolted to the base and framed
+around the top. If the rack is more than 9' long there should be a
+center tie or partition. Twelve feet is a good length to make the
+racks.]
+
+
+SPLIT-LOG ROAD DRAG
+
+The only low cost road grader of value is the split-log road drag. It
+should be exactly what the name implies. It should be made from a light
+log about eight inches in diameter split through the middle with a saw.
+Plenty of road drags are made of timbers instead of split logs, but the
+real principle is lost because such drags are too heavy and clumsy.
+They cannot be quickly adjusted to the varying road conditions met with
+while in use.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 219.--Hog Trough. In a winter hog house the feed
+trough is placed next to the alley or passageway. A cement trough is
+best. A drop gate is hinged over the trough so it can be swung in while
+putting feed in the trough. The same gate is opened up level to admit
+hogs to the pen.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 220.--Reinforced Hog Trough. The section of hog
+trough to the left is reinforced with chicken wire, one-inch mesh. The
+trough to the right is reinforced with seven 1/4" rods--three in the
+bottom and two in each side.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 221.--Double Poultry Feeding Trough with Partition
+in the Center.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 222.--Poultry Feeder with Metal or Crockery
+Receptacle.]
+
+The illustration shows the right way of making a road drag, and the
+manner in which it is drawn along at an angle to the roadway so as to
+move the earth from the sides towards the center, but illustrations
+are useless for showing how to operate them to do good work. The
+eccentricities of a split-log road drag may be learned in one lesson by
+riding it over a mile or two of country road shortly after the frost has
+left the ground in the spring of the year. It will be noticed that the
+front half of the road drag presents the flat side of the split log to
+the work of shaving off the lumps while the other half log levels and
+smooths and puddles the loosened moist earth by means of the rounded
+side. Puddling makes earth waterproof. The front, or cutting edge, is
+faced with steel. The ridges and humps are cut and shoved straight ahead
+or to one side to fill holes and ruts. This is done by the driver, who
+shifts his weight from one end to the other, and from front to back of
+his standing platform to distribute the earth to the best advantage. The
+rounded side of the rear half log presses the soft earth into place and
+leaves the surface smooth.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 223.--Split-Log Road Drag. The front edge is shod
+with a steel plate to do the cutting and the round side of the rear log
+grinds the loosened earth fine and presses it into the wagon tracks and
+water holes.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 224.--Heavy Breaking Plow, used for road work and
+other tough jobs.]
+
+Unfortunately, the habit of using narrow tired wagons on country roads
+has become almost universal in the United States. To add to their
+destructive propensities, all wagons in some parts of the country have
+the same width of tread so that each wheel follows in paths made by
+other wheels, until they cut ruts of considerable depth. These little
+narrow ditches hold water so that it cannot run off into the drains at
+the sides of the roadway. When a rut gets started, each passing wheel
+squeezes out the muddy water, or if the wheel be revolving at a speed
+faster than a walk it throws the water, and the water carries part of
+the roadway with it so that small ruts are made large and deep ruts are
+made deeper. In some limited sections road rules demand that wagons
+shall have wide tires and have shorter front axles, so that with the
+wide tires and the uneven treads the wheels act as rollers instead of
+rut makers. It is difficult to introduce such requirements into every
+farm section. In the meantime the evils of narrow tires may be overcome
+to a certain extent by the persistent and proper use of the split-log
+road drag. These drags are most effectual in the springtime when the
+frost is coming out of the ground. During the muddy season the roads get
+worked up into ruts and mire holes, which, if taken in time, may be
+filled by running lengthwise of the road with the drag when the earth is
+still soft. When the ground shows dry on top and is still soft and wet
+underneath is the time the drags do the best work by scraping the drier
+hummocks into the low places where the earth settles hard as it dries.
+
+A well rounded, smooth road does not get muddy in the summer time.
+Summer rains usually come with a dash. Considerable water falls in a
+short time, and the very act of falling with force first lays the dust,
+then packs the surface. The smooth packed surface acts like a roof, and
+almost before the rain stops falling all surface water is drained off to
+the sides so that an inch down under the surface the roadbed is as hard
+as it was before the rain. That is the reason why split log road drags
+used persistently in the spring and occasionally later in the season
+will preserve good roads all summer. It is very much better to follow
+each summer rain with the road drag, but it is not so necessary as
+immediate attention at the proper time in spring. Besides, farmers are
+so busy during the summer months that they find it difficult to spend
+the time. In some sections of the middle West one man is hired to do the
+dragging at so much per trip over the road. He makes his calculations
+accordingly and is prepared to do the dragging at all seasons when
+needed. This plan usually works out the best because one man then makes
+it his business and he gets paid for the amount of work performed. This
+man should live at the far end of the road division so that he can
+smooth his own pathway leading to town.
+
+
+STEEL ROAD DRAG
+
+Manufacturers are making road drags of steel with tempered blades
+adjustable to any angle by simply moving the lever until the dog engages
+in the proper notch. Some of these machines are made with blades
+reversible, so that the other side can be used for cutting when the
+first edge is worn. For summer use the steel drag works very well, but
+it lacks the smoothing action of a well balanced log drag.
+
+
+SEED HOUSE AND BARN TRUCKS
+
+[Illustration: Figure 225.--Barn Trucks. The platform truck is made to
+move boxed apples and other fruit. The bag truck is well proportioned
+and strong, but is not full ironed.]
+
+Bag trucks for handling bags of grain and seeds should be heavy. Bag
+truck wheels should be eight inches in diameter with a three-inch face.
+The steel bar or shoe that lifts and carries the bag should be
+twenty-two inches in length. That means that the bottom of the truck in
+front is twenty-two inches wide. The wheels run behind this bar so the
+hubs do not project to catch against standing bags or door frames. The
+length of truck handles from the steel lift bar to the top end of the
+hand crook is four feet, six inches. In buying bag trucks it is better
+to get the heavy solid kind that will not upset. The light ones are a
+great nuisance when running them over uneven floors. The wheels are too
+narrow and too close together and the trucks tip over under slight
+provocation. Platform trucks for use in moving boxes of apples or crates
+of potatoes or bags of seed in the seed house or warehouse also should
+be heavy. The most approved platform truck, the kind that market men
+use, is made with a frame four feet in length by two feet in width. The
+frame is made of good solid hardwood put together with mortise and
+tenon. The cross pieces or stiles are three-quarters of an inch lower
+than the side pieces or rails, which space is filled with hardwood
+flooring boards firmly bolted to the cross pieces so they come up flush
+with the side timbers. The top of the platform should be sixteen inches
+up from the floor. There are two standards in front which carry a
+wooden crossbar over the front end of the truck. This crossbar is used
+for a handle to push or pull the truck. The height of the handle-bar
+from the floor is three feet. Rear wheels are five inches in diameter
+and work on a swivel so they turn in any direction like a castor. The
+two front wheels carry the main weight. They are twelve inches in
+diameter with a three-inch face. The wheels are bored to fit a one-inch
+steel axle and have wide boxings bolted to the main timbers of the truck
+frame. Like the two-wheel bag truck, the wheels of the platform truck
+are under the frame so they do not project out in the way, which is a
+great advantage when the truck is being used in a crowded place.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 226.--Farm Gate Post with Copper Mail Box.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 227.--Concrete Post Supporting a Waterproof
+Clothes Line Reel Box.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 228.--Dumb Waiter. The cage is poised by a
+counterweight. It is guided by a rope belt which runs on grooved pulleys
+at the top and bottom.]
+
+
+HOME CANNING OUTFIT
+
+There are small canning outfits manufactured and sold for farm use that
+work on the factory principle. For canning vegetables, the heating is
+done under pressure because a great deal of heat is necessary to destroy
+the bacteria that spoil vegetables in the cans. Steam under pressure is
+a good deal hotter than boiling water. There is considerable work in
+using a canning outfit, but it gets the canning out of the way quickly.
+Extra help may be employed for a few days to do the canning on the same
+principle that farmers employ extra help at threshing time and do it all
+up at once. Of course, fruits and vegetables keep coming along at
+different times in the summer, but the fall fruit canning may be done at
+two or three sittings arranged a week or two apart and enough fruit
+packed away in the cellar to last a big family a whole year. Canning
+machinery is simple and inexpensive. These outfits may be bought from
+$10 up. Probably a $20 or $25 canner would be large enough for a large
+family, or a dozen different families if it could be run on a
+co-operative plan.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 229.--Clothes Line Tightener. This device is made
+of No. 9 wire bent as shown in the illustration.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 230.--Goat Stall. Milch goats are milked on a
+raised platform. Feed is placed in the manger. The opening in the side
+of the manger is a stanchion to hold them steady.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 231.--Horse Clippers. Hand clippers are shown to
+the left. The flexible shaft clipper to the right may be turned by hand
+for clipping a few horses or shearing a few sheep, but for real business
+it should be driven by an electric motor.]
+
+
+ELECTRIC TOWEL
+
+The "air towel" is sanitary, as well as an economical method of drying
+the hands. A foot pedal closes a quick-acting switch, thereby putting
+into operation a blower that forces air through an electric heating
+device so arranged as to distribute the warmed air to all parts of the
+hands at the same time. The supply of hot air continues as long as the
+foot pedal is depressed. The hands are thoroughly dried in thirty
+seconds.
+
+
+STALLS FOR MILCH GOATS
+
+Milch goats are not fastened with stanchions like cows. The front of the
+manger is boarded tight with the exception of a round hole about two
+feet high and a slit in the boards reaching from the round opening to
+within a few inches of the floor. The round hole is made large enough so
+that the goat puts her head through to reach the feed, and the slit is
+narrow enough so she cannot back up to pull the feed out into the stall.
+This is a device to save fodder.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 232.--Hog Catching Hook. The wooden handle fits
+loosely into the iron socket. As soon as the hog's hind leg is engaged
+the wooden handle is removed and the rope held taut.]
+
+
+STABLE HELPS
+
+[Illustration: Figure 233.--Bull Nose-Chain. Cross bulls may be turned
+out to pasture with some degree of safety by snapping a chain like this
+into the nose-ring. The chain should be just long enough to swing and
+wrap around the bull's front legs when he is running. Also the length is
+intended to drag the ring where he will step on it with his front feet.
+There is some danger of pulling the nose ring out.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 234.--Manure Carriers. There are two kinds of
+manure carriers in general use. The principal difference is the elevator
+attachment for hoisting when the spreader stands too high for the usual
+level dump.]
+
+Overhead tracks have made feed carriers possible. Litter or feed
+carriers and manure carriers run on the same kind of a track, the only
+difference is in size and shape of the car and the manner in which the
+contents are unloaded. Manure carriers and litter carriers have a
+continuous track that runs along over the manure gutters and overhead
+lengthwise of the feed alleys. There are a number of different kinds of
+carriers manufactured, all of which seem to do good service. The object
+is to save labor in doing the necessary work about dairy stables. To get
+the greatest possible profit from cows, it is absolutely necessary that
+the stable should be kept clean and sanitary, also that the cows shall
+be properly fed several times a day. Different kinds of feed are given
+at the different feeding periods. It is impossible to have all the
+different kinds of food stored in sufficient quantities within easy
+reach of the cows. Hence, the necessity of installing some mechanical
+arrangement to fetch and carry. The only floor carrier in use in dairy
+stables is a truck for silage. Not in every stable is this the case.
+Sometimes a feed carrier is run directly to the silo. It depends a good
+deal on the floor what kind of a carrier is best for silage. The
+advantage of an overhead track is, that it is always free from litter.
+Where floor trucks are used, it is necessary to keep the floor bare of
+obstruction. This is not considered a disadvantage because the floor
+should be kept clean anyway.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 235.--Cow Stanchion. Wooden cow stanchions may be
+made as comfortable for the cows as the iron ones.]
+
+
+HOUSE PLUMBING
+
+When water is pumped by an engine and stored for use in a tank to be
+delivered under pressure in the house, then the additional cost of hot
+and cold water and the necessary sink and bath room fixtures is
+comparatively small. Modern plumbing fixtures fit so perfectly and go
+together so easily that the cost of installing house plumbing in the
+country has been materially reduced, while the dangers from noxious
+gases have been entirely eliminated. Open ventilator pipes carry the
+poisonous gases up through the roof of the house to float harmlessly
+away in the atmosphere. Septic tanks take care of the sewerage better
+than the sewer systems in some towns. Plumbing fixtures may be cheap or
+expensive, according to the wishes and pocketbook of the owner. The
+cheaper grades are just as useful, but there are expensive outfits that
+are very much more ornamental.
+
+
+FARM SEPTIC TANK
+
+[Illustration: Figure 236.--Frame for Holding Record Sheets in a Dairy
+Stable.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 237.--Loading Shute for Hogs. This loading shute
+is made portable and may be moved like a wheelbarrow.]
+
+Supplying water under pressure in the farmhouse demands a septic tank to
+get rid of the waste. A septic tank is a scientific receptacle to take
+the poison out of sewerage. It is a simple affair consisting of two
+underground compartments, made water-tight, with a sewer pipe to lead
+the waste water from the house into the first compartment and a drain to
+carry the denatured sewerage away from the second compartment. The first
+compartment is open to the atmosphere, through a ventilator, but the
+second compartment is made as nearly air-tight as possible. The
+scientific working of a septic tank depends upon the destructive work of
+two kinds of microscopic life known as aerobic and anaerobic forms of
+bacteria. Sewerage in the first tank is worked over by aerobic bacteria,
+the kind that require a small amount of oxygen in order to live and
+carry on their work. The second compartment is inhabited by anaerobic
+bacteria, or forms of microscopic life that work practically without
+air. The principles of construction require that a septic tank shall be
+large enough to contain two days' supply of sewerage in each
+compartment; thus, requiring four days for the sewerage to enter and
+leave the tank.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 238.--Brass Valves. Two kinds of globe valves are
+used in farm waterworks. The straight valve shown to the left and the
+right angle valve to the right. Either one may be fitted with a long
+shank to reach above ground when pipes are laid deep to prevent
+freezing.]
+
+Estimating 75 gallons daily of sewerage for each inhabitant of the house
+and four persons to a family, the septic tank should be large enough to
+hold 600 gallons, three hundred gallons in each compartment, which
+would require a tank about four feet in width and six feet in length and
+four feet in depth. These figures embrace more cubic feet of tank than
+necessary to meet the foregoing requirements. It is a good plan to leave
+a margin of safety.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 239.--Septic Tank, a double antiseptic process for
+purifying sewerage.]
+
+It is usual to lay a vitrified sewer, four inches in diameter, from
+below the bottom of the cellar to the septic tank, giving it a fall of
+one-eighth inch in ten feet. The sewer enters the tank at the top of the
+standing liquid and delivers the fresh sewerage from the house through
+an elbow and a leg of pipe that reaches to within about six inches of
+the bottom of the tank. The reason for this is to admit fresh sewerage
+without disturbing the scum on the surface of the liquid in the tank.
+The scum is a protection for the bacteria. It helps them to carry on
+their work of destruction. The same principle applies to the second
+compartment. The liquid from the first compartment is carried over into
+the second compartment by means of a bent pipe in the form of a siphon
+which fills up gradually and empties automatically when the liquid in
+the first compartment rises to a certain level. The discharging siphon
+leg should be the shortest. The liquid from the second compartment is
+discharged into the drain in the same manner. There are special valves
+made for the final discharge, but they are not necessary. The bottom of
+the tank is dug deep enough to hold sewerage from two to four feet in
+depth. The top surface of the liquid in the tank is held down to a level
+of at least six inches below the bottom of the cellar. So there is no
+possible chance of the house sewer filling and backing up towards the
+house. Usually the vitrified sewer pipe is four inches in diameter, the
+septic tank siphons for a small tank are three inches in diameter and
+the final discharge pipe is three inches in diameter, with a rapid fall
+for the first ten feet after leaving the tank.
+
+Septic tanks should be made of concrete, waterproofed on the inside to
+prevent the possibility of seepage. Septic tank tops are made of
+reinforced concrete with manhole openings. Also the manhole covers are
+made of reinforced concrete, either beveled to fit the openings or made
+considerably larger than the opening, so that they sit down flat on the
+top surface of the tank. These covers are always deep enough down in the
+ground so that when covered over the earth holds them in place.
+
+In laying vitrified sewer it is absolutely necessary to calk each joint
+with okum or lead, or okum reinforced with cement. It is almost
+impossible to make a joint tight with cement alone, although it can be
+done by an expert. Each length of the sewer-pipe should be given a
+uniform grade. The vitrified sewer is trapped outside of the building
+with an ordinary S-trap ventilated, which leaves the sewer open to the
+atmosphere and prevents the possibility of back-pressure that might
+drive the poisonous gases from the decomposing sewerage through the
+sewer back into the house. In this way, the septic tank is made entirely
+separate from the house plumbing, except that the two systems are
+connected at this outside trap.
+
+It is sometimes recommended that the waste water from the second
+compartment shall be distributed through a series of drains made with
+three-inch or four-inch drain tile and that the outlet of this set of
+drains shall empty into or connect with a regularly organized field
+drainage system. Generally speaking, the final discharge of liquid from
+a septic tank that is properly constructed is inoffensive and harmless.
+However, it is better to use every possible precaution to preserve the
+health of the family, and it is better to dispose of the final waste in
+such a way as to prevent any farm animal from drinking it.
+
+While manholes are built into septic tanks for the purpose of
+examination, in practice they are seldom required. If the tanks are
+properly built and rightly proportioned to the sewerage requirements
+they will take care of the waste water from the house year after year
+without attention. Should any accidents occur, they are more likely to
+be caused by a leakage in the vitrified sewer than from any other cause.
+Manufacturers of plumbing supplies furnish the siphons together with
+instructions for placing them properly in the concrete walls. Some firms
+supply advertising matter from which to work out the actual size and
+proportions of the different compartments and all connections. The
+making of a septic tank is simple when the principle is once
+understood.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+                                                  PAGE
+
+  Acetylene gas                                    129
+  Air pressure pump                                107
+  Anvil                                             33
+  Apple-picking bag                                216
+    ladder                                         215
+  Asparagus knife                                  205
+  Auger, ship                                       26
+  Auger-bit                                     24, 25
+  Automatic hog feeder                             219
+  Axles, wagon                                      52
+  Babbitting boxings                                73
+  Barn trucks                                      226
+  Belt punch                                       211
+    work                                           146
+  Bench and vise                                    34
+  Bench for iron work                               35
+    for woodworking                                 16
+  Bipod                                            206
+  Bits, extension boring                            26
+  Bit, twist-drill, for wood-boring                 25
+  Blacksmith hammers                                61
+    shop                                            31
+  Block and tackle                                  77
+  Bobsleighs                                       188
+  Boiler, steam                                     90
+  Bolster spring                                   186
+    stake                                          187
+  Bolt cutter                                       45
+  Bolts, carriage and machine                       56
+    emergency                                       53
+    home-made                                       52
+    plow and sickle bar                             56
+  Boxings, babbitting                               73
+  Brace, wagon-box                                  58
+  Bramble hook                                      20
+  Brass valves                                     236
+  Breeding crate for hogs                          203
+  Brick trowel                                     209
+  Bridge auger                                      26
+  Bucket yoke                                       75
+  Buck rake                                        165
+  Building bracket                                 202
+  Bull nose-chain                                  233
+    treadmill                                       81
+  Cable hay stacker                                176
+  California hay ricker                            176
+  Calipers                                          43
+  Caliper rule                                      14
+  Canning outfit                                   229
+  Carpenter's bench                                 17
+    trestle                                         17
+  Cart, two-wheel                                  191
+  Centrifugal pumps                                105
+  Chain, logging                                    50
+  Chisels and gouges                                28
+  Circular saw, filing                              69
+    jointing                                        68
+    setting                                         68
+  Clearing land by tractor                         146
+  Clevises, plow                                    58
+  Clod crusher                                     155
+  Clothes line reel box, concrete                  228
+  Clothes line tightener                           230
+  Cold-chisel                                       37
+  Colt-breaking sulkey                             192
+  Compasses                                         18
+  Concrete center alley for hog house              209
+    farm scale base and pit                        196
+    hog wallow                                     209
+    wall mold                                      210
+  Conveniences, miscellaneous farm                 194
+  Conveyances, farm                                179
+  Corn crib, double                                201
+    two-story                                      194
+  Corn cultivator                                  142
+    planter                                        158
+    shock horse                                    208
+  Cotter pin tool                                   44
+  Coulter clamp                                     54
+  Countersink                                       41
+  Cow stanchion                                    234
+  Crop machinery, special                          161
+  Crops, kind of, to irrigate                      118
+  Crowbars                                          46
+  Cultivator, combination                          143
+    corn                                           142
+  Cutting nippers                                   46
+  Derrick fork                                     168
+  Dies and taps                                     55
+  Diggers, potato                                  205
+  Disk harrow                                      152
+    plow                                           137
+  Dog churn                                         79
+    power                                           80
+  Draw-filing                                       62
+  Drawing-knife                                     22
+  Drill, grain                                     160
+    power post                                      38
+  Drill-press                                       39
+    electric                                        40
+  Driven machines                                  100
+  Dumbwaiter                                       229
+  Economy of plowing by tractor                    146
+  Electricity on the farm                     121, 127
+  Electric lighting                                123
+  Electric power plant                             122
+    towel                                          231
+  Elevating machinery                              133
+  Elevator, grain                                  134
+  Emery grinders                                    31
+  Engine and truck, portable                        94
+  Engine, gasoline                                  91
+    kerosene                                        92
+    steam                                           90
+  Eveners for three- and four-horse teams          139
+  Extension boring bits                             26
+  Farm conveniences                                194
+    conveyances                                    179
+    office                                         194
+    shop and implement house                         9
+    shop work                                       50
+    tractor                                         97
+    waterworks                                 89, 100
+  Feed crusher                                     131
+  Feeding racks                                    217
+  Fence-making tools                          205, 206
+  Fence pliers                                     207
+  File handle                                       36
+  Files and rasps                                   36
+  Filing hand saw                                   56
+    roll                                            63
+  Flail                                             75
+  Fore-plane                                        27
+  Forge                                             32
+  Forges, portable                                  32
+  Forging iron and steel                            59
+  Fruit picking                                    212
+    ladders                                        215
+    tray                                           213
+  Fruit-thinning nippers                           214
+  Gambrel whiffletree                              173
+  Garage                                            10
+  Garden weeder                                     54
+  Gas, acetylene                                   129
+  Gasoline engine                                   91
+    house lightning                                128
+  Gate, sliding field                              205
+  Gatepost with copper mailbox                     227
+  Gauge, double-marking                             22
+  Generating mechanical power                       74
+  Goat stall                                       230
+  Grain drill                                      160
+    elevator                                       134
+    elevator, portable                             135
+  Grass hook                                       163
+  Grindstone                                        28
+  Hacksaw                                           45
+  Hammers, blacksmith                               61
+    machinist's                                     42
+  Hand axe                                          23
+  Hand saw                                      19, 65
+    filing                                          66
+    jointing                                        65
+    setting                                         65
+    using                                           67
+  Handspike                                         24
+  Hardy                                             43
+  Harness punch                                    211
+  Harrow cart                                      154
+    disk                                           152
+    sled                                           141
+    spike-tooth                                    141
+  Harvesting by tractor                            146
+  Hay carrier carriage                             172
+  Hay crop, handling                               163
+  Hay derricks, Idaho                              171
+    Western                                        169
+  Hayford, double harpoon                          169
+    grapple                                        170
+    hitch                                          173
+    hood                                           197
+  Hayrake, revolving                               163
+  Hay ricker, California                           176
+  Hay rope pulleys                                 174
+  Hay skids                                        167
+  Hay sling                                        167
+  Hay stacker, cable                               176
+  Haystack knife                                   168
+  Hay-tedder                                       165
+  Hay-track roof extension                         197
+  Hoe, how to sharpen                               70
+    wheel                                          162
+  Hoes and weeders                                 204
+  Hog catching hook                                232
+  Hog feeder, automatic                            219
+    trough                                         221
+    trough, reinforced                             222
+    wallow, concrete                               209
+  Hoist, oldest farm                               133
+  Hoists                                            78
+  Home repair work, profitable                      50
+  Horse clippers                                   231
+  Horse feeding rack                               218
+  Horsepower                                        86
+  House plumbing                                   234
+  Husking-pin                                      208
+  Hydraulic ram                                     95
+  Idaho hay derricks                               171
+  Implement shed                                    10
+    shed and work shop                              12
+  Iron, forging                                     59
+  Irons for neckyoke and whiffletree                51
+  Iron roller                                      157
+  Iron working tools                                42
+  Irrigation                                       112
+    by pumping                                     112
+    overhead spray                                 116
+  Jointer, carpenter's                              27
+  Jointer plows                                    144
+  Jointing hand saw                                 65
+  Kerosene engine                                   92
+  Keyhole saw                                       20
+  Knife, asparagus                                 205
+    corn cutting                                   205
+    haystack                                       168
+  Knots                                            212
+  Lag screw                                         57
+  Land float                                       156
+  Level, carpenter's                                24
+    iron stock                                      25
+  Lighting, gasoline                               128
+  Linchpin farm wagons                             185
+  Link, cold-shut                                   43
+    plow                                            58
+  Loading chute for hogs                           235
+  Logging chain                                     50
+  Machines, driven                                 100
+  Machinist's hammers                               42
+    vise                                            47
+  Manure carriers                                  233
+  Marline spike                                    212
+  Measuring mechanical work                         14
+  Mechanical power, generating                      74
+  Mechanics of plowing                             138
+  Melting ladle                                     73
+  Monkey-wrench                                     19
+  Mule pump                                         84
+  Nail hammers                                      21
+  Nail set                                          37
+  Office, farm                                     194
+  Oilstone                                          15
+  Overhead spray irrigation                        116
+  Oxen                                             181
+  Paint brushes                                    212
+  Pea guard                                        168
+  Picking fruit                                    212
+  Pig-pen, sanitary                                210
+  Pincers                                           44
+  Pipe cutter                                       48
+  Pipe-fitting tools                                46
+  Pipe vise                                         47
+    wrench                                          48
+  Plastering trowel                                209
+  Pliers                                            18
+  Plow, heavy-breaking                             224
+    riding                                         140
+    walking                                        138
+  Plowing by tractor                               145
+    importance of                                  137
+    mechanics of                                   138
+  Plows, jointer                                   144
+    Scotch                                         143
+  Plumb-bob and plumb-line                         206
+  Plumbing, house                                  234
+  Pod-bit                                           25
+  Portable farm engine                              94
+  Post-hole diggers                                204
+  Poultry feeding trough                           222
+  Power conveyor                                   121
+  Power, generating mechanical                      75
+  Power post drill                                  38
+  Power transmission                               120
+  Pulverizers                                      155
+  Pump, air pressure                               107
+    centrifugal                                    105
+    mule                                            84
+    jack                                           109
+    jacks and speed jacks                          111
+    rotary                                         103
+    suction                                        101
+  Punches                                           37
+  Quantity of water to use in irrigation           118
+  Racks, feeding                                   217
+    sheep feeding                                  219
+  Rafter grapple                                   173
+  Rasp                                              35
+  Rasps and files                                   36
+  Ratchet-brace                                     40
+  Refrigeration                                    123
+  Reservoir for supplying water to farm buildings  120
+  Revolving hayrake                                163
+  Riding plow                                      140
+  Ripsaw                                            21
+  Rivets                                            53
+  Rivet set                                         54
+  Road drag, split-log                             220
+    steel                                          225
+  Road work                                        146
+  Roller                                           156
+  Roll filing                                       63
+  Roof pitches                                     200
+    truss                                          199
+  Root pulper                                      130
+  Rotary pumps                                     103
+  Round barn, economy of                           196
+  Rule of six, eight and ten                       199
+  Sand bands                                       187
+    caps                                           188
+  Sanitary pig-pen                                 210
+  Saw, hack                                         45
+  Scotch plows                                     143
+  Screwdriver                                       23
+    ratchet                                         24
+  Seed house trucks                                226
+  Septic tank                                      235
+  Set-screws                                        64
+  Shave horse                                       18
+  Shears                                           217
+  Sheep feeding rack                               219
+  Sheepshank                                       212
+  Ship auger                                        26
+  Shoeing horses                                    71
+    knife                                           34
+    tool box                                        34
+  Shop, garage and implement shed                   10
+  Shop tools                                        14
+  Slaughter house                                  198
+  Sliding field gate                               205
+  Snips, sheet metal                                25
+  Soil auger                                       204
+    tools                                          202
+  Soil, working the                                137
+  Speed indicator                                  201
+    jacks                                          111
+  Split-log road drag                              220
+  Spud                                             205
+  Stable helps                                     232
+  Stall for milch goats                            232
+  Steam boiler and engine                           90
+  Steel, forging                                    59
+    road drag                                      225
+    square                                          22
+    tools, making                                   60
+  Stepladder                                       216
+  Stock for dies                                    55
+  Stone-boat                                       179
+  Stump puller                                     131
+  Suction pumps                                    101
+  Sulkey, colt-breaking                            192
+  S wrenches                                        44
+  Tapeline                                          15
+  Taper reamer                                      41
+    tap                                             56
+  Taps and dies                                     55
+  Tempering steel tools                             60
+  Tongs                                             43
+  Tool box for field use                            72
+    handy                                           72
+  Tool rack, blacksmith                             34
+  Tools for fence-making                           205
+    for woodworking                                 19
+    for working iron                                42
+    pipe-fitting                                    46
+    soil                                           202
+  Tractor economy                                  146
+    farm                                            97
+    transmission gear                               98
+    used in plowing                                145
+    uses for, on farm                              146
+  Tram points                                       40
+  Travoy                                           183
+  Treadmill, bull                                   81
+  Tree pruners                                     216
+  Trowel, brick                                    209
+    plastering                                     209
+  Trucks, barn                                     226
+  Try-square                                        22
+  Twist-drills                                  25, 41
+  U bolt in cement                                  57
+  Uses of electricity on farm                      126
+  Valves, brass                                    236
+  Vise                                              38
+  Wagon-box irons                                   57
+  Wagon brakes                                     186
+    seat spring                                    187
+  Walking plow                                     138
+  Water-power                                       88
+  Water storage                                    100
+  Waterworks, farm                                 100
+  Well sweep                                        76
+  Wheelbarrow                                      180
+  Wheel hoe                                        162
+  Winches                                           79
+  Windmills                                         83
+  Wire splice                                       52
+    splicer                                         44
+    stretcher                                       77
+  Wooden clamp                                      18
+    roller                                         157
+  Wood-saw frames                                  129
+  Woodworking bench                                 16
+    tools                                           19
+  Working the soil                                 137
+  Wrecking bar                                      24
+
+
+
+
+  _DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS_
+
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Electrical Books=
+
+  Electrical Tables and Engineering Data              *Lea.    $1.50
+  Electrical Tables and Engineering Data              *Cloth    1.00
+  Motion Picture Operation                            *Lea.     1.50
+  Motion Picture Operation                            *Cloth    1.00
+  Alternating Current                                  Lea.     1.50
+  Alternating Current                                  Cloth    1.00
+  Wiring Diagrams and Descriptions                    *Lea.     1.50
+  Wiring Diagrams and Descriptions                    *Cloth    1.00
+  Armature and Magnet Winding                         *Lea.     1.50
+  Armature and Magnet Winding                         *Cloth    1.00
+  Modern Electric Illumination                        *Lea.     1.50
+  Modern Electric Illumination                        *Cloth    1.00
+  Modern Electrical Construction                      *Lea.     1.50
+  Modern Electrical Construction                      *Cloth    1.00
+  Electricians' Operating and Testing Manual          *Lea.     1.50
+  Electricians' Operating and Testing Manual          *Cloth    1.00
+  Drake's Electrical Dictionary                        Lea.     1.50
+  Drake's Electrical Dictionary                        Cloth    1.00
+  Electric Motors, Direct and Alternating             *Lea.     1.50
+  Electric Motors, Direct and Alternating             *Cloth    1.00
+  Electrical Measurements and Meter Testing            Lea.     1.50
+  Electrical Measurements and Meter Testing            Cloth    1.00
+  Drake's Telephone Handbook                           Lea.     1.50
+  Drake's Telephone Handbook                           Cloth    1.00
+  Elementary Electricity, Up-to-Date                  *Cloth    1.25
+  Electricity Made Simple                             *Cloth    1.00
+  Easy Electrical Experiments                         *Cloth    1.00
+  Wireless Telegraph and Telephone Handbook            Cloth    1.00
+  Telegraphy, Self-taught                              Cloth    1.00
+  Dynamo-Electric Machines                             Cloth    1.50
+  Electro-Plating Handbook                             Lea.     1.50
+  Electro-Plating Handbook                             Cloth    1.00
+  Modern American Telephony                            Lea.     2.00
+  Handy Vest-Pocket Electrical Dictionary              Lea.      .50
+  Handy Vest-Pocket Electrical Dictionary              Cloth     .25
+  Storage Batteries                                    Cloth     .50
+  Elevators--Hydraulic and Electric                    Cloth    1.00
+  How to Become a Successful Motorman                  Lea.     1.50
+  Motorman's Practical Air Brake Instructor            Lea.     1.50
+  Electric Railway Troubles                            Cloth    1.50
+  Electric Power Stations                              Cloth    2.50
+  Electrical Railroading                               Lea.     3.50
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Automobile Books=
+
+  Brookes' Automobile Handbook.                       *Lea.    $2.00
+  Automobile Starting and Lighting                    *Lea.     1.50
+  Automobile Starting and Lighting                    *Cloth    1.00
+  Ford Motor Car and Truck and Tractor Attachments    *Lea.     1.50
+  Ford Motor Car and Truck and Tractor Attachments    *Cloth    1.00
+  Automobile Catechism and Repair Manual              *Lea.     1.25
+  Practical Gas and Oil Engine Handbook               *Lea.     1.50
+  Practical Gas and Oil Engine Handbook               *Cloth    1.00
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Farm Books=
+
+  Farm Buildings, With Plans and Descriptions         *Cloth   $1.00
+  Farm Mechanics                                      *Cloth    1.00
+  Traction Farming and Traction Engineering           *Cloth    1.50
+  Farm Engines and How to Run Them                     Cloth    1.00
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Shop Practice Books=
+
+  Twentieth Century Machine Shop Practice              Cloth   $2.00
+  Practical Mechanical Drawing                         Cloth    2.00
+  Sheet Metal Workers' Manual                         *Lea.     2.00
+  Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting                   *Lea.     1.50
+  Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting                   *Cloth    1.00
+  20th Century Toolsmith and Steelworker               Cloth    1.50
+  Pattern Making and Foundry Practice                  Lea.     1.50
+  Modern Blacksmithing, Horseshoeing and Wagon Making  Cloth    1.00
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Steam Engineering Books=
+
+  Swingle's Handbook for Steam Engineers and
+  Electricians                                        *Lea.    $3.00
+  Steam Boilers, Construction, Care and Operation     *Lea.     1.50
+  Complete Examination Questions and Answers for
+  Marine and Stationary Engineers                     *Lea.     1.50
+  Swingle's Catechism of Steam, Gas and Electrical
+  Engineering                                        *Lea.      1.50
+  The Steam Turbine, Its Care and Operation           Cloth     1.00
+  Calculation of Horse Power Made Easy                Cloth      .75
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Railroad Books=
+
+  Modern Locomotive Engineering                       *Lea.    $3.00
+  Locomotive Fireman's Boiler Instructor              *Lea.     1.50
+  Locomotive Engine Breakdowns and How to Repair Them *Lea.     1.50
+  Operation of Trains and Station Work                *Lea.     2.00
+  Construction and Maintenance of Railway Roadbed
+  and Track                                            Lea.     2.00
+  First, Second and Third Year Standard Examination
+  Questions and Answers for Locomotive Firemen        *Lea.     2.00
+  Complete Air Brake Examination Questions and
+  Answers                                             *Lea.     2.00
+  Westinghouse Air Brake System                        Cloth    2.00
+  New York Air Brake System                            Cloth    2.00
+  Walschaert Valve Gear Breakdowns                     Cloth    1.00
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Carpentry and Building Books=
+
+  Modern Carpentry. Two volumes                        Cloth   $2.00
+  Modern Carpentry. Vol.  I                            Cloth    1.00
+  Modern Carpentry. Vol. II                            Cloth    1.00
+  The Steel Square. Two volumes                        Cloth    2.00
+  The Steel Square. Vol.  I                            Cloth    1.00
+  The Steel Square. Vol. II                            Cloth    1.00
+  A. B. C. of the Steel Square                         Cloth     .50
+  Common Sense Stair Building and Handrailing          Cloth    1.00
+  Modern Estimator and Contractor's Guide             *Cloth    1.50
+  Light and Heavy Timber Framing Made Easy             Cloth    2.00
+  Builders' Architectural Drawing Self-taught          Cloth    2.00
+  Easy Steps to Architecture                           Cloth    1.50
+  Five Orders of Architecture                          Cloth    1.50
+  Builders' and Contractors' Guide                     Cloth    1.50
+  Practical Bungalows and Cottages                    *Cloth    1.00
+  Low Cost American Homes                             *Cloth    1.00
+  Practical Cabinet Maker and Furniture Designer       Cloth    2.00
+  Practical Wood Carving                               Cloth    1.50
+  Home Furniture Making                                Cloth     .60
+  Concretes, Cements, Mortars, Plasters and Stuccos    Cloth    1.50
+  Practical Steel Construction                         Cloth     .75
+  20th Century Bricklayer and Mason's Assistant        Cloth    1.50
+  Practical Bricklaying Self-taught                    Cloth    1.00
+  Practical Stonemasonry                               Cloth    1.00
+  Practical Up-to-date Plumbing                        Cloth    1.50
+  Hot Water Heating, Steam and Gas Fitting             Cloth    1.50
+  Practical Handbook for Millwrights                   Cloth    2.00
+  Boat Building for Amateurs                           Cloth    1.00
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Painting Books=
+
+  Art of Sign Painting                                *Cloth   $3.00
+  Scene Painting and Bulletin Art                     *Cloth    3.00
+  "A Show at" Sho'Cards                                Cloth    3.00
+  Strong's Book of Designs                            *Lea.     3.00
+  Signist's Modern Book of Alphabets                   Cloth    1.50
+  Amateur Artist                                       Cloth    1.00
+  Modern Painter's Cyclopedia                          Cloth    1.50
+  Red Book Series of Trade School Manuals
+    1. Exterior Painting, Wood, Iron and Brick         Cloth     .60
+    2. Interior Painting, Water and Oil Colors         Cloth     .60
+    3. Colors                                          Cloth     .60
+    4. Graining and Marbling                           Cloth     .60
+    5. Carriage Painting                               Cloth     .60
+    6. The Wood Finisher                               Cloth     .60
+  New Hardwood Finishing                               Cloth    1.00
+  Automobile Painting                                 *Cloth    1.25
+  Estimates, Costs and Profits--House Painting and
+  Interior Decorating                                 *Cloth    1.00
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+
+
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                      TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES                           |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | The text of the original work has been maintained, except as       |
+  | mentioned below.                                                   |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | Changed for consistency: screwdriver to screw-driver, pene to peen,|
+  | homemade to home-made, ballbearing to ball-bearing, horse-power to |
+  | horsepower, double-tree to doubletree, and eye-bolt to eyebolt. In |
+  | the Index, the following words have been changed to conform to the |
+  | text: sulkey to sulky, and re-inforced to reinforced. All          |
+  | dimensions have been standardised to a x b (with a and b           |
+  | representing two numbers).                                         |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | Typographical errors corrected: azotabacter to azotobacter (p.     |
+  | 138), devise to device (p. 232), anarobic to anaerobic (p. 236),   |
+  | and Hayford to Hayfork (Index). Some minor typographical errors    |
+  | have been corrected silently.                                      |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | Page 158: "the so-called humid sections" should possibly be "the   |
+  | so-called arid sections".                                          |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | The advertisements have been re-arranged to a single list per      |
+  | subject.                                                           |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Farm Mechanics, by Herbert A. Shearer
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FARM MECHANICS ***
+
+***** This file should be named 39791.txt or 39791.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/7/9/39791/
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry LamA(C) and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
+  www.gutenberg.org/license.
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at 809
+North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887.  Email
+contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the
+Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit:  www.gutenberg.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For forty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+