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diff --git a/40009-h/40009-h.htm b/40009-h/40009-h.htm index 9b130dc..b559d49 100644 --- a/40009-h/40009-h.htm +++ b/40009-h/40009-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= - "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + "text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume XIV Slice V − Indole to Insanity. @@ -147,46 +147,7 @@ </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 14, Slice 5, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 14, Slice 5 - "Indole" to "Insanity" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: June 16, 2012 [EBook #40009] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40009 ***</div> <table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> <tr> @@ -260,7 +221,7 @@ Indole to Insanity</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">INFLEXION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">INNOCENTS’ DAY</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">INFLUENCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">INNSBRUCK</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">INFLUENZA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">INNS OF COURT</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">IN FORM PAUPERIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">INNUENDO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">IN FORM PAUPERIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">INNUENDO</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">INFORMATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">INOUYE, KAORU, MARQUESS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">INFORMER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">INOWRAZLAW</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">INFUSORIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">INQUEST</a></td></tr> @@ -284,7 +245,7 @@ acid phenyl hydrazone with anhydrous zinc chloride. It is also formed in the pancreatic fermentation of albumen, and, in small quantities, by passing the vapours of mono- and dialkyl-anilines through a red-hot tube. It crystallizes in shining -leaflets, which melt at 52° C. and boil at 245° C. (with decomposition), +leaflets, which melt at 52° C. and boil at 245° C. (with decomposition), and is volatile in a current of steam. It is a feeble base, and gives a cherry-red coloration with a pine shaving. Many derivatives of indole are known. B-methylindol or skatole @@ -327,7 +288,7 @@ Basalt and other volcanic formations predominate in both ranges, although there is also much sandstone. The Nerbudda flows through the state; and the valley at Mandlesar, in the central part, is between 600 and 700 ft. above the sea. The -revenue is estimated at £350,000. The metre gauge railway +revenue is estimated at £350,000. The metre gauge railway from Khandwa to Mhow and Indore city, continued to Neemuch and Ajmere, was constructed in 1876.</p> @@ -432,7 +393,7 @@ a local vice-regent of the abode of the gods.</p> <hr class="art" /> <p><span class="bold">INDRE,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a department of central France, formed in 1790 -from parts of the old provinces of Berry, Orléanais, Marche and +from parts of the old provinces of Berry, Orléanais, Marche and Touraine. Pop. (1906) 290,216. Area 2666 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the department of Loir-et-Cher, E. by Cher, S. by Creuse and Haute-Vienne, S.W. by Vienne and N.W. by Indre-et-Loire. @@ -449,20 +410,20 @@ was formerly marshy and unhealthy, but draining and afforestation have brought about considerable improvement.</p> <p>The department is divided into the arrondissements of -Châteauroux, Le Blanc, La Châtre and Issoudun, with 23 -cantons and 245 communes. At Neuvy-St-Sépulchre there is a +Châteauroux, Le Blanc, La Châtre and Issoudun, with 23 +cantons and 245 communes. At Neuvy-St-Sépulchre there is a circular church of the 11th century, to which a nave was added -in the 12th century, and at Mézières-en-Brenne there is an +in the 12th century, and at Mézières-en-Brenne there is an interesting church of the 14th century. At Levroux there is a fine church of the 13th century and the remains of a feudal -fortress, and there is a magnificent château in the Renaissance -style at Valençay.</p> +fortress, and there is a magnificent château in the Renaissance +style at Valençay.</p> <hr class="art" /> <p><span class="bold">INDRE-ET-LOIRE,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> a department of central France, consisting of nearly the whole of the old province of Touraine and of small -portions of Orléanais, Anjou and Poitou. Pop. (1906) 337,916. +portions of Orléanais, Anjou and Poitou. Pop. (1906) 337,916. Area 2377 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the departments of Sarthe and Loir-et-Cher, E. by Loir-et-Cher and Indre, S. and S.W. by Vienne and W. by Maine-et-Loire. It takes its name @@ -472,11 +433,11 @@ The other chief affluents of the Loire in the department are the Cher, which joins it below Tours, and the Vienne, which waters the department’s southern region. Indre-et-Loire is generally level and comprises the following districts: the -Gâtine, a pebbly and sterile region to the north of the Loire, +Gâtine, a pebbly and sterile region to the north of the Loire, largely consisting of forests and heaths with numerous small lakes; the fertile Varenne or valley of the Loire; the Champeigne, a chain of vine-clad slopes, separating the valleys of the -Cher and Indre; the Véron, a region of vines and orchards, +Cher and Indre; the Véron, a region of vines and orchards, in the angle formed by the Loire and Vienne; the plateau of Sainte-Maure, a hilly and unproductive district in the centre of which are found extensive deposits of shell-marl; and in the @@ -488,15 +449,15 @@ same name into Indre.</p> Loches and Chinon, with 24 cantons and 282 communes. The chief town is Tours, which is the seat of an archbishopric; and Chinon, Loches, Amboise, Chenonceaux, Langeais and Azay-le-Rideau -are also important places with châteaus. The -Renaissance château of Ussé, and those of Luynes (15th and +are also important places with châteaus. The +Renaissance château of Ussé, and those of Luynes (15th and 16th centuries) and Pressigny-le-Grand (17th century) are also of note. Montbazon possesses the imposing ruins of a square donjon of the 11th and 12th centuries. Preuilly has the most beautiful Romanesque church in Touraine. The Sainte Chapelle -(16th century) at Champigny is a survival of a château of the -dukes of Bourbon-Montpensier. The church of Montrésor -(1532) with its mausoleum of the family of Montrésor; that of +(16th century) at Champigny is a survival of a château of the +dukes of Bourbon-Montpensier. The church of Montrésor +(1532) with its mausoleum of the family of Montrésor; that of St Denis-Hors (12th and 16th century) close to Amboise, with the curious mausoleum of Philibert Babou, minister of finance under Francis I. and Henry II.; and that of Ste Catherine de @@ -527,7 +488,7 @@ Pierre Sonnerat in 1780.</p> <hr class="art" /> -<p><span class="bold">INDUCTION<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>inducere</i>, to lead into; cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="epagôgê">ἐπαγωγή</span>), +<p><span class="bold">INDUCTION<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>inducere</i>, to lead into; cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="epagôgê">ἐπαγωγή</span>), in logic, the term applied to the process of discovering principles by the observation and combination of particular instances. Aristotle, who did so much to establish the laws of deductive @@ -645,7 +606,7 @@ of a very large number of turns of wire. Induction coils are employed for physiological purposes and also in connexion with telephones, but their great use at the present time is in connexion with the production of high frequency electric currents, for -Röntgen ray work and wireless telegraphy.</p> +Röntgen ray work and wireless telegraphy.</p> <p>The instrument began to be developed soon after Faraday’s discovery of induced currents in 1831, and the subsequent @@ -679,19 +640,19 @@ an iron block fixed to the end of a spring, in such a way that two platinum points are separated and the primary circuit thus interrupted. It was not until 1853 that H. L. Fizeau added to the break the condenser which greatly improved the operation -of the coil. It 1851 H. D. Rühmkorff (1803-1877), an instrument-maker +of the coil. It 1851 H. D. Rühmkorff (1803-1877), an instrument-maker in Paris, profiting by all previous experience, addressed himself to the problem of increasing the electromotive force in the secondary circuit, and induction coils with a secondary circuit of long fine wire have generally, but unnecessarily, been called -Rühmkorff coils. Rühmkorff, however, greatly lengthened the +Rühmkorff coils. Rühmkorff, however, greatly lengthened the secondary circuit, employing in some coils 5 or 6 m. of wire. The secondary wire was insulated with silk and shellac varnish, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page503" id="page503"></a>503</span> and each layer of wire was separated from the next by means of varnished silk or shellac paper; the secondary circuit was also carefully insulated from the primary circuit by a glass tube. -Rühmkorff, by providing with his coil an automatic break of the +Rühmkorff, by providing with his coil an automatic break of the hammer type, and equipping it with a condenser as suggested by Fizeau, arrived at the modern form of induction coil. J. N. Hearder in England and E. S. Ritchie in the United States began @@ -722,7 +683,7 @@ which when at its best could give a spark of 42 in. in length.</p> <p>A general description of the mode of constructing a modern induction coil, such as is used for wireless telegraphy or -Röntgen ray apparatus, is as follows: The iron core +Röntgen ray apparatus, is as follows: The iron core consists of a bundle of soft iron wires inserted in the <span class="sidenote">Construction.</span> interior of an ebonite tube. On the outside of this @@ -746,13 +707,13 @@ any two parts of the secondary circuit which are at great differences of potential from being near to one another, unless effectively insulated by a sufficient thickness of shellaced or paraffined paper. A 10-in. coil, a size very commonly used for -Röntgen ray work or wireless telegraphy, has an iron core made +Röntgen ray work or wireless telegraphy, has an iron core made of a bundle of soft iron wires No. 22 S.W.G., 2 in. in diameter and 18 in. in length. The primary coil wound over this core consists of No. 14 S.W.G. copper wire, insulated with white silk laid on in three layers and having a resistance of about half an ohm. The insulating ebonite tube for such a coil -should not be less than ¼ in. in thickness, and should have two +should not be less than ¼ in. in thickness, and should have two ebonite cheeks on it placed 14 in. apart. This tube is supported on two hollow pedestals down which the ends of the primary wire are brought. The secondary coil consists of No. 36 or No. @@ -869,7 +830,7 @@ per second. If the secondary terminals of the induction coils are connected to spark balls placed a short distance apart, then with an electrolytic break the discharge has a flame-like character resembling an alternating current arc. This type of -break is therefore preferred for Röntgen ray work since it makes +break is therefore preferred for Röntgen ray work since it makes less flickering upon the screen, but its advantages in the case of wireless telegraphy are not so marked. In the Grisson interrupter the primary circuit of the induction coil is divided into two parts @@ -1069,7 +1030,7 @@ reduces to</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">p<span class="sp">2</span> =</td> <td>1</td> -<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>1 ± k</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>1 ± k</td> <td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">CL</td> <td class="denom">1 − k<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table> @@ -1443,10 +1404,10 @@ which have been so constant on the northern <span class="sidenote">In the Himalaya.</span> frontiers of India of recent years. The sources of the Indus are to be traced to the glaciers of the great Kailas -group of peaks in 32° 20′ N. and 81° E., which overlook the +group of peaks in 32° 20′ N. and 81° E., which overlook the Mansarowar lake and the sources of the Brahmaputra, the Sutlej and the Gogra to the south-east. Three great affluents, -flowing north-west, unite in about 80° E. to form the main +flowing north-west, unite in about 80° E. to form the main stream, all of them, so far as we know at present, derived from the Kailas glaciers. Of these the northern tributary points the road from Ladakh to the Jhalung goldfields, and the southern, @@ -1461,7 +1422,7 @@ m., except for a remarkable divergence to the south-west which carries it across, or through, the Ladakh range to follow the same course on the southern side that had been maintained on the north. This very remarkable instance of transverse drainage -across a main mountain axis occurs in 79° E., about 100 m. +across a main mountain axis occurs in 79° E., about 100 m. above Leh. For another 230 m., in a north-westerly direction, the Indus pursues a comparatively gentle and placid course over its sandy bed between the giant chains of Ladakh to the north @@ -1499,7 +1460,7 @@ it runs within the sphere of British interests. Then once again it resumes its “independent” course through the wild mountains of Kohistan and Hazara, receiving tribute from both sides (the Buner contribution being the most noteworthy) till it -emerges into the plains of the Punjab below Darband, in 34° +emerges into the plains of the Punjab below Darband, in 34° 10′ N. All this part of the river has been mapped in more or less detail of late years. The hidden strongholds of those Hindostani fanatics who had found a refuge on its banks since @@ -1582,10 +1543,10 @@ area of its basin being computed at 372,000 sq. m. Even at its lowest in winter it is 500 ft. wide at Iskardo (near <span class="sidenote">Statistics.</span> the Gilgit junction) and 9 or 10 ft. deep. The temperature of the -surface water during the cold season in the plains is found to be 5° -below that of the air (64° and 69° F.). At the beginning of the hot +surface water during the cold season in the plains is found to be 5° +below that of the air (64° and 69° F.). At the beginning of the hot season, when the river is bringing down snow water, the difference is -14° (87° and 101° June). At greater depths the difference is still +14° (87° and 101° June). At greater depths the difference is still greater. At Attock, where the river narrows between rocky banks, a height of 50 ft. in the flood season above lowest level is common, with a velocity of 13 m. per hour. The record rise (since British @@ -1619,7 +1580,7 @@ vol. vi.</p> <hr class="art" /> -<p><span class="bold">INDUSTRIA<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (mod. Monteù da Po), an ancient town of Liguria, +<p><span class="bold">INDUSTRIA<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (mod. Monteù da Po), an ancient town of Liguria, 20 m. N.E. of Augusta Taurinorum. Its original name was Bodincomagus, from the Ligurian name of the Padus (mod. Po), Bodincus, <i>i.e.</i> bottomless (Plin. <i>Hist. Nat.</i> iii. 122), and @@ -1631,7 +1592,7 @@ light the forum, theatre, baths, &c.) have shown, but appears to have been deserted in the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span></p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See A. Fabietti in <i>Atti della Società di Archeologia di Torino</i>, iii, +<p>See A. Fabietti in <i>Atti della Società di Archeologia di Torino</i>, iii, 17 seq.; Th. Mommsen in <i>Corp. Inscrip. Lat.</i> v. (Berlin, 1877), p. 845; E. Ferrero in <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i> (1903), p. 43.</p> </div> @@ -1703,7 +1664,7 @@ and connected with the latter town by a carriage road (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kastamuni</a></span>). The roadstead is exposed, having no protection for shipping except a jetty 300 ft. long, so that in rough weather landing is impracticable. The exports (chiefly wool and mohair) -are about £248,000 annually and the imports £200,000. The +are about £248,000 annually and the imports £200,000. The population is about 9000 (Moslems 7000, Christians 2000). Ineboli represents the ancient <i>Abonou-teichos</i>, famous as the birthplace of the false prophet Alexander, who established there (2nd @@ -1826,14 +1787,14 @@ of intoxication shall be deemed to have intended the natural and probable consequences of his act.” There is a similar provision in the Criminal Code of the Gold Coast Colony (No. 12 of 1892, s. 54). Under the French Penal Code (Art. 64), -“<i>il n’y a ni crime, ni délit, lorsque le prévenu était en état de démence -au temps de l’action ou lorsqu’il aura été contraint par une force -à laquelle il n’ a pu résister</i>.” According to the balance of authority -(Dalloz, <i>Rép.</i> tit., Peine, ss. 402 et seq.) intoxication is not +“<i>il n’y a ni crime, ni délit, lorsque le prévenu était en état de démence +au temps de l’action ou lorsqu’il aura été contraint par une force +à laquelle il n’ a pu résister</i>.” According to the balance of authority +(Dalloz, <i>Rép.</i> tit., Peine, ss. 402 et seq.) intoxication is not assimilated to insanity, within the meaning of this article, but it may be and is taken account of by juries as an extenuating -circumstance (Ortolan, <i>Droit Pénal</i> i. s. 323: Chauveau et -Hélie i. s. 360). A provision in the German Penal Code (Art. +circumstance (Ortolan, <i>Droit Pénal</i> i. s. 323: Chauveau et +Hélie i. s. 360). A provision in the German Penal Code (Art. 51) that an act is not punishable if its author, at the time of committing it, was in a condition of unconsciousness, or morbid disturbance of the activity of his mind which prevented the @@ -1879,7 +1840,7 @@ regulating the appointment of some person or persons to act as guardian or guardians, or who may be endowed with legal powers over the person and estate of an inebriate. Thus in France (Code Civil, Arts. 489 et seq.), Germany (Civil Code, -Art. 6 (39)) and Austria-Hungary (<i>Bürgerliches Gesetz-Buch</i>, +Art. 6 (39)) and Austria-Hungary (<i>Bürgerliches Gesetz-Buch</i>, ss. 21, 269, 270, 273), an inebriate may be judicially interdicted if he is squandering his property and thereby exposing his family to future destitution. Provision is also made for the interdiction @@ -1887,7 +1848,7 @@ of inebriates by the laws of Nova Scotia (Rev. Stats. 1900, c. 126, s. 2), Manitoba (Rev. Stat. 1902, c. 103, ss. 30 et seq.), British Columbia (Rev. Stat. 1897, c. 66), New South Wales (Inebriates Act 1900, s. 5), Tasmania (Inebriates Act 1885, -No. 17, s. 23); Canton of Bâle (Trustee Law of the 23rd of +No. 17, s. 23); Canton of Bâle (Trustee Law of the 23rd of Feb. 1880, s. 11), Orange River Colony (Code Laws, c. 108, s. 30), Maryland (Code General Laws, c. 474, s. 47). (<i>e</i>) Control for the purpose of reformation. Legislation of this character @@ -1902,7 +1863,7 @@ North Dakota (Habitual Drunkards Act 1895) provides for the first of these methods of treatment alone. Compulsory detention for ordinary inebriates only is provided for by the laws of Delaware (Act of 1898), Massachusetts (Rev. Laws, c. 87), and -of the Cantons of Berne (Law of the 24th of Nov. 1883) and Bâle +of the Cantons of Berne (Law of the 24th of Nov. 1883) and Bâle (Law of the 21st of Feb. 1901). All three methods of treatment are in force in New South Wales (Inebriates Act 1900), Queensland (Inebriates Institutions Act 1896) and South Australia @@ -1941,7 +1902,7 @@ be attested by a justice of the peace who has satisfied himself as to the fact, and who is required to state that the applicant understood the nature and effect of his application. Licences (each of which is subject to a duty and is impressed with a stamp -of £5, and 10s. for every patient above ten in number) are granted +of £5, and 10s. for every patient above ten in number) are granted for retreats by the borough council and the town clerk in boroughs, and elsewhere by the county council and the clerk of the county council. The maximum period for which a licence may be granted @@ -2024,7 +1985,7 @@ for the treatment of inebriates will be found in Parl. Pap. (1902), cd. <hr class="art" /> -<p><span class="bold">INFALLIBILITY<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (Fr. <i>infaillibilité</i> and <i>infallibilité</i>, the latter +<p><span class="bold">INFALLIBILITY<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (Fr. <i>infaillibilité</i> and <i>infallibilité</i>, the latter now obsolete, Med. Lat. <i>infallibilitas</i>, <i>infallibilis</i>, formed from fallor, to make a mistake), the fact or quality of not being liable to err or fail. The word has thus the general sense of “certainty”; @@ -2194,9 +2155,9 @@ proposition, under pain of heresy and exclusion from the Church; they do not insist on any special form, but only require that the pope should clearly manifest his will to the Church. This second point of view, as clearly expounded by Mgr Joseph Fessler -(1813-1872), bishop of St Pölten, who was secretary to the +(1813-1872), bishop of St Pölten, who was secretary to the Vatican Council, in his work <i>Die wahre und die falsche Unfehlbarkeit -der Päpste</i> (French trans. <i>La vraie et la fausse infaillibilité</i>, +der Päpste</i> (French trans. <i>La vraie et la fausse infaillibilité</i>, Paris, 1873), and by Cardinal Newman in his “Letter to the Duke of Norfolk,” is the correct one, and this is clear from the fact that it has never been blamed by the ecclesiastical authority. @@ -2252,7 +2213,7 @@ the bishops who were among the minority one after the other formulated their loyal adhesion to the Catholic dogma. The last to do so in Germany was Hefele, who published the decrees of the 10th of April 1871, thus breaking a long friendship with -Döllinger; in Austria, where the government had thought good +Döllinger; in Austria, where the government had thought good to revive for the occasion the royal <i>placet</i>, Mgr Haynald and Mgr Strossmayer delayed the publication, the former till the 15th of September 1871, the latter till the 26th of December @@ -2261,7 +2222,7 @@ was only delayed by some bishops in consequence of the disastrous war with Prussia. Though no bishops abandoned it, a few priests, such as Father Hyacinthe Loyson, and a few scholars at the German universities refused their adhesion. -The most distinguished among the latter was Döllinger, who +The most distinguished among the latter was Döllinger, who resisted all the advances of Mgr Scherr, archbishop of Munich, was excommunicated on the 17th of April 1871, and died unreconciled, though without joining any separate group. After @@ -2270,7 +2231,7 @@ of Bonn, and Reinkens of Breslau, who was the first bishop of the “Old Catholics.” These professors formed the “Committee of Bonn,” which organized the new Church. It was recognized and protected first in Bavaria, thanks to the minister -Freiherr Johann von Lutz, then in Saxony, Baden, Württemberg, +Freiherr Johann von Lutz, then in Saxony, Baden, Württemberg, Prussia, where it was the pretext for, if not the cause of, the Kulturkampf, and finally in Switzerland, especially at Geneva.</p> @@ -2287,13 +2248,13 @@ also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Papacy</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> -<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It was in this sense that it was understood by Döllinger, who +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It was in this sense that it was understood by Döllinger, who pointed out that the definition of the dogma would commit the Church to all past official utterances of the popes, <i>e.g.</i> the Syllabus of -1864, and therefore to a war <i>à outrance</i> against modern civilization. +1864, and therefore to a war <i>à outrance</i> against modern civilization. This view was embodied in the circular note to the Powers, drawn up -by Döllinger and issued by the Bavarian prime minister Prince -Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst on April 9, 1869. It was also the view +by Döllinger and issued by the Bavarian prime minister Prince +Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst on April 9, 1869. It was also the view universally taken by the German governments which supported the <i>Kulturkampf</i> in a greater or less degree.—<span class="sc">Ed.</span></p> </div> @@ -2347,15 +2308,15 @@ to the tenth day, when the umbilicus is healed.</p> <p>The baby is now a separate entity, and the first event in its life is the first bath. The room ready to receive a new-born -infant should be kept at a temperature of 70° F. The temperature -of the first bath should be 100° F. The child should be well +infant should be kept at a temperature of 70° F. The temperature +of the first bath should be 100° F. The child should be well supported in the bath by the left hand of the nurse, and care should be taken to avoid wetting the gauze pad covering the cord. In some cases infants are covered with a white substance termed “vernix caseosa,” which may be carefully removed by a little olive oil. Sponges should never be used, as they tend to harbour bacteria. A soft pad of muslin or gauze which can -be boiled should take its place. After the first ten days 94° F. +be boiled should take its place. After the first ten days 94° F. is the most suitable temperature for a bath. When the baby has been well dried the skin may be dusted with pure starch powder to which a small quantity of boric acid has been added. @@ -2382,9 +2343,9 @@ occurs, usually 5 to 6 oz. When nursing begins the child increases in weight up to the seventh day, when the infant will have regained its weight at birth. From the second to the fourth week after birth (according to Camerer) an infant should gain -1 oz. daily or 1½ to 2 ℔ monthly, from the fourth to the sixth -month ½ to <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> of an oz. daily or 1 ℔ monthly, from the sixth to the -twelfth month ½ oz. daily or less than 1 ℔ monthly. At the +1 oz. daily or 1½ to 2 ℔ monthly, from the fourth to the sixth +month ½ to <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> of an oz. daily or 1 ℔ monthly, from the sixth to the +twelfth month ½ oz. daily or less than 1 ℔ monthly. At the sixth month it should be twice the weight at birth. The average weight at the twelfth month is 20 to 21 ℔. The increase of weight in artificially fed is less regular than in breast-fed babies.</p> @@ -2405,7 +2366,7 @@ gives the following table of dilution:—</p> <table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcl">1st week,</td> <td class="tcc">milk</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">tablespoonful,</td> <td class="tcc">water</td> <td class="tcl">2 tablespoonfuls</td> <td class="tcc"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">at 3 months</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcc">3½</td> <td class="tcc">tablespoonfuls,</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">3     ”</td> <td class="tccm cl" rowspan="3">added<br />with<br />sugar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">at 3 months</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcc">3½</td> <td class="tcc">tablespoonfuls,</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">3     ”</td> <td class="tccm cl" rowspan="3">added<br />with<br />sugar.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">at 6 months,</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcc">9</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">3     ”</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">at 9 months,</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcc">12</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">3     ”</td></tr> </table> @@ -2415,21 +2376,21 @@ follows:—</p> <table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcl">1st day</td> <td class="tcc">3</td> <td class="tcc">feeds of</td> <td class="tcl">10 cc</td> <td class="tcc">total</td> <td class="tcl">1 oz.</td> <td class="tcc">in 24 hours</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">2nd day</td> <td class="tcc">8</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">20 cc</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">5½</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">2nd day</td> <td class="tcc">8</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">20 cc</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">5½</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">3rd day</td> <td class="tcc">8</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">30 cc (1 oz.)</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">8</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">7th day</td> <td class="tcc">9</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">50 cc</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">13½</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">7th day</td> <td class="tcc">9</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">50 cc</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">13½</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">4th week</td> <td class="tcc">8</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">60 cc (2 oz.)</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">16</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">3 months</td> <td class="tcc">7</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">4 oz.</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">28</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">6 months</td> <td class="tcc">6</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">7 oz.</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">42</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">9 months</td> <td class="tcc">6</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">8½ oz.</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">50</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">9 months</td> <td class="tcc">6</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">8½ oz.</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">50</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> </table> <p>In cities it is advisable that milk should be either sterilized by boiling or pasteurized, <i>i.e.</i> subjected to a form of heating which, while destroying pathogenic bacteria, does not alter the taste. The milk in a suitable apparatus is subjected to a -temperature of 65° C. (149° F.) for half an hour and is then -rapidly cooled to 20° C. (68° F.). Children fed on pasteurized +temperature of 65° C. (149° F.) for half an hour and is then +rapidly cooled to 20° C. (68° F.). Children fed on pasteurized milk should be given a teaspoonful of fresh orange juice daily to supply the missing acid and salts.</p> @@ -2442,7 +2403,7 @@ the other end has a screw stopper. This is readily cleansed and a stream of water can be made to flow through it. All bottle teats should be boiled at least once a day for ten minutes with soda and kept in a glass-covered jar until required. A -feed should be given at the temperature of 100° F.</p> +feed should be given at the temperature of 100° F.</p> <p>At the ninth month a cereal may be added to the food. Before that the infant is unable to digest starchy foods. Much starch @@ -2470,7 +2431,7 @@ life. France has been turning her attention to the establishment of infant consultations on the lines of Dr Budin’s, and similar dispensaries under the designation “Gouttes de lait” have been widely established in that country; gratifying results in the -fall in infant mortality have followed. At the Fécamp dispensary +fall in infant mortality have followed. At the Fécamp dispensary the mortality from diarrhoea has fallen to 2.8, while that in neighbouring towns is from 50 to 76 per 1000 (Sir A. Simpson). It has been left to private enterprise in England to deal with @@ -2494,14 +2455,14 @@ medical officer of health for the district lectures on the duties of fatherhood. Similar schools for mothers are now established in Fulham and Stepney. Weighing centres have been established at Dundee, Sheffield, Nottingham, Birmingham, Aberdeen, -Bolton, Belfast, and Newcastle-on-Tyne. An infants’ milk depôt +Bolton, Belfast, and Newcastle-on-Tyne. An infants’ milk depôt has been established at Finsbury, and effort is being made to establish milk laboratories where separate nursing portions of sterile milk could be supplied to poor mothers. The Walker-Gordon milk laboratories in the United States are a step in this direction.</p> -<p>The average length of a child at birth is 19½ in. and during +<p>The average length of a child at birth is 19½ in. and during the first year the average increase is 7<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. A new-born infant is deaf (Koplik). This is supposed to be due to the blocking of the eustachian tubes with mucus. On the fourth day there @@ -2898,7 +2859,7 @@ superior, or at least her equal. This reasoning was most powerful with the highest castes, in which the disproportion of the sexes was painfully apparent. But, assuming marriage to be possible, it was ruinously expensive to the bride’s father, the cost in -the case of some rajahs having been known to exceed £100,000. +the case of some rajahs having been known to exceed £100,000. To avoid all this, the Rajput killed a proportion of his daughters—sometimes in a very singular way. A pill of tobacco and bhang might be given to the new-born child; or it was drowned in @@ -2965,7 +2926,7 @@ whether it has breathed or not, and whether it has an independent circulation or not, and whether the navel-string is severed or not; and the killing of such a child is homicide when it dies after birth in consequence of injuries received before, during -or after birth.” À child in the womb or in the act of birth, +or after birth.” À child in the womb or in the act of birth, though it may have breathed, is therefore not a human being, the killing of which amounts to homicide. The older law of child murder under a statute of James I. consisted of cruel @@ -3067,7 +3028,7 @@ of the fact that Spanish foot-soldiers of the time were called <i>soldados</i> and contrasted with French <i>fantassins</i> and Italian <i>fanteria</i>. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> suggests that a foot-soldier, being in feudal and early modern times the varlet or follower of a -mounted noble, was called a boy (cf. <i>Knabe</i>, <i>garçon</i>, footman, +mounted noble, was called a boy (cf. <i>Knabe</i>, <i>garçon</i>, footman, &c., and see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Valet</a></span>).</p> <p class="pt2 center sc">Historical Sketch</p> @@ -3075,7 +3036,7 @@ mounted noble, was called a boy (cf. <i>Knabe</i>, <i>garçon</i>, footman, <p>The importance of the infantry arm, both in history and at the present time, cannot be summed up better and more concisely than in the phrase used by a brilliant general of the -Napoleonic era, General Morand—“<i>L’infanterie, c’est l’armée</i>.”</p> +Napoleonic era, General Morand—“<i>L’infanterie, c’est l’armée</i>.”</p> <p>It may be confidently asserted that the original fighting man was a foot-soldier. But infantry was differentiated as an “arm” @@ -3277,7 +3238,7 @@ became quite unusual for infantry to appear on the field at all.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The tactics of feudal infantry at its best were conspicuously illustrated in the battle of Bouvines, where besides the barons, knights -and sergeants, the Brabançon mercenaries (heavy foot) +and sergeants, the Brabançon mercenaries (heavy foot) and the French communal militia opposed one another. <span class="sidenote">Bouvines.</span> On the French right wing, the opportune arrival of a well-closed @@ -3291,7 +3252,7 @@ personal encounters of the two bodies of knights gave the crowded German infantry a momentary chance to strike down the king, the latter was soon rescued by a half-dozen of heavy cavalrymen. On the left wing, the count of Boulogne made a living castle of his -Brabançon pikes, whence with his men-at-arms he sallied forth from +Brabançon pikes, whence with his men-at-arms he sallied forth from time to time and played the champion. Lastly, the Constable Montmorency brought over what was still manageable of the corps that had defeated the cavalry on the right (nearly all mounted men) @@ -3378,7 +3339,7 @@ indeed they were, for the gendarmerie rode them down—and melted away.</p> </div> -<p>Crécy (<i>q.v.</i>) was fought forty-four years after Courtrai. +<p>Crécy (<i>q.v.</i>) was fought forty-four years after Courtrai. Here the knights had open ground to fight on, and many boasted that they would revenge themselves. But they encountered not merely infantry, but infantry tactics, and were for the @@ -3431,7 +3392,7 @@ wood” of spears had been demonstrated again and again, but when the cavalry had few or no preliminary difficulties to face, the chances of the infantry mass resisting long-continued pressure was small. It was the combination of the two elements -that made possible a Crécy and a Poitiers, and this combination +that made possible a Crécy and a Poitiers, and this combination was the result of the English social system which produced the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page520" id="page520"></a>520</span> <i>camaraderie</i> of knight and yeoman, champion and plain soldier. @@ -3455,7 +3416,7 @@ to the professional man-at-arms and the professional captain. Ransom became again the chief object, and except where a great leader, such as Bertrand Du Guesclin, compelled the mercenaries to follow him to death -or victory, a battle usually became a mêlée of irregular duels +or victory, a battle usually became a mêlée of irregular duels between men-at-arms, with all the selfishness and little of the chivalry of the purely feudal encounter. The war went on and on, the gendarmes thickened their armour, and the archers @@ -3463,7 +3424,7 @@ found more difficulty in penetrating it. Moreover, in raids for devastation and booty, the slow-moving infantryman was often a source of danger to his comrades. In this <i>guerrilla</i> the archer, though he kept his place, soon ceased to be the mainstay of -battle. It had become customary since Crécy (where the English +battle. It had become customary since Crécy (where the English knights and sergeants were dismounted to protect the archers) for all mounted men to send away their horses before engaging. Here and there cavalry masses were used by such energetic @@ -3502,7 +3463,7 @@ the English, lances and bowmen alike.</p> <p>The net result of the Hundred Years’ War therefore was to re-establish the two arms, cavalry and infantry, side by side, the -one acting by shock, and the other by fire. The lesson of Crécy +one acting by shock, and the other by fire. The lesson of Crécy was “prepare your charge before delivering it,” and for that purpose great bodies of infantry armed with bows, arblasts and handguns were brought into existence in France. When the @@ -3621,7 +3582,7 @@ latter were found wanting as at Guinegate, the masses of archers and arblasters, which were only feebly supported by a few handfuls of pikemen and halberdiers, were swept away by the charge of some heavy battalions of Swabian and Flemish -pikes. Guinegate was the <i>début</i> of the Landsknecht infantry as +pikes. Guinegate was the <i>début</i> of the Landsknecht infantry as Nancy was that of the Swiss, and the lesson could not be misread. Louis XI. indeed hanged some of his <i>franc-archers</i> and dismissed the rest, and in their place raised “bands” of regular infantry, @@ -3654,8 +3615,8 @@ and rivalled them, though as a rule developing more front and less depth. At this stage solidity was everything and fire-power nothing. At Fornuovo (1495) the mass of arquebusiers and arblasters in the French army did little or -nothing; it was the Swiss who were <i>l’espérance de l’ost</i>. At -Agnadello or Vailá in 1509 the ground and the “encounter-battle” +nothing; it was the Swiss who were <i>l’espérance de l’ost</i>. At +Agnadello or Vailá in 1509 the ground and the “encounter-battle” character of the engagement gave special chances of effective employment to the arquebusiers on either side. Along the front the Venetian marksmen, secure behind a bank, picked @@ -3783,8 +3744,8 @@ from time to time by the colonel-general of the foot <div class="condensed"> <p>The organization of the French infantry in 1570 presents some -points of interest. The former broad classification of <i>au delà</i> and -<i>en deça des monts</i> or “Picardie” and “Piedmont,” representing +points of interest. The former broad classification of <i>au delà </i> and +<i>en deça des monts</i> or “Picardie” and “Piedmont,” representing the home and Italian armies, had disappeared, and <span class="sidenote">The French infantry in 1570.</span> instead the whole of the infantry, under one colonel-general, @@ -3793,7 +3754,7 @@ and French Guards, each of which had its own colonel and its own colours. Besides these, three newer corps were <i>entretenus par le Roy</i>—“Champagne,” practically belonging to the Guise<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> family, and two others formed out of the once enormous regiment of Marshal -de Cossé-Brissac. At the end of a campaign all temporary regiments +de Cossé-Brissac. At the end of a campaign all temporary regiments were disbanded, but in imitation of the Spanish depot system, each, on disbandment, threw off a depot company of picked men who formed the nucleus for the next year’s augmentation. The regiment @@ -3894,7 +3855,7 @@ men behind fortifications. Fighting, therefore, chiefly at close quarters with a fierce enemy, and not disposing either of the space or of the opportunity for “manœuvre-battles,” they sacrificed all their former lightness and speed, and clung to armour, -the long pike and the heavy 2½ oz. bullet. But the principles +the long pike and the heavy 2½ oz. bullet. But the principles first put into practice by Gonsalvo de Cordoba, the combination, in the proportions required in each case, of <i>fire</i> and <i>shock</i> elements in every body of organized infantry however small, @@ -3925,12 +3886,12 @@ blow.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:891px; height:564px" src="images/img522a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcr f80">(<i>From Hardÿ de Périni’s Batailles Françaises, by permission.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr f80">(<i>From Hardÿ de Périni’s Batailles Françaises, by permission.</i>)</td></tr> <tr><td class="caption">DREUX—1562.</td></tr></table> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:886px; height:693px" src="images/img522b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption">LÜTZEN—1632.</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption">LÃœTZEN—1632.</td></tr></table> <p class="pt2 f90 noind sc">Plate II.</p> @@ -3947,7 +3908,7 @@ blow.</p> <p>It must be remembered, however, that Vane is speaking of the Low Countries, and that in France at any rate the solidity which -saved the day at Nieupoort was less appreciated than the <i>élan</i> +saved the day at Nieupoort was less appreciated than the <i>élan</i> which had won so many smart engagements in the Wars of Religion. Moreover, it was the <i>offensive</i>, the decision-compelling faculty of the foot that steadily developed during the 17th @@ -4314,8 +4275,8 @@ outnumbered his own) before the rest of their deployed line of battle could change front to intervene. His method was to place his own line, by a concealed flank march, opposite the point where he desired to strike, and then to advance, not in -two long lines but in échelon of battalions from the right (see -<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leuthen</a></span>). The échelon was not so deep but that each battalion +two long lines but in échelon of battalions from the right (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leuthen</a></span>). The échelon was not so deep but that each battalion was properly supported by the following one on its left (100 paces distance), and each, as it came within 200 yds. of the Austrian battalion facing it, opened its “rolling volleys” while @@ -4354,8 +4315,8 @@ But whenever opportunity offered itself, the king sought a decisive success by bringing the whole of his infantry against part of the enemy’s—the principle of Leuthen put in practice over a wider area and with more elastic manœuvre methods. -The long échelon of battalions directed against a part of the -hostile line developed quite naturally into an irregular échelon +The long échelon of battalions directed against a part of the +hostile line developed quite naturally into an irregular échelon of brigade columns directed against a part of the enemy’s position. But the history of the “cordon system” which followed this development belongs rather to the subject of tactics in general @@ -4452,7 +4413,7 @@ merely been levelled up to the line, it had surpassed it, and in 1815 there were no troops in Europe, whether trained to fight in line or column or skirmishers, who could rival the three regiments named, the “Light Division” of Peninsular annals. For meantime the -infantry organization and tactics of the old régime, elsewhere than +infantry organization and tactics of the old régime, elsewhere than in England, had been disintegrated by the flames of the French Revolution, and from their ashes a new system had arisen, which forms the real starting-point of the infantry tactics of to-day.</p> @@ -4460,7 +4421,7 @@ forms the real starting-point of the infantry tactics of to-day.</p> <p>The controversialists of Louis XVI.’s time, foremost of whom were Guibert, Joly de Maizeroy and Menil Durand (see Max -Jähns, <i>Gesch. d. Kriegswissenschaften</i>, vol. iii.), were +Jähns, <i>Gesch. d. Kriegswissenschaften</i>, vol. iii.), were agreed that shock action should be the work of troops <span class="sidenote">The French Revolution.</span> formed in column, but as to the results to be expected @@ -4481,7 +4442,7 @@ in the drill-book that survived the test of a “national” war, to which within a few years it was subjected (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolutionary Wars</a></span>). The rest, like the “linear system” of organization and manœuvre to which it belonged (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Army</a></span>, -§§ 30-33; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conscription</a></span>, &c.) was ignored, and circumstances +§§ 30-33; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conscription</a></span>, &c.) was ignored, and circumstances and the practical troop-leaders evolved by circumstances fashioned the combination of <i>close-order columns and loose-order skirmishers</i> which constituted essentially the new tactics of @@ -4507,7 +4468,7 @@ broke up into an irregular swarm of excited firers, and experience soon proved that only the troops kept out of the turmoil, whether in line or in column, were susceptible of manœuvre and united action. Thus from about 1795 onwards the forms of the old -régime, with half the troops in front in line of battle (practically +régime, with half the troops in front in line of battle (practically in dense hordes of firers) and the other half in rear in line or line of columns, give way to new ones in which the skirmishers are fewer and the closed troops more numerous, and the decision @@ -4516,7 +4477,7 @@ could not compare in effectiveness with the rolling volleys of the drilled line) but with the bayonets of the second and third lines—the latter being sometimes in line but more often, owing to the want of preliminary drill, in columns. The skirmishers -tended again to become pure light infantry, whose rôle was to +tended again to become pure light infantry, whose rôle was to prepare, not to give, the decision, and who fought in a thin line, taking every advantage of cover and marksmanship. In the Consulate and early Empire, indeed, we commonly find, in the @@ -4711,7 +4672,7 @@ two or three at the most. “Fire-power” therefore was at a low level until the general introduction<a name="fa12e" id="fa12e" href="#ft12e"><span class="sp">12</span></a> of the rifled barrel, which while further diminishing the rate of fire, at any rate greatly increased the range at which volleys were thoroughly -effective. Artillery (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artillery</a></span>, § 13), the fire-weapon of the +effective. Artillery (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artillery</a></span>, § 13), the fire-weapon of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page528" id="page528"></a>528</span> attack, made no corresponding progress, and even as early as the Alma and Inkerman (where the British troops used the @@ -4737,7 +4698,7 @@ World. The fire-power of the defence, therefore, that even in America did not always prevail over the resolution of the attack, entirely failed in the Italian war of 1859 to stop the swiftly moving, well-drilled columns of the French professional army, in -which the national <i>élan</i> had not as yet been suppressed, as it +which the national <i>élan</i> had not as yet been suppressed, as it was a few years later, by the doctrine that “the new arms found their greatest scope in the defence.” The Austrians, who had pinned their faith to this doctrine, deserted their false gods, @@ -4792,7 +4753,7 @@ true “nation in arms”—and the character of the officers evolved by the universal service system saved them from their regulations. The offensive spirit was inculcated as thoroughly as elsewhere, and in a much more practical form. Dietrich von -Bülow’s predictions of the future battle of “skirmishers” +Bülow’s predictions of the future battle of “skirmishers” (meaning thereby a dense but irregular firing line) had captivated the younger school of officers, while King William and the veterans of Napoleon’s wars were careful to maintain small @@ -4809,12 +4770,12 @@ whose tactics alternated between unprepared bayonet rushes by whole brigades and a passive slow-firing defensive, victory was easily achieved.</p> -<p>But immediately after Königgrätz the French army was +<p>But immediately after Königgrätz the French army was served out with a breech-loading rifle greatly superior in every respect to the needle-gun, and after four years’ tension France pitted breech-loader against breech-loader. <span class="sidenote">Infantry in the war of 1870.</span> -In the first battles (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wörth</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metz</a></span>: <i>Battles</i>) +In the first battles (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wörth</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metz</a></span>: <i>Battles</i>) the decision-seeking spirit of the “armed nation,” the inferior range of the needle-gun as compared with that of the chassepot, and the recollections of easy triumphs in 1864 and @@ -4878,7 +4839,7 @@ the “fire-fight” was insufficiently developed <span class="sidenote">Lessons of 1870.</span> and uneconomically used, and after the war tacticians turned their attention to the evolution of better methods than -those of Wörth and Gravelotte, Europe in general following +those of Wörth and Gravelotte, Europe in general following the lead of Prussia. Controversy, in the early stages, took the form of a contest between “drill” and “individualism,” irrespective of formations and technical details, for until about @@ -4906,7 +4867,7 @@ infantry training was admittedly in the hands of the Prussians.</p> the operations, generally speaking, either from the staff officer’s or from the regimental officer’s point of view. To the former and to many of the latter the most indelible impression of the -battlefield was what they called <i>Massen-Drückebergertum</i> or +battlefield was what they called <i>Massen-Drückebergertum</i> or “wholesale skulking.” The rest, who had perhaps in most cases led the brave remnant of their companies in the final assaults, believed that battles were won by the individual @@ -4969,7 +4930,7 @@ was expected to face without flinching, and actual fighting is apparently spasmodic, the period in which the individual soldier is subjected to the fear of bullets is greatly increased. Zorndorf, the most severe of Frederick’s battles, lasted seven -hours, Vionville twelve and Wörth eleven. The battle of the +hours, Vionville twelve and Wörth eleven. The battle of the future in Europe, without being as prolonged as Liao-Yang, Shaho and Mukden, will still be undecided twenty-four hours after the advanced guards have taken contact. Now, for a great @@ -5025,7 +4986,7 @@ possible formations.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Drill is the military form of education by repetition and association -(see G. le Bon, <i>Psychologie de l’éducation</i>). Materially it consists in +(see G. le Bon, <i>Psychologie de l’éducation</i>). Materially it consists in exercises frequently repeated by bodies of soldiers with a view to ensuring the harmonious action of each individual <span class="sidenote">Drill.</span> @@ -5062,7 +5023,7 @@ enemy, even when the motives for fighting were equally powerful on each side. The mechanical performance of movements, and loading and firing at the enemy, under the most disturbing conditions can be ensured by bringing the required self-control from -the domain of reason into that of instinct. “<i>L’éducation</i>,” says le +the domain of reason into that of instinct. “<i>L’éducation</i>,” says le Bon, “<i>est l’art de faire passer le conscient dans l’inconscient</i>.” Lastly, the instincts of the recruit being those special to his race or nation, which are the more powerful because they are operative through @@ -5117,7 +5078,7 @@ the reserve force of its component parts, remaining after the dissolution, is far higher than of old. But this uncontrolled, force is liable to panic as well as amenable to an impulse of self-sacrifice. In so far, then, it is necessary to adopt the catchword -of the Bülow school and to “organize disorder,” and the +of the Bülow school and to “organize disorder,” and the only known method of doing so is drill. “Individualism” pure and simple had certainly a brief reign during and after the South African War, especially in Great Britain, and both @@ -5303,7 +5264,7 @@ desired, it is deliberately made impossible by employing there such small forces as possess no offensive power. Where the attack is intended to be pushed home, the infantry units employed act as far as possible simultaneously, resolutely and in great -force (see the German <i>Infantry Regulations</i>, 1906, §§ 324 +force (see the German <i>Infantry Regulations</i>, 1906, §§ 324 et seq.).</p> <p>While in Germany movement “transports the fire,” in France @@ -5375,7 +5336,7 @@ also made use of the methods of fortification to secure every successive step of progress in the attack. The usefulness and limitations of this procedure are defined in generally similar terms in the most recent training manuals of nearly every European army. Section -136, § 7 of the British <i>Infantry Training</i> (1905, amended 1907) +136, § 7 of the British <i>Infantry Training</i> (1905, amended 1907) says: “During the process of establishing a superiority of fire, successive fire positions will be occupied by the firing line. As a rule those affording natural cover will be chosen, but if none exist and the @@ -5387,7 +5348,7 @@ construction of cover during an attack, however, will entail delay and a temporary loss of fire effect <i>and should therefore be resorted to only when absolutely necessary...</i>. As soon as possible the advance should be resumed, &c.” The German regulations are as follows -(<i>Infantry Training</i>, 1906, § 313): “In the offensive the entrenching +(<i>Infantry Training</i>, 1906, § 313): “In the offensive the entrenching tool may be used where it is desired, for the moment, to content one’s self with maintaining the ground gained.... The entrenching tool is only to be used with the greatest circumspection, because of the @@ -5480,7 +5441,7 @@ groups of 25 to 30 men under responsible non-commissioned officers. That is to say, a British sergeant may find himself in such a position that he has to be as expert in controlling and obtaining good results from collective fire as a German lieutenant. For reasons mentioned -in <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Army</a></span>, § 40, non-commissioned officers, of the type called by +in <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Army</a></span>, § 40, non-commissioned officers, of the type called by Kipling the “backbone of the army,” are almost unobtainable with the universal service system, and the lowest unit that possesses any independence is the lowest unit commanded by an officer. But apart @@ -5497,7 +5458,7 @@ and trained for an infinitely wider range of activity, and no one would suggest the abolition of the small section as a fire-unit. But in a great European battle it would be almost certainly better to group the two sections into a real unit for fire effect. (For questions -of infantry fire tactics see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rifle</a></span>: § <i>Musketry</i>.)</p> +of infantry fire tactics see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rifle</a></span>: § <i>Musketry</i>.)</p> <p>On the continent of Europe the “regiment,” which is a unit, acting in peace and war as such, consists normally of three battalions, and @@ -5518,7 +5479,7 @@ was proposed in 1910.</p> <p>In Germany, where what we have called the continental company originated, the regiment is of three battalions under majors, and the battalion of four companies commanded by captains. The company -is divided into three <i>Züge</i> (sections), each under a subaltern, who has +is divided into three <i>Züge</i> (sections), each under a subaltern, who has as his second a sergeant-major, a “vice-sergeant-major” or a “sword-knot ensign” (aspirant officer). In war there is one additional officer for company. The <i>Zug</i> at war-strength has therefore about @@ -5558,14 +5519,14 @@ to form a brigade reserve, and (<i>c</i>) by the ammunition columns.</p> <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The following works are selected to show (1) the historical development of the arm, and (2) the different “doctrines” -of to-day as to its training and functions:—Ardant du Picq, <i>Études +of to-day as to its training and functions:—Ardant du Picq, <i>Études sur le combat</i>; C. W. C. Oman, <i>The Art of War: Middle Ages</i>; -Biottot, <i>Les Grands Inspirés—Jeanne d’Arc</i>; Hardy de Périni, -<i>Batailles françaises</i>; C. H. Firth, <i>Cromwell’s Army</i>; German official +Biottot, <i>Les Grands Inspirés—Jeanne d’Arc</i>; Hardy de Périni, +<i>Batailles françaises</i>; C. H. Firth, <i>Cromwell’s Army</i>; German official history of Frederick the Great’s wars, especially <i>Erster Schlesische -Krieg</i>, vol. i.; Susane, <i>Histoire de l’infanterie française</i>; French +Krieg</i>, vol. i.; Susane, <i>Histoire de l’infanterie française</i>; French General Staff, <i>La Tactique au XVIII<span class="sp">me</span>—l’infanterie</i> and <i>La -Tactique et la discipline dans les armées de la Révolution—Général +Tactique et la discipline dans les armées de la Révolution—Général Schauenbourg</i>; J. W. Fortescue, <i>History of the British Army</i>; Moorsom, <i>History of the 52nd Regiment</i>; de Grandmaison, <i>Dressage de l’infanterie</i> (Paris, 1908); works of W. v. Scherff; F. N. Maude, @@ -5576,9 +5537,9 @@ Langlois, <i>Enseignements de deux guerres</i>; F. Hoenig, <i>Tactics of the Future</i> and <i>Twenty-four Hours of Moltke’s Strategy</i> (Eng. trans.); works of A. von Boguslowski; <i>British Officers’ Reports on the Russo-Japanese War</i>; H. W. L. Hime, <i>Stray Military Papers</i>; Grange, “Les -Réalités du champ de bataille—Woerth” (<i>Rev. d’infanterie</i>, 1908-1909); +Réalités du champ de bataille—Woerth” (<i>Rev. d’infanterie</i>, 1908-1909); V. Lindenau, “The Boer War and Infantry Attack” (<i>Journal R. -United Service Institution</i>, 1902-1903); Janin, “Aperçus sur la +United Service Institution</i>, 1902-1903); Janin, “Aperçus sur la tactique—Mandchourie” (<i>Rev. d’infanterie</i>, 1909); Soloviev, “Infantry Combat in the Russo-Jap. War” (Eng. trans. <i>Journal R.U.S.I.</i>, 1908); British Official <i>Field Service Regulations</i>, part i. (1909), and @@ -5599,7 +5560,7 @@ rescue King Philip Augustus and, forfeiting his rich prize, made his way back to help his own sovereign.</p> <p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Crossbows indeed were powerful, and also handled by professional -soldiers (<i>e.g.</i> the Genoese at Crécy), but they were slow in action, six +soldiers (<i>e.g.</i> the Genoese at Crécy), but they were slow in action, six times as slow as the long bow, and the impatient gendarmerie generally became tired of the delay and crowded out or rode over the crossbowmen.</p> @@ -5612,19 +5573,19 @@ at almost every stage in the history of armies.</p> <p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The term <i>landsknecht</i>, it appears, was not confined to the right bank of the Rhine. The French “lansquenets” came largely from -Alsace, according to General Hardy de Périni. In the Italian wars +Alsace, according to General Hardy de Périni. In the Italian wars Francis I. had in his service a famous corps called the “black bands” which was recruited, in the lower Rhine countries.</p> <p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> This practice of “maintenance” on a large scale continued to exist in France long afterwards. As late as the battle of Lens (1648) we find figuring in the king of France’s army three “regiments of the -House of Condé.”</p> +House of Condé.”</p> <p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Even as late as 1645 a battalion of infantry in England was called a “tercio” or “tertia” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Army</a></span>; <i>Spanish army</i>).</p> -<p><a name="ft8e" id="ft8e" href="#fa8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> In France it is recorded that the <i>Gardes françaises</i>, when warned +<p><a name="ft8e" id="ft8e" href="#fa8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> In France it is recorded that the <i>Gardes françaises</i>, when warned for duty at the Louvre, used to stroll thither in twos and threes.</p> <p><a name="ft9e" id="ft9e" href="#fa9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> About this time there was introduced, for resisting cavalry, the @@ -5692,7 +5653,7 @@ latter and as revealed in manœuvre procedure.</p> <p><span class="bold">INFANT SCHOOLS.<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> The provision in modern times of systematized training for children below the age when elementary education normally begins may be dated from the village school -at Waldbach founded by Jean Frédéric Oberlin in 1774. Robert +at Waldbach founded by Jean Frédéric Oberlin in 1774. Robert Owen started an infant school at New Lanark in 1800, and great interest in the question was taken in Great Britain during the early years of the 19th century, leading to the foundation in @@ -5737,7 +5698,7 @@ and certain other countries. A valuable report was issued for the English Board of Education by a Consultative Committee upon the school attendance of children below the age of five (vol. 22 of the <i>Special Reports</i>, 1909), which also gives some -account of the provision of day nurseries or <i>crèches</i> for +account of the provision of day nurseries or <i>crèches</i> for babies.</p> <p><i>United Kingdom.</i>—Up to 1905 it was the general English @@ -5804,14 +5765,14 @@ leave at the end of the sixth year. In 1902-1903 there were 77,002 children in kindergartens and 74,110 in the day nurseries. In Hungary a law was passed in 1891 providing for the education and care of children between three and six, either by asyle or nurseries -open all the year round in communes which contribute from £830 to -£1250 in state taxation, or during the summer in those whose contribution +open all the year round in communes which contribute from £830 to +£1250 in state taxation, or during the summer in those whose contribution is less. Communes above the higher sum must provide kindergartens. In 1904 there were over 233,000 children in such institutions.</p> <p><i>Belgium.</i>—For children between three and six education and -training are provided by <i>Écoles gardiennes</i> or <i>Jardins d’enfants</i>. +training are provided by <i>Écoles gardiennes</i> or <i>Jardins d’enfants</i>. They are free but not compulsory, are provided and managed by the communes, receive a state grant, and are under government inspection. Schools provided by private individuals or institutions must @@ -5823,11 +5784,11 @@ for over 56,000 children; in 1907 there were 2837 and 264,845 children, approximately one-half of the total number of children in the country between the ages of three and six. In 1890 the minister of Public Instruction issued a code of rules on which is -based the organization of the <i>Écoles gardiennes</i> throughout Belgium, +based the organization of the <i>Écoles gardiennes</i> throughout Belgium, but some of the communes have regulations of their own. A special -examination for teachers in the <i>Écoles gardiennes</i> was started in +examination for teachers in the <i>Écoles gardiennes</i> was started in 1898. All candidates must pass this examination before a <i>certificat -de capacité</i> is granted. The training includes a course in Froebelian +de capacité</i> is granted. The training includes a course in Froebelian methods. While Froebel’s system underlies the training in these schools, the teaching is directed very much towards the practical education of the child, special stress being laid on manual dexterity. @@ -5844,7 +5805,7 @@ the beginning of the 19th century and styled a <i>Salle d’essai</i>. In shortly by similar institutions all over France. State recognition and inspection were granted, and by 1836 there were over 800 in Paris and the provinces. In 1848 they became establishments of -public instruction, and the name <i>École maternelle</i> which they have +public instruction, and the name <i>École maternelle</i> which they have since borne was given them. Every commune with 2000 inhabitants must have one of these schools or a <i>Classe enfantine</i>. Admission is free, but not compulsory, for children between two and six. Food @@ -5853,12 +5814,12 @@ instruction is still given to a large extent, and the older children are taught reading, writing and arithmetic. Though the staffs of the school include <i>femmes de service</i>, not so much attention is paid to cleanliness as in Belgium, nor is so much stress laid on hygiene. In -1906-1907 there were 4111 public and private <i>Écoles maternelles</i> in +1906-1907 there were 4111 public and private <i>Écoles maternelles</i> in France, with over 650,000 pupils. The closing of the clerical schools has led to some diminution in the numbers.</p> <p><i>Germany.</i>—There are two classes of institution in Germany for -children between the ages of 2½ or 3 and 6. These are the <i>Kleinkinderbewahranstalten</i> +children between the ages of 2½ or 3 and 6. These are the <i>Kleinkinderbewahranstalten</i> and <i>Kindergarten</i>. The first are primarily social in purpose, and afford a place for the children of mothers who have to leave their homes for work. These institutions, principally @@ -5868,7 +5829,7 @@ and others provide some training on Froebelian principles. The kindergartens proper are also principally in private hands, though most municipalities grant financial assistance. They are conducted on advanced Froebelian methods, and formal teaching in reading, -writing and arithmetic is excluded. In Cologne, Düsseldorf, Frankfort +writing and arithmetic is excluded. In Cologne, Düsseldorf, Frankfort and Munich there are municipal schools. The state gives no recognition to these institutions and they form no part of the public system of education.</p> @@ -5879,7 +5840,7 @@ generally under private management with public financial help. The larger towns provide kindergartens where the training is free but not compulsory for children from four to six. These are generally conducted on Froebel’s system and there is no formal instruction. -In the French speaking cantons the <i>Écoles enfantines</i> are recognized +In the French speaking cantons the <i>Écoles enfantines</i> are recognized as the first stage of elementary education. They are free and not compulsory for children from three to six years of age.</p> </div> @@ -5907,7 +5868,7 @@ important part in the philosophical and theological speculation. In early Greek philosophy the attempt to arrive at a physical explanation of existence led the Ionian thinkers to postulate various primal elements (<i>e.g.</i> water, fire, air) or simply the -infinite <span class="grk" title="to ápeiron">τὸ ἄπειρον</span> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ionian School</a></span>). Both Plato and +infinite <span class="grk" title="to ápeiron">τὸ ἄπειρον</span> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ionian School</a></span>). Both Plato and Aristotle devoted much thought to the discussion as to which is most truly real, the finite objects of sense, or the universal idea of each thing laid up in the mind of God; what is the nature @@ -6036,7 +5997,7 @@ lengths of variable lines. This method of representing variable quantities dates from the 14th century, <span class="sidenote">Geometrical representation of Variable Quantities.</span> when it was employed by Nicole Oresme, who studied -and afterwards taught at the Collège de Navarre in +and afterwards taught at the Collège de Navarre in Paris from 1348 to 1361. He represented one of two variable quantities, <i>e.g.</i> the time that has elapsed since some epoch, by a length, called the “longitude,” measured @@ -6131,7 +6092,7 @@ axis of x. Now let Δx be continually diminished towards zero, so that P′ continually approaches P. If the curve has a tangent at P the secant PP′ approaches -a limiting position (see § 33 below). When +a limiting position (see § 33 below). When this is the case the fraction Δy/Δx tends to a limit, and this limit is the trigonometrical tangent of the angle which the @@ -6222,7 +6183,7 @@ limit, and the lengths of all the segments such as MN are diminished without limit, these two sums of areas tend to limits. When they tend to the same limit the curvilinear figure ACDB has an area, and the limit is the measure of -this area (see § 33 below). The limit in question is the same whatever +this area (see § 33 below). The limit in question is the same whatever law may be adopted for inserting the points such as M between A and B, and for diminishing the lengths of the segments such as MN. Further, if P′ is any point on the arc PQ, and P′M′ is the @@ -6305,7 +6266,7 @@ by the equation</p> <p class="center"><span class="f150">∫</span> ƒ(x) dx.</p> -<p>7. In the process of § 4 the increment Δy is not in general equal +<p>7. In the process of § 4 the increment Δy is not in general equal to the product of the increment Δx and the derived <span class="sidenote">Differentials.</span> function ƒ′(x). In general we can write down an equation @@ -6354,7 +6315,7 @@ as are useful for forming differential coefficients.</p> <td rowspan="2">= ƒ(x),   <span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">b</span><span class="su1">a</span> ƒ(x) dx = F(b) − F(a).</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">dx</td></tr></table> -<p class="noind">When the points M of the process explained in § 5 are inserted between +<p class="noind">When the points M of the process explained in § 5 are inserted between the points whose abscissae are a and b, we may take them to be n − 1 in number, so that the segment AB is divided into n segments. Let x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ... x<span class="su">n−1</span> be the abscissae of the points in order. @@ -6376,7 +6337,7 @@ The differential may be regarded as so much of the difference as is required to form the integral. From this point of view a differential is called a <i>differential element of an integral</i>, and the integral is the limit of the sum of differential elements. In like manner the differential -element ydx of the area of a curve (§ 5) is not the area of the +element ydx of the area of a curve (§ 5) is not the area of the portion contained between two ordinates, however near together, but is so much of this area as need be retained for the purpose of finding the area of the curve by the limiting process described.</p> @@ -6388,7 +6349,7 @@ Fundamental Artifice.</span> “d” is the initial letter of the word <i>differentia</i> (difference) and the symbol ∫ is a conventionally written “S,” the initial letter of the word <i>summa</i> (sum or whole). The notation -was introduced by Leibnitz (see §§ 25-27, below).</p> +was introduced by Leibnitz (see §§ 25-27, below).</p> <p>9. The fundamental artifice of the calculus is the artifice of forming differentials without first forming differential coefficients. From an @@ -6396,20 +6357,20 @@ equation containing x and y we can deduce a new equation, containing also Δx and Δy, by substituting x + Δx for x and y + Δy for y. If there is a differential coefficient of y with respect to x, then Δy can be expressed in the form -φ.Δx + R, where lim.<span class="su">Δx=0</span> (R/Δx) = 0, as in § 7 above. The artifice +φ.Δx + R, where lim.<span class="su">Δx=0</span> (R/Δx) = 0, as in § 7 above. The artifice consists in rejecting <i>ab initio</i> all terms of the equation which belong -to R. We do not form R at all, but only φ·Δx, or φ.dx, which is the +to R. We do not form R at all, but only φ·Δx, or φ.dx, which is the differential dy. In the same way, in all applications of the integral calculus to geometry or mechanics we form the <i>element</i> of an integral -in the same way as the element of area y·dx is formed. In fig. 3 of § 5 -the element of area y·dx is the area of the rectangle RM. The actual +in the same way as the element of area y·dx is formed. In fig. 3 of § 5 +the element of area y·dx is the area of the rectangle RM. The actual area of the curvilinear figure PQNM is greater than the area of this rectangle by the area of the curvilinear figure PQR; but the excess is less than the area of the rectangle PRQS, which is measured by the product of the numerical measures of MN and QR, and we have</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> -<tr><td rowspan="2">lim.<span class="su">MN = 0</span></td> <td>MN · QR</td> +<tr><td rowspan="2">lim.<span class="su">MN = 0</span></td> <td>MN · QR</td> <td rowspan="2">= 0.</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">MN</td></tr></table> @@ -6494,7 +6455,7 @@ function of x,</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td>dy</td> <td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>dy</td> -<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>dz</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>dz</td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">dx</td> <td class="denom">dz</td> <td class="denom">dx</td></tr></table> @@ -6539,7 +6500,7 @@ problem of differentiating such functions reference may be made to of the functions to be integrated into such forms that they can be recognized as differential coefficients of functions which have previously been differentiated. -Corresponding to the results in the table of § 11 we +Corresponding to the results in the table of § 11 we have those in the following table:—</p> <table class="ws1" summary="Contents"> @@ -6553,13 +6514,13 @@ have those in the following table:—</p> <tr><td class="tcc allb">1 / (a<span class="sp">2</span> + x<span class="sp">2</span>)</td> <td class="tccm allb">(1/a) tan<span class="sp">−1</span> (x/a)</td></tr> </table> -<p>The formal rules of § 11 give us means for the transformation of +<p>The formal rules of § 11 give us means for the transformation of integrals into recognizable forms. For example, the rule (ii.) for a sum leads to the result that the integral of a sum of a finite number of terms is the sum of the integrals of the several terms. The rule (iii.) for a product leads to the method of integration by parts. The rule (v.) for a function of a function leads to the method of substitution -(see § 48 below.)</p> +(see § 48 below.)</p> </div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page538" id="page538"></a>538</span></p> @@ -6732,7 +6693,7 @@ his problems as the quadratures of parabolas and hyperbolas of various orders. His method was to divide the interval of integration into parts by means of intermediate points the abscissae of which are in geometric progression. In the process of -§ 5 above, the points M must be chosen according to this rule. +§ 5 above, the points M must be chosen according to this rule. This restrictive condition being understood, we may say that Fermat’s formulation of the problem of quadratures is the same as our definition of a definite integral.</p> @@ -6783,7 +6744,7 @@ and superficial areas of solids, and centres of gravity. A systematic account of the methods then in use was given, along with much that was original on his part, by Blaise Pascal in his <i>Lettres de Amos Dettonville sur quelques-unes de ses inventions -en géométrie</i> (1659).</p> +en géométrie</i> (1659).</p> <p>16. The problem of maxima and minima and the problem of tangents had also by the same time been effectively solved. @@ -6797,8 +6758,8 @@ value to the greatest value and then again to a smaller value, its variation becomes insensible. Fermat in 1629 was in possession of a method which he then communicated to one Despagnet of Bordeaux, and which he referred to in a letter to Roberval of -1636. He communicated it to René Descartes early in 1638 on -receiving a copy of Descartes’s <i>Géométrie</i> (1637), and with it +1636. He communicated it to René Descartes early in 1638 on +receiving a copy of Descartes’s <i>Géométrie</i> (1637), and with it he sent to Descartes an account of his methods for solving the problem of tangents and for determining centres of gravity.</p> @@ -6848,11 +6809,11 @@ his method was to begin by obtaining a rational equation. In rationalizing equations Fermat, in other writings, used the device of introducing new variables, but he did not use this device to simplify the process of differentiation. Some of -his results were published by Pierre Hérigone in his <i>Supplementum +his results were published by Pierre Hérigone in his <i>Supplementum cursus mathematici</i> (1642). His communication to Descartes was not published in full until after his death (Fermat, <i>Opera varia</i>, 1679). Methods similar to Fermat’s were devised -by René de Sluse (1652) for tangents, and by Johannes Hudde +by René de Sluse (1652) for tangents, and by Johannes Hudde (1658) for maxima and minima. Other methods for the solution of the problem of tangents were devised by Roberval and Torricelli, and published almost simultaneously in 1644. These @@ -6861,7 +6822,7 @@ theory of which had been taught by Galileo (1638), and, less completely, by Roberval (1636). Roberval and Torricelli could construct the tangents of many curves, but they did not arrive at Fermat’s artifice. This artifice is that which we have -noted in § 10 as the fundamental artifice of the infinitesimal +noted in § 10 as the fundamental artifice of the infinitesimal calculus.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -6899,7 +6860,7 @@ called “Barrow’s differential triangle.”</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The reciprocal relation between differentiation and integration -(§ 6) was first observed explicitly by Barrow in the book cited above. +(§ 6) was first observed explicitly by Barrow in the book cited above. If the quadrature of a curve y = ƒ(x) is known, so that the area up to the ordinate x is given by F(x), the curve <span class="sidenote">Barrow’s Inversion-theorem.</span> @@ -6987,7 +6948,7 @@ of the Royal Society, but this course was not adopted. Collins made a copy of the tract and sent it to Lord Brouncker, but neither of them brought it before the Royal Society. The tract contains a general proof of Barrow’s -inversion-theorem which is the same in principle as that in § 6 above. +inversion-theorem which is the same in principle as that in § 6 above. In this proof and elsewhere in the tract a notation is introduced for the momentary increment (<i>momentum</i>) of the abscissa or area of a curve; this “moment” is evidently meant to represent a moment @@ -6997,7 +6958,7 @@ E, and Barrow by e, in the case of the abscissa. Newton denoted the moment of the abscissa by o, that of the area z by ov. He used the letter v for the ordinate y, thus suggesting that his curve is a velocity-time graph such as Galileo had used. Newton gave the formula for -the area of a curve v = x<span class="sp">m</span>(m ± −1) in the form z = x<span class="sp">m+1</span>/(m + 1). In +the area of a curve v = x<span class="sp">m</span>(m ± −1) in the form z = x<span class="sp">m+1</span>/(m + 1). In the proof he transformed this formula to the form z<span class="sp">n</span> = c<span class="sp">n</span> x<span class="sp">p</span>, where n and p are positive integers, substituted x + o for x and z + ov for z, and expanded by the binomial theorem for a positive integral @@ -7030,7 +6991,7 @@ method of integration which is founded upon the inversion-theorem was carried out systematically. Among other results there given is the quadrature of curves expressed by equations of the form y = x<span class="sp">n</span> (a + bx<span class="sp">m</span>)<span class="sp">p</span>; this has passed into text-books under the -title “integration of binomial differentials” (see § 49). Newton +title “integration of binomial differentials” (see § 49). Newton announced the result in letters to Collins and Oldenburg of 1676.</p> <p>21. In the <i>Methodus fluxionum</i> (1671) Newton introduced his @@ -7051,7 +7012,7 @@ is to be omitted. In the case of irrational functions, or rational functions which are not integral, new variables are introduced in such a way as to make the equations contain rational integral terms only. Thus Newton’s rules of differentiation would be in our notation the -rules (i.), (ii.), (v.) of § 11, together with the particular result which +rules (i.), (ii.), (v.) of § 11, together with the particular result which we write</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> @@ -7160,9 +7121,9 @@ It appears that he did not on this occasion become acquainted with Collins, or see Newton’s <i>Analysis per aequationes</i>, but he purchased Barrow’s <i>Lectiones</i>. On returning to Paris he made the acquaintance of Huygens, who recommended -him to read Descartes’ <i>Géométrie</i>. He also read Pascal’s <i>Lettres +him to read Descartes’ <i>Géométrie</i>. He also read Pascal’s <i>Lettres de Dettonville</i>, Gregory of St Vincent’s <i>Opus geometricum</i>, -Cavalieri’s <i>Indivisibles</i> and the <i>Synopsis geometrica</i> of Honoré +Cavalieri’s <i>Indivisibles</i> and the <i>Synopsis geometrica</i> of Honoré Fabri, a book which is practically a commentary on Cavalieri; it would never have had any importance but for the influence which it had on Leibnitz’s thinking at this critical period. In @@ -7202,7 +7163,7 @@ symbol “d” to represent the inverse operation, by which the dimensions are diminished. He observed that, whereas “∫” represents “sum,” “d” represents “difference.” His notation appears to have been practically settled before the end of 1675, -for in November he wrote ∫ ydy = ½ y<span class="sp">2</span>, just as we do now.</p> +for in November he wrote ∫ ydy = ½ y<span class="sp">2</span>, just as we do now.</p> <p>25. In July of 1676 Leibnitz received an answer to his inquiry in regard to Newton’s methods in a letter written by Newton @@ -7258,7 +7219,7 @@ a quantity which has to dx the ratio of the ordinate to the subtangent, and rules are given for operating with differentials. These are the rules for forming the differential of a constant, a sum (or difference), a product, a quotient, a power (or root). -They are equivalent to our rules (i.)-(iv.) of § 11 and the particular +They are equivalent to our rules (i.)-(iv.) of § 11 and the particular result</p> <p class="center" style="clear: both;">d(x<span class="sp">m</span>) = mx<span class="sp">m−1</span> dx.</p> @@ -7346,7 +7307,7 @@ was ended for a time. On the publication of Newton’s tract as has since been proved, by Leibnitz, appeared in the <i>Acta Eruditorum</i>, 1705. The anonymous reviewer said: “Instead of the Leibnitzian differences Newton uses and always has -used fluxions ... just as Honoré Fabri in his <i>Synopsis Geometrica</i> +used fluxions ... just as Honoré Fabri in his <i>Synopsis Geometrica</i> substituted steps of movements for the method of Cavalieri.” This passage, when it became known in England, was understood not merely as belittling Newton by comparing him with the @@ -7492,20 +7453,20 @@ position of one who asserts that all differentials are zero, but, as the product of zero and any finite quantity is zero, the ratio of two zeros can be a finite quantity which it is the business of the calculus to determine. Jean le Rond d’Alembert in the -<i>Encyclopédie méthodique</i> (1755, 2nd ed. 1784) declared that +<i>Encyclopédie méthodique</i> (1755, 2nd ed. 1784) declared that differentials were unnecessary, and that Leibnitz’s calculus was a calculus of mutually compensating errors, while Newton’s method was entirely rigorous. D’Alembert’s opinion of Leibnitz’s calculus was expressed also by Lazare N. M. Carnot in his -<i>Réflexions sur la métaphysique du calcul infinitésimal</i> (1799) +<i>Réflexions sur la métaphysique du calcul infinitésimal</i> (1799) and by Joseph Louis de la Grange (generally called Lagrange) in writings from 1760 onwards. Lagrange proposed in his -<i>Théorie des fonctions analytiques</i> (1797) to found the whole of the +<i>Théorie des fonctions analytiques</i> (1797) to found the whole of the calculus on the theory of series. It was not until 1823 that a treatise on the differential calculus founded upon the method -of limits was published. The treatise was the <i>Résumé des leçons ... sur +of limits was published. The treatise was the <i>Résumé des leçons ... sur <span class="sidenote">Cauchy’s method of limits.</span> -le calcul infinitésimal</i> of Augustin Louis Cauchy. +le calcul infinitésimal</i> of Augustin Louis Cauchy. Since that time it has been understood that the use of the phrase “infinitely small” in any mathematical argument is a figurative mode of expression pointing to a @@ -7613,7 +7574,7 @@ always defined by the formula</p> <tr><td class="denom">dx</td> <td class="denom">h</td></tr></table> <p class="noind">Rules for the formation of differential coefficients in particular cases -have been given in § 11 above. The definition of a differential +have been given in § 11 above. The definition of a differential coefficient, and the rules of differentiation are quite independent of any geometrical interpretation, such as that concerning tangents to a curve, and the tangent to a curve is properly defined by means of @@ -7665,7 +7626,7 @@ the intermediate points R and diminishing the lengths of the chords. It appears from this statement that the differential element of the arc of a curve is the length of the chord joining two neighbouring points. In accordance with the fundamental artifice -for forming differentials (§§ 9, 10), the differential element of arc ds +for forming differentials (§§ 9, 10), the differential element of arc ds may be expressed by the formula</p> <p class="center" style="clear: both;">ds = √ { (dx)<span class="sp">2</span> + (dy)<span class="sp">2</span> },</p> @@ -7728,7 +7689,7 @@ of x in the interval, is important.</p> member may exist although some or all of the derived functions ƒ′(x), ƒ″(x), ... ƒ<span class="sp">(n−1)</span>(x) do not exist.</p> -<p>Corresponding to the rule iii. of § 11 we have the rule for forming +<p>Corresponding to the rule iii. of § 11 we have the rule for forming the nth differential coefficient of a product in the form</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> @@ -7743,7 +7704,7 @@ the nth differential coefficient of a product in the form</p> <td rowspan="2">v,</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">dx<span class="sp">n</span> </td> <td class="denom">dx<span class="sp">n</span> </td> <td class="denom">dx</td> <td class="denom">dx<span class="sp">n−1</span></td> -<td class="denom">1·2</td> <td class="denom">dx<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td class="denom">1·2</td> <td class="denom">dx<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">dx<span class="sp">n−2</span></td> <td class="denom">dx<span class="sp">n</span></td></tr></table> <p class="noind">where the coefficients are those of the expansion of (1 + x)<span class="sp">n</span> in @@ -7765,7 +7726,7 @@ by D, the latter may be denoted by D<span class="sp">−1</span>. D<span cla the operation D is to be performed n times in succession; D<span class="sp">−n</span> that the operation of forming the indefinite integral is to be performed n times in succession. Leibnitz’s -course of thought (§ 24) naturally led him to inquire after an interpretation +course of thought (§ 24) naturally led him to inquire after an interpretation of D<span class="sp">n</span>. where n is not an integer. For an account of the researches to which this inquiry gave rise, reference may be made to the article by A. Voss in <i>Ency. d. math. Wiss.</i> Bd. ii. A, 2 (Leipzig, @@ -7963,7 +7924,7 @@ the natural numbers by equations of the type</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">x<span class="sp">m</span> −</td> <td>m</td> -<td rowspan="2">x<span class="sp">m−1</span> +</td> <td>m·m − 1</td> +<td rowspan="2">x<span class="sp">m−1</span> +</td> <td>m·m − 1</td> <td rowspan="2">B<span class="su">1</span> x<span class="sp">m−2</span> − ...</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">2</td> <td class="denom">2!</td></tr></table> @@ -7984,7 +7945,7 @@ the absolute value of x is not too great,</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">y =</td> <td>x</td> <td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">Σ</span><span class="sp1">n=∞</span><span class="su1">n=2</span> <span class="f150">[</span></td> <td>x<span class="sp">n</span></td> -<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>d<span class="sp">n−1</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>d<span class="sp">n−1</span></td> <td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">]</span><span class="su">y=0</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">ƒ<span class="su">0</span>(0)</td> <td class="denom">n!</td> @@ -7999,12 +7960,12 @@ x and y are connected by an equation of the form</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2">y = a + xƒ(a) + <span class="f150">Σ</span><span class="sp1">n=∞</span><span class="su1">n=2</span> <span class="f150">[</span></td> <td><span class="su">n</span></td> -<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>d<span class="sp">n−1</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>d<span class="sp">n−1</span></td> <td rowspan="2">{ƒ(a)}<span class="sp">n</span> <span class="f150">]</span>.</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">n!</td> <td class="denom">da<span class="sp">n−1</span></td></tr></table> <p class="noind">For the history of the problem and the generalizations of Lagrange’s -result reference may be made to O. Stolz, <i>Grundzüge d. Diff. u. Int. +result reference may be made to O. Stolz, <i>Grundzüge d. Diff. u. Int. Rechnung</i>, T. 2 (Leipzig, 1896).</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -8062,7 +8023,7 @@ infinity. There is no such value (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Funct <p>Such indeterminate forms as that described above are said to be of the form 0/0. Other indeterminate forms are presented in the -form 0 × ∞, or 1<span class="sp">∞</span>, or ∞/∞, or ∞ − ∞. The most notable of the +form 0 × ∞, or 1<span class="sp">∞</span>, or ∞/∞, or ∞ − ∞. The most notable of the forms 1<span class="sp">∞</span> is lim.<span class="su">x=0</span>(1 + x)<span class="sp">1/x</span>, which is e. The case in which φ(x) and ψ(x) both tend to become infinite at x = a is reducible to the case in which both the functions tend to become infinite when x is increased @@ -8098,7 +8059,7 @@ tangents at a double point of a curve; forms of the type ∞/∞ presented themselves in like manner in connexion with the determination of asymptotes of curves. The evaluation of limits has innumerable applications in all parts of analysis. Cauchy’s <i>Analyse -algébrique</i> (1821) was an epoch-making treatise on limits.</p> +algébrique</i> (1821) was an epoch-making treatise on limits.</p> <p>If a function φ(x) becomes infinite at x = a, and another function ψ(x) also becomes infinite at x = a in such a way that φ(x)/ψ(x) @@ -8114,7 +8075,7 @@ as one of the functions in the scale written above, or in some more comprehensive scale. This resolution is the inverse of the process of evaluating an indeterminate form of the type ∞ − ∞.</p> -<p>For example lim.<span class="su">x=0</span>{(e<span class="sp">x</span> − 1)<span class="sp">−1</span> − x<span class="sp">−1</span>} is finite and equal to = ½, +<p>For example lim.<span class="su">x=0</span>{(e<span class="sp">x</span> − 1)<span class="sp">−1</span> − x<span class="sp">−1</span>} is finite and equal to = ½, and the function (e<span class="sp">x</span> − 1)<span class="sp">−1</span> − x<span class="sp">−1</span> can be expanded in a power series in x.</p> @@ -8329,14 +8290,14 @@ differential coefficients, for example, the following:—</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td>∂(u<span class="su">1</span>, u<span class="su">2</span>, ..., u<span class="su">n</span>)</td> -<td rowspan="2">×</td> <td>∂(x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>)</td> +<td rowspan="2">×</td> <td>∂(x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>)</td> <td rowspan="2">= 1,</td> <td> </td> <td rowspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">∂(x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>)</td> <td class="denom">∂(u<span class="su">1</span>, u<span class="su">2</span>, ..., u<span class="su">n</span>)</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr><td>∂(u<span class="su">1</span>, u<span class="su">2</span>, ..., u<span class="su">n</span>)</td> -<td rowspan="2">×</td> <td>∂(y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, ..., y<span class="su">n</span>)</td> +<td rowspan="2">×</td> <td>∂(y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, ..., y<span class="su">n</span>)</td> <td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>∂(u<span class="su">1</span>, u<span class="su">2</span>, ..., u<span class="su">n</span>)</td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">∂(y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, ..., y<span class="su">n</span>)</td> <td class="denom">∂(x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>)</td> @@ -8426,9 +8387,9 @@ equation</p> <td rowspan="2">+ ...</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">∂x<span class="sp">n</span></td> <td class="denom">∂x<span class="sp">n−1</span> ∂y</td></tr></table> -<p class="noind">in which the expression (dx·∂/∂x + dy·∂/∂y)<span class="sp">n</span> is developed by the binomial -theorem in the same way as if dx·∂/∂x and dy·∂/∂y were numbers, and -(∂/∂x)<span class="sp">r</span>·(∂/∂y)<span class="sp">n−r</span> ƒ is replaced by ∂<span class="sp">n</span>ƒ/∂x<span class="sp">r</span> ∂y<span class="sp">n−r</span>. When there are more than +<p class="noind">in which the expression (dx·∂/∂x + dy·∂/∂y)<span class="sp">n</span> is developed by the binomial +theorem in the same way as if dx·∂/∂x and dy·∂/∂y were numbers, and +(∂/∂x)<span class="sp">r</span>·(∂/∂y)<span class="sp">n−r</span> ƒ is replaced by ∂<span class="sp">n</span>ƒ/∂x<span class="sp">r</span> ∂y<span class="sp">n−r</span>. When there are more than two variables the multinomial theorem must be used instead of the binomial theorem.</p> @@ -8444,8 +8405,8 @@ equation defining y as a function of x, we have</p> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">{ (</span></td> <td>∂ƒ</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span><span class="sp1">2</span></td> <td>∂<span class="sp">2</span>ƒ</td> <td rowspan="2">− 2</td> <td>∂ƒ</td> -<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>∂ƒ</td> -<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>∂<span class="sp">2</span>ƒ</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>∂ƒ</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>∂<span class="sp">2</span>ƒ</td> <td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>∂ƒ</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span><span class="sp1">2</span></td> <td>∂<span class="sp">2</span>ƒ</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">}</span>.</td></tr> @@ -8474,7 +8435,7 @@ which is such that</p> <p class="noind">The expression Xdx + Ydy in which X and Y are connected by the relation (ii.) is often described as a “perfect differential.” The theory of the perfect differential can be extended to functions of n -variables, and in this case there are ½n(n − 1) such relations as (ii.).</p> +variables, and in this case there are ½n(n − 1) such relations as (ii.).</p> <p>In the case of a function of two variables x, y an abbreviated notation is often adopted for differential coefficients. The function @@ -8517,7 +8478,7 @@ a product and a function of a function. We have</p> <table class="math0" style="clear: both;" summary="math"> <tr><td>dy</td> <td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>dy</td> -<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>dz</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>dz</td> <td rowspan="2">,</td> <td> </td> <td rowspan="2"> </td> <td> </td> <td rowspan="2"> </td> <td> </td> @@ -8531,9 +8492,9 @@ a product and a function of a function. We have</p> <tr><td>d<span class="sp">2</span>y</td> <td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>dy</td> -<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>d<span class="sp">2</span>z</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>d<span class="sp">2</span>z</td> <td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>d<span class="sp">2</span>y</td> -<td rowspan="2">· <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>dz</td> +<td rowspan="2">· <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>dz</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span><span class="sp1">2</span>,</td> <td> </td> <td rowspan="2"> </td> <td> </td> <td rowspan="2"> </td> <td> </td> @@ -8545,12 +8506,12 @@ a product and a function of a function. We have</p> <tr><td>d<span class="sp">3</span>y</td> <td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>dy</td> -<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>d<span class="sp">3</span>z</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>d<span class="sp">3</span>z</td> <td rowspan="2">+ 3</td> <td>d<span class="sp">2</span>y</td> -<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>dz</td> -<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>d<span class="sp">2</span>z</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>dz</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>d<span class="sp">2</span>z</td> <td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>d<span class="sp">3</span>y</td> -<td rowspan="2">· <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>dz</td> +<td rowspan="2">· <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>dz</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span><span class="sp1">3</span>,</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">dx<span class="sp">3</span></td> <td class="denom">dz</td> <td class="denom">dx<span class="sp">3</span></td> <td class="denom">dz<span class="sp">2</span></td> @@ -8672,8 +8633,8 @@ of variables. When the loci u = const., ... intersect each other at right angles, the variables are “orthogonal” curvilinear coordinates. Three-dimensional systems of such coordinates have important applications in mathematical physics. Reference may be made -to G. Lamé, <i>Leçons sur les coordonnées curvilignes</i> (Paris, 1859), and -to G. Darboux, <i>Leçons sur les coordonnées curvilignes et systèmes +to G. Lamé, <i>Leçons sur les coordonnées curvilignes</i> (Paris, 1859), and +to G. Darboux, <i>Leçons sur les coordonnées curvilignes et systèmes orthogonaux</i> (Paris, 1898).</p> <p>When such a coordinate as u is connected with x and y by a @@ -8763,7 +8724,7 @@ of Taylor’s theorem was given by Lagrange (1797); the form written above is due to Cauchy (1823). For the validity of the theorem in this form it is necessary that all the differential coefficients up to the nth should be continuous in a region bounded by -x = a ± h, y = b ± k. When all the differential coefficients, no matter +x = a ± h, y = b ± k. When all the differential coefficients, no matter how high the order, are continuous in such a region, the theorem leads to an expansion of the function in a multiple power series. Such expansions are just as important in analysis, geometry and mechanics @@ -8899,7 +8860,7 @@ If u<span class="su">2</span> has distinct factors, or is of the form a(y &minus value of y on either branch of the curve can be expressed (for points sufficiently near the origin) in a power series, which is either</p> -<p class="center">p<span class="su">1</span>x + ½ q<span class="su">1</span> x<span class="sp">2</span> + ...,   or p<span class="su">2</span>x + ½ q<span class="su">2</span> x<span class="sp">2</span> + ...,</p> +<p class="center">p<span class="su">1</span>x + ½ q<span class="su">1</span> x<span class="sp">2</span> + ...,   or p<span class="su">2</span>x + ½ q<span class="su">2</span> x<span class="sp">2</span> + ...,</p> <p class="noind">where q<span class="su">1</span>, ... and q<span class="su">2</span>, ... are determined without ambiguity. If p<span class="su">1</span> and p<span class="su">2</span> are real the two branches have radii of curvature @@ -8954,9 +8915,9 @@ and to cases in which the limits of integration become infinite, the definitions of multiple integrals, and the possibility of defining functions by means of definite integrals—all these matters have been considered in <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Function</a></span>. The definition of -integration has been explained in § 5 above, and the results of some -of the simplest integrations have been given in § 12. A few theorems -relating to integrations have been noted in §§ 34, 35, 36 above.</p> +integration has been explained in § 5 above, and the results of some +of the simplest integrations have been given in § 12. A few theorems +relating to integrations have been noted in §§ 34, 35, 36 above.</p> <p>48. <span class="sidenote">Methods of integration.</span>The chief methods for the evaluation of indefinite @@ -9016,7 +8977,7 @@ from the equation</p> <p class="noind">put x = sin z; the integral becomes</p> -<p class="center">∫ cos z · cos z dz = ∫ ½ (1 + cos 2z)dz = ½ (z + ½ sin 2z) = ½ (z + sin z cos z).</p> +<p class="center">∫ cos z · cos z dz = ∫ ½ (1 + cos 2z)dz = ½ (z + ½ sin 2z) = ½ (z + sin z cos z).</p> <p>49. The indefinite integrals of certain classes of functions can be expressed by means of a finite number of operations of addition or @@ -9053,7 +9014,7 @@ linear substitution to one of the forms √(a<span class="sp">2</span> &minu The substitutions x = a sin θ, x = a sec θ, x = a tan θ are then effective in the three cases. By these substitutions the subject of integration becomes a rational function of sin θ and cos θ, and it can be reduced -to a rational function of t by the substitution tan ½θ = t. There are +to a rational function of t by the substitution tan ½θ = t. There are many other substitutions by which such integrals can be determined. Sometimes we may have information as to the functional character of the integral without being able to determine it. For example, @@ -9070,7 +9031,7 @@ the memoirs there quoted. A few results are added here</p> <p>(i.)</p> -<p class="center">∫ (x<span class="sp">2</span> + a) − ½ dx = log {x + (x<span class="sp">2</span> + a)<span class="sp">1/2</span> }.</p> +<p class="center">∫ (x<span class="sp">2</span> + a) − ½ dx = log {x + (x<span class="sp">2</span> + a)<span class="sp">1/2</span> }.</p> <p>(ii.)</p> @@ -9156,17 +9117,17 @@ of the form sin<span class="sp">p</span> x cos<span class="sp">q</span> x;</p> <p>(ix.)</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> -<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">1/2π</span><span class="su1">0</span> sin<span class="sp">2n</span> x dx = <span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">1/2π</span><span class="su1">0</span> cos<span class="sp">2n</span> x dx =</td> <td>1·3 ... (2n − 1)</td> -<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>π</td> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">1/2π</span><span class="su1">0</span> sin<span class="sp">2n</span> x dx = <span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">1/2π</span><span class="su1">0</span> cos<span class="sp">2n</span> x dx =</td> <td>1·3 ... (2n − 1)</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>π</td> <td rowspan="2">, (n an integer).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="denom">2·4 ... 2n</td> <td class="denom">2</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="denom">2·4 ... 2n</td> <td class="denom">2</td></tr></table> <p>(x.)</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> -<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">1/2π</span><span class="su1">0</span> sin<span class="sp">2n+1</span> x dx = <span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">1/2π</span><span class="su1">0</span> cos<span class="sp">2n+1</span> x dx =</td> <td>2·4 ... 2n</td> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">1/2π</span><span class="su1">0</span> sin<span class="sp">2n+1</span> x dx = <span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">1/2π</span><span class="su1">0</span> cos<span class="sp">2n+1</span> x dx =</td> <td>2·4 ... 2n</td> <td rowspan="2">, (n an integer).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="denom">3·5 ... (2n + 1)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="denom">3·5 ... (2n + 1)</td></tr></table> <p>(xi.)</p> @@ -9227,7 +9188,7 @@ Beta and Gamma functions expressed by the equations</p> Gamma functions (or “Eulerian integrals of the second kind”) by the formula</p> -<p class="center">B(l, m) · Γ(l + m) = Γ(l) · Γ(m).</p> +<p class="center">B(l, m) · Γ(l + m) = Γ(l) · Γ(m).</p> <p class="noind">The Gamma function satisfies the difference equation</p> @@ -9235,11 +9196,11 @@ the formula</p> <p class="noind">and also the equation</p> -<p class="center">Γ(x) · Γ(1 − x) = π/sin (xπ),</p> +<p class="center">Γ(x) · Γ(1 − x) = π/sin (xπ),</p> <p class="noind">with the particular result</p> -<p class="center">Γ(½)= √π.</p> +<p class="center">Γ(½)= √π.</p> <p class="noind">The number</p> @@ -9251,7 +9212,7 @@ the formula</p> <p class="noind">is called “Euler’s constant,” and is equal to the limit</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> -<tr><td rowspan="2">lim.<span class="su">n=∞</span> <span class="f150">[ (</span> 1 + ½ + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> + ... +</td> <td>1</td> +<tr><td rowspan="2">lim.<span class="su">n=∞</span> <span class="f150">[ (</span> 1 + ½ + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> + ... +</td> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> − log n <span class="f150">]</span>;</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">n</td></tr></table> @@ -9260,8 +9221,8 @@ the formula</p> <p class="noind">The function log Γ(1 + x) can be expanded in the series</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> -<tr><td rowspan="2">log Γ (1 + x) = ½ log <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>xπ</td> -<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> − ½ log</td> <td>1 + x</td> +<tr><td rowspan="2">log Γ (1 + x) = ½ log <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>xπ</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> − ½ log</td> <td>1 + x</td> <td rowspan="2">+ { 1 + Γ′;(1) } x</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">sin xπ</td> <td class="denom">1 − x</td></tr></table> @@ -9283,11 +9244,11 @@ of integration are some particular numbers, although the corresponding indefinite integrals cannot be found. For example, we have the result</p> -<p class="center" style="clear: both;"><span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">1</span><span class="su1">0</span> (1 − x<span class="sp">2</span>)<span class="sp">−1/2</span> log x dx = −½ π log 2,</p> +<p class="center" style="clear: both;"><span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">1</span><span class="su1">0</span> (1 − x<span class="sp">2</span>)<span class="sp">−1/2</span> log x dx = −½ π log 2,</p> <p class="noind">although the indefinite integral of (1 − x<span class="sp">2</span>)<span class="sp">−1/2</span> log x cannot be found. Numbers of definite integrals are expressible in terms of the transcendental -functions mentioned in § 50 or in terms of Gamma functions. +functions mentioned in § 50 or in terms of Gamma functions. For the calculation of definite integrals we have the following methods:—</p> @@ -9305,7 +9266,7 @@ satisfy certain conditions of continuity, or, in case the limits of integration are infinite, when the functions tend to zero at infinite distances in a sufficiently high order (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Function</a></span>). The method of contour integration involves the introduction of complex variables -(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Function</a></span>: § <i>Complex Variables</i>).</p> +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Function</a></span>: § <i>Complex Variables</i>).</p> <p>A few results are added</p> @@ -9334,7 +9295,7 @@ of contour integration involves the introduction of complex variables <p>(iv.)</p> -<p class="center"><span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">∞</span><span class="su1">0</span> x<span class="sp">2</span> · cos 2x · e<span class="sp">−x<span class="sp">2</span></span> dx = −<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span> e<span class="sp">−1</span> √π,</p> +<p class="center"><span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">∞</span><span class="su1">0</span> x<span class="sp">2</span> · cos 2x · e<span class="sp">−x<span class="sp">2</span></span> dx = −<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span> e<span class="sp">−1</span> √π,</p> <p>(v.)</p> @@ -9350,7 +9311,7 @@ of contour integration involves the introduction of complex variables <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">∞</span><span class="su1">0</span></td> <td>sin mx</td> -<td rowspan="2">dx = ½ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">dx = ½ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">−</td> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span>,</td></tr> @@ -9366,21 +9327,21 @@ log (1 − 2α cos x + α<span class="sp">2</span>) dx = 0 or 2&pi <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">∞</span><span class="su1">0</span></td> <td>sin x</td> -<td rowspan="2">dx = ½ π,</td></tr> +<td rowspan="2">dx = ½ π,</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">x</td></tr></table> <p>(ix.)</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">∞</span><span class="su1">0</span></td> <td>cos ax</td> -<td rowspan="2">dx = ½ πb<span class="sp">−1</span> e<span class="sp">−ab</span>,</td></tr> +<td rowspan="2">dx = ½ πb<span class="sp">−1</span> e<span class="sp">−ab</span>,</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">x<span class="sp">2</span> + b<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table> <p>(x.)</p> <table class="math0" summary="math"> <tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">∞</span><span class="su1">0</span></td> <td>cos ax − cos bx</td> -<td rowspan="2">dx = ½ π (b − a),</td></tr> +<td rowspan="2">dx = ½ π (b − a),</td></tr> <tr><td class="denom">x<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table> <p>(xi.)</p> @@ -9400,11 +9361,11 @@ log (1 − 2α cos x + α<span class="sp">2</span>) dx = 0 or 2&pi <p>(xiii.)</p> -<p class="center"><span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">∞</span><span class="su1">−∞</span> e<span class="sp">−x<span class="sp">2</span>+2ax</span> dx = √π · e<span class="sp">a2</span>,</p> +<p class="center"><span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">∞</span><span class="su1">−∞</span> e<span class="sp">−x<span class="sp">2</span>+2ax</span> dx = √π · e<span class="sp">a2</span>,</p> <p>(xiv.)</p> -<p class="center"><span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">∞</span><span class="su1">0</span> x<span class="sp">−1/2</span> sin x dx = <span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">∞</span><span class="su1">0</span> x<span class="sp">−1/2</span> cos x dx = √(½ π),</p> +<p class="center"><span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">∞</span><span class="su1">0</span> x<span class="sp">−1/2</span> sin x dx = <span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">∞</span><span class="su1">0</span> x<span class="sp">−1/2</span> cos x dx = √(½ π),</p> <p>53. <span class="sidenote">Multiple Integrals.</span>The meaning of integration of a function of n variables through @@ -9479,7 +9440,7 @@ along a curve is defined in a similar way, and is written</p> <p class="center" style="clear: both;">∫ ƒ ds</p> -<p class="noind">where ds is the element of arc of the curve (§ 33). The direction +<p class="noind">where ds is the element of arc of the curve (§ 33). The direction cosines of the tangent of a curve are dx/ds, dy/ds, dz/ds, and line integrals usually present themselves in the form</p> @@ -9502,7 +9463,7 @@ drawn in a specified sense.</p> <p>The area of a bounded portion of the plane of (x, y) may be expressed either as</p> -<p class="center">½ ∫ (x dy − y dx),</p> +<p class="center">½ ∫ (x dy − y dx),</p> <p class="noind">or as</p> @@ -9647,7 +9608,7 @@ function, taken along any closed curve, is zero.</p> <p>(iii.) The area within any plane closed curve can be expressed by either of the formulae</p> -<p class="center">∫ ½ r<span class="sp">2</span> dθ or ∫ ½ p ds,</p> +<p class="center">∫ ½ r<span class="sp">2</span> dθ or ∫ ½ p ds,</p> <p class="noind">where r, θ are polar coordinates, and p is the perpendicular drawn from a fixed point to the tangent. The integrals are to be understood @@ -9794,7 +9755,7 @@ when the domain of integration is that given by the inequality</p> <p class="noind">where the a’s and α’s are positive, the value of the integral</p> -<p class="center">∫∫ ... x<span class="su">1</span> <span class="sp">n<span class="su">1</span>−1</span> · x<span class="su">2</span> <span class="sp">n<span class="su">2</span>−1</span> ... dx<span class="su">1</span> dx<span class="su">2</span> ...</p> +<p class="center">∫∫ ... x<span class="su">1</span> <span class="sp">n<span class="su">1</span>−1</span> · x<span class="su">2</span> <span class="sp">n<span class="su">2</span>−1</span> ... dx<span class="su">1</span> dx<span class="su">2</span> ...</p> <p class="noind">is</p> @@ -9844,7 +9805,7 @@ represented as areas such rules are applicable to approximate integration in general. For the recent developments reference may be made to the article by A. Voss in <i>Ency. d. Math. Wiss.</i>, Bd. II., A. 2 (1899), and to a monograph by B. P. Moors, <i>Valeur approximative -d’une intégrale définie</i> (Paris, 1905).</p> +d’une intégrale définie</i> (Paris, 1905).</p> <p>Many instruments have been devised for registering mechanically the areas of closed curves and the values of integrals. The best @@ -9869,56 +9830,56 @@ most of the recent books in which the subject is presented in an elementary way for beginners or engineers are omitted.—L. Euler, <i>Institutiones calculi differentialis</i> (Petrop., 1755) and <i>Institutiones calculi integralis</i> (3 Bde., Petrop., 1768-1770); J. L. Lagrange, -<i>Leçons sur le calcul des fonctions</i> (Paris, 1806, <i>Œuvres</i>, t. x.), and -<i>Théorie des fonctions analytiques</i> (Paris, 1797, 2nd ed., 1813, <i>Œuvres</i>, -t. ix.); S. F. Lacroix, <i>Traité de calcul diff. et de calcul int.</i> (3 tt., +<i>Leçons sur le calcul des fonctions</i> (Paris, 1806, <i>Œuvres</i>, t. x.), and +<i>Théorie des fonctions analytiques</i> (Paris, 1797, 2nd ed., 1813, <i>Œuvres</i>, +t. ix.); S. F. Lacroix, <i>Traité de calcul diff. et de calcul int.</i> (3 tt., Paris, 1808-1819). There have been numerous later editions; a translation by Herschel, Peacock and Babbage of an abbreviated edition of Lacroix’s treatise was published at Cambridge in 1816. G. Peacock, <i>Examples of the Differential and Integral Calculus</i> -(Cambridge, 1820); A. L. Cauchy, <i>Résumé des leçons ... sur le -calcul infinitésimale</i> (Paris, 1823), and <i>Leçons sur le calcul différentiel</i> -(Paris, 1829; <i>Œuvres</i>, sér. 2, t. iv.); F. Minding, <i>Handbuch d. Diff.-u. -Int.-Rechnung</i> (Berlin, 1836); F. Moigno, <i>Leçons sur le calcul diff.</i> +(Cambridge, 1820); A. L. Cauchy, <i>Résumé des leçons ... sur le +calcul infinitésimale</i> (Paris, 1823), and <i>Leçons sur le calcul différentiel</i> +(Paris, 1829; <i>Œuvres</i>, sér. 2, t. iv.); F. Minding, <i>Handbuch d. Diff.-u. +Int.-Rechnung</i> (Berlin, 1836); F. Moigno, <i>Leçons sur le calcul diff.</i> (4 tt., Paris, 1840-1861); A. de Morgan, <i>Diff. and Int. Calc.</i> (London, 1842); D. Gregory, <i>Examples on the Diff. and Int. Calc.</i> (2 vols., Cambridge, 1841-1846); I. Todhunter, <i>Treatise on the Diff. Calc.</i> and <i>Treatise on the Int. Calc.</i> (London, 1852), numerous later editions; B. Price, <i>Treatise on the Infinitesimal Calculus</i> (2 vols., Oxford, 1854), -numerous later editions; D. Bierens de Haan, <i>Tables d’intégrales -définies</i> (Amsterdam, 1858); M. Stegemann, <i>Grundriss d. Diff.- u. +numerous later editions; D. Bierens de Haan, <i>Tables d’intégrales +définies</i> (Amsterdam, 1858); M. Stegemann, <i>Grundriss d. Diff.- u. Int.-Rechnung</i> (2 Bde., Hanover, 1862) numerous later editions; -J. Bertrand, <i>Traité de calc. diff. et int.</i> (2 tt., Paris, 1864-1870); +J. Bertrand, <i>Traité de calc. diff. et int.</i> (2 tt., Paris, 1864-1870); J. A. Serret, <i>Cours de calc. diff. et int.</i> (2 tt., Paris, 1868, 2nd ed., 1880, German edition by Harnack, Leipzig, 1884-1886, later German editions by Bohlmann, 1896, and Scheffers, 1906, incomplete); B. Williamson, <i>Treatise on the Diff. Calc.</i> (Dublin, 1872), and <i>Treatise on the Int. Calc.</i> (Dublin, 1874) numerous later editions of both; also the article “Infinitesimal Calculus” in the 9th ed. of the <i>Ency. -Brit.</i>; C. Hermite, <i>Cours d’analyse</i> (Paris, 1873); O. Schlömilch, -<i>Compendium d. höheren Analysis</i> (2 Bde., Leipzig, 1874) numerous +Brit.</i>; C. Hermite, <i>Cours d’analyse</i> (Paris, 1873); O. Schlömilch, +<i>Compendium d. höheren Analysis</i> (2 Bde., Leipzig, 1874) numerous later editions; J. Thomae, <i>Einleitung in d. Theorie d. bestimmten Integrale</i> (Halle, 1875); R. Lipschitz, <i>Lehrbuch d. Analysis</i> (2 Bde., Bonn, 1877, 1880); A. Harnack, <i>Elemente d. Diff.- u. Int.-Rechnung</i> (Leipzig, 1882, Eng. trans. by Cathcart, London, 1891); M. Pasch, <i>Einleitung in d. Diff.- u. Int.-Rechnung</i> (Leipzig, 1882); Genocchi and Peano, <i>Calcolo differenziale</i> (Turin, 1884, German edition by -Bohlmann and Schepp, Leipzig, 1898, 1899); H. Laurent, <i>Traité +Bohlmann and Schepp, Leipzig, 1898, 1899); H. Laurent, <i>Traité d’analyse</i> (7 tt., Paris, 1885-1891); J. Edwards, <i>Elementary Treatise on the Diff. Calc.</i> (London, 1886), several later editions; A. G. -Greenhill, <i>Diff. and Int. Calc.</i> (London, 1886, 2nd ed., 1891); É. -Picard, <i>Traité d’analyse</i> (3 tt., Paris, 1891-1896); O. Stolz, <i>Grundzüge +Greenhill, <i>Diff. and Int. Calc.</i> (London, 1886, 2nd ed., 1891); É. +Picard, <i>Traité d’analyse</i> (3 tt., Paris, 1891-1896); O. Stolz, <i>Grundzüge d. Diff.- u. Int.-Rechnung</i> (3 Bde., Leipzig, 1893-1899); C. Jordan, <i>Cours d’analyse</i> (3 tt., Paris, 1893-1896); L. Kronecker, -<i>Vorlesungen ü. d. Theorie d. einfachen u. vielfachen Integrale</i> (Leipzig, +<i>Vorlesungen ü. d. Theorie d. einfachen u. vielfachen Integrale</i> (Leipzig, 1894); J. Perry, <i>The Calculus for Engineers</i> (London, 1897); H. Lamb, <i>An Elementary Course of Infinitesimal Calculus</i> (Cambridge, 1897); G. A. Gibson, <i>An Elementary Treatise on the Calculus</i> (London, -1901); É. Goursat, <i>Cours d’analyse mathématique</i> (2 tt., Paris, 1902-1905); -C.-J. de la Vallée Poussin, <i>Cours d’analyse infinitésimale</i> (2 +1901); É. Goursat, <i>Cours d’analyse mathématique</i> (2 tt., Paris, 1902-1905); +C.-J. de la Vallée Poussin, <i>Cours d’analyse infinitésimale</i> (2 tt., Louvain and Paris, 1903-1906); A. E. H. Love, <i>Elements of the Diff. and Int. Calc.</i> (Cambridge, 1909); W. H. Young, <i>The Fundamental -Theorems of the Diff. Calc.</i> (Cambridge, 1910). A résumé of +Theorems of the Diff. Calc.</i> (Cambridge, 1910). A résumé of the infinitesimal calculus is given in the articles “Diff.- u. Int-Rechnung” by A. Voss, and “Bestimmte Integrale” by G. Brunel in <i>Ency. d. math. Wiss.</i> (Bde. ii. A. 2, and ii. A. 3, Leipzig, 1899, 1900). @@ -9973,7 +9934,7 @@ canal, and occurring mostly as an epidemic. The Italians in the 17th century ascribed it to the influence of the stars, and hence the name “influenza.” The French name <i>grippe</i> came into use in 1743, and those of <i>petite poste</i> and <i>petit courier</i> in 1762, -while <i>général</i> became another synonym in 1780. Apparently +while <i>général</i> became another synonym in 1780. Apparently the scourge was common; in 1403 and 1557 the sittings of the Paris law courts had to be suspended through it, and in 1427 sermons had to be abandoned through the coughing and sneezing; @@ -10067,9 +10028,9 @@ its appearance in Australia and New Zealand. In April and May it was epidemic all over Australasia, in Central America, Brazil, Peru, Arabia and Burma. During the summer and autumn it reached a number of isolated islands, such as Iceland, -St Helena, Mauritius and Réunion. Towards the close of the +St Helena, Mauritius and Réunion. Towards the close of the year it was reported from Yunnan in the interior of China, -from the Shiré Highlands in Central Africa, Shoa in Abyssinia, +from the Shiré Highlands in Central Africa, Shoa in Abyssinia, and Gilgit in Kashmir. In the course of fifteen months, beginning with its undoubted appearance in Siberia in October 1889, it had traversed the entire globe.</p> @@ -10431,8 +10392,8 @@ pharynx may occur. There is a hard, dry cough of a paroxysmal kind, worst at night. There is often tenderness of the spleen, which is almost always found enlarged, and this persists after the acute symptoms have passed. The temperature is high at the onset of the -disease. In the first twenty-four hours its range is from 100° F. in -mild cases to 105° in severe cases.</p> +disease. In the first twenty-four hours its range is from 100° F. in +mild cases to 105° in severe cases.</p> </div> <p>Dr J. S. Bristowe gave the following description of the illness @@ -10445,8 +10406,8 @@ severe pain in the head and eyes, often with tenderness in the eyes and pain in moving them; pains in the ears; pains in the small of the back; pains in the limbs, for the most part in the fleshy portions, but also in the bones and joints, and even in the fingers and toes; -and febrile temperature, which may in the early period rise to 104° -or 105° F. At the same time the patient feels excessively ill and +and febrile temperature, which may in the early period rise to 104° +or 105° F. At the same time the patient feels excessively ill and prostrate, is apt to suffer from nausea or sickness and diarrhoea, and is for the most part restless, though often (and especially in the case of children and those advanced in age) drowsy.... In ordinary @@ -10573,7 +10534,7 @@ January 1907.</p> <hr class="art" /> -<p><span class="bold">IN FORM PAUPERIS<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (Latin, “in the character of pauper”), +<p><span class="bold">IN FORM PAUPERIS<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (Latin, “in the character of pauper”), the legal phrase for a method of bringing or defending a case in court on the part of persons without means. By an English statute of 1495 (11 Hen. VII. c. 12), any poor person having @@ -10584,7 +10545,7 @@ Procedure Act 1883, but its provisions, as well as the chancery practice were incorporated into one code and embodied in the rules of the Supreme Court (O. xvi. rr. 22-31). Now any person may be admitted to sue as a pauper, on proof that he is not -worth £25, his wearing apparel and the subject matter of the +worth £25, his wearing apparel and the subject matter of the cause or matter excepted. He must lay his case before counsel for opinion, and counsel’s opinion thereon, with an affidavit of the party suing that the case contains a full and true statement @@ -10602,8 +10563,8 @@ to pay fees to any person for the conduct of his business he will be dispaupered. Costs ordered to be paid to a pauper are taxed as in other cases. Appeals to the House of -Lords <i>in formâ pauperis</i> were regulated by the -Appeal (Formâ Pauperis) Act 1893, which +Lords <i>in formâ pauperis</i> were regulated by the +Appeal (Formâ Pauperis) Act 1893, which gave the House of Lords power to refuse a petition for leave to sue.</p> @@ -10672,8 +10633,8 @@ proceedings, sets the lord advocate in motion.</p> <hr class="art" /> -<p><span class="bold">INFUSORIA,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> the name given by Bütschli (following O.F. -Ledermüller, 1763) to a group of Protozoa. The name arose +<p><span class="bold">INFUSORIA,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> the name given by Bütschli (following O.F. +Ledermüller, 1763) to a group of Protozoa. The name arose from the procedure adopted by the older microscopists to obtain animalcules. Infusions of most varied organic substances were prepared (hay and pepper being perhaps the favourite @@ -10691,7 +10652,7 @@ Infusoria in our present sense. F. Dujardin in his <i>Histoire des zoophytes</i> (1841) gave nearly as liberal an interpretation to the name; while C. T. Van Siebold (1845) narrowed it to its present limits save for the admission of several Flagellate -families. O. Bütschli limited the group by removing the Flagellata, +families. O. Bütschli limited the group by removing the Flagellata, Dinoflagellata and Cystoflagellata (<i>q.v.</i>) under the name of “Mastigophora” proposed earlier by R. M. Diesing (1865). We now define it thus:—Protozoa @@ -10760,13 +10721,13 @@ individual and successive stages of division to form spores. <i>a</i>, meganucleus; <i>b</i>, contractile vacuoles.</p> -<p>13. <i>Didinium nasutum</i>, Müll. (Gymnostomaceae). +<p>13. <i>Didinium nasutum</i>, Müll. (Gymnostomaceae). The pharynx is everted and has seized a <i>Paramecium</i> as food. <i>a</i>, meganucleus; <i>b</i>, contractile vacuole; <i>c</i>, everted pharynx.</p> -<p>14. <i>Euplotes charon</i>, Müll. (Hypotrichaceae); +<p>14. <i>Euplotes charon</i>, Müll. (Hypotrichaceae); lateral view of the animal when using its great cirrhi, <i>x</i>, as ambulatory organs.</p> @@ -10823,7 +10784,7 @@ Both these families we unite into a group of Pseudociliata, which may be referred to the <i>Flagellata</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). Lankester in the last edition of this Encyclopaedia called attention to the doubtful position of -<i>Opalina</i>, and Delage and Hérouard placed Trichonymphidae +<i>Opalina</i>, and Delage and Hérouard placed Trichonymphidae among Flagellates.</p> <p>The theca or shell is present in some pelagic @@ -11055,7 +11016,7 @@ b, position of contractile vacuole.</p> <p>2, Group of <i>Stentor polymorphus</i>, -O. F. Müller; the +O. F. Müller; the twisted end of the peristome indicating the position of the mouth.</p> @@ -11071,7 +11032,7 @@ Haeck.</p> <p>6, 7, <i>Torquatella typica</i>, Lank. (= <i>Strombidium</i> according -to Bütschli); <i>p</i>, oral tube +to Bütschli); <i>p</i>, oral tube seen through peristomial wreath of apparently coalescent membranellae.</p> @@ -11112,12 +11073,12 @@ vacuole; <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, two microgametes seeking to conjugate.</p> <p>17, Same sp. enlarged; <i>c</i>, myonemes converging posteriorly to muscle of stalk; <i>d</i>, micronucleus.</p> -<p>18, <i>Carchesium spectabile</i>, Ehr.; (×50).</p> +<p>18, <i>Carchesium spectabile</i>, Ehr.; (×50).</p> <p>19, Nematocysts of <i>Epistylis flavicans</i>. Ehr. (after Greeff).</p> -<p>20, <i>Opercularia stenostoma</i>, St.; (×200); a small +<p>20, <i>Opercularia stenostoma</i>, St.; (×200); a small colony showing upstanding (“opercular”) peristomial disk, protruded oral undulating membranejand cilia in oral tube.</p> @@ -11125,7 +11086,7 @@ protruded oral undulating membranejand cilia in oral tube.</p> chitinous disk, or true “operculum” closing theca in retracted state.</p> -<p>23, 24, <i>Caenomorpha medusula</i>, Perty, (×250), with spiral +<p>23, 24, <i>Caenomorpha medusula</i>, Perty, (×250), with spiral peristomial wreath.</p> <p>25, 26, <i>Thuricola valvata</i>, Str. Wright, in sessile theca, with @@ -11465,7 +11426,7 @@ Holotrichaceae.)</p> of cilia fused at the base—enclosing a peristomial area and leading into the mouth.</p> -<p>    §§ i.—Wreath of separate membranelles.</p> +<p>    §§ i.—Wreath of separate membranelles.</p> <p>Order 3.—Heterotrichaceae; body covered with fine uniform cilia, usually circular in transverse section.</p> @@ -11477,7 +11438,7 @@ absent; transverse section usually circular.</p> chiefly by stiff cirrhi in ventral rows, and fine motionless dorsal sensory hairs.</p> -<p>Order 6.—§§ ii.—Peritrichaceae. Peristomial ciliary wreath, +<p>Order 6.—§§ ii.—Peritrichaceae. Peristomial ciliary wreath, spiral, of cilia united at the base; posterior wreath circular of long membranelles; body circular in section, cylindrical, taper, or bell-shaped.</p> @@ -11505,7 +11466,7 @@ restricted to a single equatorial girdle, strong (probably membranelles); <i>Mesodinium</i>, mouth 4-lobed.</p> <p>2. Aspirotrichaceae. <i>Paramecium</i> Hill (fig. ii. 1-3); <i>Ophryoglena</i> -Ehr.; <i>Colpoda</i> O. F. Müller; <i>Colpidium</i> St.; <i>Lembus</i> Cohn, with +Ehr.; <i>Colpoda</i> O. F. Müller; <i>Colpidium</i> St.; <i>Lembus</i> Cohn, with posterior strong cilium for springing; <i>Leucophrys</i> St.; <i>Urocentrum</i> Nitsch, bare, with polar and equatorial zones and a posterior tuft of long cilia; <i>Opalinopsis</i> Foetlinger (fig. i. 1, 2); <i>Anoplophyra</i> St. @@ -11524,7 +11485,7 @@ pouch, with the wreath inside.</p> <p>4. Oligotrichaeceae. <i>Tintinnus</i> Schranck (fig. iii. 3); <i>Trichodinopsis</i> Cl. and L.; <i>Codonella</i> Haeck. (fig. iii. 5); <i>Strombidium</i> Cl. and L. (fig. iii. 4), including <i>Torquatella</i> Lank. (fig. iii. 6, 7), -according to Bütschli; <i>Halteria</i> Duj., with an equatorial girdle of +according to Bütschli; <i>Halteria</i> Duj., with an equatorial girdle of stiff bristle-like cilia; <i>Caenomorpha</i> Perty (fig. iii. 23, 24); <i>Ophryoscolex</i> St., with straight digestive cavity, and visible anus, parasitic in Ruminants.</p> @@ -11607,7 +11568,7 @@ recall those of an elephant’s trunk, only they are more extensive and more varied. In the majority of cases the food consists of Ciliata; and the contents of the prey may be seen passing down the canal of the sucker beyond where it becomes free from the general surface. -In <i>Choanophrya</i> the food appears to consist of the débris of the prey +In <i>Choanophrya</i> the food appears to consist of the débris of the prey of the carnivorous host (<i>Cyclops</i>), which is sucked into the wide funnel-shaped mouths of the tentacles—by what mechanism is <span class="pagenum"><a name="page562" id="page562"></a>562</span> @@ -11765,7 +11726,7 @@ prey, never for attachment—epizoic on antero-ventral parts of <i>Cyclops</i>.</p> <p>3. Cupped forms; <i>Solenophrya</i> Cl. and L., cup sessile; <i>Acineta</i> -Ehr., cup stalked; <i>Acinetopsis</i> Bütschli, like <i>Acineta</i>, but the cup +Ehr., cup stalked; <i>Acinetopsis</i> Bütschli, like <i>Acineta</i>, but the cup flattened, closed distally with only slit-like apertures (“pylomes”) for the bundles of tentacles; <i>Podocyathus</i>, like <i>Acineta</i>, but with pointed as well as knobbed tentacles.</p> @@ -11781,23 +11742,23 @@ a basal attached stolon, meganucleus branching with the body.</p> <i>Die Infusionstierchen als vollkommene Organismen</i> (1838); F. Dujardin, <i>Zoophytes infusoires</i> (1841). (<i>b</i>) Infusoria, including Mastigophora: M. Perty, <i>Zur Kenntniss Kleinster Lebensformen</i> -(1852); E. Claparède and J. Lachmann, <i>Études sur les infusoires</i> +(1852); E. Claparède and J. Lachmann, <i>Études sur les infusoires</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page563" id="page563"></a>563</span> <i>et les Rhizopodes</i> (1858-1861); F. von Stein, <i>Der Organismus der Infusionstiere</i> (1859-1883); W. Saville Kent, <i>A Manual of the Infusoria</i>, including a description of all known Flagellate, Ciliate and Tentaculiferous Protozoa (1880-1882). (<i>c</i>) Infusoria, as limited -by Bütschli. O. Bütschli, <i>Bronn’s Tierreich</i>, vol. i. <i>Protozoa</i>, pt. 3 +by Bütschli. O. Bütschli, <i>Bronn’s Tierreich</i>, vol. i. <i>Protozoa</i>, pt. 3 <i>Infusoria</i> (1887-1889), the most complete work existing, but without specific diagnoses; S. J. Hickson, “The Infusoria” in Lankester’s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>, vol. i. fasc. 2 (1903), a general account, well illustrated, with a diagnosis of all genera. See also Delage and -Hérouard, <i>Traité de Zoologie concrète</i>, vol. i. “La Cellule et les +Hérouard, <i>Traité de Zoologie concrète</i>, vol. i. “La Cellule et les Protozoaires” (1896), with an illustrated conspectus of the genera; -E. Maupas, “Recherches expérimentales sur la multiplication des -Infusoires ciliés,” <i>Arch. zool. exp.</i> vi. (1888); and “Le Rajeunissement -karyogomique chez les Ciliés,” <i>ib.</i> vii. (1889); R. Sand, <i>Étude -monographique sur le groupe des Infusoires tentaculifères</i> (Suctoria), +E. Maupas, “Recherches expérimentales sur la multiplication des +Infusoires ciliés,” <i>Arch. zool. exp.</i> vi. (1888); and “Le Rajeunissement +karyogomique chez les Ciliés,” <i>ib.</i> vii. (1889); R. Sand, <i>Étude +monographique sur le groupe des Infusoires tentaculifères</i> (Suctoria), (1899), with diagnoses of species; A. Lang, <i>Lehrb. der vergleich, Anatomie der wirbellosen Tiere</i>, vol. i. “Protozoa” (1901) (a view of comparative anatomy, physiology and bionomics); Marcus Hartog, @@ -11807,7 +11768,7 @@ G. N. Calkins, “Studies on the Life History of Protozoa” (Life cycle of Paramecium), I. <i>Arch. Entw.</i> xv. (1902), II. <i>Arch. Prot.</i> i. (1902), III. <i>Biol. Bull.</i> iii. (1902), IV. <i>J. Exp. Zool.</i> i. (1904). Numerous papers dealing especially with advances in structural knowledge -have appeared in the <i>Archiv für Protistenkunde</i>, founded by F. +have appeared in the <i>Archiv für Protistenkunde</i>, founded by F. Schaudinn in 1902.</p> </div> <div class="author">(M. Ha.)</div> @@ -11815,19 +11776,19 @@ Schaudinn in 1902.</p> <hr class="art" /> <p><span class="bold">INGEBORG<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Ingeburge</span>, <span class="sc">Ingelburge</span>, <span class="sc">Ingelborg</span>, <span class="sc">Isemburge</span>, -Dan. <span class="sc">Ingibjörg</span>] (<i>c.</i> 1176-1237 or 1238), queen of France, +Dan. <span class="sc">Ingibjörg</span>] (<i>c.</i> 1176-1237 or 1238), queen of France, was the daughter of Valdemar I., king of Denmark. She married in 1193 Philip II. Augustus, king of France, but on the day after his marriage the king took a sudden aversion to her, and wished to obtain a separation. During almost twenty years he strained every effort to obtain from the church the declaration -of nullity of his marriage. The council of Compiègne acceded +of nullity of his marriage. The council of Compiègne acceded to his wish on the 5th of November 1193, but the popes Celestine III. and Innocent III. successively took up the defence of the unfortunate queen. Philip, having married Agnes of Meran in June 1196, was excommunicated, and as he remained obdurate, the kingdom was placed under an interdict. Agnes was finally -sent away, but Ingeborg, shut up in the château of Étampes, +sent away, but Ingeborg, shut up in the château of Étampes, had to undergo all sorts of privations and vexations. The king attempted to induce her to solicit a divorce herself, or to enter a convent. At last, however (1213), hoping perhaps to @@ -11840,7 +11801,7 @@ Jean at Corbeil, which she had founded.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Robert Davidson, <i>Philip II. August von Frankreich und Ingeborg</i> (Stuttgart, 1888); and E. Michael, “Zur Geschichte der -Königin Ingelborg” in the <i>Zeitschrift für Katholische Theologie</i> (1890).</p> +Königin Ingelborg” in the <i>Zeitschrift für Katholische Theologie</i> (1890).</p> </div> @@ -11954,7 +11915,7 @@ display his real power in a volume of delightful tales. In 1821 his dramatic career closed with the production of an unsuccessful <span class="pagenum"><a name="page564" id="page564"></a>564</span> comedy, <i>Magnetism in a Barber’s Shop</i>. In 1822 the poet was -nominated lector in Danish language and literature at Sorö +nominated lector in Danish language and literature at Sorö College, and he now married. <i>Valdemar the Great and his Men</i>, an historical epic, appeared in 1824. The next few years were occupied with his best and most durable work, his four great @@ -11965,10 +11926,10 @@ Margaret</i>, 1836, and in a cycle of romances, <i>Holger Danske</i>, 1837. His later writings consist of religious and sentimental lyrics, epic poems, novels, short stories in prose, and fairy tales. His last publication was <i>The Apple of Gold</i>, 1856. In 1846 Ingemann -was nominated director of Sorö College, a post from which he +was nominated director of Sorö College, a post from which he retired in 1849. He died on the 24th of February 1862. Ingemann enjoyed during his lifetime a popularity unapproached -even by that of Öhlenschläger. His boundless facility and +even by that of Öhlenschläger. His boundless facility and fecundity, his sentimentality, his religious melancholy, his direct appeal to the domestic affections, gave him instant access to the ear of the public. His novels are better than his poems; of @@ -11979,9 +11940,9 @@ read.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Ingemann’s works were collected in 41 vols. at Copenhagen -(1843-1865). His autobiography was edited by Galskjöt in 1862; +(1843-1865). His autobiography was edited by Galskjöt in 1862; his correspondence by V. Heise (1879-1881); and his letters to -Grundtvig by S. Grundtvig (1882). See also H. Schwanenflügel, +Grundtvig by S. Grundtvig (1882). See also H. Schwanenflügel, <i>Ingemanns Liv og Digtning</i> (1886); and Georg Brandes, <i>Essays</i> (1889).</p> </div> @@ -12236,13 +12197,13 @@ siege, the French, under General Moreau, took the town, and dismantled the fortifications. They were rebuilt on a much larger scale under King Louis I., and since 1870 Ingolstadt has ranked as a fortress of the first class. In 1872 even more important -fortifications were constructed, which include têtes-de-pont +fortifications were constructed, which include têtes-de-pont with round towers of massive masonry, and the redoubt Tilly on the right bank of the river.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Gerstner, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Ingolstadt</i> (Munich, 1853); and -Prantl, <i>Geschichte der Ludwig Maximilians Universität</i> (Munich, +Prantl, <i>Geschichte der Ludwig Maximilians Universität</i> (Munich, 1872).</p> </div> @@ -12260,7 +12221,7 @@ The word is obscure in origin. It occurs in Chaucer (“The Canon’s Yeoman’s Tale”) as a term of alchemy, in the original sense of a mould for casting metal, and, as the <i>New English Dictionary</i> points out, an English origin for such a term is unlikely. It -may, however, be derived from <i>in</i> and the O. Eng. <i>géotan</i> +may, however, be derived from <i>in</i> and the O. Eng. <i>géotan</i> to pour; cf. Ger. <i>giessen</i> and <i>Einguss</i>, a mould. The Fr. <i>lingot</i>, with the second English meaning only, has been taken as the origin of “ingot” and derived from the Lat. <i>lingua</i>, @@ -12316,7 +12277,7 @@ He died in Dublin on the 18th of May 1907.</p> <p><span class="bold">INGRES, JEAN AUGUSTE DOMINIQUE<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1780-1867), French painter, was born at Montauban, on the 29th of August 1780. His father, for whom he entertained the most tender and respectful -affection, has described himself as <i>sculpteur en plâtre</i>; he was, +affection, has described himself as <i>sculpteur en plâtre</i>; he was, however, equally ready to execute every other kind of decorative work, and now and again eked out his living by taking portraits or obtained an engagement as a violin-player. He brought up @@ -12342,14 +12303,14 @@ a profound appreciation. Ingres, after four years of devoted study, during which (1800) he obtained the second place in the yearly competition, finally carried off the Grand Prix (1801). The work thus rewarded—the “Ambassadors of Agamemnon in -the Tent of Achilles” (École des Beaux Arts)—was admired +the Tent of Achilles” (École des Beaux Arts)—was admired by Flaxman so much as to give umbrage to David, and was succeeded in the following year (1802) by the execution of a “Girl after Bathing,” and a woman’s portrait; in 1804 Ingres -exhibited “Portrait of the First Consul” (Musée de Liége), +exhibited “Portrait of the First Consul” (Musée de Liége), and portraits of his father and himself; these were followed in 1806 by “Portrait of the Emperor” (Invalides), and portraits -of M, Mme, and Mlle Rivière (the first two now in the Louvre). +of M, Mme, and Mlle Rivière (the first two now in the Louvre). These and various minor works were executed in Paris (for it was not until 1809 that the state of public affairs admitted of the re-establishment of the Academy of France at Rome), and they @@ -12362,11 +12323,11 @@ Frau v. Hastfer (<i>Leben und Kunst in Paris</i>, 1806) “wird nach Italien gehen, und dort wird er vielleicht vergessen dass er zu etwas Grossem geboren ist, und wird eben darum ein hohes Ziel erreichen.” In this spirit, also, Chaussard violently attacked -his “Portrait of the Emperor” (<i>Pausanias Français</i>, 1806), -nor did the portraits of the Rivière family escape. The points +his “Portrait of the Emperor” (<i>Pausanias Français</i>, 1806), +nor did the portraits of the Rivière family escape. The points on which Chaussard justly lays stress are the strange discordances of colour—such as the blue of the cushion against which Mme -Rivière leans, and the want of the relief and warmth of life, +Rivière leans, and the want of the relief and warmth of life, but he omits to touch on that grasp of his subject as a whole, shown in the portraits of both husband and wife, which already evidences the strength and sincerity of the passionless point of @@ -12380,8 +12341,8 @@ exhibited in 1855. These works were followed by some of his best portraits, that of M. Bochet (Louvre), and that of Mme la Comtesse de Tournon, mother of the prefect of the department of the Tiber; in 1811 he finished “Jupiter and Thetis,” an -immense canvas now in the Musée of Aix; in 1812 “Romulus -and Acron” (École des Beaux Arts), and “Virgil reading the +immense canvas now in the Musée of Aix; in 1812 “Romulus +and Acron” (École des Beaux Arts), and “Virgil reading the <i>Aeneid</i>”—a composition very different from the version of it which has become popular through the engraving executed by Pradier in 1832. The original work, executed for a bedchamber @@ -12391,15 +12352,15 @@ Ingres, who had obtained possession of it during his second stay in Rome, intended to complete it with the additions made for engraving. But he never got beyond the stage of preparation, and the picture left by him, together with various other studies -and sketches, to the Musée of his native town, remains half +and sketches, to the Musée of his native town, remains half destroyed by the process meant for its regeneration. The “Virgil” was followed by the “Betrothal of Raphael,” a small painting, now lost, executed for Queen Caroline of Naples; “Don Pedro of Toledo Kissing the Sword of Henry IV.” (Collection -Deymié; Montauban), exhibited at the Salon of 1814, +Deymié; Montauban), exhibited at the Salon of 1814, together with the “Chapelle Sistine” (Collection Legentil; lithographed by Sudre), and the “Grande Odalisque” (Collection -Seillière; lithographed by Sudre). In 1815 Ingres executed +Seillière; lithographed by Sudre). In 1815 Ingres executed “Raphael and the Fornarina” (Collection Mme N. de Rothschild; engraved by Pradier); in 1816 “Aretin” and the “Envoy of Charles V.” (Collection Schroth), and “Aretin and Tintoret” @@ -12408,21 +12369,21 @@ by Richomme) and “Henry IV. Playing with his Children” (engraved by Richomme), both of which works were commissions from M. le Comte de Blacas, then ambassador of France at the Vatican. “Roger and Angelique” (Louvre; lithographed -by Sudre), and “Francesca di Rimini” (Musée of Angers; +by Sudre), and “Francesca di Rimini” (Musée of Angers; lithographed by Aubry Lecomte), were completed in 1819, and followed in 1820 by “Christ giving the Keys to Peter” (Louvre). In 1815, also, Ingres had made many projects for treating a subject from the life of the celebrated duke of Alva, a commission from the family, but a loathing for “cet horrible homme” grew upon him, and finally he abandoned the task and entered -in his diary—“J’étais forcé par la nécessité de peindre un pareil -tableau; Dieu a voulu qu’il restât en ébauche.” During all +in his diary—“J’étais forcé par la nécessité de peindre un pareil +tableau; Dieu a voulu qu’il restât en ébauche.” During all these years Ingres’s reputation in France did not increase. The interest which his “Chapelle Sistine” had aroused at the Salon of 1814 soon died away; not only was the public indifferent, but amongst his brother artists Ingres found scant recognition. The strict classicists looked upon him as a renegade, and strangely -enough Delacroix and other pupils of Guérin—the leaders of +enough Delacroix and other pupils of Guérin—the leaders of that romantic movement for which Ingres, throughout his long life, always expressed the deepest abhorrence—alone seem to have been sensible of his merits. The weight of poverty, @@ -12463,7 +12424,7 @@ which, replaced by a copy in the decoration of the ceiling for which it was designed, now hangs in the galleries of the second storey of the Louvre. From this date up till 1834 the studio of Ingres was thronged, as once had been thronged the studio of -David, and he was a recognized <i>chef d’école</i>. Whilst he taught +David, and he was a recognized <i>chef d’école</i>. Whilst he taught with despotic authority and admirable wisdom, he steadily worked; and when in 1834 he produced his great canvas of the “Martyrdom of Saint Symphorien” (cathedral of Autun; @@ -12474,8 +12435,8 @@ his earlier ventures. The suffrages of his pupils, and of one or two men—like Decamps—of undoubted ability, could not soften the sense of injury. Ingres resolved to work no longer for the public, and gladly availed himself of the opportunity to -return to Rome, as director of the École de France, in the -room of Horace Vernet. There he executed “La Vierge à +return to Rome, as director of the École de France, in the +room of Horace Vernet. There he executed “La Vierge à l’Hostie” (Imperial collections, St Petersburg), “Stratonice,” “Portrait of Cherubini” (Louvre), and the “Petite Odalisque” for M. Marcotte, the faithful admirer for whom, in 1814, Ingres @@ -12487,7 +12448,7 @@ that, on his return to Paris in 1841, Ingres found himself received with all the deference that he felt to be his due. A portrait of the purchaser of “Stratonice” was one of the first works executed after his return; and Ingres shortly afterwards began the decorations -of the great hall in the Château de Dampierre, which, +of the great hall in the Château de Dampierre, which, unfortunately for the reputation of the painter, were begun with an ardour which gradually slackened, until in 1849 Ingres, having been further discouraged by the loss of his faithful and @@ -12496,7 +12457,7 @@ the contract with the duc de Luynes was finally cancelled. A minor work, “Jupiter and Antiope,” marks the year 1851, but Ingres’s next considerable undertaking (1853) was the “Apotheosis of Napoleon I.,” painted for the ceiling of a hall -in the Hôtel de Ville; “Jeanne d’Arc” (Louvre) appeared +in the Hôtel de Ville; “Jeanne d’Arc” (Louvre) appeared in 1854; and in 1855 Ingres consented to rescind the resolution, more or less strictly kept since 1834, in favour of the International Exhibition, where a room was reserved for his works. Prince @@ -12510,16 +12471,16 @@ with other works in London (1862) there renewed the general sentiment of admiration, and procured him, from the imperial government, the dignity of senator. After the completion of “La Source,” the principal works produced by Ingres were with -one or two exceptions (“Molière” and “Louis XIV.,” presented -to the Théâtre Français, 1858; “Le Bain Turc,” 1859), of a +one or two exceptions (“Molière” and “Louis XIV.,” presented +to the Théâtre Français, 1858; “Le Bain Turc,” 1859), of a religious character; “La Vierge de l’Adoption,” 1858 (painted for Mlle Roland-Gosselin), was followed by “La Vierge -Couronnée” (painted for Mme la Baronne de Larinthie) and +Couronnée” (painted for Mme la Baronne de Larinthie) and “La Vierge aux Enfans” (Collection Blanc); in 1859 these -were followed by repetitions of “La Vierge à l’Hostie”; and -in 1862 Ingres completed “Christ and the Doctors” (Musée +were followed by repetitions of “La Vierge à l’Hostie”; and +in 1862 Ingres completed “Christ and the Doctors” (Musée Montauban), a work commissioned many years before by Queen -Marie Amélie for the chapel of Bizy.</p> +Marie Amélie for the chapel of Bizy.</p> <p>On the 17th of January 1867 Ingres died in his eighty-eighth year, having preserved his faculties in wonderful perfection to @@ -12548,7 +12509,7 @@ one or two slighter pieces, Ingres kept himself free from any preoccupation as to depth and force of colour and tone; driven, probably by the excesses of the Romantic movement into an attitude of stricter protest, “ce que l’on sait” he would repeat, -“il faut le savoir l’épée à la main.” Ingres left himself therefore, +“il faut le savoir l’épée à la main.” Ingres left himself therefore, in dealing with crowded compositions, such as the “Apotheosis of Homer” and the “Martyrdom of Saint Symphorien,” without the means of producing the necessary unity of effect which had @@ -12570,10 +12531,10 @@ birthright, the weird creatures of the fancy cannot be seen.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>A graphic account of “Ingres, sa vie et ses travaux,” and a complete catalogue of his works, were published by M. Delaborde in -1870, and dedicated to Mme Ingres, <i>née</i> Ramel, Ingres’s devoted +1870, and dedicated to Mme Ingres, <i>née</i> Ramel, Ingres’s devoted second wife, whom he married in 1852. Allusions to the painter’s -early days will be found in Delécluze’s <i>Louis David</i>; and amongst -less important notices may be cited that by Théophile Silvestre in +early days will be found in Delécluze’s <i>Louis David</i>; and amongst +less important notices may be cited that by Théophile Silvestre in his series of living artists. Most of Ingres’s important works are engraved in the collection brought out by Magimel.</p> </div> @@ -12590,8 +12551,8 @@ the planet.</p> <hr class="art" /> -<p><span class="bold">INHAMBANE,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> a seaport of Portuguese East Africa in 23° 50′ S., -35° 25′ E. The town, which enjoys a reputation for healthiness, +<p><span class="bold">INHAMBANE,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> a seaport of Portuguese East Africa in 23° 50′ S., +35° 25′ E. The town, which enjoys a reputation for healthiness, is finely situated on the bank of a river of the same name which empties into a bay also called Inhambane. Next to Mozambique Inhambane, which dates from the middle of the 16th century, @@ -12606,7 +12567,7 @@ mostly in ivory and slaves. In 1834 Inhambane was taken and all its inhabitants save ten killed by a Zulu horde under Manikusa (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gazaland</a></span>). It was not until towards the close of the 19th century that the trade of the town revived. The value of exports -and imports in 1907 was about £150,000. The chief +and imports in 1907 was about £150,000. The chief exports are wax, rubber, mafureira and other nuts, mealies and sugar. Cotton goods and cheap wines (for consumption by natives) are the principal imports. The harbour, about @@ -13305,7 +13266,7 @@ to the best ink; but on exposure to air it very readily undergoes decomposition, the colouring matter separating in broad flakes, which swim in a clear menstruum. It is affirmed by Viedt that this drawback may be overcome by the use of soda, a method -first suggested by Böttger.</p> +first suggested by Böttger.</p> <p>Logwood forms the principal ingredient in various other black inks used, especially as copying ink. A very strong decoction @@ -13474,7 +13435,7 @@ or turpentine soap for dark inks, and curd soap for light inks. The varnish is prepared as follows: The oil is carefully heated until it “strings” properly, <i>i.e.</i> a drop removed from the vessel on a rod, when placed upon a plate and the rod drawn away, -forms a thread about ½ in. long. The rosin is carefully and slowly +forms a thread about ½ in. long. The rosin is carefully and slowly added and the mixture well stirred. The soap is then stirred in. The ink is prepared by mixing the varnish with the pigment, and grinding the mass to impalpable fineness either in a levigating @@ -13492,7 +13453,7 @@ and blue.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See C. A. Mitchell and T. C. Hepworth, <i>Inks, their Composition and Manufacture</i> (1904); S. Lehner, <i>Ink Manufacture</i> (1902); -A. F. Gouillon, <i>Encres et cirages</i> (1906); L. E. Andés, <i>Schreib-, Kopier- und +A. F. Gouillon, <i>Encres et cirages</i> (1906); L. E. Andés, <i>Schreib-, Kopier- und andere Tinten</i> (1906).</p> </div> @@ -13538,7 +13499,7 @@ angles to Soimonov’s line of advance.</p> <p>The British troops on or near the ground were the 2nd Division, 3000, encamped on the ridge; Codrington’s brigade of the Light Division, 1400, on the slopes west of the Careenage Ravine; -and the Guards’ brigade, 1350, about ¾ m. in rear of the 2nd +and the Guards’ brigade, 1350, about ¾ m. in rear of the 2nd Division camp. No other forces, French or British, were within 2 m. except another part of Sir George Brown’s Light Division. A mist overhung the field and the hillsides were slippery with @@ -13560,7 +13521,7 @@ encountered the Russians in great force. On his side, Soimonov had been compelled to break up his regular lines of columns at the narrowest part of the ridge and to push his battalions forward a few at a time. This and the broken character of -the ground made the battle even in the beginning a mêlée. +the ground made the battle even in the beginning a mêlée. The obscurity of the mist, which had at first allowed the big battalions to approach unobserved, now favoured the weaker side. Soimonov himself, however, formed up some @@ -13577,7 +13538,7 @@ action. On the front, too, the Russian attack came to a standstill and ebbed, for Soimonov’s overcrowded battalions jostled one another and dissolved on the narrow and broken plateau. Soimonov himself was killed, and the disciplined confidence and -steady volleys of the defenders dominated the chaotic <i>élan</i> of the +steady volleys of the defenders dominated the chaotic <i>élan</i> of the Russians. Thus 3300 defenders were able to repulse and even to “expunge from the battlefield” the whole of the Sevastopol column, except that portion of it which drifted away to its left @@ -13725,7 +13686,7 @@ design, into which the ornamenting metal, usually in the form of wire, is laid and hammered over. Frequently the lacquer work of the Japanese is inlaid with mother-of-pearl and other substances, in the same manner as is practised in ornamenting -lacquered papier-mâché among Western communities. The +lacquered papier-mâché among Western communities. The Japanese also practise the various methods of inlaying referred to under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Damascening</a></span>. The term <i>Mosaic</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) is generally applied to inlaid work in hard stones, marble and glass, but the @@ -13767,7 +13728,7 @@ of the Danube. It rises at an elevation of 7800 ft., in a small lake under the Piz Longhino, in the Swiss canton of the Grisons. After flowing for a distance of 55 m., through the Engadine it leaves Swiss territory at Martinsbruck and enters Austria. It -next plunges through the deep ravine of Finstermünz, and, +next plunges through the deep ravine of Finstermünz, and, continuing in the main a north-easterly direction, receives at Landeck the Rosanna. Hence its course becomes more rapid, until, after swirling through the narrow and romantic @@ -13845,7 +13806,7 @@ the guest-chamber, which sometimes stood (as at Battle Abbey) outside the precincts. It consisted of a hall, round which were sleeping-rooms, though the floor of the hall itself was often utilized. Again, hospitality was rarely denied at the castle or -country house. The knight supped with his host at the daïs +country house. The knight supped with his host at the daïs or upper part of the great hall, and retired with him into his own apartment. His followers, or the meaner strangers, sat lower down at meat, and after the tables had been removed stretched @@ -13869,7 +13830,7 @@ in evidence, and even in pre-Reformation days was a favourite subject for the satirist. In Langland’s <i>Piers the Plowman</i> and in Skelton’s <i>Elynour Rummynge</i> we have contemporary pictures of ale-houses of the 14th and 16th centuries, but the Tabard -is quite a modern inn, with a <i>table d’hôte</i> supper, a sign, a landlord +is quite a modern inn, with a <i>table d’hôte</i> supper, a sign, a landlord (“right a mery man”) and a reckoning!</p> <p>It has been conjectured (Larwood and Hotten, <i>History of @@ -13968,7 +13929,7 @@ amongst strangers seemed forlorn and unprotected, and conspiracy with thieves was dreaded. In modern times the landlord’s responsibilities were cut down by the Innkeepers Liability Act 1863. He is not liable (save for horses and other live animals with -their gear and carriages) to a greater extent than £30, unless +their gear and carriages) to a greater extent than £30, unless the loss is caused by the default or neglect of himself or his servants, or the goods have been formally deposited with him. He must conspicuously exhibit a copy of the material parts of @@ -14002,9 +13963,9 @@ Licensing Laws.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Angus, <i>Bible Handbook</i> (new ed., 1904); Beckmann’s <i>Inventions</i>, tr. by Johnson (1846); Jusserand, <i>Les Anglais au moyen -âge</i> (1884); Liebenau, <i>Das Gasthof- und Wirtshauswesen der Schweiz</i> +âge</i> (1884); Liebenau, <i>Das Gasthof- und Wirtshauswesen der Schweiz</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page577" id="page577"></a>577</span> -<i>in älterer Zeit</i> (1891); Kempt, <i>Convivial Caledonia</i> (1893); F. W. +<i>in älterer Zeit</i> (1891); Kempt, <i>Convivial Caledonia</i> (1893); F. W. Hackwood, <i>Inns, Ales and Drinking Customs of Old England</i> (1909); Jelf and Hurst, <i>The Law of Innkeepers</i> (1904). English and Roman law are compared in Pymar’s <i>Law of Innkeepers</i> (1892). For Scots @@ -14017,7 +13978,7 @@ law, see Bell’s <i>Principles</i>. An American treatise is S. H. Wandell, <hr class="art" /> <p><span class="bold">INNERLEITHEN,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> a police burgh and health resort of Peeblesshire, Scotland, on Leithen Water, near its junction with the -Tweed, 6½ m. S.E. of Peebles by the North British railway. +Tweed, 6½ m. S.E. of Peebles by the North British railway. Pop. (1901) 2181. In olden times it seems to have been known as Hornehuntersland, and to have been mentioned as early as 1159, when a son of Malcolm IV. (the Maiden) was drowned in @@ -14159,10 +14120,10 @@ under the name of Anacletus II. by a majority of the cardinals. Declaring that the cardinals had been intimidated, Innocent refused to recognize their choice; by June, however, he was obliged to flee to France. Here his title was recognized by a -synod called by Bernard of Clairvaux at Étampes. Similar -action was taken in Germany by the synod of Würzburg. In +synod called by Bernard of Clairvaux at Étampes. Similar +action was taken in Germany by the synod of Würzburg. In January 1131 Innocent held a personal interview with King -Henry I. of England at Chartres, and in March, at Liége, with +Henry I. of England at Chartres, and in March, at Liége, with <span class="pagenum"><a name="page578" id="page578"></a>578</span> the German King Lothair, whom he induced to undertake a campaign against Anacletus. The German army invaded Italy @@ -14191,7 +14152,7 @@ with the interdict, but before matters came to a head Innocent died on the 22nd of September 1143.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, “Innocenz II.,” with full +<p>See Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, “Innocenz II.,” with full references. Gregorovius, <i>History of Rome in the Middle Ages</i>, trans. by Hamilton (London, 1896), vol. iv. part ii. pp. 420-453.</p> </div> @@ -14423,11 +14384,11 @@ of the time were not convinced even when coerced. Even so pious a Catholic as the minnesinger Walther von der Vogelweide, giving voice to the indignation of German laymen, ascribed Innocent’s claims, not to soundness of his scholastic logic, but -to the fact that he was “too young” (<i>owê der babest ist ze junc</i>).</p> +to the fact that he was “too young” (<i>owê der babest ist ze junc</i>).</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The literature on Innocent III. is very extensive; a carefully -analysed bibliography will be found in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> +analysed bibliography will be found in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd ed., 1901) s. “Innocenz III.” In A. Potthast, <i>Bibliotheca hist. med. aevi</i> (2nd ed., Berlin, 1896), p. 650, is a bibliography of the literature on Innocent’s writings. In the <i>Corpus juris canonici</i>, ed. @@ -14436,9 +14397,9 @@ the official documents of Innocent III. excerpted in the <i>Decretales Gregorii IX</i>. The most important later works on Innocent III. are Achille Luchaire’s <i>Innocent III, Rome et l’Italie</i> (Paris, 1904), <i>Innocent III, la croisade des Albigeois</i> (<i>ib.</i> 1905), <i>Innocent III, -la papauté et l’empire</i> (<i>ib.</i> 1906), <i>Innocent III, la question d’orient</i> -(<i>ib.</i> 1906); <i>Innocent III, les royautés vassales du Saint-Siège</i> (<i>ib.</i> -1908); and <i>Innocent III, la concile de latran et la réforme de l’église</i> +la papauté et l’empire</i> (<i>ib.</i> 1906), <i>Innocent III, la question d’orient</i> +(<i>ib.</i> 1906); <i>Innocent III, les royautés vassales du Saint-Siège</i> (<i>ib.</i> +1908); and <i>Innocent III, la concile de latran et la réforme de l’église</i> (1908); <i>Innocent the Great</i>, by C. H. C. Pirie-Gordon (London, 1907); is the only English monograph on this pope and contains some useful documents, but is otherwise of little value. See also H. H. Milman, @@ -14534,7 +14495,7 @@ this purpose to the war against the emperor. Even the clergy were by no means altogether on Innocent’s side; the council of Lyons was attended by but 150 bishops, mainly French and Spanish, and the deputation from England, headed by Robert -Grossetête of Lincoln and Roger Bigod, came mainly in order +Grossetête of Lincoln and Roger Bigod, came mainly in order to obtain the canonization of Edmund of Canterbury and to protest against papal exactions. Yet, for better or for worse, Innocent triumphed. His financial position was from the @@ -14634,7 +14595,7 @@ Piacenza.</p> E. Berger in <i>Les Registres d’Innocent IV</i> (3 vols., Paris, 1884-1887). For English readers the account in Milman’s <i>Latin Christianity</i>, vol. vi. (3rd ed., 1864) is still useful. Full references will be found -in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, vol. ix. (1901).</p> +in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, vol. ix. (1901).</p> </div> <div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> @@ -14668,13 +14629,13 @@ Lyons over St Bonaventura. His bulls are in the Turin collection Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); A. Potthast, <i>Regesta, pontif. Roman.</i> vol. ii. (Berlin, 1875); E. Bourgeois, <i>Le Bienheureux Innocent V</i> (Paris, 1899); J. E. Borel, <i>Notice biogr. sur Pierre de -Tarentaise</i> (Chambéry, 1890); P. J. Béthaz, <i>Pierre des Cours de la +Tarentaise</i> (Chambéry, 1890); P. J. Béthaz, <i>Pierre des Cours de la Salle, pape sous le nom Innocent V</i> (Augustae, 1891); L. Carboni, <i>De Innocentio V. Romano pontifice</i> (1894).</p> </div> <div class="author">(C. H. Ha.)</div> -<p><span class="sc">Innocent VI.</span> (Étienne Aubert), pope from the 18th of +<p><span class="sc">Innocent VI.</span> (Étienne Aubert), pope from the 18th of December 1352 to the 12th of September 1362, was born at Mons in Limousin. He became professor of civil law at Toulouse and subsequently chief judge of the city. Having taken orders, @@ -14723,12 +14684,12 @@ Clementis VI. et Innocentii VI.</i> (Innsbruck, 1885). See also L. Pastor <i>History of the Popes</i>, vol. i. trans. by F. I. Antrobus (London, 1899); F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the Middle Ages</i>, vol. 6, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); D. Cerri, <i>Innocenzo -Papa VI.</i> (Turin, 1873); J. B. Christophe, <i>Histoire de la papauté -pendant le XIV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, vol. 2 (Paris, 1853); M. Souchon, <i>Die +Papa VI.</i> (Turin, 1873); J. B. Christophe, <i>Histoire de la papauté +pendant le XIV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, vol. 2 (Paris, 1853); M. Souchon, <i>Die Papstwahlen</i> (Brunswick, 1888); G. Daumet, <i>Innocent VI. et Blanche de Bourbon</i> (Paris, 1899); E. Werunsky, <i>Gesch. Kaiser Karls IV.</i> (Innsbruck, 1892). There is an excellent article by -M. Naumann in Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, 3rd ed.</p> +M. Naumann in Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, 3rd ed.</p> </div> <div class="author">(C. H. Ha.)</div> @@ -14770,7 +14731,7 @@ by Gregory XII.</p> (London, 1899); M. Creighton, <i>History of the Papacy</i>, vol. i. (London, 1899); N. Valois, <i>La France et le grand schisme d’occident</i> (Paris, 1896-1902); Louis Gayet, <i>Le Grand Schisme d’occident</i> (Paris, 1898); -J. Loserth, <i>Geschichte des späteren Mittelalters</i> (1903); Theodorici +J. Loserth, <i>Geschichte des späteren Mittelalters</i> (1903); Theodorici de Nyem, <i>De schismate libri tres</i>, ed. by G. Erler (Leipzig, 1890); K. J. von Hefele, <i>Conciliengeschichte</i>, Bd. 6, 2nd ed.; J. von Haller, <i>Papsttum u. Kirchenreform</i> (Berlin, 1903).</p> @@ -14871,7 +14832,7 @@ and rapacity. Urban VIII. had been French in his sympathies; but the papacy now shifted to the side of the Habsburgs, and there remained for nearly fifty years. Evidences of the change were numerous: Innocent promoted pro-Spanish cardinals; -attacked the Barberini, protégés of Mazarin, and sequestered +attacked the Barberini, protégés of Mazarin, and sequestered their possessions; aided in quieting an insurrection in Naples, fomented by the duke of Guise; and refused to recognize the independence of Portugal, then at war with Spain. As a reward @@ -14886,7 +14847,7 @@ in matters of <i>fact</i>, and the controversy entered upon a new phase the conversion of many Protestant princes, the most notable being Queen Christina of Sweden, the papacy had nevertheless suffered a perceptible decline in prestige; it counted for -little in the negotiations at Münster, and its solemn protest +little in the negotiations at Münster, and its solemn protest against the peace of Westphalia was entirely ignored. Innocent died on the 7th of January 1655, and was succeeded by Alexander VII.</p> @@ -14903,7 +14864,7 @@ and untrustworthy; Capranica’s <i>Donna Olympia Pamfili</i> (Milan, Ranke, <i>Popes</i> (Eng. trans., Austin), iii. 40 sqq.; v. Reumont, <i>Gesch. der Stadt Rom.</i> iii. 2, p. 623 sqq.; Brosch, <i>Gesch. des Kirchenstaates</i> (1880) i. 409 sqq.; and the extended bibliography in Herzog-Hauck, -<i>Realencyklopädie</i>, s.v. “Innocenz X.”</p> +<i>Realencyklopädie</i>, s.v. “Innocenz X.”</p> </div> <div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div> @@ -14934,7 +14895,7 @@ quietistic doctrines of Molinos (1687), for which Innocent entertained some sympathy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Molinos</a></span>).</p> <p>The pontificate of Innocent fell within an important period -in European politics, and he himself played no insignificant rôle. +in European politics, and he himself played no insignificant rôle. His protest against Louis XIV.’s extended claim to regalian rights called forth the famous Declaration of Gallican Liberties by a subservient French synod under the lead of Bossuet (1682), @@ -14971,7 +14932,7 @@ hist.</i> lxxv. (1904) 602 sqq.); and Gerin, in <i>Rev. des quest. hist.</i>, 18 1878, 1886. For correspondence of Innocent see Colombo, <i>Notizie biogr. e lettere di P. Innoc. XI.</i> (Turin, 1878); and Berthier, <i>Innoc. PP. XI. Epp. ad Principes</i> (Rome, 1890 sqq.). An extended bibliography -may be found in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, s.v. +may be found in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, s.v. “Innocenz XI.”</p> </div> <div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div> @@ -14999,8 +14960,8 @@ adjusted the difficulties over the regalia, and obtained from the French bishops the virtual repudiation of the Declaration of Gallican Liberties. He confirmed the bull of Alexander VIII. against Jansenism (1696); and, in 1699, under pressure from -Louis XIV., condemned certain of Fénelon’s doctrines which -Bossuet had denounced as quietistic (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fénelon</a></span>). When the +Louis XIV., condemned certain of Fénelon’s doctrines which +Bossuet had denounced as quietistic (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fénelon</a></span>). When the question of the Spanish succession was being agitated he advised Charles II. to make his will in favour of the duke of Anjou. Innocent died, on the eve of the great conflict, on the 27th of @@ -15104,7 +15065,7 @@ lofty mountains that seem to overhang the town. It occupies a strong military position (its commercial and industrial importance is now but secondary) at the junction of the great highway from Germany to Italy over the Brenner Pass, by which it is by -rail 109½ m. from Munich and 174½ m. from Verona, with that +rail 109½ m. from Munich and 174½ m. from Verona, with that from Bregenz in the Vorarlberg, distant 122 m., by rail under the Arlberg Pass. It takes its name from its position, close to the chief bridge over the Inn. It is the seat of the supreme judicial @@ -15287,7 +15248,7 @@ may on application to the benchers, and on payment of arrears of dues (if any), leave the society to which they belong, and thus cease altogether to be members of the bar likewise. A member of an Inn of Court retains his name on the lists of his inn for life -by means of a small annual payment varying from £1 to £5, +by means of a small annual payment varying from £1 to £5, which at one or two of the inns is compounded for by a fixed sum taken at the call to the bar.</p> @@ -15351,10 +15312,10 @@ discipline and course of study, bringing them into harmony with modern ideas and requirements.</p> <p>The fees payable vary slightly at the different inns, but average -about £150. This sum covers all expenses from admission to an +about £150. This sum covers all expenses from admission to an inn to the call at the bar, but the addition of tutorial and other expenses may augment the cost of a barrister’s legal education -to £400 or £500. The period of study prior to call must not be +to £400 or £500. The period of study prior to call must not be less than twelve terms, equivalent to about three years. Solicitors, however, may be called without keeping any terms if they have been in practice for not fewer than five consecutive years.</p> @@ -15375,7 +15336,7 @@ constant and splendid table being kept during the three weeks and three days over which the readings extended, to which were invited the nobility, judges, bishops, the officers of state and sometimes the king himself. In 1688 the readers were paid -£200 for their reading, but by that time the office had become a +£200 for their reading, but by that time the office had become a sinecure. In the present day the readership is purely honorary and without duties. The privilege formerly assumed by the reader of calling to the bar was taken away in 1664 by an order @@ -15441,7 +15402,7 @@ in February 1601. The hospitality of the inns now finds expression mainly in the “Grand Day,” held once in each of the four terms, when it is customary for the judges and other distinguished visitors to dine with the benchers (who sit apart from the -barristers and students on a daïs in some state), and “Readers’ +barristers and students on a daïs in some state), and “Readers’ Feast,” on both which occasions extra commons and wine are served to the members attending. But the old customs also found some renewal in the shape of balls, concerts, garden-parties @@ -15482,7 +15443,7 @@ to the Knights Hospitallers of St John until the dissolution of the order in 1539; they then became the lessees of the crown, and so remained until 1609, when James I. made a grant by letters patent of the premises in perpetuity to the benchers of the respective societies -on a yearly payment by each of £10, a payment bought up in the +on a yearly payment by each of £10, a payment bought up in the reign of Charles II. In this grant the two inns are described as “the Inner and the Middle Temple or New Temple,” and as “being two out of those four colleges the most famous of all Europe” for @@ -15632,7 +15593,7 @@ moots were observed here with regularity. Sir Simonds d’Ewes mentions attending a moot in February 1624. The Inn, with its <span class="pagenum"><a name="page587" id="page587"></a>587</span> picturesque Elizabethan front, faces Holborn. It was sold by the -antients in 1884 lor £68,000. It is in a very good state of preservation, +antients in 1884 lor £68,000. It is in a very good state of preservation, and it is the intention of the purchasers, the Prudential Assurance Company, to preserve it as a memorial of vanishing London. <i>Barnard’s Inn</i>, anciently designated Mackworth Inn, was an Inn of @@ -15791,7 +15752,7 @@ mentioned as early as 1185, and in 1772 it passed to Prussia.</p> <hr class="art" /> -<p><span class="bold">INQUEST<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>enqueste</i>, modern <i>enquête</i>, from Lat. <i>inquisitum</i>, +<p><span class="bold">INQUEST<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>enqueste</i>, modern <i>enquête</i>, from Lat. <i>inquisitum</i>, <i>inquirere</i>, to inquire), an inquiry, particularly a formal legal inquiry into facts. The word is now chiefly confined to the inquiry held by a coroner and jury into the causes of certain @@ -15881,14 +15842,14 @@ and death. At Soissons (1114) the mob, distrusting the weakness of the clergy, took advantage of their bishop’s absence to burn heretics at the stake. It was also the mob who, infuriated at seeing him destroy and burn crosses, burnt the heresiarch Peter -of Bruis (<i>c.</i> 1140). At Liége (1144) the bishop saved from the +of Bruis (<i>c.</i> 1140). At Liége (1144) the bishop saved from the flames certain persons whom the faithful were attempting to burn. At Cologne (1163) the archbishop was less successful, and the mob put the heretics to death without even a trial. The condemnation of Arnold of Brescia was entirely political, though he was denounced as a heretic to the secular arm by Bernard of Clairvaux, and his execution was the act of the prefect -of Rome (1155). At Vézelay, on the contrary (1167), the +of Rome (1155). At Vézelay, on the contrary (1167), the heretics were burnt after ecclesiastical judgment had been pronounced by the abbot and several bishops. From 1183 to 1206 Hugh, bishop of Auxerre, took upon himself the discretionary @@ -15903,9 +15864,9 @@ after an ecclesiastical inquiry and judgment. The theory in these matters was at first as uncertain as the practice; <span class="sidenote">Conflicting views as to the punishment of heresy.</span> in the 11th century one bishop only, Theodwin of -Liége (d. 1075), affirms the necessity for the punishment +Liége (d. 1075), affirms the necessity for the punishment of heretics by the secular arm (1050). His predecessor, -Wazo, bishop of Liége from 1041 to 1044, had expressly +Wazo, bishop of Liége from 1041 to 1044, had expressly condemned any capital punishment and advised the bishop of Chalons to resort to peaceful conversion. In the 12th century Peter the Cantor<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> protested against the @@ -15995,7 +15956,7 @@ treaty of peace, attempted to organize one, and constituted itself the tribunal. But the procedure was still uncertain; in the north, from 1200 to 1222, at Paris (execution of the disciples of Amalric of Bena), at Strassburg, Cambrai, -Troyes and Besançon executions took place, after trials in which +Troyes and Besançon executions took place, after trials in which the bishops were the judges, the exercise of the secular power being based on vague phrases in the decrees of Louis VIII. (that heretics be punished <i>animadversione debita</i>), or in those @@ -16160,7 +16121,7 @@ solemnly pronounced on a Sunday, in a church or public place, <span class="sidenote">Punishments.</span> in the presence of the inquisitors, their auxiliaries, the bishops, the secular magistrates and the people. -This was the <i>sermo generalis</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Auto da fé</a></span>). The +This was the <i>sermo generalis</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Auto da fé</a></span>). The accused who had confessed were reconciled, and the penalties were then pronounced; these were, in order of severity, penances, fasting, prayers, pilgrimages (Palestine, St James of @@ -16178,11 +16139,11 @@ for a period of time, perpetual imprisonment and imprisonment of various degrees of severity (<i>murus largus</i>, <i>murus strictus vel strictissimus</i>). The <i>murus strictus</i> consisted in the deepest dungeon, with single or double fetters, and “the bread and water -of affliction”; but the severity of the prison régime varied very +of affliction”; but the severity of the prison régime varied very much. The <i>murus largus</i>, especially for a rich prisoner, amounted to a fairly mild imprisonment, but the mortality among those confined in the <i>murus strictus</i> became so high that Clement V. -ordered an inquiry to be made into the prison régime in Languedoc, +ordered an inquiry to be made into the prison régime in Languedoc, in spite of Bernard Guy’s protest against the investigation as likely to diminish the prestige of the inquisitors. After the sentences had been pronounced, the obstinate heretics and @@ -16332,11 +16293,11 @@ the ecclesiastical judges regained all their prestige. One of these crises culminated in the affair of the “Vauderie”<a name="fa5f" id="fa5f" href="#ft5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a> of Arras (1459), in which twelve unfortunates perished at the stake; and there were similar occurrences at the same period -in Dauphiné and Gascony; of this nature again was the violent +in Dauphiné and Gascony; of this nature again was the violent persecution in the Germanic countries begun by the bull <i>Summis desiderantes</i> of Innocent VIII. (5th December 1484), in the course of which the two authors of the <i>Malleus maleficorum</i>, -the inquisitors Sprenger and Institoris (Heinrich Krämer), +the inquisitors Sprenger and Institoris (Heinrich Krämer), distinguished themselves as much by their knowledge of theoretical demonology as by their zeal as persecutors. In France the secular authority was not long in claiming and obtaining @@ -16482,7 +16443,7 @@ their agents were massacred at the castle of Avignonet. This massacre led to a persecution which went on without opposition and almost without a lull for nearly fifty years. At the beginning of the 14th century the terrified people found a defender -in the heroic Franciscan Bernard Délicieux. For a moment +in the heroic Franciscan Bernard Délicieux. For a moment King Philip the Fair and Pope Clement V. seemed to interest themselves in the misfortunes of Languedoc, and the king of France sent down reformers; but they had no effect, their @@ -16505,7 +16466,7 @@ fratres de paupere vita, bizochi</i> or <i>beghini</i>,” and the Inquisiti Languedoc was at once set in motion against them. Four <i>spirituales</i> were burnt at Marseilles in 1318, and soon the persecution was extended to the Franciscan <i>beguins</i> or <i>tertiarii</i>, many -people being burnt about 1320 at Narbonne, Lunel, Béziers, +people being burnt about 1320 at Narbonne, Lunel, Béziers, Carcassonne, &c. The persecution stopped for lack of an object, for the small groups of beguins were soon destroyed, and those of the <i>Spirituales</i> who were not sent to the stake or to prison @@ -16528,7 +16489,7 @@ without a judgment, supported as he was by the ecclesiastical authorities and by princes such as Theobald of Champagne. The pope was forced to put a check on his zeal, and, after an inquiry, condemned him to imprisonment for life. We know -that there were inquisitors settled in Île de France, Orléanais, +that there were inquisitors settled in ÃŽle de France, Orléanais, Touraine, Lorraine and Burgundy during the 12th century, but we know next to nothing of what they did. In the 14th century, the Flemish and German heresies of the Free Spirit @@ -16603,7 +16564,7 @@ the heretics continued actually to be subject to the secular tribunals. In 1288 a compromise was arrived at, and the papal Inquisition was admitted into the republic, but only on condition that it should remain under the control of the secular -power; thus there was established a mixed régime which survived +power; thus there was established a mixed régime which survived till the last days of the Venetian state. In Savoy the Inquisition constantly carried on severe measures against the Waldenses of the Alps. During the 14th and 15th centuries @@ -16668,7 +16629,7 @@ these groups of sectaries, and at the very height of the conflict between the Empire and the papacy. Marsilius of Padua, the theoretical exponent of the imperial rights, attributes to the secular judge the right and obligation to punish heresy, the -priest’s rôle being merely advisory. In 1353 Innocent VI. tried +priest’s rôle being merely advisory. In 1353 Innocent VI. tried to implant the papal Inquisition in Germany once for all; its success was but short, and Urban V.’s attempt in 1362 succeeded little better, in spite of the fact that Charles IV. (edicts of @@ -16728,7 +16689,7 @@ Slav princes converted to Roman orthodoxy.</p> <p>In Spain the papal Inquisition could gain no solid footing in the middle ages. Spain had been, in turn or simultaneously, Arian under the Visigoths, Catholic under the Hispano-Romans, -Mussulman by conquest, and under a régime +Mussulman by conquest, and under a régime <span class="sidenote">Spain.</span> of religious peace Judaism had developed there. After the reconquest, and even at the height of the influence of the Cathari @@ -16908,9 +16869,9 @@ and indispensable agent of public protection; it would be going too far to state that this conception is unknown to orthodox present-day historians of the Inquisition, and especially certain Spanish historians (cf. the preface to Menendez y Pelayo’s -<i>Heterodoxos españoles</i>). As had happened among the Albigenses, +<i>Heterodoxos españoles</i>). As had happened among the Albigenses, commerce and industry were rapidly paralysed in Spain by this -odious régime of suspicion, especially as the <i>Conversos</i>, who +odious régime of suspicion, especially as the <i>Conversos</i>, who inherited the industrial and commercial capacity of the Moors and Jews, represented one of the most active elements of the population. Besides, this system of wholesale confiscations @@ -16976,7 +16937,7 @@ in spite of the protests of Rome. Ferdinand VII. restored it (July 21, 1814) on his return from exile, but it was impoverished and almost powerless. It was again abolished as a result of the Liberal revolution of 1820, was restored temporarily in 1823 after -the French military intervention under the duc d’Angoulême, +the French military intervention under the duc d’Angoulême, and finally disappeared on the 15th of July 1834, when Queen Christina allied herself with the Liberals. “It was not, however, till the 8th of May 1869 that the principle of religious liberty @@ -17030,7 +16991,7 @@ European colonists should be subject to the jurisdiction of the Inquisition; but Philip II. increased the powers of the inquisitors’ delegate and, in 1541, established on a permanent basis three new provinces of the Inquisition at Lima, Mexico and Cartagena. -The first <i>auto-da-fé</i> took place at Mexico in 1574, the year in +The first <i>auto-da-fé</i> took place at Mexico in 1574, the year in which Hernando Cortez died. The Inquisition of Portugal was no less careful to ensure the orthodoxy of the Portuguese colonies. An Inquisition of the East Indies was established at @@ -17059,7 +17020,7 @@ during the day time, abstaining from swine’s flesh or wine, using henna, singing Moorish songs, or possessing Arabic manuscripts. During the 16th and 17th centuries the Inquisition in Spain was directed against Protestantism. The inquisitor-general, -Fernando de Valdés, archbishop of Seville, asked the +Fernando de Valdés, archbishop of Seville, asked the pope to condemn the Lutherans to be burnt even if they were not backsliders, or wished to be reconciled, while in 1560 three foreign Protestants, two Englishmen and a Frenchman were @@ -17076,7 +17037,7 @@ The Illuminati (<i>alumbrados</i>), who were very much akin to the medieval sectaries, and the mystics of Castile and Aragon were ruthlessly examined, judged and executed. Not even the most famous persons could escape the suspicious zeal of the inquisitors -Valdés and Melchior Cano. The writings of Luis de Granada +Valdés and Melchior Cano. The writings of Luis de Granada were censured as containing <i>cosas de alumbrados</i>. St Ignatius de Loyola was twice imprisoned at the beginning of his career; St Theresa was accused of misconduct, and several times denounced; @@ -17091,7 +17052,7 @@ himself was arrested and condemned to perpetual imprisonment (1685-1687), and during the 18th century, till 1781, several Molinosists were burnt. The Inquisition also attacked Jansenism, freemasonry (from 1738 onwards; cf. the bull <i>In eminenti</i>) and -“philosophism,” the learned naturalist José Clavigo y Faxarcho +“philosophism,” the learned naturalist José Clavigo y Faxarcho (1730-1806), the mathematician Benito Bails (1730-1797), the poet Tomas de Iriarte, the ministers Clavigo Ricla, Aranda and others being prosecuted as “philosophers.” Subject also @@ -17153,16 +17114,16 @@ eventually abolished in 1812.</p> <p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—A critical bibliography was drawn up by P. Fredericq in the preface to the French translation (1900) of H. C. Lea’s important standard work: <i>History of the Inquisition in the -Middle Ages</i> (3 vols., London, 1888). See also J. Havet, <i>L’Hérésie -et le bras séculier au moyen âge jusqu’au XIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> in the <i>Œuvres -complètes</i>, vol. ii. (Paris, 1896); Ch. V. Langlois, <i>L’Inquisition d’après -des travaux récents</i> (Paris, 1901); Douais, <i>L’Inquisition</i> (Paris, 1907); +Middle Ages</i> (3 vols., London, 1888). See also J. Havet, <i>L’Hérésie +et le bras séculier au moyen âge jusqu’au XIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> in the <i>Œuvres +complètes</i>, vol. ii. (Paris, 1896); Ch. V. Langlois, <i>L’Inquisition d’après +des travaux récents</i> (Paris, 1901); Douais, <i>L’Inquisition</i> (Paris, 1907); E. Vacandard, <i>L’Inquisition</i> (Paris, 1907); Douais, <i>Documents pour -servir à l’histoire de l’inquisition dans le Languedoc</i> (2 vols., Paris, -1900); Döllinger, <i>Beiträge zur Sektengeschichte des Mittelalters</i> +servir à l’histoire de l’inquisition dans le Languedoc</i> (2 vols., Paris, +1900); Döllinger, <i>Beiträge zur Sektengeschichte des Mittelalters</i> (2 vols., Munich, 1890. The second volume is composed of documents); Molinier, <i>L’Inquisition dans le midi de la France au -XIII<span class="sp">e</span> et au XIV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle. Étude sur les sources de son histoire</i> (Paris, +XIII<span class="sp">e</span> et au XIV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle. Étude sur les sources de son histoire</i> (Paris, 1880); P. Fredericq, <i>Corpus documentorum inquisitionis haereticae pravitatis neerlandicae</i> (1205-1525) (4 vols., Ghent, 1889-1900); Tanon, <i>Histoire des tribunaux de l’inquisition en France</i> (Paris, @@ -17187,7 +17148,7 @@ died as a Cistercian in 1197. He was beatified.</p> <p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> He was born <i>c.</i> 1261, was a Dominican at Limoges in 1279, successively prior of Albi (1294), Carcassonne (1297), Castres (1301) and Limoges (1305), inquisitor at Toulouse (1307), bishop of Tuy (1323) -and of Lodève (1325). He died in 1331.</p> +and of Lodève (1325). He died in 1331.</p> <p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Peter, a Dominican, born at Verona, was murdered near Milan in 1252 and canonized in 1253.</p> @@ -17209,7 +17170,7 @@ term applied to certain morbid mental conditions produced by defect or disease of the brain. The synonyms in more or less frequent use are <i>lunacy</i> (from a supposed influence of the moon), <i>mental disease</i>, <i>alienation</i>, <i>derangement</i>, <i>aberration</i>, <i>madness</i>, -<i>unsoundness of mind</i>. The term <i>Psychiatry</i> (<span class="grk" title="psychê">ψυχή</span>, mind, and +<i>unsoundness of mind</i>. The term <i>Psychiatry</i> (<span class="grk" title="psychê">ψυχή</span>, mind, and <span class="grk" title="iatreia">ἰατρεία</span>, treatment) is applied to the study and treatment of the condition.</p> @@ -17658,7 +17619,7 @@ conditions which fall to be considered under this head are <i>Idiocy</i> (with its modification, Imbecility) and <i>Cretinism</i> (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> -<p><span class="sc">Idiocy</span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="idiôtês">ἰδιώτης</span>, in its secondary meaning of a +<p><span class="sc">Idiocy</span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="idiôtês">ἰδιώτης</span>, in its secondary meaning of a deprived person). In treating of idiocy it must be carefully borne in mind that we are dealing with mental phenomena dissociated for the most part from active bodily disease, and that, @@ -17880,7 +17841,7 @@ Census</i>, 1906) the “feeble-minded” were estimated at 150,000.</p> <p>The relative frequency of congenital and acquired insanity in various countries is shown in the following table, taken from Koch’s -statistics of insanity in Württemberg, which gives the number of +statistics of insanity in Württemberg, which gives the number of idiots to 100 lunatics:—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> @@ -18165,7 +18126,7 @@ The actual onset of the acute mental symptoms may be sudden, and is not infrequently heralded by distressing hallucinations of hearing, together with a rise in the body temperature. In the fully developed disease the patient is flushed and the skin -hot and dry; the temperature is usually raised 1° above the +hot and dry; the temperature is usually raised 1° above the normal in the evening. The pulse is hard, rapid and often irregular. There is no desire for food, but dryness of the mouth and tongue promote a condition of thirst. The bowels are @@ -18697,7 +18658,7 @@ implicated. These hallucinations constantly annoy the patient and are always more troublesome at night. Voices make accusations through the walls, floors, roofs or door. Faces appear at the window and make grimaces. Poisonous gases are pumped into -the room. Electricity, Röntgen rays and marconigrams play +the room. Electricity, Röntgen rays and marconigrams play through the walls. The food is poisoned or consists of filth. In many cases symptoms of visceral discomfort are supposed to be the result of nightly surgical operations or sexual assaults. All @@ -18871,7 +18832,7 @@ and the acute symptoms of the disease as they arise must be treated on hospital principles.</p> </div> -<p><span class="sc">Hebephrenia.</span>—This is a disease of adolescence (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêbê">ἥβη</span>) +<p><span class="sc">Hebephrenia.</span>—This is a disease of adolescence (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêbê">ἥβη</span>) which was first described by Hecker and Kahlbaum and more recently by Kraepelin and other foreign workers. Hebephrenia is not yet recognized by British alienists. @@ -19054,7 +19015,7 @@ disease.</p> recognized in France; it was identified by J. E. D. Esquirol, and further described and elaborated by A. L. J. Bayle, Delaye and J. L. Calmeil, the latter giving it the name of <i>paralysie -générale des aliénés</i>.</p> +générale des aliénés</i>.</p> <p>As first described by the earlier writers the disease was regarded as being invariably associated with delusions of grandeur. @@ -19267,7 +19228,7 @@ dementia of a very degraded type.</p> unfavourable.</p> <p><span class="sc">Insanity Associated with or caused by Alcoholic and -Drug Intoxication.</span>—The true rôle of alcoholic indulgence in +Drug Intoxication.</span>—The true rôle of alcoholic indulgence in the production of insanity is at present very imperfectly understood. In many cases the alcoholism is merely a <span class="sidenote">Toxic Insanity.</span> @@ -19635,7 +19596,7 @@ and Tuke, <i>Psychological Medicine</i> (4th edition, 1879); Griesinger, Mental Diseases</i> (1899); Clouston, <i>Clinical Lectures on Mental Diseases</i> (1892); Kraepelin, <i>Psychiatrie</i> (1893); Krafft-Ebing, <i>Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie</i> (1893); Regis, <i>A Practical Manual of -Mental Medicine</i> (London, 1895); Magnan, <i>Leçons cliniques sur les +Mental Medicine</i> (London, 1895); Magnan, <i>Leçons cliniques sur les maladies mentales</i> (1897); Mendil, <i>Leitfaden der Psychiatrie</i> (1902); Mercier, <i>A Text-Book of Insanity</i> (1902); Lewis C. Bruce, <i>Studies in Clinical Psychiatry</i> (1906); Macpherson, <i>Mental Affections</i> (1899); @@ -19731,7 +19692,7 @@ a species contrasted with idiot, sometimes (<i>e.g.</i> in Co. Litt. the insane, in connexion with the terms “idiot” and “lunatic” as a word <i>ejusdem generis</i>. The word “idiot” (Gr. <span class="grk" title="idios">ἴδιος</span>, a private person, one who does not hold any public office, and -<span class="grk" title="idiôtês">ἰδιώτης</span>, an ignorant and illiterate person) appears in the statute +<span class="grk" title="idiôtês">ἰδιώτης</span>, an ignorant and illiterate person) appears in the statute <i>De praerogativa regis as fatuus naturalis</i>, and it is placed in contradistinction to <i>non compos mentis</i>. The “idiot” is defined by Sir E. Coke (4 Rep. 124 (<i>b</i>)) as one who from his nativity, @@ -19911,7 +19872,7 @@ the offence from a higher to a lower category,—a doctrine first practically applied in Scotland, it is believed, in 1867 by Lord Deas; and the fact that a prisoner is of weak or ill-regulated mind is often urged with success as a plea in mitigation of punishment. -The Indian Penal Code (Act XLV. of 1860, § 84) expressly +The Indian Penal Code (Act XLV. of 1860, § 84) expressly adopts the English test of criminal responsibility, but the qualifications noted in the case of Scotland have received some measure of judicial acceptance (see Mayne, <i>Crim. Law Ind.</i>, 3rd ed., @@ -19919,12 +19880,12 @@ pp. 403-419; Nelson, <i>Ind. Pen. Code</i>, 3rd ed., pp. 135 et seq.). The Rules in Macnaughton’s case have also been adopted in substance in those colonies which have codified the criminal law. The following typical references may be given: 55 and 56 Vict. -(Can.) c. 29, § 11; 57 Vict. (N.Z.), No. 56 of 1893, § 23; No. 101 -of 1888 (St Lucia), § 50; No. 5 of 1876 (Gold Coast), § 49 (<i>b</i>); +(Can.) c. 29, § 11; 57 Vict. (N.Z.), No. 56 of 1893, § 23; No. 101 +of 1888 (St Lucia), § 50; No. 5 of 1876 (Gold Coast), § 49 (<i>b</i>); No. 2 of 1883, art. 77 (Ceylon); No. 4 of 1871, art. 84 (Straits Settlements). On the other hand, a departure towards a recognition of “moral insanity” is made by the Queensland Criminal -Code (No. 9 of 1899), § 27 of which provides that “a person is +Code (No. 9 of 1899), § 27 of which provides that “a person is not criminally responsible for an act” if at the time of doing it “he is in such a state of mental disease ... as to deprive him ... of capacity to control his actions”: and the law has been @@ -19935,8 +19896,8 @@ American judicial opinion is adverse to them (see Clevenger, <i>Med. Jur. of Ins.</i> p. 125; <i>Parsons</i> v. <i>State</i> (1887) 81 Ala. 577). On the Continent of Europe moral insanity and irresistible impulse are freely recognized as exculpatory pleas (see the -French <i>Code Penal</i>, § 64; Belgian <i>Code Penal</i>, § 71; German -<i>Penal Code</i>, § 51; Italian <i>Penal Code</i>, §§ 46, 47).</p> +French <i>Code Penal</i>, § 64; Belgian <i>Code Penal</i>, § 71; German +<i>Penal Code</i>, § 51; Italian <i>Penal Code</i>, §§ 46, 47).</p> <p>Not only is insanity at the time of the commission of an offence a valid exculpatory plea, but supervening insanity stays the @@ -19981,7 +19942,7 @@ Similar provisions with regard to colonial criminal lunatics are contained in the Colonial Prisoners’ Removal Act 1884; and the policy of this statute has been followed by No 5. of 1894 (New South Wales), and Ordin. No. 2 of 1895 (Falkland Islands). -Indian law (see Act V. of 1898, §§ 464-475) and the laws of the +Indian law (see Act V. of 1898, §§ 464-475) and the laws of the colonies (the Cape Act No. 1 of 1897 is a typical example) as to the trial of lunatics are similar to the English. In Scotland all the criminal lunatics, except those who may have been removed to the @@ -20001,7 +19962,7 @@ criminal courts in America, closely resemble English practice. The only special point in Continental law calling for notice is the system by which official experts report for the guidance of the tribunals on questions of alleged criminal irresponsibility (see, -<i>e.g.</i>, the German <i>Code of Penal Procedure</i>, § 293, and cp. § 81).</p> +<i>e.g.</i>, the German <i>Code of Penal Procedure</i>, § 293, and cp. § 81).</p> <p>2. <i>Insanity and Civil Capacity.</i>—The law as to the civil capacity of the insane was for some time influenced in Great @@ -20063,9 +20024,9 @@ and in any event, in order that it may be so, the insanity must be of such a character as to have prevented the insane party from knowing the nature and consequences of the act at the time of its commission. The laws of Scotland, Ireland, India (see, <i>e.g.</i>, -Act IX. of 1872, § 12), the colonies and the United States are +Act IX. of 1872, § 12), the colonies and the United States are substantially identical with English law on the subject of the -civil capacity of the insane. The German Civil Code (§ 1569) +civil capacity of the insane. The German Civil Code (§ 1569) recognizes the lunacy of a spouse as a ground for divorce, but only where the malady continues during at least three years of the union, and has reached such a pitch that intellectual intercourse @@ -20074,7 +20035,7 @@ of a restoration of such association is excluded. If one of the spouses obtains a divorce on the ground of the lunacy of the other the former has to allow alimony, just as a husband declared to be the sole guilty party in a divorce suit would have to do -(§§ 1585, 1578).</p> +(§§ 1585, 1578).</p> <p>3. <i>The Jurisdiction in Lunacy.</i>—In order to effect a change in the status of persons alleged to be of unsound mind, and to bring @@ -20096,16 +20057,16 @@ and the making of most of the consequential orders dealing with the persons and estates of lunatics. County court judges may also exercise a limited jurisdiction in lunacy in the case of lunatics as to whom a reception order has been made, if their -entire property is under £200 in value, and no relative or friend +entire property is under £200 in value, and no relative or friend is willing to undertake the management of it; in partnership -cases where the assets do not exceed £500; and upon application +cases where the assets do not exceed £500; and upon application by the guardians of any union for payment of expenses incurred by them in relation to any lunatic.</p> <p>Persons of unsound mind are brought under the jurisdiction in lunacy either by an inquisition <i>de lunatico inquirendo</i>, or, in certain cases which will be adverted to below, by proceedings -instituted under § 116 of the Lunacy Act 1890, which is now the +instituted under § 116 of the Lunacy Act 1890, which is now the great practice section in the Lunacy Office. Prior to 1853 a special commission was issued to the Masters in each alleged case of lunacy. But by the Lunacy Regulation Act of that year a @@ -20178,7 +20139,7 @@ property belonging to the lunatic, the execution of powers vested in him and the performance of contracts relating to property.</p> <p>The alternative method of bringing a person of unsound -mind under lunacy jurisdiction was created by § 116 of the +mind under lunacy jurisdiction was created by § 116 of the Lunacy Act 1890. The effect of that section briefly is to enable the Master, on a summons being taken out in his chambers and heard before him, to apply the powers of management and @@ -20191,8 +20152,8 @@ of the English courts, as a lunatic, though not so found by inquisition; persons not coming within the foregoing categories who are “through mental infirmity arising from disease or age” incapable of managing their affairs; persons of unsound mind -whose property does not exceed £2000 in value, or does not -yield an annual income of more than £100; and criminal lunatics +whose property does not exceed £2000 in value, or does not +yield an annual income of more than £100; and criminal lunatics continuing insane and under confinement.</p> <p>In Scotland the insane are brought under the jurisdiction in @@ -20202,8 +20163,8 @@ before the Lord President of the Court of Session, or any judge of that court to whom he may remit it, and a jury of twelve—see 31 & 32 Vict. c. 100, and Act of Sederunt of 3rd December 1868—and an application to the Junior Lord Ordinary of the -Court of Session or (43 & 44 Vict. c. 4, § 4) to the Sheriff Court, -when the estate in question does not exceed £100 a year, for the +Court of Session or (43 & 44 Vict. c. 4, § 4) to the Sheriff Court, +when the estate in question does not exceed £100 a year, for the appointment of a <i>curator bonis</i> or judicial factor.</p> <p>The powers of the Lord Chancellor of Ireland with regard to @@ -20225,14 +20186,14 @@ system is also in force in Mauritius.</p> <p>There are provisions, it may be noted, in Scots law for the interdiction of lunatics, either voluntarily or judicially (see -Bell’s <i>Principles</i>, § 2123). The German Civil Code provides +Bell’s <i>Principles</i>, § 2123). The German Civil Code provides for insane persons being made subject to guardianship (<i>vormundung</i>), on conditions similar to those of Scots and French law -(see Civil Code, §§ 6, 104 (1896, 1906), 645-679). In the United +(see Civil Code, §§ 6, 104 (1896, 1906), 645-679). In the United States the fundamental procedure is an inquisition conducted on practically the same lines as in England. (Cf. Indiana, <i>Rev. -Stats.</i> (1894) §§ 2715 et seq.; Missouri, Annot. Code (1892) §§ -2835 et seq.; New Mexico, <i>General Laws</i> (1880) c. 74 §§ 1 et seq.).</p> +Stats.</i> (1894) §§ 2715 et seq.; Missouri, Annot. Code (1892) §§ +2835 et seq.; New Mexico, <i>General Laws</i> (1880) c. 74 §§ 1 et seq.).</p> <p>4. <i>Asylum Administration.</i>—Asylum administration in England is now regulated by the Lunacy Acts 1890 and 1891. Receptacles @@ -20358,8 +20319,8 @@ in the District of Columbia and in Alaska. The various laws as to the reception, &c., of the insane into asylums closely resemble English procedure. But in several states the verdict of a jury finding lunacy is a necessary preliminary to the commitment -of private patients (Kentucky, Act of 1883, c. 900, § 14; Maryland, -<i>R.S.</i> 1878, c. 53, § 21; Illinois, <i>R.S.</i> 1874, c. 85, § 22).</p> +of private patients (Kentucky, Act of 1883, c. 900, § 14; Maryland, +<i>R.S.</i> 1878, c. 53, § 21; Illinois, <i>R.S.</i> 1874, c. 85, § 22).</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The following works may be consulted: Collinson @@ -20374,19 +20335,19 @@ Smith and Hawke, <i>The Insane and the Law</i> (London, 1895); Hack-Tuke, <i>Dictionary of Psychological Medicine</i> (London, 1892), and the bibliographies attached to the various legal articles in that work; Clevenger, <i>Medical Jurisprudence of Insanity</i> (2 vols., -New York, 1899); Semelaigne, <i>Les Aliénistes français</i> (Paris 1849); -Bertrand, <i>Loi sur les aliénés</i> (Paris, 1872), presents a comparative +New York, 1899); Semelaigne, <i>Les Aliénistes français</i> (Paris 1849); +Bertrand, <i>Loi sur les aliénés</i> (Paris, 1872), presents a comparative view of English and foreign legislations. In forensic medicine the works of Taylor, <i>Medical Jurisprudence</i> (5th ed., London, 1905); Dixon Mann, <i>Foreign Medicine and Toxicology</i> (3rd ed., London, 1902); -and Wharton and Stillé, <i>A Treatise on Medical Jurisprudence</i> (Philadelphia, +and Wharton and Stillé, <i>A Treatise on Medical Jurisprudence</i> (Philadelphia, 1873); Hamilton and Godkin, <i>System of Legal Medicine</i> (New York, 1895); are probably the English authorities in most common use. See also Casper and Liman, <i>Praktisches Handbuch -der gerichtlichen Medicin</i> (Berlin, 6th ed., 1876); Tardieu, <i>Étude -médico-légale sur la folie</i> (Paris, 1872); Legrand du Saulle, <i>La Folie -devant les tribunaux</i> (Paris, 1864); Dubrac, <i>Traité de jurisprudence -médicale</i> (Paris, 1894); Tourdes, <i>Traité de médecine légale</i> (Paris, +der gerichtlichen Medicin</i> (Berlin, 6th ed., 1876); Tardieu, <i>Étude +médico-légale sur la folie</i> (Paris, 1872); Legrand du Saulle, <i>La Folie +devant les tribunaux</i> (Paris, 1864); Dubrac, <i>Traité de jurisprudence +médicale</i> (Paris, 1894); Tourdes, <i>Traité de médecine légale</i> (Paris, 1897); and especially Krafft-Ebing, <i>Lehrbuch der gerichtlichen Psychopathologie</i> (Stuttgart, 1899).</p> </div> @@ -20473,7 +20434,7 @@ transfer to asylums provided especially for them was not followed by any immediate improvement in the patients.</p> <p>Twenty-five years after Pinel had, in 1792, struck the chains -from the lunatics huddled in the Salpétrière and Bicêtre of Paris, +from the lunatics huddled in the Salpétrière and Bicêtre of Paris, and called upon the world to realize the horrible injustice done to this wretched and suffering class of humanity, a pupil of Pinel, Esquirol, wrote of the insane in France and all Europe: “These @@ -20684,8 +20645,8 @@ Association,” <i>Proceedings</i> (1899).</p> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> <p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word for “lunatic” in several other languages has a similar -etymology. Cp. Ital. <i>lunatico</i>, Span. <i>alunado</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="selêniakos">σεληνιακός</span> (epileptic), -Ger. <i>mondsüchtig</i>.</p> +etymology. Cp. Ital. <i>lunatico</i>, Span. <i>alunado</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="selêniakos">σεληνιακός</span> (epileptic), +Ger. <i>mondsüchtig</i>.</p> <p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It has sometimes been stated that this power, which ought clearly, in the interests alike of prisoners and of the public, to be @@ -20703,382 +20664,6 @@ out of 159; in 1900, 12 out of 185; in 1901, 15 out of 205; in <hr class="art" /> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 14, Slice 5, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 40009-h.htm or 40009-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/0/0/0/40009/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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